Encyclopaedia Britannica [3, 13 ed.]

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Title
Contributors
PACI
PALA
PANT
PARI
PERK
PETR
PHOT
PHYS
PLUN
POLI
PORT
PRIN
PROT
PUBL
RADI
RATI
REFU
RESE
RIO
ROTO
RUSS
RUSS
RUST
SAMU
SCHO
SECU
SEX
SIEG
SMIL
SOIS
SOUT
SPAN
STAN
STRI
SUN
SWED
TANG
TEET
TESL
TIEN
TRAD
TRAN
TURB
UNEM
UNIT
UNIT
URUG
VENT
VICT
WALL
WEDM
WEST
WIRE
WOME
WORL
WORL
YELL
ZOBE

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THE ENCYCLOPÆDIA BRITANNICA THIRTEENTH EDITION 1926

VOLUME Ill PACIFIC - ZUYDER ZEE

THE

ENCYCLOPADIA

BRITANNICA

A DICTIONARY

OF

ARTS,

SCIENCES,

LITERATURE

© GENERAL

INFORMATION

The Three New Supplementary Volumes constituting with the Volumes of the

Latest Standard Edition

THE THIRTEENTH EDITION, VOLUME PACIFIC

III

to ZUYDER

and

ZEE

INDEX

LONDON. THE

ENCYCLOPAEDIA

BRITANNICA

COMPANY,

NEW YORK. THE

ENCYCLOPEDIA

BRITANNICA,

INC.

LTD.

INITIALS

USED IN THIS VOLUME TO IDENTIFY CONTRIBUTORS, THE HEADINGS OF THE ARTICLES TO WHICH THESE INITIALS ARE SIGNED

WITH

ÅLAN A. DRUMMOND CALG

A. Ca.*

ELC: Chemical Research Laboratory, Department of Scientific and Industrial ReSynthetic Resins. search, Teddington, England. Amos ALONZO STAGG. Professor and Director of Physical Culture and Athletics, University of ChiPhysical Training (in part). cago. Author of Treatise on Football Gn part). ALBERT BUSHNELL Hart, LL.D., L.H.D. Professor of Government, Harvard University. Author of Salmon Portland Roosevelt, Theodore; Chase, Slavery and Abolition; National Ideas Historically Traced; etc. Editor of ‘United States: History. The American Nation, ALEXIS CARRELL, M.D., Sc.D. Member of the Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research. Winner of the Nobel prize in medicine, 1912. Joint author of Le traitement des plaies infectées Tissue Culture.

(1917).

ALFRED C. Dewar, R.N. (RET.), B. LITT. Gold Medallist, Royal United Service Institution.

Late of the Historical Sec-

tion, Naval Staff, Admiralty.

Zeebrugge, Attack on.

Rıcur REV. ARTHUR CayrEY HrapLaM, M.A., D.D. Bishop of Gloucester. Professor of Dogmatic Theology, King’s College, London, 1903-16. Regius Professor of Divinity, Oxford University, and Canon of Christ

= À. C. Ho.

A.C. M.

Church, Oxford, 1919-23.

SIR ALEXANDER

CRUIKSIANK

Staff, Naval (in part); World War, Naval;

Prayer Book.

Author of The Church of England; ete.

Hovsrtox,

K.B.E.,

C.V.O.,

M.B.,

C.M., D.Sc.,

F.R.S.E. (Edin.) Director of Water Examinations, Metropolitan Water Board, London. of Studies in Water Supply; etc. ALFRED CITARLES Mason, M.A. Formerly Foreign Intelligence Officer, Ministry of Food, London.

Author

À. E.

ALBERT EINSTEIN, PH.D.

A. E. A.

Director of the Kaiser-Wilhelm Institute for Physics, Berlin. Nobel Prizeman for Physics, ro2r. Copley Medallist of the Royal Society, 1925. Author of Relativity, the Special and the General Theory. ALGERNON Epwarp ASPINALL, C.M.G., C.B.E. Secretary to the West India Committee and to the Imperial College of Tropical Agriculture. Author of The British West Indies; The West Indies and Guiana;

: r Water, Purification of. Rationi Tuome

S

Ti peyss UHE;

West Indi es 16S,

etc.

À. E. Bo.

ARTHUR Epwin Boycott, D.M., LL.D., F.R.S. Graham Professor of Pathology, University of London. Director of the Pathological Department, University College Hospital, London. Formerly Professor of Pathology, University of Manchester.,

Pathology.

ALBERT E. MANSBRIDGE. Chairman of the World Association for Adult Education and of the British Workers’ Education. Institute of Adult Education. Founded the Worker’s Educational Association in England, 1903, and in Australia, 1913. Author of An Adventure in Working Class Education; University Tutorial Classes; etc. URE i (Nee ORR a ON Se a a a a

A. E. McK.

ALBERT Epwarp McKiIntry, Pu.D. Professor of History, University of Pennsylvania. Secretary, Pennsylvania War History Commission, 1918-21. President of the Pennsylvania Federation of Historical Societies, tg21. Author of Public Archives of Philadelphia (in part); etc.

: vV

Pennsylvania; Philadelphia.

INITIALS AND

HEADINGS

OF ARTICLES

ALFRED FOWLER, F.R.S. Yarrow Research Professor, Royal Society, London.

A. F. B.

A. F. C.*

A. F. D. A. F. G. B.

A.F. J. A. F. Pr. A.G. C.

General Secretary, International Astronomical Union. Late Yarrow Research Professor of Astrophysics, Spectroscopy. Imperial College of Science and Technology, London. ALDRED FARRER BARKER,M.Sc. Professor of Textile Industries, University of Leeds. Author of Cloth Analysis; < Textile Machinery. Wool and the Textile Industries, Woollen and Worsted Spinning; etc. ARCHIBALD FAwns CAMERON, M.A., M.D., D.P.H. Medical Superintendent, Joy ce Green Hospital, Dartford, Kent. Formerly Small Assistant Medical Officer, Smallpox Receiving Station, London. Author of ) S™4'Pox: Smallpox in London: Retrospect and Forecast; etc. A. Fortescue DucGvlp. l Ypres, Second Battle of. Director Historical Section, Department of National Defence, Ottawa, Canada. AUBREY FITZGERALD G. BELL. Portugal: Political History. Author of Portugal of the Portugucse; Studics in Portuguese Literature; etc.

|

:

ALFRED FORBES JonNsoN, M.C., B.A. Assistant Keeper of Printed Books, British Museum. Author of The First‘ Century of Printing at Basle; Typography of the Italian Sixteenth Century.

)

Periodicals.

ALFRED FRANCIS PRIBRAM, Pu.D.

R

Professor of Modern History in the University of Vienna. ARTHUR GROSVENOR CHATER, London representative of Gylendal, publishers, Copenhagen. Attaché, British Legation, Copenhagen, 1919-21. Author of translations of many Scandinavian

COMCr saath), PEE | Sved h Fieninire:

books.

Karl: Seipel, I

|

Ignaz.

ARTHUR GREENWOOD.

A. Gn.

M.P. for the Nelson and Hulme division of Lancashire. Late pectin: in Eco. nomics in the University of Leeds. General Secretary of the Labour Party’s Advisory Committees, 1920-1. Secretary, Joint Research and Information Department of the Trades Union Congress General Council and Labour Party Executive. Author of Juvenile Labour Exchanges and After Care; etc. AUGUSTE GAUVAIN. Member of the Institute of France. Foreign editor of Le Journal des Débais. Author of L'Europe avant la guerre; Les ortgines de la guerre européene, L'Europe au jour le jour.

Trade Unions (in part).

|

Security.

ARTHUR H. Cote, A.M., Pa.D. Assistant Professor of Economics, Harvard University, and Tutor in the Divisions of History, Government and Economics. Author of The American Wool Manufacture; etc.

A. H. Gi.

A. Ho.

A. J.C. A. J.T.

A. K.K.

ARNOLD HARTLEY GrBson, D.Sc., M.Inst. C.E.,

Professor of Engineering, University of Niches late Professor of Engineering, St. Andrew’s University, Scotland. Member Board of Trade Water Power Committee; Member of the Air Ministry Engine Research Committee. AUSTIN HopKINSON. M.P. for the Mossley Division of Lancashire. Proprietor of the engineering firm of Austin Hopkinson, Audenshaw and London. ALFRED JOSEPH CLARK, M.C., M.D., D.P.H., E.R.C.P. Professor of Pharmacology at University College, University of London. ARNOLD JOSEPH TOYNBEE. Professor of International History, University of London. Member of Middle Eastern Section, British Delegation to the Peace Conference at Paris. Koraes Professor of Byzantine and Modern Greek Language, Literature and History at the University of London, 1919-24. Author of Nationality and the War; A Survey of International Affairs, 1920-24; etc.

ALLEN KRAMER Krause, M.D. Associate Professor of Medicine and Director of the Kenneth Dows Tuberculosis Research Laboratories, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore. Managing Edi-

tor of The American Review of Tuberculosis.

A. L. Bo.

A.L.C. ÀA. Ly.

A. M. C.-S.

ARTHUR Lyon Bow Ley, Sc.D., F.B.A. Professor of Statistics at the London School of Economics. Formerly Professor of Mathematics and Economics, University College, Reading. Author of Elements of Statistics; An Elementary Manuat of Statistics; Measurement of Social Phenomena; etc. ARTHUR LATHAM CONGER. Colonel U.S. Army. Military attaché, U.S. Embassy, Berlin, Germany.

For-

merly Co-Editor of The Military Historian and Economist. A. LOVEDAY. Member of the Economic and Financial Section, League of Nations, Geneva. ALEXANDER Morris CARR-SAUNDERS, M.A. Charles Booth Professor of Social Science in the University of Liverpool. Author of The Population Problem; etc.

Tariff mS

|

:

Tidal Power.

Profit-Sharing.

Pharmacology. Pan-Turanianism; Paris, Conference of; (in part.) San Remo, Conference of; Silesia, Upper; Spa, Conference of; Turkey: History; Vilna, etc.

|

Tuberculosis (in part).

|| |

Prices;

Wages (in part).

St. Mihiel, Battle of; Victory, Advance to: MeuseArgonne, Trad Rs Population.

INITIALS AND . Nev.

HEADINGS

OF ARTICLES

ALLAN Nevins, A.M. Editorial writer to The New York Evening Post and The Nation. of Robert Rogers; Illinois; The American States 1775-1789; etc.

| Author of Life

ALEXANDER OLIVER RANKINE, O.B.E., D.Sc. Fellow of University College, London. Professor of Physics in the Imperial College of Science and Technology, University of London.

.P.W.

COLONEL ARCHIBALD PERCIVAL WAVELL, C.M.G., M.C. General Staff Officer, War Office, London. "Late The Black Watch. British Military Attaché on the Caucasus Front, INov. 1916—June 1917. General Staff Officer with Egyptian Expeditionary Force July 19617-March 1918. Brigadier General, General Staff, with Egyptian Expeditionary Force, April 1918-20.

ARTHUR RANSOME. Author and Journalist. Contributor to The Manchester Guardian, The English Review; The Fortnightly Review; etc. Author of Six Weeks in Russia; The Crists

.S.E.

. Th.

in Russia: etc. ArtTHtR STANLEY EppincTon, D.Sc., F.R.S. Plumian Professor cf Astronomy, Cambridge University. Director of the Observatory, Cambridge. Fellow of Trinity College, Senior Wrangler, 1904 and Smith’s Prizeman, 1907. President of the Royal Astronomical Society, London 1921-3. Author of Stellar Movements and the Structure of the Universe; etc.

ALBERT THIBAUDET. Professor of the History of French Literature in the University of Geneva. Literary Critic of La nouvelle revue française. Contributor to The London = Mercury.

Author of La Poésie de Stéphene Mallarme, Trente ans de vie française;

etc.

ALFRED WiLtiaM FLux, C.B.M.A. Assistant Secretary Statistical Department, Board of Trade, London; Hon. Secretary of the Royal Statistical Society, London. Brackcted Senior W rangler, Cambridge, 1887. Formerly Professor of Political Economy at McGill University, Montreal. Author of The Swedish Banking System, etc. ARTHUR WILLIAM GARRARD BaGsHAWE, C.M.G., M.B. Director of the Tropical Diseases Bureau, London, 1908-17. Formerly Medical Officer of the Uganda Protectorate. Managing Editor (London office) of The Encyclopedia

Britannica,

13th edi-{

tion; member of the staff of the 11th edition, 1905-12. Str ARNOLD TALBOT WILSON, K.C.I.E., C.S.1., D.S.O. Late Lieutenant- Colonel Indian "Army, and Indian Political Department. General Manager in Mesopotamia, Persia and the Persian Gulf of the AngloPersian Oil Co. Ltd. Formerly Acting Civil Commissioner and Political Resident for the Persian Gulf.

.A.W. R.

.H. L. H.

ANDREW WILLIAM MELLON, A.M. Secretary of the U.S. Treasury. Formerly President of the Mellon National Bank. Author of Taxation: The Peoples Business. Hon. BERTRAND ARTHUR WILLIAM RUSSELL, M.A., F.R.S. Late Lecturer and Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge. Author of Philosophical Essays; Mysticism and Logic; Introduction to Mathematical Philosophy; The Analysis ofMind; etc.

CAPTAIN B. H. LipopeELL Hart, F.R.HIST.S. Military correspondent of The Dail y Telegraph (London). Inventor of the Battle Drill and various tactical methods adopted by the British Ariny. Joint Author of the official manual, Infantry Training, and editor of Small Arms Training. Author of The Somme Offensive; Science of Infantry Tactics (trans. for Bulgarian Army, 1925); Paris, or the Future of War, etc.

_ jit J...

Mayor Brooke HECKSTALL-SMITH. i Joint Author of The Complete Yachtsman. Author of Yacht Racing. Formerly Editor of The Yacht Racing Calendar and Review. BurGEss Jonnson, A.B. Associate Professor of English and Director of the Bureau of Publication, Vassar College, New York. Editor of the Bulletin of the Authors’ League of America. BURTON Jesse HENDRICK, M.A. Associate Editor of The World’s Work. Formerly staff writer on AfcClure’s Magazine. Author with Adm. William Sowden Sims of The Victory at Sea; (Pulitzer Prize, 1920); Life and Letters of Walter Hines Page (Pulitzer Prize, 1922); etc. BERNHARD Mannes BARUCH, LL.D. Formerly member of the Supreme Economic Council and Chairman of its Raw) Materials Division. Economic Adviser to the American Peace Commission. Author of The Making of Economic and Reparations Sections of Peace Treaty.

vil

Pulitzer, Joseph (in part).

Sound.

Palestine, Operations in; Poland: Defence; Przemysl, Sieges of; Russia: Defence; cir Operations against t

Vistula-San, Battle of the.

|

Russia:

H CHi (in part);

Trotsky,L

Universe: Electromagnetic Gravitational Schemes.

| | | ||

Proust, Marcel.

Production, Census of; Statistics and Graphs.

Sleeping Sickness.

Pensions (in part).

Persian Gulf.

United States: Finance.

|

Relativity: Philosophical Consequences.

= oe

i

Campaigns;

World War.

Yachting (in pari). Vassar College.

|

Page, Walter Hines.

|

pag Materials.

INITIALS AND

Vill B. Wh.

HEADINGS

OF ARTICLES

BENJAMIN WHITE. Fellow of the Institute of Bankers and the Royal Economic Author of Silver, its History and Remance; etc.

Society, London,

Silver.

C. A. B.

SIR CHARLES ALFRED BELL, K.C.LE., C.M.G. Tibet. Formerly British Political Agent for Tibet, Bhutan and Sikkim. Author of Tibet: |

C. A. C. B.

CHARLES A. C. BROWN.

Past and Present.

|

Officer in charge of Harpenden Windmill Testing Station. Oxford University 4 Wind Power. Institute of Agricultural Engineering.

C. A. M.

CARLILE AYLMER MACARTNEY. H.B.M. Passpert control office for Austria 1922-5.

Author of The Social Revolu- < Poland; Constitution.

tion in Austria.

C. A. R. N.

Cyrit A. R. Nircn, M.B.. M.S., F.R.C.S Surgeon St. Thomas's Hospital and Consulting Surgeon to the Evelina Hospital,

Urology.

London.

C. B. C.

CHARLES

BLAKE COCHRAN.

wo

Lessee of the London Pavilion and the New Oxford Theatre (London). Managing Director of the Palace Theatre (London). Producer of successful revues, musical comedies and other entertainments. Author of A Showman’ s Tales.

C. Bt.

Variety Theatre (in part).

f \

CARL BURCKILARDT. Official of the Swiss Federation.

Switzerland: iH tstory.

Political

C. C.*

CARL CHRISTOL, M.A., Pr.D. Head of the Department of Eistory and Political Science in the University of | South Dakota. South Dakota. Author of The First Revolutionary Step (June 17, 1780); etc.

C. D. B.

COMMANDER CHARLES DENNISTON BURNEY, C.M.G., R.N. (RET.) M.P. for the Uxbridge Division of Middlesex. Inventor of the paravane.

C. De.

CALVIN DERRICK.

C. Do.

Dobbs Ferry, New York. CLIFFORD DoBELL, F.R.S., M.A.

Paravane.

Dean of the National Training School for Institution Executives and Workers,

Protistologist to the Medical Research Council. Late Fellow of Trinity College, _ Cambridge. Formerly Assistant Professor of Protistology and Cytology, Imperial College of Science, London. C. Dr.

CARL DREHER.

C. E. A.

C. E. ALLRED.

C. E.C.

C. E.K. M.

C. E. Mi.

C.F.C.

CHARLES Epwin Mircuett, B.A.

President of the National City Bank of New York and of the National City Safe Deposit Company. Chairman of the Board of the International Banking Corporation.

CHARLES FREDERICK Cross, F.C.S.

C. F. G. M.

C.G. B.

C. H. Br.

C. H. Br.*

part).

Protozoology.

Tennessee a part).

Staff, Military:

Ypres, Third Battle of. Photography (in part).

Stock Exchange (New York).

|

Analytical and Consulting Chemist. Member of the firm of Cross and Bevan. Joint author (with E. J. Bevan) of Researches on Cellulose; Text-book of Papermaking.

C. F. CL

Reformatory Schools (in

Radio Receiver.

Head of the Department of Agricultural Economics, University of Tennessee. MAJOR-GENERAL SIR CHARLES EDWARD CALLWELL, K.C.B. Director of Military Operations at the War Office, London. 1914-6. Author of Small Wars; The Dardanelles, etc. CHARLES EDWARD KENNETH MEES, D.Sc. Director of Research and Development, Eastman Kodak Co., Rochester. Author of The Photography of Celored Objects; ete.

3

| | || | i | || |

Papermaking.

Sır CuarLes F. Crose, K.B.E., F.R.S. General Secretary of the International Geographical Union. Director-General | Surveying. of the Ordnance Survey of Great Britain, 1911-22. Ricut Hon. CHARLES FREDERICK GURNEY MASTERMAN. _ Under-Secretary of State, Home Department, 1909-12. Financial Secretary to Treasury, 1912-4. Chancellor, Duchy of Lancaster, ror4-5. Sometime Literary Reading, Marquess of Editor of Phe Daily News (London). Author of The New Liberalism; How England is Governed; England after War; etc. CHARLES GLOVER BARKLA, D.Sc., F.R.S. Professor of Natural Philosophy, University of Edinburgh. Hughes Medallist, Quantum Theory. Royal Society and Nobel Prizeman for physics. © CHARLES HERBERT Bressry, C.B.E., F.SI. Chief Engineer of ihe Roads Department, Ministry of Transport, Great Britain. / Road Construction. Formerly Divisional Road Te for London.

|

Ricut Rev. Cuartes Henry Brent, D.D. Bishop of the Protestant Episcopal Church in Western New York.

United

States Representative to the Advisory Committee on Narcotics of the League of Nations and to the Assembly of the a 1923. Author of Leadership; Prisoners of Hope; A Masterbuilder; etc.

-

Protestant Episcopal Church.

INITIALS AND

HEADINGS

OF ARTICLES

1X

CLARENCE HENRY HARING. Professor of Latin, American History and Economics, Harvard University. LRio de Janeiro. Author of The Buccaneers in the West Tndies in the XVII Century; Trade and Navigation between Spain and the Indies in ihe Time of The Hapsburgs: etc. CHARLES HUBBARD Jepp, Pun.D., LL.D. Director of the School of Education, and Chairman of the Department of Secondary Schools (U.S.A T Psychology, University of Chicago. Author of Psychology, General IntroducSummer Schools (U.S.A.); tion; Psychology of High School Subjects; ete. Editor of The Supplementary TechnicalEducation (U.S.A). School Journal; The School Review; etc.

CrrarLes Horace Mayo, Se.D., LL.D. Professor of Surgery, Medical School, University of Minnesota. Seen to the Mayo Clinic. Part founder of the Mayo Foundation for Medical Education and Research, Rochester, Minn.

ADMIRAL CARL HOLLWEG. Formerly Director of a department in the Geman Admiralty (Reichsmarinamt). Author of Unser Recht auf dem U-Bootskrieg.

| |

Surgery (in part).

|

Tirpitz, Alfred von.

COURTENAY J. MIL.

Stock Exchange (in pari).

City Editor of The Times, London,

CHARLES KENNETH Hopson. Author of The Expert of Capital; etc.

Pioneeri (in part).

CHARLES LYON CHANDLER. Curator of South American History and Literature in the Harvard College Library. Manager of the Foreign Commercial Department of the Corn Exchange National Bank of Philadelphia.

C. Lancton Hewer, M.B., B.S. Anaesthetist to St. Bartholomew’s Hospital, London.

Joint author of Practical

Anaesthetics.

C. L. T. BEECHING. Secretary, the Institute of Certified Grocers, London. C. McD.

CorLEY

OQ RF,

>

Scopolamine.

\

| Parasitology.

CHARTES MorLEY WenyoxN, C.M.G., C.B.E., M.B. Director-in-chief of the W clicome Bureau of Scientific Research, London.

Cyrit Norwoop, M.A., Litt.D. Head Master of Harrow School. Formerly Master of Marlborough College. Chairman of Secondary Schools Examination Council. Author of The Higher) Education of Boys in England,

C. R. D.

Paraguay: i Uruguay.

MCDARMENT.

CuARLES Mostyn Liuoyp, M.A. Barrister-at-Law. Lecturer and Head of the Department of Social Science and Administration in the London School of Economics, University of London. Assistant Editor of The New Statesman.

C. M. W.*

| |

C. R. DOUGALL. Member of the Staff of The Encyclopedia Britannica (13th edition). CARL RUSSELL FisH, M.A., Pu.D. Professor of American History in the University of Wisconsin. Author of The Civil Service and the Patronage; Development of American Nattonality; American Diplomacy; etc. CLIVE RIvIERE, M.D., F.R.C.P. Physician to the City of London Hospital for Diseases of the Chest, and to the

[

|

Public Schools. Prisoners of War.

Wisconsin.

East London Hospital for Children. Joint Honorary Secretary, for Great Britain Pneumothorax. of International Medical Congress. Author of Pneumothorax Treatment of Pulmonary Tuberculosis; etc. |

CHARLES E. SEYMOUR, M.A., Pu.D., Lırrt.D.

Sterling Professor of History in Yale University. Technical Delegate at the Paris Peace Conference, 1919. Author of The Diplomatic Background of the War, Woodrow Wilson and the World W ar; etc.

c.5.S.* C.T. A.

CHARLES SCHURZ SCOFIELD, B.S.A.

Agriculturist in charge ‘of the Office of Western Irrigation, U.S. Department of Agriculture,

C. T. ATKINSON, M.A. Fellow of Exeter College, Oxford.

i

eee Conference; Wilson,T. Woodrow.

| |

United States: A priculture.

Formerly of the Historical Section, Commit- { Somme, Battle of the.

tee of Imperial Defence. C. Tr.

R. CHENEVIX TRENCH, O.B.E., M.C. Major, Royal Corps of Signals, England.

C.T.R.

CHARLES Tartt Recan, M.A., F.R.S., F.Z.S. Keeper of Zoology, Natural History Museum, London. Member of Freshwater Fish Committee, 1917-20. Author of British Freshwater Fishes; Animal Life and Human Progress; ete.

S | |

INITIALS AND

HEADINGS

OF ARTICLES

| | | | / | | | || ||

Taer Ricut Hon. Lorp DEsBorouGH (WILLIAM HENRY GRENFELL), G.C.V.O. Chairman of the Thames Conservancy Board. Past President, Oxford Uni- |Rowing. versity Boat Club. President of the British Imperial Council of Commerce. Late President, London Chamber of Commerce. D. A. MacG.

D. Ca.

D. A. MacGrppon, Px.D. Professor of Political Economy in the University of Alberta, Canada. of Railway Rates and the Canadian Ratlway Commission.

Author

Saskatchewan.

DoNALD CARSWILL, M.A. Barrister-at-law. Secretary to the Certificates of Naturalisation (Revocation) Committee.

Women, Legal Position of (in part).

|

Davin Duncan WALLACE, A.M., PH.D. Professor of History and Economics in Wofford College, Spartanburg, South Carolina. Author of Life of Henry Laurens; Civil Government of South Carolina and the United States. de Br.

Duc DE BROGLIE. Officer of the Legion of Honour.

D. H.R.

D. H. Rospertson, M.A. Lecturer in Economics and Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge. Money in Cambridge Economic Handbook series.

D. H.S.C.

REv. Davip HERBERT SOMERSET CRANAGE, Litt.D., F.S.A. Secretary of the Board of Extra- Mural Studies, Cambridge University, since 1902. Member of the Adult Education Committee, Board of Education.

D. J.

DANIEL Jones, M.A.

South Carolina.

Photoelectricity.

Membre de PAcadémie des Sciences, Paris. Author of

Trade Cycle. University Extension (in part).

Phonetics.

Professor of Phonetics, University College, University of London.

D. M.S. W.

Davin MEREDITH SEARES WaTSON, M.Sc., F.R.S. Jodrell Professor of Zoology and Comparative Anatomy, University College, University of London. Author of many papers on Vertebrate Palaeontology and connected subjects in Proc. Zool. Soc.; Journal of Anatomy; etc.

Palaeontology (in part).

United States: Production, Industry and Trade; Popu-

Davis Rice Dewey, PH.D., LL.D. Professor of Economics and Statistics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Managing Editor of The American Economic Review. Author of Financial His-

tory of the United States. Prince D. S. Mirsky. Lecturer in Russian Literature, King’s College, London University.

DRAGUTIN SuBoTIC, PH.D. Lecturer in Serbo-Croat Languages and Literature, King’s College, University of London.

E. B. N.

Evan BAILLIE NOEL. Formerly Secretary of Queen’s Club, London.

E. C. Ba.

EUGENE CAMPBELL BARKER, PH.D. Professor of American History and Chairman of the Department of History University of Texas. Joint author of A School History of Texas. Managing Editor of The Southwestern Historical Quarterly.

| (3 !| | |

Tennis.

Served in South Africa. 1809-1900, and i in the World War, 1914-8. Author of Modern Polo and Horse Management in the Field; Fifty Years of Sport; etc.

of the Manchester

EDMUND EDWARD FOURNIER D’'ALBeg, D.Sc. Inventor of the Optophone. Vice-President of the Radio Association. Formerly Lecturer in Physics in the Punjab University. Author of The Electron Theory; Two New Worlds; Contemporary Chemistry; etc. ERNEST FE. Hucues, M.A. Professor of History, University College, Swansea, Wales.

ELDRED F. Hrrcncock, C.B.E. Late Deputy Director of Wool Textiles, Assistant Director of Raw Materials and Chief Wool Statistical Officer, War Office, London. Author of The Importance of Imperial Wool; etc. E. F. Sm.

E. G.*

Serbo-Croat Literature.

Racquets;

LIEUTENANT-COLONEL E. D. MILLER, C.B.E., D.S.O.

E. E. F. D’A.

\

Author of f Russian Literature.

Modern Russian Literature; Pushkin: Russian Literature 1875-10925.

ERNEST DARWIN SIMON, Lord Mayor of Manchester, 1921. Formerly Chairman Housing Committee. Author of The Smokeless City.

lation and Immigration; Communications (in part).

Epcar Fans Smita, Sc.D., M.D. Late Provost of the University of Penney vans and Emeritus Professor of Chemistry. LORD ALBERT EDWARD WILFRED GLEICHEN, K.C.V.O., D.S.O. Vice-President of the Royal Geographical Society, London. Organiser and Director of the Intelligence Bureau, Department of Information, 1917-8. Author of Chronology of the War; etc. ‘Joint Editor of The Nations of To-day.

Texas.

Polo (in part).

Smoke Prevention (in part).

Selenium.

[y || bs || c

Dennsylvania, University of.

World War: Bibliography.

INITIALS AND

HEADINGS

OF ARTICLES

EARDLEY LANCELOT HOLLAND, M.D., B.S., F.R.C.S., FLR.C.P. Obstetric and Gynaecological Surgeon and Lecturer in Midwifery and Diseases of Women, London Hospital. Obstetric Surgeon to the City of London Maternity Hospital. Author of Manual of Midwifery; etc.

E. H. K.

E. J. Di.

Women, Diseases of.

Lt.-Cor. Epwarp Henry Kerry, D.S.O., M.C. Chief Instructor, Field W orks and Bridging School, School of Military Engineering, Chatham. EMILE JOSEPH DILLON. |

plceectart and Siege Warfare. Primo de Rivera Miguel; Sazonov, S. D.

Foreign Correspondent of The Daily Telegraph (London). Author of Russian Characteristics, Maxim Gorky, From the Triple to the Quadruple Alliance, The Eclipse of Russia; ete.

E. J. O.

E. J. OLDMEADOW. Managing Director of Francis Downman, Ltd., Wine Merchants, Editor of The Tablet. Author of Cookery in War iinte; etc,

EMIL LEDERER, PH.D. Professor in the Faculty of Philosophy, University of Heidelberg. Archiv fiir Sostalwissenschaft und Sostal politik.

E. M. Ho.

E. N.da C. A.

E. P.

E. R. E. Rh.

E. Ro.

Wine

rg Third (Communist)

Paris, Conference of.

Governments, 1914, to15 and 1916. Representative of the United States in Supreme War Council, Paris. Joint Editor, with Charles E. Seymour, of What Really Happened at Paris. EDWARD NEVILLE DA COSTA ANDRADE, D.Sc., Pu.D., F. INST. P; Professor of Physics, Artillery College, “Woolwich. Troutan scholar, Ellen Watson scholar and Jessel scholar, University College, London. Sometime John Harling Fellow, University of Manchester. Fellow of University College, London. Author of The Structure of the Atom; The Atomic Theory; etc.

EDGAR PRFESTAGE, M.A., LITT. D. Camoens Professor of Portuguese College, University of London.

Author of Sporting Days; etc.

Language,

Literature

and History,

Sound Ranging; Television.

f \ Shooting

Eric PARKER.

King’s

CoL. E. RÉQUIN.

Military Representative of France on the League of Nations. ERNEST RIIys. Editor of Feeryman’s Library. Author of A Lendon Rose; Lord Leighton; The Fiddler of Carne; The Leaf-Burners; Modern Luglish Essays; ete. Ermu Root, A.M., LL.D., D.C.L.

Interna-

national.

COLONEL EDWARD MANDELL HOUSE. Personal representative of the President of the United States to European

Sporting Editor of The Field, London.

E. Pr.

London.

Editor of

XI

(in part).

Portuguese Literature. |

f

\ Victory,

Advance to (tn part).

Publishing,

|

Member of the Permanent Court of Arbitration at The Hague. Formerly U.S. Secretary of State. Member of Commission recommending to League of Na-

tions the plan on the basis of which was established the Permanent Court of International Justice. Recipient of the Nobel Prize for Peace, 1912. President of the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. President, American

Society of International Law. United States; etc. E. Ru.

Permanent Court of International Justice.

Author of Military and Colonial Policy of the

SIR ERNEST RUTHERFORD, O.M., D.Sc., F.R.S. Cavendish Professor of Experimental Physics and Director of the Cavendish Laboratory, Cambridge University. Professor of Natural Philosophy, Royal Institution, London. Nobel Prizeman for Chemistry, 1908. President of the

Radioactivity.

British Association, 1923. Author of Radioactivity, Radioactive Transformations; Radioactive Substances and Their Radiutions; etc.

E. S. M.

E. Sr.

E.T.

E. T.-D’E.

E. Va.

EDMOND STEPHEN MeEaANy, M.S., M.L. Professor of History in the University of Washington. Author of History of the Washington (State). State of Washington; Vancouvers Discovery of Puget Sound; etc. | E. SAPIR. Associate Professor of Anthropology and American Indian Languages, UniverPhilology. sity of Chicago. Author of Language. Ermu Trnomsox, A.M., PH.D., D.Sc. Consulting Engineer of the General Electric Company. Director of Thomson Laboratory of General Electric Co., Lynn, Mass. Originator of Resistance Electric Welding (Thomson Process).

Welding (in part).

Sir Evstack HENRY WILLIAM TENNYSON-D'Eyncourt, K.C.B., F.R.S., M.I.C.E. Managing Director, Armstrong Whitworth and Co., Ltd. Director of Naval Construction at the Admiralty, 1912-24.

Submarine.

EMILE VANDERVELDE. Minister for Foreign Affairs in the Belgian Government. Formerly Minister of Justice. Represented Belgium at the Paris Peace Conference, roro. Chairman of the Socialist Group in the Belgian Parliament, Author of Three Aspects of the Russian Revolution, Le parti ouvrier belge; etc.

Second ROARI tional

Interna-

xii E. Vi. E. V. P. E. W. E.

F. B.M.

F. C. B.* F. C. S. S.

F. D. L.

F. de los R.

F. H. B.*

F. Ho.*

F. J. D. F. J.C. H.

F. J. M. F. J. W.D.

INITIALS

AND

HEADINGS

OF ARTICLES

ETHAN VIALL. | Special Correspondent and formerly Editor of The American M ae Author | Thermit; of Broaches and Broaching; Electric Welding; Gas-Torch and Thermit Welding; | Welding (in part). Manufacture of Artillery Ammunition; etc. | ERNEST VINCENT PANNELL. Electrical Engineer. Technical adviser of the British Aluminium Company, New Super Power. York. Author of High Tenston Line Practice. ADMIRAL E. W. EBERLE. Admiral U.S. Navy. Chief of Naval Operations, Navy Department, Washington. {Staff, Naval (tn part).

Sır Freperick B. Maurice, K.C.M.G. Director of Military Operations, Imperial General Staff, 1915-8.

“Robertson, Sir W. R.;

Author of The

Russo-Turkish War, 1877-8; Forty Days in tot; The Last Four Months; ete. Contributor to The Cambridge Modern History. F. C. BARTLETT, M.A. University Reader in Experimental Psychology and Director of the Psychological Laboratory, Cambridge. FERDINAND CANNING ScorT SCHILLER, M.A., D.Sc., F.B.A. Fellow and Senior Tutor of Corpus Christi College, Oxford. President of the Society for Psychical Research, ror4. Author of Formal Logic; Humanism; 3 Studies in Humanism: Tantalus, or the Future of Man; Problems of Belief; etc.

Sir Freperick J. D. Lucarp, G.C.M.G. British Member of Permanent Mandates Commission, League of Nations. Governor-General of Nigeria, 1914-9. Governor of Hong Kong, 1907-12. Author of Our East African Empire; The Dual Mandate in British Tropical ¿Ifrica; etc. FERNANDO DE LOS RIOS. Professor in the University of Granada. FRANk HERBERT BrOWN, C.LE. Member of the staff of Tke Times (London). London correspondent of The Times of India. Formerly Editor of The Indian Daily Telegraph. Francis HENRY GRENFELL, D.S.O. Captain R.N. (ret.). Staff- inspector of Physical Exercises, Board of Education, London. F. H. NIxoN. H.M. Treasury, London. Late Director of the Financial Section of the Secretariat of the League of Nations. Member of British Official Financial Mission to Poland, 1924. FRANK Horton, D.Sc., F.R.S. Professor of Physics, Royal Holloway College, University of London. Formerly Lecturer at the Cavendish Laboratory, Cambridge. Late Fellow of St. John’s College. F. J. DROVER. Engineer-Captain in the R.N. Author of Murine Engineering Practice; Coal and Oil Fired Boilers; Marine Engineering Repairs; ete. Fossry Joun Coss Hearnsitaw, M.A., LL.D. Professor of History, King’s College, University of London. Author of Main Currents of European Hisiory; Europein the N incteenth Century; World History :etc. F. J. MELVILLE. President of the Junior Philatelic Society, and writer on Stamp Collecting for The Daily Telegraph, London. F. J. W. DRION. Formerly member of the Netherlands States General. Editor of the Gazetie de, Hollande.

F. Kle.

Fritz Krier, Pu.D.

F. N.

Friptjor NANSEN, G.C.V.O., D.Se., D.C.L. Professor of Oceanography, University of Oslo, Norway. Leader of expedition to Greenland Sea, 1882: across Greenland, 1888-9; and towards the North Pole, 1893-6. Minister for Norw ay in London, 1906-8. Ambassador extraordinary for Norway at W ashington, 1917-8. Awarded the Nobel Peace Prize, 1921-2,

F. R. C.

Frank Roscor, M.A.

On editorial staff of 7 he Times (London).

Trek to the, Union, etc.

tannica, 11th edition.

Pragmatism.

Ruanda-Urundi; Slavery and Forced Labour; Southwest Africa.

Spain: Economic History.

Tagore, Sir Rabindranath. Physical Training (in part).

Poland:

nomic

Financial

and

Eco-

History.

iw

Transmutation of Elements.

||

Star-Contra Propeller; Thermo-Electric Pyrometer,

Referendum.

Stamp Collecting.

|

Zuyder Zee.

| |

i

Secretary of Teachers’ Registration Council, London. Head of Training College for Men, and Lecturer on Education, University of Birmingham, 1900-13.

FRANK RICI ARDSON Cana, F.R.G.S.

Psychology.

Stresemann, Gustav.

Member of the staff of the Deutsche Allgemeine Zeitung.

for activities during and after the War on behalf of refugees and famine stricken areas of Central Europe. Author of sleross Greenland; Farthest North; The Norwegian North Polar Expedition; etc.

F. R.

| | | |:

Western Front; Ypres, First Battle of.

=

Author of South -lfrica from the Great

Member of the editorial stafi of the Encyclopædia Bri-

Polar Exploration (in part); Refugees.

Summer Schools: Great Britain.

Rhodesia;

Senussi;

Sierra

Leone; Somaliland; South

Africa: Economic History (in pari); Education, Tangan-

yika; Togo; Transvaal, etc. é

INITIALS AND

HEADINGS

OF —

X11

F. S.*

FREDERICK Soppy, M.A., F.R.S. Professor of Inorganic and Physical Chemistry, Oxford University. Gace Professor of Chemistry, University of Aberdeen. Nobel Prizeman in Chemistry, | Rays. 1921. Author of Chemistry of the Radto-Elemental Matter and Energy; Science antl Life; Inversion of Science; etc.

F. Si.

F. SIMON. Councillor of the Foreign O‘fice, Berlin. Rathenau.

F. W.

Formerly Private Secretary to ne : | Sir FABIAN ARTHUR GOULSTONE WARE, K.C.V.0O., K.B.E., C.M.G. Late Director General of Graves Registration and Enquiries. Permanent Vice-Chairman Imperial War Graves Commission. Editor of Tke Morning Post, t9os-11. Author of Educational Foundations of Trade and Industry; The Worker and His Country; etc.

F. Wh.

Francis WHITE. Chief of the Division of Latin-American Affairs, Department ington, D.C.

F. W. Mo.

SIR FREDERICK WALKER Morr, K.B.E., F.R.S., M.D., B.S., LL.D. Formerly Consulting Physician to Charing Cross Hospital, London. Pathologist to London County Asylums. Lecturer on Morbid Psychology, Birmingham University, and Fullerian Professor of Physiology, Royal Institute, London. Author of Wur Neuroses and Shell Shock; etc.

F. W. S. F. ¥.

FRED WINCHESTER SLADEN.

of State, Wash-

Rathenau, Walter.

War Graves.

Tacna-Arica Question.

Psychiatry.

|

Major General U.S. Army. Superintendent and Commandant, U.S. Military Academy, West Point. . SIR FREDERIC WILLIAM Youno, K.B.E., M.LMecuE. Late Chief Surveyor, Liverpool Salvage Association. Commodore, R.N.R and Head of Admiralty Salvage Section during the European War.

West Point.

Salvaging.

GUSTAV ADOR. Chairman of the Economic and Financial Committee of the League of Nations. President of the International Red Cross Committee. President of the Swiss Republic, 1919. President of the International Financial Conference at Brus| | . sels, 1920.

SIR GEORGE ÅUGUSTUS SUTTON, BART.

Chairman, Amalgamated Press, Ltd., London. Director, Associated Newspapers, Ltd. Director of Publicity, National War Bonds Campaign, I91I7.

GEORGE BARR BAKER.

|

Formerly Director of American Relief Administration and ei

G. B. S.*

Savings Movement; Publicity.

Executive

Committee, Commission for Relief in Belgium. Attached to the DirectorGeneral of Relief under the Supreme Economic Council, Paris, during the Peace Conference, 1919. G. Bo.

Red Cross.

OE: Relief Work.

GEORGE BONCESCU. Rumanian correspondent of The GEORGE BERNARD SHAW. Novelist, dramatist and writer Superior Brains; The Common abont the War; Peace Conference clalism and Capitalism: etc. G. C. Dixon. 3 Literary Editor, Moscow.

The Daily Mail

Times (Londoni on social ance: lihot of Socialism and Sense of Municipal Trading; Common Sense Hints; The Intelligent Womans Guide to So-

(London).

GEORGE DoucLas Howarp Cote, M.A. University Reader in Economics, Oxford. lege, Oxford.

Author

Transylvania.

7

of The World

Author

of From

Melbourne a $

to

on Formerly Fellow of Magdalen Col-

of Labour; Self- Government

in Industry:

Socialism:

Principles and

Outlook.:

Ward, Sir Joseph G.

Socialism.

Guild Socialtsm Restated; Soctal Theory; etc.

G. Do. G. Ea.

GrorGcE Donps, Mus.Bac. (Dundee), L.R.A.M. Co-author of The Control of the Br eati. GEORGE EASTMAN.

Nn pm> |(ti a 7a a p

Inventor of the Kodak. President and General Manager of the Eastman Kodak Co., Rochester, N.Y. Managing Director of the Kodak Co. Ltd., London,

England; President Eastman koik Co. of ae GEORGE EARLE BUCKLE, M.A., LL.D. Editor of The Times (London) 1884-19162.

Formerly Fellow of All Souls College

Oxford. Author of Life of Disraeli (vol. ILL, IV. V. and VD. Grorckr Emory Fettows, Pa.D., L LD. Professor of History and Political Science in the University of Utah.

G.E. R.G.

President of the University of Maine. Ouiline of the Sixicenth Century; etc. Capt. G. E.R. Gepyr. |»

Photography (in pari).

aR

Formerly Author of Recent European H istory; -. fe hh Ee tie a

Correspondent for Central Europea The Times, London:

Redmond, John E.:

Wyndham, George, etc. C $9 m rt

Rhineland; Ruhr.

X1V G. F.

G.G.A.

G. H.G.

INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES 1 Works Councils.

Official at the Prussian Board of Trade.

Major-GENERAL SIR GEORGE GREY ASTON, K.C.B. Lecturer on Military History, University College, University of London. ForSea P merly Professor of Fortification at the Royal Naval College, Greenwich. Author ea Owen: of Sea, Land and Air Strategy, Memories of a Marine; etc. GRACE E. Hapow. Secretary of the Juvenile Group, Oxfordshire Rural Community Council, < Rural Life. Oxford, England. G. H. Gutiiver, D.Sc. Machin

Messrs. Kirkaldy & Son, Testing and Experimenting Works, London.

G. H. Ga.

G. Ka.

:

Í

G. FLATOW.

GEORGE HENRY GATER, C.M.G., D.S.O. Education Officer, London County Council. Lancashire County Council.

Formerly Director of Education,

| |

Testing

Machinery.

Technical Education (im part).

GENCHI KATO, Lirt.D. Associate Professor of the Science of Religion in the Imperial University, Tokyo. < Shintoism. Japan. Major G. re Q. MarTEL, D.S.O., M. C. | Deputy Assistant Director of Fortification and Works, Dept. War Office, London. | Tanks. General Staff Officer, Tank Corps Headquarters, B.E.F., France, 1916-8. GUGLIELMO MArcont, G.C.V.O. Inventor of the Marconi system of Wireless Telegraphy, and principal figure in } Wireless ir Telegraphy and the development of practical wireless telegraphic communication. Senator of Telephony (in part). the Kingdom of Italy. Awarded the Nobel prize for Physics, 1909. GEOFFREY MALCOLM GATHORNE-HARDY. Barrister-at-Law. Hon. Secretary, British Institute of International Affairs. Schleswig.

|

G. M. G.-H.

G. N.

|

Author of Noles on Medical Education in England; Recent Advances in Medical Educaiion in England; etc.

G. O’B.

G. W. C. K.

G. W. K.*

G. W. S. H.*

H. A. Gk. H. A. M.

GEORGE O'BRIEN.

H. Ba.

H. Bi.* H. Bre. H. Bu.

(in part).

|

Author of Economic History in the 17th Century; Economic History of Ireland ; Shannon. (1800-47); etc. GEORGE WILLIAM CLARKSON Kaye, M.A., D.Sc., F.Inst.P. Superintendent of the Physics Department, National Physical Laboratory, Rent Rave: Teddington, England. President of the Röntgen Society, 1917-8. MacKenzie MBEN SAYS) Vacuum Tubes. Davidson Lecturer and Medallist, Roya! Society of Medicine, r921. Aalhoro Practical A pplication of X-rays. GEORGE WASHINGTON KirRCHWEY, LL.D. Head of the Department of Criminology, New York School of Social Work. Formerly Warden of Sing Sing Prison. Author of Readings in the Law of Real Punishment. Property; etc. G. W. STEPHENS. Chairman of the Commission appointed by the League of Nations to govern the Saar Basin. Ricut Hon. Viscount HALDANE (RICHARD BurRDON HaALpaNng), K.T., O.M., F.R.S. Lord High Chancellor of England, 1912-5 and 1924. Secretary of State for War, tgo05-12. Chancellor of the University of Bristol. Gray Scholar and Ferguson Scholar in Philosophy of the four Scottish universities, 1876. Author of Education and Empire; The Philosophy of Humanism; etc. Joint author of Essays in Philosophical Criticism.

HARRY GROESBECK. Engineer for the Walker Engraving Co., New York.

Joun Harcourt ALEXANDER Morcan, B.S.A.

Author of Photoengraving.

|

President of the University of Tennessee. Formerly Director of University of; Tennessee Experimental Station, and Professor of Zoology and Entomology.

H. A.R.

|

Sir Grorce Newman, K.C.B., M.D., F.R.C.P. Chief Medical Officer, Ministry ‘of Health and Board of Education, London. J Preventive Medicine

Í Photoengraving. \ Tennessee (in part).

Horace ARTHUR ROSE.

Formerly Indian Civil Service. Superintendent of Census (Punjab), IQOI. EE Superintendent of Ethnography, Punjab, 1901-6. Author of Tribes and Castes Sikhism. of the Punjab, 1911-109. Harorp Barme, F.R.C.S., D.P.H. Lecturer in ‘Surgery and Medical Superintendent, University Hospital, Tsinanfu, ( Shantung China. HENRI Bov. Pétain, Marshal; Member of the staff of Le Journal des Débats (Paris). Chevalier of the Legion Verdun, Battle of. of Honour. HARRY BREARLY. Rustless Steel. Author of The Heat Treatment of Tool Steel.

Harorp S. BUCKLIN. Professor in the Department of Social Science, Brown University, Providence, R.I. U.S.A.

Rhode Island.

INITIALS

AND

HEADINGS

OF ARTICLES

H. C. B.

HEcTOR C. BYWATER. Author of Sea-power in the Pacific; etc.

H. C. C.*

Henry Core Corres, M.A., F.R.C.M.

H. C. Ha.

Henry C. HarwooD. Literary Critic, The London Mercury; The Outlook (London). ment Eve; etc.

H.CL*

Henry Cray, M.A., M.Com.

Musical critic of The Times, London.

íPacific, Command of the. Author of Brahms; The Growth of Music.

Henry CiLement Norcutt, Pu.D. Professor of English Language

H.C. P.

and Literature, University of Stellenbosch, Author of An Interpretation of Keats’s Endymion; etc.

A. W.;

| South Africa: Economic

History (in part). South African Literature:

English.

HENRY CLEMENS Pearson, F.R.G.S. Editor and Publisher of The India Rubber World, New York.

Author of Crude

Rubber and Compounding Ingredients; Rubber M achinery: Rubber Country of the Amazon; etc.

H. C. Wo.

Ravel, Maurice, etc.

Russell, s Author of Judg- | Wells,H

Stanley Jevons Professor of Political Economy, Manchester University; formerly Fellow of New College, Oxford. Author of Economics, an Introduction for the General Reader.

S. Africa.

XV

Rubber.

|

Henry CHARLES Woops. Special correspondent of The Times in the Balkans, 1911, and of The Evening News during the Balkan Wars, 1912-3. Military and Diplomatic Correspondent for The Evening News, 1914-5. Author of War and Diplomacy in the Balkans,

Veniselos,E

etc.

Henry Devine, O.B.E., M.D., F.R.C.P. Examiner in Psychology, Royal College of Physicians, London. Lecturer in Psychology, Maudsley Hospital, London. Medical Superintendent, Mental Hospital, Portsmouth, England. Co-Editor of The Journal of Mental Science.

Psychoses.

HARVEY E. FIsk. Of the Bankers’ Trust Co., New York.

Russia: Foreign Debts.

Author of Inter-Ally Debts.

Research, Industrial

Harrison E. Howe.

H. E. I.

Editor of The Industrial and Engineering Chemistry. (in part). HERBERT EUGENE Ives, Pu.D. Physicist, Bell Telephone Laboratories, New York. Associate Editor, Journal ( Phototelegraphy. of the Optical Society of America. WiInc-COMMANDER Harotp E. WHITTINGHAM, M.B., D.Pu. Sandfly F Royal Air Force, Pathological Laboratory, Halton, Bucks., England. SIONIS EVEL

H. F. N.

Hucu FRANK NEWALL, D.Sc., F.R.S. Director of the Solar Physics Observatory, Professor of Astrophysics, and Fel- Saad low of Trinity College, Cambridge. Formerly President of the Royal Astronomi- ) ~P& cal Society.

H. F. O.

HENRY FAIRFIELD Ossorn, D.Sc., LL.D., Ps.D. Honorary Curator of the Department of Vertcbrate Palacontology, American Museum of Natural History. Senior Geologist, United States Geological Survey. Palaeontology (in part). Research Professor of Zoology, Columbia University, ‘New York. Author of Age of Mammals; Men of the Old Stone A ge; Origin and Evolution of Life; etc. | Henry GEORGE GREENISH, F.I.C., F.L.S. Professor of Pharmaceutics in University of London, and to the Pharmaceutical

H. Gn.

Society of Great Britain. Joint Editor of The British Pharmaco paeia. HENRI GRAPPIN. Professor at the National School of Oriental Languages, Paris. Editor of the Bulletin Periodique de la presse polonaise.

Pharmacy.

Paderewski, Ignace.

H. H. Sc.

Henry Harotp Scort, M.D., F.R.C.P., D.P.H., F.R.S. (Edin.). Milner Research Fellow in Comparative Pathology, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine. Pathologist to the Zoological Society of London.

Sprue.

H. I. P.

HERBERT INGRAM Priestley, M.A., Pu.D. Professor of Mexican History and Librarian of the Bancroft Library, University of California. Author of The Mexican Nation; etc.

Panama; Salvador.

H. J. M.

H. J. MACINTIRE. Associate Professor of Refrigeration in the University of Illinois. Principles of Mechanical Refrigeration, etc.

Refrigeration.

H. Ma.

HEINRICH MARCZALI. i i Professor of Hungarian History at the University of Budapest. Author of U bersicht der Geschichte Ungarns, Ungarische Verfassungsgeschichte; etc.

Author of:

HENRY MELVILLE Dowsett, M.I.E.E., F.Inst.P. Of the Marconi Wireless T elegraph Co. Author of Wireless Telephony and Broadcasting; Wireless Telegraphy and Telephony: First Principles, Present Practice and Testing; etc.

Tisza, Stephen, Count.

Wireless Telegraphy and Telephony (in part).

INITIALS AND

XVI

HEADINGS

OF ARTICLES f aan eee cee eee

H. My.

Sir Henry Percy Maysvry, K.C.M.G. Director-General, Roads Department, Ministry of Transport, London.

H. No.

Hrpevo Nocouci, M.D., D.Sc. Member of the Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research. Effected the Isolation and Cultivation of the micro-organisms causing Yellow Fever, and the! Yellow Fever. development of Preventive Vaccine and Curative Serum for Yellow Fever. Author of Snake Fenoms; etc. HELENA FLORENCE NORMANTON. First practicing woman barrister. Honorary Counsel to the Women’s Unionist Organisation. Extension Lecturer, London University. First General Secretary Women, Professional of the National Women Citizens Association, 1918-9. Editor of India, 1919-20. (im part). Author of Sex Differentiation in Salary; etc. HERBERT O'LEARY. Major U.S. Army. Chief of Small Arms Division, Ordnance Office, Washing- 4 Pistol.

H. Nor.

H. O'L.

‘ton, D.C.

Henry Percy Dovuctas. Captain R.N. Hydrographer to the British Navy. Surveyor on Staff of ViceAdmiral, Dardanelles, 1915-6, and Dover Patrol 1918-9. Director of Naval Meteorological Service, IQI7.

H. P. Do.

HoN. HERBERT R. ATKINSON.

Instructor at the Artillery College, Woolwich. cat the Small Arms School, Hythe, Kent.

HENRY REGINALD CUMMINGS.

PORER

i

E

|

Surveying, Nautical.

Officer

:

Rifles and Light Machine Guns.

|

o

Member of League of Nations’ Secretariat, Geneva. Formerly on the London; and Parliamentary Staff of The Afanc hester Guardian.

Propaganda.

Sır Hven Rem, Br., C.B.E., LL.D., M. ice

H. Re.

H. R. Mi.

Chairman and Chicf Managing Director of the North British Locomotive Co., Ltd. President, Royal Glasgow Institute of Fine Arts. Hucu Rosert Mitt, D.Sc., LL.D.

E. Ro.

Srr Huwpury Davy Rotieston, Bart., K.C.B., M.D., D.Sc., D.C.L.

Railways:

Polar Exploration (i part).

President, Roy al Meteorological Society, 1907-8; Rainfall Expert to Metropolitan Water Board, 1906-19. Author of The Life of Sir Ernest Shackleton (1923).

Regius Professor of Physic, ‘Cambridge University. Physician in Ordinary to His Majesty King George V. President of the Royal College c of Physicians of London. Author of Diseases of the Liver; etc.

Henry

H. S. H.-S.

Therapeutics.

S. Hetk-SuHaw, D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S.

Emeritus Professor of Engineering, University si Liverpool. Ex-President, Institution of Mechanical reer and Institution of Automobile Engincers, London. .

H. S. P.

Locomotive Design.

HARLOW STAFFORD ERON

Variable Transmission Gear

A.M., Pu.D.

.

Managing Director, Taylor Society, New York. Formerly Director and ProScientific Management. fessor of Business Organisation and Management, Amos Tuck School of Admin-` istration and Finance, Dartmouth, U.S.A. Author of Industrial Education; etc.

H. St. J. B. P. Harry Sv. JoriN BRIDGER PHILBY, C.LE. Chief British Representative in Transjordan, 1921-4. Formerly Adviser to the Transjordan; Ministry of the Interior, Mesopotamia. Commanded the British Political |]Wahhabi. Mission to Central Arabia, 1917-8. Author of The Heart of Arabia. Henry THeoporr Honckin, M.A., M.B. Formerly Medical Missionary iin China. ate Resident Medical Officer, Mild- / Sun Yat-Sen. may Mission Hospital, London.

| H. We. . -HERMANN WEYL. f Professor of Higher Sewers acs in the University of mh HAROLD WILLIAM VAZEILLE TEMPERLEY, M.A., Lrrr.D., O.B.E. H. W. V. T.

Sw ieee:

-f Universe, Modern Concep|

tions of the. Plebiscite;

University Reader in Modern History and Fellow of Peterhouse, Cambridge. St. Germain, Treaty of; British Représentative on the Albanian Frontiers Commission, 1921. Military | Supreme Council; Adviser at the Peace Conference, Paris roro. Editor of A History of the Peace Teschen; Tirol; Treaties; ae Conference of Paris. Contributor to The i ad ieMoner D and The Trianon, T reaty of; — Versailles, Treaty of; etc. Cambridge History of Foreign Policy. |

HERBERT Wrictey WILSON. Chief Leader Writer on The Daily Mail, Landon:

: | Contributor to The Cambridge Modern H istory. IRENE OsGoop ANDREWS. mer eae Assistant Secretary, American Association for Labor Legislation.

I. A.* I. C. fine

r

TE Professional; (in part).

O IRENE Curir, D.Sc.

Assistant iin the Rádium ieaie, Cune aa Une of Pas Radium me part): Author of various works on chemistry, Bees in connection with radio-.

activity.

LF.D.M.

mi k Rothermere, Viscount. Author o of i in Action. roncladsi

S=

an F. D. “Morrow. °

s

gan T

a

TAs

1 Formerly Senior Moderator. Trinity College, Dublin.

i

J Ko William Il. of Germany.

INITIALS AND I. H.

HEADINGS

OF ARTICLES

xvii

SIR IAN STANDISH MoNTEITH HAMILTON, G.C.B., G.C.M.G., D.S.O. General Officer Commanding-in- Chief in the Mediterranean and InspectorGeneral of the Overseas Forces, 1910-5. General Officer Commanding the;

Mediterranean Expeditionary Force, 1915.

War.

Author of 4 Staff Officer’s Scrap

I. Ma.

Book; Gallipoli Diary; The Soul and Body of an Army, ete. SIR Ian Marcom, K.C.M.G., D.L. British Representative on the Suez Canal Board. M.P. for Croydon, 1910-8. { Suez Canal. Author of The Calendar of Empire; etc.

I. Mo.

Ivor MONTAGU.

f

Chairman, Table Tennis Association, London. LiruT.-COL. JOCELYN ÅRTHUR ÅDAIR PICKARD, D.S.O. General Secretary, National Safety First Association, London. SIR JAMES ALFRED Ewinc, K.C.B., FR. 9: Principal and Vice-C hancellor of the University of Edinburgh. Pecans Royal Society of Edinburgh. Hon. Fellow of King’s College, Cambridge. Professor of Mechanism and Applied Mechanics in the University of Cambridge,

J. A. A. P. J. A.E.

1890-1903. Director of Naval Education, Engine, and other Heat Engines, etc.

J. A. H.

1903-16,

Author

St

JB. Bi. J.B.S.

Carnegie Endowment Court of Justice; etc.

J. Ca.

for International

Peace.

Author

First. E

eam

Engines.

of The Steam

Joun ArKrINson Hosson, M.A. i Author of The New Protectiontsm; Taxation in the New State, Work and Wealth; a Human Valuation; Economics of Unemployment; etc. JAMES ALEXANDER Ropertson, L.H.D. Research Professor of American History, John B. Stetson Chives: Deland, Florida, Formerly Chief of the Near Eastern Division Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce, Department of Commerce, Washington, D.C. Co-Editor of Blair and Robertson’s The Philippine Islands, 1493-1898. Josera BUCKLIN BISHOP. Secretary to the Panama Canal Commission, 1905-14. Author of Our Political Drama; Issues of a New Epoch; The Panama Gateway. James Brown Scott. President of the American Institute of International Law. Editor-in-Chief of The American Journal of International Law. Trustee and Secretary of the

J. A. Ro.

Table Tennis.

l f l Safety

Unemployment,

Philippine Islands.

Panama Canal.

Root, Elihu.

of An International

JoseP CAILLAUX. Prime Minister of France, 1911-2. Minister of Finance, 1899-1902, 1906-0, IQTI, 1913, 1925 and 1926. Author of Afy Prisons; ‘hither France? Whither

World Recovery.

Europe?

J.C. A.G.

J. C. A. GERSTER. Formerly Professor of Clinical Surgery, Columbia University, Emeritus Professor of Surgery, New York Polyclinic.

J. C. B.

New

York.

Surgery (in part).

FLIGHT-LIEUTENANT J. C. BROOKE. | Attached to H.M. Marine Aircraft Experimental “‘Esiablishment, Felixstowe, Seaplane. Suffolk. a

J. C. E.*

JAMES CHIDESTER EGBERT. Professor of Latin and Director of University Extension of the School of Busi- ness, Columbia University.

University Extension (in part). e

J. C.O.

Joun CLlypDE OSWALD. | President of the New York Employing Printers Association, Inc, Formerly Editor of The American Printer. Author of MENTON Franklin, Printer.

Prneng (in part).

J. C. P.*

Joux CraceTT ProcTOR, LL.M.

a

Niember of the Bar of the District af Natives of the District of Columbia.

J. D.-P. J. E. H.* J. E. S. B.

J. F. C. F.

i

:

ETE

f

Historian of he Society of

|Washington, D.C.

s]

Str JouN Denison DenIson-PENDER, G.B.E., K.C.M.G. Chairman of the Eastern Telegraph Co. and its associated cable companies. Telegraphy, Subaiatne’ Director of the Peninsular and Oriental Steam ee Co. Ltd., and of the veol Atlas Assurance Co. Ltd. Hee ee p oe James E. Hare.

com me

Technical Development and Pane eee, SOT a Tire ane Rubber Company, Akron, Ohio.

`

|

|

Tires.

CoL. JouN EDWARD SPENCER Beis C.M.G., D.S.O. a Deputy Director of Military Operations and Intelligence at the War Office, Victory, ikae to ts iy London, 1923. Temporary Colonel Commandant attached to the Aldersho Command Staff.

5

Cov. Joun FrReDERIC CHARLES Futrer, D.S.O. Military Assistant to the Chief of the Imperial General Staff. Chief Genea Staff Officer, Tank Corps, ror7-8. Formerly Chief Instructor, Staff College, Camberley. Author of Tanks in the Great War; The Reformation A War, Sir John Moore’ s System of Training; etc.

teh

ees.

ae

Strategy.

T

INITIALS AND

XVII NO

HEADINGS

OF ARTICLES

Joun G. LITTLE.

f

it Railway Stations.

Associate Editor of The Railway Age.

J. Gra.

J. GRABOWIECKI. Of the Polish Forcign Office.

J. H.

Joun HILTON. Director of Statistics, Ministry of Labour, London.

iPoland: History.

J. H. B.

J. Hume Bett, Assoc, M.LE.E. Member of the Research Laboratory Staff, Bell Telephone Laboratories, Inc.

J. He.

Jurie HELEN HEYNEMAN. Portrait painter and literary contributor to The Observer, London; Harper’s Magazine; The Metropolitan; The Review of Reviews; The Smart Set; etc.

J. H. Go.

J. H. Je.

Jacos H. HoLLANDER, Pun.D. Professor of Political Economy in Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore. Treasurer of Porto Rico, rooc~r. Financial Adviser of the Dominican Republic, 1908-10. Author of The Abolition of Poverty; War Borrowing; etc.

J. J.M.

part); Trusts (in part).

Telegraphy. Sargent, J. S.

Russia: Agrarian Policy.

Porto Rico;

Santo Domingo.

President of the Royal Astronomical

Society, London. Professor of Applied Mathematics, Princeton University, U.S.A., 1905-9. Second Wrangler, Cambridge, 1808. Smith’s Prizeman, 1900. Author of Problems of Cosmogony and Stellar Dynamics; etc. Bric.-GEn. Joun J. Cottyer, C.B., C.M.G., D.S.O. Late Chief of the General Staff, Union of South Africa. JAMES JOSEPH MALLon, M.A. Warden of Toynbee Hall, London. Hon. Secretary of Trade Boards Advisory Council. Member of the first Trade Boards established under the Trade Boards

Relativity; Solar Energy. South Africa: Defence; Southwest Africa, Campaign in. Trade Boards.

Act, 1909.

J. J. R. Mac.

Joun James RicKARD Macteop, M.B., Cu.B., D.P.H., D.Sc., F.R.S. Professor of Physiology and Associate Dean of the Faculty of Medicine in the University of Toronto, Canada. Formerly Professor of Physiology, Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio. Joint winner of the Nobel Prize for Medicine, 1923. Author of Practical Physiology; etc.

J. Lo.

J. M. C.*

JEAN LONGUET Formerly Member of the Chamber of Deputies. Member of the Executive of the French Socialist Party and of the Labour and Socialist International. JaĮmrs MorTON CALLAHAN, A.M., PH.D. Professor of History and Political Science and Dean of West Virginia University. Author of Neutrality of the American Lakes; Cuba and International Relations; History of West Virginia.

J. M. Cr.

Rev. JoHN Martin CrEED, B.D. Fellow, Dean and Lecturer in Theology, St. John’s College, Cambridge. J.M.H. McL. Joun McLeop HENDRIE McLeop, M.D., F.R.C.P. Lecturer on Skin Diseases, London School of Tropical Medicine. Physician for Diseases of the Skin, Charing Cross Hospital. Late Editor of The British Journal

J. Mo.*

J. Mt.

J. O. B.

J. O. P. B. J. P.

J. P.*

(in

James Hopwoop Jeans, D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S. Secretary of the Royal Society, London.

J. J.C.

À

Joun Henry Gorvin. General Secretary to the International Relief Credits Committee, Paris, rg2t. Representative in Russia of the High Commissioner for Russian Relief, 1922-3, and of the Refugee Section of League of Nations, 1923-5.

J. H. Ho.

{ Strikes and Lock-Outs

Physiology.

Thomas, Albert; Vandervelde, Emile. West Virginia.

Theology.

Skin Diseases.

of Dermatology. Author of Textbook on the Diseases of the Skin. Rr. Rev. Monsicnor J. Moves, D.D. Pius X.; Canon of Westminster Cathedral. Formerly Editor of The Dublin Review. | Pius XL; Domestic Prelate to H.H. Pope Benedict XV. Roman Catholic Church (in part). Rev. James Morratt, D.D., D.Litt. Professor of Church History, United Free College, Glasgow. Editor of The Expositor. Yates Professor of Greek and New Testament Exegesis, Mansfield { Presbyterianism. College, Oxford, 1911-5. Author of Critical Introduction to New Testament Literature; etc. JOHN OLIVER BorLey. i Whales and Whaling. Principal Naturalist, Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries, Great Britain. Joun Otway Percy BLAND. Formerly correspondent of The Times, London, in hancha and Peking. Author of Annals and Memoirs of the C ouri of Peking: China, Japan and Korea;

Yuan Shih-k’ai.

etc.

VicE-ADMIRAL SIR JOHN FRANKLIN Parry, K.C.B.

fSounding. Hydrographer of the British Navy, 1914-9. JosrEpH ProupMAN, D.Sc., F.R.S. Professor of Applied Mathematics and Director of the Tidal Institute, Univer- < Tides.

sity of Liverpool. Late Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge.

INITIALS AND J. P. M.

J. R. A.

HEADINGS

OF ARTICLES

J. P. MAXFIELD. Member of the Laboratory Staff, Bell Telephone Co., New York. James RowLAND ANGELL, Pu.D., Lirt.D., LL.D.

XiX

f Ph h (OBLA pE |

President of Yale University. Formerly Acting President, University of Chicago, and Instructor of Philosophy in the University of Minnesota. Author an

Yale University.

Chapters from Modern Psychology; etc.

J. R. Co.

JoHN RocERs ComMons.

J. S. F.

f Strikes

|

Professor of Economics, University of Wisconsin. of Industrial Research.

Director, American Bureau

Survey of Great Britain, and of the

Museum

of

Practical Geology, London.

J. S.M. W.

Lockouts

(in

Trade Unions (in part); Wages (in part).

Sir JOHN Smitn FerTT, K.B.E., D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S. Director of the Geological

J. S. J.

and

part);

J. SHareE Jones, D.V.Sc., M.Sc., F.R.C. V.S. Director of Veterinary Studies, University of Liverpool, England. Formerly Editor of The Veterinary Student and Editor-in-Chief of The Veterinary News. Author of Education of the Veterinary Student; etc.

Petrology.

Veterinary Science.

JouHNn SEBASTIAN MARLOW Warp, M.A., F.S.S., F.R.ANTHROP.S.

Head of the Intelligence Department of the Federation of British Industries. |)Secret Societies;

Author of Textile Fibres and Yarns of the British Empire; An Outline History of | Silk. Freemasonry; etc.

J. S. P.

Jonn S. PATTON. Librarian of the University of Virginia.

J. St.

SIR Josian CHARLES SrampP, G.B.E., D.Sc., F.B.A. President of the Executive, London, Midland and Scottish Railway. VicePresident, Joint Hon. Secretary and Editor, Royal Statistical Society, London. Member of the British Royal Commission on Income Tax, 1919; of the Committee on Taxation and National Debt, 1924. British Representative on the Reparation Commission’s Committee on German Currency and Finance, 1924. Author of Wealth and Income of the Chief Powers; Wealth and Taxable Capacity; etc.

J. W. E.

J. W. T.

JEREMIAH WHIPPLE Jenks, LL.D., Pu.D. Research Professor of Government and Public Administration, and Director of Oriental Commerce and Politics, New York University. Author of The Trust Problem; etc.

ti epareneue

Serum Therapy; Vaccine Therapy.

Trusts (in part).

Joux Wiison Taytor, A.M., Pu.D. Assistant to the American Editor of The Encyclopedia Britannica (13th Edition). Formerly Professor of Greek, Ohio University. .

Kari AmARK, Pu.D. Secretary of the Economics Association, Stockholm.

Author of Landbruget i det nittende Aarhundrede; Spannmalshandel och Spannalspolitik t Sverige, 18171830; etc.

K. H.*

KARL HILDEBRAND, PH.D. Member of the Swedish Debt Board. Editor of Stockholms Dagblad, 1904-13. Member of the Swedish Parliament, 1907-18.

K. von O.

KARLLUDWIG VON OERTZEN. Chief of the Intelligence branch of the personal staff of the Ministry of Defence, Berlin. LauRA A. Wuite, Pu.D. Professor of History in the University of Wyoming.

L. A. W.

R

Joun WititiamM Henry Eyre, F.R.S. (Edin.), M.D., M.S. Director of Bacteriological Department, Guy’s Hospital, London, and Lecturer on Bacteriology in the Medical School. Professor of Bacteriology, University of London. Hunterian Professor Royal College of Surgeons, 1911-2. Author of Bactertological Technique; etc.

J. W. J.

Virgini i

Savings Movement (U.S.A )

Sweden:

Financial and Eco-

nomic History.

Sweden: Political History.

Schlieffen, Count von.

Wyoming.

L. E. H.

LEONARD ERSKINE HILL, F.R.S. Director of the Department of Applied Physiology, National Institute of Medi- | Public Health; cal Research, Hampstead, London. Formerly Professor of Physiology, London | Vitamins.

L. F.E.

Cart. L. F. Erus, D.S.O., M.C. Secretary, National Union of Social Service, London.

L. H. D. B.

L. H. Duprey BuxTON, M.A.

Hospital.

L. Hs.

Author of Manual of Physiology; etc.

Social Service.

Lecturer on Physical Anthropology, University of Oxford. Author of Peoples < Races of Mankind. of Asta. Lewis Hopous, D.D. Head of the Chinese Department of the Kennedy School of Missions, Hartford Taoism. Seminary Foundation, U.S.A. Formerly President of F oorkom Theological Seminary. ny, oes eee ee MN ees a oe NO ie a ep a

INITIALS AND

XX L. M. F. L. N. Y.

L. of F.

L. P. L. St. | a

L. Wo.

OF ARTICLES

LEONARD M. FANNING. i Director of Publicity and Statistics, American Petroleum Institute, ind Editor < Petroleum. of The Orl Trade Journal. L. N. YOUROVSKY. Professor of Economics, Moscow University. Chief of Currency Department Russia: Economic History; in the People’s Commissariat of Finance, Moscow. Author of Currency ProbSokolnikov, G. Y. lems and the Policy of the Soviet Union. ~ Rieut Hon. VISCOUNT LEE OF FAREHAM (ARTHUR HAMILTON LEE), G.C.S.1L, G.B.E. Chairman of the Board of Governors, Sulgrave Manor, Northamptonshire, England, British Delegate, Washington Conference, 1921-2. First Lord of the Sulgrave Manor. Admiralty, 1921-2. LEON PLASZOWSKI. _ | Sp Professor of Polish Literature, University of Warsaw. l Polish Literature. LEONARD STEIN. SgSyria; Zionism. Of the Zionist Orgamsalion, London. l LUIGI VILLARI. Member of the Staff of the League of Nations, 1920-3. Subsequently attached Sturzo, Luigi; to the Emigration Department of the Italian Foreign Office. Commendatore Victor Emmanuel III. of the Crown of Italy. Author of Italian Lifein Town and Country; The Awakening of Italy; etc. MaAjOorR-GENERAL LEONARD Woop.

Governor-General States Army.

L. W. H.*

HEADINGS

of the Philippine

da

Fone

Chief- ae Staff, United

COLONEL LAWRENCE WHITAKER Harrison, D.S.O., F.R.C.P. (Edin. ), R.A.M.C. Special Medical Oficer, Ministry of Health, London. Director of Venereal Department and Lecturer on Venereal Diseases, St. Thomas’s Hospital, London. Author of Phe Diagnosis and Treatment of Vencreal Diseases in General Practice;

Training Camps.

Venereal Diseases.

etc. MARY AGNES HAMILTON. Member of the Balfour

Committee

on

British Trade and Industry.

Member

of the staff of The Economist, London, etc. Under the pen name of “ Iconoclast”’ Snowden, Philip. wrote The Man of Tomorrow, J. Ramsa y MacDonald; ctc. |

M. B.*

Marc A. LUESCIER. Of the B. F. Keith-Albee Vaudeville Exchange, New York. Marcu BeEzA, L. rs L.

M. C. B.*

Consul- General at the Rumanian Legation, London. Lecturer on Rumanian | Rumanian Literature. at King’s College, London. Author of Rumanian People and Literature. MARIRE (MADAME) CURIE, D.Sc. Professor of Radiology at the University of Paris. Diretor of the Curie LaboraRadium (i part). tory, Paris. Author of Traité de Radioaciivité. MoxTAGue C. BUTLER, B

M. A. L.

M. C.S.

M. Fi.

M. G. C.

M. Gu.

M. J. R.

Secretary of the British Esperanto Association. Maris CARMICHAEL Storrs, D.Sc., Px.D. Fellow and sometime Lecturer in Palacobotany at Universil y College, University of London. President, Society for Constructive Birth Control and Pagiel

\ Universall

Language.

Palaeobotany. Progress. Author of Ancient Plants; etc. MARION FITZGERALD, C.B.E. Formerly Sanitary Inspector and Health Visitor for Woolwich, London. Joint smoke Prevention (in poni): author of The Smokeless City. {sma GROUP-CAPTAIN MALCOLM GRAmAME Cuyristit, C.M.G., D.S.O., M.C. Air Attache, The British Embassy, Washington. Formerly General Manager Parachute and Director of the Otto Coke Oven Construction Co. and Lecturer in the Imperial College of Science, University of London. DAME MILLICENT GARRATT Fawcett, G.B.E., J.P., LL D. President of the National Union of Women’s Suffrage Societies, 290R 19. Women’ s Suffrage Author of Women’s Suffrage; Women's Victory; ete. M. GUILLAUME. | Weygand, Max. Managing director of Le Petit Journal, Paris, l MILTON J. ROSENHAU. Professor of Preventive Medicine sd vine Harvard Medical School. Preventive Medicine Formerly Director of the School of Public Health of Harvard University and Massachusetts

Institute

of T echnology.

Hygiene; etc. Macpe E. Miner HappEN, M.A, PLD.

M. Po.

f l Variety Theatre (in part). ian]

Author of Preventive Medicine and

“a

para):

'

Formerly conductor of ‘Institutes at the New York School of Social Work, sini

Pr b ti

Director of the Institute of History, Caran L Enfance de Paris; etc.

Paris.

of courses in Problems of Delinquency, Teachers’ College, cae Author of Slavery of Prostitution. César Mar¢er, Pottr. © E ee 2 ee

B Civics, ‘Paris. A

of

obation. aa:

| Sen es

INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES M. Pr. Aon

N. C.G. W.

a

a

on Commercial

Author of Poster Design; etc.

Art.

{Telegraphy, Submarine

N. C. G. WILLIAMS. Of the Eastern Telegraph Co. Ltd., London.

|

N. F.G.

NORMAN [FORBES GRANT. Formerly Foreign Editor of The Morning Post, London.

N. G.G.

Lirur.-CoL. NICHOLAS GEORGE GeEDYE, O.B.E., B.Sc., M.Inst.C.E. Consulting Engineer to the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries, and the

SIR ARTHUR NorMaAN HILL, BART. Chairman, Board of Trade Advisory Committee on Merchant Shipping, London. Chairman. of the Port and

Transit

Executive

Committee,

1o15—-9.

Secretary

and Treasurer, Liverpool Steamship Owners Association, 1893-1923.

NICHOLAS JORGA.

Professor of Mediaeval and Modern History at the University of Bucharest.

Author of Die Geschichte des Osmanischen Reichs; ete.

N. Le.

N. M.*

NATHAN LEVI. Assistant Editor of De Volkstem, Pretoria. MAJOR-GENERAL Sır NEIL Marcom, K.C.B., D.S.O. served Northwest Frontier, India, 1897-8; South Africa, European War, 1914-8. Editor of The Sctence of War. NORMAN

N. Mu.*

MOZLEY

(in part).

ll | | fs 2 |ane

Portugal: Financial and Economic History.

Development Commission. Formerly ‘Chief Enginecr, Tyne Improvement Commission; acting Director Civil Engineer-in-Chief’s department, Admiralty; responsible for reconstruction of Belgian ports after the War; Chief Civil Engineer for Docks, Harbours and Inland Waterways, Ministry of T ransport.

N. J.

xyi

f \ Posters.

Port Engineering; p and Canal Engineer-

Shipping.

Rumania:

Political History,

Smuts, Jan.C

1899-1900, ane

PENZER.

Author of Cotton in British West Africa; The Tin Resources of the British Empire; The Mineral Resources of Burma; Non-Ferrous Metals and other Minerals; elc. NADEJDA (LADY) MUIR.

ingapore; Wilson, Sir H. H. in; Zin

Daughter of the former Bulgarian Minister in London, M. Stancioff, and for- { Stambolisky, Alexander. merly member of the Bulgarian Diplomatic Service.

N. S.

NORMAN SWINDIN, A.M.I.Mecn. E. Chemical Engineer. Author of The Flow of Liquids in Pipes; ete.

N. W.S.

NorMAN WILSON STORER, M.E., M.INst.E.E. Gencral Engineer, Westinghouse Electric Manufacturing Co.

O. Ha.

O. HaLeckt, D.Pu. Professor of History in the University of Warsaw. Austrian Correspondent of { Universities. the International Commission of Intellectual Co-operation, Geneva.

O. J. R. H.

OSBERT Jonx RADCLIFFE Howarta, O.B.E., M.A.

Railways: Electrification.

| | | pe | | sal( |

Secretary of the British Association. Member of the Geographical Section, Naval Intelligence Department, London, rots-9. Author of Commercial Geography of the World; etc. Joint-editor of T ‘he Oxford Survey of the British Em pire.

O. Tu.

CAPTAIN Oswa.p

P. Ai.

PETER AINSLIE, D.D., LL.D.

T. Tuck.

Instructor-Captain, Admiralty.

Royal Navy.

Head

of the Historical

Editor of The Christian Union Quarterly, Baltimore. Literature, Goucher College.

Section,

British

Instructor in Biblical

P. A. Me.

PHILIP AINSWORTH MEANS, M.A. Investigator for the Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. Author of History of the Spanish Conquest of Yukatan and of Tizas; A Survey of Ancient Peruvian Art; etc.

P. A.S.

Percy ALFRED SCHOLES, A.R.C.M. Musical critic of The Observer, London. of The Listeners’ Giide to M HAG etc.

Editor of The Music Student.

P. Gu.

P. J. B.

Author

| Smyrna; Straits Settlement;

Thames, etc.

Submarine Campaigns.

Reunion, Church ( United States).

Scriabin, A. N.

COLONEL PETER DARVINGOFF. Late Chief of the staff of the Occupation Forces in Serbia (1917-8), Chief of staff of the Macedonian Voluntary Corps (1912-3). Author of Military Bul-

Turkey: Defence.

PIERRE FRANCIS BERNUS. Foreign editor of the Journal des Débats, Paris correspondent of the Journal de Genève, Chevalier of the Legion of Honour.

Painlevé, Paul; Poincaré, Raymond: Viviani, René.

PETER GUILDAY.

Roman Catholic Church (in part).

garia; A Field Tactical Book for Officers; etc.

P.B.

ps.

Professor of American Church History, Catholic University, Anao; | Pare J. NoEL BAKER, M.A. Sir Ernest

Cassel

Professor

of International

Economics; late Fellow of King’s g AE Protocol.

Relations,

Cambridge.

London

D.C.

School

of

Author of The Geneva

Sanctions and Guarantees.

XX P. K.

INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES PHILIP HENRY KERR, C.H. Secretary of the Rhodes Trust, London. Africa, and of The Round

Britain, 1g16-21. P. L.

Table.

Formerly Editor of The State, South

Secretary to the Prime

Minister of Great

Rhodes Scholarships.

Paut LAMBOTTE. Director of Fine Arts for Belgium. Government Commissioner for Fine Art Exhibitions. Author of two volumes in the Collection des artistes belges oor

Rousseau, Victor.

tem porains. Percy LoNGHURST.

f

Author of Wrestling.

P. M. H.

PETER MARTIN HELDT. Engineering Editor of Automotive Industries.

Wrestling. Speed Indicator; Tractors.

Author of The Gasoline Automo-

bile; etc.

SIR PERCY MOLESWORTH SYKES, K.C.I.E., C.M.G. Formerly General Officer commanding in Southern Persia. Assistant Commissioner, Perso-Baluch Boundary Commission, 1896. Consul-General for Khurasan r9o5~1r3. Consul-General, Chinese Turkestan 1915. Appointed to raise South Persian Rifles with title of Inspector-General 1916. Author of Ten

Persia; Persian Campaigns.

Thousand Miles in Persia; etc. PETER P. CARNEY.

Manager, Publicity Department, Remington Arms Co., Inc..

Shooting (in part).

LIEUT.-CoL. Percy REGINALD WorRALL, D.S.O., M.C.

Served in France, Gallipoli and Italy, 1914-8.

Smoke: in Warfare,

SIR PAUL Y. VINOGRADOFF. Formerly Corpus Professor of Jurisprudence, Oxford University. Fellow of the Russian Academy, Petrograd. Member of International Academy of Compara-

Rasputin;

Russia:

tive Law, Geneva. Author of Vilainage in England; The Growth of the Manor; Outlines of Historical Jurisprudence; Self-Government in Russia; etc.

ROBERT ANDREWS MILLIKAN, Pu.D., Sc.D. Chairman of the Administrative Council, California Institute of Technology. Formerly Professor of Physics, University of Chicago. Author of A First Course in Physics; etc. `

Physics.

ROBERT ARTHUR Younc, C.B.E., M.D., F.R.C.P. Physician, Middlesex Hospital and Hospital for Consumption and Diseases of the Chest, Brompton, London.

Respiratory

RoBERT CLARKSON Brooks, PH.D. Professor of Political Science, Swarthmore

College, Pennsylvania.

lems; etc.

Nations.

Principal Commandant of V.A.D.’s

in France ‘and Belgium, 1914-9.

Rosert Dowson, M.Inst.C.E. Engineer, Messrs. C. A. Parsons Co. Ltd., Heaton Works, Newcastle-on-Tyne, England.

R. F. CHOLMELEY, O.B.E., M.A. Headmaster of Owen’s School, London. Association.

Ex-President

of the Headmasters’

R. F. M.*

R. F. MORKILL. Signals and Telegraph Superintendent, Metropolitan Railway, London.

R. H. Lo.,

ROBERT HeINRICH Lowi, PH.D.

Associate Curator (Anthropology), American Museum of Natural History; formerly Associate Professor in the University of California, and lecturer at Columbia University, New York. Author of Primitive S ociety; etc.

Ray M. Hupson. Director of the Bureau of Simplified

’ Practice, Department

of Commerce,

Washington, D.C. SIR ROBERT MOLESWORTH KINDERSLEY, C.B.E., BART. Director of the Bank of England. Head of the firm of Lazard Bros. & Co., Bankers, London. President of the National War Savings Committees, London, R. M. Lu.

R. M. W.*

Cot. Russet, Mortimer Luckock, C.M.G., D.S.O. Formerly Commandant, Small ‘Arms School, India. Army 1916-8. Brigacle Commander, 1926.

General Staff Officer, 4th

Rosert Mark Wen ey, LL.D., D.Sc., F.R.S. (Edin.) Professor of Philosophy in the University of Michigan. Director, American University Union in Europe, 1925-6. Author of Aspects of Pessimism: etc.

Dis-

oF eee a dee ee

iš LS

Dame Racnetr ELEANOR Crowpy, D.B.E. Chief of Social Questions and Opium Traffic Section, Secretariat League of

System,

eases of the.

oe ecall.

Author of

Corruption in American Politics and Life; Political Parties and Electoral ProbR. Cr.

History (in part).

| | |

Party;

White Slave Traffic.

Turbine, Steam (in part).

Secondary Schools (Great Britain).

t |

Railways: Signalling.

Social Anthropology.

|

|

|

Standardisation.

Savings

oe

(Great

Britain)

Victory, Advance to: Ins Battle of; Bapaume- -Pé-

[

|

ronne, Batile of.

Scepticism.

INITIALS AND

HEADINGS

OF ARTICLES

XX

R. N. RupMosE Brown, D.Sc. Lecturer in Geography, University of Sheffield. Member of the Scottish National Antarctic Expedition, 1902—4, and of the Scottish Arctic Expeditions, |Spitsbergen. 1909, 1912 and 1914. Author of Spitzbergen; etc. SIR RICHARD ARTHUR SURTEES PAGET, BART. Fellow of the Physical Society of London. Assistant Secretary Admiralty Board Voice Sounds. of Invention and Research, London, 1915-8. RICHARD PERRY BEDFORD., Assistant in the Department of Architecture and Sculpture, Victoria and Alberi Sculpture. Museum, London.

i

Roscor Pounp, A.M., Pr.D. Carter Professor of Jurisprudence and Dean of the Faculty of Law, Harvard University. Sometime Commissioner of Appeals Nebraska. Author of Readings on Roman Law; etc. R. Rn.

R.S.R.

of the Supreme

Court

of

| | |

Women, Legal Position of (in part).

[

R. ROMEN. Member of Transit Section, League of Nations, Geneva. Rosert SAncster Rart, C.B.E., LL.D. Historiographer Royal for Scotland. Professor of Scottish History and Literature in the University of Glasgow. Author of The Scottish Parliament; History of Scotland; etc.

Rhine; Vistula.

SiR RonatpD Storrs, C.M.G., C.B.E. Governor of Jerusalem, Jerusalem.

Jaffa and Judea.

Formerly

Military

Governor

of

SIR RICHARD TETLEY GLAZEBROOK, K.C.B., D.Sc., F.R.S. Chairman of the Aeronautical Research Committee, London. Zaharofi Professor of Aviation and Director of the Department of Aeronautics at the Imperial College of Science and Technology, London, 1920-3. Fellow of Trinity

College, Cambridge. R. Van O.

Major R. VAN OVERSTRAETEN,

D.S.O.

Member of the Order of Leopold anc the Legion of Honour. Aide-de-Camp to His Majesty the King of the Belgians. Graduate of the Belgian Staff College.

R. W. S.-W.

Palestine.

Research, Industrial (in part).

E

t

Victory, Advance to (in part); Yser, Battle of the.

|Basic, Nicholas;

Robert WILLIAM SETON-WartsoNn, Litt. D.

Masaryk Professor of Central European History at King’s College, University of London. Founder and Joint-editor of Phe New Europe, 1916-20. ae editor of The Slavonic Review. Author of The Rise of Nationality in the Balkans; j Serbia: |Yugoslavia. The New Slovakia; Sarajevo; etc.

SARA ANNIE BURSTALL, M.A., J.P. Headmistress of Manchester High School for Girls, 1898-1924. turer on Education at the University of Manchester.

Honorary LecAuthor of English High

Schools for Girls; etc. S. B. McC.

SAMUEL BLack McCormick, M.A., D.D., LL.D. Chancellor Emeritus, University of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.

qn .

SILVIA D’AMIco.

d'A.

gn . de M.

Italian author and journalist. SALVADOR DE MADARIAGA.

Dramatic Critic of the Idea Nazionale, Rome.

Spanish critic and writer. Author of Shelley and Calderon, and essays on Spanish and English Poetry.

Education |Women, (in part). |

of

Pittsburgh.

Pirandello, Luigi. Spain: Political History; Spanish Literature.

- SIMON FLEXNER, M.D., D.Sc., LL.D.

Director of Laboratories of Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research, New York; Formerly Professor of Pathological Anatomy, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore. Author of The Pathology of Tox-albumin Intoxication: etc.

S. H. W.

SIGMUND FREUD, M.D., LL.D. Professor of Neurology, Vienna University. Director of the International Journal of Psycho-analysis. CAPTAIN STANLEY H. Witton, R.N. (REt.). Late Assistant Director of Naval Ordnance, Admiralty, London. JouNn RANDOLPH SHANE LESLIE. Editor of The Dublin Review. Author of Life of Cardinal Manning, Life of Sir Mark Sykes; The End of a Chapter; The Op pidan. SEABURY LAWRENCE. Of The New York Times.

STEVENSON LYLE CUMMINS. Colonel, Army Medical Service (ret.). David Davies Professor of Tuberculosis, University College of South Wales and Monmouthshire, Cardiff. S. Le.

STEPHEN BUTLER Leacock, Pu.D.

William Dow Professor of Political Economy, McGill University, Montreal. Author of The Elements of Political Science; and of many literary satires including Nonsense Novels; The Hohensollerns in America; The Garden of Folly; etc.

Spinal Meningitis.

|

Psycho-analysis.

Range Finder (in part).

Yachting (in part).

(

Tuberculosis (in part).

|

Prince Edward Island; Quebec (Prov.).

XXIV $S. L. M. S. McC. L.

S. Me.

S. S. C.

St. J. E. S. V.

Sv. A.

INITIALS AND

OF ARTICLES

SUSAN LANGSTAFF MITCHELL.

Late Assistant Editor The Irish Statesman. Author of The Living Chalice; ete. SAMUEL McCune Linpsay, Pa.D., LL.D. Professor of Social Legislation iin Columbia University, New York. President of New York Academy of Political Science, New York. Author of Ratlway Labor in ihe United States; Financial Adminisiration of Great Britain; etc. STANLEY MELVILLE, M.D., M.R.C.S. Radiologist, St. George’s Hospital, London. Radiologist, Charing Cross Hospital, W. London Hospital, and Hospital for Sick Children, Greal “Ormond SE London. S. S. Cook, M.LN.A. Technical Manager, Parsons Marine Steam Turbine Co., Ltd., Wallsend-on-Tyne, England. ST. JouN Greer ERVINE. Dramatist and Novelist. Dramatic Critic of The Observer. Author of The Maginanimous Lover; Mixed Marrtage; Jane Clegg, and other plays. SERGE VORONOFF. Director of Experimental Surgery in the Physiological Station of the Collége de France. Director of the Laboratory of Biology, Ecole des Hautes Etudes, Paris. Author of A Study on Old Age and Rejuvenation by Grafting; etc. SVANTE AUGUST ARRHENIUS, D.Sc., D.Pun., F.R.S. Director of the Physico- chemical Department of the Nobel Institute, Stockholm. Formerly Professor of Physics at Stockholm University, Nobel Prize-

Author of Chemistry in Modern Life; etc.

LIEUT.-GEN. SIR TRAVERS EDWARDS CLARKE, G.B.E., K.C.B., K.C.M.G.

Quartermaster-General to the British Armics in France, 1917- 9, and Quartermaster-General to the Forces, r91g~23. Deputy Chairman and Chief Adminis-

trative Officer to the British Empire Exhibition, 1923-5.

T. E. L.

Tromas East Lones, M.A., LL.D. Formerly Senior E xaminer in H.M. Patent Office, London.

Author of Aristotle's

Researches in Natural Science; Zine and Lis Alloys,

T. E. P.

T. F. P.

GAR

TI

Butl

UNEL.

Prohibiti Paraon,

Radiotherapy and Rontgenology. Turbine, Steam (in part).

Shaw, George Bernard.

|

Rejuvenation.

| | | mae |

SIDNEY Wrest Harris, C.B., C.V.O. British Representative, ‘Permanent Advisory Committee of the League of Nations on the Traffic in Women and Children. Assistant Secretary, Home Ofiice, London.

T.C.

Yeats. William

l | |

man for Chemistry.

S. W. H.

HEADINGS

Brunner Professor of Egyptology, University of Liverpool. Author of The Mayers Papyri; Egypt and the Old Testament; etc.

Physical Chemistry.

Reformatory Britain).

Schools

Supply and Transport.

Peat.

Tutankhamun.

Cotownet Titomas ForTUNE PurRVEs, O.B.E., M.I.E.E. Engineer-in-Chief to the British Post Ofhee. President, Institution of Post Office Electrical Engincers.

Telephony, Submarine.

T.G.G. H.

Lrevt.-Cot. T. G. G. Heywoop. General Staff Officer, British Territorial Army Air Defence Formations.

Serbian Campaigns.

T. H.L.

Sir THomAs Harorp Lyte, K.B.E., C.M.G. Formerly British Consul-General, Bangkok, and Consul at Chiengmai,

T. K.*

THÉODORE KOMISARJEVSKY. Theatrical Producer. Formerly Producer and Art Director of the Moscow State and Imperial Theatre.

THomas Nixon Carver, Pu.D., LL.D. Professor of Political Economy, Harvard University.

tion of Wealth; Principles of Political Economy, etc.

Author of The Distribu-

T. Percy Nunn, M.A., D.Sc. Principal and Professor of Education, London Day tg of London. President of Training College Association, 1915. tion Reform; etc.

T. Sm.

T. W. A.*

| | | |

Viam.

Stage and Stage Production. United States: Wealth and

Income.

College, University | Teaching; Author of Educa- | Vocational Training.

T. SMITH, M.A. Principa! Assistant, Physics Department, National Physical Laboratory, Teddington, Middlesex.

Periscope.

Sır Tromas WALKER ARSOLD, C.LE., Lirt.D., F.B.A. Professor of Arabic, University of London. Formerly Professor of Philosophy, Government College, Lahore. Educational Adviser to the Secretary of State for India, 1917—20. Author of The Preaching of Islam; The Caliphate; ete.

V. B.

VICTOR BRANFORD, M.A. Chairman of the Sociological Society. Author of Interpretations; etc.

V. H. B.

VERNON HERBERT BLACKMAN, Sc.D., F.R.S. Professor of Plant Physiology and Pathology, Imperial College of Science and Technology, London. Formerly Professor of Botany, Leeds peers ty:

(Great

Pan “Islamism.

|

Photosynthesis; Plant Physiology.

INITIALS V. L.C.

V.M. C.

W. A. B.*

AND

HEADINGS

OF ARTICLES

VARNUM LANSING CoLLins, A.M. Secretary of Princeton University. Author of The Continental Congress at; Princeton; Guide to Princeton; ete. V. M. Causrincre (Mrs.). President of the Middlesex Ladies’ Athletic Club. Honorary Editor of The British Olympic Journal, W. A. Brown, D.Sc. Assistant Professor of Botany (Plant Pathology) in the Imperial College of Science and Technology, London.

WILLIAM ALLAN Neirson, LL.D. President, Smith College, Northampton, Mass.

Author of Essentials of Poetry;

Lhe Facts about Shakespeare; A History of English Literature. WILLIAM ALFRED REI, LE. M. Foreign Trade Adviser of the Pan American Union. Lecturer on Latin America Commerce at the School of Foreign Service, Georgetown University; Lecturer

W. B. B.*

on International Commerce at the School of Diplomacy, American University, Washington, D.C. WILLIAM BRAMWELL BOOTH. General of the Salvation Army. Author of Books that Bless; Our Master; Soctal Reparation; etc.

XXV

Princeton University.

| | |

Winter Sports. Plant Pathology.

Smith College.

Plata, Rio de la; Recife; Santos.

|

| ||

Salvation Army.

W. B. H.

WALTER B. Harris, F.S.A. Moroccan Correspondent of Tke Times (London). Author of The Land of an< Tangier. African Sultan; Travels in Morocce 1888-9; Morocco that Was; etc.

W. Bo.

WILLIAM BATESON, M.A., F.R.S. Late Director of the John Innes Horticultural Institution, Merton Park, Surrey, and Professor of Biology, Cambridge University. Author of Mendels Pr ince plies of Heredity; Problems of Genetics; ete. WiritaȚ Barca Parsoss, LL.D., D.S.D., D.S.M.

W. B. P.

Member of Parsons, Klapp, Brinckerhoff and Douglas, Engineers, New York. Formerly chief engineer of the Rapid Transit Commission, New York City, and

W. Br.

W. B. St.

W.B. W. W. CL

advisory engineer “of the Royal Commission on London tratlic. Author of Rapid Transit in Foreign Cities; etc. WILLIAM Brown, M.D., D.Sc., M.R.C.P. Psychotherapist and Lecturer on Psychotherapy, King’s College fle London. Wilde Reader in Mental Philosophy, Oxford University. Director of the Psychological Laboratory at King’s College, London.

WALTER BARLOW STEVENS, M.A., LL.D.

President of the State Historical Society of Missouri, Director of Exploitation, St. Louis World's Fair, 1904. Secretary, City Pl: inning Commission of St. Louts, 4912-6. Author of History of St. Louis; etc. WILLIAM BASIL WoRSFOLD, M.A. Barrister-at-Law. Formerly editor of Tke Star, Johannesburg. Author of The Reconstruction of the New Colonies under Lord Milner. Sır WILLIAM HENRY CLARK, K.C.S.I., C.M.G. Comptroller-General of the Department of Overseas Trade, London. Member for Commerce and Industry of the Council of the Viceroy of India, 1910-6. Comp-

troller-General of the Commercial

Intelligence Department of the Board of

Sex.

Urban Transportation.

|

Psychotherapy

| St. Louis.

;

South Africa: History.

Political

Trade Facilities.

Trade, London, 1916-7.

W. E. I.

Major-GENERAL Sik WILLIAM EpwunpD Tronstipr, K.C.B., C.M.G., D.S.O. Commandant, Stati College, Camberley, Surrey. Commander-i in- Chief, British Forces in Russia, r9is-9. Author of Tannenberg: the frst thirty days in East Prussia.

W. E.R.

W. E. RAPPARD.

W. F.S.

WALTER FLEETWOOD SHEPPARD, M.A,

W. G. C.*

Assistant Secretary Board of Education, London. WILLIAM GEORGE CONSTABLE, M.A.

W.G. J. W. Gr.

Senior Wrangler, and sometime Fellow, Trinity College, Cambridge.

W. Gra.

t

| | |

Switzerland:

Formerly

Assistant Keeper of the National Gallery, London. Lecturer at the Wallace; Collection. Fellow of St. John’s College, Cambridge. W. GARMON Jones, M.A. Associate Professor ol History, University of Liverpool, England. WALTER GRAVELL, PH.D. Ober Regierungsrat in the Statistical Offices of the Reich, Berlin.

Russia, Campaign in; Russo-Polish Campaign; Tannenberg, Battle of.

Member of

Keenomic and

Financial History.

Probability.

Painting.

\ Welsh

Literature.

Prussia the German Statistical Society. Author oi Abkandlungen über Bevolkerungs-, Berufs- und Betriebsstatistik, etc. Ricut Hon. Witrtam GRAHAM, M.A. M.P. for the Central Division of Edinburgh. Member of the Royal Commission on the Income Tax, ror; Financial Secretary to the Treasury, 1924. Author Taxation; of The Wages of Labour, and writer to newspapers and journals on social, in- Wealth and Income. dustrial and economic questions.

XXV1 W. H.C. W. H. Cr.

INITIALS AND

HEADINGS

W. H. Coates, LL.B. Secretary of Nobel Industries, Ltd. (London). WALTER H. CROCKETT. Editor of University Publications, University of Vermont.

OF ARTICLES f l Turnover Tax. , Author of The His-4

Vermont.

tory of Vermont and the History of Lake Champlain.

WILLIAM HARBUTT DAWSON. Writer on German social, economic and municipal questions.

Author of The

Pan-Germanism.

German Empire, 1867-1914; Evolution of Modern Germany; etc. Rev. WILLIAM HAMILTON Drumuonp. D.D., LL.D. Secretary of the International Congress of Free Christians and other Religious; Liberals. Formerly editor of The Inquirer.

Reunion, Church (in part).

W. Howard HAZELL. Chairman, Hazell, Watson & Viney, Ltd., Printers, London. Chairman of the Council of the London School of Printing. President, London Master Printers’ 4 Printing (in pril: Association, 1923-4. Presidenti, Federation of Master Printers, 1925-6. Author of Office Organisation for Printers; etc.

W. H.S.

WILtiaAM Henry Sater, M.B.E., M.A., LL.B. iPsychical Research. Treasurer and Joint Hon. Secretary, Society for Psychical Research, London.

W. H. Wr.

WILLIAM HAMMOND

W RICHT.

|

W. J.C.

Astronomer at the Lick Observatory. In charge of the Lick Observatory’s Ex- < Telescope. pedition to the Southern Hemisphere, 1903-6. WILLIAM JAMES CUNNINGHAM, D.M. United States: CommunicaProfessor of Transportation, Harvard University. Assistant Director of Operations (in part). tions, U.S. Railroad Administration 1918- Q.

W. J. Ho.

W. J. HOWCROFT. Formerly Coach in Swimming to entrants for the Olympic Games.

W. J.M.

Witi1amM JAMES Mayo, M.D., F.R.C.S., Sc.D Joint Founder of the Mayo Foundation for Medical Education and Research, Rochester, Minnesota. Surgeon of the Mayo Clinic.

W. J. W.

WILLIAM Joun Watson, M.A., LL.D., F.S.A.(Scor.).

W. K. McC.

:Swimming.

|

Professor of Celtic Languages, Literature and Antiques, Edinburgh University. Author of Specimens of Gaelic Prose; Specimens of Gaelic Poetry, Notes on the

Study of Gaelic; Celtic Place-Names of Scotland. WiıruiaĮȚ KipstoN MceCLure, C.B.E. Correspondent of The Times (London) in Rome. War Correspondent of The Times on the Italian Front, 1915-7. Author of Italy’s Partin the War; Italy in North Africa; etc. WALTER LIPPMANN, A.B. Editor of The New York World.

Formerly Associate Editor of The New Republic. Author of The Political Scene; Liberty and the News; Public Opinion; etc. SIR WILLIAM JAMES AsHLEY, PH.D., M.A., M.Com. Formerly Vice- Principal and Professor of Commerce of the University of Birmingham.

Siten (in part).

Member of numerous British Committees on Economic Questions.

Author of Introduction to English Economic History and Theory; Prices; The Economic Organisation of England, etc.

Scottish-Gaelic Literature.

Vittorio Veneto, Battle of.

Joseph Pulitzer (in part).

Safeguarding of Industries.

The Rise in

|

WILLIAM MARSHALL FREEMAN. Barrister-at-Law. Recorder

Property, Law of. of Stamford. Chairman, Wholesale Profiteering Tribunal, Pottery Industry. Í WILLIAM MILLER. Author of S oma Correspondent of The Morning Post (London) in Athens and Rome. i Thra are The Latins in the Levant; The Ottoman Empire and its Successors, A History o the Greek People (1821--1921); etc. CE

W.M. M.R.

W. M.P.

WILLIAM MontTacu MARTYN ROBINSON. Late Commander R.N. WARREN MILTON Persons, B.5. Professor of Economics, Harvard University, and Editor of The Review of Economic Statistics.

W. M. St.

WILLIAM MOTT STEWART, LL.B., LL.H. Director of the Census, U.S.A. Formerly secretary and statistician of the U.S. Tariff Commission.

W. P.

WALTER PAYNE, O.B.E.

W. P. Macå.

Pavilion; President, Society of West End Theatre Managers, London. COLONEL WILLIAM PORTER MACARTHUR, M.D., D.S.O., B.Cu., F.R.C.P. Professor of Tropical Medicine, Royal Army Medical College, London.

W. P. P.*

WoLr PocKLINGTON PoNnD. Editor of The Spur, New

Chairman and Managing Director, New Oxford Theatre, London, and London

Manchester.

York.

Correspondent

of The Sporting

| t

T

d orpedo.

| | |

Trade Forecasts.

Urbanisation.

Theatre.

ih Tropical Medicine. il

Chronicle, 4 Polo (in part). .

INITIALS AND

HEADINGS

OF ARTICLES

XXVIl

WILLIAM REGINALD HALLIDAY, B.A., B.LITT. Rathbone Professor of Ancient History in the University of Liverpool. Formerly |Roman Religion. Lecturer on Greek History and Archaeology, University of Glasgow. Author of

W.S. A.

W.S.G.

Lectures on the History of Roman Religion; etc. SIR WESTCOTT STILE ABELL, K.B.E.

Chief Ship Surveyor, Lloyd’ s Register of Shipping, London.

|

Formerly Professor

of Naval Architecture, University of Liverpool, and member of numerous Board: of Trade and other committees on shipping matters. Author of The Ship and her Work. WALTER SHERMAN GIFFORD, A.B. President American Telephone and Telegraph Company, New York. Director) Bankers Trust Co., American Surety Co., etc.

W. Si.

W. SIEROSZEWSKI.

W.S. L.

W. S. LACHER. Managing Editor of Railway Engineering and Maintenance. WILLIAM SPENCE ROBERTSON, PH.D. Professor of History in the University of Illinois. Author of Francisco de Miranda and the Revolytionising of Spanish America; Rise of the Spanish American Republics; etc. WILHELM vON BLUME, D.JURIs. Professor of Law, ‘Tubingen University, Germany. Co-operated in the drafting: of the constitution of Wiirttemberg, rg19.

W. S. Ro.

W. v. B.

W. We.

Shipbuilding.

Telephony. Pilsudski, Marshal.

WALDEMAR CHRISTIAN WESTERGAARD,

M.L., PH.D.

Head of the Department of History, Pomona C ollege, Claremont, California.

\

Railways: Tracklaying.

/

Venezuela.

Saxony; Thuringia; Wurttemberg.

Virgin Islands.

Author of The Danish West Indies.

Y.K.

Yovsur KEMAL, BEY. Deputy for ‘Sinope. Formerly Foreign Minister of Turkey.

Turkey: Economic History.

Z. V.

ZINAIDA A, VENGEROVA. Russian literary critic.

Rakovsky; C. G.

Author of Essays on European Literature; etc.

Zinoviev. G. E.

THE HENCYCLOPA DIA BRITANNICA THE

THIRD

OF

PACIFIC

THE TO

PACIFIC, COMMAND OF THE (see 20.434).—From the close of the Far Eastern conflict of 1904-5 to the outbreak of the World War, nine years later, strategical conditions in the Pacific Ocean were undisturbed by any development of consequence. Over the northwestern quarter of that ocean the collapse of Russian sea power had left Japan in undisputed mastery. Southward from Kamchatka to the Philippine archipelago there was scarcely a point at which she could not have deployed her navy in full force, since almost everywhere along this route of thousands of miles her ships would have found base facilities within their reach. The Russian Pacific Fleet had been destroyed, nor could it be replaced within the calculable future. Great Britain, knowing her interests to be safeguarded by the alliance with Japan, reduced her force on the China Station to a mere cruiser squadron. Germany, it is true, continued to strengthen the defences of Tsingtao, the naval fortress of Kiaochow which served as a refuge for her small Asiatic fleet; but in view of Japan’s supremacy in armament it was clear that this German outpost in Shantung did not materially affect the strategic

situation. At Manila in the Philippines the United States kept a few secondary ships of war, but took no steps to develop the naval resources of this fine harbour. Guam, an American island of the Marianas group, lying 1,500 m. to the west of the Philippines, ranked only as a fuel station, though its position invested it with unique strategic value. Conditions After the War.—Such, then, were the conditions prevailing in r914. The Far Eastern seas, which had long been the arena of conflicting claims to supremacy, had now passed definitely, and, as it seemed, permanently, under the control of a single Power. Subsequent events have tended to consolidate the strategic predominance of the Japanese Empire. The conquest of Tsingtao early in the World War eliminated the only German stronghold in the Pacific. Domestic convulsions in Russia, by apparently reducing the naval forces of that State to impotence,

have rendered still more remote the prospect of Vladivostok again becoming the headquarters of a formidable fleet. The Treaty of Versailles and the agreements reached at the Washington Conference (¢.v.) have a direct bearing on the naval problems of the Pacific. Under the Versailles Treaty, the former German islands north of the Equator passed into the custody of Japan, while those south of the Equator were transferred to the British Empire. The League of Nations mandate forbids the use of these islands for warlike purposes, and does not permit of their being fortified. None the less, they constitute an important element from the naval point of view. This will be made clear on reference to a chart of the Pacific.

THREE ZUYDER

NEW

VOLUMES

ZLE

Radius of Fleet Action.—In that vast expanse of ocean every problem of strategy is fundamentally a question of base facilities. Modern fighting ships have a narrow radius of action, dimensioned by their relatively meagre fuel capacity. In time of war individual cruisers may roam the sea for weeks, even for months, at a stretch, replenishing their bunkers as opportunity offers. This, however, is not possible for an organised fleet, attended by the smaller craft which are essential as watch-dogs to the heavy ships. From experience gained in the World War it is estimated that a battle fleet, with its proper complement of ancillary units can remain at sea under war conditions not longer than four days. This does not mean, however, that such a fleet would be free to conduct operations at some point four days’ distant from its nearest base, to which, accordingly, it must return for fresh sup-

plies of fuel. To be within reach of attack the objective must not be farther away than two days’ travel at ordinary speed. Special circumstances might permit of a longer sojourn at sea, but to all intents a battle fleet within the war zone is restricted to a cruise of 96 hours. With this essential fact borne in mind, the intimate relationship between strategy and geography requires no demonstration. Potential Naval Bases.—In consequence of recent international negotiations, the number of potential naval bases in the Pacific has been substantially increased, with the result that squadrons, if not whole fleets, may henceforth be able to operate in waters which formerly lay beyond their reach. It is true that a great many of these islands are mere atolls, affording little or no shelter for large vessels and lacking even the most rudimentary naval resources; yet some could be used as emergency bases and fuclling stations, for which reason their existence cannot be ignored. Students of naval history need no reminder of the important

part that was played in the South Atlantic operations of the British Fleet during the World War by the remote coaling base at Abrolhos Rocks, off the Brazil coast. Since rọrọ Japan has exercised mandatory powers over several island groups situated far out in the Pacific. Strategically, her most important acquisitions are the Peleliu Islands (500 m. east of the Philippines); the Carolines; the Marianas Islands, excepting Guam, which is American territory; and the Marshall group, these latter being some 1,700 m. to the southwest of Hawaii. Light naval vessels, aircraft and submarines, judiciously distributed among the islands named, would represent a serious menace to a hostile force advancing towards Japan from the east. So much for the reaction of the Versailles Treaty on Pacific strategy. The Washington Treaty.—Of equal significance in the same

connection is the Five-Power Treaty concluded at Washington

2

PACIFIC ISLANDS— PADEREWSKI

in Feb. 1922. This covenant has not only reduced very considerably the battle fleets of the leading naval powers, but has in some degree nullified the effect of the territorial changes in the Pacific for which the Versailles Treaty was responsible. Under the Washington Treaty the British Empire, the United States and Japan agreed to maintain the stalus quo as to fortifications and naval bases in a series of highly important strategic positions in the Pacific. The United States, for example, is pledged not to improve in any way the shore defences or naval works in the Philippines, Guam or the Aleutian Islands; Japan accepts the like obligation in regard to the Bonin Islands, Formosa and other insular possessions; while the British Empire is debarred from adding to the naval resources of Hongkong. Since the zone to which this agreement applies begins east of the meridian of 110° east long., Singapore lies beyond it, and is therefore not affected. The Hawauan Islands are also exempted, though they are more than 2,000 m. from the Amcrican mainland. Their position makes them invaluable as the pivoting centre of a fleet charged with the task of defending not only the western seaboard of the United States, but the outlying territories of Alaska and Samoa. Despite its capital importance as a strategic focal point, Hawaii has yet to be adequately developed as a flect headquarters. In 1925 the naval base at Pearl Harbour, near Honolulu, was not accessible to the heaviest battleships in ordinary conditions of tide, nor could it be approached at all by battleships whose nor-

mal draught had been increased through damage or other cause. Extensive dredging operations are projected to remedy this state of affairs, and the building of new docks, magazines, etc., is contemplated. Singapore, like Hawaii, is mainly, if not entirely, a defensive factor in the general problem of Pacific strategy. First utilised as a naval harbour in 1882, it has been for many years the southern base of the British China Squadron. The new dockyard begun in 1924~-5, is designed to meet the requirements of a battle fleet, the presence of which at Singapore would doubtless be an indirect but none the less effectual deterrent to plans for the invasion of Australia or New Zealand. Conclusions.—Broadly speaking, no single Power or combination of Powers could ever aspire to command so enormous an

area of sea as the Pacific Ocean.

The most that can be done by

any State which has a vital interest—whether territorial or economic—in the Pacific is to take appropriate measures for maintaining the integrity of its particular sphere of intluence. So long as warships are as dependent upon shore communications as is now the case, overseas naval operations on a major scale within the limits of that ocean would probably entail an expenditure of force which, if not altogether prohibitive, would be out of proportion to the object in view. Although the United States and Japan both maintain imposing fleets in the Pacific, and the British Empire may eventually have a considerable force available in the southern area, it is difficult to see how any one of these Powers, or even two Powers acting in concert, could dominate more than a relatively small sector of an ocean that extends from the Arctic to the Antarctic regions, iS 10,000 m. across at its greatest breadth and covers nearly one-half of the entire surface of the earth. (See also SINGAPORE; WASHINGTON CONFERENCE, etc.) BIBLIOGRAPHY.—World Peace Foundation, “ Japan, Amcrica and the Great War,” in A League of Nations, vol. 1, No. 8 (1918); and ‘‘ China, the United States and the War. Chino-Japanese Negotiations, 1915-8. Shantung and lts States,” vol. 2, special number (1919); G. H. Scholefield, The Pacific Past and Future (1919); A. Bullard, A. B. C.'s of Disarmament and Pacific Problems (1921); H. C. Bywater, Sea-power in the Pacific (1921); N. Golovin, Problems of the Pacific in the Twentieth Century (translated 1922); A. J. Toynbee, Survey of International Affairs, 1920-3, pp. 418-509 (1925). (H. C. B.)

PACIFIC ISLANDS: see OCEANIA. PADEREWSKI, IGNACE JAN (1860), Polish pianist and statesman (see 20.443), with characteristic generosity created the Paderewski Fund in 1900, the object of which was to encourage American composers by offering prizes for composition. His unprecedented success as a pianist all over the world never caused him to forget his own country, and to the Poles in America he delivered the following inspiring message: “ The

vision of a strong and independent Poland has always been the lodestar of my existence. Its realisation is still the great aim of my life.” In 1910, when his compatriots were celebrating the sooth anniversary of the victory of Grünwald over the Teutonic knights, he presented them with a munificent gift in the shape of a memorial which was unveiled at Cracow in the presence of representatives from all parts of Poland. In rọr1 the University of Lemberg bestowed on him the degree of doctor of philosophy, Řonorts catisa. When the World War broke out in 1914, his chief desire was to work for his country, to whose service he dedicated his encyclopaedic knowledge, his unfailing memory, his power of work, his eloquence and prestige, as well as his powerful connections in both hemispheres. He was président d’honneur of a non-party group of Poles who met at Vevey in the autumn of 1914 to organise a *‘ General Committee of Assistance for the victims of the War in Poland.” The Committee was definitely founded in Jan. 1915 under the presidency of the great novelist, Sienkiewicz. M. Paderewski established branches in Paris and London; he then proceeded to the United States, there to coordinate the work of the 4,000,000 Poles who had formed a ‘“‘ central committee of assistance ’’ and who were in touch with the Vevey committee. On his arrival, he called ọn his countrymen to stand together, informing them that he belonged to no party and came only to stretch out his hand “as a beggar.” He remained nearly four years in the United States, giving numerous concerts and making speeches in order to collect funds and enlist public opinion in America in the cause of Poland. He not only collected enormous sums, but created a pro-Polish movement in the United States, which developed with amazing rapidity. As honorary president of the Polish National Department of Chicago, and as the friend of President Wilson and Colonel House, M. Paderewski exercised an increasing influence in the political circles of Washington, with the result that President Wilson on Jan. 22 1917 alluded to a “ united, independent and autonomous Poland.” Not only Poland, but all the Allies, had reason to be grateful to M. Paderewski for his services, and it was said of him that “ his propaganda and eloquence contributed largely to the enthusiasm with which the citizens of the great American republic threw themselves into the formidable struggle against Germany.’ Though he had to fight unaided, with only his personal resources, against the formidable propaganda of the Central Powers, he was completely successful; for by Nov. 1916 every Polish organisation in the U.S.A. was represented in the Polish National Department of Chicago, except the small Socialist group. For more than two years, up to 1918, M. Paderewski guided the political and military destinies of 4,000,000 individuals. On the day after the notorious manifesto of the Austro-ILungarian and German Emperors of Nov. 5 1916, promising the establishment of a Kingdom of Poland, he drew up a declaration of protest which was signed by many eminent Poles who felt that the offer was a perfidious one. Foreseeing in Feb. 1rg17 that the U.S.A. would soon enter the War, M. Paderewski induced the Polish National Alliance to found a preparatory school for Polish officers at Cambridge Springs. It was, however, only after the decree which authorised a Polish army to be raised in France that M. Paderewski succeeded in Nov. 1917 in obtaining from that wise and generous statesman, Newton Baker, permission to recruit volunteers. He took a most active part in the recruiting, maintaining enthusiasm by numerous speeches. With the aid of the British Govt. he succeeded in obtaining from the Canadian Govt. a vast military camp, Niagara on the Lake, where more than 22,000 Polish volunteers were trained by Canadian officers. In Aug. 1917 the Polish National Committee, founded at Lausanne, chose M. Paderewski as its representative to the Washington Govt., and it was in consequence of representations made by him that Mr. Lansing officially recognised the committee. After the victory of the Allies, M. Paderewski by no means considered his task at an end. He arrived in London in Dec. 1918, and was cordially received by British statesmen. Mr.

PAGE, THOMAS

NELSON—PAGE,

Balfour and Mr. Lloyd George placed the cruiser “ Concord” and several torpedo-boats at his disposal, and he proceeded to Poland by sea in the company of a British Mission under Colonel Wade. He disembarked at Danzig on Dec. 24 1918. His popularity was already immense;and on arriving at Posen on the 26th he was welcomed with indescribable enthusiasm, although the German soldiers fired on the buildings in which he was staying. At Warsaw he was acclaimed by over t00,000 persons. He declared himself independent of all political parties; and after difficult negotiations, during which an attempt was made on his life, he succeeded on Jan. 17 1919 in forming a coalition ministry, of which he became Prime Minister as well as Minister of Foreign Affairs. He obtained for Poland official recognition by the various Powers, and thus regularised her international situation. The existence of various military groups named after their respective leaders seemed an obstacle to national unity, so M. Paderewski decided to suppress them, and at the first meeting of the Diet he demanded that a national army be formed. In spite of opposition this demand was granted. M. Paderewski was always treated with special goodwill by the British Govt., which at his request sent over capable instructors to organise the Polish national police. As Prime Minister and Minister of Foreign Affairs he went to Paris on April 6 1grg as Poland’s first delegate to the Peace Conference. His efforts were successful, and he returned to Poland in May and again in July, to reassure the doubtful and to preach, as before, the doctrine of conciliation. On two different occasions, on May 23 and July 31, the Diet renewed its vote of confidence in him and expressed the gratitude of his country. But as it was impossible for him to make a National Union a reality, and, above all, to conclude peace with the Soviet Govt., in view of the violent opposition of the military party, he decided to resign office (Nov. 27 1919). Deepest regret was expressed at his resignation; and his name was proposed for the presidency of the republic, but he preferred to stand aside. He defended the interests of his country, however, at the Conference of Ambassadors and before the League of Nations, where his generosity and pacific spirit were fully appreciated. Though desiring conciliation, he could not in Poland’s name accept the decision of the Conference of Ambassadors regarding Teschen in July 1920 without raising a solemn protest against the conduct of Czechoslovakia In this connection. While dealing

with the question and Lithuania at certain section of cided to abandon to his Californian

of Danzig and the relations between Poland the League of Nations, he realised that a opinion was hostile to him; he therefore dehis political career in Feb. 1921, and retired estate, returning afterwards

to resume

his

musical career. His many distinctions include the Grand Cross of the Order of Leopold of Belgium and the Grand Cross of the Order of the British Empire. (H. GN.) PAGE, THOMAS NELSON (1853-1922), American author and diplomatist (see 20.450), was appointed ambassador to Italy by President Wilson in April 1913. In to14 he announced his discovery of the house, 66 Piazza di Spragna, in which Byron had lived at Rome in 1817. In 1915 he induced the Italian Govt. to raise the ban on the re-exportation of cotton goods dispatched by American shippers via Italy to other coun-

trices. He earned the gratitude of the Italians by his relief work during the Avezzano earthquake in 1917. He resigned the ambassadorship in April 1918 and returned to America, dying at Oakland, Va., Nov. 1 1922. Page’s later writings included Robert E. Lee, Man and Soldier (1911); The Land of the Spirit (1913); Tommaso Jefferson, A postolo della Liberta (1918, prepared for an Italian series); [taly’s Relation to the War (1920); Italy and the Werild War (1920) and Dante and His Influence (1922).

PAGE, WALTER HINES (1855-1918), American writer and diplomat, was born at Cary, N.C., Aug. 15 1855. His father, Allison Francis Page, was descended almost exclusively from English ancestors; his mother, Catherine Frances Raboteau, was Scotch and French Huguenot in origin. Perhaps Page’s finest inheritance from his father’s family was a strong devotion

WALTER

HINES

3

to the cause of the Union, while from his mother he inherited a love of literature. From the standpoint both of mind and character, therefore, Walter Page’s inheritance was a rich one; it gave him an energetic, clear-secing brain, a predominant moral sense, a profound patriotism on national lines, a devotion to public service and a faith in education as the essential basis of the selfgoverning citizen. Even asa child Page displayed these qualities. At the age of 16, in Jan. 1872, after a preparatory course at the Bingham Military School at Mebane, N.C., and a year at Trinity College, Page entered Randolph-Macon College at Ashland, Virginia. The greatest influence in his life at this time—and an influence that continued to the end—-was Thomas Randolph Price, professor of Greek. Professor Price had two great enthusiasms—-English and Greck literature; he became deeply attached to Page, both as a boy and as a student, and devoted much time to his training. Price made another great contribution to Page’s education, for he obtained his appointment as one of the first 20 fellows of the new Johns Hopkins University at Baltimore, with the result that the young man, in Oct. 1876, found himself one of a group of five ambitious Grecians sitting at the feet of America’s greatest classicist, Basil L. Gildersleeve. Page read intensively the Greek tragedians, orators, historians and philosophers, and though, in the philological sense, he never became a great Greek scholar, he did drink in a knowledge of antiquity and a

feeling for Greek literature which deeply influenced all his sequent habits of thought as well as his own literary style. Page’s health, always frail, broke down in March 1878 he consequently left Johns Hopkins without a degree. He much discouragement in his efforts to get a start in life. A

sub-

and met winter (1878-9) spent teaching English at the high school at Louisville convinced him that his nature demanded an active life among men, and in 1880 he became editor of the St. Joseph Gazette. But a small Missouri town did not hold Page’s interest long: he broke away in the summer of 1881 to make atour of the Southern States, writing a series of brilliant articles that were simultaneously printed in several leading American newspapers —one of the first cases, if not the first, of the now familiar newspaper syndicate. The next two years Page spent as literary editor of the New York IWorld, but in 1883 he resigned and returned to Raleigh, North Carolina. For two years he edited the State Chronicle, a weekly newspaper, as distinguished for the vivacity of its editorial style as for the unconventionality of its opinions. Page was only 28, but he had completely reasoned views on all Southern questions. He ridiculed the current worship of Confederate officers, especially the tendency to regard a war record as almost the exclusive qualification for public office; advocated primary education for both the white and the black, the development of scientific agriculture, the building of modern highways, the creation of local industries and the lessening of ecclesiastical influence in all departments of life. All these changes North Carolina has since introduced to a degree that has given her the leadership among Southern States; the youthful Page, howevcr, was 40 years ahead of his time, and, after two rather tempestuous years, in which he found himself denounced as a “‘ Southern Yankee,’ he had to confess failure, dispose of his paper and resume his life in New York. fis Literary Career —Page’s opportunity came in 1887 when he joined the staff of The Forum, a monthly review then in serious difficulties. In four years he transformed a bankrupt property into a profitable one, and made it one of the most influential organs of public discussion in the English language. He resigned his editorship in 1895 and entered the Boston publishing house of Houghton, Mifflin and Company. For two years he was literary adviser and associate editor of Tke Atlantic Monthly, and in 1898 became editor-in-chief of that venerable New England magazine. His tenure was brief, however, for in 1899 he joined Frank N. Doubleday in establishing the publishing house of Doubleday, Page and Co., and founding The World's Work magazine, of which Page served as editor from Igco to 1913. For 14 years Page led the active career of a publisher and editor, but he spent a large amount of time as lecturer and writer advocating the causes which had always been his chief interest in life.

4

PAGET—PAINLEVE

Of these the leading one was popular education, especially in the backward South. As a member, first of the Southern Education Board

and afterwards of the General Education Board,

he played his part in distributing the Rockefeller millions for this purpose. His speeches were probably the most powerful influence in awakening the Southern States to their cultural shortcomings. By initiating the movement for the eradication of the hookworm, he started the work that has since taken shape in the International Health Board. He served on President Roosevelt’s County Life Commission, and was a leader in introducing Dr. Seaman A. Knapp’s demonstration work in agricultural areas. All these years he closely followed political affairs, and in rorr was one of the first to proclaim the presidential qualifications of Woodrow Wilson, whom he had known for many years. One of Wilson’s first acts, after his inauguration, was to appoint Page ambassador to Great Britain.

Ambassador in London.—For his five years in London Page's life had been a preparation. His deepest convictions—his passion for democracy, his belief that British institutions and Hterature formed the most solid basis of civilisation, his long advocacy of British-American co-operation as the most satisfactory method of solving world problems—were all put to the severest test in the five arduous years of his ambassadorship. He had established familiar and congenial relations with the British public. and British officialdom—espccially with the Foreign Secretary, Sir Edward Grey—when the World War began. Up to that time Page had also worked in complete harmony with President Wilson. Early in his London days the ambassador began writing the President his impressions of British hfe and resident greatly enjoyed and valued. It was owing mainly to his prompting that President Wilson persuaded Congress to repeal the discriminating Panama tolls. He continued this correspondence throughout the War. In the War Page saw above all an attempt of Germany to grasp the hegemony of Europe, and to substitute the Prussian conception of autocracy for the democratic ideal which he regarded as the true path of human progress. Itsoon became apparent, however, that President Wilson did not then accept this interpretation of events. It was mainly this difference that caused the historic divergence between Page and Wilson. To the outside world Page maintained an attitude of strict neutrality; in his private communications to the President, however, he made no secret of his complete sympathy with the cause of the Allies, and his general disagreement with the policy of the Administration. As Washington did not grasp his view of the struggle, Page’s efforts, for the first year, were ceaselessly devoted to keeping Great Britain and the United States on friendly terms. When the “ Lusitania ’” was sunk, Page in his letters and cablegrams to Wilson strongly advocated an American declaration of war against Germany. He insisted then, as he did afterwards, that American intervention at that time would have brought the War to an early end with an Allied triumph. At all subsequent crises he kept constantly to his main argument—that the War was a lifeand-death struggle between autocracy and democracy, and that the United States could determine the result in only one way, by intervention with all its military, financial and economic power. Page’s great moment came on April 2 1917, when President Wilson asked Congress to declare the existence of a state of war with Germany, and in his speech used arguments that Page had been forcing on his attention for three and a half years. Page had never been in robust health; he was not a hale man when he began his work in London in 1913, and the anxieties and labours of a terrible period gradually exhausted his physical frame. He had meditated resignation many times, and consented to remain only at the earnest request of President Wilson. In Aug. 1918, however, he became so ill that the President acquiesced in his retirement. In early Oct. he sailed on the “ Olympic”? and reached New York so weak that it was necessary to

Page married Nov. 15 1880), and by three sons and one daughter. Several memorials to his life-work have been established, of which the most important are the Page School of International Relations at Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md., and a tablet erected to his memory by his British admirers in West-

minster Abbey. BisLioGRapny.—The chief authority on Page’s career is The Life and n of Walter H. Page, by Burton J. Hendrick (2 vol., 1922; 3rd vol.,

1925).

The Intimate Papers of Col. House

(2 vol., 1926)

and Toni. Five Years (2 vol., 1925) by Viscount Grey of Fallodon are also valuable. The Rebuilding of Old Commonweailths (1902) gives in eloquent language Page's aspirations for the revitalisation of the Southern States. The Confessions of a Publisher (1905) gives his creed on Nicholas to serve South.

his trade. In 1909 Page also published under the name of Worth, The Southerner, a novel whose main purpose was as a background for preaching his favourite ideas on the In parts it is semi-autobiographical, but only in parte:

Page’s literary fame will rest on his letters. PAGET, VIOLET:

PAINLEVÉ,

PAUL

(B. J. H.)

sce LEE, VERNON.

(1863-

), French politician, was born

in Paris Dec. 5 1863. He was educated at the Ecole Normale Supérieure and became a doctor in mathematical science, soon showing himself to be a mathematician of the first rank. He became a professor at the Sorbonne, and while still quite young he was elected a member of the French Académie des Sciences. From the time of the Dreyfus case his interest in politics increased; in 1906 he was elected deputy for Paris, as an independent Socialist and took a special interest in all questions relating to the army, navy and air force. It was not, however, until the World War that M. Painlevé occupied a political position of any great importance. In M. Briand’s cabinet, formed on Oct. 29 1915, M. Painlevé became Minister of Public Instruction and of Inventions; but finding himself in disagreement with M. Briand in regard to the conduct of the War, he ceased to be a member of the Briand Govt. when the latter was reconstructed on Dec. 12 1916,

In March 1917 M. Ribot became premier and gave the portfolio of Minister of War to M. Painlevé, who proceeded to appoint Gen. Pétain in place of Gen. Nivelle as commander-in-chief of the French Army. On the resignation of M. Ribot, M. Painlevé himself formed a cabinet on Sept. 12 1917. He would

have included the Socialists in his Government, but owing to their exaggerated demands he was unable to come to an agreement with them. In addition to being premier, M. Painlevé continued to be Minister of War. On Oct. 19, in consequence of a vote of the Chamber, he felt that his majority was insufficient, and therefore resigned; but he at once reconstituted his cabinet, replacing M. Ribot by M. Barthou at the Ministry for Foreign Affairs. A few days later, after the Italian disaster at Caporetto, he went to Rapallo at the same time as Mr. Lloyd George to meet the Italian premier, Signor Orlando. ‘These discussions resulted in the creation of the Supreme Allied Council at Versailles, Gen. Foch being chosen by M. Painlevé as the chief representative of France. On Nov. 13, the Chamber having refused to postpone questions regarding “ defeatism,” M. Painlevé resigned and was succeeded by M. Clemenceau. After some years of restricted political activity, M. Painlevé with M. Herriot helped to form the cartel des gauches, which obtained a majority in the general elections of May 11 1924. The two heads of this group, M. Herriot and M. Pain-

His one wish was to re-

levé, became premier and President of the Chamber respectively. The Radicals now organised a kind of ministerial strike, with the result that M. Millerand was forced to resign the Presidency of the Republic. The attempt to replace him by M. Painlevé failed, and M. Doumergue was elected President. In April 1925 M. Herriot was forced to resign after a defeat in the Senate on financial questions and M. Painlevé succeeded him as premier, taking over the portfolio of War as well. M. Caillaux became Minister of Finance, a position of special importance at that time of financial crisis.

turn to ‘‘ the sandhills ” of his early home in North Carolina. There he died on the evening of Dec. 21 1918, in his 64th year. _ He was survived by his wife (formerly Willia Alice Wilson, whom

to the offensive of Abdel-Krim a difficult situation had arisen; later he sent out Marshal Pétain to organise resistance and

carry him from the ship on a stretcher.

In June M. Painlevé went by air to Morocco, where owing

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PAINTING direct a counter-offensive. In July he found it was impossible to remain in power without the support of a section of the opposition, for the Socialists refused to accept the fiscal policy of M. Caillaux. In Oct., therefore, with a view to gaining the support of the extreme left, M. Painlevé himself took over the Ministry of Finance from M. Caillaux. But on Nov. 21 he found himself with a minority in the Chamber owing to his financial proposals. He was succeeded as premier by M. Briand; and, both in that Government as well as in the one formed by M. Briand in March 1926, M. Painlevé continued to hold the portfolio of War. An able mathematician, M. Painlevé was made a member of the academies of science of France, Bologna, Stockholm and Upsala as well as of the Reale Accademia dei Lincei in Rome. Among his various works on mathematics may be mentioned: Leçons sur le frottement (1805); and Leçons sur la théorie analytique des équations ee (1897). PB.) PAINTING (see 20.459).—The end of the 1cth century saw in painting the triumph of “ impressionism ” in its widest sense.’ With the heterodoxy of the roth century become the orthodoxy of the 20th, a movement developed in revolt against impressionism, giving to painting between 1900 and z926 a distinctive character. This movement, like impressionism, is mainly French in origin, though elsewhere it has taken colour from national characteristics. But changes have been greater in appearance than reality. Impressionism is very much a living force; older academic traditions still survive and have even gained strength from a reaction against impressionism; while the practice of the rebels has paid more heed to older standards than have their doctrines. Across these main movements cut the influence of the War. At first it threatened to limit artistic output severely, but the check was only temporary.

A huge demand arose in the bellig-

erent countries from individuals and public bodies for illustrative, propagandist or commemorative work, which bore fruit in posters and cartoons; in the formation of official collections such as those in the Imperial War Museum and in Canada; and in decorative paintings for memorial purposes. The chief interest of this work is that of a document, showing what men did, felt and thought during the War, and of giving a summary of

the condition of art at the time in various countries. The aim of the British and Canadian official collections was definitely to preserve a pictorial record of the War in all its aspects, and, consequently, much of the work is primarily the skilful application of a technique to this task, and not the expression of a new vision or a personal emotion. . The same applies to most memorial decorations, and, though in all countries the posters were the work of prominent artists, their appeal was only in part aesthetic, designed as they were mainly to excite hatred, cupidity, pity and self-sacrifice. Yet by putting the production of the poster into the hands of artists, and by helping to revive and stimulate wood engraving and lithography, the War had considerable influence on the graphic

arts. Otherwise, its immediate effects have been small. It has perhaps strengthened the nationalist spirit in art, as a result of a cessation of international intercourse during the War and of the creation of small independent states. It may also have given a new impulse to a search for structure and design, by reducing life so much into terms of machinery and organisation;

and by the depth and variety of the emotions it aroused may have stimulated the tendency to use form and colour for the expression of personal feeling rather than for the rep~oduction

of nature. Probably, too, by making a definite breach with roth century ideas, the War cleared the way for the development of new aesthetic standards. But the most important modern movements in art were in being before the War. 1 Unfortunately for clarity of exposition, the term “ impressionists,” originally applied to the group of artists round Claude Monet, painters in a high key using a palette limited to white and the spectral colours, has been extended, especially in England, to include all painters whose main aim is the reproduction of the visual appearance of a scene as a whole. In this wider sense the term is here used throughout.

:

5

I. THE REACTION FROM IMPRESSIONISM The Later Impressiontsts —Of movements which attained full development in the roth century, impressionism in its purest form is still represented in France by Claude Monet, in Belgium by Emil Claus and in Great Britain by Lucien Pissarro. Of its many developments and adaptations, the neo-impressionism, based on the analysis of colour in nature into its constituent elements, which are then placed by means of juxtaposed spots of paint upon the canvas, to be recombined by the eye, survived in 1926 only in modified form. Paul Signac, one of its original exponents, has substituted for spots brick-like rectangles in his oil paintings, and increased use of line in his water-colours. Another variation, pointillism, in which colour already mixed on the palette is applied in spots, is represented by Henri Martin and Ienri le Sidaner. Paul Albert Besnard, appointed in 1924 director of the Ecole des Beaux Arts, Paris, had adapted the impressionist analysis to deal with complicated problems of double lighting which in England have interested Charles Sims and Ambrose McEvoy in portraits and figure pieces. Jacques Emile Blanche, on the other hand, derives more directly from Manet in his bold brushwork and the simplified masses of his design. , . In England, the spectral palette and high key has been only a passing phase with most painters. Wilson Steer in both portrait and landscape passed to a narrow palette including black, in work marked by much subtlety of tone and colour and great feeling for light and atmosphere. After a period of more positive

colour, he returned in his latest work to a limited range of browns, greys, blues and greens, and a simplified direct handling analogous to that of water-colour. George Clausen, once the leading disciple of Bastien-Lepage in England, has interested himself in mural work, and gives increasing attention to design in his sensitive interpretations of misty, sunlit landscape. Study of tone and design based on silhouette gives a common basis to members of the Glasgow school, such as Sir James Guthrie, E. A. Walton (1860-1923), Sir John Lavery and D. Y. Cameron. These served as starting-point for Sir William Orpen, combined in later work with vivid colour used decoratively, ingenious use of double lighting, and a strong bent for satire and caricature. The death of J. S. Sargent in April 1925 removed an outstanding figure, witness to whose reputation was the remarkable total (£182,585) realised by a two-days’ sale in July of part of the contents of his studio. Vivid realisation of external aspect by singularly direct and forcible means, based on impressionist practice, was his peculiar power. This was best displayed in portraiture and landscape; a series of mural decorations in the Boston Museum of Fine Arts, completed just before his death, consisting of mythological scenes executed in golden ochre on a blue ground, are accomplished but lifeless. Of the group of painters who, under the influence of Millet and Bastien-Lepage, carried the realism of Courbet and Manet into the field and workshop, the chief survivors in 1926 were Lucien Simon and Charles Cottet in France, Max Liebermann in Germany, Joaquin Sorolla in Spain and Ettore Tito in Italy. In Great Britain the once prominent Newlyn group has fallen into obscurity; in Sweden Anders Zorn, best known by his portraits and etchings, is dead; and the Hague School of Holland has no important living representative. _ Transition Painters ——Between these representatives of im-

pressionism in the widest sense and those of the modern movement stand many painters combining in varying degrees characteristics of both groups. Among these are the decorative painters, who have necessarily never fully accepted impressionism and realism. As early as 1892 the Rose Croix group in

France mental These in the

had urged that painting should be idealist and monuin character, with myth and allegory as its subject. ideas survive, combined with impressionist influences,

balanced and harmonious compositions of René Menard, whose descent is from Puvis de Chavannes, in the mural decorations of Henri Martin, and in the work of Amand-Jean, whose

flowing arabesque and pastel tints relate him to the 18thcentury decorators. Akin to these painters, but closer to the

6

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PAINTING

modern movement and more purely decorative in intent, is the broadly handled work of Jules Flandrin (b. 1871). Another group of decorative painters take realism as a starting-point. Among these is Frank Brangwyn (b. 1867), one of the few English painters with considerable European influence and reputation. His later work, such as the eight mural paintings, symbolising the dynamic forms of nature, for the 1915 Panama Pacifc Exposition, and the twelve panels finished in 1925 in the dome of the State House of Missouri, is dexterous and schematised in handling, and combines romantic and allegorical treatment of material drawn from the daily life of commerce

and industry with a sensuous materialism. i A comparable figure is Ignacio Zuloaga (b. 1870), the leader of a group of Basque and Castilian painters, including Ramon and Valentine de Zubiaurre, Gustavo de Maeztu and Federico

Beltran-Masses, who consciously aim at expressing Spanish national character in their art. With them a romantic conception of subjects drawn from contemporary Spanish lfe is given decorative form by emphasis on silhouette, simplification of form and broad masses of colour, often combined with a low horizon and a panoramic background; though sometimes the realism degenerates into caricature and the decorative treatment into the production of cardboard figures against a stage drop-scene. Among British painters, Augustus John is best known by his portraits, which combine accomplished drawing and power to record a likeness with the decorative use of broad masses of colour, considerable simplification and occasional distortion of forms. His larger subject pieces are apt to be empty and mechanical. Sir C. J. Holmes is conspicuous among landscape painters for his emphasis on structure and design; and the wellplanned architectural and mountain pieces of Sydney Lee unite sombre dignity with painstaking study of detail. William Rothenstein has abandoned the low key and sombre colour of his earlier work for a decorative treatment and a more vivid

palette in his later paintings.

The Munich decorative school,

as seen in its most important product, Franz Stuck (b. 1863), inherits from Bécklin the realistic treatment of mythological and allegorical materials. Its once important and widespread influence has waned; but it forms part of the bridge between the archaeological and historical painting which formerly dominated Germany and more modern movements. Allied to this school is the Swiss Ferdinand Hodler (1853—1918) by the emphasised contours and calculated distortions of his later work. But in his symbolic mystical outlook he resembles another important German forerunner of the modern movement, Hans von Marées (1837-87), neglected in his lifetime but now the object of adulation, who turned from Courbet and Manet to Rubens and Delacroix in developing a grandiose decorative art. Degas and His Influence-—Another important divergence from the main trend of later roth-century art is seen in France in the art of H. G. E. Degas (1834-1917) and Pierre Auguste Renoir (1841-1919). Their close association with the impressionists was reflected in the choice of subjects from contemporary daily life, and at times in their use of colour. But Degas mainly descends from the great draughtsmen of France. A convinced realist, bitterly opposed to the romantic and symbolic, he never sought the ideal beauty of Ingres, but turned to use the more absurd and bizarre attitudes of everyday life. His realism is synthetic, and represents the building-up, from many sketches and from a retentive memory, of the essential character of a form or movement; and his vision is classic in its impersonal, almost ironic quality. So with his design, which, despite its apparent disregard of the rules of classical composition, yet shows a complete balance of strains and stresses round a pictorial centre, revealing the influence of Chinese and Japanese art. Round Degas centres a group of realistic draughtsmen, such as Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec (1864-1901)—-whose fevered and_ excited vision inspired much modern work—Louis Legrand and J. F. Raffaelli. Jean-Louis Forain (b. 1852), chiefly known for his political and social cartoons, has the realism and ironic spirit of Degas,

but less power of design and feeling for colour. As an etcher, however, he is in the front rank. The later work of T. A. Steinlen (1859-1923), well known by his journalistic work, is significant of modern tendencies in the increased emphasis given to the third dimension and the use of simplified forms. Renoir inspired no special group which calls him master, nor was he the exponent of an aesthetic creed. His earlier work was much under impressionist influence, in its easy vivacity recalling Fragonard. Later, he grafted impressionism on to a romantic decorative manner inspired by the Venetians and Rubens, searching for increased solidity and simplicity in his forms, so disposed as to give somewhat the quality of a bas-relief to his paintings. Meanwhile, his colour became less naturalistic, ultimately being dominated by the famous Renoir carnation. In Great Britain, the realism and satire of the figure subjects of Walter Sickert (b. 1860, A.R.A. 1924) are a link with Degas, also the growing breadth of treatment in his later work. He adds, however, a characteristically English humour. In landscape, his search for accurate record of tone relations and an incursion into the use of the spectral palette bring him nearer the impressionists. His influence in transmitting French influence to several younger painters has been considerable. Henry Tonks (b. 1862), professor at the Slade School, has also done much to mould the younger generation, by his enthusiasm for drawing. As a painter, his choice of theme links him to the English painters of domestic genre; his realism and sense of humour to Hogarth; his handling of colour to the impressionists.

Literary and satiric intention is uppermost in the work of Max Beerbohm but he is also notable for his delicate linear draughtsmanship and skilful design.

H. THE

MODERN

MOVEMENT

Post Impressionism.—The modern movement has been given various labels, such as post-impressionism and expressionism, but its manifestations are so various that no one term can satisfactorily describe it. These manifestations however, have a common origin and character, in being a reaction against impressionism, with its aim of representing visual appearance as a whole at a given time, without reference to shape or appearance as they may be known to exist under other conditions; and in proposing to substitute form arranged into a coherent design to make a new reality and not a reproduction of nature. In this, certain modern painters claim to be returning to the tradition embodied in the work of Raphael, Poussin, David and Ingres, as opposed to the romantics and realists; and to be breaking away from subordination to external and visible things in order to utilise them in expressing the artist’s emotions. From this latter aspect of the movement arises the term “expressionism ’’; and divergence as to the kind and quality of emotion to be expressed is one cause of the differences between

various modern groups. The general character of the movement helps to account for other distinctive features. Colour becomes less naturalistic, and is used to emphasise the solidity of objects, is purely decorative, or assumes a mystical and symbolic character; and anxiety to avoid a transcript of nature has stimulated return to the subject picture, which calls for constructive effort. But the modern movement owes much to the impressionists. It was they who helped to discredit the formulas and aims of academic art; put powerful weapons in the painters’ hands by applying to art scientific discoveries regarding light and colour; and won recognition of the artist’s freedom to express his personal vision of things. It was on this basis that the chief initiators of the movement built. These fall into two groups, the one including Cézanne, Seurat and Henri Rousseau, whose emphasis tends to be on structure and design; the other including Gauguin, Van Gogh and Gustave Moreau, in whom symbolist and expressionist elements are more marked. Cézanne.— Paul Cézanne (1849-1906) gives a clue to understanding of his aims and methods by his own words, that he wished to do Poussin over again according to nature, and to make of impressionism something solid and durable like the art of the museums. His sympathies were all with the later Venetians,

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“THe WAY DOWN TO THE SEA” BY AUGUSTUS JOHN

This painting is one of the best known examples of the earlier work of Augustus John. It not only shows the power of his draughtsmanship, but, with its characteristic of definite

contours enclosing areas of colour, relates him to the 15th Century y Italian painters.

PLATE

II.

PAINTING Rubens, Poussin and the baroque masters such as the Caracci and El Greco, whose craftsmanship, bravura and well-organised design he admired. These tastes found expression throughout his life, but are most evident in his earlier work. In this he used little colour; but under the influence of the impressionists, especially Pissarro, he extended his palette considerably (though still retaining black and the earth colours) and turned to a more intimate study of nature. Contemplation of her, he held, reinforced by reflection and study of underlying causes, creates in the artist’s mind a vision of the structure underlying the external, visible world, which to him becomes a series of organic relations between solid forms, which he should seek to realise on canvas. Cézanne’s method was to establish the relations between the planes enclosing an object or group of objects by recording all the subtle differences in their colour due to differences in their relation to the light. But it was the form, not the light around it, which interested Cézanne. He worked slowly and painfully; and such was his desire for keeping every element of his work in correct relation that one alteration would often lead to complete repainting. The legend of Cézanne’s technical incompetence is partly due to his constant self-depreciation and to the amount of work he left unfinished in despair or disgust. Though his ultimate rank as a painter is still in the balance, his influence underlies much modern painting. Seurat, Rousseau and Others-——Georges Seurat (1859-91), like Cézanne, found inspiration in the 16th- and 17th-century masters. At the same time modern scientific research into colour led him to develop a neo-impressionist technique, which has obscured his power of expressing structure and of welding form into balanced and monumental design. But he has exercised much influence, éspecially on the cubists, whose studio walls often carried reproductions of ‘‘ Le Chahut,” one of his last pictures. Henri Rousseau (1844-1910), ‘‘ le douanier,” a very different figure, was once an octroi official in Paris (whence his nickname). He is the type of the primitive who tries to paint things as he knows them to be rather than as they appear. He used, for example, to measure his sitters with a footrule, and transfer these measurements to canvas. His work, which includes portraits, views of the suburbs of Paris, exotic landscapes based on recollections of military service in Mexico and figure compositions, is marked by emphasis on solidity, precision of handling, adjustment of the relative size of objects according to their importance as elements in design, and at times by a symbolic element. In contrast to Rousseau is Gustave Moreau (1826-1808), a strange figure bred in the strictest academic tradition, who borrowed romantic fire from Delacroix and Chasseriau, and fed his imagination upon the myths of Greece and the East. He emerged from many years’ retirement to become at the end of his life professor at the Ecole des Beaux Arts, where his influence helped to breed a group of young painters with symbolist tendencies. As a teacher Moreau always encouraged self-expression based on close study of the old masters. In his own work Moreau stood for the use of painting to express the emotions, and built up a decorative art which sought to combine sombre rich colour with linear arabesque. Gauguin and Van Gogh—Paul Gauguin (1848-1903) was more definitely a chef d'école than any of the group now under consideration. After an impressionist phase, he became in Brittany the centre of the well-known Pont-Aven group, and

7

these ideas in its use of boldly simplifted contours enclosing areas of rich purples, greens, reds and oranges. His art is primarily decorative and intellectual, revealing a less strenuous effort to express a third dimension than does Cézanne’s. His symbolism, though not primarily literary, towards the end moved in that direction. Akin to Gauguin in his outlook and use of colour is Vincent van Gogh (1853-90). Born in Holland, his early work shows the influence of the older Dutch masters and of the Hague School; association with the impressionists in Paris and with Gauguin at Arles led him to develop the use of heavy masses of vivid colour arranged in bold patterns, emphasised by black outlines and writhing arabesques of paint. A passionate lover of nature, and a mystic and idealist by temperament, Van Gogh believed that the artist’s creative power was given to him to make men happy. Vehement personal passion is the note of his work. His colour ultimately became quite non-naturalistic, and was solely directed towards expressing his emotions in the face of nature; and his surface texture serves to increase the arresting, disquieting quality of his work. The third dimension did not play a dominant part in Van Gogh’s work. His design, in which decorative simplification became increasingly marked, shows strongly the influence of Japanese art.

Symbolism and Fauvism.—The characteristic aims of the preceding group of painters—rejection of naturalistic representation, emphasis on solidity and structure, organised design, and the symbolic use of form and colour—appears in varying degrees in the work of their successors. The influence of Cézanne, which has modified or supplanted that of others, took some time to develop, and the first well-marked group appeared round Gauguin at Pont-Aven. Prominent therein was Paul Sérusier (b. 1864), who was one of the first to formulate a doctrine based on the ideas of Gauguin, Cézanne and Odilon Redon. He drew round him a group of symbolistes which included Maurice Denis (b. 1870), Pierre Bonnard, K-Xavier Roussel and Edouard Vuillard. This doctrine declares that a work of art must aim at the expression of an idea. Since it uses form for this purpose, it must be symbolic; and since the form as to be organised, it must be synthetic and decorative. The basis of the doctrine is a belief in correspondence between external forms and subjective states—not by association, but direct. Sérusier and Denis have given these ideas a mystical and religious application, largely under the influence of the quattrocento Italians. In Bonnard (b. 1867) and Vuillard (b. 1867), however, the purely decorative element is uppermost, in a graceful and refined but over-precious treatment of material drawn from everyday life, influenced by Japanese art, and marked by elusive and delicate harmonies of green, blue, rose and yellow combined with grey. Closely akin to this symboliste group is another, whose best-known members were pupils of Gustave Moreau. The

religious symbolic pictures of George Desvalliéres (b. 1861) are characterised by the use of arabesque and rich exotic colour; the more realistic art of Charles Guérin (b. 1874) by its decorative aim and search for tonal rather than for linear unity. The influence of Moreau, modified by the pupil’s own temperament, is well seen in the fantastic, savagely distorted nudes and mysterious, sombre landscapes of Georges Roualt. Mutisse—¥ar better known is his fellow-pupil Henri Matisse (b. 1869), who represents the expressionist side of symbolism. Academic and neo-impressionist phases never obscured a very

personal use of line and colour whose decorative quality relates

him to the Chinese and Japanese. A period of arbitrary distortions of the human figure, partly inspired by the study of In 1891 he went to the Pacific Is., and, except for a brief return to France, spent the rest of his life there. Admiration of the negro art, marked a further stage in breaking away from representational art. These distortions, his apparently anarchic primitive was at the base of Gauguin’s art. Rejecting impresdesign and his decorative use of colour earned for Matisse the sionism as a mere reproduction of nature not inspired by thought, title of ‘‘ Chef des Fauves,” though he has not formed the he held that study of nature awakes emotions in the artist which he has to express by bringing into relation symbols, con- - centre of a well-marked group, despite his wide influence. It is sisting of forms and colours. Though these colours and forms in difficult to acquit him sometimes of painting pour éputer le bourgeois; but his latest work shows increased discipline and his pictures might not actually exist in nature, he claimed them restraint, and is notable for the use of a sensitive contour ento be the pictorial equivalent of the grandeur, profundity and closing delicate and harmonious colour. mystery of Tahiti. His latest work most completely embodies

there developed theorigs which were to govern all his later work.

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PAINTING

Somewhat the same power is seen in the Italian painter and sculptor Amédée Modigliani (1884-1920), though his work is far more mannered than that of Matisse and lacks feeling for colour. Kees van Dongen (b. 1877 in Holland) mingles the influence of Matisse with that of Toulouse-Lautrec, and mainly shows the application of a fauviste recipe to the painting of fashionable Parisian society. Different from the symbolistes and fauves, but equally in reaction against impressionism, are the painters who return to the outlook and methods of the quattrocento Italians. Among these are Jean Frélaut (b. 1879), notable for his sincere interpretations of the country and people round Morbihan in Brittany; and Félix Vallotton (1865-1926), whose angular, precise contours and definite colour pattern relate him to the primitives,

and have won him the nickname of the “ Cabanel of the Salon d’Automne.” A definite Pre-Raphaelite tendency is represented in England by Joseph Southall, head of the Birmingham School of Art. Henry Lamb combines the influence of the Italian Primitives with that of Gauguin and Augustus John, in a dignified and sensitive art whose emphasis is largely on design. He has influenced among others Stanley and Gilbert Spencer, whose work is delicate and sincere, but tends to a conscious archaism. Eric Kennington, whose war paintings attracted much attention, has Pre-Raphaelite leanings, but is primarily academic in outlook. | Cubism.—To the manifestations of the modern movement so far considered, cubism is a marked contrast. It was a reaction not only against impressionism but against fauvism, and professed to stand for the introduction of order and discipline into painting. Some opponents of cubism, indeed, saw therein a return offensive of the academics. It owes its name and in part its origin to Matisse, from whose association with Picasso and others the movement took shape in 1908; and in conjunction with a similar group which included Albert Gleizes and Jean Metzinger, cubism won its first public recognition in the Salon d’Automne of 1913. To the influence of Cézanne and Seurat, which mainly inspired the movement, was joined that of negro and Polynesian art, in which there is 2 simplified treatment of the human form which emphasises its bulk and solidity, and a complete disregard of normal appearance in the effort to express an idea. Thus the cubists came to reject the reproduction of natural appearance. Nature, they hold, merely serves to awaken in the artist emotions which he expresses by a series of abstract forms, ordered and arrayed by his will. Thus cubism aims at creating a kind of visual music. In its most austere form it avoids curved lines and colour as pretty and sentimental; and even holds that a picture is not a decoration since that term implies dependence upon external objects. From the first, great emphasis was laid on the expression of a third dimension. This aroused difficulties, which have separated the cubists into distinct groups. Expression of a third dimension introduced .an element of resemblance to nature. Some painters accepted this so that their pictures are litle more than arrangements of realistically painted cubes and cvlinders; others rebelled against such a restricted art, and made of cubism merely an exercise in the expression of three-dimensional form. The purists, however, argued that art is not concerned with Euclidean space but with a special pictorial space, which we feel by our whole personality expanding or contracting before a picture; and that it is not the painter’s business to create an illusion of a third dimension but to make live on a two-dimensional surface a reality of three dimensions. Further difficulties have been caused by development of a theory of simultaneity which justifies presenting on the same canvas several aspects of the same object. This often only comes to a mechanical arrangement of a number of separate impressions, whose disentanglement may be a source of interest, but makes cubism descriptive rather than pictorial. Picasso-—Pablo Picasso (b. 1881 at Malaga) has been the dominating force in the movement, but by no means typifies it. With him cubism has been only a phase. To a realistic period, mainly influenced by Toulouse-Lautrec, succeeded a group of

reddish nudes, solidly constructed from simplified planes, which ushered in the cubist period. The earlier work in this showed some conformity to natural appearance, and was mainly in grisaille; later the forms became more abstract, the design more arbitrary and the colour more brilliant, sand and similar substances being embedded in the paint to give relief and variety of surface. Later came the influence of Ingres, especially in Picasso’s drawings, some of which conform closely to natural appearance, with only enough distortion to give flow and rhythm. The chief characteristic of Picasso is his versatility. But it is doubtful whether he has achieved more than a series of exercises in different manners. Other cubists have also reverted to representation. Georges Braque, whose long adherence to geometric forms, straight lines and sombre colour made him the purist of the movement, has executed admirable settings for the Russian ballet, and turns still life groups into flat patterns of attractive colour. Metzinger, one of the popularisers of cubism, paints artificial arrangements of natural forms, coarsely modelled with emphatic local colour; Auguste Herbin has become a heavy-handed landscape painter in the Cézanne tradition; Leopold Survage in his treatment of the figure has become almost academic. Of the leading figures in the movement, Juan Gris and Fernand Leger alone stil exemplify its doctrines; and in general the influence of cubism may be said to have passed, save in giving a solid and mechanical quality to the work of those who once practised it. Between the extremes of cubism and fauvism stands a considerable group of artists who derive something from both, but mainly witness the influence of Cézanne. Of these Albert Marquet (b. 1875) is primarily a painter of Paris and of the Seine, whose use of well-defined planes, with their tonal relations accurately expressed, is apt to degenerate into an ingenious system of notation. Jean Puy (b. 1876), in his landscapes of wide-stretching countrysides, has notable feeling for subtle variations in colour and tone. With Othon Friez (b. 1879) the organising instinct is uppermost, but he shows considerable power of retaining fresh and unspoiled his original conception. More consciously decorative than Cézanne, his mural paintings sometimes show the influence of Gauguin. Jean Marchand (b. 1883) and Dunoyer de Segonzac (b. 1884) are among those to whom cubism has been a gymnastic to develop understanding of form, but who rely on colour and tone to give solidity and a sense of space. Marchand’s early promise has scarcely been fulfilled, his recent work being empty and its colour forced. Segonzac has developed the use of the palette knife and thick impasto, working in a scheme of dark browns, greys and greens which are apt to be monotonous. His war paintings, which reflect a very personal emotion based on his own experience, are themselves the colour of Flanders mud. André Derain (b. 1880) is one of the most influential of younger painters. After a period influenced by Van Gogh and the neo-impressionists, he produced a series of truculent nudes and landscapes, which showed cubist and fauve influence in their simplified and distorted forms. His later work is more sober and naturalistic, though apt to be heavy and mannered. Mannerism also marks the dramatic landscapes of Maurice Vlaminck (b. 1876), with their heavy skies and contrast of sombre greens with vivid reds and pinks. Maurice Utrillo (b. 1883) mingles impressionist influence with that of Cézanne in his landscapes. Before the War, a limited palette, including black and white, and considerable attention to atmosphere and texture marked his work; replaced lateg by greater definition of forms and forcing of local colour. Marie Laurencin mingles the influence of Matisse and Renoir in her paintings of women and children, whose sprightliness does not conccal the lifeless formula on which they are based. Futurism— Modern art in most countries is an extension or adaptation of French ideas and methods. Spain has produced Picasso, but cubism is entirely Parisian in origin; and so much of the modern spirit as appears in Catalan painters such as Sunyer and Casals is derived from France. Futurism, however,

is indigenous to Italy. The term has been loosely used, especially

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PAINTING

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From the John Quinn Collection

“ARLEQUIN”

5

BY PABLO PICASSO

Picasso has been a major influence in recent painting. His S panish heritage of irony and his dazzling French facility have sparkled now in blue, now in pink, with prismatic brilliance. This Harlequin from his “blue period shows Picasso's mastery of linear Nar and spatial rel f .

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PAINTING in England, to denote the modern movement

as a whole; but

strictly it applies to the doctrines of a group of Italian poets, sculptors and painters, first presented to the world in 1909 in a manifesto signed by F. T. Marinetti, the poet and high priest of the movement. These doctrines apply to art a general philosophy of life, based on the modern scientific theories which express all matter in terms of energy; and while denouncing all that the past has done (whence the name futurism) holds that movement and conflict are the dominant characteristics of modern life. Cubism, as dealing only with the static aspects of life, it rejects; impressionism it takes as a starting point, but claims to have surpassed. The futurist’s aim is to represent, not the appearance of objects at some particular point in their course, but the sensation of movement and growth itself. One method, which connects futurism with cubism, is to combine on one canvas not only what the artist sees, but what he knows and remembers about an object. Another, peculiar to futurism, is the use of “ force

lines.”

Every object, it is argued, is at a given moment

the

temporary outcome of continuously acting forces, whose char-

acter is indicated by the lines and planes enclosing it. Thus an object becomes simply the beginning or prolongation of rhythms conveyed to the artist by contemplation thereof; and these he represents in his picture by lines arranged to clash, harmonise or interplay in order to express states of mind such as chaotic excitement, happiness or interest. Colour the futurists use arbitrarily to assist in conveying these sensations. Luigi Russolo is the most logical and orthodox of the futurists. The work of others, such as Carlo Carra, is little more than a catalogue of information about a number of different objects; though Umberto Boccioni, who has applied futurist theories also to sculpture, sometimes redeems his work by an interesting design. The gaily coloured, tapestry-like patterns of Gino Severini were among the more attractive futurist paintings; but his recent work under cubist and academic influences has become entirely commonplace. His carcer typifies the fate of futurism, which has found no new recruits, and has had but transient influence.

III. NATIONAL TENDENCIES Great Britain.—The British vorticists share some doctrines with the futurists; but the main forces shaping the modern movement in Great Britain are French. This movement first took shape in the studio of Walter Sickert, and resulted in the formation of the Camden Town group under the presidency of Spencer Frederick

Gore

(1878-1914),

which

developed

into the more

eclectic London group whose first president was Harold Gilman (1876-1919). At the same time Roger Fry (b. 1866), by his writings and by assisting to organise post-impressionist exhibitions in 1910 and tg12 at the Grafton Galleries, did much to make known the character of the modern movement in France. and to assimilate more closely thercto the English movement. Gore and Gilman represent the movement in its earlier stages. Gore’s earlier impressionism was modified under the influence of Cézanne and Van Gogh by increased attention to structure and design, which for a time obscured his charming sense of colour. This reappeared in his latest work, done mainly at

Richmond. Gilman emerged from a_ period influenced by Whistler and painters of the Vuillard type to one which gave increased emphasis to the third dimension and showed the influence of Van Gogh in the use of brilliant colour and the texture of paint. Charles Ginner, whose work is akin to Gilman’s, though without its vitality, describes their art as aiming at “ the plastic interpretation of life through intimate research into nature.” The emotions aroused by nature in the artist he must express by deliberate and objective transposition of nature on to canvas, so that he reveals the qualities in her which have moved him. The variety of line and colour in nature, joined to the artist’s personality, will produce a decorative composition. This neorealism (as Ginner calls it) is based on the attitude of Cézanne and Van

Gogh towards

nature; but gives an English turn to

9

that attitude by emphasising the part played by nature as compared with that of the artist. The French point of view is more evident in the work of the London group. Some of its members are still slaves to a French formula; others have based on French teaching a more individual art, notably W. B. Adeney, Roger Fry, Duncan Grant and Vanessa Bell. Grant’s feeling for delicate and harmonious colour and for pattern gives his art char-

acteristic quality, which over-absorption in problems of three dimensional form has at times obscured. C. W. R. Nevinson, having explored in turn impressionism, futurism and cubism,

abandoned the geometric convention which marked his war paintings, to reveal an academic art masked by previous cxperiments. Distinct in character is the vorticist movement, which had its origin in 1913 among certain members of the Camden Town group, and had as its leading figures the painters Percy Wyndham Lewis, Cuthbert Hamilton, Frederick Etchells, Edward Wadsworth and William Roberts, the poet Ezra Pound and the sculptor Henri Gaudier-Brzeska (1891-1915). Like futurism, it holds that modern art must be based on the character of modern industrial civilisation, whose features are complexity and dominance of the machine; and, since England is pre-eminently the type of the modern industrial country, this art will be an English art. But it rejects futurism as merely the cinematographic representation of a series of impressions; and joins the modern movement as a whole in claiming that the artist’s work is not to copy nature, but to create new realities. Every phase of emotion has its appropriate means of expression in some particular

form of some

particular

material,

whose

appeal

is

direct and not by association or allegory. These forms take shape and proceed out of the artist’s ‘‘ vortex ’’ (hence the name of the movement), which is a general conception in his mind of relations in the universe through which ideas pass and take concrete shape, just as the general equation of a circle in analytical geometry becomes one particular circle when definite quantities are substituted for the algebraic symbol. In 1920 the vorticists seceded from the London group to form the X group; but their first exhibition showed some modification in their practice. The earlicr vorticist work was geometric and abstract, and owed much to cubism. Hamilton represents this phase; but others have turned towards expressing the structure of natural forms in the way exemplified by the work of Wyndham Lewis, while J. McKnight Kauffer has exploited geomctric conventions with much success in posters. The interest of the earlier vorticist painting lies in disentangling in sequence the elements from which it is constructed; otherwise, though sometimes showing new and interesting combinations of shapes and colours, it presents only a barren world of geometrical forms. United Siates—In the United States, cubism, futurism and vorticism have all had their exponents among the younger painters, but have inspired no work of permanent interest or value. Modern French art has nevertheless materially modified the impressionism which had become a dominant force in American painting. Impressionist ideas had marked the work of the Society of National Artists, once representative of the advanced elements in American painting. On the dissolution of this body, many of its members joined the older National Academy, thereby establishing impressionism as one form of orthodoxy, exemplified in the landscapes of Twachtman and Robinson among the older men. Problems of light and atmosphere are likewise the main interest of Dewing, Childe Hassam and J. Alden Weir (d. 1920), and of the sea painters Carlsen, Dougherty and Waugh. The work of these men is primarily an echo of European ideas and the methods of an older generation. More recently, however, various forces have tended to shape a distinctly American school. Among these is the rapid increase

in the number of important art galleries throughout the country, which permits art students to study at first hand the old masters; the development of American art schools, with teachers of personality and originality, such as La Farge and Chase; and the consequent increase in the number of painters who remain in

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PAINTING

America and find their material in characteristically American scenes. Such influences, combined: with modern aesthetic theories, have resulted in more attention to problems of form and design, with greater breadth of treatment. Among figure and

portrait painters, Robert Henri is notable for his versatility and vigorous, direct handling; John Sloan for his intensely realistic treatment of New York slum life; George Bellows (d. 1925) for his well designed and sympathetic interpretation of many phases of contemporary life, work and sport. Among landscapes the broadly decorative studies of suburban New York by Ernest Lawson and the vivacious rural and beach scenes of William J. Glackens may be mentioned. Less concerned than any of these with problems of natural appearance was Albert Ryder (d. 1916), whose landscapes and figure studies are inspired by a highly romantic and very personal emotion, which links him to such painters as Delacroix. The mystical decorative compositions of Arthur B. Davies are conceived in the vein of a Fantin Latour, but are weak in design and drawing. In contrast is the strongly realistic approach of G. B. Luks, who produced several remarkable war paintings. Mural painters have also been active in America, the example set by Sargent in Boston being paralleled in public buildings at Pittsburgh, Baltimore, St. Paul, Minneapolis and elsewhere by the work of such painters (among others) as La Farge, Blashfield, and Alexander. Germany.—In Germany the modern movement has been mainly inspired by that side of modern French art represented by Matisse and Derain. Cubism has not gained a firm footing there; though the Russian Jew, Marc Chagall, shows cubist influence in the sharply defined planes and angular design of his fantastic, vividly coloured decorations; and Lyonel Feiniger has adopted the cubist method of extension and development of planes. But arbitrary distortion and writhing arabesque have proved more congenial means of expression in an art which has always tended towards the romantic and symbolic. Native influences, such as Flans von Marées and the Munich decorative school, joined the study of El Greco and Matthias Grünewald in paving the way for an expressionist art in the full sense of the term—one which gives vent to every kind of emotion with unrestrained vehemence. A mystical temper and a mass of confused aspirations induced by the War have stimulated this development; but the movement was in being before the War, chiefly under the leadership of Wassily Kandinsky (b.1866 at Moscow), a prominent member of a Munich group of painters, poets and musicians, whose aim was the expression through art of the “ innerer Kiang ’’—the soul of nature and humanity. According to Kandinsky, colour and form have the power of producing spiritual vibrations quite apart from their ordinary meaning and associations; and a picture consists of an arrangement of form and colour whose spiritual values are in harmony with it and unite to express the artist’s spiritual conceptions. Thus painting ceases to have representation as its purpose, and becomes analogous to music in its rhythmical arrangements of forms and colours. These may be borrowed from nature, but must have no external associations, and may be frecly adapted and distorted to suit the artist’s aim. Thus Kandinsky has points of contact both with the symdolistes and cubists; but he criticises the latter for reducing the construction of a picture to rules and formulas, and for paying overmuch attention merely to representing three-dimensional form. Kandinsky’s own work has become increasingly abstract in character, and consists of some early flat decorations, combining Russian and Munich influences; a group of more or less direct impressions of nature, inspired by Matisse; ‘‘ improvisations ” which represent spontaneous expressions of inner character; and “‘ compositions ”’ which, he claims, express a slowly

formed and mature spiritual feeling. His most important disciple is Franz Marc (1880-1916), whose animal compositions,

boldly designed in arbitrary colour, are his most typical work. The influence of Kandinsky has declined rapidly in recent years; and more relation to natural appearance is preserved in the work of the younger men. Prominent among these is Oskar

Kokoschka (b. 1886 in Austria), in whose early work appears the free distortion, sharp contrasts of light and shade, bold contours and thick impasto worked into arabesques, by which he conveys his excited and very personal vision. In his later work emphasis by these means is even more emphatic and merciless. The heads of his figures are balanced on tiny bodies, bizarre monsters are introduced, and the paint is literally thrown on to the canvas, with great channels made therein to mark the dominant lines of the design. Painters of similar tendencies are Emil Nolde, Karl Hofer (whose work has affinities to that of Derain), and Karl SchmidtRottluff. The last, under the influence of negro sculpture, has become a coarser Matisse. The influence of an earlier generation of Frenchmen is seen in Max Pechstein (b. 1881), a founder of the ‘‘ Brucke” expressionist group in Dresden, whose work owes much to Gauguin; and in Albert Werszgerber and Carl Caspar, both of whom base their design and use of colour on Cézanne. Max Slevogt (b. 1868) and Lovis Corinth (1858-1925) were among the leaders of the Berlin Secession, a split in the Berlin Kunstverein which marked the rise there of the modern movement. Both owe much to Matisse; Slevogt as a figure painter, Corinth in landscape. Associated with them in the Secession was Edward Munch (b. 1862 in Norway), who stands somewhat apart in his combination of realism and fantasy ìnfluenced by Manet, Toulouse-Lautrec and Seurat. Russta.—In Russia the influence of French art has been no less marked than elsewhere, but has taken peculiar and characteristic shape. Towards the end of the roth century Western, and in particular French, influence was represented by the realistic historical painters such as Ilya Repin and by a group of plein-air landscape painters. In reaction against thcir naturalism a decorative school developed, corresponding somewhat to the English Pre-Raphaelites, basing its work on old Russian

art, and represented by Vassily Surikov (1848-1916) and Victor Vasnetzov, Of this reaction the modern movement is really a development. One form it has taken is represented by Mikhail Vrubel (d. rgro), whose mystical symbolism recalls that of Gustave Moreau in its search to express things of the spirit in pictorial form; while Petroff-Wodkin is nearer to the French fauves in his simplified and distorted nudes and arbitrary use of colour. More important is a Petrograd group, consisting of historical painters whose aim is to reconstruct in decorative form a past epoch; not from living models dressed in costume of the period, but from the close study of every form of contemporary record. Thus the movement is primarily intellectual and literary, and has produced an art which, for all its refinement and delicacy, is inclined to be precious and a mere réchauffé of already used material. Within the movement one group looks to the West. Alexander Benois has concentrated on the age of Louis X1V.; Konstantine Somov, the most individual of all, upon the period of 1830; and Eugéne Lanceray upon the court of Elizabeth and Peter the Great. Stelletsky and Count Komatovsky, on the other hand, have gone to old Russia for their motives. Stelletsky is the purist of the group, his reconstructions of Russian mediaeval life being based on minute archaeological study of ikons, service books and similar sources. Nicolas Rocrich has departed from strictly documentary methods in seeking to reconstruct primeval and prehistoric Russia in his fantastic flat decorations based on Russian legends, and thereby joins hands with the group represented by Vasnetzov. Rather apart is Boris Anrep (working now in England), who studied Byzantine art and the ikon, not in an archaeological spirit, but as exemplifying a means for the expression of human emotion. His work is principally in mosaic, submission to whose limitations, he holds, makes for the simplicity and directness which

are often lost amid the technical possibilities of oil paint. The close connection of modern Russian art with the theatre is another important characteristic, which has grown directly out of the decorative reaction against realism. Leon Bakst

(d. 1925) represents one side of this.

Originally associated with

PAINTING

courtesy of the Buffalo Fine Arts Academy,

Albright

IV.

Art Gallery, Buffalo

«ELINOR,

JEAN

AND

ANNA”’

(The artist’s aunt,

BY GEORGE

daughter and

BELLOWS

mother)

George Bellows set down fearlessly—and quite against the traditions—life as he saw it. His searching analysis and observation, and great originality in figure composition, give his work a vitality, a virility, that Americans

typically national.

like to call

PALAEKOBOTANY the Petrograd historical group, he came into touch with Serge Diaghilev and became one of the chief designers of settings for the Russian Ballet. His use of line and colour relates him to the East; but, like Benois and Somov, his outlook and method are

those of the West. Distinct in character is the art of Nathalie Gontcharova and M. Larionov. Using the methods of the Petrograd group, they took their material from Russian peasant art, as represented in the decoration of articles in daily use and in the “lubok,” the Russian equivalent of the “ images d’Epinal.” This gives their earlier work notable simplicity and directness. French influence was not to be denied, however, and Gontcharova’s setting for the 1914 production of the “ Coq d’Or” and Larionov’s ‘‘ Les Contes Russes”’ of 1915 mark the invasion of the theatre by cubist ideas. The colour scheme was still that of Russian peasant art; but the design was based on abstract forms, and aimed at a rhythm in harmony with the music and the dances. To this development the name of rayonnisme has been given. Settings by French painters

(notably Derain, Braque and Picasso) have strengthened French influence. Other Countries Though the modern outlook in painting has had influence in Scandinavia, America and Australia, it has not taken a form specially characteristic of local conditions or national temper. Painting in Australia is mainly a backwash from English impressionism: and the accomplished pen drawings of Norman Lindsay, which attracted much attention when

exhibited in London in 1923, are little more than skilful pastiches on Rops and Beardsley. In Canada, on the other hand, has developed a distinct local school of landscape painting marked by decorative breadth of handling and feeling for the distinctive character of the country. Norwegian and Swedish painting is also mainly derivative, combining impressionist or expressionist ideas from France with flat decorative treatment in broad masses of colour inspired from Germany. Much of the criticism levelled at the modern movement, like that once directed against impressionism, is merely a violent statement of personal preference. Weighticr arguments point out that the emphasis given in the modern movement to the third dimension merely exalts one element in natural appearance, and urge that since the painter works on a flat surface design must ultimately be based on the play of contour. Also, it is said, modern methods of simplification and distortion tend to become formulas which prevent sincere and spontancous expression no less than older conventions. But contention chiefly centres round the question of representation. It is argued that a purely abstract art, which takes no account of the ideas and emotions conveyed by the objects represented, is a limited and empty affair. Rhythm in the plastic arts, no less than in literature, must emphasise some meaning; and form takes on a significance by association, if not with specific objects, yet with general ideas of mass, space and movement. Recent work has to some extent justified and admitted these criticisms, partly by the greater tendency to flat patterning as compared with expression of volume, partly by the increasing weight given to representations of natural appearance.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.—See also: Vincent

Van

Gogh, Lettresa Emile

Bernard (1911); Maurice Denis, Théories, 1890-1910 (1912); Fritz Bürger, Cézanne und Hodler (1913); V. Kandinsky, The Art of Spiritual Harmony (1914); Ambroise Vollard, Paul Cézanne (1914); W. H. Wright, Modern Painting (1916); P. Westheim, Die Welt als Vorstellung (1918); Charles Morice, Paul Gauguin (1919); Roger Fry, Vision and Design (1920); G. Coquiot, Les Indépendants (1920); A. Salmon, L'Art Vivant (1920);J. Gasquet, Cézanne (1921); Julius Merer Graefe, Vincent (1923); Elie Faure, L'Art Moderne (1923); Jan Gordon, Modern French Painters (1923); Three series by various authors, Les Artistes Nouveaux, Junge Kunst, Contemporary British

Artists. (W. G. C.*) PALAEOBOTANY (see 20.524).—Palaeobotany or the science of the study of fossil plants has three main aspects, dependent on the nature of the remains available for study.

(1) External impressions and casts of plants, such as fern leaves found in shale beds, for instance, which are given specific names and often are of value in connection with stratigraphy and the sequence of the extinct floras of various geological epochs.

II

The identification and correlation of these fragments is essentially an international work, and depends on a wide knowledge of the type specimens in all countries. (2) Petrifications of the inner detail and cellular anatomy of fossil plants, such as stems, seeds, etc., found principally preserved in silicified or calcified mineral balls or nodules, primarily of botanical interest in revealing the structure and life histories of extinct types. The originators of the meticulous kind of investigation they require were principally the French, English and German palacobotanists of last century, though now petrified remains are being discovered and investigated in many countries. | (3) The peculiarly preserved ‘‘ mummified ” masses of plant material known as coal of whatever geological age, the exact nature and detailed structure of which has long been the subject of speculation. In spite of its huge commercial importance, it has received but scant investigation on truly scientific lines. Collaboration between palaeobotanists and chemists as well as geologists, is yielding a mass of new data, principally about British and American coals (see COAL). Relations with Anatomical Botany.—Progress in palaeobotany essentially goes hand in hand with that in anatomical botany, each stimulating and filling in the gaps in the other, and it is more and more becoming impossible to discuss the anatomy or the phylogeny of the great groups of living plants without reference to their fossil ancestors. 3 Angiosperms.—The Angiosperms, the greatest of all living groups, have principally yielded plant ‘‘ impressions ” rather than anatomical material. These are common in a number of Tertiary and Upper Cretaceous horizons, and voluminous memoirs have been published on them in recent years, principally by E. W. Berry of America. The Dakota sandstones have yielded perhaps the handsomest series of large angiospermic leaf impressions in the world. From the United States also emanated substantial work on the angiospermic leaf impressions of the West Indies by Hollick (1924). A memoir from China, published at Peking (1922), is R. Florin’s account of the plant impressions of early Tertiary age of Manchuria. Upper Cretaceous Angiosperms were described by Stopes and Fujii from Japan, among which is the earliest known petrified flower. This is of monocotyledonous type. Tertiary Matertal—In England, the rich deposits of Tertiary material, so long neglected, have been partly investigated by the newer methods which yield microscopic data about the cuticles, by H. Bandulska (1923-4). Similarly R. Kräusel had investigated Tertiary impressions, discovering many interesting microscopic fungi upon the remains. The Arctic floras were revised (1925) in a jubilee memoir by Seward. Whether the Monocotyledons or the Dicotyledons are the more primitive is not settled by the fossil record. With the exception of palms, fossil Monocotyledons are very few. Many discussions have raged about the evidence afforded by the angiospermic fossil floras on ancient climates, particularly centring around Dr. Knowlton of America. A greater regional diversity, and less world-wide similarity of climate over long epochs than was formerly assumed, may be taken to be the main result of closer investigation (see CLIMATE).

The origin and phylogenetic source of the Angiosperms is still a mystery. Authenticated leaf impressions do not go very far back, and petrifed Angiosperms are exceedingly scarce in the earlier Cretaceous deposits, and unknown before that. In spite of various identifications, no reliable material of modern angiospermic type has been found as early as the Wealden in Britain or approximately the Neocomian in any part of the world. Impressions claimed to be such have proved to be portions of fern leaves with reticulate venation, such as Dictyophyllum (Berry and Stopes). The earliest authentic Angiosperms in the world are from the Lower Greensand or Aptian, of England. This flora is of a rich mixed type, is markedly distinct in other ways, and contains the famous Bevneitites Gibsonianus of Carruthers, and many conifers as well as ferns. The Angiosperms, discovered by

PALAEOBOTANY

I2

Stopes, are well petrified portions of secondary woods, and are of 5 genera, named Cantta, Woburnia, Sabulia, Aptiana and Hythia. They are unlike each other anatomically, one having enormous wood vessels, and another very minute, nor do they show any “ primitive ” or pseudo-angiospermic features. They have the characteristics of highly organised angiospermic secondary timbers. The origin of the Angiosperms clearly lies in an earlier geological epoch. Jeffrey and his American school have enunciated the view that the soft small herbaceous plants now living are less primitive than the woody trees. The matter still awaits further data from actual species of an early geological age. Interest in such theoretical discussions has been greatly enhanced by the discovery and description by H. H. Thomas of his Jurassic genus Caytonta. Gynutos perms.—Gymnosperms, of tree-like build, date back to very early palaeozoic times, and are represented by a rich variety of material, including external casts, “‘ mummified ”’ cuticles and well-petrified woods. A steady stream of memoirs dealing with the comparative anatomy of fossil and living Gymnosperms has

been maintained.

|

Petrified remains of numerous genera of the modern Coniferae are found throughout the Tertiary and Mesozoic horizons. Whether the Abietineae or Araucarineae are the older stock is much discussed. The latest edition of Scott’s classic textbook (1923) leaves the subject still open. The ancient gymnospermic types of the Cordaiteae were most abundant and varied in the Carboniferous epoch, but persisted into the Permian and were already well established in the Upper Devonian. Anatomically preserved stems and leaves yield some of the most beautifully petrified and satisfactory material for microscopic study. Notable early representatives of this group were found at the very base of the Carboniferous of Kentucky and described by Scott and Jelfrey. Various species form series of almost connecting links between this Palacozoic group and the typical pteridospermic types. Very full descriptions of those interesting

Pteridosperms.—The Pteridosperms, a wholly extinct group, bulk largely both in actual number of specimens and in the interest and importance of their structure in the Carboniferous epoch. To impressions of their foliage, long considered true ferns, numerous generic names have been given, such as Sphenopterts, Alethopteris, etc. ‘The stems and seeds investigated principally by Williamson, Scott, Oliver and Kidston were, just before 1910, all linked in association with each other to form the phylogenetically pregnant group of the “ seed ferns ”’ or Pteridosperms. Much detail has since been added, which is well summarised in Scott’s “ Studies.” Pteridophytes.—The Pteridophytes, or ferns proper, are extensively represented in all types of preservation in all geological epochs. Considerable detail has been added to the existing knowledge of the group since 1915. Anatomical data have been chiefly acquired about Carboniferous species. Of families with living representatives the most important extensions of knowledge have been made in the Osmundaceae in which family Kidston and Gwynne-Vaughan (1914) have been the most notable in filling in anatomical series for a wide range of geological time. The Afarratiaceue-—These are represented in the Coal Measures and Permian by the large and well preserved genus Psaronius, has long been well known, but knowledge was usefully clarified and increased by P. Bertrand in his paper on the anatomy of ancient ferns and Count Solms-Laubach on Psaroninus (both in ro11) followed by Pelourde in rgr2. Tempskya, an extinct type of pecultar anatomical structure and wide geological distribution, was at last made clear by the work of Kidston and Gwynne-Vaughan. Access to their original paper, published in Russia, is difficult and reference should be mace to Stopes (1915) and Seward (1924). The extinct family of the Botryopterideae, the most extensive Carboniferous family,

family. A few stragglers died out in the early Tertiary, but the rich growths preserved in such perfection and abundance which proved the basis of the discoveries of Carruthers, Wieland, Lignier and Stopes, all date from the Mesozoic. Wieland’s two magnificent volumes (1916) contain restorations of these unique plants which have served as the theme of countless discussions. The fructifications, preserved both as surface casts and as petried cones, even containing the tissues of the embryos, consisted of seed-bearing cones surrounded by perianth-like bracts. The mass of seeds contained in some of those must have been enormous, ¢.g., B. albianus, Stopes, from the English Gault, had not less than several thousand seeds in one cone. Though the external appearance and vegetative anatomy of the group were generally like those of the living cycads, the fructification irresistibly recalls that of the Angiosperms, and many authors have compared them and concluded that the Bennettitales point out the line of descent of the Angiosperms. This view does not generally commend itself. The other great Mesozoic group, the JWiliansoniaceae, chiefly known through Nathorst’s work on Swedish forms, and more recently by Thomas’s beautiful species from the English Jurassic, seems to be a more popular candidate for the honour of fathering the Angiosperms. The series linked up by Wifliamsoniclla, Caytonia and Gristhorpia is one of the most beautiful results of recent palaeobotanical work; but their angiospermic affinity is more critically treated on the Continent than in England, particularly by Gothan in Germany. The abundance of the Bennettitales in Europe and America makes the dearth of the group in Asia conspicuous, and interest thus attaches to the brief account of a trunk from Hokkaido, Japan, by A. Kryshtovovich. Cycadales —The modern Cycadales, though primitive among living plants, are unimportant in the fossil record, which con-

is represented by many genera known from exceptionally detailed studies of excellent petrifactions, particularly by Bertrand, Scott, Kidston and Gordon. The sporangia and cuticle structures of many species of ferns have also been studied by the modern methods of treating mummified remains, and results from the Palaeozoic and Mesozoic supplement and give significance to the work of Bower on recent ferns. Lower Ptertidophyta—Of the Lycopodineae almost the whole of our present anatomical knowledge was accumulated before roro. The same applies to the Calamaricac, with the exception of Thomas’s paper on the leaves In 1911 and the elaborate memoir on the Calamites of Western Europe by Kidston and Jongmans. In the more primitive groups, active interest was shown by Halle in the Devonian flora from Norway. He described the external morphology and some structural details of a number of species which have proved of the greatest morphological significance. Kidston and Lang followed with details of the Devonian flora contained in the now famous Rhynia cherts. Psitlophvionn—This has now become of peculiar interest since Rhynia has been discovered in plentiful anatomical material. This and other Devonian genera have been described by Kidston and Lang in several large memoirs, and a new class, the Psilophytales, has been instituted to include Psilophyton, Rhynia and some minor genera. The essential and most interesting morphological feature is that the simple branching plants bore sporangia at the ends of certain branches without any relation to leaves or leaf-like organs. Sporangites of Halle, Psilophyton of Dawson, and the new genera of Kidston and Lang represent the earliest known land flora, and though the genera differ in details they all show a remarkable simplicity of structure, with terminal sporangia. Their anatomy and morphology are still under discussion, and are of deep phylogenetic and morphological significance. The view put forward by Kidston and Lang, contrary to that held by most morphologists, is that this ancient family supports the idea that the sporangium of the Pteridophyta is not an organ su? gexerts. The Characeae, an old family still persisting, has received careful handling by J. Groves, with the discovery of many beautiful new fossil forms. The Bryophytes are still almost unknown as fossils, but two

tains but little evidence of their history.

papers on some fossil mosses have recently been published, one

seed plants are to be found in Scott’s “‘ Studies.” Returning to the higher group, the Bennettitales, we have to deal with another entirely extinct, but pre-eminently Mesozoic

PALAEONTOLOGY by Walton and another by Weyland (1925). Certain bryophytic features in the genus Hornea from the Devonian have led to discussion of the morphology and phylogeny of the groups, but the gaps in the fossil records of mosses are so all embracing that one can only await the discovery of material. Algae and Fungi.mAlgae and fungi are special palacobotanical problems, and the chief recent worker in this field is J. Pia who has published a number of smaller and one very large memoir on the Siphoneae (1920) but apparently in complete ignorance of the volume on the same subject published by the British Museum. Incidental to other genera, microscopic fungi are now frequently described, particularly in petrified woods. Memoirs on the stratigraphic aspects of fossil plants, describing fossil floras from various localities and horizons, have been numerous, notable cases being the last paper published by the great Nathorst, on the Culm flora of Spitsbergen (1920), a continuation of his famous studies of the fossil floras of the Arctic, and the magnificent memoirs by R. Kidston, on which he was engaged at the time of his death, of which four parts had been published by the Geol. Survey, with numerous plates. Kidston’s unrivalled work on the British Coal Measure plants reveals the richness of our native fossil flora, and links up all branches of palaeobotanical work in complete surveys of Carboniferous genera. Some small memoirs on the German Culm come from the pen of Robert Potonié junior, the son of the famous Berlin professor. From the antipodes Dr. Walkom’s series of memoirs on the fossil impressions and petrified plant remains of Queensland throw welcome light on an area of which far too little is known. The historically interesting Indian Gondwana flora is revised in a handsome memoir by Seward and Sahni (1920) and Yabe added to our very scanty knowledge of oriental fossil plants in the memoirs published by the Imperial University (1921-2). As general resumés of what has been accomplished, A. Carpentier’s Revne of palaeobotanical works is invaluable, and we must regret that the two most recent volumes (1923) carry the subject no further than 1g19. Coal.—Among the most comprehensive works of the old school is the exhaustive memoir, Interrelations of ihe Fossil Fuels, by Stevenson (1916). An immense amount of more detailed work has been accomplished. Many of the earlier workers (Dawson, Williamson, Huxley and others) had been interested in the spores and small débris of plants to be seen in sections of some coals, and in recent years Lomax had done much to popularise in botanical and geological circles, transparent thin sections of coal showing preserved plant remains. Stimulated by the importance fuels assumed in the War, more exact correlations and investigations into coal structure were attempted. Stopes and Wheeler’s Afemoir on the Constitution of Coal (1918) was shortly followed by Stopes’s paper on the “ Four Visible Constituents in Banded Bituminous Coal ” (1919) in which the four ingredients Fusain, Durain, Clarain and Vifrain were detected and diagnosed. These terms have passed into the universal nomenclature (see Coat). The chemical, coking and other properties of the constituents have been studied in further detail by Whecler, Lessing, Sinnott, Tideswell and others. Somewhat similar work is also being carried on in Japan by Iwasaki (see A Fundamental Study of Japanese Coal, 1920-2) and in the United States by Jeffrey, White and Thiessen. The

latter’s work introduces the name “ anthraxylon ” to represent “woody tissue’ and applies it at times where woody tissue is not proved to have existed, and treats it as though it were the

equivalent of “ vitrain ”’ which it is not. In spite of this, however, rapid advance in our knowledge of the marvellous masses of mummified plants is being made. The mass of coal is no longer looked on as a unit, but the attempt is being made to separate out its component parts and to arrive at the chemical and palaeontological structure of minute zones of coal, which contain portions differing both in their anatomical, physical and chemical natures, the ash content, coking qualities and other correlated features. BisLioGRAPHY.—The bibliographies in the following books will give most of the references, except monographs published recently :—

13

E. W. Berry, Lower Cretaceous Deposits of Maryland (1913), and Upper Cretaceous and Eocene Floras of South Carolina and Georgia (Washington, 1914), and many other quarto memoirs published by USS. Geol. Surv.; J. M. Coulter and C. J. Chamberlain, Morphology of Gymnosperms (Chicago, 1910); E. C. Jeffrey, The Anatomy of Woody Plants (Chicago, 1917); D. H. Scott, Studies in Fossil Batany, ed. 3 (London, 1920-3); A. C, Seward, Fossil Plants, vol. 1 to4 (Camhridge, 1917); M. C. Stopes, Catalogue of Cretaceous Plants in the British Museum, vol. 2 (London, 1915); M. C. Stopes and R. V. Wheeler, The Constitution of Coal (London, 1918); R. E. Torrey, The C omparative Anatomy and Phylogeny of the Coniferales, pt. 3 (Boston, 1923); G. R. Wieland, American Fossil eae vol. 2 (Washington, 1916). 7 (M. C. S.)

PALAEONTOLOGY (see 20.579).—During the period ae the science of extinct forms of life made remarkable progress, especially in North America, where explorations and studies were less interrupted by the World War. The contact of palaeontology with other sciences—even those apparently remote like astronomy, physics and chemistry, less remote like comparative anatomy, or very intimate like geology—was one of the outstanding features of the synthetic work accomplished. Of transcendent interest, however, was the contact between mammalian palaeontology and anthropology, especially through the researches of William K. Gregory of the American Museum of Natural History and of G. Elliot Smith of London University, Principal Synthetic Works,—Chief among the synthetic works in pure palaeontology are those of the Austrian palaeontologist Othenio Abel, Grundzüge der Palaeobiologie der Wirbeltiere (1912), Drie Stämme der Wirbeltiere (1919), and Lehrbuch der Palaeezocologie (1920),

which give masterly reviews of the whole fossil history of the verte-

brates, especially in analogous and convergent adaptation, In invertebrate palacontology the reader is referred to Amadeus Grabau's Principles of Stratigraphy (1913) and Textbook of Geology (1920-1),

in which are summed up the principles derived from the teachings of Waagen and Neumayr in Germany, of Hyatt and Beecher in America, in pure palaeontology and in application to geology. A broad synthetic treatment of climate and time in relation to the evolution ot life is that of the late Joseph Barrell (1917) in his Rhythms and the Measurements of Geologic Time, The best synthetic treatment of climate, time and geologic change in relation to the geologic origin and the migration of the different vertebrate groups is William Diller Matthew's Climate and Evolution (1915). The subdivisions of geo-

logic time and the successions of faunas and climates are broadly reviewed in the Textbook of Geology by Louis V. Pirsson and Charles Schuchert (1915; rev. ed., vol. 1, 1921). The latest summary of the geology, past physiography and palaeontology of the world is found in the French edition of the great work of Eduard Suess, Das Antlitz der Erde, translated and annotated by Emmanuel de Margerie as La Face de la Terre (1902, 1918). The comparative evolution of the mammalir of the castern hemisphere and of North America ts broadly treated in Henry Fairfield Osborn’s Age of Mammals (1910); while the mammals of North and South America are compared in W. B. Scott's History of Land Mammals in the Western Hemisphere (1913). A broad treatment of the whole subject of invertebrate and vertebrate evolution is given in Richard S. Lull’s Organic Evolution (1917) and a synthetic review of the earth’s history, from its solar beginnings to the Age of Man, in Osborn’s Origin and Evolution of Life.

Life Epochs of Geologic Time.—The time scale in the accompanying table is taken from the work of Pirsson and Schuchert of rors, modified by the substitution of geologic time units for years. There is a growing indisposition to reckon past time in terms of years, and a growing tendency to substitute a relative term like žime units, because of the enormously wide discrepancy between the older estimates of geologists, based on sedimentation and the thickness of the various assemblages of rocks which taken together make up the whole geologic time scale, and the estimates of physicists, based on the slow liberation of radium from radioactive minerals. The radium estimates of the age of the earth range as high as 1,400,000,000 years for the oldest known rocks, according to Barrell, who has adopted the calculations of Rutherford and others based on the “ rate of disintegration ” of radioactive minerals (sce Puysics). For the contrast sce the table on p. I4. The most original part of Barrell’s contribution was the meas» urement of time from the base of the Palaeozoic to Recent time by new palaeophysiographic methods, taking into account particularly the rhythms or cycles of dry and moist climates and of elevations and depressions, theories which were originally interpreted by T. C. Chamberlin and popularly treated by Ellsworth Huntington, the physiographer of Yale University.

14

PALAEONTOLOGY Life Epochs

Age of Man and of Mammals—Cenozoic Age of Reptiles—Mesozoic 2 te

Walcott (1893) Years

ee

Age of Amphibians, Fishes, Invertebrates—Palacozoic Precambrian Time—Evolution Minimum Total Maximum Total .

of Invertebrates and of Unicellular Life

A few decades ago the physicists and mathematicians, especially Kelvin and Tait, insisted that the earth could not be more than 10,000,000 to 20,000,000 years old; now the physicists are extending the age of the life period to 1,400 million years, as estimated by Barrell (1917). The most recent determination by physicists, as reviewed by Lord Rayleizh (1921), takes into consideration the transmutation of chemical elements, for example, in the bréggerite of the Precambrian rocks at Moss, Norway :— Taking the lead as all produced by uranium at the rate above given, we get an age of 925,000,000 years. Some minerals from other archaean rocks in Norway give a rather longer age. The helium method is applicable in some cases to materials found in the younger formations, and proves that the ages even of these are to be reckoned in millions of years. Thus the helium in an Eocene iron ore indicated 30,000,000 years at least. . The upshot is that radioactive methods of research indicate a moderate multiple of 1,000 million years as the duration of the earth’s crust as suitable for the habitation of living beings, and that no other considerations from the side of pure physics or astronomy afford any definite presumption against this estimate.

Applying this estimate to the evolution of a familiar mammal like the horse it might be said that the four-toed horse (ohippus) existed 30,000,000 years ago, a somewhat larger estimate of the life period of the horse than that demanded by palaeontologists. In the same discussion W. J. Sollas comments on the expansion of time estimates proposed by physicists:The age of the earth was thus increased from a mere score of millions to a thousand millions and more, and the geologist who had before been bankrupt in time now found himself suddenly transformed into a capitalist with more millions in the bank than he knew how to dispose of (see GEOLOGY).

In this connection we may recall the fact that as early as 1859 Charles Darwin pointed out that the hizh degree of evolution and specialisation seen in the invertebrate fossils at the base of the Palaeozoic, namely, the Cambrian, proved that Precambrian evolution occupied a period as lonz as, or even longer than, that of Cambrian to Recent time (see Table I.). Poulton, the leading disciple of Darwin in England (1896), declared that 400,000,000 years was none too long for the whole life evolution period; this would allow 200,000,000 years for Precambrian time and another 209,000,000 years from Cambrian to Recent time. Walcott’s Revelation of Precambrian and Cambrian Life.— Chirles D. Walcott (1899, 1914) has discovered the remains of life in the Precambrian (Proterozoic) rocks of North America and has been able to give us a fragmentary picture of the fauna and tlora of that very ancient period. In Montana, at a depth of nearly 10,000 ft. below the earliest Palaeozoic rocks (Cambrian), he found evidence of ancient reef deposits of calcareous algae, which ranged upward through 2,000 ft. of strata. Above these reefs are 3,000 ft. of shales containing worm trails and the fragmentary remains of large crustacean-like organisms. From rocks of aporoximately the same age in Ontario, Canada, he has described sponge-like forms (Atikokania) which are of such generalised structure that it is difficult to decide whether they should be regarded as sponges or as archaic corals. These few plant and animal remains are all that are known from remotely metamorphosed rocks of Precambrian time, but the existence of annelids and possible arthropods marks a break into the hitherto unknown Precambrian. Walcott’s most surprising discovery in Precambrian time is a monad or bacterium attributed to Micrococcus sp. indet. from the Algonkian of Montana, but probably related to the existing Nitrosomonas, one of the prototrophic bacteria, which derives its nitrogen from ammonium salts. In rgto Walcott discovered in the Cambrian (Burgess) shales of Alberta, Canada, a marvellously rich fauna whose preserva-

l

3,000,000 9,000,000 18,000,000 30,000,000

90,000,000 (Geikie, 1899)

400,000,000 (Geikie, 1899)

Barrell (1917) Vears 55,000,000- 65,000,000 140,000,000—180,000,000 360,000,000-540,000,000 600,000,000-—800,000,000

I 200,000,000 I,400,000,000

tion is so perfect that the setae of the worms, the jointed appendages of the trilobites, the impressions of soft-bodied medusae and holothurians, and even the alimentary tract and stomach of certain of the crustaceans can be seen on the shale surfaces almost as clearly as in living forms (Plate I.). This discovery fairly revolutionises our knowledge of the anatomy of the delicately organised as well as the chitinous-armoured forms, like the trilobites. Including the new forms contained within these Albertan shales, the Cambrian marine fauna is now known to be

far more abundant than even imagined by Darwin, comprising some 1,500 species, 1,200 of which occur in North America. From Lower as well as Middle Cambrian (Burgess) faunas, it appears that the Precambrian invertebrates had probably become completely adapted to all the life zones of the continental and oceanic waters, excepting possibly the abyssal. All the principal phyla—the jointed arthropoda (including the trilobites among the crustaceans and the merostomes among the arachnids), .segmented worms (Annelida), echinoderms, molluscs (including pelecypods, gastropods and primitive cephalopods), brachiopods, medusae and other coclenterates and sponges— were presumably established in Precambrian times. The Cambrian fauna has been made known to us in large measure through the field discoveries and monographic studies of Philip Lake (1906) for Great Britain, of Walcott (1909-21) for North America and of Cowper Reed (1915) for India. The great variety and high specialisation of the Cambrian marine forms, including representatives of all the known marine invertebrate phyla, is in harmony with the trend of discovery among the vertebrates, which is to put the origin of existing families very far back into the Age of Mammals and even into the Age of Reptiles (Mesozoic). In fact, the antiquity and persistence of modern types, as distinguished from modern genera and species, is an illustration of a very far-reaching principle, namely, that the most stable form of energy in matter known is that of the heredity chromatin on which this extraordinary preservation of the main features of the ancestral type depends. Next to the stability of the properties of the chemical elements, which pass into each other by transmutation, the most stable physicochemical properties are those which form the heredity tasis of life. Freshwater and Terrestrial Origins —The eurypterids appear as contemporaries of the Cambrian trilobites and traces of them are found in Precambrian rocks; they attain to their acme in Silurian time and develop into the ei, ht-foot giants of the fauna of the Devonian of Scotland and eastern North America, sufferinz extinction at the close of the Palaeozoic. In 1916 appeared M irjorie O’Connell’s memoir, entitled The Habitat of the Eurypterida, giving as the summation of her studies that throughout their entire phylogenetic history the eurypterids lived in the rivers, a conclusion accepted in the main by Schuchert (1916), with the modification that they also appeared to have lived at times in the brackish waters of more or less large bays and possibly in limited numbers even in the seas. Many other origins formerly traced to the sea have more recently been traced to fresh water. In 1900 T. C. Chamberlin put forward the hypothesis of a prevailing freshwater origin both for the ancestral backboned animals known as chordates as well as for the much more ancient arthropods, the eurypterids. His strong influence was needed to overcome the widespread notion that all forms of life originated in the sea; and, one after another, theories of freshwater and terrestrial origin have replaced the theory of marine origin. Early in 1916 Barrell pointed out the influence of SilurianDevonian climates on the rise of air-breathing vertebrates and freshwater origin in Devonian time under seasonal rainfall.

PALAEONTOLOGY TABLE I. Life Epochs and Geologic Time Units of Europe and North America (After Pirsson and Schuchert, 1915; issued by Osborn in 1918). AGE

MILLIONS

OF

MAN

AGE OF MAMMALS

‘>

cenozoi |

spider-like eurypterids together with forms so similar to scorpions that they might be called river scorpions, and others that were active swimmers. O’Connell’s argument regarding the freshwater eurypterids applies equally to Limulus, the horseshoe crab. In brief, the existence of freshwater faunas no less varied than the marine faunas is beginning to be traced back to Lower Cambrian time. O’Connell shows that the entire phylogeny of the eurypterids, which includes about 160 species

CRETACEOUS

LOWER

CRETACEOUS

{COMANCHEAN) JURASSIC

from the Precambrian to the end of the Palaeozoic, distributed in 78 geologic horizons throughout the world, points to migrations like those of fishes from the headwaters of interlacing river systems and, taken with other evidence, strongly supports the theory of Predevonian river life as opposed to the general assumption of marine life of all early faunas. It now appears that beginning in Precambrian time the trilobites, by wide adaptive radiation, reached the acme of their development in the Cambrian, displaying a high degree of articulation and specialisation of appendages, suffered a marked decline after the Silurian, and became extinct at the end of the Palaeozoic. James Perrin Smith, who has made a very exhaustive analysis of cephalopod evolution and especially of the Triassic ammonites, observes that the evolution of form continues uninterruptedly even where there is no evidence whatever of environmental change.

MESOZOIC TRIASSIC

PENNSYLVANIAN (UPPER

CARBONIFEROUS!

MISSISSIPPIAN

PALAEOZOIC LATE

{LOWER

CARBONIFEROUS)

DEVONIAN

SECONDARY. IGNEOUS FISHES

SILURIAN

MID-PALAEOZOIC

PALAEOZOIC

ORDOVICIAN

18,000,000 UNITSINVERTETIME

LIFE ENTOMBED FORMER OF EVIDENCE DIRECT FOSSILS

PALAEOZOIC EARLY CAMBRIAN

PREDOMINANT; ‘ROCKS SEDIMENTARY UNMETAMORPHOSED: CHIEFLY

30

MILLIONS

KEWEENAWAN

2 O

.

ms

e

gs wx] 25 ag w =

EVOLUTION

oF

I

:

ANIMIKIAN

[HURONIAN

INVERTEBRATES ALGOMIAN

PROTEROZOIC SUDBURIAN

PREDOMINANT; IGNEOUS

PROTEROZOIC EARLY eee

a

LAURENTIAN

EVOLUTION OF UNICELLULAR LIFE

GRENVILLE

“PRECAMBRIAN,’’ TIME 30,000,000 UNITS

(KEEWATIN)

(COUTCHICHING)

EVIDENCE INDIRECT FORMER OF FOSSILS LIFE. SCARCE. METAMORPHOSED: GENERALLY ROCKS SEDIMENTARY SECONDARY. ORE, IRON LIMESTONE, GRAPHITE AND

curypterids opens a vista into continental life as far back as the Upper Cambrian. Other merostomes related to the eurypterids

radiated out from the fluviatile faunas of Cambrian, Ordovician and Silurian time, while in the Devonian rivers dwelt great

TERTIARY

TiMEUNITS UNITSÌ

I5

Schuchert continues that the probable freshwater life of the

ARCHAEOZOIC (ARGHEAN)

iy

Principal Literature, Cambrian to Pleistocene.—A few of the major contributions to our knowledge of the life of the Palaeozoic are: Cambrian Geology and Palaeontology (1910) and Cambrian Frachtopoda (1912) by Charles D. Walcott; Cambrian Fossils of Spitt (1915) and other papers on the Palaeozoic of India by Cowper Feed; A Monograph of British Cambrian Trilobites (1906) by Fhilip Lake, and A Monograph of British Graptolites (1901) by Gertrude Elles and Ethel Wood. The foraminifera have been treated by E. Sckellwien, Monographie der Fusulinen (1908-12); the bryozoa by R. S. Bassler, Karly Palaeosoic Bryozoa of the Baltic Provinces (1911) and G. W. Lee, British Carboniferous Trepostomata (1912); the echinoderms by R. T. Jackson in his memoir on the Phylogeny of the Eechint with a Revision of Palaeozoic Species (1912), and by Frank Springer in his monograph Crinoidea Flexibilia (1920) and in numerous shorter contributions. The ancient arthropods, including, besides the trilobites, merostomes and other arachnids and also insects, have been described by J. M. Clarke and R. Ruedemann in their memoir on The Eurypterida of New York (1912), by Alexander Petrunkevitch, A Monograph of the Terrestrial Palaeozoic Arachvida of North America (1913), by R. I. Pocock, A Monograph of the Terrestrial Carboniferous Arachnida of Great Britain (1911), and by F. Meunier, Nouvelles recherches sur quelques insectes du terrain houiller de Commentry (Allier) (1906-12). The literature on the Mesozoic contains more references to ammonites than to other groups, because of their abundance and palacontological importance. The ammonite faunas of the Triassic have been described by J. Perrin Snuth, The Middle Triassic Marine Invertebrate Faunas of North America (1914), and by Carl! Diener, The Trias of the Himalayas (1912), Japanische Triasfaunen (1915), and other papers on the Triassic of the Himalayas and southern Europe (1915). For the Jurassic there are the classic volumes by S. S. Buckman, Yorkshire Type Ammonites (1909-19) continued in the Type Ammonites (1920) and the memoir by C. Burckhardt, Fannes Jurassigues et Crétaciques de San Pedro del Gallo (1912) for Mexico. The studies on Cretaceous ammonites have been more local in character and include: E. Stolley’s Beiträge zur Kenntniss der Cephalopoden der norddeutschen Unteren Kreide (1911-2), D. N. Sokolov’s Zur Ammoniten Fauna des Petschoraschen Jura (Russian) (rgr2), H. Yabe and S. Shimizu’s Notes on Some Cretaceous Ammonites from Japan and California (1921), and numerous papers by A. de Grossouvre, W. Kilian and E. Haug for France and the Mediterranean region. The silicious sponges which are so well represented in'the Mesozoic have received the most careful microscopic study by the students

and followers of Zittel. Pioneer work was done in England by the late George Jennings Hinde, A Monograph of the British Fossil Sponges (1887-1912), and this work was followed in Germany by A. Schrammen’s Kieselspongten der Oberen Kreide von Nordwestdeutschland (1910) and R. Kolb's Die Kieselspongien des schwdbischen Wetssen Jura (1911). Special works on other groups are: A Monograph of the Cretaceous Lamellibranchia of England (1899-1912) by Henry Woods, Synopsis des Spirobranches (Brachiopodes) Juras-

sigues Celto-Souabes

(1915-9)

Rollier,

and

and

Clarke

by the Swiss palaeontologist

Twitchell’s

The

Afesosoic

and

Louis

Cenozoic

PALAEONTOLOGY

16

Echinodermata of the United States (1915). Among the major contributions to Mesozoic stratigraphy and entire faunas or floras may be mentioned: Victor Uhlig’s The Fauna of the Spiti Shales (1903), Carl Renz’s Die mesosoischen Faunen Griechenlands (1911), G. R.

Wieland's American

Fossil Cycads (1906-16), and E. W. Berry's

The Upper Cretaceous Floras of the World (1916).

For the Tertiary life especial reference should be made to the contributions on different groups made by Thomas Wayland Vaughan

(corals), E. W. Berry (plants), J. A. Cushman (foraminifera), R. T.

Jackson (echinoderms), Mary Rathbun (crustaceans), A. Pilsbry (cirripedia), and others in Contributions to the Geology and Palaeontology of the Canal Zone, Panama, and Geologically Related Areas in Ceniral America and the West Indies (1919). The bryozoa have been carefully described and beautifully illustrated by Ferdinand Canu and Ray S. Bassler, North American Early Tertiary Bryozoa (1920),

while the foraminifera have been described in equal detail by Joseph

A. Cushman in numerous contributions, and by II. Yabe (1921) and H. Douvillé (911). For other groups we may note: J. Lambert’s Description des Echinides des terrains néogénes du bassin du Rhéne (1911-6), F. W. Harmer’s The Pliocene Mollusca (1914-20), and papers by W. H. Dall on the mollusca. A general résumé of the Pleistocene vertebrate and invertebrate life is embodied in F. C. Baker’s The Life of the Pleistocene or Glacial Period (1920). Stimulat-

ing general reviews of the progress of invertebrate palacontology are the presidential addresses by F. A. Bather, Fossils and Life, British Association (1920), by Ruedemann, The Palaeontology of Arrested Evolution (1916), and by Clarke, The Philosophy of Geology and the Order of the State (1917). | |

PROGRESS

IN VERTEBRATE

PALAEONTOLOGY

Personnel: Advent of the Fourth Generation.—The principal feature of the period has been the advent of a new generation of explorers and workers in vertebrate palaeontology who, in a sense, constitute a fourth or “‘ 20th century ” group. Beginning with Cuvier (1769-1832) as founder of the science and leader of the first group, the second group embraced the British anatomists Richard Owen (1894-92) and Thomas Henry Huxley (1825-95), the French leader Albert Gaudry (1827-1908), the Swiss palaeontologist Ludwig Riitimeyer (1825-95), and the three great Americans, namely, Joseph Leidy (1823-91), Edward Drinker Cope (1840-97), and Othniel C. Marsh (1831-99). These men marshalled the first positive proofs of vertebrate evolution in Europe and America; they worked more or less independently as pioneers and laid the entire foundation of the modern classification of the Vertebrata. The leader of the third group was the Russian, Waldemar Kovalevsky (1842-83), who instituted intensive investigation of mechanical adaptation in relation to natural selection. Of the same period are A. Smith Woodward (b. 1864) and C. W. Andrews (b. 1866) in England, Marcellin Boule (b. 1861) and Charles Depéret (b. 1854) in France, Louis Dollo (b. 1857) in Belgium, Max Schlosser in Germany, Giovanni Capellini (b. 1833) in Italy, and in America William B. Scott (b. 1858) and Henry Fairfield Osborn (b. 1857). This group includes also Samuel Wendell Williston (1852-1918), and Ramsay H. Traquair (1840-1912). Scott treated chiefly mammals, Williston chiefly reptiles and amphibians, while Osborn treated both mimmiauls and reptiles. The principal accomplishment of this third school has been (1) to conduct world-wide exploration, (2) to correct, co-ordinate and firmly establish the great classifications proposed by the second school and (3) to fill out the details and principles of phylogeny or lines of reptilian, avian and mammalian descent. The leading explorer of this period was John Bell Hatcher (1861-1904), who brought together a large part of the materials for two great monographs of the United States Geological Survey, Osborn’s Tittanotheres and the Hatcher-Lull Ceratopsia; he also made the wonderful collection of South A meri-

tinguished vertebrate pafaeontologist of Argentina and tberhard Fraas (1862~1915) of Stuttgart. Oliver P. Hay (b. 1846) is also of this group, author of the monograph of the Fossil Turtles of North America (1908) and the invaluable Bibliography and Catalogue of the Fossil Vertebrata of North America (1902). To the fourth group of vertebrate palacontologists belongs the school trained by Professor Osborn in the American Museum of Natural History, of which the senior is William Diller Matthew (b. 1871), Walter Granger (b. 1872), Barnum Brown (b. 1873), Wiliam K. Gregory (b. 1876), Richard S. Lull (b. 1867) of Yale University, Lawrence M. Lambe (1863-1919), late of the Canadian Survey, and C. Forster-Cooper, Cambridge University. The chief intensive work of Matthew and Granger has been on the American Eocene mammalian faunas and in aiding Osborn to

establish 16 Eocene-Oligocene life zones of North America very closely co-ordinated with corresponding life zones of western Europe. Brown’s explorations have added greatly to our knowledge of Cretaceous dinosaurs. Of the same group are the pupils of Williston, of whom the leader is Ermine C. Case (b. 1871), who has contributed treatises on Permian life. At the same time John C. Merriam (b. 1869) has led explorations on the Pacific coast of America and inspired a school of younger workers both in vertebrate and invertebrate palaeontology. In Great Britain D. M. S. Watson (b. 1886) has taken up the work of Owen and Huxley in primary groups of fishes, amphibians and reptiles; in Austria Othenio Abel, a pupil of Dollo, is the great exponent of vertebrate evolution; in Germany Friedrich von Huene and Ferdinand Broili are leaders in sauropsidan palacontology, other notable palaeontologists of recent years being Franz Drevermann, Ernst Strémer (b. 1871) and Otto Jackel (b. 1863). At Upsala in Sweden Carl Wiman has inspired a remarkably progressive group of workers, while in Switzerland Hans Georg Stehlin (b. 1870) has continued in the great field of Rütimeyer. For the principal contributions by palaeontologists of the third and fourth groups above described, the reader is referred to the Memoirs and Bulletins of the American Museum of Natural History, of the University of California, of the Carnegie Institution of Washington, to the Contributions from the Palaeontological Laboratory (Peabody Museum) of Yale University,

to the Memoirs and Catalogues of the British Museum (Natural History), to the Palaeontographica and to the Memoirs of the Société Paléontologique Suisse. It is upon the researches of these workers in field and laboratory that the great synthetic volumes referred to earlier are chiefly founded, and that the following generalisations of modern vertebrate palaeontology are chiefly due. ORIGINS OF THE

GREAT VERTEBRATE

STOCK AND ITS BRANCHES

Origin of Chordates—No discovery has thus far lessened the gap between the modern Protochordates (Amphioxus, tunicates, etc.) and any of the known phyla of invertebrates. Some of the cephalaspid ostracoderms have been cited by Patten as favouring the view that the chordates have been derived from certain arthropods, but such resemblances are ascribed to convergence by Dollo and many others. The earliest ostracoderm remnant actually known is a dermal plate of a genus named Astras pis from the Upper Ordovician near Canyon City, Colo.; this represents a new family Astraspidae allied to the Psammosteidae

of the Silurian and Devonian (C. R. Eastman, 1917). These chordates, heavily shielded and hence known as ostracedernrts, were dominant in the Upper Silurian, radiating into six families and many genera, abundant in the Lower Devonian, diminishing

can fossils which forms the basis of Scott’s monumental memoirs of the Princeton University Expeditions to Patagonia during the years 1896-9. Osborn’s monograph The Titanotheres (an in the Middle Devonian and becoming extinct in the Upper Eocene-Oligocene family of mammals), twenty-one years in Devonian. preparation, has been completed but not published; others of Origin of Fishes.—TYhe earliest fish remnant actually known is his memoirs are the Equidae of the Oligocene, Miocene and Plio- the fin-spined Onchus from the Upper Silurian of Scotland, which cene of North America (1918) and Camarasaurus, Amphicoclias appears to represent the group of acanthodian sharks, covered and other Sauropods of Cope (1921). Williston’s monographs are with fine quadrate scales like those of ganoids and with a skull chicily on the Cretaceous mosasaurs and the archaic Reptilia of structure distinctly elasmobranch. The elasmobranchs (shark the Perm-Trias, to which he made most notable contributions. and ray types) are still the oldest known gnathostomes or true Of this period were Florentino Ameghino (1854-1911), the dis- _jaw-bearing vertebrates, constituting (a) one of the four primary

PALAEONTOLOGY

fis? ie z

erties,

REE I

Middle-Cambrian invertebrate fossils, showing diversity of animal life and similarity to recent forms.

(U.S. Nat’nl Museum, permission of Smithsonian Inst.)

Fic. 1. Choia carteri Walcott, a silicious sponge. Fic. 2. Olfoia prolifica Walcott, a gephyrean annelid. Fic. 3. Ottota minor Walcott, another gephyrean annelid. Fic. 4. Avsheaia pedunculata Walcott, a Tomopteris-like annelid. Fic. 5. Canadia spinosa Walcott, a polychaete annelid. Fic. 6. Amiskwia sagittiformis Walcott, a chaetognath. Fic. 7. Waptia fieldensis Walcott, a Mysis-like crustacean. Fic. 8. Opabinia regalis Walcott, a Branchipus-like crustacean. Fic. 9. Another speci-

men of Opabinia regalis Walcott.

Fic. 10. Burgessia bella Walcott, an A pus-like crustacean. compacia

Fic. 11. Marrella splendens Walcott,a simple trilobite.

Walcott, a curious crustacean.

Fic. 12. Naraoia

PALAEONTOLOGY

PLATE II.

Fic. 2.

FIG. 2a.

Fic. 6.

TS D

Notable vertebrate fossils, complete remains of which have been recently discovered. (By permission of the President of the American Museum of Natural istory.

Fic. 3.—Diatryma, a gigantic mollusc-eating bird, from the Lower Eocene of Wyoming. Fic. 4.—Moropus, an okapi-like herbivore, from the Lower Miocene of Dakota, related to the chalicotheres of Europe and Asia. Fic. 5.—Pliohippus, direct one-toed ancestor of the modern horse, from the Lower Pliocene of Nebraska. Fic. 6.—Trilophodon, direct descendant of Mastodon angustidens of Europe

Fic. 1.—Deinodon or Gorgosaurus, a mid-Cretaceous carnivorous dinosaur from Alberta, Canada, mounted in running position. FIG. 2, 2a.—Siruihiomimus, the ‘‘ostrich mimic,’”’ a mid-Cretaceous browsing dinosaur, from Alberta, Canada. Fig. 2 shows the complete skeleton in rigor morand North Africa, Lower Pliocene of Texas. tis, fig. 2a the same skeleton partly restored. All the figures are on the same scale.

PALAEONTOLOGY gnathostome groups, 7.e., jawed groups, the others being (b) the fringe-finned ganoids (Crossopterygii), (c) the ray-finned ganoids and teleosts collectively known as Actinopterygii and (d) the lungfishes (Dipnoi). The fossil ancestors of the fringefinned ganoids have not yet been discovered; so these animals are theoretically traced to unknown cartilaginous fishes of Silurian times. The oldest Crossopterygian actually known is the Osteolepis macrolepidotus of the Middle Old Red Sandstone of Scotland. There were two principal periods of adaptive radiation among the Crossopterygii, the first in Middle and Upper Devonian times, the second in Mesozoic times which produced the family Coelacanthidae, from which may have sprung the existing fishes Polypterus and Calamoichthys as degenerate offshoots. From the earlier Devonian radiation of the Crossopterygians is traced the theoretic origin of the Dipnoi or lungfishes, on the one hand, and of the oldest known amphibians on the other. The Devonian Crossopterygian skull and fins appear to be “ archetypal ” to the lungfish type on the one hand, and to the amphibian type on the other. Cope’s genius in separating the Actinopterygii is sustained, for there is as yet no fossil evidence of the connection of this group with the Crossopterygii, other than the supposed community of origin in Silurian times. Here the reader should consult the writings of Smith Woodward, Joseph F. Whiteaves, Bashford Dean, William K. Gregory and the synthetic reviews of Osborn (1918) and Lull (1917). Origin of Amphibians and First Tctrapods-—In this epochmaking transition from the fringe-finned fish type to the tetrapodal amphibian and terrestrial type, the prophecies of Huxley, Cope and Baur and other great anatomists of the second and third groups of palacontologists appear to be fulfilled. The Silurian period marked the parting of the ways among the great primary groups of fishes and the first steps towards the frame of the terrestrial amphibians. Not until the Upper Devonian of Pennsylvania do we find a footprint (Thinopus antiqguus Marsh), which may be referred to an amphibian tetrapod. The first known actual skeletons occurred in the Coal Measures (Upper Carboniferous) of Europe and America and represented four widely radiating groups. The structural gap separating the earliest tetrapod amphibians and fishes is perhaps the greatest known in the whole range of vertebrate evolution, but all modern authorities agree that the amphibians were probably derived from a Silurian or early Devonian type of fringe-finned fish. Even as far back as the Upper Carboniferous and even in the Lower Carboniferous the Amphibia were adaptively radiating into several orders and numerous families comprising highly specialised forms. During the Carboniferous we find numerous independent phyla of eel-like or burrowing, and of compressed, swimming, as well as of large-bodied, predatory forms. The latter culminate in the gigantic labyrinthodonts of the Triassic. The exact connection of any of these forms with the modern Amphibia (urodeles and Anura) is doubtful. The Anura first appear in the Jurassic, and at the present time they retain many characters reminiscent of such Palacozoic Amphibia as the branchiosaurs and the Eryops group. The urodeles are first known in the genus Hylaeobutrachus of the Lower Cretaceous of Europe. Both groups, especially the Anura, appear to have gone through a wide adaptive radiation during the Tertiary. The connection of the modern caecilians with the ancient types is obscure. The reader is referred especially to the contributions of Williston, Case, Watson, Gregory, Broili and the synthetic reviews of Osborn (10918) and Lull (1917). Origin of Reptiles—The oldest-known reptiles, solid-headed Cotylosauria of Cope, are regarded as amphibians which had eliminated the aquatic stages in development, the oldest reptile actually known being the genus Fosauravus from the Coa} Measures of Ohio. In other words, the cotylosaur reptiles are traceable to solid-headed stegocephalian amphibians, which, in turn, are traceable to solid-headed unknown Crossopterygians of Silurian times. The oldest and most primitive reptiles (Coefylosauria) occurring in the Upper Carboniferous and Permian, are thus structurally very close to certain contemporary stegocephalian amphibians. The first great adaptive radiation of the

reptiles into the two grand divisions, the solid-headed

17 (Coty-

lesauria) and the temporal-arched (Pelycosauria), began in the Upper Carboniferous and still more widely diverged in Permian times. As early as the Permian, occurs a mammalian-like series of feptiles which exhibits an extensive adaptive radiation and gives off one branch, the Cyodontia, which, in turn, survives into Triassic times and clearly approaches the mammalian grade of organisation. From the primary temporal-arched also appear the forerunners of the Mesozoic reptiles, the plesiosaurs, ichthyosaurs, dinosaurs and pterosaurs, widely separated from each other in the Triassic and thus having their branches deep down in the Permian and Carboniferous, each grand division giving rise to an adaptive radiation of its own. These have been traced in detail by such authorities as Andrews, Dollo, Abel, Von Huene, Williston and Osborn. Here the reader is referred to the writings of Williston, Hatcher, Osborn, Merriam, Lambe, Lull and especially during the past decade to those of Charies W. Gilmore of the United States National Museum, Washington and of Dr. Robert Broom of South Africa, as well as to the synthetic reviews by Osborn (1918) and Lull (1917). The two greatest achievements of the decade are the clearing up of the relationships of the primitive South African terrestrial Reptilia of the Perm-Trias, beginning with the solid-headed types (pareiasaurs) and ending in their: highest expression, the mammal-like types known as Cynodonts and Theriodonts, ‘The

field explorations of Robert Broom and the profound comparative researches of I). M.S. Watson and of William K. Gregory have given us a clear comprehension of the habits and relationships of this first terrestrial radiation group. Williston and Case have covered the same great period in America. Origin of Birds——Valacontologists still agree in endorsing Huxley’s opinion that birds are “ glorified reptiles.” The origin of birds, according to recent reviewers such as Osborn and Gregory, brings us close to the two-temporal-arched (1.e., Diapsida) reptiles, namely, to the stem which also gave off the dinosaurs, the pterosaurs and the smaller parasuchians (/:uparkeria). Fossil bird remains are extremely rare. The earliest bird known is the famous -trchaeopteryx of the Jurassic of Solnhofen, Germany. This is largely a bird, excepting in the tail, the simplicity of the feather arrangement and the possession of teeth. According to the four-winged hypothesis of origin advocated by Beebe, we should some day discover a bird with parachute-like action in both fore and hind limbs. Recent contributions of note on this subject are those of Gerhard Heilmann (1913) and of William Beebe (1915) and the synthetic reviews by Osborn (1918) and

Lull (1917). Origin of Mammals —Evidence has been accumulating rapidly in favour of the theory that the origin of the mammals should be traced to the more progressive terrestrial mammal-like reptiles (the Cynodontia) of the Permian and Triassic of South Africa and Europe, as described in the studies of Broom, Watson, Haughton, Osborn and Gregory. Structurally related to these Cynodonts are the so-called Protodonts of Osborn, e.g., Dromatherintm and Aficreconodon of the Triassic of North Carolina. But of equal antiquity are the multituberculates, e.g., Plagiaulax and Microlestes, widely spread over Europe and North America. No substantial additions have been made during the decade to our knowledge of this vague period; readers are referred to the reviews by Osborn (1918) and Lull (1917), also to the recent works of Gregory, The Orders of Mammals (1910) and The Origin and Evolution of the Human Dentition (1921). Origin of Primates and of Man—Combined palaeontological and anatomical evidence indicates that the source of the Primates is to be looked for among tree-living insectivorous mammals more or less closely similar to the modern tree shrews (Tupaiidae)

of Africa. This view advanced with ability by Gregory is in general accord with the opinion that during the phase of arboreal lie many of the psychic and anatomical characters of the Primates were acquired. It was not until the Lower Eocene of North America and of Europe that there appeared undisputed Primates of lemuroid affinity, e.g., notharctids and tarsioids in

PALAEONTOLOGY

18

America, adapids and tarsioids in Europe. At this time the zoological relation of the two continents was close and it would appear that while the primitive horses were acquiring their cursorial characters on the ground, these primitive lemuroids were acquiring their distinctive characteristics in the trees. Actual ancestors of the existing Tarsins of Madagascar have been found in France (Psezdoloris). The attempt of Ameghino to trace the higher Primates to South American types, e.g., Homunculus, appearing in the Lower Miocene of Patagonia, is not supported, because these animals from the first are the true broad-nosed, 7.¢., platyrrhine, type still characteristic of South America. The Old World division of the catarrhines or narrownosed true Primates has been traced to the Parapithecus, described by Max Schlosser from the Lower Oligocene of Egypt. Propliopithecus is possibly ancestral to the true anthropoid apes and thus possibly related to the ancestors of man himself. Darwin’s broad conclusion that man was derived from “‘ some ancient member of the anthropomorphous subgroup of Old World Primates ” is fully sustained by anatomical evidence, but the precise

lines of descent are still in dispute.

Some hold that the human

line came from Middle Tertiary anthropoid apes allied to Dryopithecus of France and Sivapithecus of India, while others (including the present writer) regard the Homizidae as a widely distinct family separated especially by its upright walking gait, by the non-divergence of the great toe, and by the retention of its tool-making thumb. A series of masterly reviews of this whole question has appeared in the American Museum publications from Gregory, whose recent memoir Ox the Structure and Relations of Notharctus, an American Eocene Primate (1920) sums up our present knowledge of this whole subject. (See also EVOLUTION.) The Dinosaur Fauna of Alberta, Canada.—The greatest new achievement in exploration is the revelation of the dinosaur fauna of Alberta in the fossil beds extending along the Red Deer

river, which were first made known to science by explorers of the Canadian Geological Survey in 1897, 1898, 1901. The first general review of this wonderful fauna was that of Osborn and

Lambe, Ox Vertebrata of the Mid-Cretaceous of the North West Territory (1902), based chiefly on the collections in the Ottawa Museum. The American Museum explorations under Barnum Brown, which extended over ro years, have resulted in the discovery of the entire fauna of the middle portion of Upper Cretaceous time, a complete revelation especially of the dinosaur world as it approached the height of its adaptive radiation into herbivorous and carnivorous, armoured and defenceless, swiftmoving and slow-moving types, which severally imitate more or less fully the long subsequent adaptive radiation of the mammals. In 1914 the Canadians renewed exploration, so that at present the Ottawa and Toronto museums have rich collections, part

of which has been described by the late Lawrence M. Lambe, while Osborn, Barnum Brown and W. A. Parks have also made known a part of this wonderful fauna. Two of the greatest extremes of adaptation, namely, Deinodon or Gorgosaurus and Struthiomimus, are figured in the accompanying Plate II. In the same plate appear some of the outstanding American discoveries of the decade. NEw

DISCOVERIES AMONG

FOSSIL VERTEBRATES

Fossil Fishes. —Dr. A. Smith Woodward’s Fossil Fishes of the English Wealden and Purbeck (1915-8) is a beautifully illustrated memoir of the most thorough, systematic type, well sustaining the traditions set by Traquair and by the author himself in earlier works. The period dealt with affords an interesting crosssection of the stream of piscine evolution at a time when many of the old Mesozoic ganoids were dying out and the teleost fishes were beginning their remarkable expansion. Other important systematic memoirs are those by Stolley on the ganoids of the German Muschelkalk (1920) and by Stensié (1921) on Triassic fishes from Spitsbergen. The latter memoirs contain a wealth of material of great morphological interest concerning the early stages in the evolution of the skull of the fringe-finned and rayfinned ganoid fishes; this discussion also throws light on the

origin of certain elements in the skull of higher vertebrates. In this connection should be mentioned the brief but highly important paper on Lusthenopteron by W. L. Bryant (1919). This fringe-finned ganoid is of particular interest because the construction of its skull and paired limbs approaches the type which may be expected in the piscine ancestors of the land-living vertebrates. The arrangement of the elements on the under side of the skull of this fish raises morphological questions of wide general interest. Papers by Watson and Day (1916) and by Gregory (1915, 1920) deal with the ancestral relations of these fringe-finned ganoids with the land-livirg vertebrates (tetrapods). The swarming fauna of Devorian arthrodires, ptyctodonts, cladodonts and other archaic fossil fishes from the vicinity of Buffalo, N.Y., is ably described by Bryant and Hussakof in their Catalog cf the Fossil Fishes in the Museum of the Buffalo Society of Natural Sciences (1918). A serious difficulty ercountered by all students of recent and fossil fishes is the gettirg in contact with the vast and scattered literature of the subject. The great Bibliography cf Fishes by Bashford Dean and his associates Eastman and FE. W. Gudger (1917) will undoubtedly stimulate research in this field. Fossil Amphibians.—The outstanding publications in this field are The Coal Measures Amphibia of North America, by R. L. Moodie (1916) and a memoir on The Structure, Evolution and Origin of the Amphibia, by D. M. S. Watson (1919). Moodie’s memoir is a valuable description and compilation of the extensive and varied fauna of swamp-living amphibians of the American Coal Measures. Watson’s memoir is a brilliant and highly original contribution to the classification and phylogeny of the labyrinthodonts. Much detailed work on fossil amphibians appears in papers by Von Huene, Broom, Williston, Van Hoepen Haughton and others. Stem Reptiles——tin the field of the oldest reptiles, ios of the Carboniferous and Permian, perhaps the most important contributions are those by S. W. Williston and D. M. S. Watson. The former, in his paper on The Phylogeny and Classification of the Reptiles (1917), traces the rise of the common amphibianreptilian stock through the “ Protopoda,” which are so far known only from certain footprints of Upper Devonian age. According to Williston, who built on Osborn’s system of 1903-4, the primitive reptilian stock early divided into the following series:— Anapsida

(Cotylosauria and their specialised descendants,

the

modern tortoises and turtles). Synapsida (Fheromorpha or pelycosaurs, etc.; Therapsida, or eee -like reptiles, the latter giving rise to the mammals; plesio-

saurs Diapsida (reptiles with two temporal arches, such as crocodiles, dinosaurs, rhynchocephalians; this stock gave rise to birds). Parapsida (including the proganosaurs, ichthyosaurs, lizards, mosasaurs, snakes).

Watson (1917), in his Sketch Classification of the Pre-Jurassic Tetrapod Vertebrates, assigns a high value in classification to the characters of the brain case. A general and conservative classification of the early reptiles is given by W. K. Gregory (1920). The most primitive known reptile, Seymouria, from ihe PermoCarboniferous of Texas, almost bridges the gap between the Amphibia and the Reptilia. Watson (1919) gives a morphological description of this reptile, accompanied by valuable figures and reconstructions of the skull and skeleton. The habits and environments of the teeming reptilian and amphibian faunas of the Permo-Carboniferous of North America are intensively considered in a memoir by E. C. Case (1919), which also deals with the stratigraphy, climatology and palaeogeography of the late Palaeozoic. Mammal-like Reptiles——tIn no other field of fossil reptiles has the progress of discovery been more satisfactory than in that of the mammal-like reptiles of South Africa, as set forth in numerous papers, especially by Watson (1913-4), Haughton (1918), Broom (1913-4), Van Hoepen and others. The relationships of these animals with other reptiles and with the mammals have been reviewed by W. K. Gregory (1920-1). Marine Reptiles.—-These have always been of great interest on account of their secondary adaptations to aquatic life which have

PALAEONTOLOGY been ably discussed by Abel (1912, t919). One of the outstanding contributions of new material in this field is the British Museum Catalogue of Marine Reptiles of the Oxford Clay, by C. W. Andrews (1910-3). The origin and relationships of the plesiosaurs and their allies are treated by Von Huene (1921). Dinosaurs.—The Triassic dinosaurs of Eurcpe are of particular interest because some of them tend to connect the very diverse carnivorous and herbivorous saurischian dinosaurs of later ages. Here the leading author is F. von Huene, in a long series of papers and memoirs. Plateosaurus, perhaps the most primitive of these reptiles, has been fully described both by von Huene and by Jaekel (1913-6). Primitive dinosaurs from the summit of the Karroo series in South Africa (Gryponyx, ALassospond ylus, etc.) ar described by Broom and Haughton. During the long ages of the Jurassic the gizantic sauropodous dinosaurs attained thcir maximum in size and specialisation. The leading feature in this fiel 1 is the description of the strange and monstrous dinosaurs of the Tendaguru fauna of East Africa in the collections of the Berlin Museum, by Janeasch (1914). One of the most remarkable of the North American sauropods is the genus Camarasaurus, which has been intensively described by Osborn and Mook (1921). Barosaurus, a gigantic relative of Diplodocus, with a tremendously heavy neck, has been described by R. S. Lull (1919). Tyrannosaurus, the greatest carnivorous reptile of all tims, and Struthiomimus, a contemporaneous ostrich-like dinosaur, have been described by Osborn (1912-9). The highly varicd and grotesque armoured dinosaurs, namely, the Ceratopsia ard

relate groups, have been the subject of numcrous papers by Gilmore, Brown, Lambe and others. Pierosaurs.—The pterosaurs, or flying reptiles, have continued to excite the interest of students of flight, such as Abel (1912) Watson and Hankin (1ory), Arthaber (1921). The greatest flying reptile, Pteranodon, is the subject of a memoir by Eaton (1910) of Yale University. Chelonians.—An important memoir by O. Jaekel (1913-6) describes the skull, skeleton, carapace and plastron of Triassochelys dux from the Upper Triassic of Germany. Although widely differentiated from all other orders this reptile was the most primitive of all known chelonians. Of even greater interest is the Exunotosaurus from the Permian of South Africa, which Watson (1914) describes as a veritable “ archichelone.”’ Fossil Birds.—Diatryma, a gigantic ground bird from the Lower Eocene of Wyoming, has been described by W. D. Matthew and W. Granger (1917) from a nearly complete skeleton, which is a most rare and valuable fossil. This bird, which has no near relatives, was about seven feet high and of massive proportions, with an enormous head and great compressed beak. The wings were vestigial. This high degree of specialisation at such an early epoch indicates that the modernised groups of birds were differentiated during the latter part of the Age of Reptiles. Monographs on Special Groups of Tertiary Mammals.—The fossil mammals of the basal and Lower Eocene of the western United States are represented in the American Museum of Natural History by collections numbering many thousands of

specimens which are being described jointly by Matthew and Granger (1915). Besides describing many new or little known forms these authors also deal with the relationships and morphology of the various groups of early placental mammals. In the paper dealing with the edentates and their relatives, the “ palaeanodonts,’? Matthew (1918) advances the view that the modern Pholidota (Pangolins) are an ofishoot of the primitive ‘* palaeanodonts ” of the Lower Eocene. Other papers of the same series cover the Creodonts, Insectivores and Primates. Several mid-Tertiary mammalian groups, such as chalicotheres, entelodonts and the diceratheres, have been revised in the publications of the Carnegie Museum, Pittsburgh, by

W. J. Holland and by O. A. Peterson (see MonGoris, PALAE(H. F. O.) ONTOLOGIC DISCOVERIES IN).

Some New DEVELOPMENTS ‘In recent years two aspects of palaeontological work have been actively pursued. The explorations carried out in north-

19

eastern Asia by the American Museum, supplemented by those conducted jointly by the Chinese Geological Survey and the University of Uppsala (Sweden), have added enormously to our knowledge of the history of the geographical distribution both of mammals and dinosaurs, and will when carried to their completion Jeave Africa as the least known land which can have played an important part in the evolution of placental mammals. An obscure region in the life of North America is being rapidly cleared up by the research of Matthew on the Upper Miocene and Pliocene faunas. In Europe work ‘by Stehlin and others is gradually giving us an accurate knowledge of the structure and relationships of the older tertiary mammals, whilst those of the Pleistocene are at last receiving adequate treatment. The long known fossils of the Sivalik hills in India have been assigned to their true horizons by G. E. Pilgrim, whose collections from

rocks of earlicr date than those found by former workers have added many most interesting anthropoid apes to our knowledge, and will much modify our ideas of the phylogeny of some groups of mammals. From deposits in Baluchistan of Upper Oligocene ace Pilgrim and Foster Cooper have made great collections mainly of anthrocotheres and rhinoceroses, the latter worker having obtained limbs and vertebrae of an extraordinary rhinoceros Baluchitherium. Subsequently Borissiak obtained from Turgai, Turkestan, a fragmentary skull, many vertebrae and r'bs and the limbs of a closely similar or identical animal, which hrs now been mounted in Leningrad. Finally, the American Museum obtained a skull of the same type from Mongolia. These materials allow of a reconstruction of the complete skeleton. The animal so obtained is a gigantic rhinoceros, with a skull five feet in length, hornless and very long and narrow, set on an enormous flexible neck. The immense body is carried on pillar-like legs, the tridactyl hands and feet being extraordinarily elongated, so that the creature walked entirely on its toes like a horse. The height at the withers is estimated at 13 ft., considerably more than that of any living elephant, and more than twice that of the tallest other rhinoceros known. Pilgrim has recently described a fragmentary but most important mammal fauna of Upper Eocene age from Burma remarkable in that it contains teeth of the first Titanotheres found in Asia, animals whose occurrence here is explained by the many forms found still more recently in Mongolia.

In Africa little has been done, but very fragmentary remairs of Miocene mammals found near Victoria Nyanza have been described by Andrews, and others from German South West Africa by Strémer. Dietrich and Andrews have described small late Pliocene faunas from the Lakes region of Central Africa. Finally, in his last paper, C. W. Andrews recorded the occurrence of a Chalicothere in the Pleistocene fauna of Kenya. Amongst reptiles the most important discoveries of new materials of which accounts have been published are those of the German expeditions to Tendaguru, which have obtained splendid materials of Sauropodous dinosaurs and of a small Stegosaur; of the American Museum in Mongolia (q.v.) and of Strémer in the Cretaceous of the Libyan desert. Strémer has described two most remarkable crocodiles, one with a very small, shortsnouted and deep skull, the other with an enormously elongated flat head, presenting some resemblance superficially to a pelican’s bill. Thus the work of exploration has been most actively pursued, but results of no less importance have come from the examination by modern technical methods of old materials. This work has in the main been directed to the solution, often by a co-ordination of palaeontological and embryological It is work ofa researches, of certain problems of morphology. new type initiated by Dr. R. Broom. Prof. J. Kiaer of Christiania has published a most detailed description of three genera of Anapsida (q.v.) from the Downtonian rocks of Norway. The animals of this group, formerly known almost entirely from material from the rocks of the same age in the south of Scotland, prove to possess a heterocercal tail of unique type in which the muscular end of the body passes downward into the lower caudal lobe, instead of, as in all fishes, into the upper... They have a pair of large eyes, between which, on

20

PALAMAS—PALESTINE

the dorsal surface of the head, is a single median nostril, placed immediately in front of a foramen for a pineal eye. The whole arrangement is remarkably like that which exists in the lamprey. The mouth, however, appears to be arranged for biting, and in no way recalls that of Pteromyzon. Kiaer shows that the external branchial openings are small pores and that they may vary in number from seven to 13, as in hagfish. Dr. Stensid, of Stockholm, has recently shown that the lateral line system on the body armour of heterostraci does not conform to that found in qll fish, but is comparable with that of cyclostomes and appears to be inclined to group those forms, which have paired nostrils, with the Anapsida and Cyclostomes, the whole forming, with the Osteostraci, a group of bony vertebrates more primitive in their structure than the true fishes. Dr. Stensid has also revolutionised our knowledge of the structure and understanding of the relationships of the longknown Arthrodeires. He shows that Macropetalichthys, a form known for some 60 years, had a fully ossified braincase so thick

and well preserved that he has been able to determine not only the shape of the brain cavity but also the exact distribution of some of the cranial nerves and blood vessels. There is no doubt that in all points which can be determined the form agrees with the elasmobranchs, and differs from all bony fish. The possibility is opened that the living cartilaginous fish are the descendants of bony ancestors. Sir Arthur Smith Woodward has been able to show that another arthrodeire Deinichthys had ossifications associated with the palatoquadrate cartilage. _ Among bony fish proper the most important work has been the description by Bryant, Stensié and Watson of the details of the structure of the braincase, dermal skull and palate of certain Osteolepids and of the Coelacanths which prove to be their direct descendants. The most striking feature of these fish is the presence in them of a long unossified region between the basisphenoid and the basioccipital and the consequent separation of the well ossified braincase into two distinct halves. But of more general interest is the occurrence in all Osteolepids and

in the oldest known Coelacanth, of an olfactory organ of amphibian type, opening to the surface of the skull by an anterior and to the palate by a posterior nostril. The structure of several carboniferous dipnoi has been described by Watson and Gill. The palaeoniscid fish, which are the oldest representatives of the Actinopterygii, have become much better known, the structure of the braincase, palate and hyobranchial apparatus having been described by Watson and Stensié in Carboniferous and Triassic forms. The braincases prove to be typically actinopterygian, possessing large eye muscle and aortic canals. | Stensiéd has given a complete account of the osteology of the head in the remarkably elongated Saurichthids, a mainly Triassic group of fish, which prove, as A. S. Woodward long ago suggested, to be direct and relatively little advanced derivatives of the palaeoniscids. Henning has described as Chondrosteus Hindenburgi, a magnificent sturgeon some 12 ft. in length from the Upper Lias of Wiirttemberg. Watson has described the structure of the Carboniferous Labyrinthodonts, all of which belong to the grade Embolomeri. In the structure of their skulls these animals prove to be directly comparable with Osteolepid fish on the one hand and with the reptile Seymouria on the other, whilst they include the ancestors of the later Labyrinthodonts, the course of whose evolution as determined by Watson has been confirmed by the work of Haughton. | Amongst reptiles the most interesting work of a morphological type has been concerned with the evolution of the skeleton of the limbs considered as one part of a machine the remainder of which consists of the muscles. Watson, W. K. Gregory and his students and Romer have reconstructed from the indication of muscle insertions on fossil bones the complete limb musculation of several Permian and Triassic reptiles, and shown that these exhibit a steady improvement of mechanical efficiency as the evolutionary series are traced upward. (D. M. S. W.) BIBLIOGRAPHY.— Fossil Reptiles: W. Janensch, Archiv. für Bion-

tologie, vol. 3 (1914); E. Strömer, Abhandi. der Kel. Akad.

von Miinchen, vol. 27 (1914).

d. Wiss.

Ostracoderms: J. Kiaer, Videnskaps-

akad. skrifter, Math. Nat. Klasse (1924). Field Museum,

Arthrodura: E. A. Stensiö,

Chicage, Geological Publ. (1925).

Bony fish: E. A. Stensid, Svenska Veienskapsakad. Hand. (1925); D. M. S. Watson, Proc. Zodl, Sec. (1926). Amphibia: D. M. S. Watson, Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. (1926). Chinese Fossil Mammals: Palaeontologica Sinica, Series C (1910, etc.). American Miocene: W. D. Matthews, Bull. Amer, Mus. Nat. Iist, vol. 50 (1924). Indian Fossil Mammals: G. E. Pilgrim, Records India Geological Survey (1914-25); C. Foster Cooper, Palaeontologica Indica (1924). Baluchitherium: Bouniak, Mem, Acad. Sci., Leningrad (1923); C. F. Cooper, Phil. Trans. Roy, Soc. (1923-4); H. F. Osborn, Natural History (1923); C. W. Andrews, Quart, Jour, Geol. Soc. (1919). Limb musculature: D. M.S. Watson, Jour, of Anatomy, vol. 7 (1917); W. H. Gregory, C. L. Camp, G. K. Noble and A. S. Ronicr, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist. (1918-25).

PALAMÂS, KOSTES (1859-7

), Greek poet, was born at

Patras in 1859. In 1875 he went to Athens to study law and there came under the influence of the “ popular,” as opposed to the “ purist ’’ school of Greek, and, after several years of journalism, published in 1886 his first poetical work, The Songs of My Country, followed in 1889 by the Hymn to Athena. Appointed in 1897 secretary to the University of Athens, he was able to devote all his spare energies to poetry, while he had already issued a prose Essay on Krystallis (1894), in which he contrasted philosophic with descriptive poets. After the publication of fambs and Anapaests and The Grave (1898), a series of elegies on his son’s death, he became the recognised chief of the “ popular ”’ party in literature, whose organ in the Press was the review, WNoumas. At that period the “ language question ” penetrated even politics, leading to the “ Gospel Riots ” of 1904 and the fall of the Cabinet over the translation of the Oresteia in 1903. Palamas, who described himself in The Twelve Lays of the Gipsy as “the poet of my age and race,” was considered by his admirers to be the successcr of Solomos, while some critics have found in him the obscurity of Browning. Later he produced the poem on Byron, recited at the Byron centenary at Athens in 1924, and Five Syllables and the Pathetic Whispers (1925). See Poems by Kostes Palamds, selected and rendered into English by Th. Ph. Stephanides and G. C. Katsimbalis (1925).

PALEOLOGUE, MAURICE GEORGES (1859), French diplomat and writer, was born in Paris Jan. 13 1859. He entered the diplomatic service at an early age and went successively to Tangier, Rome, Germany, the East, became in 1909 deputy-director and in the Foreign Office. Shortly before War he was appointed ambassador

Korea and Bulgaria. He in ror director of affairs’ the outbreak of the World to St. Petersburg (Lenin-_

grad) and retained this post until the Bolshevist revolution towards the end of ro17. He successfully exerted great efforts to consolidate the Franco-Russian alliance and to ensure the most effective military action on the part of Russia during the period of hostilities. In 1920 he was for a few months secretarygeneral of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and afterwards tendered his resignation. M. Paléologue published in 1921-2, under the title of La Russie des Tsars pendant la grande guerre, some interesting records of his diplomatic experiences in St. Petersburg. Among his other publications are historical works; literary criticisms, notably on Vauvenargues and Alfred de Vigny; accounts of his impressions of China and Italy and several novels. Recent works include: Le Roman andre If, (1923);

Tatileyrand

Tragique de l’Empereur Alex-

Metternich

Chateaubriand

Ambassador's Memoirs (tr. by F. A. Holt, 1923-5).

(1924); An

PALESTINE (see 20.600), a territory administered by the British Govt. under a mandate from the League of Nations which came officially into operation on Sept. 29 1923. Bounded on the north by the French sphere of Syria, on the west by the Mediterranean, and on the south by Egyptian and Hejaz territory. On the east The is Transjordan (g.v.) which is included in the Mandate. area of Palestine, excluding Transjordan, is something over 9,000 sq. m. of which about half is cultivable. The population at the outbreak of War in 1914 was estimated at 689,281 (534,615 Moslems, 70,000 Christians, 84,666 Jews). This was con-

siderably diminished by war, famine, disease and exile. On Dec.

31 1925 the parallel figures exclusive of the nomadic tribes were 762,316 (522,137 Moslems, 74,624 Christians, 157,188 Jews, 8,367 others). Since the opening of immigration with the pro-

|

PALESTINE mulgation of the Immigration Ordinance (1920) 78,567 immi-

grants (528 Moslems, entered Palestine.

1,863

Christians

76,176 Jews)

have

I. POLITICAL HISTORY Under Ottoman Rule—Palestine under the Ottoman Govt. was an integral portion of Syria, although the Sanjaq of Jerusalem, owing to its peculiar problems and importance, was governed by a Mutasarref referring directly to Constantinople. Owing to the economic stagnation and financial strain which affected the whole Ottoman Empire in consequence of the Italian (1911-2) and Balkan (1912-3) wars, Palestine was unable to develop herself in any way before the outbreak of the World War. Before 1913 autonomy in the Imperial Provinces extended in practice only to the right of making recommendations. The Ottoman constitution of 1908 had gwakened new hopes, and in Syria and Palestine particularly so widespread a movement began in favour of decentralisation that the Turkish Govt. thought

2I

The Home Govt. not being in a position to issue even general instructions, the administration, left in a situation without prec-

edent more or less to its own resources, was limited by the legal necessity of governing the country under Ottoman Codes amplified by enactments under military law, according to the “ laws and usages of war.” Even so, however, two notable and, in the

circumstances, exceptional steps were taken. Hebrew was recog-

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20

33/ Railways

it wise to pass the Provisional Vilayet Laws of 1913 and rory,

granting real Local Government powers. It is difficult to conjecture now to what extent a naturally intelligent people, discouraged and enfeebled by four centuries of gross misgovernment, mizht have been helped by plans which were in fact cut short

by the War and replaced by the tyranny of Jemal Pasha. British Military Occupation.—The British occupation, established after the conquest of the country by the British forces under General Allenby in t917, found a depleted population, the townspeople distressed, much cultivated land untilled, stocks of cattle and horses almost non-existent, orange groves ruined by lack of irrigation and commerce at a standstill. Immediately on the occupation of Jerusalem (Dec. 11 1917), a military administration was set up, at first under Brigadier-General Clayton, Chief Political Officer to General Allenby, as Chief Administrator; who was followed by Major-Generals Money, Watson and Bols, with military governors at Jerusalem and elsewhere; food was hurried up by military transport for the populace, anc

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merchants were permitted to import goods from Egypt by the military railway.

In accordance

with General Allenby’s proc-

lamation, all existing rights in Holy Places were respected and maintained; further, the income of the Moslem Wakfs (pious foundations) was used exclusively for the Moslem beneficiaries in Palestine instead of being drained away to Constantinople. The administration was, from the outset, financially self-support-

ing. A local police force was built up, schools and law courts were re-opened, and, in Avril 1918, a water supply for Jerusalem, utilising springs employed for the same purpose in the days of Herod and Pontius Pilate, was installed. Zionism.—On Nov. 2 1917, some five weeks before Lord Allenby’s entry into Jerusalem, Far&(then Mr. Arthur) Balfour, at that time Foreign Secretary, had made on behalf of H.M. Govt.

the following historic declaration:—

His Majesty’s Government view with favour the establishment in Palestine of a National Home for the Jewish people, and will use their

best endeavours to facilitate the achievement of that object, it being understood that nothing shalt be done which may prejudice the civil and religious rights of existing non-Jewish communities in Palestine, or the rights and political status enjoyed by the Jews in any other

l country. The declaration was endorsed by the principal Allied Powers and embodied in the Treaty of Sèvres, where it was provided that the country should be entrusted to a Mandatory Power with a mandate to be approved by the League of Nations. After the Balfour declaration the Zionist Organisation sent a Commission, subsequently constituted as a part of the Zionist Executive, to Palestine to act as a link between the British authorities and the Jewish pspulation. This was developed so as to take charge of the larger Jewish interests, colonisation, immigration, and eduits cation in Palestine. The military administration was, from immean for hand one the on demands with assailed inception, diate and practical interpretation of the Balfour declaration, time and on the other for a policy of entire negation until such some into ted incorpora been have as that instrument should sort of Mandate formally adopted by the Powers.

(A) Long. ‘East 35° of Greenw. (B)

nised with English and Arabic as the third official language, as,

with Latin and Greck, it had been in the time of Christ, and considerable agricultural loans were advanced to land-owners. At

the same time various oppressive small taxes were abolished.

The Jerusalem Chamber of Commerce was established and followed by others elsewhere. The unsightly wall which had been built across Constantine’s Basilica of the Nativity in Bethlehem

PALESTINE

22

was removed. Early in 1920 the Moslem Nebi Musa celebrations were exploited as a manifestation of Arab national sentiment against the Zionist Jews, many of whose recent immigrants had excited animosity by unwise and tactless propaganda. Riots took place on April 4 and 5 in Jerusalem and raids were made upon Beisan and the British Garrison at Semakh. On July 1 1920 a civil government was established with Sir Herbert Samuel as the first high commissioner of Palestine. But mutual suspicion continued, and with it further incidents. For the establishment of a civil government and the subsequent promulgation of the Mandate only brought to a head the difficulties of interpreting even the expanded mandatory text of the declaration, and with them the doubts of Arabs, Zionists and Jews throughout the World. The Jerusalem riots of 1920 were succeeded next year by a more serious outbreak in Jaffa and again by disturbances in the capital on the fourth anniversary of the declaration.! The high commissioner, after two years’ experience of conditions in Palestine, returned to London in 1922 in order to represent to ministers the necessity of publishing some statement informing all parties concerned more precisely what was, and still more what was not, the Government’s interpretation of the Balfour declaration. This statement, which was issued as a White Paper by Mr. Churchill, the Colonial Secretary, and whose policy was formally and publicly accepted by the Zionist Organisation, explicitly disclaims the intention either of creating a wholly Jewish Palestine or of contemplating the disappearance or the subordination of the Arab population, language or culture. The nationality to be acquired by all citizens of Palestine, whether Jews or non-Jews, whether for purposes of internal law or international status would be Palestinian and nothing else. ... But in order that the Jewish community (in Palestine) should have the best prospect of free development it is essential that it should know that it is in Palestine as of right and not on sufferance. That is the reason why it is necessary that the existence of a Jewish National Home in Palestine should be internationally guaranteed... .

The statement was rejected by the Palestine Arab Delegation, then representing the Arab cause in London, partly because they were at the time committed to demands involving almost a retractation of the Mandate and partly from an instinctive reasoning that the policy even so enunciated might ultimately render Palestine Arabs of secondary interest and importance in their own country. This new definition has nevertheless considerably affected Arab opinion, and, as it has been integrally maintained by successive Labour and Conservative Cabinets, in each of whom respectively hich hopes had been placed by Zionist and Arab “ revisionists,” it has gone far to convince both of the futility of further agitation. Constitution.—Three months after the beginning of the Civil

Govt. the high commissioner established a nominated advisory council, consisting of ro British officials and 10 Palestinians— seven Arabs (four Moslem and three Christian) and three Jews. Later, on the promulgation of the Mandate, it was thought advisable to confer upon Palestine a more representative constitution, and an order in council was issued in 1922, providing for the creation of a legislative council consisting of the high commissioner and 22 other members, of whom ro were to be officials and 12 elected. The elected members were to be eight Moslems, two Jews and two Christians. A virtual boycott of the elections on the part of the Arab population rendered these proposals abortive, and invitations were issued to leading Palestinians with a view to restoring the nominated advisory council, in the same proportion as had been intended for the elected council. The invitations were accepted, but subsequently, under pressure of extremist agitation, seven of the 10 who had accepted begged leave to retire. In July 1923 the high commissioner was instructed to offer to the Arab population equal representation with the Zionists by means of an Arab agency with functions analogous to those of the Zionist executive. This was unanimously refused, as an assumption ' For the general atmosphere and “ psychology ” of these events

the reader is referred to the report of the commission of enquiry

(Cmd. 1540, 1921.) .

|

|

that they needed an embassy in their own home, by Arab leaders of all sections of opinion. The present system of government is that ordinances are considered first by the high commissioner in executive council, next, after receiving the provisional ap-

proval of the Colonial Secretary, submitted to the advisory council consisting of 10 senior officials. and then published in the official Gazette; but do not, save in rare cases of special urgency, become jaw until at least one month after publication, so that interests affected may be given the opportunity of expressing their views. This they often do with effect. Religion.—Complete liberty of religion prevails in Palestine. In certain matters of internal organisation, however, action has been taken to assist the communities. A purely Moslem authority has been constituted for the control of Moslem religious endowments (Wakfs) and for appointment of judges in the Moslem religious courts. To this authority, represented by an elected council, the Government has transferred certain wealthy endowments sequestrated 80 years ago by the Turks. The Council has collected large sums for the restoration, now in progress, of the Haram al-Sharif in Jerusalem, and has established a Moslem theological college and an orphanage. The Orthodox Patriar-

chate of Jerusalem, torn by dissensions both between the Patriarch and his Synod and with the Orthodox Arab congregation, and crippled by debts, has seen the authority of its Patriarch vindicated by a commission of inquiry, and its economic restoration begun by a financial commission, both appointed by the Government. The valuable Russian ecclesiastical properties in Jerusalem and other centres have been placed, pending final decision as to their juridical ownership, rendered ambiguous by various decrees of the Soviet Govt. and as a general measure of protection against secularisation and alienation, under an official trustee. These inevitable but unconnected actions have been in some quarters inaccurately represented as a marshalling of Orthodoxy by Protestantism against Rome. The Jewish community had possessed no recognised ecclesiastical organisation. The Government assembled in 1921 a conference of leading Jews from all parts of Palestine. Two joint chief Rabbis were elected; a Rabbinical Council was established and officially recognised. The lay community was also organised into central and local councils. In 1924 the French Protectorate of Latin Holy Places was withdrawn by the Vatican.

Police.—The police force, composed of both Arabs and Jews,

has during the past seven years greatly improved in discipline, efficiency and reliability; and brigands, from biblical times the traditional terror of the highways, have been almost exterminated. A unit of Palestinian gendarmerie was raised in 1921 consisting of soo N.C.O’s. and men (Arabs, Jews and Circassians) under British officers. This force was entrusted with the defence

and policing of the land frontie4 of Palestine.

In April 1922 a

force of British gendarmerie, consisting of 43 officers and 700 other ranks, reduced later by one third, was enlisted in Ireland

and proved an admirable reinforcement to the other two bodies. The last Imperial regiment (sent to Palestine not at the request of the administration but by desire of the War Office) has (1926) left the country and the total garrison, not supported from the resources of the country, consists of one flight of aeroplanes and two sections of armoured cars. Some of the aeroplanes are stationed in Transjordan, and the cost to the British taxpayer (estimated for 1925-6 at £E.640,600) excluding expenditure in Transjordan, has been steadily, and may be still further reduced. Apart from the cost of the garrison, there is not and has never been any grant from the British Exchequer in aid of the civil administration of Palestine. A re-organisation of the civil forces (police, Palestine and British gendarmerie) has just taken place

which will increase the British strength of the police. Both British and Palestine divisions of the gendarmerie have been disbanded, and a new frontier force constituted for employment in Palestine and Transjordan also. | Justice—The system of justice originally established by the military administration has been amended where necessary. British judges under a Chief Justice preside over the two sections of the Court of Appeal, four district courts and two land courts.

PALESTINE All other judges and magistrates are Palestinians drawn impartially from among the qualified members of the three religious communities. Cases of religious law and personal status are still judged as under the Turkish régime by the special tribunals of the several creeds. Ottoman law, amended by ordinances of the administration, remains the foundation of the legal system.

II. FINANCIAL AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT Finance.—I\n 1923 there was a budgetary deficit of £F.725,000. As a result of drastic economies, the position was retrieved in 1924, and resulted in a surplus of approximately £E.263,000. Revenue and Expenditure

Year I1920-I 1921-2

1922-3 1923-4 1924-5

Revenue

ee

Surplus

LE LE {E 1,422,208 | 1,227,056 | 195,152 1,997,522 | 1,881,108 116,414

1,764,585 | 1,837,173 1,633,893 | 1,633,227

‘3

Deficit {E es ga

666

72,588 .

8,919,280 | 8,385,224 | 606,644

72,588

2,101,072 | 1,806,660 | 294,412

i

The rate of the tithe has since been reduced from 124°%, the

Turkish figure, to 10%, thus relieving the agriculturist at a single step of one-fifth of the weight of the tax. Palestine has hitherto had the use, free of payment, of the main line of railway, and of certain other works constructed by the British army for military purposes during the War. Communications.—There are 600 km. of metalled main roads in Palestine and 600 km. of secondary roads, serving 177 villages, of which 280 km. have been constructed or rebuilt since the establishment of the civil administration. Many hundreds of miles of tracks connecting scattered villages and settlements are used by motor and other wheeled traffic in the dry weather. In 1914 there was only one motor car in Palestine; there are now over 1,000, including more than 600 within the municipal area of Jerusalem. The military railway constructed by the Army across the Sinai desert has been brought under the management of the Palestine Railway Department. A train service is efficiently run from Egypt to Haifa, from Jaffa to Jerusalem and from Haifa to Syria. Before the War the postal services were maintained largely by separate agencies of European Powers; telegraphs were restricted; telephones unknown. There are now frequent daily deliveries of letters; 34 telegraph offices, 31 public telephone exchanges, and trunk lines to all parts of the country and Egypt answers calls in English, Arabic and Hebrew at any hour of the day and night. Public Heaith.—The department of health has directed intensive and successful efforts against malaria, with the co-operation of voluntary organisations, notably the Rockefeller Foundation, by whom much necessary hospital provision is afforded, except for infectious disease, for dealing with which the department is responsible. In combating trachoma, in which the British Opthalmic Hospital of St. John of Jerusalem playsa chief part, 50,000 school children are annually inspected; infant welfare centres have been established, largely by non-official bodies, in eight towns; 20 nurses and 38 midwives have qualified in the Department’s training centres and 82 nurses and four midwives in voluntary institutions. Vaccines are prepared and quarantine and disinfection of immigrants and pilgrims returning from Mecca is carried out. Free treatment is provided against rabies, The death-rate for the country is 22-53 in towns and 28-01 in districts, while the birth-rate is 47-40 and 53-68 respectively. The infantile mortality rate is 184-43 per thousand. Education.—There are 315 Government and 489 non-Government schools. The schools maintained by Government include two training colleges, one for men and one for women. Altogether about 50,000 children, aged from 5 to 14, and about 8,800 aged from 15 to 18, receive a measure of education; being 31 °> of the children between the ages of 5 and 14, and 20% of those between 15 and 18. The Palestine Zionist executive spends some {E.100,000 annually on Jewish education. English, Scottish and foreign Missionary Societies also maintain schools. Archaeology.—In 1918 the military governor of Jerusalem, in order to preserve the antiquities of the district, issued and enforced certain public orders; and, to organise public opinion, established the ProJerusalem Society, an international and non-sectarian body, in which all communities and most learned societies participate through their leading members. The society encourages arts and crafts, employs a qualified architect and town planner to protect the amenities of the old and advise on the development of the new city,

and has collected in subscriptions some £E.15,000. A Department of Antiquities was established in 1920, by which 2,860 historical sites

have

been registered and are being inspected. A central museum has

23

been organised in Jerusalem. Work in the field has been undertaken by British, French, American and German schools of archacology and by a Palestine Jewish Archaeological Society. A Neanderthal skull was discovered in 1925 at Tabgha by the British School. Assistance to Farmers. —The £E.562,000 advanced by the military administration, mostly in small loans on security of land and crops, enabled peasants to buy animals and seed, and in many ways to

recover from the devastation of the War. Subsequently a Department of Agriculture and Forests was established, which gives instructions in villages and promotes the use of improved instruments and methods. Ut assists the farmer in dealing with animal diseases and plant pests, fumigates his orange trees if affected by scale, protects his cattle from imported diseases by quarantine and veterinary control; has planted about one million trees, and, through its nurseries, has facilitated plantation by others. Altogether, four or five million timber and fruit trees have been planted in these years in Palestine. Jewish agricultural settlements came into existence during the past half century. Many were formed on uncultivated and unpromising land which has been transformed into flourishing plantations. The settlers have drained swamps, planted eucalyptus and pines, cultivated vine and almond and developed the orange trade of Jaffa. At the outbreak of war there were 44 scttlements of 87,800 acres. There are at present (1926) about 100 covering an area of 220,000 acres (6% of the cultivable area of Palestine) and supporting a popu-

lation of about 24,000. Of the older settlements most were founded or largely assisted by Baron Edmond de Rothschild or the Jewish Colonisation Association acting as his agent; the later mostly by the Zionist Organisation. Largely owing to the lifework of Eliezer Ben Yahuda, a practical visionary of genius, ]lebrew is definitely established as the vernacular as well as the literary language of Palestinian Jewry. The revival of Hebrew culture found in 1925 concrete expression in the formal opening by the Earl of Balfour of the Hebrew University upon Mount Scopus. Hardly less remarkable is the ue in 18 years of Tel-Aviv from the suburb into the rival of Jaffa. Natural Resources and Industry.—Before the War, industries were almost non-existent. A few soap andl oil factories at Nablus and elsewhere, Baron Edmond de Rothschild’s wine factories, and some hand industries, such as the Bethlehem mother-of-pearl, represented the sum of local manufacture. Largely owing to Jewish enterprise, there are now several important factories for silicate bricks, vegetable oil, flour, salt, soap, cement, furniture, matches and textiles, as well as smaller enterprises. An important hydro-electric concession has been granted to Mr. Pinhas Rutenberg for the utilisation of the water powers of the upper waters of the Jordan and its tributary the Yarmuk. This work has not yet begun but power stations with oil engines have been erected at Tel-Aviv, Haifa and Tiberias, whereby light, power and heating are provided in these districts. Though Haifa seems likely to become the principal harbour, extensive improvements are contemplated at Jaffa, the centre of orange cultivation, and thus of more than half the total export trade of the country. The potash deposits of the Dead Sea constitute an important potential source of wealth. The balance of trade, shown below, is increasingly adverse, equilibrium being hitherto adjusted by immigration, tourists and charity. Imports Exports 1922 . ‘ . : ; ; . 5,471,667 1,070,171

1923

. 4,825,185

1,143,234

1924 . 5,266,349 I,281,212 1925 . - 7,338,491 1,297,559 Limited Companies (103) have established themselves under the law of Palestine, and 52 foreign companies registered themselves locally. On the expiry of Sir Herbert Samucl’s term of office (July 1 1925) Lord Plumer was appointed high commissioner.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.—Ginzberg

(Achad Ha-Am.,

pseud.), Essays on

Zionism and Judaism (Philadelphia, 1912); A. M. Hyamson, Pal/estine (1917); EL. Sidebotham, England and Palestine (1918); N. Bentwich, Palestine of the Jews (1919); Record of the ProJerusalem Society, vol. 1 and 2 (1921, etc.); Sir T. A. Bertram and H. C. Luke, Report of Commussion of Inquiry into Affairs of Orthodox Patriarchate of Jerusalem (1921); H. C. Luke and E. K. Roach, Hand-book of Palestine (1922); Sir M. Conway, Palestine and Morocco (1923); P. Graves, Palestine the Land of Three Faiths (1923); S. Tolkowsky, The Gateway of Palestine (Jaffa, 1924); L. Stein, Zionism (1925); W. B. Worsfold, Palestine of the Mandate (1925). See also the following: Official Publications, Franco-British Contention of Dec., 3 10920 (Cmd. 1195, 1921); Interim Report on the Civil Administration, 1920-1 (Cmd. 1499, 1921); Palestine: Dtsturbances in May ro21, Reports of the Commission of Inquiry (Cmd.

1540, 1921); Correspondence with the Palestine Arab Delegation and the Ziontst Organisation (Cmd. 1700, 1922); Miscellaneous No. 4, Mandaie for Palestine (Note in Reply to Cardinal Gasparri's Letter of May 15 1922) (Cmd. 1708, 1922); League of Nations: Mandate for Palestine (Cmd. 1785, 1922); Report on Palestine Administration,

1922

(1923); Papers Relating to the Elections for the Palestine

Legislative

Council

(Cmd.

1889,

1923);

Agreement

between

His

Majesty’s Government and the French Government Respecting the Boundary Line between Syria and Palestine (Cmd. 1910, 1923); Proposed Formation of an Arab Agency: Correspondence with the High

PALESTINE, OPERATIONS IN

24

Commissioner for Palestine (Cmd. 1989, 1923); Report on Palestine Administration, 1023, Colonial No. § (1924); Colonial No. 9 (1925);

Reports on Palestine Administration, 1924, Colonial No. 12 (1925).

T.

PALESTINE, OPERATIONS IN.—The British campaigns of 1914-8 in Palestine, Egypt and Syria covered an extensive stretch of territory, from the Suez Canal to Aleppo, a distance by the land route of well over 500 miles. This land route, the oldest highway in the history of the civilised world, along which the tides of thought and trade and war have flowed between Asia and Africa since time immemorial, traverses a remarkable variety of soil and scenery: the inhospitable desert of Sinai; the fertile plains of Palestine, flanked by the high rocky citadel of the Judaean hills; the deep trench of the Jordan valley; and, finally,

Egypt was likely to form part of the Turkish strategical programme, largely inspired from Berlin. Seizure of the canal would paralyse the most vital line of communication of the British Empire and seriously hamper the gathering of its armies. Even thethreat must immobilise considerable numbers for passive defence. The dream of reasserting dominion over their former province of Egypt was an additional lure to the Turks. The Turkish Advance.—Between the southern frontier of Palestine and the Suez Canal lay over 100 m. of almost waterless desert. It was crossed by three routes, of which the northern, near the coast, through Rafah, El ‘Arish and Qatiya to El Qantara, was the easiest and best. The Turks made their main effort on

the centre route, from El ‘Auja by the Wadi Muksheib, which reaches the canal about Tussum, south of Ismailia; but they also 4

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the Syrian plateau with those cities of ancient tale, Damascus and Aleppo. The fighting was as diversified as the terrain; it comprised battles in the desert and in fertile country, combats in steep

bleak hills and in a sweltering valley below sea level, periods of close-locked siege warfare and intervals of rapid movement. The story of the successive advances of the Egyptian Expeditionary Force (as the British Army in this theatre came to be called) and of the gradual extension of its objective—from the passive defence of the canal to the delivery of the coup de grace to the Turkish Empire—falls conveniently under four main heads: the Suez Canal, Sinai, Palestine, Syria. I. THE PROBLEM OF THE SUEZ CANAL When Turkey entered the World War on the side of the Central Powers at the beginning of Nov. 1914, it was obvious that

an advance from southern Palestine against the Suez Canal and

sent smaller forces by the coast road and by the southern route: through Nekhl to Suez, the most difficult of the three. The Turkish commander in Syria, Jemal Pasha, directed the enterprise, but its real brain was his Bavarian chief of staff, Col. Kress von Kressenstein. In spite of the difficulties, a force of some 12,000 to 15,000 Turks was brought within striking distance of the canal by the first days of Feb. 1915. The British were not unaware of the danger—though they underestimated the Turkish effort—and were ready. The line of

defence, which was held mainly by Indian troops, lay on the western bank of the canal, leaving the canal itself as an obstacle between the defenders and the enemy. A territorial division (the 42nd) and some Australian and New Zealand troops, who were completing their training near Cairo, formed the reserve. Warships in the canal provided gun support and compensated for the scarcity of land artillery. On the night of Feb. 2~3 the Turks made their effort, reached the canal and actually succeeded

PALESTINE, OPERATIONS in pushing three pontoons full of troops across it. These were all killed or captured. An attack next day had no better success, and the Turks withdrew, unmolested by any serious pursuit. This first Turkish raid, though it failed, proved the desert passable to large bodies of troops and thus compelled the retention of considerable forces in Egypt for the protection of the canal. It also showed the unsuitability of the defence on the west bank, since this line could not prevent the attackers from reaching the canal and interfering with the passage of shipping. No change was made in the system of defence, however, till after Lord Kitchener’s visit in Nov. 1915. For during the summer and autumn of rọr5 the Gallipoli campaign was in full swing and absorbed the principal efforts of both Turk and Briton. The Senussi rising in the western desert, too, occupied the attention of the G.O.C. in Egypt, Gen. Sir John Maxwell. After the evacuation of Gallipoli at the end of rors and beginning of 1916 Egypt contained close on 400,000 British troops, reorganising and recuperating after that gallant but ill-starred adventure. For a short time there existed within Egypt three separate and independent commands, but in March 1916 all three were united under Sir Archibald Murray. Meanwhile, early in 1916, a line was taken up in the desert, some 8 to rom. to the east of the canal. Many miles of entrenchments were dug and revetted in the shifting sand, metalled roads constructed and pipe lines laid. For the Turk, freed from concern for the safety of his capital, was obviously contemplating a fresh advance on Egypt and the canal. He had in fact been busy with preparations ever since the repulse of his first effort. This system of entrenchments, extending for some 80 m. along practically the whole length of the canal, was expensive in men as well as in material. This fact originated the first advance of the Egyptian Expeditionary Force and led to the crossing of the Sinai desert, an achievement made possible by sound and thorough organisation, and by the fine quality of the mounted troops, mainly Australians and New Zealanders, which the desert warfare developed and proved.

IN

25

18,coo men under Kress von Kressenstein. After a pause for preparation, at dawn on Aug. 4 it attacked the British position

at Romani, held by the 52nd and 42nd Divs., the Anzac Mounted Div. and some yeomanry, in all about 30,000 men, under Lt.Gen. the Hon. H. A. Lawrence. The Turks made a determined assault but were heavily repulsed and pursued as far as Bir el Abd. Their losses, including some 4,000 prisoners, amounted to nearly half their total force. They may perhaps be accounted

fortunate to have escaped at all, for intense heat and lack of water precluded the more vigorous action in pursuit, which might have made possible the annthilation of the Turkish force.

The defeated Turks retreated to El ‘Arish, leaving a small detachment at Bir el Mazar till the middle of Sept., when it was dislodged by the Anzac Mounted Division. There was no further fighting till December. The progress of the British force (now under Lt.-Gen. Sir Charles Dobell) towards El ‘Arish was governed by the rate (about 20 m.a month) at which the railway and its accompanying pipe-line could be laid. The water supply available in Sinai was too brackish for constant drinking by troops; even the railway locomotives could not use it for long without loss of efficiency. The Sweetwater Canal, which runs from the Nile at Cairo to the Suez Canal, was the source of the pipe-line supply; from large reservoirs and a great pumping station built at El Qantara it was forced through a 12-in. pipe to railhead. In 1917 this pipe-line was extended up to Gaza. Occupation of El ‘Arish and Rafah—Early in Dec. the railhead was within 20 m. of El ‘Arish. Elaborate water and transport arrangements were now made to enable the advanced guard of the British force to capture E] ‘Arish. This advanced guard was known as the Desert Column, and consisted at this time of the Anzac Mounted Div. and 42nd and 52nd Divs., under Lt.-Gen. Sir Philip Chetwode. Just as all was ready, however, the enemy hurriedly withdrew and El ‘Arish was occupied without fighting on Dee. 20. The nearest Turkish force (1,600 infantry with four guns) was

located at Magdhaba, some 20 m. south of El ‘Arish. A flying

of a scattered group of oases extending for some 15 to 20m., when a strong Turkish force entered the castern end. This force con-

column under Gen. Chauvel, consisting of the Anzac Div. and Imperial Camel Corps, was at once dispatched against it. After a night march Chauvel attacked the Turks in an entrenched position at dawn on Dec. 23. By late afternoon, at a cost of under 150 casualties, he had accounted for practically the whole enemy force, capturing 1,300 prisoners and burying roo dead. The only Turkish force now remaining within the Egyptian frontier was a detachment of about 2,coo near Rafah, 25 m. east of Fl ‘Arish. This was dealt with in a similar fashion by the mounted troops under Chetwode. After a night march, he surrounded the Turkish position at dawn on Jan. 9. Some hard fighting followed, for the Turks were in a strong position and put up a stout defence. It was not till close on dark that the position was assaulted. The entire Turkish force was accounted for, while the British casualities were under 500. These two brilliant actions cleared the Egyptian province of Sinai from enemy occupation. They were striking examples of the power of boldly handled mounted troops, a power the Turk was to experience very thoroughly before the end of the War. Murray had now obtained his original objective, since the possession of Rafah and El ‘Arish secured the safety of the Suez Canal and Egypt. Towards the end of 1916 he had, however, reccived instructions which imposed on him a more active réle than the mere defence of Egypt. While this defence was still to be the main consideration, it was made clear to him that the War Cabinet expected some more spectacular result of the ‘‘ Exodus ”’ across the desert than the negative one of giving checkmate to Turkish designs on Egypt. At the same time they were not prepared to give Murray the additional troops he asked for. Indeed, one of his four divisions, the 42nd, was early in 1917 withdrawn to France, leaving him only three in place of the five which he held to be the minimum to fulfil the réle demanded of him. He had the nucleus of a fourth division—the 74th—to be formed from dismounted ycéomanry; and the liquidation of the western desert campaign enabled him to add a second mounted division to the

sisted of the 3rd Div. and certain other units, totalling about

force on the Palestine border.

I. THE

SINAI DESERT

Sir Archibald Murray’s objective was to secure control of the Sinai desert, which he saw could be effected by an advance to

Fl ‘Arish near the Egyptian frontier. A position here would bar the northern route across the desert and tlank the more southerly routes. It would also enable offensive operations to be undertaken against enemy forces concentrating in southern Palestine. But an invasion of Palestine was not seriously contemplated at this time; the advance was initiated to safeguard Egypt and the Suez Canal. Murray estimated the force necessary at five divisions and four mounted brigades, a much smaller force than that needed adequately to garrison the defensive system along the canal. Moreover, the farther the defence was removed from Egypt the less chance there was of a sympathetic rising there on the approach of the Turk. British Advance on El‘ Arish.—The first step was to occupy the Qatiya oasis, 25 m. east of the canal, and thus deny to the enemy the only district within striking distance where a sufficiency of water permitted the assembly of a large force. The construction of a broad gauge railway from El Qantara towards Qatiya was begun, and large numbers of camels were collected to form the transport of the force, since in the soft sand of the desert wheeled transport was impossible. For the guns, special “ pedrails ” were constructed and teams doubled. Towards the end of April 1916, the Turks made a raid on the Qativa oasis and surprised and captured some advanced posts of yeomanry. The Anzac Mounted Div., formed in March from Australian and New Zealand troops, reoccupied the area next day. The object of the Turkish raid seems to have been to cause alarm and thus to prevent the further withdrawal of troops from Egypt for France, which had been going on during the spring of 1o16.

By July the advance had reached Romani at the western end

26

PALESTINE, OPERATIONS

The situation in the early spring of 1917 was this: railhead was close to the Egyptian frontier at Rafa, some 20 m. from Gaza; the British War Cabinet’s policy for the Egyptian theatre had finally crystallised into instructions to Sir Archibald Murray to prepare during the summer for an offensive campaign into Palestine in the autumn; and the Turk—now definitely on the defensive—had suddenly evacuated a forward position which he had prepared at Shellal, and had sketched out a position for the defence of Palestine between Gaza and Beersheba. The Palestine Offensive-—Gaza and Beersheba, some 25 m. apart, are the two natural gates into Palestine from the south, the former by reason of its commanding position on the coast road, the latter as the last water base on the confines of the mountainous desert to east and south. Between Gaza and Beersheba, in an almost direct line, run a series of ridges which forma natural defensive position. Murray saw that in order to carry out his instructions to prepare for an autumn offensive, it was desirable to push his railhead forward out of the desert up to the cultivated plain of south Palestine. The conditions of transport would then be entirely different and camels could be largely replaced by wheeled transport. Moreover, the capture of Gaza would make it impossible for the Turk to hold the Gaza-Beersheba line as his main defensive position.

It was decided therefore in March to attempt the capture of Gaza by a coup de main similar to those at Rafa and Magdhaba, but on a much larger scale. The difhiculties of concentration, of supply and of secrecy were of course much increased by the necessity to employ infantry in addition to mounted troops.

The Turks had at the time some 7,000 fighting troops in Gaza, another 7,000 at Tel esh Sheri‘a, half-way between Gaza and Beersheba, and a small garrison in Beersheba. The plan was, briefly, for the mounted troops to pass east of Gaza, cut the garrison’s line of retreat, and hold off the arrival of any Turkish reinforcements from the north or east. The 53rd Div. was to assault the heights east and south of Gaza, while the 54th Div. protected the exposed right flank from the direction of Tel esh Sheri‘a. Attacks on Gaza.—The enterprise took place on March 26. Unfortunately, a dense sea fog came up with the dawn and caused a delay of two precious hours in the deployment of the infantry. This delay, which could not have been foreseen nor prevented, was the direct cause of the loss of the battle. For the Turkish position was strong, and it was not till 5 p.m. that the 53rd Div. secured the ‘Ali el Muntar ridge which dominates Gaza from the east; at the same time, a part of the mounted troops were in the northeastern outskirts of the town. The victory was to al] appearances won. In fact the garrison, as was afterwards known, was on the point of surrender. But Turkish reinforcements from

the north and east were already pressing on the protective screen of the mounted troops; the horses were without water, and darkness was coming on, It had been agreed beforehand that the enterprise should be abandoned if Gaza had not fallen by dark. The reports received did not indicate a successful issuc; owing to a breakdown of communications, news of the success of the 53rd Div. did not reach the British commander till about Ir P.M, Sir Charles Dobell hesitated to involve his infantry in the intricate network of cactus hedges which surrounds Gaza, while Chetwode was against exposing his mounted troops, exhausted by want of water, to the danger of being overwhelmed by the approaching Turkish reinforcements. The withdrawal of the mounted troops was ordered. This exposed the right of the 53rd Div., which had to be drawn back from the ‘Ali el Muntar heights to gain touch with the left of the 54th. The battle was resumed next morning, but the Turkish garrison had been reinforced and had taken heart of grace at the unexpected respite of the previous evening. It was found impossible again to make

good the ‘Ali el Muntar ridge, the key to Gaza; and finally the whole force was withdrawn to the Wadi Ghazze. This first battle of Gaza has been a matter of dispute and conjecture. By many of the troops who took part, it was held that the decision to withdraw threw away a victory already won. On the other hand, it is impossible to question that in the cir-

IN

cumstances the order for retirement was justified. The two-hour delay in the morning lost the battle. Other contributory causes were the breakdown of communications (partly due to shortness of equipment) and lack of accurate maps, which made it impossible for H.Q. to obtain timely information of the progress of the fight. Though the enterprise had failed, the force had secured a position on the Wadi Ghazze which would enable railhead to be advanced to within a short distance of Gaza in preparation for the autumn campaign. Murray now, however, received instructions to commence an offensive movement at once. A fresh assault on Gaza was therefore prepared. But the conditions were now very different; the Turk had closed the gap between Gaza and Beersheba by a series of works, and had greatly extended and strengthened the defences of Gaza. He had some five divisions in line and a considerable quantity of heavy artillery, so that Gen. Dobell’s force had no easy task. Much hope was placed in some tanks, which were to be used in Eastern warfare for the first time. The attack was made in two stages, of which the first, on April 17 was designed to gain a position from which the final thrust on Gaza could be made. It was successful. But the decisive attack on April 19 failed with heavy loss; the tanks developed mechanical defects in the heavy sand or were put out of action by the well-placed Turkish guns; and the weight of artillery supporting the British attack was insufficient to demolish the formidable defences of Gaza. The British casualties welt 7,000. Operations before Gaza now settled into regular trench warfare. The Sinai campaign was at an end. It had fulfilled its object, the security of Egypt; and the careful and thorough organisation which had conquered the desert had laid a solid foundation for the future British successes. For this Sir Archibald Murray deserves the greatest credit. He had never been given the number of troops which he had repeatedly stated was the minimum necessary for more extended successes.

III. PALESTINE A long pause in active operations followed the second battle of Gaza. The Turks, under German leadership, were now gathering their last resources at Aleppo for an attempt to recapture Baghdad. They christened this force the “ Yilderim ” (“ lightning ’’) group. The British General Staff decided to forestall this enterprise by an attack in Palestine which would divert this army southwards from Aleppo and remove the danger to Baghdad. The British Government also no doubt hoped by a spectacular success in the East to remove some of the disappointment caused to the public by the failure of Nivelle’s offensive in France and the military collapse of Russia. Gen. Sir Edmund Allenby succeeded Sir Archibald Murray in July 1917, with instructions to report on the conditions in which offensive operations could be undertaken against the Turkish forces on the Palestine front. Allenby’s Plan Outlined —Allenby based his plan on an appreciation made some time previously by Lt.-Gen. Sir Philip Chetwode, who now commanded on the Gaza front. The obvious line of advance was by Gaza, which would allow of naval co-operation, directly cover the lines of communication, and present comparatively small difficulties of water supply. But the defences of Gaza were too solid to be broken except by a slow and costly process of siege. The Turkish centre was also strong and the approach to it difficult. There remained the Turkish left, which rested about Abu Hureira, some 7 m. west of Beersheba; the defences here were weaker and less complete, and might perhaps be rapidly overwhelmed. This would provide an opportunity for the mounted troops, the arm in which lay the chief superiority of the British force over the Turkish. A preliminary operation was necessary to capture Beersheba, which the Turks held by a detached force; for there was not room to manocuvre between Beersheba and the Turkish left; moreover possession of the water supply at Beersheba was essential to further operations. The difficulties of capturing Beersheba and of placing a sufficient force within striking distance of the Turkish left were, however, serious. The three principal problems to be

PALESTINE, OPERATIONS solved were those of transport, water supply and secrecy. Until the Gaza-Beersheba line had been passed and the cultivated plain of Palestine reached, it was not practicable to use motor lorries, and the force was dependent on horsed transport and camels. This limitation greatly increased the difficulties of water supply, which was the second main problem. Its seriousness is illustrated by the fact that the striking force estimated as necessary for operations against the Turkish left required some 400,000 gallons of water daily. Of the 30,000 camels available the majority would be required to carry water. The third great difficulty was to concentrate a striking force sufficient to overwhelm the garrison of Beersheba rapidly and then attack the Turkish left, without the Turks becoming aware of the plan and taking steps to counter or avoid the blow. In spite of the difficulties to be overcome, Gen. Allenby decided to attack the Turkish left. Ile estimated the total force required at seven divisions and three mounted divisions with additional artillery and aeroplanes. Four divisions and two mounted divisions were to attack the Turkish left, three divisions were to make a subsidiary attack on Gaza, and one mounted division was to watch the centre between these two wings, which would be separated by some 20 m. during the operations. The number of divisions was made up to the required total by the roth and 60th from Salonika and by the completion of the 75th, already in process of formation. Allenby formed his three mounted divisions into the Desert Mounted Corps, under Lt.-Gen. Sir H. Chauvel, an Australian, and his seven divisions into two Corps, the XX., under Lt.-Gen. Sir Philip Chetwode, and the XXI., under Lt.-Gen. Sir E. Bulfin. The elaborate preparations necessitated by the character of the forthcoming operations occupied the summer and early autumn. The railway across the desert was doubled; and arrangements were made for its rapid extension during operations; ammunition and other stores were accumulated; and the troops underwent special and intensive training. The development of the water supply was also a constant preoccupation. Meanwhile, Gen. von Falkenhayn, in command of the Turkish Army at Aleppo, had realised that the security of the Palestine ‘front was essential to the successful prosecution of the plan for the recapture of Baghdad. It was accordingly decided to drive the British back into the Sinai desert before committing the Yilderim force to the Mesopotamian adventure. All troops available at Aleppo (only three divisions) were ordered to south Palestine during September. Both Turks and British were thus aiming to strike a blow on the Palestine front in the autumn of 1917, and each hoped to forestall the other. The poverty of the Turkish lines of communication decided this issue by the delay it imposed on the southward movements of men and stores. From Haidar Pasha, the Turkish main base on the Asiatic shore of the Bosporus, to railhead in Palestine was a distance of 1,275 m., with a single line of rail only, which, up to Aleppo, had also to serve the Mesopotamian front. The incomplete tunnels in the Taurus and the differences in gauge of the various lines necessitated five or six transhipments of all stores before they reached Palestine. Scarcity of fuel and jealousies between the German commanders and staff and the Turkish officials who controlled the working of the communications further accentuated the difficulties. Consequently, the supply problem crippled Turkish movements throughout these campaigns. The force from Aleppo was still in process of arrival on the Palestine front when Allenby struck his blow. Disposition of the Troops.—During the days previous to Oct. 31, the date fixed by Allenby for the attack on Beersheba, the Desert Mounted Corps and the XX. Corps (10th, 53rd, 6oth, “4th Divs.) were gradually and secretly moved across to the right wing from behind Gaza, where they had been im training camps by the sea. There could be no question of concealing entirely the preparations for a movement against Beersheba; but Allenby did hope to persuade the Turks that this movement was only a feint and that the real main attack was against Gaza. To this end the XXI. Corps (52nd, 54th and 75th Divs.), left opposite Gaza, began on Oct. 26 a heavy bombardment of the

IN

2/

Turkish defences, assisted by British and French warships from the sea. The intended deception as to the real point of attack was aided by the natural nervousness of the Turk of operations by sea against his right flank. He was also perfectly aware of the great difficulties of transport and water supply in the country opposite his left flank, which he believed was sufficiently safeguarded by these natural obstacles. The Turkish forces at the end of Oct. consisted of the VIII. Army (six divisions) under Kress von Kressenstein, holding Gaza and the Turkish centre, and the VII. Army (three divisions), holding Beersheba and the Turkish left. The VII. Army was not yet complete, one of the divisions from Aleppo being still on the lines of communication. Von Falkenhayn, who was to combine the action of these two armies, only arrived at Jerusalem on Nov. 1. The approximate fighting strengths of the Turkish and British forces were: Turks, 50,000 rifles, 1,500 sabres, 300 guns; British, 95,000 rifles, 20,000 sabres, soo guns. Allenby’s plan for Oct. 31 was as follows: Two divisions of the AX. Corps, the 6oth and 74th, were to attack the southwestern defences of Beersheba, which lay some 4 m. from the town itself, with the s3rd Div. protecting the left flank of this attack. The Anzac and Australian Mounted Divs., which had concentrated at El Khelasa and Bir ’Asluj, were to reach a position east of Beersheba by dawn, close the Beersheba-Hebron road, and then attack and carry the town as rapidly as possible, before the Turks could destroy the wells. Capture of Beersheba.—During the night of Oct. 30-31 the assaulting infantry and artillery moved some 8 m. to their positions of deployment, while the mounted troops undertook a ride of over 25 m. to reach a position east of Beersheba. These long and complicated night movements were only made possible by careful preparation and good staff work. At dawn on Oct. 31 the attack of the XX. Corps commenced. A Turkish forward work, Hill 1030, had to be taken, to allow the artillery to get within wire-cutting range of the main position. Hill 1030 was taken at 8:30 A.M.; the main assault was delivered at 12:15 P.M. and was successful; by early afternoon the British infantry were masters of the Turkish defences southwest of the town; they were still, however, some miles from the town itself. Meanwhile, the mounted troops, after closing the Ilebron road, had been held up by a Turkish strong point at Tel es Saba, 3 m. east of Beersheba. When this was at last taken, little time remained if the town was to be captured before dark. Gen. Chauvel accordingly ordered a mounted attack at 4 p.m. The 12th Australian Light Horse Bde. charged over the Turkish trenches and rode straight into the town. This daring and well-executed charge resulted in the capture of over 1,100 prisoners and 1o guns, and saved the all-important wells from demolition. The infantry had captured another goo prisoners, and the Turkish 27th Div. had suffered practical annihilation. While the preparations for the decisive attack on the Turkish left were being made, the XXI. Corps carried out a holding attack at Gaza on the night of Nov. 1-2. A considerable portion of the Gaza defences was carried and heavy losses caused to the Turks. Left to themselves, the Turkish commanders would now probably have retired to a fresh position while there was yet time. But Von Falkenhayn, imbued with German principles of defence and ignorant of the qualities of the Turkish troops he led, ordered a counter-attack with all available reserves to the north of Beersheba. This led to three days’ heavy fighting against the British s3rd. Div., which had been sent into the hills to guard the right flank of the XX. Corps. The s3rd Div. held its own; consequently, when at dawn on Nov. 6 the remainder of the XX. Corps (roth, 6oth and 74th Divs.) attacked and broke through at Abu Hureira, the Turks had no reserves to restore the situation. By nightfall Gaza was being evacuated and the whole Turkish force was in full retreat. The pursuit by Allenby’s mounted troops was hampered by lack of water; and the Turkish rear-guards were well handled. A gallant charge at Huj on Nov. 8 by some squadrons of Worcestershire and Warwickshire Yeomanry captured three batteries of guns; but no large bodies of Turks were cut off; and the supply

28

PALESTINE, OPERATIONS IN

question limited the number of divisions which could be used in the pursuit. On Nov. 11 the Turks took up a position to cover Junction Station, where the railway to Jerusalem branches off the main line. After a short pause to organise for attack, Allenby’s pursuing troops attacked on Nov. 13 and soon dislodged their enemy, in an action remarkable mainly for a dashing charge by a brigade of yeomanry on a strongly held hill above the village of Fl Mughaiyir. On the following day Junction Station was captured; Jafia was occupied on the 16th. The capture of Junction Station definitely divided the Turkish armies; the VII. was left in the hills to defend Jerusalem, while the VIII. was in the plain to the north of Jaffa; there was no good communication between the two armies south of the line Tul Karm-Nablus. Before Jerusalem.—A\lenby had originally intended to wait until the development of his communications allowed of his whole force being brought up before turning into the difficult hills towards Jerusalem. He now decided to oppose the Turkish VIII. Army with a detachment, while with the remainder of his force he turned cast and advanced on Jerusalem at once. It was a bold decision, since he had only three infantry and two mounted divisions immediately available, and the supply of these strained the resources of his transport to the utmost; the troops available had already done much hard marching and fighting; little was known of the hill country save that it was very difficult and that there was only one road fit for wheels. The Anzac Mounted Div. and the 54th Div. were left to hold the Turkish VIII. Army in the plain, while the remaining three divisions advanced into the hills, the 75th up the main road, the 52nd on its left and the Yeomanry Mounted Div. on the left of the 52nd. Both these two latter divisions were entirely dependent on pack transport. The intention was to pivot on the 75th, when that division arrived within a certain distance of Jerusalem, and to swing the left across the Jerusalem-Nablus road north of the city. It was hoped thus to compel the surrender or withdrawal of the defending Turks and to avoid fighting in the close vicinity of the Holy City. There was some hard fighting on Nov. 20 and 21; the 75th Div. captured the crest of the ridge at Enab in a fog on Nov. 20 and on the 21st stormed the commanding hill of En Nabi Samweil; the 52nd made similar progress; and the yeomanry were at one time within a short distance of the Nablus road. But the British effort had shot its bolt; the men were suffering much from cold and wet, and the artillery support available was insufhcient against strong prepared positions. The yeomanry were counter-attacked and driven back, and the send and 73th could make no headway; by Nov. 24 it was evident that without fresh

troops and a period of preparation Jerusalem could not be taken. The difficult passes through the hills had, however, been secured and the boldness of the advance Justified. A pause now took place while the British Army improved its communications and thus enabled the XX. Corps to be brought up from Gaza, where it had been left for convenience of supply. It took over the line opposite Jerusalem, releasing the troops which had made the first attempt to strengthen the line in the plain. Von Falkenhayn during this period ordered small local counter-attacks all along the line in the hope of disorganising Allenby’s plans. But these attacks had no effect and merely wasted the best remaining elements of the Turkish force. The second attack on Jerusalem was delivered at dawn on Dec. 8, in mist and rain. The brunt of the fighting fell on the 6oth (London) Div., assisted on the left by the 74th Div. and on the right by the 53rd Div., which had previously moved up from Beersheba along the Hebron road to within striking distance. By the evening the Turks had decided to withdraw, and the city surrendered next morning. Allenby made an official entry on Dec. 11. His brilliant campaign effectively removedall danger to Baghdad from the Yilderim Army, the whole of which had of necessity been used in Palestine. The Jast reserves of Turkish man-power were practically exhausted; and Turkey was now in

a far worse plight than when Germany had, at the commencement of 1917, undertaken the re-establishment of her military

prestige by driving the British out of Baghdad. Von Falkenhayn had completely failed to grasp either the conditions of the theatre or the idiosyncrasies of Turkish troops. He was replaced early in 1918 by Liman von Sanders. Rising of the Arabs—The encouragement given by the British success to the Arab revolt caused an additional drain on Turkish resources. ‘The Arab revolt had broken out a year previously, when Hussein, the Sherif of Mecca, induced the Hejaz to rise against the Turk. Jeddah and Mecca were soon captured, but the Medina garrison held out. The revolt would probably have ended in the re-establishment of the Turks, or in desultory warfare with little result, had there not appeared a young Englishman with an understanding of the Arabs and a gift for guerrilla tactics. As Col. Lawrence he became famous. He persuaded Feisal, a son of Hussein, who led the Arab forces in the field, that the true policy lay not in assaults on the Turkish garrison in Medina, which if successful would merely rid the Turks of an

embarrassment, but in gradually spreading the revolt northward up to the very gates of Damascus, with propaganda as the principal weapon, and in ceaseless raiding on the long exposed Turkish communications to Medina, which would form a constant drain on the enemy’s resources.

In pursuance of this policy, Feisal, with Lawrence as his adviser, moved his base of operations from opposite Medina, first to Wejh and next to Akaba, which Lawrence had captured by a dashing raid. Gen. Allenby was quick to realise the service which the Arab rising was rendering to his operations, and was always sympathetic to Lawrence’s requests for equipment o other aid in kind. | | | Allenby’s next aim was obviously to secure sufficient room for manoeuvre in front of Jerusalem in the hills and Jaffa in the plain. On Dec. 20 and 21 the 52nd Div. forced a passage of the river El ‘Auja, and drove the Turks 8 m. north of Jaffa, thus improving the position in the plain. In the hills, all preparations had been made for an operation to drive the Turks farther from Jerusalem, when information was received that the Turks themselves were about to attack. Reinforcements, including the Ist Div., had reached them, and Von Falkenhayn was determined on an attempt to recapture the Holy City. The attack was pressed with great gallantry on Dec. 26, but made no impression; on the following days the counter-attack of the British XX. Corps carried them some 5 or 6 m. forward and safeguarded Jerusalem from the north. Later, the eastern flank was secured by the capture of Jericho, which took place on Feb. 21. Early in March, the line was pushed still farther north, both in the hills and in the plain, by a series of small operations. Thus by the spring a strong line had been secured, which might have been

held by a reduced force in the exhausted state of the Turks. | Plans for 1918.—Meanwhile, the future of the Palestine campaign in the general plan of the Allies for 1918 had become the subject of considerable discussion. In view of the expected great German offensive in the West, there was a considerable body of opinion amongst those who directed the Allied strategy in favour of closing down as far as possible all commitments in minor theatres and of concentrating on the vital Western Front all reinforcements that could be spared from them. It was also pointed out that the maintenance of large forces on the Palestine front entailed heavy losses in shipping—which was likely to prove the Achilles’ heel of the Allies—since the submarine menace was : especially serious in the Mediterranean. On the other hand, it was believed by many that neither side could force an issue on the Western Front, so formidably entrenched, and that the War could be won by the eliminaticn of Germany’s weaker Allies. They held that one more blow would force exhausted Turkey to sue for peace; and consequently advocated a further offensive in Palestine. This policy was eventually adopted. Two divisions, the 3rd and 7th Indian, were moved from Mesopotamia to reinforce Allenby’s army, and all preparations for a fresh great offensive were being made, when the storm broke on the Western Front. The success of the German offensive of March 21 caused a demand on Allenby for all

the troops he could spare, which of course necessitated the post-

PALESTINE, OPERATIONS IN ponement of his operations. During April and May, two complete divisions (the 5znd and 74th), 24 additional British battalions, nine regiments of yeomanry and five and a half heavy batteries were withdrawn from the Egyptian Expeditionary Force and dispatched to France. These were gradually replaced by Indian cavalry from France and Indian units from India, and the Egyptian Expeditionary Force was reorganised on an Indian basis. It required much training and organisation to weld all these new, and in some cases raw, units into an effective whole; but by the end of the summer the Egyptian Expeditionary

Force was again ready to strike a decisive blow. Preliminary Operations in 1918.—Meanwhile, in March and May, Allenby had carried out two raids to the east of the Jordan. These raids were an important part of his strategical plan. He had decided that his next great advance should be initiated from his left flank along the coastal plain, where his great superiority in the mounted army could be exploited. Therefore, the more of the Turkish Army he could draw over to the opposite flank, east of the Jordan, the easier would it be to break through on the coast when the time came. The railway junction at Deraa was a vital point in the Turkish communications. If the Turkish Command could be persuaded by demonstrations east of the Jordan that a move in force up the Hejaz railway was a possibility, and if Feisal’s Arabs could be encouraged to attack Deraa and the railway where it ran down the Yarmuk valley, the Turks would be obliged to move troops east of the Jordan. With these objects the raids east of the Jordan were undertaken. Neither was a complete tactical success. The first raid reached the railway near Amman and cut it in several places, but failed to capture Amman before supply difficulties caused by vile weather necessitated its withdrawal. In the second raid, the mounted troops reached Es Salt; but the Turks could not be driven from their strong positions in the Shunet Nimrin pass; and the defeat of the left flank guard of the mounted troops, with the loss of nine guns, rendered their position at Es Salt dangerous and compelled a withdrawal. But the two raids had the desired effect of seriously alarming the Turks for their left flank. After the second, Liman von Sanders, who was now in command, had been induced to place one-third of his total force east of the Jordan, with a corresponding weakening of his forces. west of the Jordan. Allenby kept alive the opposing commander’s fears for this dank by maintaining throughout the summer, in spite of the heat, a considerable force in the valley of the Jordan. In July the German units operating with the Turks made an abortive attack on part of the position of the Desert Mounted Corps. Elsewhere on the front there was little serious fighting during the summer.

IV. SYRIA At the end of the summer

of 1918 the Turkish forces were

distributed as follows, on a front of 65 m.: the VIII. Army (five divisions and three German battalions), in the coastal plain and the foothills, faced the British XXI. Corps; the VIL. Army (four divisions), in the Judaean hills astride the Nablus road, faced the British XX. Corps; while the IV. Army (two divisions, one cavalry division and one composite division), in the Jordan valley and east of the Jordan, was opposed to the Desert Mounted Corps. The total fighting strength of the Turks amounted to 32,000 rifles, 3,500 sabres, 350 guns; and that of the British to 57,000 rifles, 12,000 sabres, 540 guns. Gen. Allenby’s plan was the reverse of that of the GazaBeersheba battle; then, he had struck the Turkish left while persuading them that his real effort was to be made along the coast against their right; now, he proposed to advance along the coast, while deceiving the Turks into thinking that their left flank was threatened. Steps were skilfully taken to simulate a concentration of troops in the Jordan valley, whereas in fact only a skeleton force, the Anzac Mounted Div. and a few battalions, was left there. The real concentration was being secretly made in the coastal plain, to which the bulk of the Desert Mounted Corps and the 6oth Div. of the XN. Corps were transferred. For the success with which this concentration was con-

29

cealed from the Turks to the last, British superiority in the air was largely responsible. A simple statement in figures shows how well Allenby had succeeded in obtaining an overwhelming superiority of force at the decisive point. When his concentration was complete, he had on a 15-m. front in the coastal plain 35,000 infantry and 400 guns against only 8,coo Turks with 130 guns; and behind this mass of infantry were three cavalry divisions waiting to exploit success. On the remaining 45 m. of front he left only 22,000 infantry with rs5o0 guns, facing 24,000 Turks with 270 guns. And the Turks were still unaware of his intentions or of the distribution of his force. | : The September Offensive—The attack was made at 4:30 A.M.

on Sept. 19. The preliminary bombardment lasted only 15 min., and the infantry assault, pushed at great speed and in overwhelming strength on a broad front, was rapidly successful. By 7:30 A.M. the leading cavalry division was through the enemy’s lines. The orders to the mounted troops were to ride straight north, Situation jon nighta Sept 18t” i918 =

Hai

British Turks

Caps in British fine E Eo watched or high ty heid

English

Miles

0

20

disregarding any hostile troops that did not directly bar their path, cross by the passes near Megiddo into the Plain of Esdraelon, and secure El Affule and Beisan to block the Turkish lines of retreat. The leading troops of the sth Indian Cav. Div. reached Nazareth, Liman von Sanders’ headquarters, just 24 hours after

their start, having covered 52 m.; they failed only by accident to capture the person of the enemy commander-in-chief. The qth Cav. Div., moving farther to the east, covered 70 m. to Beisan in 34 hours. The advance was carried out with great dash and there were several instances of successful mounted attacks. A regiment of the 5th Cav. Div. rode over a Turkish battalion in the Plain of Esdraelon; and a brigade of the Australian Mounted Div. galloped into the village of Jenin, occupied by a numerous force of Turks and Germans, thus sealing one of the main exits from the trap in which the Turkish VII. and VIII. Armies were now caught. Meanwhile the British infantry of the XXI. Corps, after breaking through the Turkish fortified system in the plain, had wheeled to the right and driven the remnants of the Turkish VIII. Army into the hills. The 60th London Div. (Maj.-Gen. Shea) actually reached Tulkeram before dark on the roth, having fought and marched 18 m. over very heavy going. During the two days following Sept. 1ọ the XXI. Corps continued to press their pursuit, while the NX. Corps also pushed forward along the Judacan hills to Nablus. The infantry of these {wo corps thus shepherded the straggling remains of the Turkish VII. and VIII. Armies into the hands of the mounted troops. The Royal Air Force, with bombs and machine-gun fire, caused havoc amongst the bewildered Turkish transport, penned in and crowded on narrow hill roads. Only a few of the most determined Turks and some of the better fed and disciplined German units managed to break out to the east and cross the Jordan. The Germans fought well throughout the retreat. Meanwhile,

the Turkish

IV. Army

ignorant of the fate of the other armies.

had

remained

inactive,

On the 22nd it began a

hurried retreat on Amman, hoping thence to escape up the Hejaz

30

PALGRAVE— PANAMA

railway to Damascus. It paused at Amman till Sept. 25, awaiting the arrival of the Maan garrison from the south. But the LY. Army was now not only too late to rescue this force, but too late to secure its own safety. Feisal’s Northern Arab Army was already between it and Damascus, and the whole countryside was rising against the Turks. The Arabs under Lawrence had already contributed largely to the discomfiture of the Turks by their raids on the lines of communication near Deraa, which they cut effectively from Sept. 17 onwards. They were now ina position to delay and harass the IV. Army in its march north. The Final Victery—The Turkish VII. and VIII. Armies having been disposed of, Allenby ordered a part of his mounted troops to occupy Haifa, which was captured Sept. 23 by a most gallant charge of the Indian Imperial Service Brigade. The remainder were dispatched east and northeast to cut off the IV. Army and to capture Damascus. The 4th Cav. Div. was to cross the Jordan near Beisan and move on Deraa, while the Australian Mounted Div. was to make direct for Damascus by the road which runs from Nazareth to the west of Lake Tiberias, crossing the Jordan at Jisr Benat Yakub. On Sept. 25 there was a fierce fight at Tell es Semakh at the southern end of Lake Tiberias. The 4th Australian Light Horse Bde. charged in the dark over unknown ground and captured the village after hand-to-hand fighting with a force composed largely of Germans. The Turkish IV. Army passed Deraa before the 4th Cav. Div. could head it off, but under pressure from this division and from the Arabs it gradually disintegrated. The cnd came on Sept. 30, when the Australian Mounted Div., which on Sept. 28 had overcome some determined opposition to its crossing of the Jordan, succeeded in getting astride the Damascus-Beirut road just outside the city, cutting off the remains of the IV. Army. Damascus was occupied next day, Oct. 1. Immediately after the capture of Damascus, malaria and influenza broke out and placed a great proportion of the British mounted forces out of action. It also seriously affected the very numerous Turkish prisoners. There was now no formidable Turkish force in southern Syria. To complete its occupation, two columns advanced. The 7th Div. left Haifa on Oct. 1 and moved up the coast to Beirut, which it reached on the 8th, and then on to Tripoli, which was occupied on the 18th; the sth Cav. Div., which though less affected by maliria and influenza than other formations, was considerably below establishment, advanced from Damascus by Homs (Oct.16), Hama (Oct. 20) to Aleppo, which was occupied on Oct. 26. The last fighting took place north of the town on the 28th. On the 31st an armistice was concluded. Between Sept. 19 and Oct. 26 the British Army had moved its front forward a distance of 360 miles. During this period the 5th Cav. Div. had actually covered over 500 miles. The captures included 72,000 Turks and nearly 4,000 Germans and Austrians, 350 guns, 800 machine guns and large quantities of transport and other material. History records few victories, if any, more striking and complete. Conclusions.—These campaigns of the Egyptian Expeditionary Force are of great strategical interest. For the military student they will al vays remain classic examples of the use of mounted troops and of the value of mobility. Conditions of war change, and it may be that some mechanical form of transport will entirely replace the horse as the means by which mobility can be secured. But the power of mobility as a strategical weapon, in the hands of a commander who has the knowledge and the determination to use it as did Gen. Allenby, will only be enhanced. A second strategical lesson is the advantage gained by a commander who can conceal his intentions from his opponent. In both his great battles against the Turk, Allenby completely deceived his adversary as to his plans, and had thus secured a decisive superiority before the battle was joined. Only constant foresight and careful preparation can effect this. Air superiority is a factor of increasing importance in this question of concealment of plans and movements. Finally, the dependence of all strategy on the communications may be stressed. The Turks added to the initial handicap which their long and difficult lines of communication imposed on them

by their neglect to improve these and by the inefficiency of their

working. Von Falkenhayn, during his command, entirely failed to adapt his strategy to the limitations necessitated by his means of transport. On the British side, the greatest care was devoted to developing the communications in accordance with the strategical plan, and the supply services were thus able to cope even with such problems as were presented by the rapidity of the advance to Damascus and Aleppo. BrratrocRapiy.—A. Aaronsohn, With the Turks in Palestine (1917); E. Dane, British Campaigns in the Nearer East (1917); W. T. Massey, The Desert Campaigns (1918); R. Preston, The Desert Mounted Corps, Palestine and Syria, 1917-18 (1921); Record of the Advance of the Egyptian Expeditionary Force, July 1917—-October 1918 (official 1922); M. Bowman-Mainfold, An Outline of the Eeyptian and Palestine Campaigns, 1924-18 (1922). See also WORLD WAR: BIBLIOGRAPHY. (A y

PALGRAVE, SIR ROBERT HARRY INGLIS (1827-1919), British banker and economist, was born at Westminster June 11 1827, the son of Sir Francis Palgrave, the historian (see 20.629). He was educated at Charterhouse and entered Barclay’s Bank at Yarmouth. There he rose to a position of such importance that in 1875 he was one of three representatives of the English issuing country bankers chosen to give evidence before the select committee of the House of Commons on Banks of Issue. He edited The Economist from 1877 to 1883, and publishegl many works on banking, as well as The Local Taxation of Great Britain and Ireland (1871). He also edited The Dictionary of Political Economy (1894-1906). Ie was knighted in 190ọ, and died at Bournemouth Jan. 25 1919. PALM BEACH, Fla., U.S.A. (see 20.643), one of the most luxurious of the winter resorts on the east coast (population, 1920, 1,135). Opposite to it is West Palm Beach, which stretches for eight m. along Lake Worth, and advertises itself as the place “ where summer spends the winter.” Its population in 1910 was 1,743; in 1920, 8,659; and in 1925, according to the state census, it was 19,146. Both shared in the Florida boom that began in 1922. An extension of the Seaboard Air Line in 1924 established rail connection with the west coast, and more than 2,000 houses were built in the next 12 months. PANAMA (see 60.664).—A republic of Central America, situated between Colombia and Costa Rica. It has an area of 32,380 square miles, The Panama Canal has been cut across the narrowest part from Colón to Panama, and the area, except for the towns of Panama and Colón, is for five miles on each side of the canal under the control of the United States. Panama declared war on Germany on April 7 1917, and acquired membership in the League of Nations in 1920. The inhabitants are of mixed race, the chief elements being Spanish, Indian and negro. The population according to the 1920 census was 446,098, excluding the 22,858 inhabitants of the Canal Zone. The population of Panama, the capital, in 1920 was 59,458; Colón, at the Atlantic entrance to the canal, had a population of 31,203. POLITICAL

HISTORY

The amended constitution of Dec. 26 1918 provided that the president should be elected by direct vote and should be ineligible to succeed himself. Provision was also made for three designados or vice-presidents, of whom the first would hold office as ad interim president in the event of the president dying whilst in office. In 1912 Belisario Porras was elected president for the term ending 1to16. In the latter year the elections were held in disturbed civil and political conditions, and Ramén M. Valdéz was elected for the term 1916-20. Valdéz died in 1918, his term of office being completed by Ciro L. Orriola. Ernesto Lefevre was inaugurated Jan. 30 1920; but in Aug. Dr. Belisario Porras was elected to office, and inaugurated for a term of four years on Nov. 1. He was succeeded on Nov. 1 1924 by Rodolfo Chiari, who was elected for the term 1924-8. The dispute with Costa Rica over the demarcation of the boundary line between that country and Panama resulted in the United States Secretary of State notifying Panama that the White award of r914 must be accepted (see Costa Rica). In 1922, on the recommendation of President Harding, the Hay-Bunau-Varilla Treaty of Feb. 23 1904 (see 20.670) was dis-

PANAMA—PANAMA CANAL cussed at Washington for the purpose of removing causes of friction between Panama and the United States. The disputed matters were the property valuation of the Canal Zone, the establishment

of a free port and arrangements

for docking

privileges. Panama contended that the United States had never acquired the zone in fee simple, and that the zone republic should exercise sovereign rights in fiscal jurisdiction therein. The United States contended that the treaty conferred upon its Government all such rights. Negotiations during 1923 and 1924 reached a partial deadlock in July of the latter year. Part of the trouble arose from the practice of the United States in leasing cold-storage plants and warchouses in the zone to private individuals. Panama claimed that this violated her sovereignty. It was finally agreed that the status quo should continue pending the negotiation of a new treaty. In Jan. 1926 no solution of the difheulties by new treaty provisions had been announced. In Oct. 1924 legislation was initiated, excluding near relatives of incumbents of the presidency from the succession and increasing the term of supreme court justices from four to to years. Panama has no army or navy, but maintains municipal and rural police. The police force of the zone is maintained by the United States and has no authority outside. Education.—Primary education is computsory for all children from seven to 15 years of age. In 1923 there were 43,215 children attending the 384 Government schools in the eight provinces of the republic, excluding the children attending the public schools of the Canal Zone. In roti the Instituto Nacional was established in Panama for university education. In 1923 there were 20 private educational establishments in the republic, as well as a training college for girls and a school of arts and crafts for boys. Finance.—The Panama Govt. receives all the import duties collected, but the United States imports all canal material and supplies for Government use free of duty. Financial stabilisation began in 1920, when a fiscal agent, detailed from the Zone Q.M. Service, was placed in charge. The finances as reorganised are based on a triennial budget. A plan of long-term agricultural credits was arranged under amortised mortgages, whereby the registry of land titles was expedited. For 1922 expenditure was $6,900,217 and revenue $5,299,999: for 1923 expenditure was $7,568,124 and revenue $10,299,212, including a loan for $4,500,000 floated in New York in 1923 for road construction. Production and Industry.—The chief products of Panama are bananas, coconuts, hides, coffee, cacao and fagua (vegetable ivory). Only a small area of land is cultivated. The production of sugar has increased, and the cultivation of tobacco has been encouraged by the Government. Bananas were the chief export, amounting in value to more than half the annual exports. Pearl-fishing is carried on in the Gulf of Panama, and tortoiseshell is exported. All international commerce moves through Cristóbal and Balboa, Bocas del Toro being reserved for local business. Over 90°% of the total exports go to the United States, which also dominates the import business. Trade figures (excluding the Canal Zonc) for the ycars 1921-4 were:—

1921

1922

1923,

-

1924 (est.)

Imports

Exports

$11,372,370

$2,495,407

12,674,375

2,389,728

10,268,548

.

13,000,000

2,487,478

3,250,000

The trade of Panama (including the Canal Zone) with the United States for the same period was as follows: — Imports

Exports

$23,144,000

$3,865,000

1922 1923

14,517,000 21,769,000

3,607,000 4,267,000

1924

26,366,000

5,004,000

The total trade of Panama with Great Britain for the same period was:—

1921

1922

1923

|

Imports

Exports

£305,095

£138,983

354,026

87,587

218,450

65,544

414,378 105,257 Concessions have been granted to 10 commercial undertakings for the exploitation of oil lands in the republic, the last of the concessions having been granted in May 1924. Under the terms of the contract the concessionaire is required to pay to the Government the sum of 15 cents for each hectare conceded, with a stipulated preference of

3I

developing for a term of 30 years should oil be struck. Only three companies had carried out boring operations in 1924. Panama has vast timber resources; during the year ended June 30 1924 about 5,000,000 ft. of mahogany and cedar had been shipped from the lumber camps on the Rio Congo. Comnunications.—There are three railways with a total mileage of 257.

Of these

the Panama

Railroad

Co.

(U.S. Govt.)

has a

line between Colón and Panama, a distance of 48 miles. The Chiriqui Railway, owned by the Government, runs from Pedrigal to Boquete, a distance of 33 m., with two branches, one of 17 m. from David to La Concepcion, the other from Dolega to Potrerillos, a distance of cight miles. The railway operated by the United Fruit Co. and constructed primarily for the banana trade has a mileage of 151, radiating from Almirante. Approval! has been given for a contract for the construction of a railway along the Atlantic coast from the mouth of the Chagres river to Almirante. In 1923 a loan of $4,500,000 was obtained by Panama in New York City to provide funds for highway construction. Before midsummer 1925, 125 km. had been constructed. The system connects Santiago, Las Tablas and Menabé with Panama City by way of Agua Dulce, Penonomé, Ancón, Chamé and Chorrera. Nearly 30 steel bridges have been built. _ BrnLioGRAPHyY.—Foreign Office Reports, annual till 1914, continued as Department of Overseas Trade Reports, annual 1922, etc.; A. Edwards, Panama: the Canal, the Country, and the People (1912); F. Lindsay, Panama and the Canal To-day (new ed., 1912); H. A.

Franck, Things as they are in Panama (1913); L. Oppenheim, The Panama Conflict between Great Britain and the United States (Cambridge, 1913); Sir H. E. Richards, The Panama Canal Controversy (Oxford, 1913); G. W. Goethals, Government of the Canal Zone (Oxford, 1915), also The Panama Canal (1916); W. H. Koebel, Central America, South American series (1917); H. G. James ana P. A. Martin, The Republics of Latin America (1923). (H. I. P.)

PANAMA CANAL (see 20.666).—The construction period of the Panama Canal covered about 10 years, but the actual work of construction was accomplished in about seven years; the first three years were devoted to preliminary preparation, during which time the thorough sanitation of the Canal Zone was accomplished, yellow fever banished, an operating plant assembled, a working force gathered, living quarters erected and a food supply provided. Reservoirs were built which furnished an ample supply of pure water to the Canal force, and to the cities of Colón and Panama, in which water- and sewer-systems were built. An out-of-date railway system was converted into an

adequate one with a thoroughly modern equipment of rails, locomotives and cars. Beginning of the Work.—The first commission was in office only a year (1904-5) and accomplished little beyond formulating plans and ordering necessary supplies. The second, with John F. Stevens as chief engineer and afterwards as chairman also, reconstructed the railway system, assembled the operating plant, collected an efficient working force and provided for it quarters, food and all necessary supplies. It also constructed wharves and docks at both terminals, and machine shops in which the locomotives, cars, steam shovels, etc., shipped in parts from the United States were put together. President Roosevelt visited the Isthmus in Nov. 1906, the visit being notable as the first instance in which an American president had passed out of the U.S. territory while in office. Col. Goethals, of the Engineer Corps of the U.S. Army, was appointed chairman and chief

engineer of the third commission, on the resignation of Mr. Stevens (April 1 1907). This commission was composed of four army engineers, an army doctor, one navy engineer and one civilian. President Roosevelt, who was convinced that the best results could not be obtained through an executive body of seven members, issued an executive order placing supreme power in the hands of Col. Goethals, abolishing the commission as an executive body, and making its members, who were heads of departments, subordinate to him, giving Col. Goethals all civil, military and other powers in the Canal Zone, and this course was subsequently approved in the Act of 1912 for the government and operation of the Canal after its completion. Excavation and Slides.—During the next five years 75% of the entire excavation of the Canal was accomplished. The original plans provided for a total excavation of 95,000,000 cu. yd. and a total cost of $190,000,000 exclusive of $40,000,000 paid to the French Canal Company, $10,000,000 paid to the Panama Republic, and the cost of sanitation and civil administration. Changes made in the basal dimensions with the approval of President Roosevelt increased

PANAMA

32

the total excavations to 175,000,000 cu. yd. and the estimated cost to $375,210,000, inclusive of payments to the French Canal Co. and the Republic of Panama. When the Canal was declared formally complete and opened by President Wilson July 12 1920, a total of about 240,000,000 cu. yd. had been excavated and the total cost, exclusive of expenditure for naval and military defence, was only $366,650,000, of which $10,000,000 was for “slides” or breaks in walls of the Cut of which there were about 30 at different times, affecting an area of 220 ac. and increasing the excavation by 30,000,000 cu. yards.

I. ENGINEERING FEATURES Gatun Dam.—The Panama Canal is a huge water bridge rather than a canal, for its surface for the greater part of its length is 85 ft. above sea level and is held in place by dams at either end. The largest and most important dam is at Gatun, on the Atlantic side. It spans the northern and lower end of a deep valley through which the Chagres river formerly flowed to the sea. It is 13 m. long measured on its crest, half a mile wide at the base, 400 ft. wide at the water surface, roo ft. wide at the top; and its crest is at an elevation of ros ft. above sea-level. It is really two dams in one, for in its centre there is a natural hill or rock 110 ft. high. In this the spillway of the dam is constructed, and against its two sides rest the two sections of the great dam. The dam itself contains 23 million cu. yd. of material. Its outer portions are composed of rock and earth mainly from the Cut, and its centre or core of material drawn by hydraulic process from pits above and below the dam. This material is a natural mixture of sand and clay which in a watery condition flowed into the interstices of the rock and clay of the structure, making the whole at the centre a rubble-wall firmly cemented together and thoroughly impervious to water. Of the entire length of the dam only soo ft. are exposed to the maximum waterhead of the lake, which is 85 to 87 feet. In 1910, after an exceptionally light rainfall, the maximum level of the lake was 87-16 ft. in Dec.; and in May 1920, 81-65 feet. The spillway is a concrete-lined channel, 1,200 ft. long and 28s ft. wide, the bottom being 10 ft. above sea-level, sloping to sea-level at the lower end. Across the lake-opening of the channel is a concrete dam in the form of an arc of a circle, making its length 808 ft., although it closesa channel with a width of only 28s feet. The crest of this dam is 69 ft. above sea-level, or 16 ft. below the normal level of the lake. On the crest are 13 concrete piers with their

tops 115-5 ft. above sea-level, and between these are 14 regulating gates of the Stoney type which move up and down on roller trains in niches in the piers. The gates permit a discharge of water greater than the maximum known discharge of the Chagres river during a flood. Near the north wall of the spillway is a hydroelectric station capable of generating, through turbines which are supplied with water from the lake through a forcbay, sufficient electricity to meet all demands, including the lighting of the Canal and all Canal Zone towns and buildings; the machinery of the locks, the machine shops, dry-dock and coalhandling plant; and the telephone and telegraph systems. There is an emergency Diesel electric plant at Miraflores. Dams

on the Pacific Side—At

Pedro

Miguel, at the south or

Pacific end of the Cut, the water is held at summit level (level of Gatun Lake and the Cut, normally 85 ft. above the sea) by Pedro

Miguel Lock and two flanking dams extending from the side walls of the lock to hills on either side. The distance between the hills at elevation 92 [t. is 2,000 feet. The situation of the lock at the base of Cerro Luisa made it practicable to connect with that hill by a short concrete wall, 260 ft. in length, subsequently covered with earth. On the west side a rock and earthen dam was built with a puddle and rolled impervious core, 1,400 ft. in length. The minimum width of base is 800 ft., the side slopes, 8 to 1, the top, 105 ft. above sealevel. The maximum head of water to which the dam is subjected is 40 ft., the average between 25 and 30 feet. The Pedro Miguel Lock raises or lowers ships 31 ft.—the difference between the summit level of 85 ft. and the normal surface of Miraflores Lake —54 ft. above sea-level. The Miraflores Lake is a mile in length, and its waters are retained by the Miraflores Locks and flanking dams. The east dam at Miraflores is of concrete, and the greater part of it is the spillway of Miraflores Lake. This spillway is 432 ft. in length, with the crest of its dam 38.67 ft. above sea-level, and the supporting piers for the gates rising to 85-17 ft. above sealevel. Eight gates, similar to those in the Gatun Spillway, each 47 ft.

CANAL 10; in. long by Ig ft. in height, and weighing 44 tons each are operated in the same way as the 14 gates at Gatun; but the dam at Miraflores is straight, instead of being in the form of an arc, as at Gatun, The west dam at Miraflores is of earth and rock and extends almost parallel with the axis of the locks to a hill to the south. Its length is 2,300 Ít., top 70 ft. above sea-level, width of top 4o ft., and slope of sides approximately 12 to 1. It contains 661,000 cu. yd. of soft hydraulic material and 1,500,000 cu. yd. of rock and earth. The Locks.—All locks are in duplicate, constructed in the same manner, and their chambers, with walls and floors of concrete, have the same usable dimensions—1,o00 ft. long and 110 ft. wide. There are six pairs, making 12 in all. The side walls are from 45 to 50 ft. wide at the surface of the floor, are vertical on the chamber side, and narrowed on the outside from a point 243 ft. from the floor, by means of a series of steps each 6 ft. long, to a width of 8 ft. at the top. A culvert 254 sq. ft. in cross-section, extends the entire length of each middle and side wall, and from each of these large culverts, smaller

culverts, 33 to 44 sq. ft. extend to holes in the floors. Fifteen feet above the top of the culvert in the middle wall there is a U-shaped space Ig ft. wide at the bottom and 44 ft. at the top. This space is divided into three storeys; the lowest for drainage; the middle for wires that carry the electric current to operate the gates and valve machinery installed in the centre wall; and the upper a passage-way for the operators. All lock walls are 81 ft. high, except in the lower pair of locks at Miraflores, where they are 82 ft. because of the extreme tidal oscillations of about 21 ft. in the Bay of Panama. In the walls at Gatun there are 2,068,000 cu. yd. of conerete, and in those on the Pacific side 2,440,000 cu. yards. All lock walls rest on rock foundations. The approach wall at the north entrance at Gatun, 1,031 ft. long, rests upon piles driven from 35 to 70 ft. into the earth; that at the south or lake entrance 1,009 ft. long, rests on piles reaching to rock, in some places over 100 ft. below sea-level. Cellular form of reinforced concrete is used in all approach walls, except

those of the lower locks at Gatun and Miraflores, where mass concrete is used because of the effect of salt water on steel reinforcement. Lock Gates.—-The

lock gates, each composed

of two leaves, are

65 ft. wide, from 47 ft. 4 in. to 82 ft. high, 7 ft. thick, and weigh from 390 to 730 tons. There are 92 leaves in all, and their combined weight

1s 60,000 tons. Each isa huge webbed steel box, the girders of which are covered with a stecl sheathing. All portions of the interior are accessible, with watertight compartments providing for the adjustment of the buoyancy so as to control within limits the dead load on the bearings, making the leaf practically float in the water. This watertight compartment is subdivided vertically into three sections, cach independently watertight, so that if the shell should be broken or leak, probably only one section would be affected. An air shaft, 26 in. in diameter, runs from the bottom compartment up to the top of the gate, and is also watertight where it passes through the upper half of the leaf. The girders are made with manholes through the webs, providing communication from the top to the bottom of the leaf, and are connected by several sets of vertical transverse diaphragms of solid plates, running from top to bottom of the leaf, thus making a cellular construction, and dividing the spaces between the horizontal girders into small pockets, all of which are accessible through manholes. ach leaf rests at the bottom of its heel post upon a hemispherical pivot of forged nickel steel, and is hinged at the top to the masonry of the lock wall. It swings free on the pivot like a door, without wheels or other support beneath it. Intermediate gates are used in all except one pair of locks, and divide the space into two chambers, one 600 and the other goo ft. in length. This makes possible a saving of water and time in locking small vessels through, for 95°, of the vessels navigating the high seas are less than 600 ft. in length. The highest gates and the highest lock walls on the Canal are those of the

lower locks at Miraflores, and these locks are the only ones which

have no intermediate gates. The total lift from mean sea-level to the level of Miratlores Lake, 54 ft., is divided equally between the upper and lower locks. The depth of water on the mitre sills is yo feet. The locks are filled and emptied through the large and smaller culverts. The large culverts are controlled at points near the gates by large valves, and each of the small culverts feeds in both directions through the latcrals, thus permitting the passage of water from one twin lock to another, effecting a saving of water if desired. The

average time required to fill or empty a lock chamber is 8 min. if both centre and side wall culverts are used, and 12 min. if only one

culvert is used. The average time to pass a vessel through the three flights at Gatun Locks is an hour, from arrival to clearance; for the one lift at Pedro Miguel half an hour, and for the two flights at Miraflores three-quarters of an hour, The time of passage of a vessel from one terminal port of the Canal to the other is 7 hours. The transit is conducted under a time schedule in order to use to best advantage the lock operating forces, assure safety in passing and conserve water in times of need. Passage of Locks.—With the exception of small craft no vessel can pass through the locks under its own power. On arrival at the locks it is taken in tow by towing locomotives or “ electric mules.’’ These locomotives opcrate on cog tracks on the lock walls at the rate of two m.an hour. The usual number required for a vessel is six: two ahead, one on cach wall, two slightly forward of amidships, one on each

PANAMA side, the four imparting forward motion to the vessel; and two astern, one on each side, to aid in keeping the vessel in a central posi-

tion and in bringing it to rest within the chamber while the emptying or filling is carried on. Smaller vessels are handled with four locomotives, the two amidships being dispensed with; while very large craft may use cight. The movements of the locomotives are directed

by the pilot from the bridge of the vessel. Each locomotive is equipped with a slip drum, towing windlass and hawser, which permit the towing line to be taken in or paid out without actual motion of the locomotive on the track. The locomotives run on a level, but in passing from one lock to another they climb heavy grades. Before a lock can be entered, a fender chain, stretched across the walls of the approach, must be passed. If all is proceeding properly, this chain is dropped into its groove to the bottom of the channel. If by any chance the ship is moving too rapidly for safety, the chain remains stretched and the vessel runs against it. The chain, which is operated by hydraulic machinery in the walls, then pays out slowly by automatic release until the vessel is brought toa stop, The chain, which weighs 24,098 Ib., and is stronger than any previously made, is capable of stopping a 10,000-ton ship running at 4 m. an hour within 73 ft. or less than the distance between the chain and the first gate. If the vessel should get away from the towing locomotive and, breaking through the chain, ram the first gate, there is a second gate 50 ft. away, protecting the lock, which arrests further advance. When the leaves of this gate swing open, the vessel is towed in, and the gate is closcd behind it. Then, from 105 openings placed at regular intervalsin the lock floor, water pours in, lifting the vessel to the level of the lock above. This inllow, coming equally from all points, does not move the ship from a stable position. The gates are never opened or closed with a head of water on either side of them. The process of lifting is repeated until the vessel reaches the lake level. At all times the vessel is in full view of the men who are controlling it and as safe as if tied to a wharf. The gates are opened and closed by a powerful machine invented by Edward Schildhauer, an electrical engineer in the employ of the Isthmian Canal Commission. It consists of a crank gear or wheel moving through an arc of 197°, placed horizontally in the lock wall. To the outer rim of the wheel is attached a strut or connecting rod which is fastened to the top of a lock gate 17 ft, from the pintle or hinge. When the wheel turns in either direction the gate leaf is opened or shut, the operation taking two minutes. The crank gear, constructed of cast stecl, is Ig ft. 2 in. in diameter and weighs approximately 35,000 pounds. It is connected with an electric motor, and a small electric switch sets it in motion. Every operation in the passage of a vessel through the lock, except the movements of the towing locomotives, is controlled by one man in a building at the top of the centre wall commanding an unobstructed view of every part of the locks. He has before him a control board table 64 ft. long and 5% ft. wide, which is a complete model of the locks in duplicate, with switches and indicators in the same relative positions the machines they control occupy in the lock walls. Standing by this board the operator throws the electric switches, and in response to his action he sees in the model the fender chains rise and fall, the gates open and close, the water rise and fall in the locks, and knows the exact position of the vessel at every stage of its progress. Each gate, each valve for letting in the water to the culverts and each fender chain is operated by a separate motor mounted near the machinery in chambers in the lock wall. In each machinery chamber there is a starting panel containing contactors by which current is applied to the motor, and these panels in turn are controlled from a main unit in the central control house. Some of the machinery chambers at Gatun are 2,700 ft. distant from the point of control, 90% of them are within 2,000 ft., and 50° within 1,200 fect.

II. COURSE

AND

ACCESSORIES

The length of the Canal from shore line to shore line is 42 m., and from deep water in the Atlantic to deep water in the Pacific 50 miles. The Canal does not, as is generally supposed, cross the Isthmus from east to west. It runs due south from its entrance in Limon Bay, through the Gatun Locks to a point in the widest portion of Gatun Lake, a distance of 113 m.; it then turns sharply toward the east and follows a course generally southeastern till it reaches the Bay of Panama. Its terminus near Panama is about 225 m. east of its terminus near Colón. In passing from the Atlantic to the Pacific a vessel enters the approach channel in Limon Bay, which has a bottom width of 500 ft. and extends to Gatun a distance of seven miles. At Gatun it enters a series of three locks in flight which lift it 85 feet. It then enters upon Gatun Lake, which covers an area of 164 sq. m. with a depth varying from 45 to 87 ft. and contains 183,136,000,-

ooo cu. ft. of water. The Canal has a channel varying from 500 to 1,000 ft. in width for a distance of 24 m. to Gamboa, where the Cut passage begins. Through the lake a vessel may steam at full speed, without any risk.

CANAL

33

The channel through the Cut, a distance of about 8 m., has a bottom width of 300 ft. and a depth of 45 ft., and extends to the locks at Pedro Miguel, the Pacific end of the water bridge. At Pedro Miguel the vessel is lowered in the single lock 31 ft. to a small lake, at an elevation of 54 ft. above sea-level, through which the vessel passes 1 m. to the two locks at Miraflores. These drop it to sea-level, and through an approach passage 8 m. long, with a bottom width of 500, f{t., it passes into the Pacific. The Cut has eight angles and at these the channel is widened sufficiently to allow a 1,000-ft. vessel to make the turn. The smallest angle is 7° 36’ and the largest 29° sg’. In the whole Canal there are 22 angles, the total curvature being 600° 54’. The sharpest curve is 67° 11’.. The Canal is lighted from end to end by electricity and gas. There are concrete lighthouses for range lights on the hillsides, and beacons in the Cut, in which electricity is used. The channel through Gatun Lake is marked with floating buoys lighted with compressed acetylene dissolved in acetone. The most powerful electric lights are those of the approach channels, which are visible for from 12 to 18 nautical miles. The beacons and gas-buoy lights are 850 candle-power. White and red lights are used, and in order to climinate the possibility of confusing the lights with one another, and with the lights on shore, all range lights, beacons and buoys have individual characteristics, formed by flashes and combinations of flashes of light and dark intervals. The electric lights on the locks are suspended from brackets on concrete columns 34 ft. high, and clustered under concrete hoods in such a way as to light the lock chambers and not penctrate along the axis of the Canal. Breakwaters.—Long breakwaters have been constructed near the approach channels in both oceans. One in Limon Bay, or Colón harbour, called the West Breakwater, extends from the bay from Toro Point at an angle of 42° 53’ northward from a base line drawn from Toro Point to Colén Light, and is 11,526 ft. in length, 15 ft. wide at the top and Io ft. above mean sea-level. A second, also in Limon Bay, known as the East Breakwater, is without land connection, one m, in length and runs in an easterly direction at nearly a right angle with the Canal channel. It has a lighthouse on the channel end. ‘The West Breakwater protects the harbour against ‘ northers,” very severe gales which are likely to blow from Oct. to January. The Last Breakwater prevents silting in the Canal channel. The breakwater at the Pacific entrance extends from Balboa to Naos I., a distance of 17,000 feet. It lies from 900 to 2,700 ft. east

of, and for the greater part of the distance nearly parallel to, the axis of the Canal prism, varies from 20 to 40 ft. in height above mean sea-level and is from 50 to 3,000 ft. wide at the top. It was constructed for a twofold purpose; first, to divert cross-currents that would carry soft material from the shallow harbour of Panama into the Canal channel; second, to furnish rail connection islands and the mainland.

between

the

Permanent Canal Buildings—Upon the completion of the Canal a number of villages along the line occupied during the construction days were abandoned, the sites of several being covered by the filling of Gatun Lake. The buildings in good condition were transferred to the permanent towns located at the ends of the canal and adjoining the locks. Culebra, the former headquarters of operations, situated on the west bank of the Cut near its deepest part, was turned into an army post. The permanent headquarters were located at Balboa Heights, and the offices of the departments centred in a large 3-storey concrete administration building situated on a hill 100 ft. above sea-level, and overlooking the Pacific entrance to the Canal. On the hill in the rear of this building are the residences of the

governor and other officials.

On the low land in front of the

building, in a site which was formerly a tidal swamp and was raised to 20 ft. above sea-level by filling with material from the Cut and hydraulic fill from excavation in the harbour, is the town of Balboa. This is laid out on both sides of a central avenue called the Prado, and contains permanent buildings of concrete blocks roofed with red tile. In additién to the dwellings of employces there are a police station, post office, fire-station, sanitary office, dispensary, clubhouse, a community house conducted by the Catholic Church, an army and navy Y.M.C.A., restaurant, churches, lodge hall, schoolhouse and playground. Effective municipal layout in a setting of great natural beauty

34

PANAMA CANAL

and an abundance of trees and shrubs make the villages very attractive places of residence. The streets are of concrete with asphalt surfacing, and the number of automobiles in use is noticeably large. Terminal Facilities.—At the ports on both oceans have been constructed facilities ample for commercial shipping and the naval needs of the United States. Modern piers, 1,200 ft. in length by 240 ft. in width, with enclosed sheds, built of reinforced concrete and steel, are ample for the transhipping of cargo and the storage of goods consigned there for orders. At the Pacific end, at the foot of Sosa Hill, Balboa, are marine and railway repair shops, foundry, etc., covering 60 ac., thoroughly

equipped and including a dry dock having a usable length of 1,000 ft. and entrance width of rro ft., capable, like the locks and other parts of the Canal, of accommodating any vessel afloat. The depth over keel blocks is 43 ft. at mean tide. Smaller shops and a dry dock 300 ft. long and 48 ft. wide with depth of 134 ft. are operated at the Atlantic end. Coaling plants capable of rapid bunkering are operated at both terminals, as well as oil-pumping plants connected with storage tanks for fuel oil, Diesel oil and gasolene. Storehouses supply all kinds of ship chandlery and repair material, as well as foodstuffs, beef and other fresh meats and cold storage supplies, ice, etc. Ships’ every need of repair or supply can be met. Radio stations for communication with ships are operated by the U.S. Navy at Cristobal and Balboa, and also at Cape Mala, 90 m. south of the Pacific entrance, and a high-power station, primarily for government communication with the United States, is situated at Darien, midway of the Isthmus. Salvage tugs and other wrecking equipment are available for use of vessels within a radius of 1,000 m. or more of the Canal. Hotels and hospitals are situated at both terminals. Fortifications and Military Occupation.—By exccutive order dated Dec. 5 1912, President Taft declared that “all land and land under water within the limits of the Canal Zone are necessary for the construction, maintenance, operation, protection, and sanitation of the Panama Canal,” and title to all such land was acquired by the Govt. of the United States. The Canal Zone is thus a military reservation, and the only activities carried on by other than government forces are on land rented to steamship interests and to agriculturists under revocable licences. Heavy fortifications have been built at both entrances to the Canal and brigade posts established near the locks. Both the army and the navy have aerial forces at the Canal, and a base for submarines is maintained at the Atlantic end. The total military force is 10,000 men. Panama Railroad.—The Panama Railroad extends between Cold6n and Panama on the eastern side of the Canal, and is 47:61 m. long. A branch line, extending from Pedro Miguel to Las Cascadas and crossing the Canal on a floating bridge at Paraiso, was discontinued Jan. 1 1921. The railroad as built in 1850-5 followed the course of the Chagres from Gatun to Gamboa, and was for the most part on the west side of the route of the Canal. With the building of the Canal it was necessary to relocate the railroad throughout practically its whole length. The construction of the original railroad was done by an American company in the years 1850-5 under great difficulties; its completion antedated by 14 years the completion of the first transcontinental railroad in the United States. At that time auges had not been standardised, and a width of 5 ft. was adopted or the Panama Railroad which has been maintained since. The railroad was an essential factor in the construction

of the Canal,

and is an important adjunct to its operations. It is equipped with go-lb. rails, rock-ballasted track, and automatic signals. It uses modern American rolling-stock, including oil-burning locomotives.

III. ADMINISTRATION AND FINANCE Under an Act of Congress, approved Aug. 24 1912, the Panama Canal is governed and operated, and the Canal Zone is governed through a governor of the Panama Canal, appointed by the President, with the approval of the Senate, for a term of four years, at a salary of $10,000 a year. In addition to the operation of the Canal, the governor has official control and jurisdiction over the Canal Zone and performs all duties in connection with its civil govérnment, it being held, treated, and governed as an adjunct to the Canal. There is one U.S. District Court in the Canal Zone, with the same jurisdiction and procedure as the same courts in the United States, the judge of which is appointed by the President. Appeals are made to the Circuit Court of Appeals of the Fifth Circuit of the United States. At Balboa

and Cristobal there is a magistrate’s court for minor cases, the judges being appointed by the governor. Gen. Goethals was the first governor and served until Jan. 11 1917, when he resigned and was succeeded by Col. Chester Harding, U.S.A., who held the office until March 27 1921, when he was succeeded by Col. Jay J. Morrow, U.S.A. The latter resigned in Oct. 1924, and was succeeded by Col. Meriwether L. Walker, U.S.A. The organisation on the Isthmus includes a number of departments and divisions in charge of the various activities, as follows: Dept. of Operation and Maintenance, including the Marine Div., Mechanical Div., Dredging Div., Section of Lock Operation, Electrical Div., Div. of Municipal Engineering, Fortifications Div., and several sections; the Supply Dept., made up of the Quartermaster section, Subsistence section, Commissary Div., Cattle Industry and Plantations, and Hotel Washington; the Accounting Dept.; the Health Dept.; the Executive Dept. and the Panama Railroad. The Panama Canal has an office in Washington, D.C., and the Panama Railroad Co. has an office at 24 State street, New York. Canal Zone Population.—A census of the Canal Zone taken in 1925 showed a total population of 37,011, of which 27,151 were civilians and the remainder military. The civilians included 2,301 adult male Americans, 2,413 American women, 2,399 American children, and people of other nationalities as follows: men, 6,928; women, 4,563;

children, 8,547.

Canal Force.—The working force at the end of June 1925 numbered 12,270, of whom 2,885 were Americans, chiefly in official and clerical positions and skilled trades, and 9,385 were alien labourers, chietly West Indian negroes. The apparent discrepancy between these figures and those of the Canal Zone census is due to the fact that many of the labourers live in the cities of Panama and Colón, which are not within the Canal Zone.

Tolls —The Hay-Pauncefote Treaty between Great Britain and the United States, abrogating and succeeding the ClaytonBulwer Treaty, was ratified on Dec. 16 1g01. It contained this clause: The Canal shall be free and open to the vessels of commerce and of war of all nations observing these rules, on terms of entire equality, so that there shall be no discrimination against any such nation or its citizens or subjects in respect of the conditions or charges of traffic or otherwise. Such conditions and charges of traffic shall be just and equitable.

In 1912 Congress passed an Act for the operation and government of the Panama Canal, which was approved by President Taft on Aug. 24 of that year, and which contained the provision that “ no tolls shall be levied upon vessels engaged in the coastwise trade of the United States.” A formal protest against this exemption was made by Great Britain on the ground that it was a violation of the Hay-Pauncefote Treaty. In June 1914, under a special appeal from President Wilson, Congress passed a bill which repealed the Exemption Act of 1912. This was approved by President Wilson on June 15 1914. Under authority given to him by the Panama Canal Act of Aug. 24 1912, President Wilson issued a proclamation, on Nov. 21 1913, fixing the canal tolls at $1.20 per net ton of net capacity as determined by the Panama Canal rules of measurement. On Feb. 15 1915 President Wilson issued supplementary instructions that where application of the $1.20 per-net-ton rate produced a sum in excess of the sum produced by the application of the $1.25 rate on net registered tonnage as determined by the U.S. rules of measurement, the excess amount should be uncollectable. The effect of this ruling was to reduce by approximately 14% the revenue from tolls paid by ships of all nationalities using the Canal.

During the first six years of operation there was a marked increase in traffic notwithstanding the fact that the World War everywhere prevented the normal development of oceangoing commerce. After the entry of the United States into the War there was a decrease in commercial traffic, due to the diversion of certain lines of ships to trans-Atlantic service, which was more than offset by the increase in traffic growing out of the War, chiefly on account of the development of the nitrate trade with the Pacific coast of South America. With the return of normal conditions after the War traffic rapidly increased. Canal Trafic.—-The number of commercial transits, the amount received from tolls and other collections, and the current expenses of

PAN-AMERICAN CONFERENCES maintenance and operation for the fiscal years ending June 30 1915-

25, are shown in the following table:—

Fiscal year

Number of commercial

1915 IgI6 1917 I9I8 1919 1920 1921 1922 1923

1,072 760

transits

Current expenses of operation and maintenance

$ 4,343,383.69 2,558,542.38 5,308, 398.70

1,806 2,068 2,028

$4,123,128.09 6,909,750.15 6,788,047.60

6,411,843.28

5,920,342.94 6,112,194.77 6,548,272.43

6,354,016.98

2,478 2,892

8,935,871.57 ¥2,040,116.70

5:230 4,673

17,691,844.06 24,681 ,853.89 21,582,618.16

2,736 3,967

1924 1925

Tolls and other transit revenues

9,328,300.

I4

7:919,017.63 7,690,777.56 8,373,905.39 8, 116,693.44

11,385,592.32

Among nations the chief users of the Canal were the United States and Great Britain. The number of vessels passed each year for these nations and for all other nations was as follows:— United States

E 7 Fiscal Year

Great Britain

All other nations

470 238

153 19! 632 803

464 628 786

1,129 1,210 1,095 1,994 2,947

637 596

710 706 gos

1,018

' 2,326

The following is the saving in nautical miles, effected by the Panama Canal from European ports to ports on the west coast of America, to Hawaii and to New Zealand :—

To

Sitka, Alaska Port Townsend,

Wash. . ; Portland, Oregon San Francisco, Cal. . San Diego, Cal. Acapulco, Mexico San José, Guatemala Honolulu, Hawaii Guayaquil, Ecuador . Callao, Peru Valparaiso, Chile Wellington, N.Z.

The following is the saving, in nautical miles effected by the

Panama Canal in length of all-water routes between ports of the Atlantic-Gulf U.S. seaboard and various Pacific ports:—

To

New Orleans|

Sitka, Alaska Portland, Oregon San Francisco, Cal.

San Diego, Cal. Acapulco, Mexico San José, Guatemala

.

Honolulu, Hawaii

Guayaquil, Ecuador Callao, Peru

Valparaiso, Chile Yokohama, Japan Shanghai, China Hongkong, China Manila, P.I i

f

Adelaide, S. Australia Melbourne, Australia Sydney, Australia Wellington, N.Z. 1 Distance less via Suez.

Galveston

35

The notable increase in business in 1924 was due mainly to the development of oil-fields in California, whence large quantities of crude oil were shipped in tank steamers to refineries on the Atlantic seaboard. These shipments declined in the following year, but the loss was partly offset by the normal growth of other trades. Public vessels of the United

States, Panama and Colombia and

vessels which are sent through the Canal solely for repair at the Balboa shops are exempt from the payment of tolls, and such vessels are omitted from the statistics in the above table. From the opening of the Canal to June 30 1925, they numbered 2,613, the majority of them being American naval vessels or army transports. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—Joseph Bucklin Bishop, The Panama Gateway (1913; rev. ed., 1915); George W. Goethals, Government of the Canal

Zone (1915); W. L. Sibert and John W. Stevens, The Construction of the Panama Canal (1915); W. C. Gorgas, Santtation in Panama (1915); Joseph A. Le Prince and A. J. Orenstein, Afosquito Control in Panama (1916); Annual Reports of the Governor of the a a .

D.

DI.

PAN-AMERICAN CONFERENCES (see 20.671).—The fourth Pan-American Conference was held at Buenos Aires in 1910, and during the same year the Pan-American Union building, erected through a gift of $750,000 from Andrew Carnegie and $250,000 contributed by the various republics of the Union, was formally dedicated. During the three weeks following Dec. 25 1915, the second Pan-American Scientific Congress met in Washington. Amongst the speakers was President Wilson, who urged friendly settlement of international disputes by arbitration. The Congress appointed an International High Commission, which sat at Buenos Aires in April 1916. Improvement and extension of cable, telegraph and railway services between the countries was urged. A permanent International High Commission was established to promote uniform commercial laws throughout the countries represented in the Union. In Feb. 1918 the governing board of the Pan-American Union approved a plan to establish a Section of Education to promote better knowledge of the languages and history of the American republics through educational institutions. In Nov. 1918 a Pan-American Federation of Labour Conference met at Laredo, Texas. Delegates were present from the United States, Mexico and Central America. An influenza epidemic interfered with South American attendance, Colombia alone being represented. A permanent federation was organised. Pan-American Child Welfare Congresses met at Montevideo, Uruguay, in Dec. 1918 and in May 1919; at the second meeting provision was made for establishing at Montevideo an International Bureau of Child Welfare. In June 1919 the second Pan-American Commercial Congress was held in Washington, and in the same city, in Jan. 1920, a Pan-American Financial Congress. The sixth International Sanitary Conference was held in Montevideo Dec. 12—20 1920. It re-organised the International Sanitary Bureau, which has been active in disseminating valuable bulletins on sanitation and public health. In Jan. 1921 a convention was held in Mexico City with the object of promoting good relations between the labouring classes of the United States, Central and South America. It was attended by Samuel Gompers and other United States Labour leaders. In June 1921 Panama proposed the formation of a PanAmerican League of Nations which should function on the American continent in the same manner as the League of Nations established by the Treaty of Versailles. The suggestion, however, did not meet with the approval of President Harding and no further action was taken in this direction. In Sept. 1921 a Pan-American Postal Congress was held in Buenos Aires, at which the postal rates between the countries of the Union were discussed. The Fifth Conference—The fifth Pan-American Conference was held March 25—-May 3 1923 at Santiago, Chile, Henry P. Fletcher, U.S. Ambassador to Belgium, being head of the U.S. delegation. Delegations from all the American republics, except Bolivia, Mexico and Peru, were present, and a large number of subjects were discussed. A proposal by Uruguay that the principle of the Monroe Doctrine be adopted by all American States was not supported by the United States delegates, and was recommended for report to the next Pan-American Conference.

36

PAN-AMERICAN

UNION—PAN-GERMANISM

Similarly, an attempt to arrive at an agreement for the limitation of naval armaments failed on account of disagreement between Brazil, Argentina and Chile. Costa Rica strongly urged the establishment of an American Permanent Court of Justice but failed to obtain the support of the Conference, because the plan submitted included arbitration of questions involving the vital interests of nations, and the matter was referred to the commission of jurists at Rio de Janeiro in 1925. Four conventions were completed and signed, viz., an agreement under which international disputes might be investigated and settled by a commission empowered to ascertain facts; a trade-mark convention, protecting users of trade-marks in the countries where ownership of the mark is acquired through registration; a convention to secure uniformity of nomenclature in the classification of merchandise; and one providing for the publicity of customs documents. No fewer than 73 resolutions were passed, one of the most important of which created four permanent committees to assist the Union in the study of (1) the best means of developing the economic and commercial rela- tions between the American States; (2) the international organisation of labour in America; (3) hygicne in the countries of the American continent; and (4) the best means of developing intellectual co-operation, with especial reference to co-operation between the universities and the exchange of professors and students. It was decided to hold the sixth Pan-American Conference at Havana, Cuba, within the following five years. In Sept. 1924 the International Pan-American Committee, consisting of men interested in developing closer Pan-American relations, proposed that Columbus Day, Oct. 12, should be observed annually as Pan-American Day, and the suggestion met with the approval of President Coolidge. The seventh Pan-American Sanitary Conference was held at Havana, Cuba, Nov. 5-15 1924, and the third Pan-American Dee. 1924.

Scientific Congress met at Lima, Peru, in

BIBLIOGRAPHY.—Pan-American

Society

of the

United

States,

Yearbook, rules and members (1912); J. Barrett, Pan-America and Pan-Americanism (1915), Practical Pan-Americanism (1915), PanAmericanism and the Monroe Doctrine (Pan-American Union, I916); R. G. Usher, Pan-Americanism (1915); G. H. Blakeslee (ed.}, Problems and Lessons of the War (1916), and True Pan-Americanism; a policy of co-operation with the other Amertcan republics (1917); J. B. Lockey, Pan-A mericanism (1920); S. G. Inman, Problems in Pan-Americanism (1921), and Pan-American Conferences and their results (1924); Pan-American Union, List of Publications published or distributed (1923); for the text of the conferences see Untied

States Supt. of Documents.

PAN-AMERICAN UNION (see 20.671).--At the second PanAmerican Conference, held at Mexico City, Oct. too1—Jan. 1902, the International Bureau of American Republics was organised under a governing board of the diplomatic representatives of the American republics at Washington with the Secretary of State of the United States as chairman. At the fourth PanAmerican Conference, held at Buenos Aires, July 12-Aug. 30 1910, it was decided that this International Bureau should be henceforth called the Pan-American Union. The same year the Pan-American Union building in Washington, D.C., erected through a gift of $750,000 from Andrew Carnegie and other funds provided by the various republics, was dedicated and has since been maintained as the headquarters of the Union. At the fifth Pan-American Conference, held at Santiago, March 26-May 13 1923, the membership of the governing board of the Union was enlarged; and it was agreed that in future any American republic not having an accredited representative at Washington may nominate a special representative on the board.

The board is constituted of representatives of all the countries of America, except Canada and Guiana. Its purpose is to develop commerce, friendly intercourse, good understanding and the preservation of peace among the countries of America, and it is supported financially by quotas contributed by each country based upon their respective populations. It publishes a monthly bulletin embodying a record of Pan-American progress, and also special reports and pamphlets containing practical information on

Pan-American subjects. Its library, the Columbus Memorial Library, contains 55,000 volumes and a large collection of maps, photographs, lantern slides and negatives. In addition to its other activities, the governing board acts as an ad interim executive committee in the intervals between the Pan-American Conferences (q.v.). PANGALOS, THEODORE (1878—), Greek soldier and politician, was born in Salamis of Albanian origin, and in 1895 entered the Athenian Military Academy, whence he proceeded to complete his studies in Paris. During the World War he commanded a regiment in Macedonia, in 1917 he held a post in the Ministry of War, in 1918 commanded the first infantry division and in rọrọ was chief of the General Staff during the campaign in Asia Minor. When the revolution of 1922 dethroned King Constantine for the second time, he was chairman of the com-

mission of enquiry into the responsibilities for the Asiatic disaster, and was consequently concerned in the execution of the six Royalist Ministers. He subsequently became Minister of War in the revolutionary Govt., and commander-in-chief of the Army of the Hebros. At the elections of 1923 he entered the National Assembly as delegate from Salonika and chief of the Republican group. In the first Republican Cabinet of M. Papanastasiou in 1924 he was successively Minister of Law and Order (for the repression of brigandage) and War. On June 25 1925, by a bloodless conp d'état, he made himself Premier, then forced the Chamber to accept him, prorogued and subsequently dissolved it, took two Royalists into his Cabinet as a sign of “ reconciliation,” and on Jan. 3 1926 publicly proclaimed himself dictator; he had already been so in fact ever since he had thrown away the “parliamentary mantle” with which M. Papanastasiou had tried to cover the uniform of his former colleague. In April 1926 Gen. Pangalos was elected President of the Hellenic Republic in succession to Admiral Condouriotis. PAN-GERMANISM.—Pan-Germanism is the name given to an imperialistic movement which, though it had long been gaining strength, received but little serious notice in Anglo-Saxon countries until the years immediately preceding the World War. Its importance may then have been exaggerated, yet there can be little doubt that it helped largely to popularise the belief that there had been at work in Germany forces bent upon ambitious schemes of territorial aggrandisement and political dominion.

Its Two Aspects.—There are, indeed, two aspects of PanGermanism—the purely national and defensive, and the outspokenly Chauvinistic and aggressive. The Pan-German is accustomed to describe his endeavours as merely designed to realise, under modern conditions, the ideas of men like Fichte, Arndt and other patriots who over a century ago looked to the time when the sundered German tribes would be gathered into one political fold. In the middle of the century the political economists Friedrich List and Wilhelm Roscher, both forwardlooking in many ways, gave more purposive form to this vague notion of an all-embracing Germanic commonwealth. List dreamed of a German Empire extending from the Adriatic to the Black Sea, offering scope for German colonisation for centuries to come. He also predicted the eventual inclusion in that empire of Holland, holding that without control of the mouth of the Rhine Germany was “like a house whose front door is

owned by a neighbour.” List’s speculations would appear to have given encouragement and direction to the later more definite activities of the PanGermanist movement; for many of the imperialistic schemes which have been advanced by contemporary writers are only

variations or augmentations—mostly the latter—of his ideas. List’s influence can first be traced in the works of men like Paul A. de Lagarde, Gustav A. C. Frantz and Paul Dehn, who all

wrote on the subject in the ’seventies or ’eighties of last century. Thus, in his Deutsche Schriften, Lagarde wrote:— We must create a Central Europe which will guarantee the peace of the entire continent from the moment when it shall have driven the Russians from the Black Sea and the Slavs from the South and

shall have conquered

large tracts to the east of our frontiers for

PAN-GERMANISM German colonisation. We cannot let loose ex abrupto the war which will create this Central Europe. All we can do is to accustom our people to the thought that this war must come.

Frantz, too, in his book Die Weltpolitik, advocated the formation under German direction of a powerful confederation of States comprising, besides Germany, Austria, Holland, Belgium, Flanders, Lorraine, Switzerland, Franche-Comté, Savoy, and, in the East, the Balkan principalities and Russian Poland. THE

War

PERIOD

During the years preceding the World War these ideas affected Germany and were reinforced by influential political names. They had been kept alive by a host of writers of unequal merit, among the most influential being Ernst von Jalle, Friedrich Lange and Ernst Hasse. The special aspect of the Pan-German question to which Hasse devoted his pen was ‘ frontier policy,” the title of his best-known book. One of his favourite schemes was the hedging of the empire on its landward frontiers by a military glacis, a day’s march wide, to be settled by the families of ex-non-commissioned officers and other picked men who had had‘a military training. This real Landwehr was to be the rocher de bronze of which Frederick the Great spoke, a bulwark against which the attacks of Germany’s enemies would hurl themselves in vain. He also advocated the incorporation in the German Confederation of Belgium, Luxemburg, Holland and

certain

French

frontier

districts, as well as of Bohemia

and Moravia (to be taken from Austria) and parts of Western Russia. For, he wrote, ‘“‘ We want territory even if it be inhabited by foreign peoples, so that we may shape their future in accordance with our needs.” It was only in 1891 that the Pan-Germans resorted to systematic organisation and propagandism. The colonial movement was then in full flood, and the idea of imperial expansion had captured the national imagination in a high degree. Five years before a congress of patriotic organisations had been called for conference in Berlin by Dr. Karl Peters, who later acquired a sinister notoriety. A loose federation of these bodies was formed for the more successful advancement of national interests, particularly territorial expansion, and Peters was for a

time accepted as its head. A New League.—In 1891 this federation was reconstituted as the General German League (Allgemeiner Deutscher Verband) under pressure of the strong public feeling evoked by the conclusion of the Zanzibar Convention of the previous year, by which Germany ceded to Great Britain a large part of her East African empire in exchange for the island of Heligoland. A membership of 20,000 appears to have been obtained, but this number gradually fell off to 5,000, until in 1894 the movement was taken in hand by Prof. Ernst Hasse of Leipzig, the municipal statistician and a member of the Imperial Diet. Simultaneously the name Pan-German League (Alldeutscher Verband) was taken; the machinery of organisation was improved and ex-

panded; an energetic agitation by means of meetings, leaflets and a weekly news sheet Pan-German Leaves (Alldeutsche Blätter) was begun; and both members and money again came in freely. The new League sought to create a world-wide national union of all the Germans, adopting as its motto the saying of the

Great Elector of Brandenburg, Frederick William, the founder of the German colonial movement and the creator of the German navy, ‘“ Remember that you are Germans.” The propagandist manifesto in circulation before the War set forth: “ We must strengthen our national sentiment and bring home to the mass of our people the fact that Germany’s development did not end in 1871.” The programme of action comprised the following measures :— | The quickening of the patriotic consciousness of Germans at home and the combating of all tendencies antagonistic to national development,

The solution of questions of the young and the schools The fostering and support countries where our kinsmen Germanism; with the union

relating to the education and training in the sense of Germanism. of German national movements in all have to struggle for the maintenance of of all Germans throughout the world.

37

(At the same time Germans living abroad were warned against direct interference in the internal affairs of the countries of their adoption.) The promotion of an energetic German “ policy of interests ” in Europe and across the seas, and especially the carrying forward of the colonial movement to practical objectives.

Had the Pan-Germans kept their endeavours within the limits of the party’s programme much later reproach might have been saved them. Individual members of the League, however, were not slow to supplement its avowed aims by all sorts of immoderate schemes of aggression in Europe, Asia Minor and Africa. As time passed and the relations of the Great Powers became increasingly strained, the League itself developed

into a powerful piece of political machinery.

Berlin was the

administrative seat, but the organisation covered the whole country, which for purposes of agitation was divided into Gauen or regions, while the formation of branches in foreign countries was studiously furthered. There was an executive committee of 300 members, drawn from all parts of the Empire; there were special committees for various territorial and other questions; and national congresses were held at intervals. The fact that a large number of its members sat in the Imperial Diet gave to the League an excellent forum for the propagation of its ideas, and in all the more critical episodes and controversies in

‘foreign politics during two decades prior to the War it proved an unwearying exponent of a spirited imperialistic policy. Yet

influential

though

the Pan-Germanist

movement

was

before the War, and inflammatory as was much of its influence on public opinion, injustice would be done by identifying the German nation as a whole with its more aggressive propagandism. In the main the movement appealed to and was embraced by the powerful nationalist and Chauvinist parties—in other words, by the military men and the political reactionaries—for though many intellectuals supported the League the soberer heads among them kept aloof, and the historian Mommsen even called the Pan-Germans “‘ patriotic idiots.” Some Reflections.—It would be equally unfair to draw general conclusions from the many extravagances which were uttered and written in Germany during the years of war. The real significance of the Pan-German propagandism at that time lay in the new importance attached to the idea of a Central European Confederation under German influence, now revived by Dr. F. Naumann in his book Mittel-Europa, perhaps the ablest contribution from the German side to the literature of a “ New Europe,” the expansion of the old Berlin-to-Bagdad programme into a grandiose scheme of empire extending from Antwerp and the North Sea to Basra and the Persian Gulf, and the claim to a vast consolidated colonial empire stretching across tropical] Africa, to be acquired at the expense of France, Belgium and particularly of Great Britain. These ambitious projects are not recalled in order to prove that the war aims of Germany were more immodest than those of some of her enemies, still less for the purpose of pointing the contrast between aspiration and achievement, but rather as showing how many years of intensive Pan-Germanic agitation had clearly familiarised the national mind with the idea of imperial expansion as one which might be better realised by force of arms than by the slow methods of peaceful penetration. When criticised, the Pan-Germanist is ready with his answer. “Put yourself in our position,” he says; and the challenge is one to be met. Viewing the question from the German stand-

point it is not difficult to discover facts and tendencies in national and international politics that explain, and within limits may be said to have condoned, the anxiety and spirit of unrest which settled upon Germans when, in 1885 or thereabouts, they began to feel the pressure of the population question, the growing need for new markets and the stirring of ambitions which pointed outwards. It is significant that the movement made its greatest advance when Mr. Chamberlain, Colonial Secretary from 1895 to 1902, was uttering his clear and resounding call to the Commonwealths of the British Empire to coalesce and to raise their frontier barriers, commercially, to the outer world. In the past the British Empire had opened its door freely to Ger-

mans as immigrants and traders, but they might be perhaps,

38

PAN-ISLAMISM

less welcome than before. Even had it been otherwise, the Germans chafed against the Inequality in the partition of the

undeveloped territories of the earth which compelled their emigrants to seek homes under alien flags and thus to be eventually lost to the fatherland. Further, while many German politicians feared a future agglomeration of the Anglo-Saxon races, the whole nation was haunted by the two-fold menace of a restless Russia in the east and of a France in the west unreconciled to the loss of territory in 1871. These and other facts, weighing on an emotional and politically immature people, probably gained for Pan-Germanist ideas a hearing and a sympathy which in different circumstances might have been refused to them. When all due allowances have been made, however, it is but the more justifiable to say that Pan-Germanism stands condemned by its excesses. The great mistake of the Pan-Germans in the past has been that they allowed a justifiable national pride and an eager and natural hankering for more elbow-room to degenerate into hostile designs against other nations which, owing to historical reasons, had preceded Germany in the colonisation of the empty spaces of the earth, and that they so often avowed these designs with astounding candour. Since the War the Pan-German League, refraining from aggressive agitation, has concentrated its attention upon the task of strengthening the national sentiment and spirit, hardly tried by adversity. The latest revision of its statutes (March 1925) is substantially directed towards the political rehabilitation of Germany as a Great Power and the

removal of the territorial and economic penalties imposed by the Treaty of Versailles. Stress is laid upon the maintenance and strengthening of the national spirit, the cultivation of the German individuality, the need for a powerful defence force, the recovery of the lands of which Germany has been deprived and the union of German-Austria with the Reich. | Statistics —On the eve of the War the number of regional groups of the League was about 200, and the aggregate membership was 17,000, a number considerably below the maximum attained in 1902. In 1917 the groups numbered 250, with little change in the total membership. No official figures have been published since the War, but both the number of groups and the membership are believed to have greatly decreased. The representation enjoyed by the League in the Diet has likewise

declined, for while as many as 38 members were identified with it in 1902 the number of such members had fallen to 17 in 1917 and since the War it has been quite insignificant. The Movement in Austria.—The most important development of the Pan-German movement since the War is the great stimulus which it has received in Austria. There an autonomous League was formed in 1919 with an independent organisation; and working from Graz it has carried on a vigorous agitation in all parts of the country, and has even succeeded in making its influence felt in the German districts which have passed from Austrian rule under the Treaty of St. Germain. While its programme has much in common with that of the parent League, it

specially emphasises union with Germany as the hope of the future. That great enthusiasm is being thrown into the agitation

is shown by the fact that up to 1925 200 district branches of the League had been organised, representing an enrolled membership of some 14,000. These Austrian reunion endeavours practically revive the Great Germany movement of the middle of last century. It is not the least strange of the ironies of history that an idea which at that time reft in twain the old German Bund should serve to-day as a symbol of national unity. BIRLIOGRAPHY.—The German literature of the Pan-German movement is very large and inevitably of very unequal value. Better krown writers include, besides those already named, Alexander von Peez, Albert Ritter, General Friedrich von Bernhardi, the AngloGerman Houston S. Chamberlain, Baron L. von Vietinghoff, Count von Reventlow, Albrecht Wirth, H. Frobenius and Friedrich

Lange. Noteworthy German works on the League itself are an official survey of Pan-Germanic endeavours entitled Zwanstg Jahre alideuischer Arbeit und Kämpfe (1910); Martin Wenck’'s Al/deuische Taktik (Pan-German

Tactics) (1917); and Burchard’s Geschichte des

Alideutschen Verbands (1920). Of a number of works in English there

may be named Rowland G. Usher’s Pan-Germanism (1913), and a translation of Charles Audler’s Pan-Germanism, published in 1915. (W. H. D.)

PAN-ISLAMISM.—This word was first employed in journalistic literature in the early ’eighties of the roth century to describe the efforts made in the Moslem world to bring about some unity of action in opposition to the Christian powers of Europe. Invented to express what was believed to be a new order of circumstances, the word has led to much misunderstanding, since it has obscured the facts that Mahommedan political theory has always embodied a hostile attitude towards unbelievers unless they submitted to Mahommedan rule, and that the ideal of the unity of all believers has formed an integral part of the religious outlook of Islam since its very inception. The only new circumstance in the relations between the Christian Powers and the various Moslem populations was that the expansion of the

Press in the East and improved methods of communication have in modern times enormously facilitated the rapid circulation of ideas. The Unity of Islam—Since the Armistice in 1918 it has been as difficult for the present generation of Moslems to effect any realisation of the ideal unity of Islam as for the Mahommedan world during the last thousand years. The Moslem empire held together under the rule of the early Caliphs for little more than one century only. Personal ambition, racial distinctions, sectarian divisions and geographical conditions broke it up into fragments, and although the ideal of the unity of all believers was never abandoned and indeed formed the theoretical basis of the political theory and of both the religious and the judicial organisation of the greater part of the Mahommedan world, it has generally been left to theologians and journalists to bring forward schemes for its realisation, while de facfo rulers and practical statesmen have ignored all such visionary attempts to re-arrange the political conditions of contemporary society. Indeed, throughout the whole history of Islam, the infrequency of any serious attempts to realise political unity and the lack of response when any such attempts have been made are more noteworthy facts than any so-called pan-Islamic movements. The Sanusis, who excited so much anxiety among the French in the latter part of the roth century, succeeded in arousing little more than local interest instead of starting the conflagration which was expected to be about to put the whole of North Africa in a blaze. Similarly, the struggles for independence on the part of the Berbers in the Rif have attracted to their assistance no voluntecrs from other parts of the Mahommedan world, and the Turkish republic (one of the few independent Mahommedan states now surviving) has on more than one occasion made it clear that it does not concern itself with the fate of Mahommedan populations in other countries, even as it does not welcome interference in its own internal affairs on the part of non-Turkish Mahommedans. Attitude of Turkey.—This attitude of aloofness on the part of the Turkish Govt. has dealt a severe blow at pan-Islamism, for those who worked for the unity of Islam during the roth century had looked on Turkey as the rallying point of their efforts, and since the Armistice, pan-Islamic feeling has taken the form chiefly of anxiety for the fate of Turkey. While the settlement of the terms of the treaty was so long delayed, there was ample time for an organised excitation of feeling on the matter. As the Caliph was Sultan of Turkey and the Caliphate (¢.v.) was the visible symbol of Islamic unity and served as the easiest basis for a popular appeal, the defence of this institution and the advocacy of its claims were placed in the forefront. India.—The Khilafat movement was started in India in Oct. 1919, and in the following Nov. a Khilafat conference was held in Delhi. Shaukat Ali became secretary of it in the following year, and he and his brother, Muhammad Ali, were henceforward prominently connected with the movement. The latter headed a deputation to the Prime Minister in London in March 1920 and maintained that Islam required temporal power for the defence of the faith, that for this purpose the Caliph must retain adequate territories, including the whole peninsula of

PANKHURST Arabia, which was defined to include Syria, Palestine and| Mesopotamia, and that the guardianship of the Holy Places must remain in his hands. The deputation returned disappointed, and in July 1921, in the Khilafat conference at Karachi, Muhammad Ali declared that military service under the present British Govt. was religiously unlawful for all Moslems, and he was consequently condemned to two years’ imprisonment for making a statement likely to cause soldiers to fail in their duty. One result of the excitement stirred up in India was that in Aug. 1921 rebellion broke out among the Moplahs, a section of Mahommedans in Malabar, who declared their intention of establishing a Khilafat Govt., and murdered or forcibly circumcised a large number of Hindus. The declaration of a Republic in Turkey in Oct. 1923 and the consequent abolition of the Sultanate, hitherto a concomitant of the Caliphate, contravened one of the main contentions of the Indian Khilafat party, namely that the dignity of the Caliphate demanded that the holder of this office should possess adequate

power for fulfilling all his functions. Indian opinion found expression in a letter sent by H.H. the Aga Khan and the Rt. Hon. Ameer Ali in Nov. 1923 to Ghazi Ismet Pasha, in which they urged that “‘ any diminution in the prestige of the Caliph or the elimination of the Caliphate as a religious factor from the Turkish body politic would mean the disintegration of Islam and its practical disappearance as a moral force in the world.” The relation of the Caliphate to pan-Islamic aspirations was emphasised by representing this institution as “ the link which binds the followers of Islam as a vast congregation.” When the Caliphate was in peril from outside attacks, Mussulman feeling all over the world was violently agitated, and the Moslems of India gave their sympathy and support to the Turkish nation in the belief that “in fighting for their independence they were also fighting for the preservation intact of the institution which symbolised Moslem solidarity.” The publication of this letter gave much offence to the Turkish Govt., which was little inclined to pay consideration to Indian opinion, since the Turks regarded the Indians as impracticable idealists and resented their failure to render assistance during the World War. The abolition of the Caliphate by the Turkish national assembly in March 1924 excited still greater indignation in India, but in answer to numerous protests Mustafa Kemal Pasha (q.v.) defended the action of the national assembly, maintaining that the Caliphate had been a source of internal dissension in Turkey, that the ideal of a united Moslem State under the Caliph had never been realised but, on the contrary, had been a constant source of strife and duplicity among Moslems, and that the interests of the various Mahommedan peoples demanded that they should now organise themselves into separate governments. In view of these altered circumstances the Indian Mahommedans, who had hitherto been urging the claims of the Sultan of Turkey, had to adopt a new programme, and accordingly the Central Khilafat committee, at its meeting in Bombay in May 1924, resolved to endeavour to promote friendly relations and to strengthen the bond of brotherhood between the different Moslem countries and exchange communications regarding a settlement of the Caliphate question in accordance with the Sacred Law of Islam; at the same time, efforts were to be made to free the Peninsula of Arabia (as defined above) from the control of European Powers. Egypt.—Less excitement was felt in Egypt, but the action of the Turkish national assembly was condemned by the whole body of the ‘ulama, and various proposals were discussed for the revival of the office of the Caliph. Finally it was resolved to invite representatives of all the Moslem communities in the world to meet in Cairo to elect a new Caliph; such a congress, first proposed for March 1925, was postponed until May 1926. Java.—In Java the first pan-Islamic congress was organised in Nov. 1922, when a telegram was sent to Mustafa Kemal Pasha, and the Javanese attitude towards the Caliphate question was discussed. At a later meeting in Dec. 1924 it was resolved to send delegates to attend the proposed Caliphate congress in

Cairo, and this resolution was reaffirmed in Aug. 1925.

39

Separatist Movements—Such efforts for united action in the Mahommedan world are less significant than the separatist and national movements, which have filled a larger place and have been of more permanent influence in the political life of Mahommedan countries. The basis of such nationalist feeling in the case of the Turks was racial, as also in the Soviet Mahommedan republics, which were organised as Kirghiz, Tajik or Turkoman; similarly in Arabia, where hostility to Turkish domination was exacerbated by the primitive pride of race and love of independence. Internal dissensions in Arabia even implicated the Indian supporters of the Khilafat movement, though by theory they were working for the unity of all believers; they regarded the action of King Husain in throwing off his allegiance to the Sultan of Turkey as an act of treachery towards Islam, and the Khilafat committee, in Aug. 1924, expressed their sympathy with Ibn Sa‘ud, the Wahhabi Sultan of Nejd, when he invaded the territories of the King of the Hejazs, and in 1925-6 sent more than one deputation to him with proposals for the future government of the Hejaz. In Egypt the nationalist movement was territorial, and Moslems and Copts combined to assert the independence of their country; also in India, where the Swarajist and non-co-operation movements united Hindus and Mussulmans. In Java, Bolshevik influence in 1923 converted the Sarekat Islam (founded in rọro) into the Sarekat Ra'yat (Union of the People), which, unlike the movement out of which it sprang, takes no account of religion. Control of the Seas and of National Resources. —The earlier writers on pan-Islamism view this movement as a possible menace to Christian Europe. The obstacles in the way of any such united activity on the part of the Mahommedan peoples have recently been discussed from a novel point of view in the American Geographical Review (vol. 14, New York, 1924); it is there pointed out that European control of the seas makes it impossible for any powerful combination of Moslem peoples to be effective, and that in the parts of the world inhabited by a predominating Mahommedan population there is a lack of those mineral resources which are necessary for the conduct of modern warfare, e.g., phosphates are only found in those parts of North Africa that are under French control, manganese only in Georgia, tin only in Malacca, and petrol only in Baku. BIRLIOGRAPHY.— Lothrop Stoddart, The New World of Islam (1921); De Lacy O'Leary, Islam at the Cross Roads (1923); J. R. Mott, ed., Phe Moslem World of To-Day (1925); Arnold J. Toynbee, The World After the Peace Conference (1925); Sir Valentine Chirol, The Occident and the Orient (Chicago, 1926); C. Snouck Hurgronje, Verspreide Geschriften, I. (Bonn, 1923); Oriente Moderno, I. seg. (1921). (T. W. A.*)

PANKHURST,

EMMELINE

(1858-

), British

suffragist,

was born July 14 1858, the daughter of Robert Goulden of Manchester. In 1879 she married Richard Marsden Pankhurst

(d. 1898), a barrister who drafted the Women’s Property Act (1882) and an advocate of Women’s Suffrage. Early interested in politics, she, during a short residence in London, took part in the strike of the match girls at Bryant and May’s factory in 1886 and helped to found the Women’s Freedom League three years later. Returning to Manchester in 1893 she acted for four years as a poor law guardian, and was afterwards a registrar of births and deaths and a member of the school board and education committee. After having been successively a member of the Liberal and Independent Labour parties, she decided to abandon everything for the cause of Women’s Suffrage, and in Oct. 1903 was chiefly instrumental in the foundations of the Women’s Social and Political Union on a non-party basis. Having failed to induce the Liberal party to make votes for women a part of their programme she utilised’ her organisation to oppose their candidates, took headquarters in London, held public meetings and organised processions and deputations to the }Hiouse of Commons. On May 16 1906 she spoke for her society at a joint deputation of suffrage societies which met Sir H. CampbellBannerman at the Foreign Office. But the Liberal party being divided on the question, their leaders refused facilities for the discussion of private bills, and the methods of the W.S.P.U. increased in violence.

40

PANTALEONI—PAN-TURANIANISM

In r908 Mrs. Pankhurst was arrested and imprisoned in Holloway for inciting to a breach of the peace by the issue of a handbill urging her followers to rush the House of Commons, and sentenced to three months’ imprisonment. Claiming to be treated as a political prisoner, she defied prison rules and suffered solitary confinement, but was released before the expiration of her sentence on grounds of health. Next year she was again arrested for a technical assault and was again imprisoned, and at the end of the year paid a first visit to the United States. In tgto there was a short lull in the movement pending the consideration of mittee of the the agitation 1911, and on

a moderate measure framed by a non-party comHouse, but as the Government refused assistance was again resumed. The census was boycotted in her return from a second American visit at the end

of the year Mrs. Pankhurst and her daughter directed a windowbreaking campaign. Mrs. Pankhurst was sentenced to 9 months’ imprisonment for inciting to violence in March 1912, but was

temporarily released in June after refusing to take food and resisting forcible feeding, under the so-called “ Cat and Mouse ” Act. On her return from another visit to America she was rearrested at Plymouth but soon again released, when she went abroad to her daughter, Christabel, who, having evaded the police, was at Paris. In 1913-4 arson and the destruction of property were added to the methods of the W.S.P.U., and after the burning of Mr. Lloyd George’s house at Walton, “Mrs. Pankhurst was sentenced at the Old Bailey for inciting to commit felony, to three years’ penal servitude, despite the jury’s recommendation to mercy. But she served but a small part of this sentence as she refused both food and drink and even medical attention. Meanwhile, although steps were taken to crush the organisation, it continued to flourish, and funds came both from England and America, whilst public opinion began to assert itself against forcible feeding. The outbreak of war brought militancy to an end, and both Mrs. Pankhurst and her elder daughter lent their organisation to the cause of recruiting and the increase of munitions. At the first election (1918), after the concession of the vote, the latter contested Smethwick as an independent candidate. Christabel Pankhurst (b. 1880) had been the director of the skilful strategy of the militant movement which she had induced her mother to adopt. Several other members of the family also took part in it. One of them, Sylvia (b. 1882), opposed the War, became a Communist, and was imprisoned in 1920 under the defence of the Realm Act. See E. Pankhurst’s, Afy. Own Story (1914); S. Pankhurst, The Suffragette (1911); A. Kenney, Memotrs of a Militant (1924).

PANTALEONI, MAFFEO (1857-1024), Italian economist and politician, was born at Frascati in 1857. After studying in Germany, he returned to Rome and attended the law faculty of the university where he took his degree. He specialised in the study of economics, and after teaching at Venice, Bari and Geneva was, in 1902, appointed professor of political economy in the University of Rome, a post which he held until his death. In ‘economics he was the founder of the new scientific tendency, but he always managed to weld theoretical principles with the elaboration of concrete facts. Pantaleoni was deputy for Macerata in the XI. Legislature, and at first showed some sympathy for Radicalism and even Socialism; but when the latter abandoned its struggles for the elevation of the working classes and evolved into a system of proletarian organisations for exploiting its political influence he became an uncompromising opponent of the move-

ment. On the outbreak of the World War he was an ardent proEntente interventionist. After the Armistice he opposed Bolshevism, and was a warm supporter of the Fascist movement, being one of the frst senators created by the Fascist Government. In 1923 Pantaleoni was appointed Italian delegate on the League of Nations committee for the restoration of Austria’s finances, of which he was president. He died in Milan Oct. 29 1924. Pantaleoni’s works include: Teoria della translazione dei tributi; Del?’ ammontare probabile della ricchezza in Italia; Manuale di economia pura; Scritti varii di economia; Tra le incognite; Note in margine alla guerra, and Bolscevismo italiano,

PAN-TURANIANISM.—The word Turan, from which the name of the Pan-Turanian movement is derived, is Persian. In the Persian epic it means the steppes and deserts of Central Asia, in contrast to the cultivated country of Iran or Persia. The people of Turan were the nomads who had constantly overrun Persia from the northeast. Since the beginning of the Christian era, these nomadic invaders from Turan have belonged linguistically to the peoples speaking the so-called agglutinative languages, in contrast to the languages of the Indo-European family. When modern European philologists wanted a common term to cover this agglutinative group they coined the word “ Turanian ” for the purpose. Turanian researches were first taken up seriously by the Magyars of Ilungary, and this fortwo reasons.

The first reason

was that the Magyar language belongs to the Ugro-Finnic branch of the agglutinative group, in contrast to most modern European languages, which are Indo-European. The second motive which influenced the Hungarians was not philological, but political. During the half-century before the World War, the Hungarian statesmen who largely controlled the foreign policy of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy were on the look-out for allies against the Pan-Slav movement which was being promoted by Russia, and seized on the fact that Turkish also was a Turanian language (though of a different branch from Hungarian), in order to commend to the Turks the idea of a MagyarTurkish entente against the Slavs, a supposed linguistic kinship being assumed to imply a common racial origin. Thus the idea of Pan-Turanianism had an academic origin before it was exploited for political purposes, and it was first introduced to the Turks by a European nation, the Hungarians, who put it forward not in the Turks’ interest, but primarily in their own. Although the Magyar-Turkish entente eventually ripened into the military alliance between Turkey and the Central Powers during the World War, the Turks were never captivated by the concept of Pan-Turanian unity in the wider sense of a brotherhood between peoples speaking all branches of the Turanian family of languages. The Turks of the Ottoman Empire translated Pan-Turanianism into Pan-Turkism, that Is, into the narrower idea of a brotherhood between all peoples speaking Turkish dialects, with an insistence upon the aboriginal Turkish element in their own Osmanli language and culture. These two sides of the Pan-Turanian movement as developed by the Ottoman Turks were equally important, and indeed were complementary to one another. The ancestors of the Ottoman Turks had travelled right across the Islamic world in order to reach their final home in Asia Minor and the Balkan Peninsula from their starting-point in Central Asia, and on their journey they had adopted the culture and religion of the Islamic world

The Ottoman Turkish dialect was enriched and overlaid with borrowings from Arabic and Persian, and the Ottoman Turks felt vividly their solidarity with all other Moslems, of whatever race or language, while retaining little or no sense of kinship with other Turks as such, especially if those other Turks belonged to different sects of Islam, or to non-Islamic religious communities. A specifically Turkish national movement among the Ottoman Turks only began after the revolution of 1908, in which the Committee of Union and Progress overthrew the Sultan ‘AbdulHamid, and the leaders of the C.U.P. always tried to run PanIslamism and Pan-Turkism in double harness. It is only since the rise of a new Turkish national movement in 1919, under the stimulus of the Greek invasion of Anatolia, that the leaders of Turkey have consciously and completely abandoned the Islamic basis of the Turkish state, and have constructed a Turkish Republic on exclusively national foundations. Meanwhile, Mustafa Kemal Pasha and his party, that is, the very Turks who have brought Turkish nationalism to maturity, have thrown over the other side of the original movement, which insisted, not merely upon Turkifying the Ottoman state, but on re-creating the links between the Ottoman Turks and other Turkish peoples.

This latter movement, to which the name of Pan-Turanianism,

PAPACY in the sense of Pan-Turkism, properly belongs, resembled the wider Pan-Turanianism of the Hungarians in having a predominantly political complexion. From the political point of view the essential fact about the present distribution of the Turkish-speaking peoples as a whole is that nearly two-thirds of them (reckoning by aggregate population) live under Russian government, while less than one-third live in Turkey itself. Thus, before the Russian revolution of 1917, when the Russian Empire was Turkey’s principal enemy, the promotion of a Pan-Turanian movement among the Tsar’s Turkish-speaking subjects seemed to Turkish statesmen of the Union and Progress party a powerful means of weakening and possibly breaking up the Russian Empire. On the other hand, after the revolution of 1917, Russia suddenly changed from being Turkey’s principal enemy to being her principal ally, and the new Turkish nationalists, in their lifeand-death struggle with Greece and the principal Allied Powers, naturally abandoned a movement which would have made friendly co-operation between the new Turkish Republic and the new Russian Soviet Union impossible. Moreover, the Union

of Socialist Soviet Republics, while losing vast territories which had belonged to the old Russian Empire on its European border, succeeded in establishing its sovereignty de facio over all former Russian territories in Asia, that is, over all former Russian territories containing Turkish-speaking populations. Thus the expected break-up of the Russian Empire did not take place as far as its Turkish-speaking subjects were concerned; and, for these several reasons, the Pan-Turanian movement, after obtaining a certain notoriety during the years 1914-7, has sunk

into an obscurity from which it is unlikely to emerge, at any rate in its previous form. It is to be noted, however, that the 15,000,000 or 16,000,000 Turks of the Union of Socialist Soviet Republics have been

given a far-reaching political autonomy within the framework of the Union, which they never enjoyed under the Tsardom. Of the six republics constituting the Union two, namely the Turkmen and the Uzbeg Republic, are Turkish. Again, one of the three members of the Trans-Caucasian Republic (which itself is a member of the Union) is the Turkish Republic of Azerbaijan. Finally, within the Russian Socialist Federal Soviet Republic, which is the leading member of the Soviet Union, there are a number of autonomous Turkish units, such as the Tatar Republic, the Bashkir Republic, the Kirghiz Republic, the Karakalpak autonomous district, and several other less important territories like the Yakutsk Republic in the far northeast of Siberia. Thus in the constitution of the U.S.S.R. the germs of a new PanTuranian movement are latent. (See TURKEY.) BIBLIOGRAPHY .—-British Admiralty Manual on the Turanians and Pan-Turanianism (1920); British Foreign Office Peace Handbook, Mahommedan Iistory (1920); Tekin Alp (pseudonym) Trrkismus und Panitirkismus (Weimar, 1915). (A. J. T.)

PAPACY (see 20.689).—The year roro found Pius X. restoring the evangelical framework of the Church. After the break with France his tendency lay toward devotion, not politics. The visit of President Loubet to Rome led to the withdrawal of the French Embassy because, France being in diplomatic relations with the Papacy, President Loubet ranked technically as a Catholic Sovereign and broke the Papal Decree concerning official visits to the Italian King. A Protestant King under the same circumstances could be made welcome at the Vatican. The visit of President Roosevelt was a lost opportunity; friction was engineered by interested parties. The only Catholic Sovereign who visited Rome was the Prince of Monaco in the guise of a lecturer. With the French and Portuguese Republics Pius waged open war. He declined all compromises with French law, while the persecution in Portugal evoked the Encyclical Jamdudum in Lusitania. Decrees as purely ecclesiastical as the Ne Temere, defining the conditions of Catholic matrimony, or that regulating the anti-Modernist oath, roused protest, principally in Germany. Both were directed against bad Catholics. For Protestants in

good faith he maintained absolute toleration. The Pope sometimes seemed to see Modernism in an exaggerated light, for he

Al

pressed safeguarding measures upon dioceses innocent or ignorant of modern thought. Pius had decided that Modernism was Pantheism, and insisted on destruction before discussion; but by a letter to the Bishop of Limerick, he approved Newman's works; and under the cloak of Newman all modern thought, not demanding conclusions against tradition, finds honourable harbour. The Encyclical Pascendi gregis cut a few self-enginecred Modernists from the Church, like Loisy and Tyrrell. Pius gave no quarter, and a great many loyal writers and thinkers were hermetically

sealed in their own minds. It proved a sound caulking of the Ark, but original exegesis disappeared with the exception of scholars like the Dominican Lagrange, who was protected by his Order against the standards of Rigorism. The Encyclical Editae saepe on St. Charles Borromeo was thought to insult German history and the Princes of the Reformation and received

modifications. The Modernists had attempted to rationalise a Creed whose value and distinction lay in opposing a Damascusblind Faith to the earthly working of Reason. Pius minded less the Socialist tinge in the German Centre party than the Modernist colour in German professors. He disliked the Catholic Centre simply because it was political, but he made no decision between Cardinals Kopp and Fischer concerning Christian trade unions. He did not approve a Catholic party in Italy under a Modernist and Socialist leader like Don Murri, against whom Catholic action was organised by lifting the Non-expedit of his predecessors whenever the Pope could help Conservatism to defeat Socialism. On one principle he supported the Italian Govt., which he protested against on another. By allowing Catholics to vote at times, he outvoted Divorce Law and drew personally closer to Italy. The insults offered him in Rome were due rather to a clique than to the people, who felt that he was Italian at heart. He blessed the Italian tricolor among the symbols of Catholic societies, but he protested bitterly against the statue of Giordano Bruno and the speech of the Mayor Nathan. He was not political except in his measures to bring the Italian Catholic party and the French Sillonists under episcopal control. Pius not only trimmed but discarded modern philosophy and politics. His reforms in discipline and devotion installed new disciplinary engines. The diplomatic web woven by Leo XIII. and the political entanglement bequeathed by Pius IX. were swept aside by an unrelenting desire to reform not only the universal machine and the text-books of the Church, but to regulate the writings and thought of individual Catholics. However expedient a council, the Pope proved more effective. He founded the Biblical Institute based on the Bible, the whole Bible and nothing but the strictest interpretation of the Bible by the Church. Pius accepted and demanded belief in a verbal inspiration of Scripture, though by entrusting a revision of the Latin text to the Benedictines he admitted scribal error in the Vulgate. Degrees in Scripture were granted after serious and searching examination. Ineffective seminaries were suppressed and reluctant Bishops were deposed. Idle priests were banished from Rome. Rome herself received vigorous visitation after three-quarters of a century. Pius introduced a uniform Catechism into Italy and appointed a Commission to codify the canon law. He required a restoration of true Church music. He introduced frequent and juvenile Communion, thus quenching the embers of Jansenism. He by the Sapienti consilio reformed the Roman Curia. By the Commissum nobis he had abolished the veto of Austria or Spainin future conclaves, and buried future procedure in strict secrecy. He simplified the religious orders, establishing, for instance, the Franciscan Union. He upset the theory of Cardinalitial posts and demanded merit alone for the Sacred College. To the application for Red Hats he grimly replied that he was a tailor (Sarte), not a Hatter! By the Decree Divino afflatu Pius reformed the Roman Breviary, so that the Psalter came more truly to be said weekly. The accumulation of Feasts was checked, and holidays of obligation were practically reduced to eight in the year, apart from Sundays. The Divine Office was lightened and the Breviary abbreviated, making it a way rather than a maze of devotion. IIe developed the Eucharistic Congress, sending Cardinal

PAPACY

42

Legates to various countries. He interested the Unites States by creating two American Cardinals. France he soothed by beatifving Joan of Arc and kissing the French Tricolor in the presence of 67 French Bishops. He was an evangelical liildebrand and liable to the impulses and utterances of a saint. To Britain Pius was propitious. He sent his legatus a latere, Vanutelli, to London for the Eucharistic Congress of tg08. Ile removed Britain from the care of Propaganda to the general law of the Church and created the new Archdioceses of Liverpool and Birmingham. Ue sent an Apostolic Delegate, Ceretti, to Australia and raised two Englishmen, Bourne and Gasquet, to the Sacred College. In 1913 he celebrated by the Encyclical Magni faustique the 16th centenary of the Peace of Constantine, Throughout 1914 he foresaw war and uttered warning of days ‘ when class is rising against class and nation against nation.” To his Secretary, Merrv Del Val, he said prophetically: “ We shall not pass the fourteen.” The War overwhelmed him and he died the day the Germans entered Brussels. A legend was spread

that his warning letter to the Austrian Emperor was withheld. The truth was that the Emperor asked for his blessing and the Pope replied that he blessed Peace—not War. ELECTION

oF BENEDICT

XV.

The disorganisation of Europe did not prevent the Cardinals meeting. The policy of Pius X. was upheld by the group around Cardinal Serafini, while the moderate group round Cardinal Maffi coalesced with those who desired a diplomatic Pope, and elected Cardinal Della Chiesa, who took the name of Benedict XV. The election of Benedict was humanly unforeseen. He had been appointed to Bologna to suppress Modernism, but he was left for seven years without a Red Hat, to the perplexity of historians. After 100 days’ Cardinalate he was Pope! His entire Pontificate was occupied with efforts to bring peace or to assuage the effects of the War. In Nov. 1914, in the Encyclical Ad beatissimi, he declared mystically that the days foretold by Christ, when nation should rise against nation, had actually come to pass.

The belligerents watched for hints of approval in spite of the philanthropic neutrality. Excluded from the Conference of The Hague in 1899, the Papacy was not in a position to pronounce upon the invasion of Belgium, though any proven atrocity to nun or child would have met stern condemnation. He made the Holy See a bureau of charity rather than a court of justice. It may be said that a courteous diplomatist and an erudite lawyer went in search of peace, exploring and extolling every avenue that lent the least hope during years of world despair. Benedict was impartial to the nations, but the nations were not impartial to him. He set himself in a halo of neutrality, but he referred to ‘our beloved people of Belgium,” and appealed to the invaders not to devastate, and to the devastated not to aggravate their own plight. He denounced ‘every injustice by whatever side committed,” which Gasparri amplified by specifically including the invasion of Belgium, and the Pope wrote Cardinal Mercier the words, ‘‘ Your cause is our cause.” At the same time he complained of the treatment of Catholics by the Russian Army in Galicia. Though the Holy See set great store on diplomatic action, that action tended to disappointment, whereas the strictly religious policy brought a growing prestige and success. In 1914 Sir Edward Grey sent Sir Henry Howard, followed in 1916 by Count de Salis, to reopen English relations, which had officially lapsed since the reign of Queen Elizabeth. The Apostolic Delegate at Constantinople was able to arrange for the exchange of British prisoners and the care of British graves in the Dardanelles. At Constantinople Benedict received the tribute of a statue erected by all communities in recognition of his efforts to save nations from each other. The Pope’s war efforts may be set under: (1) The exchange of prisoners unfit for further military service. (2) Liberation and exchange of detained civilians. (3) Hospital treatment for sick and wounded.

(4) Sunday rest for prisoners of war.

The Vatican acted, but not strenuously, when Bethmann Hollweg proposed a German peace at the end of 1916. Cardinal Gasparri urged Mr. Balfour not to givea tlat refusal, for the sake of neutral opinion. If the Germans were called to state their terms, the terms might be moderate, and, if they were not, the moral advantage would lie with the Allies. The Pope told de Salis that the moment did not appear suitable for making suggestions to the belligerents. At the beginning of his reign the political force of the Vatican was nearly nil. Without achieving spectacular success, Benedict

spread conviction that his was a force with which it was advisable to be on terms of approach rather than of reproach, provided that distinction was made between internal ecclesiastical policy and the outside policy. Benedict’s outside policy remained a tenacious demand for peace. He proposed a conference of belligerents on the basis of “eliminating unjust and impossible pretensions.” When Italy entered the War, he blessed the Italian priests called to serve, while remaining in touch with the Austrian Government. With the narrowing of communications, the Pope complained that “ complete and precise judgment on events” was impossible. In the dangers of Universal War the Holy See inclined to be indulgent, if not changeful. The unwritten alliance of the Italian and Papal Govts. was a sign of Benedict’s times to be consummated by his successors. With the entry of Italy a secret pact was made under Sonnino by which the Allies excluded the Pope from discussion of the Peace. This was published in 1917 by the Bolshevist Government. The German and Austrian representatives to the Vatican withdrew to Lugano, but Italy respected Papal communications

with enemy countries in spite of the averted suspicion of proAustrianism. The disaster of Caporetto was met at the Vatican and the Quirinal by mutual forbearance and succour. The Pope declared that he looked to solve the Roman problem not by foreizn arms but by the Italian sentiment of justice. Still the Pope remained neutral, sharing with President Wilson the hope of a negotiated peace. The Vatican Council had been suspended before it could deal with practices of warfare. The Church therefore could only offer generalities without pronounc-

ing on clear cases. After the sinking of the “ Lusitania ” the Pope protested against “ methods of attack contrary to the laws of humanity both by land and sea.” The transportation of Belgians and the bombing of undefended cities were condemned, but the Pope was unheard and increasingly criticised by both sides. Benedict passed from exhortation to warning. It culminated in his supreme but unsuccessful bid for peace by the Note of Aug. 1917, when he asked with ironical despair, ‘“‘ Must the civilised world be reduced to a graveyard?” Austria was anxious The Nuncio Pacelli for peace, but Germany offered no data. sounded the German Govt. in June. Bethmann Hollweg had begun to show himself sympathetic even on Belgium and In Aug. the Peace Note was distributed. Alsace-Lorraine. By a curious irony, George V. was asked to give copies to the French and American Presidents and to the king of Italy. The Note caused no small stir, but it was ignored by the Allies and refused by Germany. The Pope claimed impartiality, pleaded for disarmament and arbitration, stigmatised the War as “ useless massacre,” since both sides recognised that “ the honour of arms is safe.’” He proposed the evacuation of Belgium and invaded France and the return of the German Colonies. Ile added a plea for the small States. Ludendorff called him a F rench Pope and Clemenceau a German one. The German Chancellor Michaclis was more hostile than the

Allies, to whom he left the reproof inthe declarations of Wilson and Lloyd George. Fundamentally there was no difference between the Pope and the Allies, except as between a negotiated and a dictated peace. The Note represented the measure of European exhaustion had not the United States entered the War. ‘he Vatican, though represented unofficially at Washington, had no means of expecting either Wilson’s declaration of war or peace. Benedict issued an Encyclical concerning the future, whereas the Pope’s terms were a Protocol based on the past. Wilson’s reply hushed the Pope, who, deeply

PAPACY disappointed returned to the alleviation of the victims. His contrast will always lie with Wilson. For nearly three years they personified the greatest spiritual neutrality and the greatest temporal neutrality in the world. The Pope, more tenacious and consistent, was left alone in his plea for a just and durable peace to the profit of neither side. His consistence was twice impugned by interviewers anc by the treason of Mer. Gerlach, who helped the enemy of Italy actively while himself sheltered in the Vatican and was handed over to the Italians by Vatican officials at the Bronze Gates. Benedict in 1915 warned the Rulers, saying, ‘‘ Remember that nations do not die: humbled and oppressed, they chafe under the yoke. Why not from this moment weigh with serene minds the rights and lawful aspirations of the peoples?” It was two years before Wilson, converted, was chastising the Teutonic Powers with the same admonition. The Pope did not include the Temporal Power of the Holy See among unredeemed aspirations. He reduced an irreducible claim to Sovereignty to an appeal to help the Holy See out of a false position. Though Benedict was puzzled by Wilson’s volte-face, he realised that it was Michaelis who brought his Peace Note to nought. The Erzberger revelations showed that the Pope was not met in Germany on the Bel-

gian question with as much good will as was shown by the Allies. Though the peace declarations of Wilson and Lloyd George showed modelling on the Pope’s Peace Note, the Pope after 1918 became restrained. With the collapse of the Central Powers he accepted “‘ all legitimate changes in politics and territories.” Neutral in the War, the Pope was left neutral in the Peace. That Benedict had no share in the Treaty of Versailles proved a blessing to the Vatican and was consistent with the policy which maintained that the Pope would take no part in any peace dictated by Germany or the Allies. The Vatican sincerely believed that only by agreement was peace possible. At Versailles the Pope’s unofficial representative, Ceretti, was supported by England in obtaining modifications in favour of Foreign Missions. Of the Treaty of Versailles, the Pope showed implicit blame and justified suspicion as long as it failed of Christian bases. The Pope seemed almost, like Cato, to favour the vanquished because they were vanquished. The Germans, who had not been sympathetic to the Vatican during the War, looked to the Pope for help to avert the worst consequences of the Peace. By the Encyclical Det Afunus of 1920 the Pope called for European reconciliation rather as a Christian family than as a mere League of Nations. In the same year he celebrated the memory of St. Jerome by the Encyclical Spiritus Paraclitus. By 1o21 he cclebrated the seventh centenary of St. Francis in the Sacra propediem and the eighth of Dante by the In praeclara summorum. His utterances returned to the greatness of the Catholic past. Though a disappointed diplomatist, he never relaxed his impartial benevolence. His relations with Italy became so friendly that he relaxed the conditions laid down for the visits of Catholic Sovereigns to Rome, opening the way for visits from the Kings of Spain and Belgium. He received the ruling American President and the Prince of Wales. Like Leo XIII., whose pupil rather than whose equal he was, Benedict had been inclined to sacrifice Irish and Polish political aspirations to the importance of British and Russian friendship. After the Russian revolution he was quick to recognise the Polish Republic and to nominate a Polish cardinal. He would not declare himself during the War between the complaints of the Irish Bishops and the British Govt., but after the Peace he demanded an Irish settlement and beatified Oliver Plunkett. Though France had prevented the Holy See obtaining direct access to the Chinese Govt. instead of using the French Minister, she found it no longer dignified to use the back stairs and sent her own Ambassador to the Vatican. When Benedict succeeded, there were two Embassies and twelve Legations. He left his successor with seven Embassies and eighteen Legations. One stupendous intellectual achievement crowned his Warharassed reign, the issue of the new Codex of Canon Law, edited by order of Pius X. and promulgated by Benedict under Cardinal Gasparri’s supervision by the Bull Providentissima Mater in

43

1917. The original Commission of five Cardinals appointed in 1904 had died and been succeeded by eight others, who achieved the gigantic work of codifying the Canon Law of centuries under 2,414 Canons, the most astounding legal tour de force ever accomplished. Early in 1922 Benedict died suddenly. Until his archives are published his career cannot be appreciated historically, but upon his catafalque the Church, which he had served in agonising days, inscribed his epitaphia thus: 1. Vainly he tried by his counsels of a Christian peace to put out or restrain the fire lit by the greatest of wars. He succeeded by all means in making it less calamitous. 2. He made opportune prescriptions for the diffusion of the Catholic Faith. He excited the zeal of the better to help the heralds of the Gospel by prayer, by alms, by action. 3. The authority of the Apostolic See rising to the ascendant in public opinion, he brought almost all States to seek bonds of amity with the Church. 4. Admirably incarnating the charity of Jesus Christ, he clasped with paternal heat all the miseries of the people and comforted them by the effusion of his kindness. ELECTION

oF Pius XI.

The Cardinals elected Cardinal Ratti, Archbishop of Milan, as Pope, under the title of Pius XI. The secrecy of the Conclave was well kept, but it was obvious that neither the Rigorist school of Pius X. nor the diplomatic policy of Benedict would be carried on, though by continuing Cardinal Gasparri as Secretary of State the new Pope created a precedent. His first act was a beau geste toward Italy, for he gave the long withheld blessing of Orb and Urb to the saluting troops of the Italian Kingdom. From that moment the Roman Question could be described as in final solution. No Pope of modern times has been so universally hailed by a broken world or received such an international endorsement. His first regret was that the American Cardinals had arrived too late, and he extended the interval between a Pope’s death and the Conclave to 15 days. His life had been passed in the Ambrosian and Vatican Libraries, with Alpine holidays. Interesting were such incidents as his Latin speech in Oxford at the celebrations of Roger Bacon, and his ascent of Monte Rosa. He has never been happier than when issuing Encyclicals on great scholars like St. Thomas Aquinas and St. Francis de Sales, whom he made patron of Catholic journalists. His Encyclical Ubi Arcano Dei was a signal for charitable rather than diplomatic action. The absence of Italy from the nations attached by bonds of friendship to the Holy See was lamented. The alliance of the Vatican and the Fascist Govt. has been indubitable, though the Pope has declared that Divine Providence has not yet indicated, nor human wisdom discovered, a substitute for the old Temporal Power. The new conception of the Papacy as one of the glories of the Italian Kingdom has been almost embarrassing to the Vatican, which has refused to condone outrages committed by Fascists. Naturally, the conquered States flocked to the protection and internationalisation afforded by the Church. On the Ruhr question the Pope pointed out a possible equilibrium between charity to Germany and justice to France that France herself could not dispute. Such phenomena as German and French Embassies at the Vatican signified both the measure of German defeat and of French satisfaction. During 1925 the Pope celebrated a Holy Year of Jubilee, and by receiving nearly 200,000 pilgrims in Rome enabled many threads to be laid for the healing of the nations. Pius XI. has remained on religious territory, making no effort to be included or consulted by the Powers except when ecclesiastical interests are at stake—the Holy Places, for instance. At first the Vatican welcomed the British Mandate in Palestine preferring a sympathetic non-Catholic power in the East to an anti-clerical protector like France. But the progress and priority of Zionism mortified Catholicism exceedingly, and the Holy See turned for assistance to the League of Nations. The Orient has been the scene of great activity by the Holy See. For centuries

44

PAPER

MAKING

the Czar and the Caliph had been inexorable enemies of the Vatican. With their disappearance the new Pope made instant advances. The Encyclical Ecclesiam Dei on the third centenary of St. Josaphat was an appeal to the Slavs. The cause of Oriental unity with the West became the Pope's prepossessing desire. Missions were dispatched to Russia. The Pope called Latin attention to the splendour of the Slavic rite, and to the Conference at Geneva expressed Russian sympathies. With some difficulty the Pope obtained from Lenin the release of an Archbishop from death. Nor was the Pope’s protest against the spoliation of the Orthodox Church listened to. But the most striking ecclesiastical result of the War has been the opening of Oriental Europe to the Latin Church. The Papacy undoubtedly looks forward to a period of missionary activity in the East as great as that which followed the European convulsion of the 16th century. (See also RoMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH.) BIBLIOGRAPHY.—M.

Pernot, Acta Apostolicae Sedis; La Conie

de Pie X. (1910); P. Dudon, L'action de Benott XV. (1918); A. Baudrillart, Bonott XV. (1920); Charles Gallet, Le Pape Benoit XV. ef la guerre (1921); J. van den Heuvel, The Statesmanship of Benedict X V. (1923); Charles Loiseau, Politique romaine et sentiment francais (1923); Jean Carrère, Le Pape, trans. as The Pope (1924); M. Pernot, Le Saint Siège et la politique mondiale (1924); R. Cecil, A Dreamer in Christendom (1925); F. A. Forbes, PE ofPius AG (1925): L. S. S. Wood, articles in Tke Dublin Review (1922-6). (S42)

PAPER MAKING (see 20.727).—The production of paper increases part passu with population: in the period under review

(1910-26) the industry has grown and there has been marked progress in scientific-technical control of its operations. The evidence of this development is the record in the form of periodical publications of the research work of chemists and engineers engaged in the industry, evoked and stimulated by the technical socicties founded in all the leading countries of civilised activity. In Great Britain the Paper Makers’ Association has constituted a technical section which publishes its “ proceedings’; in France a school of instruction and research has been founded at Grenoble; in Germany the “ Verein der Papier Techniker’’ has contributed important advances, and its technical publications have taken a leading position; in America the Government Forestry Department has carried out elaborate researches, especially in the study of fibrous raw materials; in Canada likewise the Forest Products Laboratories (Montreal) have worked in a systematic programme which has now resulted in the constitution of a department of the University devoted to cellulose, paper making and the related industries. Notwithstanding this activity in the investigation of the first principles of the Art, the period is not marked by any outstanding feature

of scientific or technical novelty. Beating Processes. —The beater and beating process are the most important factors of paper mill production. The old form and type of beating engine known as the Holiander not only survives, but is still found the most efficient machine for the preparation of fibrous raw material for important classes of paper in competition with the elaborated modifications which have resulted from the endeavours of engineers to improve a machine recognised to be wasteful of power. The beating process is one of the most complex in manufacturing industry. The beater was first designed for the treatment of wastes from the textile and rope-twine spinning industries, and substitutes a continuous process for the medieval methods of reducing these wastes to “ pulp ” by stamping or wet-grinding. In treating rags, cuttings and twisted wastes the beater undoes the work of the spinner and weaver, opening out the component fibres for the further reduction, operated by the special mechanism of the beater roll, carryingits battery of knives or bars, running at high speed over a corresponding provision of bars in the bed plate of the circulating trough. There is in this work a further complex of results or effects— (1) a cutting of the fibres, i.e., reduction of length, (2) a splitting or shredding of the fibres in the length of their axis, to fragments, fibrillae of less diameter, (3) an effect known integrally as “ hydration ’? by which the water is beaten into the fibre substance in such way as to facilitate its suspension in the carrying water,

at the high dilution required for*running on the wire of the paper machine. In modern paper making the beater preparation is applied to raw materials which are already in the form of ultimate component fibres—‘‘ half stuffs,” as a result of previous chemical treatment of the actual raw or original material, e.g., wood, straw, esparto grass. For measurement of the work of the beater, in the exact terms of “ efficiency,” this is already a simplification, and it becomes possible to equate the expression for consumption of power to certain of the above effects which can be measured. Scientific Analysts —This is the basis of the mathematical treatment of the subject up to the time of S. Smith’s treatise. In this treatise, which embodies several original methods of experimental investigation, the author separates and separately measures (a) the cutting action from (b) the crushing action of the roll-bar bed-plate contacts. In regard to the effects of internal friction of the stuff or pulp surfaces, he formulates a “ law ” in new terms, viz., that resistance to displacement along a surface or plane of the pulp or wet stuff, is proportional to the surface dimensions and independent of pressure and speed of movement. Lastly he discusses the phenomenon which must be the immediate factor of the specific beating effects, that is the attachment of fibre to the beater bars rotating in the pulp mass and thereby brought into contact with the bars of the bed plate; as a contribution to this factor he especially treats the invisible phenomena of the beater bar cells or spaces between the bars, which are filled with the pulp mass and which is necessarily in a state of rapid rotation before and during the contact. This physical mechanical effect has certainly been overlooked in previous treatises, and the author is justified in claiming attention to it and in basing certain improvements of beater construction upon its recognition. For the attachment of the fibres in this sense the English Edition adopts the expression ‘ fibrage ” which is convenient and self-explanatory. Raw

MATERIALS

The addition of the wood pulps—cellulose (q.v.) as well as ground woods or “ mechanical ” pulps to the paper makers’ supplies of raw fibrous materials, in the last century (1880-90) led to much unmethodical and indeed reckless treatment of the forest supplies of original material. Under methodical reafforestation (sce FORESTRY) equilibrium has been reached in certain countries and a continuous supply of maturing timber guaranteed. But in view of the world’s rapidly increasing consumption the question of a limit of supply is raised: and alternatively the question of supply of crop material in adequate massive quantity.

Cotton Residues—In the cotton crop and the residues of lint and short fibres remaining attached to the seed after removal of the textile cotton, there is an immense potential supply of fibre, e.g., on the United States production of seed alone, estimated at 300,000 tons. A de-linting machine invented by E. de Segundo has demonstrated its efficiency, and the ‘ de-lint ” is produced in Great Britain by the Cotton Products Co. in a condition of cellulose concentration or content as high as 70-80%. The matter appears to have passed into a phase of arrested development in encountering difficulties beyond the technical, which it is stated, have been surmounted, and it still offers the prospect of a most important and desirable addition to our supplies (see Journal R. Soc. of Arts, 67, 1919, pp. 184-202). Flax Straw—

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POTTERY—PRAGMATISM Young, John E. Sheridan, Wallace Morgan, George Illian, A. E. Foringer, Harrison Fisher, Howard Chandler Christy, George Wright, F. Walter Taylor, Gordon Grant, W. T. Benda, Edward Penficld and James Montgomery Flagg.

Since the War

the poster has naturally resumed

its place

throughout the world as an active branch of commercial advertising, with certain characteristics worthy of note in the countries where posters are most extensively used. In England the London Underground Railways Co. has continued to produce posters both artistic and effective, by a variety of artists, and commercial posters in general have shown a logical development of their trend before the interruption by the World War. One of the most important series was one done by G. Spencer-Pryse to commemorate the Exhibition at Wembley—a series showing the peoples and industries of the entire British Empire, with its Dominions and Colonies. ‘The most radical departure from preWar types of poster is to be seen in the “ Expressionist ” posters of Germany, which are @ part of the general radical art movement that affected painting, stage settings and many other art activities in Germany. Grotesque, bizarre, with virtually illegible lettering and with violent vibrations of line and mass, this type of German poster art has not exerted in other countries the influence that characterised the posters of pre-War Germany. In the United States great strides have recently been made in the development of the poster as an organised advertising me-

dium. Modern business has discarded the old-fashioned “ billboard,” with its unkempt appearance and its posters of many sizes. In its place, due to the standards of practice of the Poster Advertising Assn. (now renamed the General Outdoor Advertising Assn. of America) there has come the standard structure, a poster panel 25 ft. long and 12 ft. high which is surrounded by a green moulding as a frame for the poster. The standard commercial poster throughout the United States is the “ 24-sheet,” whose size is 8 ft. roin. in height and 19 ft. 8in. in length. Members of the Association take great pride in the appearance of their structures. When a poster panel is built on the ground green lattice is used to hide the braces and posts. The location is graded and sometimes planted with grass and shrubs. Many of these structures are illuminated at night. The standards of practice of the Outdoor Advertising Assn. require that members shall not erect poster panels on strictly residential streets, nor in locations where they will mar natural scenic beauty or prove dangerous to trale. No poster is permitted which shall offend the moral sense of the public or which induces violation of the Constitution of the United States or any laws or ordinances. The almost universal use of automobiles has given a great impetus to poster advertising, and the 24-sheet poster 1s now being used extensively in the advertisement of a wide variety of commodities. Since the War there has also been a marked improvement in the general standard of commercial poster art in America. Among the designers of this type of poster are: Clarence Underwood, F. Nelson Abbott, John I. Sheridan, Harry Morse Meyers, Walter Whitehead, J. C. Leyendecker, Norman Rockwell, William Oberhardt, McClelland Barclay, Neysa McMein, Adolph Treidler and Linn Ball. The death of Edward Penfield in 1925 deprived American poster design of one of its most able, conspicuous and significant artists. In the United States poster art and its industry are represented by a monthly publication in colours-—T ke Poster which keeps in touch with all developments of poster advertising and posterart. (M. PR.) POTTERY: sce CERAMICS. POULSEN, VALDEMAR (1860), Danish engineer, was born at Copenhagen Nov. 23 1869. He became an assistant in

the technical section of the Copenhagen telephone establishment and in 1898 he invented the telegraphone, an electro-magnetic phonograph capable of registering human speech by the alternating magnetisation of a wire. In 1903 Poulsen invented the Poulsen arch, a generator that produces continuous high tension currents, thus solving one of the greatest problems in the science of radio technique. The Poulsen arches are used by numerous radio stations throughout the world.

POUND, tionist, at the studied sion to

ROSCOE

205 (1870-

), American

was born at Lincoln, Neb., Oct. University of Nebraska (A.B., law in the Harvard Law School the bar in 1890 he commenced

jurist and educa-

27 1870. He graduated 1888, A.MI., 1889), and 1889-90. On his admispractice in Lincoln, Ne-

braska. He was assistant professor of law at the University of Nebraska, 1899-1903, and dean of the law faculty, 1903-7; was professor of law at Northwestern University 1907-9, and at the University of Chicago, 1909-10. In roro he accepted the Story professorship of law at the Harvard Law School, becoming Carter professor of jurisprudence there in 1913, and dean in 1916. Pound has written Phyfogeography of Nebraska (with F. FE. Clements, 1898); Readings on the History and System of the ‘Common Law (1904); Readings on Roman Law (1906); Lectures on the Philos-

ophy of Free- Masonry (1915); The Spirit of ihe Common Law (1921);

Criminal Justice in the American City (1922): Introduction to the Philosophy of Law (1922); Interpretation of Legal History (1923); and Law and Morals (1924).

POWER, SIR WILLIAM TYRONE (1819-1911), British soldier and administrator (see 22.224), died July 24 rorr. POYNTER, SIR EDWARD JOHN, Bart. (1836-1919), British painter (see 22.239), died in London July 26 roro. In tgto he was created K.C.V.O. PRAGMATISM (22.246).—Assuming that the article in the tith Edition of the Encyclopædia Brilannica has sufficiently outlined the rise of pragmatism and its history to the end of 1909, it remains to trace its subsequent developments in the years that have since elapsed. In Aug. rọro the pragmatist movement suffered a great loss by the death of its most effective and persuasive initiator, William James, though for a number of vears his works continued to appear or to be re-issued posthumously, from torr down to his fascinating Letters (2 vol., 1920). Moreover, the period under review was not in general favourable to the progress of philosophic reflection. For the first few years no doubt philosophic discussion proceeded upon normal lines, with pragmatism attacking absolutism and various sorts of realism assailing idealism, while these stood on the defensive and for the most part entrenched themselves behind their past achievements. At the fourth International Congress of Philosophy at Bologna in rorr the announcement of Vaihinger’s “ Philosophy of the As If”? brought a valuable reinforcement to pragmatism, because it showed how greatly the use of “ fic-

tions ” conduced to the making of “ truth.” Effects of the War.—But the outbreak of the World War in 1914 soon had a paralvsing effect, in philosophy also, on the progress of thought, and substituted propaganda for impartial inquiry, incidentally having some effect In impairing the vogue of German idealism. Philosophically the years of the War are nearly a blank in Europe, though research continued in America while America remained neutral. After the War the chief intcllectual sensation, the verification of Einstein’s theory of

Relativity, was scientific rather than philosophic and though some philosophers intervened in its discussion, it was not a very suitable subject for philosophic acumen. It really arose out of a highly technical problem of physical measurement and established its conclusions by very stiff mathematics. Still the discredit thrown by this successful revolution in physics on the absolutes of measurement and on the familiar abstractions of space and time, could not but dispose men’s minds more favourably towards the complete philosophic relativity implied in the pragmatic conception of truth, and proclaimed so long ago in Protagoras’s dictum that ‘‘ man is the measure of all things.” In central Europe also the overthrow of so many highly authoritarian social orders had a considerable effect in unsettling rigid ideas and proved conducive to a loss of complacency and to greater open-mindedness in academic circles. On the other hand economic conditions and the state of the book trade put great difliculties in the way of the publication of books that had little or no popular appeal. On the whole, therefore, it would be absurd to contend that philosophy in general and pragmatism in particular had made anv marked progress in the period under review. Still some

206

PRAGMATISM

progress was made, rather of an unobtrusive sort, under all the four headings under which the influence of pragmatism has made itself felt. Psychology.—In psychology (g.v.) the “ boom ” in psychoanalysis (g.v.) and in psychotherapeutic methods generally, which is directly traceable to the necessity under which many theoretic psychologists found themselves of either finding useful applications of their knowledge or going into the trenches, was a good example of the powerful impetus which scientific practice can give to scientific theory. But otherwise it can hardly be said to have developed or even affected, pragmatic doctrine. Two other movements were more important. In the first place “ behaviourism,” though it is easily beguiled into explaining away the existence of mind altogether, at any rate makes it quite clear that action rather than speculation is the mind’s essential characteristic; so it is no wonder that (in America) many pragmatists, and notably Dewey, have shown themselves decidedly sympathetic towards behaviourism. Secondly, under the leadership of W. MacDougall (Outline of Psychology, 1923) there is arising a school of psychologists who stress the biological significance and teleological character of mental life, and so naturally ally themselves with the pragmatic logicians who protest against the ignoring of the purposiveness of thought in the traditional logics. The interdependence of logic and psychology is thus once more attested, as it is by F. C.S. Schiller’s study of the psychology of belief, Problems of Belief (1924) which

is fitted to form a popular introduction to the whole subject. Logical Aspects —It is, however, to the logical aspects of their doctrine that the chief pragmatists devoted most attention, and the fruitfulness of their inquiries showed that it was a mistake to take the disparagement of logic indulged in by both James and Bergson as meaning more than a distaste for the futilities of intellectualistic logic (see Locic.) Dewey on the other hand has a long list of logical works to his credit. How we think was a brilliant little introduction to logic and, with The Influence of Darwin on Philosophy, came out in 1910. Essays in Experimental Logic followed in 1916. Creative Intelligence by Dewey and seven of his friends and pupils (1917) was also largely logical in

its interest, as were most of his abundant contributions to periodicals. Finally in 1925 Dewey brought out in Nature and Expertence a full and systematic exposition of his philosophy which, though as a whole it may perhaps be best classed as metaphysical, includes also a magisterial description of the nature and functions of thought. Shortly before (in 1923) C. S. Peirce’s early papers (which had long been unprocurable) were collected and brought out under the title Chance, Love and Logic. Alfred Sidgwick continued to hammer away at logic, following up his A pplication of Logic (1910) by an Elementary Logic (1914), which treats the traditional logic frankly as just a game with syllogisms. F. C. S. Schiller set himself to elucidate the notions of “ error ” (which he holds no formal logic can discriminate from “ truth ”} in the Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society rgro-1, and of “ relevance ” (which he regards as the essential condition of truth rather than all-inclusiveness) in Mind (1914), and to show that the possibility of defeating any universal rule by misapplying it to a special case (from which Sidgwick had deduced his fatal objection to the validity of the syllogism owing to the latent ambiguity of the middle term when any syllogism was used) had already been recognised by Aristotle in certain cases. In his Formal Logic (1912) he produced a systematic criticism of the traditional logic, and traced all its embarrassments to its abstraction from real meaning, i.e., to its substitution of the meaning of the words for the meaning of the man who used them, so that strictly speaking logic turned out to be a meaningless science, though in practice its doctrines all oscillated between verbalism and psychology. He also emphasised the divergence between logical theory and the actual procedure of the sciences in two contributions to Singer’s Studies in the History and Method of Science (Sctentific Discovery of Logical Proof, 1917 and Hypothesis, 1921), but has not so far produced the systematic reconstruction of logic on voluntarist

lines to which he is pledged.

In face of these criticisms the intellectualist logicians thought it best to wrap themselves in a disdainful silence and to re-state their former doctrines. Thus F. HW. Bradley, in the second edition of his Principles of Logic (1922) reprinted his original text with annotations and terminal essays, in which he admitted that he had fallen into the errors of the copy-theory of truth, but only to give his adhesion to the coherence view and to represent logic as concerned exclusively with the “ all-embracing ”’ judgment and the “ self-developing ” inference. This doctrine, however, proved difficult to carry through in face of the entanglement of logic with psychology, and he had to admit that “ logic, being abstract, has, in order to exist, to take place in a world of psychical irrelevancy ” (p. 616), and to relegate to metaphysics the task of how the logical ideal of all-inclusiveness could be rendered compatible with its actual recognition of relevance and the practice of selection. No wonder there remained a final doubt “ as to how far in logic the claim of logic is made good ” (p. 601). Moreover in his Essays on Truth and Reality (1914) which are full of covert polemics against pragmatism, he had been driven to make so many concessions that, as Schiller pointed out (in Afind, July rots), the line separating him from pragmatism had become invisible in many places, while the absolute had been reduced to a merely honorary position. Ethical Aspects —In the field of ethics the pragmatists have not been very active. Dewey’s Human Nature and Conduct (1922) is almost the only notable publication. It is a systematic application of pragmatic principles as conceived by him, to the theory of conduct, and is full of memorable sayings. But L. P. Jack’s writings also, though not academic in form and often cast in the form of parable and fiction, and especially his Alchemy of Thought (1910), are excellent pragmatism, with a strong moral flavour. Religion and Pragmatistism—As regards religion the chief pragmatist writers on the psychology of religion passed away with William James and Theodore Flournoy, and the otherwise very active school of Dewey somewhat conspicuously neglects this branch of pragmatism. On the other hand it can hardly be disputed that pragmatism has shown that up to a point the procedure of the religious consciousness is everywhere pragmatic, and all writers on religion are now much more ready to recognise this fact. As good examples of the religious influence of pragmatism I. King’s The Development of Religion (1910) and E. S. Waterhouse’s Philosophy of Religious Experience (1923) may be mentioned. Conclusion.—In general pragmatism may now be said to have established itself as a definite method and permanent attitude towards the problems of philosophy which, though still resisted and cesented in academic circles biased in favour of intellectualism by their mode of life, is never likely to disappear again completely and under some social conditions e.g., in a country, like America, where the academic man is not allowed to seclude himself and to lose touch with life altogether, is even likely to become predominant. It has also made good its claim to be the correct account of a natural and widely prevalent method of knowing, though its opponents do not of course admit that it is the only method, or the best. This is admitted even by the more modern sorts of absolute idealist (Croce, etc.) who, like Bergson, are willing to concede science to pragmatism, though they still maintain that philosophy can attain to absolute truth by “ pure ”’ thought. This compromise should perhaps satisfy the pragmatists, in view of the continued success of scientific knowing and its growing control of human activities and of the increasing self-refutation of “ pure thought ? by the dissensions of its exponents. Controversy has in consequence largely died down, and the accounts of pragmatism given by non-pragmatists are no longer the grotesque caricatures they were, and are becoming quite intelligent and trustworthy. BIBLIOGRAPHY.— (1) Posthumous books by Wiliam James-~ Some Problems of Philosophy, an unfinished introduction to Philosophy edited by his son Henry (1911); Memories and Studies, a collection of articles also edited by his son (1911); Essays tn Radical

Empiricism, also a collection of James’s speculations on metaphysics from 1884 to 1905 (1912); Collected Essays and Reviews (1920);

PRAGUE— PRAYER Annotated Bibliography of the Writings of William James, edited, like most of the foregoing, by R. B. Perry (1920); Letters, edited by his son (1920). ¢2) Books about W. James —R. B. Perry, “ William James in Harvard Graduates Magazine (Dec. 1910); Introduction by H. Bergson to the French translation of Pragmatism (I9I1); E. Boutronx, Wiliam James (1911), Eng. trans. (1912); T. Flournoy, La philosophie de Willian James (1911), Eng. trans. (1917);

J. Koyce, WiHiam James and ether Essays on the Philosophy of Life (911); IE Reverdin, La notion d'expérience d'après William James (1913); H. V. Knox, The Philosophy of William James (1914). (3) Histories of the Pragmatic Movement—F. B. Muller, De kennisleer van het Anglo-amertkaansch pragmatisme, The Hague (1913); E. Leroux, Le pragmatisme Américain et Anglais, with an international

bibliography (1923); J. Wahl, The Pluralist Philosophies of England and A merica, Eng. tr. (1925). (4) Books by J. Dewey and F. C. S. Schiller: —-a, by J. Dewey, Educational Essays (1910), German Philosophy and Politics (1915), Democracy and Education (1916), Reconstruction in Philosophy (1921); 6. by F.C. S. Schiller, Riddles of the Sphinx, revised ed. (1910); ‘ Why Humanism ” jn Contemporary British Philosophy, vol. 1 (1924); “‘ Psychology and Logic ” in Psychology and the Sciences, ed. Dr. W. Brown (1924); Tantalus

(1924); Cassandra (1926); Eugenics and Politics (1926).

Schiller have periodicals. J. Goldstein, A. W. Moore, (1911); D. L.

Dewey and

both written a large number of articles in philosophic (5) Books by pragmatists about pragmatism— Wandlungen in der Philosophie der Gegenwart (1911); Pragmatism and Its Critics (1911); G. Vailati, Scritti Murray, Pragmatism, with an introduction by Schiller

(1912), new ed. (1925); J. E. Russell, A First Course of Philosophy

(1913); H. M. Kallen, Wiliam James and Henri Bergson (1914); G. Papini, Sul Pragmatismo, 2nd ed. (1920). (6) Criticisms of Pragmatism —lIon. B. A. W. Russell, Philosophical Essays (1910); L. J. Walker, Theories of Knowledge, Absolutism, Pragmatism, Realism (1910); Vernon Lee, Vital Lies, Studies on Some Varieties of Recent Obscurantism (1912); R. B. Perry, Present Philosophical Tendencies (1912); W. Caldwell, Pragmatism and Idealism (1913); J;T. Driscoll, Pragmatism and the Problem of the Idea (1915); W. P. fontague, The Ways of Knowing (1925). FC. SS.)

PRAGUE (see 22.248), the capital of Czechoslovakia, became the seat of an independent national body in 1918, when the Austrian Emperor’s dominions were falling away from him. It is a well-organised modern city, with a population in 192r of 676,657, largely Czech. The German element, about 5% of the population, and German influence, are much disliked, but the business centres are bilingual, and there are both German and Czech universities and polytechnics. There are also a Czech national museum, an observatory and academy of science. The people evince great pride in the State, and in r918 an imposing congress was held in the city, at which Czech, Polish, Italian, Rumanian, Slovak and Yugoslav deputies gave pledges

of mutual support. The bishop of Prague is Patriarch of the new Czechoslovak church.

BOOK

207

seven laymen. The work had been going on continuously since then until, in 1925, the last stages were reached. A considerable number of the changes have been already ratified, and, after the ratification of the changes, approved in Oct. 1925, at New Orleans by the General Convention, in 1928 a Prayer Book according to the standard of 1928 will be published. South Africa.—In South Africa two tentative alternative uses lor the Communion Office were put forward. This was followed by the definite issue of an alternative liturgy, which was sanctioned for use in the province at a provincial synod held in

1924, to be used when desired by the priest and people in the parish. Canada.—In Canada a new Prayer Book has been issued. It carcfully avoids making any changes in the Communion Office or any changes involving doctrine, but adds a large number of

services adapting the worship of the Church to the needs of the day. freland.—In Ireland a new revision is being undertaken for which a committee was appointed in 1909. fingland.—Proposals were made for a revision of the English Prayer Book on the accession of William III. in 1689, but they came to nothing. The subject was much to the fore between 1857 and 1863. There was an association for promoting a revision of the Prayer Book under the chairmanship of Lord Ebury, and many pamphlets were written suggesting revision. All these proposals for revision came from the more Protestant side of the Church of England, for the Tractarians of that day based all their innovations on the Prayer Book and it was desired to remove those features in it which seemed to support their claims. Revision proposals were made in 1879, but came to nothing. The later movement for revision dates from the Royal Commission which was appointed on April 23, 1904, to inquire into “ the alleged prevalence of breaches or neglect of the law relating to the conduct of Divine Service in the Church of England.” The commission issued its report on June 21 1906, and recommended that Letters of Business be issued to the Convocations relative to the matters of “ ornaments in the Church and the conduct of Divine Service.” The Letters of Business, issued on Nov. Io 1906, stated:— Tt is our will and pleasure that you do debate and agree upon the following points, wde licet, the desirability and the form and contents of a new rubric regulating the ornaments of the ministers of the Church, and also any modifications of the existing law relating to the conduct of Divine Service and the ornaments and fittings of Churches.

Prague has many manufacturing industries. An industrial fair is held twice a year, and a motor exhibition was revived in tg21. The Vitava river was in process of Improvement in 1924; After the question of vestments and the ornaments’ rubric had it was then navigable for vessels of 1,000 tons to Mélnik, and 1s been considered, there were considerable discussions as to the to be made usable for boats of 7oo tons to Stéchovice. A pro- desirability of a general revision of the Prayer Book. It was gramme for the improvement and extension of the railways argued, on the one side, that lack of unanimity was an arguwas passed by the National Assembly in 1920, the pians include a ment against revision, that the Prayer Book was rooted in new central goods depét, belt lines round the city, and electrificathe affections of the people and that no other book would hold tion of all lines within a radius of 50 kilometres. The line to together such different types of thought. This being so a Bratislava has been double-tracked. It is also planned to make schedule or supplement only was required. On the other hand, Prague an aviation centre for Central Europe. A concrete han- it was argued that the irregulayity exercised by nearly all who gar and a lighthouse have been added to the aerodrome at were responsible for the cond:ct of Divine Service was a source Kbely, near the city. of danger to the Church. Other parts of the Church in comPRAYER BOOK.—Since roto there has been a great movemunion with the Church of England had found it necessary to ment for the revision of the prayer book in almost all branches revise; it was a strain on honest men’s consciences that they of the Anglican Church. could not obey the law; there was a conflict between the modern Scotland.—In Scotland some suggestions were made in the ‘Intellect and some of the Prayer Book; and there was also an Synod of rọrr, when a schedule of permissible variations to, inadequacy for practical needs. However, Convocation proand deviations from, the Prayer Book was drawn up, and a ceeded with the revision of the Prayer Book, though it was revised text of the Scottish liturgy was authorised. In rọrọ stated that it is not desirable at present to introduce into the a more complete revision was undertaken by the consultative text of the Praver Book any changes, but they should be council on Church legislation, a body consisting of bishops, embodied in another volume to be sanctioned for optional use clergy and laity sitting together without legislative power. for a determined period. The work of revision went on for The result of its labours from 1919 to 1924 was contained in many years. The whole matter went through the hands of a series of reports. each House of Convocation separately, of the Joint Committee America.—In America revision was inaugurated in 1913 by of both Provinces and then of each House again. the appointment of a Revision Commission of the General The result of this work was taken up by the Church Assembly Convention, consisting of seven bishops, seven presbyters and when it was formed. A committee was appointed and the

PREFERENCE—PRIESBY TERIA NISM

208

report of the Assembly on the revision of the Prayer Book was ultimately published under the auspices of the National Assembly (N.A.84). But when the moderate and somewhat conservative proposals which had been put forward by Convocation appeared in the fuller light of the Assembly many new factors came into consideration and different groups or parties in the Church took the matter of revision up with great keenness, so there was issued a series of new proposals. These were contained in the Green Book, issued by the English Church Union, the Grey Book, issued by a committee which was supposed to represent the Life and Liberty Movement, the Yellow Book,

issued under the auspices of the Alcuin Club, an attempt to embody these suggestions in one book and some white papers, representing a still more extreme view.

Method of Procedure-—The method of procedure which has to be adopted with regard to Prayer Book revision in the Church Assembly is as follows: a committce was appointed consisting of members of all three Houses who have recommended the measure, with the alterations proposed as a schedule, to the Assembly. That measure went before the House for general approval and was passed. It was then referred to the House of Clergy and the House of Laity, sitting separately, for amendment. The measure, with the amendments proposed,

then goes before the House of Bishops, who have to put it into the form in which it is to come before the Assembly for acceptance or rejection. No further amendment will be allowed. If it is accepted by the Assembly it must receive the assent, according to the forms arranged, of the two Houses of Parliament. It has also to receive the assent of the Houses of Convocation in order that their spiritual authority may be guarded. The House of Clergy has suggested a large number of amendments, including two alternative forms of the Communion Office. They have also recommended Reservation of the Sacrament, not only for the Communion of the sick but also for others and the keeping a Festival of Thanksgiving for the Blessed Sacrament and one in honour of St. Joseph. The House of Laity have contented themselves with far fewer amendments, but have requested the bishops to allow one alternative Communion Service with the optional use of vestments and of Reservation for the sick. They have expressed their disapproval of keeping a festival on the Thursday after Trinity Sunday as a thanksgiving for the institution of the Sacrament. While the House of Clergy desire an alternative book, the House of Laity particularly request that there shall be only one book in which the alterations, omissions and enrichments to the service are printed as notes or emendations to the existing service. In 1926 the House of Bishops was engaged on the work of revision. Reasons for Revision.—It may be convenient to sum up the reasons for the amendment of the Prayer Book. Speaking generally, they are the desire to adapt a book which dates from 1662 to the needs of the time.

I.

In detail they are:—

A desire to do away with old-fashioned expressions, phrases

unsuitable to the taste of the time, and statements inconsistent with modern thought. On this point there is considerable variation of

opinion, many being attached even to the archaisms of the Prayer Book, others finding them difficult or even offensive. 2. A desire to adapt the Prayer Book to the changed usages of the Church

to custom.

which

have gradually grown

up, to accommodate

law

3. Some desire that the Prayer Book should be revised so as to make the restoration of law and order in the Church possible. It is recognised that the existing Prayer Book cannot reasonably be obeyed in various points. It is proposed that there should be a rule of worship adapted to the present time with a reasonable latitude in the way of variations allowed, and that this should be enforced on the clergy. 4. There is a great desire to adapt the Prayer Book to the far wider religious and social aspirations of the present day. There is a great demand that religious worship should be brought much more closely into touch with the life of the people. 5. A desire felt, particularly by one party in the Church, arising from the great growth among them of sacramental ideas of worship. It is desired to give far greater opportunity for this in the new Prayer Book, and to accommodate it more closely to the traditional liturgical customs of the Church.

It may be noted that some of these desires seem, at any rate, to a certain extent inconsistent with one another. Some desire to reform the Prayer Book in order to bring to an end customs which others desire to make lawful and encourage. The problem presented represents one of considerable difficulty. The revision, which will allow the continued use of the old Prayer Book, must be looked upon as preliminary to a more complete revision when public opinion has become stereotyped. Meanwhile it may, perhaps, be stated that this difficult situation is not one which need arouse serious concern. It arises from the vigorous life and creative power of the Church, which shows itself by developments in various directions. (A. C. H.) PREFERENCE: sce IMPERIAL PREFERENCE; TARIFFS. PRESBYTERIANISM.—Since rgio the Presbyterian churches have encountered, in common with others, the obstacles and the impetus created by the World War. ‘The gains have outweighed the losses upon the whole. Numerically, to judge from the statistics presented to the general council held at Cardiff in July

1925 the total membership of the Presbyterian churches had increased between 1913 and that date by well over 2,000,000. The precise figures are, for too organised churches which it has been possible to reach, 8,670,500 souls; so that, on the usual scale of estimating people under the direct influence of a Church, there are over 40,000,000 who are Presbyterian. In CONTINENTAL

EUROPE

Germany.—In Germany the disestablishment of the churches, which followed the Revolution, has moved the Reformed section

of the Church, the “ Reformierte Bund,” to stress its distinctively Presbyterian principles, and as its membership numbers over 600,000 souls, it is destined to exercise a powerful influence in the fulure reorganisation of the Evangelical churches in that country. Norway.—In Norway the Evangelical Free Church, though Lutheran, is Presbyterian in temper, but the Lutheran section of the Church in Germany still adheres to its modified Presbyterian government under Consistories (see LUTHERANISM). France.—The vigour shown by the two groups of Presbyterian churches in France, addressing themselves to the task of reconstruction after the War, and the increase due to the fresh mem-

bership in Alsace and Lorraine, where the Reformed Church, largely German, numbers about 50,000 members, have helped to vitalise French Presbyterianism. But there is a distressing dearth of ministers; in 1924 there were 148 Reformed parishes vacant. Economic conditions, which have to some extent affected the supply of clergy in most churches, have hitherto operated seriously in France, where Presbyterians do not number quite a half of the total Protestant population (g00,000). Netherlands.—The lack of students for the ministry is also felt in the Netherlands, though less in the smaller Reformed churches than in the Groote Kerk or national Church. Czechoslovakia.—The rise of the new state of Czechoslovakia in ror8 led to an extraordinary break-away from the Roman Church; the united Evangelical Church of Czech Brethren now numbers over 250,000 adherents, one of its members being President Masaryk. Ukrainia.—A

similar movement is reported from Ukrainia, further east, where over 1,000,000 inhabitants have left the Roman and the Orthodox churches, and are being consolidated in a Presbyterian Church, largely under the mission work of Ukrainians who came back from Canada to carry on the movement.

Transylvania.—In Transylvania, on the other hand, the Presbyterians, like the rest of the religious minorities (see LUTHERANISM), have suffered and are still suffering under oppressive legislation at the hands of the Rumanian Government. The Magyar Reformed Church, with 800 ministers and about 720,000 souls under its charge, has to encounter the Rumanian prejudice against Magyars and the Greek Orthodox dislike of Protestants. The rights guaranteed by the Peace Treaty of 1918 to religious minorities are not being observed by the Rumanian Govt. and no remonstrances from outside have yet availed to check the perse-

PRESBY TERIANISM cution of the Church. Hungarian Presbyterians in Transylvania thus suffer heavy damage by the War-settlement which brought relief and advance to their Bohemian brethren. Hungary.—In Hungary itself, although the partition of the country brought about untoward religious results, the Reformed Church is still powerful both in numbers and in prestige, with over 1,000 congregations and 1,500,000 adherents. The Magyar racial problem emerges again in the position of the Magyar Reformed Church in Czechoslovakia, where about 40,000 members still keep apart from the larger Church of the country, and in the Reformed Church of Yugoslavia, where the members, twothirds of whom (in all, about 23,000) are Magyars, lie exposed to hardships like those of their brethren in Transylvania. Possibly the racial prejudices and religious rivalries which make the situation in Transylvania and Yugoslavia so bitter at present may die down in the course of years; meantime the redeeming feature is the tenacity with which the oppressed Presbyterians maintain their faith amid a struggle in which, unfortunately, their outside brethren are unable to afford them very much practical sympathy. Swiizerland.—The four Presbyterian churches in Switzerland have formed a Federation of Evangelical Churches, representing 2,250,000 souls. Switzerland has felt, like most other countries, the call to re-union in organised religion, and the rise of this Federation is a first proof of the Swiss interest in unity. Since to1g efforts have been made to bring together the Evangelical Church of Neuchatel and the mother church from which it broke away under Godet in 1873, but the local difficulties are still insurmountable. Belgium.—In Belgium the two small Presbyterian churches, the Union of Reformed Churches and the Missionary Church in Belgium, suffered heavily during the War. Together they now number 50 congregations, with 22,coo members. Austria. —An even smaller group is the Reformed Helvetic Church in Austria, with its centre at Vienna, which numbers 25,000 souls, out of a total Protestant population of 260,000. ftaly.—-The Waldensian Evangelical Church in Italy numbers only 22,633 members in 112 congregations, but its sturdy spirit is unabated; indeed since the War it has asserted itself more definitely than ever in Italian life, actually holding an Evangelical Congress at Rome itself, in 1920. Its theological college is now transferred from Florence to Rome. Spain.—The Spanish Evangelical Church has but 1,000 members, a tenth of the total Protestant population in Spain, with 26 ministers and 32 congregations. Denmark and Sweden.—Still fewer, though for no such reasons as in Italy and Spain and Belgium, are the Presbyterians in Denmark and Sweden, with three congregations between them and barely 400 communicants. The history of these countrics seems to have marked the Lutheran form of organisation as native to their genus, as is the case with Norway. Russia.—In Russia the Bolshevik persecution has reduced the Reformed Church from 25 to two congregations, which still survive in Moscow and Odessa. Poland.—In Poland the Reformed Synod of Warsaw is now reduced to seven congregations, with barely 11,000 people; however, the transfer of Galicia from Austria has added a Reformed Church of three congregations and 7,000 souls. Lithuanta.—In Lithuania, which was mangled by the Peace settlement, the ancient Reformed Church numbers only nine congregations, with 17,527 members, but the land is politically free, and, though it is still predominantly Roman Catholic, the first national Cabinet was half Protestant in its membership. apid survey must note the Evangelical Church of Greece, with eight congregations and nearly 600 members, making Presbyterianism just visible in that country. In GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND

England.—In England the Presbyterian Church, with its 34 ministers and 84,638 communicants, altered the title of its su-

preme court in 1921 from “‘ Synod ”’ to “ Assembly.”

The Synod

209

of the Scottish Church in England still numbers 10 congregations, with 4,360 communicants, in communion with the Church of Scotland. Wa?les.—In Wales the Presbyterian Church has 1,492 congregations and 188,970 communicants, 382 of the congregations being English-speaking. Representatives of the Welsh Church are co-operating with the English, Irish and Scottish churches at present in the preparation of a new Hymnbook which will serve, it is hoped, for Presbyterian churches far and wide. Scotland.—In Scotland the statistics of the four smaller churches are as follows: 94 ministers and 8,500 members to the Free Church, 15 ministers and 46 congregations to the Free Presbyterian Church, nine congregations and nine ministers to the Reformed Presbyterian Church and 20 congregations with 3.142 members to the United Original Secession Church. Since 1909

the two large churches, the Church of Scotland and the United Free Church, the former numbering now over 760,000 communicants, the latter 535,000, have been moving towards a reunion. The negotiations, interrupted by the War, have been resumed. The leaders of the Church of Scotland have twice gone to Parliament in order to secure Acts which might remove the scruples of the other Church; the first Act (in 1921) ratified a Constitution drawn up by the Church declaring her spiritual freedom, with Nine Articles outlining an acceptable doctrinal basis; the second (in 1925) ratified a financial arrangement between the Church and the heritors, relating to the teinds. At present the proposals for re-union are being considered, with a view to combining in a Church which fs at once national and free claiming no legal privilege above any other Church in the land. The net result of preliminary negotiations is the conviction that “the ‘ main causes of keeping the churches apart’ have been removed. The twofold stumbling block, which the state, inadvertently enough, had interposed between them, the state has

once for all cleared away.’? In the near future Scottish Presbyterianism will thus be able to present to the world an object lesson of Christian unity undertaken for the greater good of God’s Kingdom at home and beyond the seas. fveland.—The political changes in Ireland, as the result of the War, have borne specially on the congregations in the Free State. In the north, the Assembly’s College at Belfast has been sttengthened. The number of congregations in the Church is now 558, with close on 110,000 communicants, and to this falls to be added the Reformed Presbyterian Church with 43 congregations and 3,427 members. On THE

AMERICAN

CONTINENT

Canada.—In Canada the United Church of Canada came formally into existence at Toronto on June 10 1925. This remarkable Union of Congregationalists, Methodists and Presbyterians, is the result of negotiations which have been proceeding since 1908, in order to cope effectively with the religious needs of the Dominion where, especially in the Far West. the ecclesiastical divisions were felt to be more than ever a weakness and a scandal. The best men in the three churches set themselves to devise a basis of union which should conserve the elements of value in the polity of the three churches, and after long, intricate arrangements, the formal bill passed the Canadian Parliament in 1924 by a majority of r10 to 58. The polity of the United Church is admittedly Presbyterian. Of the active members entering it, over 1,800 are Methodist, 1,200 Presbyterian and 89 Congregationalist.

When the churches were consulted, less than 14%, of

the total membership voted against the proposals. Unfortunately a fragment of the Presbyterian Church has declined to follow the lead; 714 out of 4,531 congregations, mainly in Ontario, have preferred at present to remain isolated. Apart from this, the United Church has started under the happiest auspices. United States.—In the United States, the Presbyterian Church has become more than ever since the War not only the largest but the most liberal Presbyterian Church in the world. She reports 9,903 congregations, with 1,830,928 communicants; in 1924 She raised for Foreign Missions alone the sum of over 1A. Martin, Church Union in Scotland, p. 48.

210

PRESS— PREVENTIVE

$5,000,000 and employs now 1,600 missionaries in 15 different countries. In 1924 it was calculated that there were 2,250,000 Presbyterians in the United States, divided among this and ro other churches which owe their separate existence to the Civil War strife between North and South, or to sectarian divisions introduced originally from Kurope by immigrants, or to internal dissension. It has not yet been possible to re-unite these bodies. Efforts made during the past seven years have achieved little more than a measure of co-operation. Internally the Presbyterian Church has suffered, like most of the other American

Churches,

from the Fundamentalist

Controversy

(see FUNDA-

MENTALISM) which is still raging; it is an effort to commit the Church to five “ fundamental" points of theology, viz., () the inerrancy of the Bible; (7) the Virgin Birth; (zii) the Atonement as a Sacrifice; (zv) the Resurrection of Christ ‘ with the same body with which He suffered;’ and (v) the reality of the Lord’s miracles. Mexico and South America.—Besides a Presbyterian Church of over 5,000 members in Mexico, the various Presbyterian missions and churches in South America number nearly 30,000 communicants; the Scottish and American Churches are represented in the [Vest Indies at present by 15r churches and over 20,000 communicants.

IN AUSTRALIA, AFRICA, ASIA Australia and New Zealand.—In Australia a movement for re-union similar to the Canadian enterprise has been wrecked in the meantime. Both in Australia and in New Zealand the shortage of ministers is being acutely felt, in face of the increasing number of immigrants and the scattered population. Australasia reckons 127,305 communicants (including the Missionary Synod of Tahiti, New Hebrides, etc.) with 967 ministers, but the latter are insufficient for the needs of the situation.

South Africa.—Another failure of Presbyterianism to unite with other branches of the Church has to be chronicled in South Africa. In 1917 the Presbyterian Church inaugurated a movement for union with the Congregationalists, but the project had to be abandoned in 1921, partly on account of the colour question. Within the Presbyterian Church herself the colour question has had to be solved by the creation of the Bantu Presbyterian Church, composed of purely African natives, independent but allied. On the other hand, the Church of Central Africa came into being on Sept. 17 1924, a very fine example of union between the Church of Scotland’s Blantyre Presbytery, the United Free Church's Livingstonia Presbytery and the Dutch Reformed Church's Nyassaland (Mission) Presbytery. The Dutch Reformed Church in South Africa with a membership embracing 840,000 white adherents, brings up the total of Presbyteriansin Africa at present to a large number, proportionately; there are in all 1,768 congregations, including the various missions and 532,085 communicants. A growing spirit of co-operation is also manifest. India.—In India the South United Church was formed of Presbyterians and Congregutionalists in 1908; the community numbers over 240,000, and proposals have even been made for union between this Church and the Southern Indian section of the Church of England. The North United Church, also on a Presbyterian basis, arose in Dec. 1924, from the Presbyterian Church, which had received 53,000 Welsh Calvinistic Methodists from Assam in 1921, and the local Congregationalists. China.—On a smaller scale the genesis of the United Church of Christ in China resembles that of the Indian and the Canadian communities. It arose In ro21 from the Presbyterians and the Congregationalists, the former numbering 87,332 members, the latter 29,000. This had been rendered possible by a previous reunion among the Presbyterians themselves; in 1918, after rr years’ negotiations, ro different missions came together to form the Presbyterian Church in China. The combined community is now the largest Protestant Church in China.

Korea.—In Korea the Church, originally founded by American missionaries, has prospered rapidly, and displays a true missionary spirit; it numbers 1,260 congregations, with a Christian

MEDICINE

community of over 200,000. But when the Japanese made Korea a province, re-naming it “ Chosen,” they persecuted the Christians harshly, till remonstrances from abroad induced them to adopt more equitable measures. Japan.—In Japan itself the United Church of Christ, organised in 1877, has grown steadily till it now reckons 399 congregations and nearly 47,000 communicants. FOREIGN

MISSIONS,

ETC.

The foreign missions of the Presbyterian churches embrace 660,687 communicants, with 5,308 congregations, and the native agents number 33,191 to 4,587 foreign or white agents. Fhe number and quality of the native agents, who are claiming and exercising more and more responsibility in Church life, have increased in the last 10o vears. The Belgians have, since 1921, begun work at Ruanda in Belgian East Africa; the Swiss, Dutch, French and Germans now number 484 white missionaries and 117,153 communicants in their respective ficlds; the English, Irish, Welsh and Scottish churches report 10,104 native helpers and 765 other agents, educational, evangelistic and industrial, with 171,373 communicants; the Canadian Church’s missions include 1,249 agents anid 18,coo communicants, while the American churches count no fewer than 2,675 white missionaries and 14,955 native helpers, who supervise about 323,c00 communicants. The missions of the Australasian churches in the New Hebrides and elsewhere report close upon 9,000 communicants, and of their 583 agents no less than 454 are natives. Finally, reference may be made to several missions which were taken over from the dispossessed Germans at the close of the War. The heavy responsibill-

tics of carrying them on fell upon the French and Scottish churches. But the action of the British Govt. in 1923, permitting the return of Germans into territory held by the British, has already relieved the situation in East and West Africa, and at the same time made for a renewal of harmonious relations in the mission field. (J. Mr.) PRESS: see CENSORSHIP; NEWSPAPERS; PERIODICALS. PRESSBURG: sce BRATISLAVA. PRESTON, ENGLAND (see 22.307), hada population of 117,406 in 1921 and an area of 3,964 acres. Large sums have been spent by the municipality on acquiring and improving the docks and quays. Industrial establishments have arisen in the neighbourhood of the docks, and land has been bought by the corporation for further development. The number of cotton mills has been further increased, and a large power station on the Ribble was opened in 1925. A chamber of commerce was formed in 1916. Parliamentary powers were obtained before the World War to deepen the channel between Preston and the sea, and a dredging plant was built. The work was postponed, but was finished in 1925. Much attention has been given to the health of the city and to the provision of hospitals, infant welfare centres, etc., and the death rate has fallen to an average of 15 per thousand. PRETORIA, Souru Arrica, the administrative capital of

the Union of South Africa (see 22.309).

Its population (1921)

was 74,052, of whom 45,361 were whites. In ror1 the whites numbered 35,942. Pretoria ranks fourth of the cities of the Union. About a mile from the centre of the town, on a com-

manding position on the slopes of Meintjes Kop, are the Union Government Buildings, the finest public offices in South Africa. They were built roro-3, from the designs of Herbert Baker, at a cost of £1,800,000, and consist of a large central semicircular colonnaded building, flanked east and west by rectangular

blocks. At the junction of each wing with the central section is a domed tower, tSo ft. high, and at the end of cach wing Is a projecting pillared pavilion. A feature of the building is the long, low roof, with projecting caves. The space enclosed by the building is laid out in terraces culminating in an amphitheatre. The buildings are of South African freestone, on a

foundation of Transvaal granite.

Government

House and the

residences of ministers are in the suburb of Bryntirion.

PREVENTIVE MEDICINE (sce 18.59).—The prevention of disease is the truc ideal of medicine. Its application is twofold— the preventive medicine of the community, which is generally

PREVENTIVE

MEDICINE

Zit

termed Public Health or State Medicine, and the prevention of disease or its sequelae in the individual.

Practical Needs —Concurrently with the growth of medical knowledge there was an empirical movement of practical prevention. Long before the days of Hippocrates men had sought TTistorical Origins —The practice of preventive medicine had its | to stem the tides of disease which threatened to overwhelm origin in the ancient world. The Hippocratic writings testify to them. Even in Britain it was the ravages of pestilence in the some great school and tradition of medicine which, sown and watered Middle Ages—of leprosy from the rath century, of the Black in a forgotten and unrecorded past, bore ultimately its golden fruit in the master himself, and in those who followed htm —Diocles, Death from the 14th, of sweating sickness in the 16th, and of Aristotle, and the scientific schools of Alexandria. Another harvest cholera and smallpox subsequently—which compelled attention is represented in Pythagoras, Alcmaeon and Empedocles. Hippoto the conditions which seemed responsible for these scourges. crates himself was at his zenith in the golden age of Greece. [He first The great monastic orders and some of the historical citics— systematised the existing knowledge of medicine and classified the causes of disease into those concerned with seasons, climates and Rome, Venice and London-—provided comfort, refuge and external conditions, and those more personal causes such as irregular sustenance for the victims, and in 1388 was passed the first food, exercise, and habits of the individual. He laid stress upon the hygienic life as the great means of health and the postponement of Sanitary Act in England, directed to the removal of nuisances.

death. Air, water, sunlight and herbs were his primary therapeutic agents. He wrote also on the “ humours” of the body, and laid down the principle that the process of disease consists of its invasion of and disposition in the body combined with the reaction of the body itself in its own defence, a twofold struggle in which nature attempts to overcome disease. Thus llippocrates taught the healing power of nature, and that the true physician should copy her methods. Five and a half centuries after him came Galen, the famous Greek

physician who lived in Rome in the days of Marcus Aurelius. He gathered up all the medical knowledge of his time, and his books fixed it so firmly that the Galenic tradition lasted through East and West for 1,400 years. It was conserved in the work of Oribasius, and

thus

became

embalmed

in Byzantine

medicine;

it was

dis-

guised in Syriac and Arabic translations, though happily it caught a glow from the new light cast upon it by Rhazes and Avicenna; it inspired the [talo-Sicilian school, which left its mark on European practice and education as well as in the “ Regimen Sanitatis Salernitanum”’ (12th century). Haeser says that to every question the Galenic system had an answer, for every problem a solution, “ and this spurious air of infallibility led the spirit of man in fetters for centuries, and shattered any hope of progress.” Through the Middle Ages the principles of preventive medicine were ignored, in spite of the scourges of leprosy and plague, nor did the plague tractates or the various ecclesiastical provisions against disease make for advance. Then with the Renaissance came the new learning on the nature both of health and disease, which revolutionised the whole content of medicine and gave it a fresh centre of gravity and a new outlook. At first the revival of learning in the West consisted of the diffusion —by the fall of Constantinople and the invention of printing —of Greek knowledge, and the result might well have been merely an extended presentation of Galenic doctrine had it not been for the new work of the 15th and 16th centuries. Leonardo da Vinci—whose genius suggested some of the great discoveries of modern science —and Vesalius of Padua, were followed in the 17th century by Galileo, Harvey —who discovered the circulation of the blood—Helmont and the experimentalists, and Sydenham and the great practitioners who with their contemporaries observed the relation of the seasons, of telluric conditions, and the contagion in relation to the incidence of disease. This was quickly followed by new knowledge of anatomy, physiology and pathology. Moreover, the early ideas in regard to infection and contagion which had been

held by Aristotle and the two Italians Fracastor and Cardan were reinterpreted in the light of the germ theory. At the end of the first half of the 19th century a beginning had been made in the discovery of specific organisms in diseased tissues, an illustration of which was Pollender’s bacillus of anthrax. Then came the immortal work of Louis Pasteur on the causes of fermentation in

1857, on the disease of wine in 1863, on viruses in 1877, and on vaccines in 1980-2. His vision and technique, and that of Robert Koch, with his solid culture media and precise methods of identification, opened the gates of a new kingdom. They had great reward, for in trooped the long line of their successors. From 1870 to 1905 there followed that wonderful succession of discoveries which gave us the bacillus of leprosy (Hansen), the gonococcus (Neisser), the typhoid bacillus (Eberth-Gaffky), the micrococct of suppuration (Ogston), the bacilli of tuberculosis (Noch), of cholera (Koch), of diphtheria (Klebs-Loffler), of tetanus (Nicolaicr), and of plague l (Kitasato and Yersin), all between 1871 and 1894. In 1880 Laveran announced the discovery of the Plasmodinm malariae, and 18 years later Manson and Koss demonstrated its relation to the life history of the mosquito. In 1878 came the trypanosoma of Lewis, to be followed by various members of its genus; in 1883 Friedlander described the pneumococcus, and four wears later Weichselbaum the meningococcus and Bruce the micrococcus of Malta Fever. The last to be named in this brief review ts Schaudinn’s Spironema pallida of syphilis, discovered in 1905. These then were the principal pathogenic representatives of that unseen world the existence of which had been long foretold. ‘The discovery of these disease-producing germs was only the first step. In 1888 it was learned that such micro-organisms acted on the body of tissues not only by their corporeal presence but by their secretion by toxins, against which the body cells reacted, defending themselves the production of anti-toxins. (see SERUM THERAPY).

In 1443 came the first plague order recommending

quarantine

and cleansing; in 1518 was made the first rough attempts at notification of epidemic disease and of isolation of the patient; undet Queen Elizabcth scavenging became more stringent; and as time passed men began to see that environment was one of the principal factors in the orisin and spread of disease, and thus housing, water supply, drainage, scavenging and quarantine played an increasing part in prevention. Experimental Method —At first the new applications of medicine were suggested by medical practitioners. Three centuries ago Harvey indicated for us the true experimental method; he placed the blood in the forefront of physical life, and gave it a new chemical and physiological meaning, and by his demonstration of the circulation he provided a new conception of the method by which the blood carried its nourishment to all parts of the body. Fifty years later, Thomas Sydenham, another practitioner, living in a “generation of the stronzest and most active intellects that England has produced,” laid the basis of epidemiology by his observation of cases, h's power of analysis and comparison, his deduction of laws of prevalence, and his

suggestive hypothesis of “epidemic constitutions.” Richard Mead, asuccessful English practitioner in the first half of the 18th century, left behind him published works on poisons, on the plague and the methods of its prevention, on smallpox, measles and scurvy. Bradley and Rogers deduced from their general practice some of the principles of epi lemiology, Fothergill described “ putrid sore throat,” and Heberman chickenpox. Huxham, of Totnes, became an authority on the treatment of fevers, recommended

vegetable dietary in cases of scurvy

and

defined Devonshire colic, which his medical neighbour, Sir George Baker, traced to lead in the vats and cider presses. Willan made a systematic study of the health conditions of Withering, or Shropshire, contributed to our knowlLondon. edge of the incidence of scarlet fever, analysed water, was a climatologist and used digitalis. Edward Jenner, a practitioner in Gloucestershire, introduced vaccination. James Lind issued the first treatise on scurvy and the health of seamen. Thackrah, who practised in Leeds, explored industrial health problems and described dust diseases and brass-founders’ azue, and Michael Taylor of Penrith was the first to elucidate milk-borne epidemics. Indeed, the 18th and roth centuries furnish a remarkable record of clinical discoveries which prepared the ground for the study of causation and the influence of external environment in relation to communal disease. Legislative Action —The applications of state medicine, in the roth century, found their inspiration in England in two sources, and their expression in legislation. The twofold inspiration came from the recurrent outbreaks of cholera and consequential commissions of inquiry, and from popular demand for reform, which was realised after each of the four extensions of the franchise (1832-1918). The Legislature placed on the statute book a wonderful

series of enactments.

The alarm

caused

by the

ravages of cholera in 1831 led to the first steps in administrative sanitary reform; in 1849 there was a second visitation of cholera, and in 1834 a third. These cholera epidemics led toa

new appreciation of the unsanitary condition of the country as

a whole, to an understanding of the nature of the disease and its epidemicity, to the establishment of “cholera dispensary stations ” and to the Infectious Diseases Prevention Act 1855

212

PREVENTIVE

Concurrently with and following upon these epidemics there were various commissions of investigation. In 1838-9 the Poor Law Commissioners drew attention to the prevalence of epildemic disease and its relation to poverty. The reports by Neil Arnott, Kay, Southwood Smith and Chadwick were the predecessors of another famous series of investigations in 1859-65 by Greenhow and his colleagues under the Privy Council into epidemic diarrhoea, pulmonary disease, infant mortality and ague; and also into the four “ elementary requisites of popular healthiness,” viz., adequate food supply, sufficient house accommodation, healthy physical surroundings and wholesome industrial circumstances. They led the way to the new application of medicine for the removal of nuisances, the prevention of contagion and infection and industrial hygiene and welfare. In 1843 Sir Robert Peel, at the instigation of Edwin Chadwick, advised appointing a Royal Commission to inquire into the outbreaks of disease in large towns and the best means of improving the public health, the report of which led to the passing of the comprehensive sanitary measure in 1848, the establishment of the General Board of Health and the appointment of medical otticers of health. In 1869 was appointed the Royal Sanitary Commission, on which sat Thomas Watson, James Paget, Henry Acland, Robert Christison and William Stokes, and before which Simon, Budd, and Farr gave evidence. Speaking broadly, the 1843 commission found the existence of a serious national evil of insanitation and ill-health, and recommended a legislative remedy, whereas the 1869 commission found that the remedy had proved ineffective and recommended that “ the present fragmentary and confused sanitary legislation should be consolidated.” They proposed, in fact, for the first time, a Ministry of Health, and though the case miscarried, and the Local Government Board was created in 1871, a comprehensive Ministry of Health was at last established in rọrọ. The commission’s summary of the national sanitary minimum of “ What is necessary for civilised social life ’” provided the grand inventory

of that period (1871) and was as follows:— 1. The washing. 2. The 3. The 4. The 5. The 6. The smoke.

supply of wholesome and sufficient water for drinking and

prevention of the pollution of water. provision of sewerage and utilisation of sewage. regulation of strects, highways and new buildings. healthiness of dwellings. removal of nuisances and refuse, and consumption

of

7. The inspection of food. 8. The suppression of causes of diseases, and regulations in cases of epidemics. 7 g. The provision for the burial of the dead without injury to the

iving.

a The regulation of markets, etc., public lighting of towns.

Registration of Death and Sickness.i—-The programme of 1871 represented the most enlightened thought of the time regarding the sphere and scope of preventive medicine. [ven now it is almost a complete summary of the elements of a sanitary environment. The commission also showed how it could be worked out in practice by laying down the general principles to be followed and by drafting a new statute. They diagnosed with unfailing accuracy the causes of imperfect sanitary administration—(a) the variety and confusion of authorities concerned in the public health, (b) the want of sufficient motive power in the central authority, (c) the non-coincidence of areas of various kinds in local sanitary government, (d) the number and complexity of enactments, (c) the needless separation of subjects, (f) the leaving some general Acts to voluntary adoption and the permissive character of other Acts and (g) the incompleteness of the law. Finally, the commissioners lent all the power and prestige of their position and experience in unreserved support of the great principle of local self-government. Public Health Act, 1875— The Public Health Act of 1875, which emerged from the labours of the Royal Sanitary Commission, may be regarded as marking a great advance in the development of sanitary administration. Before that time sanitation was interpreted in large measure as a negative policy ! Report of the Royal Sanitary Commission 1871, vol. 1, p. 20.

MEDICINE —in a word, the removal of nuisances; after that time sanitation received a new connotation, positive, constructive, remedial. That is the reason why this Act forms the great line of division, the watershed in the progress of modern preventive medicine, on its environmental side. The report of Sir Robert Peel’s Commission, in 1845, contains a significant suggestion in its recommendation that each local governing body should have a medical officer whose duty it should be “‘ to ascertain the true

causes of discase and death, more especially of epidemics increasing the rates of mortality, and the circumstances which originate and maintain such diseases, and injuriously affect the public health.” No one can read the preamble of the report of the commission of 1869 on the kistory of the sanitary laws enacted up to that date without being impressed with their character. They dealt, almost monotonously, with nuisances and their removal, sewerage and drains, sewage utilisation, the paving, lighting and cleansing of streets, common Jodginghouses, the supervision of artisans’ dwellings, smoke nuisances, Jocal government and the burial of the dead. The only group of laws directly concerned with disease was the Vaccination Acts. Then came the Public Health Act of 1875, which in conception and working led for 20 years to enactments on the prevention of river pollution, the protection of water supplies, the provision of housing accommodation and isolation hospitals, and the notification and prevention of infectious disease. The elementary Education Act of 1870, and the Public Health Act of 1875, were forms of germinative legislation bearing fruit in a single generation. The Practitioner’s Aid.—Whilst the state was thus calling into being various public medical services, the practitioner in medicine and surgery was finding ways and means of preventing disease met within his practice, both infectious and non-infectious. Abortion, miscarriage, still-birth are preventable conditions. Children’s disorders such as ophthalmia, rickets, dental decay and malnutrition are preventable, and the same may be said of many diseases of the skin, the eye, ear, nose and throat. The examination of recruits and of insurance patients shows that much physical impairment is due to the effects of rheumatism, dyspepsia, constipation, bronchitis, anaemia, debility, neurasthenia, heart disease, dental decay, mental disease or disorders of metabolism. Some of these conditions are due to factors such as infection (fevers, rheumatism, tuberculosis, venereal disease, etc.), or degenerative processes, like arteriosclerosis and nephritis, or fatigue and unhygienic living; others are more obscure, but the great bulk of them are in large degree preventable. Midwifery alone provides many opportunities for preventive medicine. Surgical Aid.—Surgical conditions seem at first sight to be less directly preventable, and curative only. Yet the task of the surgeon is to serve and assist nature by placing the human body and its organs at her service, by removing obstructions from her path, by supplementing and aiding her processes and by fortifying the body defences against infection or accident. All this is of the essence of preventive medicine. It is an alliance with nature against disruptive forces. Surgery finds its preventive expression in a great variety of ways. The fundamental principles of aseptic surgery are the climination of sepsis and its

practice is repair, the removal of hurtful tissues and the avoidance of disablement. Preventive surgery may be illustrated ina general way as follows:— (a) Surgery in children’s conditions—enlarged tonsils and adenoids, phimosis, hernia, ophthalmia. (b) Surgery in deformities —rickets, tuberculosis, scoliosis, talipes, flat-foot, hammer-toe, fractures. (c) General surgery—sepsis, tuberculosis, varicose veins, hernia, venereal disease, malignant disease, tumours, thoracic conditions,

abdominal and genito-urinary surgery, gynaecology, dental caries. (d) Industrial surgery—wounds, fumes, anthrax, tetanus, etc.

fractures,

injuries,

poisons,

The first generation of the zoth century (1900-24) witnessed a continued development in sanitary environment, which indeed must always remain the foundation of preventive medicine, and

PREVENTIVE in various new departures dependent upon the principles which had been established by the Public Health Act 1875, and by the growth of medical knowledge. The public health service expanded to include particular measures against tuberculosis and venereal disease, the provision of municipal midwives, and a remarkable extension of the supervision of maternity and child welfare. Indeed, the characteristic of this period was the progress made in personal hygiene as distinct from environmental hygiene. Its centre is the person rather than the premises. The School Medical Service was organised in 1907, systematic provision was made for the care of infancy in 1914, the National Health Insurance Act was passed in 1911 and medical research

has been organised on a large scale. Concurrently with these great movements increased attention was given to industrial welfare and the health of the factory worker. Time alone can show the effect on the public health of the wide extensions and applications of the public health principles of 1875. It cannot be doubted that an improved midwifery service, the care of the newborn infant, the systematic health supervision of every school child, improved hygiene in the workshop and factory and a system of health insurance by which medical aid is promptly available for 14,000,000

insured persons must exert in the course of time a profound effect upon the national health. That such an effect has already been produced is shown by the vital statistics. The following table gives the birth-rate, population, number of deaths, average annual death-rate and even mortality from 1871 to 1920:—

Q S m

ta I

-a +m

S

ofage year e of deaths chil-

MEDICINE

213

ising tests for diphtheria and scarlet fever, and these have opened up new opportunities for the control of these diseases (see INFECTIOUS FEVERS). The dispensary and sanatorium treatment for tuberculosis has been greatly developed, and this has led to the arrest or retardation of the disease in many individuals. The disease has been steadily declining in Great Britain since about 1875. The new knowledge of filter-passing microbes (q¢.v.) has created far-reaching possibilities, and that of the physiology of internal secretion has led to the introduction for therapeutic purposes of artificially prepared extracts, such as insulin (for diabetes), thyroxin (for myxoedema) and pituitrin (for acromegaly). (See ExpocrinoLoGy.) There has also been an enormous development in the use of antitoxins, vaccines and serums (see IMMUNITY; SERUM THERAPY; VACCINE THERAPY)—-the harvest of the epoch-making work of Louis Pasteur. Lastly, the creation of the League of Nations has facilitated considerable development in the international study of hygiene, and there has thus been opened a new sphere for the application of preventive medicine to international health problems and the control of the tropics for the white man. Plague, yellow fever,

malaria and sleeping sickness have now, under favourable circumstances, come under man’s dominion. See J. G. Fitzgerald, P. Gillespie and H. M. Lancaster: An Introduction to the Practice of Preventive Medicine (1923). (G. N.)

United States. —The rapid growth of America was associated with primitive sanitary conditions, so that epidemics of typhoid fever, cholera, ycllow fever, typhus fever and other preventable plagues marred the development of the country. In many instances the water supplies were contaminated and sewage and wastes were disposed of by ready methods that were unsanitary and unsatisfactory. The reforms along these lines in recent years

have worked hygienic marvels. The United States grew at a time when sanitation and hygiene were emerging from the Dark Ages. Notable contributions to the science and practice of preventive number stimated infant annual mormedicine and hygiene have been made by American workers in the laboratory and in the field. 1,000 per In 1893 Theobald Smith demonstrated that Texas fever of catt.e., tality, under dren onbirths 1,000 per population revi rate 1,000 per deaths of Averageom estimated Average Average c tle was transmitted by the bite of an infected tick, thus proving Average | E for the first time the great principle of insect-borne transmission 24,225,271 of infection. Shortly afterwards the mosquito was shown to be 1881-1890 27,384,934 1891-1900 the vector in the spread of malaria and then of yellow fever. Tol30,643,316 IQOI-IQIO | deathannual Average 8og 34,180,052 lowing this, other insects were found to be responsible for a long BD D e AÈ Ww BNU BR NM me le sO Ga sO IQII—-1920 + wn 35,750,705" | and growing list of infections. In 1900 Carter discovered the ex1 Including civilian population only from 1915-8. trinsic period of incubation of yellow fever. In 1882 Carlos Fin2 Including civilian mortality only from 1915-8. lay of Cuba implicated the responsible mosquito, but it remained In 1924 the birth-rate had fallen to 18-8, the death-rate to for the United States Army Medical Commission, consisting of Reed, Carroll, Lazear and Agramonte, to prove the fact by a con12:2 and the infant mortality rate to 75 per 1,000 born. The decline in the infant mortality rate from 153 per 1,000 born in vincing demonstration in 1900. This discovery was soon put to 1891-1900 to less than 80 for 1920-4 is one of the most sig- practical use by White in New Orleans during r905 when, for the nificant and sensitive indications of the improvement of the first time, an epidemic of yellow fever was stamped out before the public health. Perhaps an even more valuable indication is the advent of frost. The work of Gorgas which made the building of expectation of life at birth. In 1871-80 the expectation of life the Panama Canal possible was a dramatic demonstration in preat birth in London was for males 38 years, and for females 42. ventive medicine. The cause and modes of spread of tularaemia, another insectBy 1920-2 these figures had risen to approximately §4 years for borne disease, primarily of rabbits and secondarily of man, were males and to sq for females, a rise of 16 and 17 years respectively discovered by McCoy and Francis, scientists of the Hygienic in two generations. Since 1900 there have been various collateral developments in Laboratory of the U. S. Public Health Service. Ricketts lost his medicine which cannot fail to exert powerful influence on the life from typhus fever in Mexico City while unravelling the mysteries of that disease, and McClintock was a martyr to Rocky prevention of disease. The use of X-ray (q.v.), of radium (qg.v.) and of the ultra-violet rays has been conducive not only Mountain spotted fever while studying that tick-borne infection which has been revealed by American investigators. A triumph to greater accuracy of diagnosis, but also to steady improvement in the treatment of tuberculosis (g.v.) and cancer (q.2.). was achieved by the Dicks of Chicago who demonstrated the Heliotherapy (g.v.) and open-air treatment are likewise finding cause of scarlet fever and developed an antitoxic serum for its curc, a toxin for its prevention and a skin test (the Dick test) by many applications. The perfection of the Wassermann-Bordet which it is possible to determine who are susceptible and who im606th (the salvarsan of Ehrlich by test and the discovery preparation tried for syphilis) have advanced the diagnosis and mune. Stiles pointed out the importance of hookworm disease and discovered an American species of this parasite. Trudeau treatment of this disease, now carried out in England and Wales founded at Saranac Lake, New York, the sanitarium for tubercuin 190 special clinics receiving state subsidy (se¢ VENEREAL losis which now bears his name; Theobald Smith discovered the for tests various and typhoid for reaction Widal The DIsEASES). bovine tubercle bacillus; and Noguchi’s brilliant achievements immunhave been followed by the Schick and Dick = —, cs 3 c G cà

living

gistered

=t

tuberculosis

214

PRICES

have placed some obscure problems on a secure scientific basis. In the field of nutrition, Atwater and Benedict, Osborne and Mendel, and Lusk and McCollum have enriched the important subject of dietetics, which is one of the most fundamental factors in health. Among other outstanding contributions should be mentioned the work of Goldberger on pellagra and Strong on trench fever. Oliver Wendell Holmes, as early as 1843, pointed out the contagiousness of puerperal fever. The blessings of anaesthesia were among America’s first contributions to preventive medicine. Long, a country physician in Georgia, operated on several cases under ether in 1842-3. Wells of Hartford, Connecticut, in 1844 began the use of nitrous oxide in dentistry. The first public demonstration of a surgical operation under the deep sleep of ether was inspired by Morton and was performed Oct. 16 1846 at the Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston. ‘The United States was a ploneer in recognising the importance of clean, safe milk supplies. In Jan. 1908 the United States Public Health Service published a Bulletin of the Hygienic Laboratory entiiled ‘ Milk and Its Relation to the Public Health,” which favourably influenced the milk supplies in the United States and elsewhere. Pastcurisation was advocated and is now generally apphed to all large milk supplies throughout the land. While the United States was somewhat tardy in supplying clean and safe water to its large cities, it developed the method of rapid (or mechanical) sand filtration for muddy waters and has been quick to seize the advantage of chlorination. The recent reduction of typhoid fever in the United States is one of the dramatic demonstrations of preventive medicine. The United States was early in the field to develop special schools for public health education. A School of Public Healih was established by Harvard University and The Massachusetts Institute of Technology in Boston in 1913 (Rosenau, Sedgwick and Whipple). Other universities have participated in this movement, especially the University of Pennsylvania (Abbott), Johns Hopkins University (Welch) and the University of Michigan (Vaughan). American names especially associated with public health administration are Biggs, Chapin, Shattuck, Wiley and Wyman. Health administration in the United States is part of the police power of the several states. The Federal Government has no constitutional power for local administration of healih codes. It has, however, full powers with reference to maritime quarantine and interstate quarantine; it acts in emergencies and it promotes public health through demonstrations, co-operation and investigation. Federal health activities are centred in the United States Public Health Service, which is a bureau of the Treasury Department. Each state has a health organisation, and all the large cities and some of the smaller ones also have well organised health services. The county district is the weakest link in the sanitary chain, but in 1925, 280 of the 2,850 rural counties of the United States had full-time health officers. Many other agencies are active in preventive medicine throughout the country—for example, the International Health Board of the Rockefeller Foundation; the Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research; the McCormick Institute for Infectious Diseases; the Society for the Study and Prevention of ‘Tuberculosis; the National Health Council; the Metropolitan Life Insurance Company, as well as universities, health centres, etc., all of which are active in promoting a better civilisation through obtaining and maintaining a higher standard of health. (M.J.R.) PRICES (see 22.315).—The following article deals with the general movement of wholesale prices, (a) since 1903 in the United Kingdom and (b) since 1913 in certain other countries; (c) the wholesale prices of selected commodities; and (d) the gencral movement of retail prices of food in the United Kingdom. These general movements are measured by index numbers (see INDEX NUMBERS), which are averages, computed in various ways, of the changes of prices of selected commodities. The relative importance given to the various classes of commodities in the principle index numbers for the United Kingdom are indicated in the following table :—

| Board of See Š

Vee.

Base 1867-77

Statist or | Economist Sauerbeck base

:

42

Base 1913

Cereals Aleit

T Other food, drink and tobacco .

Coal and metals Textiles . ; Miscellaneous

=

1913

oe

113 II3

178 156

I44 182

159 QI

127

88

56

114

353

422

382

364

293 207

156 178

203 I75

182 227

147

244

240

229

647

578

G18

636

1,000

1,000

1In the old series, discarded in 1920, the food group accounted for 652 and the materials for 348 in I900. 2 These are the effective weights reached by Sauerbeck’s numbers when comparison is made with 1913.

During the very rapid and diverse price movements from 1914 to 1922 the results obtained by the three methods diverged (see Table IT.): that of the Board of Trade is on the broadest and most scientific basis. (a) The United Ningdom.—Table I. exhibits the general movement in the 12 vears before the World War. The year 1903 is

taken as the starting point, since, after the considerable fall in prices ending in 1896 and the subsequent temporary inflation of 1900-1, it mav be regarded as a normal year. Wholesale prices rose steadily from rgo2 to 1913, except for the short period of depression in 1908-9, but tended downwards in the first half of 1914. TABLE

T. Index Numbers of Movement of Wholesale Prices in the United Kingdom.

Level in 1913 Taken as 100 Board of Trade Old Series

1903. 1904 1905 Ig06. 1907 1908 1909 IQIO IQII

I9I2

Igi3..

. . . . . . .

; : . : : :

; :

. : : : ; ; : : ;

;

1914 (Jan. to June)

: :

. : : : ;

.

)

i c

Sauerbeck

82 83 85 gI 94 86 87 92 94

Economist

79 SI SI 88

100 A

100

97

Immediately after the declaration of war in 1914 prices began to rise, and with certain interruptions continued to mount up till the spring of 1920, when the index numbers reached their maximum (Statist 323, end of April; Fconomist 326, end of March; Board of Trade 357, average of July). Till Oct. 1917 the increases showed a remarkable regularity, averaging 2% monthly, equivalent cumulatively to 27°, per annum; on this scale the index in the successive Octobers would reach 106 in IQI4, 135 IN 1915, 171 in 1916, 217 INntoT7 And 258 in 1918, numbers which (except the last) are in close agreement with those shown in Table Il. There was, however, a definite seasonal movement super-imposed on this regularity; in the first three or four months of each year prices moved up with special rapidity, while in the summer the increase was slackened and in some cases was replaced by a fall. The check in the increase in the summer of ror7, following a specially rapid rise, is attributable to the control of prices which by that date was general. From Aug. 1917 prices continued to rise in spite of control till Sept. r9r8, but the rise in these 13 months aggregated to only 13% (239 against 213). After the Armistice prices fell slowly for five months, during the season in which in previous vears the increase had been specially rapid, but expectations of a permanent fall were not realised; la the year beginning April roto the index rose from

PRICES 224 to 323, or 44%. The reaction began in the early summer of 1920, and the fall was very rapid in the following winter and continued till the end of 1921, when prices were 69°% above the pre-War level, and only half those at the maximum of April 1920 by The Statist account. During the subsequent four years the movement was relatively slight, but there was a definite fall

and rise in the middle of 1923, and a further rise in the latter part of 1924. The gold basis was restored in May 1925, and both in anticipation of this and after it there was a fall amounting to 10% in the whole vear, till prices were 58° above 1913; equilibrium with the United States price index was reached in the latter part of the year. TABLE

If.

Monthly Index Numbers

215

in the table; by the end of r925 Canada, Australia, South Africa, Sweden, the Netherlands, Switzerland and Germany had returned to the gold basis, and in Canada and Europe there was a close approximation to the American index. In Belgium, I'rance and Italy depreciation recommenced in 1922, and in France and Italy prices had in 1925 passed the 1920 average. At the end of 1925 Japan was taking steps to stabilise prices in

that country.

|

(Statist)

Average of Jan—July 197, =199

End of Jan...

SASS i

April May . June .

; s

Juy

.

.

Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec.

. .

: R

N] oj]

mj

=

nj (a)

AAA

2|, =

A AAA A

ADL cl]

mi

m

awl] nt

es] Fy]

wm

=

=

=

=

=

!

a Mee ee ees A a Me yf dli | T17/150:193'225)/233'298)239)/160)158 166.175) 122|154|199|227|227|317|220|160 160| 168173 126/153 205!228'224|316|2 15161161 |1r66l169 (00 |£23}163|209/230]2241323/206,163/162 166.167 130|164212|23I 235 316196 164 160 165/165 r291159|218|2331242311|180 1641155165159

i

Feb. . March

+]

=

129/153|214|233|250|309| 191 |162| 51|168|162

106/1 30/163'213/237/258/ 308/187/157{/150/167|163 103|131|163|214/239/260|302|181|155j155|I71|161 £0)]133/173)219]239,272|291 1638/1 58/155]177/158 "O3/137(133/222/237}280/272/166)/1 58/160; 176/164 EILG} 137/2251237 285252 I162|156|161}179]158

Yearly Average

IOI5/IQ916/I917/IG18 1919!1920 1921|1922|1923 19241925 Statist . 131 Economist 128 | 167 Board of

Trade: (Old series) (New series)

lo (aa to

167

ta uw +

0

913

1914 «= IIS

I9I16

IBIZ

I3I8

1919

1920

1921

1822

1923

1924

1925

Year

127 | 165 | 215 | 237 | 263 | 326

Fic. 1.—Diagram showing changes in wholesale prices in certain

316 | 203 |}1641164 | 171 (165

countries above or below the price level in 1913, which is taken in

every case as equal to 100. The diagram is based on the figures given in Table IHE below. (b) Other Countrics—The world movement of prices is best indicated by the United States index number, since in that (c) Selected Commoditics.——When commodities are taken separaiely, the measurements can be made more exactly, subject country alone the gold basis has been maintained throughout to ihe two following qualifications: (1) during the War period the period 1913 to 1925. In the United States prices rose rapidiy from the year 1916 to a maximum in 1920—-in April the the ordinary sources of supply were so disturbed that pre-War index was 273—and then fell rapidly till the spring of 1921; after kiads and qualities were no longer in the market (in The Economist index number 25 out of the 44 quotations included were slight variations, there was a rise from June 1924 to Feb. 1925, subject to some modilication of quality); and (2) a statement of and during the subsequent 12 months the number remained close to 160. In all the countries included in Table HI. there prices is generally taken as meaning the price at which a purwas a rise from 1915 to 1920, greater or smaller according to the chaser can obtain the goods he desires, and at which a merchant amount of paper money issued. In Germany and Austria the is willing to sell, but in the time of control and rationing these . conditions did not obtain, and the price was fixed by other conincrease was so great that the numbers reached were almost ditions than those which intluence a free market. incredible. After 1920 there was a fall in all the index numbers TABLE IH. Index Numbers of Wholesale Prices United Kingdom

United

Board of Trade | States ,

E

Year

a

Old New Series | Series

anadaj

Bureau! Officiat| Shas Labour

ry

1913

IgI4

.

1915 | 1916 | I9I7

R f i :

100

1003 : s f ‘

123 160 209

100

Sweden

Guai

Austra-|

soit}

7:

south

gat.) |Attica Official Official

a

mm

tere

am mr

100

100

100

LOO

IOI I2 177

110 132 179 199 209 244 172 152 1353 155

147 138 153 175 1389 225 175 162 I79 173

107 123 141 153 165 223 160 128 127 129

gs

102

160

106

169

97

125

] Toth

oe

Svensk LL: an- | Oficial dels$ tidning TOO

100

116 145 185 244 339 330 347

2

_

eee

Belgium)

sees : Otficial | Lorenz

ea

Ye

ae

re

100

e

109 146 226 270

100

France]

|

|

|

ae

100

100

102 140 188 262 339 356 509

222 173 163 162

à IQI 168 IS] 175

e 366 367 497 573

345 327 419 459

IÔI

155

162

558

RSS

Japan

[Italy | Bank

Official | Official | Bachi

373 304 292 182 160 1S! 156

sie 359

;

of Japan |

S

PRICES

216

Table IV. is based on the prices tabulated annually, in The Journal of the Royal Statistical Society, by the editor of The Statist. The index numbers have been recast, the average price in 1913 being taken as 100 for each commodity; the totals have been obtained by grouping together the separate entries on the same plan as in the original, but the change in the base year affects the results, which thus differ from those given in Table II. in the same way as if the weights had been changed. TABLE

IV. Statist Index Numbers. Average for Fach Year. Average for 1913 Taken as too in Each a se re e

IQ19 | 1920 | 1921 | 1922 | 1923 l Toz

l

1925

| Vegetable food :-—

| | i

Wheat English Gazette . | 229 | 253 American 205 | 253 Flour, town made white 153 | 216 Barley, Gazette 278 | 330

Oats, Gazette _ |

| 229 | 148 32 | 155 | 163 | 202 | 143 | 130 | 148 | IFI |] 211 | 150 | 130 | 144) 164 | 200 | 147 | 12 172 | 154

. | 274 | 301 | IBI | 152 | 140 | 142 | 142

Maize, U.S. mixed | 334 | 384 | 163 | 132 | 152 | 1685] 1635 Potatoes, English 254 ' 3II | 254 | 167 | 128 | 238 | 197 Rice, Rangoon 313 | 501 | 226 | 172 | 172 | 206 | 195

Average

255 | 319 | 208 | I5I | 138 | 172 , 169

| Animal food:— Beef: Carcase, London oo LdGling

. - | 200 | 220 | Mutton: Carcase, London vee 184 | MiGGINg - | 203 | Pork: Carcase, Lonà

231 | 215 | 164 | 147 | 152 | 148 255 | 224 | 167 | 152 | 155 | 150 a í i : oh :

Bacon,

311

don.

233 | 211 258 | 22

:

o2 | 173 | 180 | 172 21 192 | 185 | 176 : ; l i

233 | 306 | 221 | 184 | 162 | 127 | 154

W aterford

248

Butter, Friesland.

Average

.

232

I 80

148

138

167

212 | 253 | 210 | 170 | 156 | 177 | 174

. | 214 | 264 | 220 | 185 | 168 | 159 | 163

Tropical food :— Sugar West Indian’

Beet, German!

Java,

- | 402 | 610 | 205 | 158 | 268 | 246°]

i

Floating

Cargo

+

East India! Rio

good

$

aa

a

me-

87 | 172 | 220 | 182 | 157

dium? - | 182 | r14 | 85 | 162 | 207 | 215 | 181 Average Import!. 171 | 165 | 137 | 164 | 194 | 209 | 202 Average! . . | 300 | 432 | 162 | 152 | 203 | 197 | 157

! All Food: Average] 250 22 | 203 | 164 | 161 | 172 | 164_ 1. The entries in these cases of similar commodities are averaged before inclusion in the index numbers.

2 These commodities are not included in the index numbers. 3 White Javas, C.I.F. for 1924-5 * Raw centrifugals for 1924-5. > La Plata for 1924.

It is at once evident that the various prices have not followed the same course; the extremes in 1920 were house coal, whose price rose oy 49° % in seven years, and Java sugar, where the price is 587%. This wide divergence of itself shows that the

aD ease

| 215 | 326 | 257 | 151 5 | 1655 | 235 | 357 | 236 | 157 | 187 | | 249 | 366 | 247 | 145 | 153 ]

| 135 | 143 | 102

93}

97 1 93 ¢ Or

| 211 | 149 | 150 | I60 | I5I | 128 | 138 203 | 330 | 187 | 159 I8r | 143 | 106 331 | 572 | 250 | 173 | 180 | 168 | 144

Average!

218

| 276 7 | 172 | 135 3: | I:+4

Textiles:—

Cotton

Middling Bhownuggar Flax

14 +}

140 14

t

|

Ameri-

can.

148 4 | 127/ 151 | 125 161 | 153

| 1353 | 153] 98 | 90] 95 2 89 128 | 150 | 85 8r | 102 | 125 | 133 154 ; 209 | 127 | 141 | 148 | 1587 | 196

eee

O | 330

G.F.

i

34 | 173 | 218 | 23} | 180

51 | 240 | 102

14

17

194 | 194 !

Petrograd’, +. } 341 270 | a45 | 3331 271 | Russian Av. Import! . . | 423 | 837 | 287 | 206 | 205 | 253 | 293 | flemp |

Manila Fair Roping!

|

. | 185 | 207 | 127 | 105 | 1oO5 | 139 | I45

Petrograd clean! 388 | 383 | Jute, good medium | 189 | 169 | Wool Merino, Port Philipt 372 | 444 | Merino, Adelaide! 338 | 337 | Lincoln half hogs | 133 | 178 | Silk Tsetlee® 236 | 351 | Average! .

. oa | 150 | 213 | 234 104 | 116 | 98 | 120 f 187

177 | 217 | 243 122 | 180 | 214 69 79 | 97 241 | 261 | 220

| | | |

297 208 153 213

| | | |

228 183 139 164

. | 271 | 319 | 170 | 167 | 174 | 209 | 186

‘Miscellaneous: ~Ilicles | River Plate, Dry! | 182 | 167

78

74

76

. | 198 | 233 | III

93

95 | 100 | 115

River Plate, Salted'|

180 | 183 | 149 | 149 | 145 | 188 | 190 215 | 210 | 119 | 140 | 104 | 161 | 186

Tea Congo, common! . | 270

|

.. | 148 | 246 | 213 | 12

- | 400 | 687 | 202 | 141 | 224 | 1984) 113!

Coffee

Indian,

í

171°

|tg | 1920 | 1921 1922 Minerals :— Iron i Scottish Pig!>, . h Cleveland Pig! Common Bars . Copper Standard . . English ea Cake? . Fin, Straits . Lead, English Pig. Coal Best Yorkshire House’ Newcastle Steam? Average Export

Average Import! Leather Dressing Hides! Average Import! Tallow, Town Qi coo ;

ive

Linseed! Seeds, Linseed!

206 | 192 | 93 | 93|

187 | 223 | 12 125 | . | 211 | 370 | 240 | 187 | . | 255 | 218 | 105 | ror | 7 . | 197 | ty8 | 105 ; 98 |

BAY

de

i

a

saa

86]

8I

91}

92

93

120 | 1E7 [| 118 163 | I7 171 106 | 123 | 123 103

ESA

He

115

5E | 149

375 | 356 | 129 | 158 | 173 | 172 75 306 | 345 | 159 | 166 | 171 | 178 | 177

I'etroleum, refined | 204 | 298 | 260 | 186 | 153 | 154 | I54

Soda, crystals Nitrate of soda Indigo, Bengal

. | 249 | 317 | 295 | 259 | 217 | 214 | 2I 216 | 215 | 165 | 125 | 117 | IIS | 116 332 | 52 416 | 358 | 273 | 220 + 209

Timber Hewn: Average’ Sawn: Import!

. | 344 | 300 | 172 | II6 | 120 25 | 120 369 | 416 | 249 | 187 |208 | 193 | 195

Average!

268 | 307 | 195 | 167 | I51 | 152 | 150

Average materials} 256 | 302 | 181 | 159 ; 156 ; 168 | 159 Average, food materials | Statist number

and | | i . | 253 | 311 | 190 | 161 | 158 | 169 | 161 242 | 295 | 183 | 154 | 152, 164|161

general index number cannot have great precision. The prices ! The entries in these cases of similar commodities are averaged as recorded are the resultants of at least five forces, viz.: the before conclusion in the index numbers. > These commodities are not included in the index numbers. general inflation of prices, the conditions of supply and demand * Wallsend Ietton in 1913. for the separate commodities, the control of supply, the control 4 Livonian Z.K. from 1921. of prices, the change of quality. In 1915-6 the principal increases >Cominon New Style from 1921. may be traced to the diminution or difficulty of supply (cereals, rice. In Great Britain the prices were checked by the establishsugar, flax), to acuteness of demand (wool) or to both (timber). ment of a Government system of purchase at the end of 1916 In 1917-8 the prices of nearly all commodities whose supply and by the control of the prices of home-grown cereals in 1917; was threatened or for which the demand was increased were controlled. The quality was changed directly in the case of ‘with this system, flour of mixed materials was substituted for flour, and indirectly when the prices were averages of several wheat-flour and the product sold at a price kept constant and relatively low by the help of a subsidy, beginning in the autumn grades, as in the cases of meat, flax, leather and timber. Food.—The price of wheat rose immediately after the begin- of ror7. In the case of wheat and flour the subsidy and control ning of the War, and with it the prices of flour, oats, maize and continued till the beginning of r921, but the prices rose; the

PRIMO

DE RIVERA

prices of other cereals increased very rapidly from the autumn of roro. An attempt was made to control theeconsumption of oats in 1917-8, otherwise cercals were not rationed. The wholesale price of potatoes was fixed from time to time, the Government undertaking to make good growers’ losses, but the price was changed so frequently that the control had little effect. After the general fall of prices in r920—-1, the Nuctuations were principally due to rather abnormal harvest vicissitudes. During the War the price of meat increased somewhat less than that of commodities in gencral. Prices were fixed in Great Britain in Aug. 1917 and consumption was rationed early in 1918; after the Armistice control was gradually released, but prices of beef and mutton changed very little during the two vears after the first fixing of them. After the great drop in prices in 1921-2, wholesale prices of beef and pork remained relatively low, and those of mutton high during the period 1922-5. Sugar was controlled till the beginning of 1921, at which date the world’s supply had been adjusted to the new conditions, but the supply of beet sugar did not recover, and prices were relatively high till 1925. Af aterials —The prices of coal, iron and steel were subject to great iluctuations. Iron and steel were controlled during the War, and from Nov. ro17 till early in rọrọ a subsidy was given to producers. On its removal prices rose very considerably in consequence of the great demand for construction and repairs. Subsequently there was the general collapse in prices, marked by the coal strike of 1921, partly due to the gradual return to normal conditions of the continental coal mines and steel works. Some stimulus was given to prices by the French occupation of the Ruhr district in 1923, but by the end of 1924 it was evident that the world’s capacity for coal and stcel production was in excess of requirements, and prices fell to an unremunerative level. The prices of copper and tin and, in some years, of lead fell relatively to general prices.

The prices of cotton and wool reached great heights in the boom of 1920, followed by a complete collapse in 1921. During the period 1922-5 a world shortage of supply (as compared with normal requirements) kept prices on a high level, while continued fluctuations of price hampered manufacture. The extraor-

dinary risc in the price of flax was due to the cutting off of the Polish-Russian supply, which had not recovered by the end of 1925. Space does not permit any analysis of the price movements of miscellaneous materials, or of that of rubber, not included in the Statist list. Retail Price Movements in the United Kingdom.—Table V. shows the movement of the Ministry of Labour’s index of retail food prices. This measures the relative cost of purchasing each month exactly the same quantities and as nearly as possible the same kind of food asin a standard budget of working-class expenditure; this budget is based on an investigation made in 1904 and was modified slightly in ror4. During the period of control, 1917-9, the index is to some extent fictitious, since the quanTABLE V. Average of Retail Food Price Changes in the United Kingdom

:

as

‘

(Ministry of Labour Gazette). Taken as 100

|

Level in July ror

|

Beginningirors 191619171918 1919!1920|1921 |1922|1923|1924| 1925

BaieSS eetCt eo yo aes ee a E a i Jan. . | 1181145 | 187 | 206 | 230 | 236 |278 | 185 | 175 | 175 | 178 Feb. . | 122 | 147 | 189 | 208 | 230 | 235 | 263 | 179 | 173 | 177 | 176 March. | 124 | 148 | 192 | 207 | 220 |233 |249 | 177 |171 | 176 | 176

April

. | 124 | 149 | 194 |206 | 213 | 235 |238 | 173 | 168 | 167 | 170

June

. | 132/159 | 202 | 208 | 204 | 255 | 218

May.

July

Aug. Sept.

Oct...

|120

155 | 198 | 207 | 207 | 246 | 232 | 172 | 162 | 163 | 167

133 | I61 | 204 |210 | 209 | 258

|170 | 160 | 160 | 166

|220 | r80 | 162 | 162 | 167

134 | 160 |202 | 218 | 217 |262 |226 | 175 . |135 |165 {206 |216 |216 |267 |225 |172

|140 168 | 197 |229 |222 | 270 |210 | 172 | 172 | 172 | 172

| NOV.

I4r | 178 | 206 | 233 | 231 | 291 | 200 | 176 | 173 | 179 | 172

i

144 | 184 |205 |229 |234

Year

| I31

Whole-

|

| (Statist)

|282 |195

|178 |176 | 180 | 174

160 | 198 | 215 | 219 | 256 | 230 | 176 | 169

sale

Food

|165 | 164 | 168 |168 |166 |170

|

| |142 173- 225;23I

|170 | 171

|

| 2431308 |210 |173

163 |174:169|

217

tities of the goods included could not be purchased, and generally no allowance is made for modifications of purchases when prices are changing unequally; but there is good reason to believe that these considerations are of little importance after 1920. There is a seasonal fall in the spring and rise in the autumn, owing to the inclusion of dairy produce, and in particular to the supposition that the same number of eggs are bought in Jan. and April; but not improbably this reflects a real change in the cost of nourishment. Though the number is based on an average of prices all over the country, it is nearly applicable to all districts, since in recent years there has been increasing uniformity in prices and their changes. The Statist wholesale food index is repeated (on the basis of July 1914) for comparison, though the range of commodities and their relative importance are not the same in the two numbers. The rise up to 1920 is considerably smaller in the retail index, while the concurrence since 1921 is very striking. Retail prices in 1921 did not fall, however, so rapidly as wholesale, and it is generally to be expected that their movements will be later and of a smaller amplitude than those of wholesale prices. (A. L. Bo.) PRIMO DE RIVERA, MIGUEL (1870~ ), Spanish soldier and statesman, known as the Marquis de Estella, was born at Jerez de la Frontera Jan. 8 1870, and subsequently entered the Madrid military academy. After four years in Toledo he was

ordered to Morocco in 1893 as lieutenant of the Infantry Regiment of Extremadura, and in Oct. of the same year was promoted to the grade of captain for extraordinary personal bravery. In 1895 he was adjutant to Gen. Martinez Campos in Cuba, and rose to be major commanding the infantry battalion of Zamora. He served in the Philippines in 1897, and negotiated the Treaty of Biagnabato (Biacabato) on Dec. 12 1897, whereby the insurgents and their leader Aguinaldo surrendered and retired to Hongkong (see 214.339). Returning from the Philippines, in 1goo he commanded a battalion in Barcelona for a year and a half, after which he was transferred to the general staff, whence he repaired to Algeciras as commander of a battalion. In rors he was appointed Governor of Cadiz, and spent a month at the French front during the World War. His speech to the HispanoAmerican Academy advocating the exchange of Gibraltar for Ceuta or other North African territory, and corrosively criticising the Government’s policy in Morocco, resulted in his being relieved from the governorship of Cadiz. His exceptional military talents, his brilliant exploits, his unaffected simplicity and straightforwardness, his sympathy with the feelings and interests of the army and the nation, had won for him the confidence of the King, the general staff and the public, so that despite his outspokenness in the academy, he was soon afterwards promoted to be general and chief of the First Infantry Division in Madrid.

In ro2t the Marquis de Estella was elected Senator for Cadiz, and dclivered a powerful speech in the Upper Chamber reaffirming in emphatic terms the views he had already put forward respecting Morocco and the necessity of relieving the nation of that onerous burden. Whereupon Primo once again lost his post. But the effects of his uncommon civic courage and unselfish patriotism prevailed once more over considerations of petty discipline, and he was entreated to undertake the most difficult and dangerous post in Spain—that of Captain-General of Catalonia—with a view to ending the reign of terror there, of which the central Govt. was content to remain a listless onlooker. Separatism, syndicalism and genuine thuggism of the most dastardly character paralysed the population. Accepting the invidious task, the new captain-general soon reaped a measure of success fully proportionate to his chivalrous character. his

personal influence and his limited legal powers. Easy and generous to the point of familiarity in his private life, the Marquis de Estella was punctilious and exacting in matters affecting the nation, the army and the monarch, and his integrity was proverbial. He soon recognised the chaos in Catalonia for what it was—one of the indirect consequences of the breakdown of the parliamentary régime. This was also responsible for the mismanagement

of the Morocco campaign, as

PRINCE

218

EDWARD

ISLAND— PRINCETON

well as for the ferment in the army brought about by the niggardliness, the favouritism and criminal recklessness of the central Government. ‘The Cortes, which in a decade had trebled the pay of its members, refused the money needed for the training and equipment of the rank and file of the army, while the average oficer was so badly paid that he could not afford a sanitary dwelling, decent clothing or even a pair of leather boots. Although the evil had long been diagnosed nobody had had the courage to uproot it, until the dauntless Marquis de Estella surprised the world by his manifesto dated Sept. 12 1923, and published the following day, suspending the constitution and proclaiming in its place a directorate consisting of military and naval officers. He further announced that this arrangement was but a bridge leading to a future system of government better suited to Spain's needs than that which he abolished. This military coup d'état was carried out without bloodshed. The methods of the directorate were prompt and radical. Separatism, Syndicalism and Bolshevism were put down swiftly and without needless rigour. An anti monarchist conspiracy was checked with dignity and disdain. Labour conditions were bet-

Spring Wheat . . Oats . . ; : ; Mixed grains ; Potatoes! i i : Turnips, mangolds!, etc.

tal (pop. 12,347 in 1921), is situated on the shore of Hillsborough Bay, which forms a fine harbour. Other towns are Summerside (3,228) and Souris (1,094). About 77% of the population is rural. The government is vested in a lieutenant-governor, an executive council of nine members, six of whom are without portfolios, and a legislative assembly of 30 members; 15 councillors elected on a property qualification and 15 assembly men on popular franchise; the suilrage was granted to women in 1922. The province has four members in each of the Federal Houses of Parliament; the representation in the House of Commons, under an

Imperial statute of 1915, cannot fall below the representation in the Senate. In education progressive changes have been made, including the introduction of a minimum wage for teachers, a substantial increase in the education grant, and the establishment of an agricultural technical school in r921. Production —Agriculture was still the leading industry in 1925, despite the annual decline in production from rọrọ onwards. The yield in thousands of bushels and value in thousands of dollars of the principal ficld crops from 1922-5 was as follows :—

1922

Crop i : ; à

: i

;

. ; .

UNIVERSITY

1923

Yield

Value

689 6,533 652 2,658 2,313

863 2,662 408 1,329 533

Hay and clover? 379 4,553 1Cwts. ? Tons. tered, taxation reforms were drafted, a supplementary grant of 12,000,000 pesetas was made for education; the administration of justice, which needed thorough reform, was partially purged; gambling, which had become a cancerous growth on the body politic, was to a large extent suppressed throughout the realm, and promotion in the public services was made dependent upon merit. The parlous condition of the finances also exercised the ingenuity and tested the resourcefulness of the directorate, which within 15 months cut down a growing deficit of 1,000 million pesetas to 532 millions. The dictator and his colleagues revived the mediaeval liberties of the municipalities, giving them strong incentives to selfgovernment, and formed a national militia the function of which was to maintain public order in times of unrest, and otherwise to sustain the spirit of civic virtue. Lastly, Primo called into being under the name la Unión Patriótica, a fellowship of “ citizens of goodwill ” to work for the realisation of ethical ideals in public life, and hinder a return to the venal system just swept away. This innovation was welcomed with marked enthusiasm, and within a few months the members numbered over 1,250,000. Mindful of the undertaking he had given at the outset, Primo dissolved the directorate on Dec. 3 1925, and substituted a government composed of civil as well as military ministers— mostly young men—as. a preparatory step towards a new régime. The dictator himself, however, became Premier, and his policy was pursued without change. Upon his accession to power Gen. Primo de Rivera’s views on the Morocco problem underwent a complete transformation, which he frankly proclaimed without apologies but not without explanation. History, he held, constantly modifies political situations, and methods must be adjusted to current events. Of this the Morocco imbroglio was an illustration. By the year 1923 it had ceased to be a purely Moroccan struggle on the part of Abdel Krim for home rule, and had become an international enterprise (see Morocco). (E. J. Di) PRINCE EDWARD ISLAND (see 22.344), a province of the Dominion of Canada. The population in 1921 was 88,615, a reduction of 5-46% from the census of ror1. This tendency to decline has continued in each decennial period since 1891 when the population reached its highest figure of 109,078. This island province, however, is still the most densely populated in the Dominion, having 40'5 persons to the square mile. Charlottetown, the capi-

Vield

1924

Value

Yield

1925

Value

Yield

575

655

535

850

5,831

2,565

5,065

3,004

5,519

2,468

2,732

1,77

5,776

2,558

70I

3,859

2,531

6,753

372

4,090

306

3,755

38

2,157

321

421

647

3,856

766

2,336

574

554

Vafue

749

798 438

1,012

Seed-potato production, for export to the United States, showed a steady development during the years rọ2r to 1924. Dairying and poultry-raising are important: the production of creamery butter increased from 670,908 tb. in 1910 to 1,537,437 Ib. in 1923; during the same period the production of factory cheese fell from 3,293,755 ]b. to 1,811,537 pounds. The breeding of silver black foxes is an established and profitable industry. After a long period of depression it began in 1922 to gain ground, and in 1924 was the second largest industry of the province, with 448 fox farms and an estimated revenue from the sale of pelts and animals of about $2,000,000. The fisheries of the province were valued at $1,201,772 in 1924, a reduction of over 30% as compared with the preceding year. The lobster catch formed more than half of the total, oysters

ranking second in importance. Attempts to replant the oyster fields have largely proved a failure owing to the presence of destructive pests. Manufacturing is limited chiefly to food products, the gross value in 1924 being $4,462,821. In 1924 the province had 279 m. of railway, and daily communication by car ferry with the mainland has been maintained, with rare interruptions, summer and winter, since 1918. Both are operated by the Canadian National Railways. The construction of a tunnel to replace the ferry, and the standardisation of gauges on the island railways have frequently been advocated. (S. Lr.) PRINCE OF WALES: sce EDWARD, PRINCE OF WALES. PRINCETON UNIVERSITY.—In Sept. roro Woodrow Wilson resigned the presidency, and in Jan. 1912 Prof. John Grier Hibben was elected president. The period between 1912 and 1925 was marked by gradual restoration of solidarity after the disrupting controversies of the preceding four years; by extended administrative reorganisation; by promotion of faculty autonomy, remuneration and welfare; by clarification of educational aims; by closer attention to the physical, intellectual and moral environment of undergraduate life; by wider recognition of alumni representation. In 1912 and 1919 the business organisation of the university was remodelled. A standing committee of trustees and of the faculty was instituted in 1912 to consider all matters of educational policy and administration; in 1913 the faculty was given voice in forming its committees and initiating appointments and promotions; in 1918 the rights of the individual in

PRINTING cases of dismissal were safeguarded; a new scale of salaries was adopted in 1920; retiring allowances and insurance were set in 1922; and relief for housing shortage was supplied in 1922 and 1925. Especial attention was given to the development of the students’ health, by thorough physical examination, and by required supervised exercises. A development of the honour system In examinations (adopted 1893), to cover petty dishonesties, was authorised in 1921 and student self-government was so extended that by 1925 the conduct of discipline, student activitics and the regulation of athletics were shared by joint committees of faculty and undergraduates. In the World War over 5,600 Princeton men were in service. The university laboratories were occupied by Government bureaus of research, and the dormitories by a school of aviation, a naval paymaster school, a student army training corps and a naval training unit. The atrium of Nassau Hall was converted into a memorial of the 150 men who died in service and a scholarship was founded in memory of each. Additional Departments —In 1013 the erection of the resi` dential graduate college rendered permanent what had been an experimental feature of the Princeton Graduate School. By maintaining the highest standards and limiting the number to 200 (1922) the Graduate School planned to meet the need for gifted young scholars. A School of Architecture, opened in £920, was developed within the department of art and

archaeology.

The School of Enginecring was in 1921 reorganised to lead to the degree of B.S. in Engineering, and to offer graduate courses leading to the degrees of C.E., E.B., M.E., E.M. and Chem.E. The separate School of Electrical Engineering, established in 1889, was absorbed by the School of Engineering. Other new

departments were those of psychology (separated from philosophy); politics (separated from history); music; and military science. New professorships were endowed in history, mediaeval history, Spanish, chemistry and ancient literature. After the War a field artillery unit was established and erected into a Department of Military Science. Scholastic Changes —The entrance requirements were revised in 1913 and rgtg. To place the university in closer touch with American secondary education, Greek was no longer required (though strongly advised) for the A.B. degree. The curriculum was remodelled in rgrg, and in 1923 new standards for bachelor _ degrees were put into effect. The clective principle was broadened by a new plan of upper class study, developing the application of the preceptorial system. Meanwhile the enrolment reached the capacity, 2,000, set by the university. To keep within this number, a plan of selective admission to the freshman class was adopted in 1923. In ro1g the Alumni Association of Nassau Hall founded in 1826 was reorganised into a national association, and in 1922 the number of trustees elected by the alumni was increased from five to eight, or nearly one-fourth of the board. Endowment and Buildings.—The inadequate endowment after the World War led to a campaign, and the raising of about $9,000,000. A bequest from the late Henry C. Frick, not fully received in 1925, was expected to amount to about $5,000,000. A permanent committee was appointed in 1925 to obtain an additional endowment of $20,000,000. During the period 1912 to 1925, 22 new buildings were erected, and the foundations were laid (1925) of a new chapel. Among these buildings were the Graduate College, two units of faculty apartments, six dormitories, a new infirmary, a psychological laboratory, university dining halls, a stadium, a rink, a university power house and permanent quarters for the field artillery unit. In 1912 the endowment was $5,104,851, income $766,943, disbursements $831,538, salaries and expenses &408,360. In 1925 the endowment was $15,150,303, income $1,833,001, disbursements $1,873,166, and salaries and expenses $1,690,000. The library grew from 337,965 vols. in rg12 to 576,840 In T025, not including 286,851 pamphlets, manuscripts, etc. Inthe same period the faculty increased from 182 to 260, the graduate enrolment from 152 to 196 and the undergraduate enrclment from 1,391 to 2,279, (Aas

219

PRINTING (see 22.350).—Since 1910 many improvements have been made in high speed machinery and in mechanical details. Linotvpe.—The linotvpe machine has been improved and is made with four main magazines, each containing a complete range of types of a different body or face. A lever changes the magazine, and the width of the mould can be altered quickly so that varying types and sizes can be set without delay. Side magazines, worked by an additional keyboard, are fitted, which will set much larger type on the normal body, the letters overhanging and being supported by leads or slugs. AIfouotype.—The monotype has a greater range of faces which can be set at one time. The machine will set solid type up to 24 points at a much slower speed, and also overhanging initial letters which are larger than the normal body. The improvements on both machines are very useful for catalogue and newspaper work. The Ludiow.—In the Ludlow the matrices of the type are set by hand, and clamped in the machine, which casts a solid line of type, and the matrices are returned to the case by hand. This machine Is used entirely for display work or advertisements, and large types, with an overhang supported by slugs, can be cast. A wide range of faces and sizes in unlimited quantities, or repetition lines, can thus be obtained, and the type is always cast afresh for each job. The Supertype composing machine matrices are set in a manner similar to the linotype, but single letters are cast instead of a slug for each line. ‘Autematic Feeder —The use of automatic machines to feed the sheets of paper to the printing machine has been widely adopted, and continuous running is possible for long periods, whereas with hand-fed sheets it is necessary to stop the machine frequently when a fresh supply of paper is put on the feed board. Mechanical feeders are of the “ pile” or the “ continuous ” type. In the pile feeder a stack of paper is automatically raised as each sheet is separated and lifted by air suction, and passed down a sloping board to front lay marks, and adjusted by moving side marks which place the sheet in the exact position for the grippers on the printing cylinder. Electrical or mechanical devices stop the machine if two sheets or no sheet be fed in by error. In the continuous type of feeder, small quantities of paper are placed and combed out by hand on the feed board, and then mechanically fed to the machine by somewhat similar means. With these mechanical feeders a higher output is obtained, and in large sizes a stack of paper can be wheeled on a trolley to the feeder. An extended delivery carries the printed sheets beyond the machine to a delivery board which descends gradually, and a truck load of paper can be whecled away without handling to the binding department, and thus much handling and time is saved. The smaller sizes of printing machines are now built with an automatic feeder as an integral part of the construction, and speeds up to 4,000 per hour are possible, which could not be attained on a hand-fed machine. Process Work.—Three-colour printing is used in increasing quantities for illustrations ef all kinds. Absolute accuracy in register, height to paper, etc., is essential, and many improvements have been made. Blocks before being printed are gauged to 1,0c00th of an inch, and underlaid to make them dead-level. If a large cdition be required, and plates are used on a flat bed printing machine, steel mounting blocks, planed to 1,oo0th of an inch, built up in small sections, with screws for adjusting the position of the plates, give a ilat hard printing surface and perfect register between the three or four colour plates. Less time is then taken in making ready, and with modern machinery long runs of colour work can be obtained at a high speed without showing bad register or signs of wear. Good colour printing requires uniform lihting, and special electric lamps have been perfected to give the effect of sunlight or northlight, and so enable printing to be carried on day or night without the variation caused by changing from natural to ordinary artificial bght. The expansion and contraction of paper caused by variations in temperature or humidity prevent good register, essential in colour printing. Self recording hygrometers and thermometers are used to overcome these difliculties.

PRINTING

220

Newspaper Work.—In newspaper printing there has been a steady improvement in details. Most of the daily papers now have a page devoted to half-tone illustrations, which were formerly restricted to the daily papers specialising in pictures (sec Newspapers). The growth in the circulation of the newspapers has been aided by the increased output of the modern newspaper printing machine. The running speed of the machines is much higher, and the following are the principal improvements. Roller bearings have been fitted to the printing impression cylinders, and ball bearings to some of the other moving parts, in order to reduce friction and give smoother and easier running. For the inking rollers, which are covered with a rubber-like coating made of glue, treacle and glycerine, a new non-melting composition has been invented which enables the machines to run at a higher speed. A fine spray of ink is forced under pressure through a number of minute holes upon the rollers, supplying a continuous and uniform quantity of ink when the machine is running at a high speed. Casting Methods —Mention may be made of the development of proper costing methods in the printing trade. This movement began in the United States and spread later to Great Britain, with the result that in both countries a uniform system has been oflicially adopted. The system leads to many Improvements,

and points out the high cost of running obsolete and inefficient machinery, and where losses are incurred. The methods of dealing in paper have been standardised, first in Great Britain and afterwards in the United States. The sizes have been fixed and the ream containing a variable number of sheets abanduned in favour of 1,000 sheets as a basis for selling, which gives the advantage of decimal calculations. Other investigations are being made in order to standardise and simplify the methods which have been the slow growth of centuries.

(W. H. HL.) PRESSES

OF

VARIOUS

KINDS

Styles of Presses~—Four styles of presses were in common use in roro in book and job offices: platens, drum cylinders, siop cylinders and two-revolution cylinders. In the platen press the form was held in a perpendicularly stationary position, the printing surface, or “ platen,” opening on a hinge movement during the feeding of the sheets and while the inking rollers were passing up and down over the surface of the type forme. The drum-cylinder press was so called because of the resemblance of the end view of its impression cylinder to a large drum. Enough of the circumference of the cylinder was cut away to permit, after the impression had occurred and without stopping the cylinder, of the return of the type forme for re-inking and another impression. In the stop-cylinder press, only a small part of the circumference of the cylinder was cut away; the cylinder, which was of course smaller in size than in the drum, stopped with its flat side at rest over the forme, which thereby was provided with sufficient headroom for its return. In the two-revolution press the cylinder was not stopped but was automatically raised and, while the forme was returning, the cylinder made a second revolution. The motion lost by the stopping of the cylinder in the drum- and stop-cylinder presses was saved in the two-revolution press, thereby giving it greater speed and consequently more production. Printing of newspapers of all but limited circulation was done on rotary presses. The forme was stereotyped in a half-circle, two pages encompassing each cylinder, which in printing rotated against the impression cylinder, lost motion being avoided and the ultimate in speed seemingly achieved. The presses were built on the “ deck ” system, one unit above another. The paper was fed from a roll at one end and came out at the other as completed and folded newspapers. In lithographic printing the stone carrying the printing surface was just beginning to give way to zinc and aluminium sheets for the same purpose. “Straight matter ” composition was done on two type-casting machines, one producing single types and the other producing completed lines or “ slugs.”

The situation in 1926 was as follows:—

The platen press was still much used. For short runs it continued to be hand-fed; for long runs it was equipped with automatic feeding devices that greatly augmented production such as those described above. Both drum-cylinder and stop-cylinder presses had practically disappeared. The two-revolution press had been developed to a high state of perfection; it was built in small and large sizes and also for printing in two colours at one

operation. . Automatic job presses have come into general operation since 1910. Three of them are the Kelly, which embodies the principle of the two-revolution cylinder press; the Michle vertical, which is in effect a fast small stop-cylinder with a vertical stationary form; and the Miller high-speed press, which has a two-revolution movement with the diiference that the bed and not the impression cylinder moves up and down. Rotary Presses.—The rotary principle still prevails in newspaper offices, but the “deck ” style of construction has been abandoned for what is called the “ multiple unit ”’ basis. Under this system, when additional equipment is required one press is not superseded by another; a unit is simply added and thereby ` a sextuple becomes an octuple, an octuple a decuple, ete. The presses are built heavier and stronger. The old method of hand stereotyping has been superseded by autoplating. A further development in press construction, known as the “ tubular ” system, has been perfected. By its use each plate is cast as a tube instead of in semi-circular form. This tube is slipped over a cylinder, which prints a complete page with every revolution. The rotogravure press (see Piloro-ENGRAVING) is making rapid strides in the newspaper field, and may be expected in time to play an important part in the commercial and book printing ficlds also. Most illustrated Sunday supplements are printed on rotogravure presses.

Lithography.—In lithographic printing, the stone from which impressions were formerly taken has almost completely disappeared. In its stead are zinc and aluminium sheets which, encircling the printing cylinder, permit the complete application of the rotary principle to lithographic production also. A further development is what is known as the “‘ offset ” process, in the operation of which the design to be printed is first transferred to a rubber blanket, from which it is again transferred to the paper. Whereas formerly only smooth-surfaced, specially prepared papers could be printed upon lithographically, by the offset method any paper, whether smooth- or rough-surfaced, may be used with equal facility. Offset seems to be particularly adapted to colour work. Tonnage Production—A new field, sometimes known as “tonnage production,” concerns itself with magazine printing and is the outstanding development in printing machinery during the 15 years ending in 1926. Whereas only a few years earlier a circulation of 500,000 copies of weekly and monthly periodicals, printed in one colour, was a rarity, in 1926 four and five times that number, with almost numberless pages in two and four colours, is accepted as nothing out of the ordinary. Offsets Tonnage production in one colour presented only a single problem, which was that of quickly drying the sheets. The prepared surface on a cylinder against which a sheet is pressed in the impression contact is called a tympan. When a sheet is printed on both sides during a continuing operation, the printed side is likely to smudge the tympan as the blank side is

taking the impression: this smudge when it appears on the next printing is known as “ offset.” When properly controlled, as in lithographic printing, offset becomes a process and produces fine effects. In relief printing, on highly surfaced papers, however, ofiset must of necessity be eliminated. Offset is not a problem in newspaper production, for the reason that printing on newsprint dries quickly, but the case is different with printing on supercalendered and coated papers, such as must be employed for the half-tone and process plates with which magazines are illustrated. At first the remedy was believed to be found in a

“ shifting tympan ” that changed the surface at intervals, but the device was abandoned because of the time required for the shifts.

.

PRINTING

MACHINERY

PLATE

A

EPTEE

Fic. t. Goss Unit Type Octuple Press 174-A, for printing newspapers and delivering them (centre of picture) folded to half-page size and counted; size of page usually about 17x23 inches. Speed of 72,000 copies, 16 pages, per hour, or 36,000 copies, 32 pages. Requires 75 horsepower. Fic. 2. Kelly Press, Model 2; prints paper from 8x12” to 22x34” at 2,000 to 3,000 impressions per hour. The automatic feeder (at leftend of picture) holds a stack of paper up to 213”. The press delivers the printed sheets into a jogger-box or layboy, the bottom of which is a truck (right end of picture). As the load increases the truck is lowered, and the fully loaded truck is then hauled away without further handling of the paper. Fic. 3. Michle Vertical Press; prints paper from 32X52" to 12}x19” at from 2,500 to 3,600 impressions per hour. Requires 2 horsepower. FIG. 4. Cottrell Multi-colour Sheet-feed Rotary Press, printing 4 colours simultaneously on one side of the paper, in sheets up to 47x69” at 2,700 to 3,000 copies per hour. It prints from curved electrotypes.

PRISONERS OF WAR The Cottrell Rotary Press—The late Mr. C. B. Cottrell, founder of C. B. Cottrell and Sons Co., solved the problem with

the Cottrell Rotary Press. It provided an automatic shifting tympan that furnished an entirely new and clean impression

surface as often as necessary to prevent offset. This press, with roll feed to print on both sides of the web, had all the fine printing qualities and conveniences of the flat bed press, plus the speed of the rotary, and met at high speed all the requirements of printing without smut or offset. The shifting tympan has been superseded by a “ travelling offset” web. The Cottrell Co. added colour cylinders to the printed units and so perfected two colours on each side of the web, and, in subsequent developments along the line of multi-coloured printing, has produced a rotary perfecting press, printing from a roll of paper and producing four colours on one side and two or four colours on the other side of the web. | A further improvement is the McKee process for colour printing, which produces a printing plate having graduated elevations on its printing surface, corresponding in order with the

solid or dark tones and the intermediate tones of the subject on the face of the plate, varying in structural thickness in accordance with the several pressures required for printing and in accordance with the vaz:ous tones of the subject on the face of the plate. Such a printing plate has the sections which are designed to print the darker shades permanently elevated above the levels of the sections adapted for the lighter shades, and the levels are graded one into the other from the permanently elevated parts to the lightest printed shades, so that in profile the plate is uneven or irregular in its printing surface and level on the back. The usual underlays and overlays are not required, since their effects are produced on the face of the plates, and the “ strike-off ” between the cut overlay and plate which happens so often is obviated. In short, a printing plate is produced wherein the required make-ready is permanently produced in the face of the plate. Until the McKee process was perfected and used in conjunction with the Cottrell multi-colour press, it was customary to print only one colour at a time at each passage of the sheet through the press, requiring as many separate and independent printings as there were colours required. By the McKee process, colour printing can be produced on presses having one Impression cylinder common to all of the plate cylinders. The Cottrell multi-colour press produces by a continuous operation that consists of one passage of a sheet through the press a picture in which the different colour values are effectively brought out. See G. T. Jacobi, Printing (1919); J. Southward, Modern Printing (1922). (J. C. O.)

PRISONERS OF WAR.—The procedure laid down by international agreement for the treatment of prisoners of war under the Hague regulations was severely tested during the World War. In the first place, it must be borne in mind that Great Britain, France, Italy, Germany and Austria together claim to have taken not less than 6,000,000 prisoners, while Austria admits having lost 1,500,000 prisoners to Russia. Of the 200,000 British prisoners of war more than 90%) were taken by the Germans, the remainder being principally in Bulgarian and Turkish hands. The following brief account will, thercfore, deal for the most part with the treatment and experience of British prisoners of war In Germany and conversely of German prisoners of war in Great Britain. For this purpose three divisions will be made, namely, civilian or non-combatant prisoners; officers; and rank and file. Civilians —The internment of large numbers of civilians had not been contemplated by the framers of the Hague regulations, and therefore presented an entirely new problem. By the end of Nov. 1914, some 29,000 Germans were interned in Great Britain, while in Germany more than 112,000 civilians, of whom not more than 6,o00 were British, were in a similar position. In both countries accommodation was at first definitely bad. Newbury race-course was one of the first internment camps in England.

The German reply to this was Ruhleben race-course.

Newbury

221

was abandoned after a few weeks, but Ruhleben remained the principal civilian camp till the end of the War. Decidedly bad at first, conditions there gradually improved, largely as a result of the efforts of the prisoners themselves. Civilian prisoners were in neither country compelled to do any work beyond what was necessary for the cleanliness and order of their camps. In Great Britain, however, civilian prisoners were given the opportunity to volunteer to work, and some 1,500 were given employment, mainly in agriculture. In Great Britain each internment camp had its own small hospital. At Ruhleben the medical arrangements were at first quite inadequate, but later they improved considerably. Officers —The treatment of all combatant prisoners in Germany, officers and men alike, varied greatly with the situation of the camp, and particularly with the personality of the commandant. In the X. Army Corps district, for example, all prisoners came under the malign influence of Gen. von Hiinisch, who invariably appointed men of his own kidney as camp commandants. Accommodation ranged from comfortable hotels, as at Augustabad, to badly constructed huts, as at Strohen, near Hanover. Fuel was always scarce, in some cases, as at Holzminden, practically non-existent. As regards food, the insufficiency and unsuitability of the German rations made the prisoners almost entirely dependent on parcels from home. It is to the credit of the German authorities that the majority of these parcels arrived intact. No work was required of officers; and for the care of the camp, orderlies, usually of the same nationality as the officers, were provided in most cases. The most serious complaints that can fairly be made on behalf of officer prisoners in Germany are shortage of fuel, inadequacy of cooking arrangements, and especially in the X., Army Corps district, the determination of the camp commandants to prevent the prisoners from introducing any degree of comfort into their situation. German oflicers were confined in England in large country houses and public institutions. It can fairly be said that on the whole they were better fed and housed than British officers in Germany, and the facilities provided for their recreation were much more adequate. Rank and File-—While the experiences of civilian and officer prisoners of war are of considerable interest, it is undoubtedly by their treatment of the rank and file prisoners that the nations concerned must be judged. All belligerents compelled prisoners to work, as they were entitled to do, provided that prisoners were not compelled to undertake work directly connected with the military activities of their captors. According to numerous reports, all the belligerents at various times broke this rule in the spirit at least; and Germany several times broke it in the letter. Camps were of tio principal classes, main camps and working camps. The former were usually composed of hutments similar to those scen in the English temporary military camps, the whole being surrounded by barbed wire, and frequently subdivided by barbed wire into sections. The outstanding complaint from British prisoners regarding the main camps in Germany seem to be on the ground of overcrowding—at Wittenberg, for instance, 15,000 {0 17,000 men were confined in an area of about ro acres. As regards accommodation working camps varied enormously. Men sent to work in factories were sometimes housed in quarters normally provided by the employer for bachelor workmen; men working on farms lived in small camps erected near the farm or occasionally in the farm buildings themselves. Treatment in such quarters likewise varied with the personality of the emplover or of the non-commissioned officer in charge of the camp or compound. On the whole the German non-commissioned officer was a harsh and frequently brutal commandant. The discipline in German factories, mines and the like was at all times very severe; and apart from disciplinary measures, too many authentic cases of gratuitous brutality have been recorded against the German authorities, particularly against non-commissioned officers in charge of working parties. Reprisals.—Hard though the lot of the prisoners of war set to work in factories and mines undoubtedly was, the most

PROBABILITY

222

terrible chapter of the sad story concerns those unfortunate individuals selected as the subjects of reprisals by their captors. This barbaric method of avenging wrongs inflicted on their subjects was employed by all the belligerents from time to time, but authoritative evidence shows that Germany was in this respect by far the worst offender. One of the most notorious examples of German reprisals was the transfer of 500 British soldiers to the Eastern Front in Feb. 1917.

After being forced to march long

distances through appalling country, with insufficient food and clothing, these unfortunates were housed in a tent pitched on the snow beside the frozen river Aa, within range of the Russian guns. Many of the men died and many others lost fingers and toes through frost-bite. Organisations for Prisoners.—The relief of prisoners of war was at first left in the various countries to individuals. It consisted inevitably in the sending of parcels of food and other necessaries. In Great Britain, whose subjects were much worse off than were the German prisoners, it gradually became clear that some control of the parcel supply was required, as individual enterprise resulted not only in an unfair distribution of parcels, but also in an imperfect selection of commodities to be sent. Early in rors, a Prisoners of War Ilelp Committee was established in London. Having no authority, however, it was a comparative failure, and in Sept. 1916, it was superseded by the Central Prisoners of War Committee of the British Red Cross and Order of St. John. This body had absolute control of parcels and from its inception till the end of the War maintained a steady stream of suitable parcels to all ranks.

Repatriation.—By Aug. 1915, the British and German governments had reached an agreement regarding the repatriation of officers and non-commissioned oflicers incapacitated by wounds or illness from further active participation in the War. Further agreements were subsequently reached providing that prisoners less seriously wounded or ill, and prisoners who had been in captivity for over 18 months, might be sent to Holland or Switzerland for internment there. Immediately after the Armistice, the repatriation of all prisoners commenced, but owing largely to transport difficulties it was several months before the undertaking was completed. Turkish and Bulgarian Prisoners——British soldiers who were captured by the Turks have brought very serious charges against their captors. Officers, particularly those of high rank, appear to have been treated with almost theatrical courtesy; but the rank and file were subjected to appalling hardships, being housed in quarters which were nothing short of filthy, and fed and clothed in a manner deserving of the severest censure. Many of the prisoners died and many more returned after the War completely broken in health. The Bulgarians, once they understood that the somewhat primitive disciplinary methods employed in their own army were quite unsuitable and unnecessary in the case of British soldiers, treated their prisoners with quite a reasonable degree of humanity, and fed, housed and clothed them as well as could be expected, having regard to the resources at their disposal. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—A large number of reports were rendered at various times by the United States on the treatment of prisoners of war in Great Britain and Germany; and a considerable amount of correspondence tock place between Great Britain, Germany and Turkey. Of non-official works, J. W. Gerard's My Four Years tn Germany (1917) is perhaps the most reliable. For a picture of life as an officer prisoner in Turkey see E. Il. Jones, The Road to En-dor (1920), (C. R. D.)

PROBABILITY (sce 22.376).—1. The relation of the mathematical theory of probability to other branches of science has altered to some extent. From being a separate subject, providing interesting problems to the mathematician, it has almost come to bea part of a larger subject, the theory of statistical frequency;

and correlation, mainly arising out of Francis Galton’s investigations òf heredity. This has led to some reconsideration of principles. 2. Typical Questions.—A box contains 5 balls, all, so far as we can see, exactly alike, except that one is red and the remaining 4 are white. A ball is drawn at random from the box. What is the probability that it will be the red ball? A reasonable answer, but a provisional one (see para. 8), is that the probability is 1¢. But, before we give this answer, the question itsclf gives rise to several questions. What do we mean by “at random?” What do we mean by “ probability?” In what sense can a probability be a number, or be measured by a number? Why does the number necessarily lie between o and r? How is this number, which is or measures the probability, to be ascertained? And at what stage of the proceedings does probabilitv, as such, cease to exist? We say that a ball “ is drawn;” do we mean that it is going to be drawn, and that the probability that it will be the red ball ceases to exist as soon as the ball is drawn? Or, supposing the ball has been drawn and we do not know which ball it is, can we say that the probability that it is the red ball is so-and-so? 3. Measurement of Probability —Yor numerical measurement of probability there seem to have been three methods used; cach of them leads to r as the measure of certainty. (i) The study of probability was originally, in the main, the scientific study of gambling. If

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but a detachment of aeroplanes had been added. Kusmanek had now laid out new entrenched positions from one to two miles in advance of the line of forts, to give more depth to the defence and to keep the Russian siege artillery at a greater distance. On Nov. 9 the investment of the fortress for the second time was complete. The siege was now undertaken by a specially formed XI. Army under Gen. Selivanov, consisting of four divisions of second-line troops. It had been decided to reduce the fortress by blockade rather than by assault. During Nov. and Dec. such fighting as occurred was initiated rather by the sorties of the garrison than by the attacks of the besiegers. During Feb. and the first half of March the Austrian field armies made repeated efforts to advance to the relief of the fortress, but unsuccessfully (see CARPATHIANS, BATTLES OF THE). Meanwhile the Russians had gradually closed in and had commenced a systematic bombardment of the fortress. On March 13 they carried the advanced positions on its north front. Kusmanek’s situation was now desperate; his supplies and munitions were almost exhausted, and the final effort of the field armies to come to his rescue had definitely been abandoned. He determined on an attempt to save a portion of the garrison by a break-through to the east. The effort was made on the morning of the 19th, but was soon brought to a stand. The fate of the fortress was now sealed. On the morning of March 22 Kusmanek surrendered, after destroying the works and military stores as far as possible. The numbers of the garrison then amounted to about 110,000,

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Recapture of the Fortress.—The Russians did not hold the fortress for long. At the beginning of May Mackensen’s offen-

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sive on the Dunajec broke through the Russian line and drove their armies back to the San (see Dunayec-San). On May 30 the Austrians attacked on the southwest and the Germans on the north of the fortress. The former made little progress, but the German heavy artillery, which included 42 cm. howitzers, made short work of the northern group of forts. On the night of June 2 the Russians abandoned the fortress. Conclusions —Przemysl was the only land fortress of the World War which stood a prolonged siege after complete investment. No conclusions as to the value of permanent fortifications in modern war can, however, be drawn from this fact. Gen. Townshend in Kut held out for longer behind hasty field entrenchments. The length of PrzemySl’s resistance was due to the Russians’ lack of efficient siege artillery, as is proved by the speed with which Mackensen’s heavy guns reduced the forts at the time of its recapture. Nor can it be admitted that the fortress served any strategical aim commensurate with the efforts expended on its defence and attempted relief. It is true that its resistance during the first siege was of value to the Austrians when their armies again advanced to the San, in assuring to them a bridge-head over the river. But during the second siege Przemyśl was an embarrassment rather than a source of strength and led to several ill-considered efforts at relief which cost the Austrian field armies dearly. The fortress did not control any line of supply vital to the Russian armies operating west of it towards Cracow, since there was a railway available through Jarostow. The Russians could therefore afford in the second siege to resort to a simple blockade by second-line troops, so that the fortress did not even weaken their field armies to any appreciable extent. On the whole then, Przemyśl may be considered no exception to the general experience of the World War, that permanent peace fortifications proved of very limited strategical value. BrısLIiocrAPHY.—H. Hilger, Krieg und Sieg, Befreiung vor Przemysl (1915); W. Renner, Feldmarschal von Mackensen (1915); Sir A. W. F. Knox, With the Russian Army, 1914-7 o a also WorLp WAR: BIBLIOGRAPHY.) (ASEP M)

PSYCHIATRY, a special branch of medical science dealing with the causes, symptoms, course and treatment of disorders and diseases of the mind. The ultimate aim of this branch of

medicine should be to ascertain the best means to promote normal thought and action individually and collectively, and to apply the knowledge so obtained to the causation and prevention of mental defects, disorders and diseases. Hitherto, unfortunately, little attention has been directed towards prevention, and not much, beyond detention, for the cure of the above. Mind and Body.—There is a general feeling among the profession and the public that psychiatry should be more closely associated with general medicine than has hitherto been the case. As long as the psyche, the soul and the mind were used as synonymous terms, traditional belief that the psyche is an invisible intangible spirit that leaves the body at death dominated

all our ideas of mental diseases and their treatment—or rather lack of treatment. Body and mind cannot be separated, for there can be no mind without memory and no memory without body, and all psychic processes are dependent upon physiological processes. Although the brain is the organ which stores the memory of past experiences and the bonds that unite and recall them, thus enabling the individual to adapt himself to environment in the struggle for existence, yet strictly speaking the mind is

directly dependent upon the vital activities and harmonious interactions of all the organs and tissues of the body; for how could the brain make adaptations to environment without the receptor peripheral sense organs and the nerves which connect them with the spinal cord and brain? These are the avenues of intelligence, as is clearly recognised in the famous dictum: Nihil in intellectu quod non fuerit prius in sensu, [One cannot conceive of anything that one has not previously experienced through one’s senses]; which should, however, be expanded by the addition of et in motu for every feeling, thought or desire causes a nervous discharge; to voluntary and involuntary muscles

and their visible or invisible activation.

Personality.—Another fundamental function of the brain besides that of the life of external relation is the consciousness of the individual’s own personality, his states of fecling, his appetites and his desires, which are due in great part to the organic and bodily sensibility. The ego is aware of his individual personality by the continuum of subjective feelings arising from the entire body in relation to its integral parts and as a whole to the external world. He is continually attending to alterations of this external and internal sensory continuum, and reacting instinctively, habitually or consciously, according to a judgment of value based upon past experiences. The sentiments and passions may be regarded as the outcome of the evolution and interaction of the primitive emotions connected with selfpreservation, propagation and the social instincts. They are associated with specific and characteristic expressive reactions in the “ mind muscles ” of the eye and face, as well as in gesture, in postural attitudes and in inarticulate vocalisation. This emotional language is similar and common to all human beings; for whereas articulate speech is entirely imitative and mainly intellectual and acquired, emotional language is an innate and untaught acquisition of the species komo sapiens. It has a much deeper significance than articulate language. It cannot be feigned when absent or hidden when present. It, therefore, reveals the real state of mind of an individual more truly than articulate speech. Repressed sentiments and passions find their expression in the ‘‘ mind muscles ” of the eye and face, and their study will often reveal the motives and secret dispositions of men. Moreover, a change in their reactions to thought and feeling may be the first outward sign of the onset of a mental disorder. “The Unconscious Mind” and the New Psychelogy.—Dr. Carpenter in his work on mental physiology first called attention to the importance of the subconscious mind by giving examples

of what he termed unconscious cerebration. He affirms: “‘ The emotional state seems often to be determined by circumstances of which the individual has no ideational consciousness.” Sigmund Freud (see PSYCHOANALYSIS) first propounded a theory of the subconscious mind and demonstrated the dominating influence of the “ love instinct ” (libido) in its widest acceptation as a great “ life impulse ” of vast significance in connection with the psychoneuroses and psychoses. This is shown, moreover, in the fact that the onset of the psychoneuroses and the psychoses especially occur when the sex instinct matures—adolescence; and wanes—climacterium—in both sexes. The mental conflicts associated with this “life impulse ”’ bear a close relationship to the prevailing unrest of modern life, especially among women of the middle and upper classes to whom marriage in a majority and maternity in a still larger proportion are denied. Disharmonies —When the “life impulse” existing in the deeper levels of an individual’s personality do not find a natural outlet and the means of adaptation to environment, there exists a disharmony between physiological and sociological conditions, which is ever increasing in the most cultured races. The nongratification of this instinctive desire may be the source of a mental conflict, accompanied by fear and anxiety in a large number of men and women, especially the latter. Members of the medical profession constantly find a sexual basis for the mental trouble in the history and behaviour of their patients who are suffering from either a psychoneuresis (for example, hysteria, hypochondriasis, or neurasthenia) or a psychosis (for example dementia praecox, religious manic-depressive insanity and involutional melancholia). The frustration of the complete “ life reaction,” and its corresponding failure of release of emotional tension, profoundly influence all the functions of the involuntary and glandular structures of the body. The causes of these disturbances are inexplicable to the patient. Conflicts and Primal Instincts —The maternal “ life reaction,” as expressively symbolised by the Madonna and Child, is unfulfilled and incomplete in the majority of women, especially in the upper and middle classes. The mere gratification of the sexual passion is but an incomplete product of the instinct of preservation of the species; the complete fulfilment of which is to love, to

PSYCHIATRY be loved, to give birth to children and to nourish and cherish them. It has been assumed that women would be happy if they were able to enter into all the pursuits and occupations of men, but modern psychology tends to show that these primal instincts still dominate, though hidden to our conscious feelings. When there is an antagonism between a primal instinct and the social instinct a mental conflict occurs which is thrust out of consciousness; it remains in the subconscious mind and, as Freud has shown, can be revealed by the investigation and interpretation of dreams; by psychoanalysis by free association; and by the method of word association and time reaction of Jung, who also applied the psychogalvanometric reflex to word association as a method of discovering a mental conflict in the subconscious mind. The more complex society becomes, the more liable are these mental conflicts to occur. When there are conditions which tend to an inherited mental instability and lack of development of the highest control, psychoneuroses and psychoses proportionally become more prevalent. The fact, nevertheless, remains that human beings of every social grade and belonging to all races of men have in the past suffered and still suffer from the same types of psychoneurosis and psychosis. Effects of Civilisation.—The mental conflicts brought about by the disharmony between physiological and sociological instinctive conditions of the “ life reaction ”’ and the morbid reactions they induce occur much more frequently in highly civilised races as compared with primitive races. There are, therefore, many reasons why psychoneuroses and psychoses should occur with much greater frequency in the former. The onset, course and symptoms are, however, fundamentally the same, the only difference being that the hallucinations and delusions and their mode of activation (behaviour) are coloured by the habits, customs, social usages and beliefs which constitute the greater part of the individual and collective furniture of the mind. The late Dr. Mercier always maintained that mental diseases should be studied from the behaviourist point of view, and his work on Disorders of Conduct embodies his teaching. The behaviourist doctrine has especially flourished in America, where the investigations, experiments and observations of Prof. J. B. Watson on the behaviour of animals and infants have been of great value in teaching psychiatrists the importance of viewing their cases as problems of behaviour, although his explanations of abnormal behaviour are to most psychiatrists inadequate. The psychiatric student who wishes to study conduct must take into account not only what a man says and does, but the circumstances or “setting ’’ at the time. Thus a prosperous butcher, who on Saturday night is seen standing outside his shop in apron and shirt sleeves inviting people to come in and buy, would be considered a lunatic if he conducted himself in exactly the same manner outside his respectable suburban villa next morning. A man is regarded as insane who on account of mental disease no longer thinks, feels and acts in accordance with the usages and customs of the society to which he belongs, and is not held responsible for his behaviour if he does not know at the time the nature and quality of his acts. CAUSES OF MENTAL DISEASE

The causes of mental disorders and diseases are never single, but they naturally fall into two great groups: (1) Endogenous (from within) and (2) Exogenous (from without). They may be somatic, psychical or social. The hereditary factor is the most important endogenous cause. The Endogenous Factor of Mental Disorders ——The life of the individual begins at the moment of conception, t.e., at the conjugation of the male and female germ cells. The raw material of character is a complex of inherited tendencies and dispositions impressed upon the individual by sex, species, race and ancestry, giving each individual a specific predetermined plasticity to receive and store stimuli and react to them in a particular way. Like tends to beget like—as Galton’s History of Similar and Dissimilar Twins shows, in the dispositions and temperaments of the offspring.

249

A well-balanced mind is due to an inherent equipoise of the latent potentialities of character, and its efficient activity depends upon the potential psychophysical energy derived from the parental stocks. The study of heredity (1) by statistics, (2) by pedigrees and (3) by experience shows the importance of this factor in the causation of the true insanities which are not due to organic brain disease, where chance counts for everything and heredity for little or nothing. The raw material of mentality is conditioned by the innate potentialities of the fertilised ovum as it starts its course in life. At later stages of development, the fertilised ovum is influenced by pre-natal and post-natal exogenous environmental factors in addition to the hereditary factors. Pre-natal Exogenous Factors—Much may happen while the embryo is developing in the mother’s womb. Owing to abnormal conditions of growth, interfering with the circulation and nutrition of the great brain, various degrees of arrest of development of the highest and latest evolutional structures of the brain may occur, viz., the cerebral hemispheres, which by their size especially distinguish the brain of man from the lower animals, and to which he owes his superior intelligence, may suffer from various congenital effects. Abnormal dynamic conditions of the cerebral vessels and of rate of growth of brain and dura mater may lead to anencephaly, microcephalic idiocy or low-grade imbecility {see article NEUROPATHOLOGY, 19.429). Again, pathological conditions may arise by which the cerebrospinal fluid secreted in the ventricles of the brain cannot escape, causing arrest of growth by pressure and (water on the brain) hydrocephalic idiocy. The embryo, during development, may become infected by the spirochaetes of syphilis circulating in the blood and lymph streams of the mother, resulting in abortion or congenital syphilis causing arrest of development of the brain and idiocy, or later in life of cerebral syphilis and general paralysis. Various poisons introduced into the body of the mother, e.g., lead and alcohol, may cause abortion, and presumably may have a devitalising effect upon the developing embryo. . Again, absence of the thyroid gland in the embryo, or even hypothyroidism owing to goitrous disease of the gland with a failure of thyroxin in the blood (the essential element of which is iodine) may cause cretinous idiocy. The brain cells owing to this deficiency are arrested in their growth and fail to function, but if the cause is diagnosed in early infancy, and thyroid gland be administered, then the brain cells develop and grow and function normally. This cretinous idiocy is due to the absence of iodine in the environment. In districts far remote from the sea goitrous cretinism is common, e.g., in Switzerland and certain districts of the United States (see GorrrE). The addition of iodide of sodium in the water or table salt has greatly reduced the numbers afflicted with this disease. What more striking proof can we have that the mind depends upon the harmonious interaction of all the organs and tissues of the body, since a chemical substance containing iodine is essential for the growth of the brain and mental development and for its proper function. Particularly in women about the climacteric period, a condition known as myxoedema, due to hypothyroidism, occurs, resulting in a slowing of thought and speech and often mental symptoms which disappear by administration of the gland. A curious form of idiocy, associated with blindness, is only met with in Jewish children. It is characterised by a racially unique degenerative biochemical conaition of all the ganglion cells of the sympathetic and cerebrospinal nervous systems. The convolutional pattern of the brain has a normal appearance quite unlike that of a low-grade imbecile or idiot; it is, therefore, a late congenital or post-natal racial morbid condition. Arrest of the growth of the brain may arise from pre-natal causes previously stated; likewise prolonged labour or unskilful use of instruments may damage the brain and arrest growth. It has been calculated that 25% of the cases of idiocy and imbecility are due to non-inherited conditions. The remaining +5 of cases of mental deficiency are truly hereditary, and due to an innate lack of vis propria of the fertilised ovum, which leads to an arrest of development of the highest and latest evolutional level of the brain.

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Hereditary Factor in Relation to Psychoses and Psychoneuroses. —Study of the hereditary factor in psychoses and psychoneuroses by the construction of a large number of pedigrees extending to

three, four and five generations with collaterals, and by a card system of 4,000 relatives who were or who had been in the London County Council asylums, proves that heredity plays a very important part in neuroses and psychoses.

Neuroses may be classified as follows: (1) hysteria, (2) neurasthenia, (3) obsessional psychasthenia, (4) epilepsy and (5) migraine; and psychoses as (1) paranoia (systematised delusional insanity), (2) dementia praecox, (3) manic-depressive insanity, of which there are several types, viz.: alternating periods of ex-

citement and depression (folie circilaire) and recurrent periods of maniacal excitement or of melancholic depression, alternating with periods of sanity, (4) involutional melancholia occurring at the climacterium in women, also in men between the ages of 55 and 6s, though less frequently met with than in women. Both the latter forms of mental disorder may terminate in dementia, These three last-named types are in some ways related to one another, and their onset is associated with the maturation or waning of the sex instinct. An involutional melancholic or senile dement may have offspring in whom manic-depressive insanity or dementia praecox may occur in adolescence, or a parent with manic-depressive insanity may have one or more offspring with dementia praecox. This phenomenon together with the fact that not infrequently several members of the same co-fraternity suffer with either dementia praecox or manicdepressive insanity or an atypical form, coming on at puberty or adolescence at about the same age, shows antedating and hereditary predisposition as the important factor. There may be atypical cases in some respects resembling both these forms of mental disease, and it is a matter of opinion to which category a particular case should belong. This shows how fallacious classifications may be. The many changes which Kripelin has made in his classification emphasise the fact that each case must be regarded as a biological problem with two factors to consider; viz.: what an individual was born with; and what happened after fertilisation of the ovum—that is, pre-natal and post-natal conditions. There is, it seems, a causal correspondence in these three types of insanity connected with the “ life reaction” of the primal instinct of propagation. Disintegration of Psychic Unity—The biological concept of mental disease propounded by Hughlings Jackson in his Theory of Evolutional Levels will help in the understanding of the causes

and symptoms of insanity—-dissolution of the highest level bringing into relief lower levels. Thus a negative condition of the highest evolutional level of control permits of over-action of the lower level of ideation, e.g., the delirium of fever. In mental disorders there may be a negative condition of the highest level

of control with disordered ideation manifested by hallucinations and delusions, owing to partial disintegration of the psychic unity. Such hallucinations and delusions may determine various active uncontrolled and irresistible impulses—disorders of conduct. When the disease has sunk to a lower depth of dissolution of evolutional levels there may result emotional indifference and

apathy reflected in a mask-like expression, and motor inertia or katatonic stupor with ffexibilitas cerea. Stuporose states with mental confusion indicate a more diffuse toxic influence on evolutional levels and are more hopeful of recovery than the persistence of hallucinations and delusions, the mind remaining clear. Post-Natal Exogenous Causes.—These do not play an important part per se in the production of the true insanities. They may, however, act as exciting or contributory causes in individuals with an hereditary latent tendency. Stress per se from disease and disasters of every kind cannot be the important factor believed to be in the production of the true insanities as distinct from organic brain disease, ¢.g., general paralysis and lethargic encephalitis. This was clearly shown during the War by the fact that Bonhéffer, an eminent Austrian psychiatrist, only found five insane among 10,000 Serbian prisoners. Organic brain disease may cause various symptoms of irrita-

tions such as fits, headaches, pains, stiffness of muscles, and delirium or drowsy stupor, loss of memory, paralysis and dementia, according to the pathological process and the structures affected. General Paralysis of the Insane.—General paralysis was formerly believed to be an insanity; it is now known to be due to the invasion of the tissues by the Spirochaeta pallida, 7.e., the specific organism of syphilis (see VENEREAL Diseases). That a positive Wassermann reaction of the cerebro-spinal fluid is found in practically every case is an indication that the spirochaete of syphilis in the brain is multiplying and producing a toxin that sets up a chronic inflammation followed by destruction of the neurone. The dementia that ensues is proportional to the degree of decay and destruction of the cerebral cortical grey matter. Serological methods have enabled a diagnosis of this disease to be made in 97% of cases, whereas prior to the employment of laboratory methods the diagnosis was correct in only 75% of cases, when controlled by post-mortem examination. This disease is preventable, and ought to be prevented, for it is found that it claims its victims from among the best physically and mentally in all grades of society. Chance is everything and heredity nothing in this disease. There ts first the chance of infection and next the chance that the spirochaete lodges in the brain and colonises there. Lethargic encephalitis (see ENCEPHALITIS LETHARGICA) may be followed by serious mental disorders; especially does it alfect the moral sense in children and young adolescents. MENTAL

HYGIENE

Many advances were made in the practical sphere of action in the decade 1915-25. A Mind that Found Itself (1908), a book written in America, produced a great impression in that country on account of the author’s vivid description of his personal sufferings as inmate of a mental hospital and of the manner in which everything except the right thing was done to restore him to health. Subsequently in the United States the author of the book, Mr. Clifford Beers, was instrumental in founding in 1916 “ The National Committee for Mental Hygiene,” having amongst its aims “ the conservation of mental health’; the “ prevention of nervous and mental disorders and mental defect’; the “ raising of the standards of care and treatment of those suffering from such disorders and defects; the dissemination of reliable information upon these subjects.” i A valuable periodical, Mental Hygiene, first issued in 1917, is published quarterly by the society, containing records of its work and recent advances in knowledge. Such an organisation hasa

potent influence for good, for it affects those sutfering from mental disorder or defect and those also who through mental causes are unable so to adjust themselves to their environments as to live happy and efficient lives. Societies of mental hygiene have since been founded in France (Dept. of Seine) and in

England on similar lines to that in America. Reforms in Treatment.—A royal commission on Lunacy and Mental

Disorder was appointed in Nov. 1924, to inquire into certain statements regarding illegal detention and ill-treatment and cruelty in asylums. For some time past dissatisfaction at asylum conditions had been prevalent amongst certain sections of the public which led to the formation of a National Society for Lunacy Reform supported by many distinguished persons. The royal commission also investigated ‘ the need of extending as a whole the privilege of treatment of insanity without subjection to the legal formalities of the Lunacy Acts,” and of extending such other reforms as were embodied in the Medical Treatment bill 1923. This bill constituted a recognition by the authorities of the necessity long recognised by the medical profession for fresh legislation for the provision of funds for early treatment and research. Mental disease is primarily a medical question, a part of general medicine, the fundamental principles of which are (1) to prevent disease, failing that (2) to cure or arrest the progress of disease, and failing that (3) to prolong life and relieve suffering. Till recently the ratepayers’ money has been spent in building huge and sometimes palatial institutions, useful in the main for the detention and prolonging the life of certified chronic lunatics and senile cases. Little money has hitherto been expended in the endeavour to find out the causes of insanity by clinical, psychological, sociological and patho-

logical research.

Relatively few satisfactory efforts have been made

PSYCHICAL by the authorities to treat mental diseases in the early and curable stage, upon hospital lines. Treatment on Hospital Lines.—During the War the public insisted that no soldier should be sent to an asylum unless proved to be suffering with an incurable mental disease or until after a probation of twelve months the disease was regarded as incurable. The same regulation applied to ex-service men under treatment by the Ministry of Pensions. This principle could not be applied to the civil population, because the conditions are different, since a man in the army or

an ex-service pensioner is under control. The success of this method of dealing with mental disease in the army led the Board of Control to reconsider the question of the carly treatment of insanity. The Mandsley [Hospital—When Dr. Henry Maudsley, a great philanthropist, psychiatrist and philosopher, offered to the London County Council in 1907 £30,000 if they would build a hospital in London for the study and treatment of mental diseases in the early and curable stage, a real effort was made to deal with insanity on modern rational lines. The offer was accepted, and five years later a suitable site at Denmark Hill was found. The War came in 1914 before the hospital was finished. The building was completed in 1916, at the direction of the War Office, and served as the central nucleus of the Neurological Clearing Hospital for London. Dr. Maudsley died in 1917, and the council received by his will a further sum of £10,000. It was his expressed wish that this money should be expended in pathological investigation and research. For a time this hospital served as a neurological hospital for ex-service men under the Ministry of Pensions, and in 1922 it was taken over by the London County Council. The Maudsley Hospital has an out-patients’ department, and 150 beds for males and females. It has an aclequate, efficient and highly qualified staff of medical officers. Early in the War the central pathological laboratory for the London County Council mental hospitals was removed from Claybury Asylum to the Maudsley Hospital, where routine clinical laboratory and scrological investigations are carried out, thus affording excellent opportunities for research. The Maudsley Hospital is a recognised school of the London University, and a course of lectures, together with practical instruction, is given to medical men who are desirous of qualifying for the Diploma of Psychological Medicine. The London County Council give study leave to their medical officers of asylums, and now require officers who apply for senior appointments to possess a University Diploma of Psychological Medicine or a diploma of the Conjoint Board of the Royal College of Physicians and Surgeons. Opportunities for research in the pathological laboratory are afforded to suitable applicants by the committee. The Maudsley Hospital being a rate-aided hospital is primarily intended for those who have a London scttlement, and the charge made varies according to the means of the patient. All inmates of the hospital are voluntary and uncertified. This allays the fear of the patients that they may be made permanent inmates, and inspires them with confidence in their treatment. Out-patients are thereby encouraged to attend the hospital, and in this way a more favourable prognosis is secured, for mental disorders and diseases are thus observed and treated in their incipient stages. This is advantageous to the patients, and it enables medical men to learn and understand the symptoms and early stages of mental disease. Too frequently the descriptions in text-books have been drawn from the more serious, the chronic and the incurable cases of disease seen in asylums; thus knowledge of the initial stages of mental disease has been inadequately taught. It is on these early cases, which cither are, or ought to be, outside the asylums, with their large chronic incurable population, that the ratepayers’ money can be expended with advantage, not only from a medical and social but also from an economic point of view. Another move in the right direction, as regards research into the causes of insanity, has been made by the establishment of a Joint Board of Research of the Corporation and University of the City of Birmingham, and the establishment of an adequately staffed and equipped pathological laboratory. These opportunities for early treatment and research might with advantage be adopted by large cities on the lines of the Maudsley Hospital. Other schemes are embodied in the Memorandum to the Royal Commission on Lunacy and Mental Disorders by the Medico-Psychological Association of Great Britain and Ireland. BIRLIOGRAPHY.—À Brit. Med. Assn. Lecture; Hughling J. Jackson, The “Factors of Insanities,” Medical Press and Circular (June 13 1894); Mercier, Disorders of Conduct; White, Outlines of Psychiatry; Buckley, The Basis of Psychiatry; Sir F. W. Mott, “ Articles on Dementia Praecox,” Archives of Neurology and Psychiatry, vol. 8; Myerson, The Inheritance of Mental Disease; Sir T. S. Clouston, Unsoundness of Mind (1911); Sir. F. W. Mott, “ AStudy of the Neuropathic Inheritance Especially in Relation to Insanity,” Archives of Neurology and Psychiatry, vol. 6 (1914); C. G. Jung, Analytical Psychology, 2nd ed., authorised translation (1920); J. B. Watson, Psychology from the Stand point of a Behaviourist; Hugh Elliot, Zuman Character (1922); Sir F. W. Mott, ‘‘ The Biological Foundations of Human Character,” Edin. Review (July 1923); William McDougall, An Outline. of Psychology (1923); Maudsley, Pathology of Mind; W. Sullivan, Crime and Insanity; Sir F. W. Mott, “Psychology and Medicine,” B. M. J. (March 10 1923); “ Memorandum of Evidence Given on Behalf

RESEARCH

251

of the Royal Mecico-Psychological Association to the Royal Commission on Lunacy and Mental Disorder, Journal of Mental Science, vol. 70, No. 294; Sir F. W. Mott, ‘‘ The Investigation of Some of the Causes of Insanity,” Presidential address to Royal Medico-Psychological Association, Journal of Mental Science, vol. 71

(Oct. 1925). (F. W. Mo.) PSYCHICAL RESEARCH (see 22.544).—The increase of interest in psychical research all over the civilised world was signalised by the institution of international congresses, the first of which, attended by representatives of 12 countries, was held at Copenhagen in 192t, while 17 countries were represented at the Warsaw Congress in 1923. At these congresses the curious fact emerged that interest on the Continent was mainly concentrated on physical, in the United Kingdom and America on mental or psychological phenomena. Telekinesis and Teleplasmy—PDhysical phenomena can be grouped under two main heads: felckinesis, or the movement of objects at a distance otherwise than by ordinary physical means; and tele plasmy, or the extrusion from the body of the medium of a substance, sometimes amorphous, sometimes resembling portions of the human body or even complete figures. Phenomena of both these kinds have long been familiar, but it was only as the result of the investigations of J. Ochorowitz (Annales des Sciences Psychiques, from 1909 on) that the connection between the two was observed, and those who accept the reality of the phenomena believe that teleplasm is the mechanism behind

telekinesis.

Among the more famous “ physical ’”? mediums may

be mentioned Stanislava T, Stanislava P, Guzik, Kluski, Franczek (all from Poland), Frau Silbert, Willy and Rudi Schneider,

Eva C., Kathleen Goligher and Mrs. Crandon. Numerous scientific men of high standing investigated them and declared their conviction of the reality of the phenomena, but without so far obtaining general acceptance for their view either in the scientific world or among the public. | Conditions of Research —The unbeliever argues (1) that the conditions usually demanded by mediums (e.g., dim light, refusal to permit the teleplasm to be handled or portions detached) facilitate deception; (2) that few investigators, however eminent otherwise, are skilled in the technique of detecting fraud, and (3) that, even so, practically all the well-known mediums have sooner or later been detected simulating phenomena, or at least have come under grave suspicion. All this the candid psychic researcher will admit, but he will join issue when the further claim is made that this disposes of the whole question: he will point to the investigations by the Society for Psychical Research of Eva C. and Willy Schneider (to name only two that have taken place in this country) as evidence that, under rigorous control exercised by investigators with full knowledge of fraudulent methods, results can be obtained which, if not absolutely demonstrating the reality of telekinesis and teleplasm, at any rate make out a very strong case for further inquiry. The subject will not, however, obtain the serious consideration it deserves until an agreement be reached by all researchers (1) not to publish any report on a medium until he or she has been investigated by a committee of experts in detecting fraud, who report that they have witnessed phenomena prima fucie genuine; (2) not to publish any report which does not set out in full detail all material facts as to persons present, methods of control, precautions to prevent fraud, measures to ascertain whether fraud in fact occurred, etc. The voluminous literature on the subject would be considerably reduced if all reports falling short of the latter standard were eliminated. Until the phenomena are better authenticated it would be idle to refer at lengths to theoretic explanations of their origin. The continental observers generally reject the hypothesis of spirit action, and believe that the teleplasm is moulded in accordance with the subconscious ideas of the medium, and possibly the sitters. Psychic photography is the one form of physical mediumship which has “ caught on” in Great Britain; but, as Professor Richet, a not unduly sceptical critic of physical phenomena, remarks, ‘despite many attempts nothing reliable has been proved.”

252

PSYCHICAL

In addition to the physical phenomena produced by regular mediums there are the curious cases, reported from time to time in the Press, of mysterious noises, breakages of furniture, etc., in houses. Such poltergeist cases, as they are called, are particularly baffling, mainly because the enterprising journalist usually arrives on the scene before the trained researcher, and makes all serious Investigations impossible. In most instances there will be found amongst the occupants of the house some person in a state of mental or nervous instability, often a child at the age of puberty, with whose removal the manifestations cease. Trickery, not necessarily deliberate or even conscious, but often very skilful, explains many of the cases, but it is not clear that it covers them all. Where there is trickery, the motive may be merely love of mischief or a desire for notoriety, and the apparent psychological afhnity between the principal actors in poltergeist cases and regular physical mediums must be borne in mind when considering the question of deception, whether conscious or unconscious, on the part of regular mediums, especially when no normal motive for fraud can be traced. Mental and Physical Phenomena.—Before passing from physical to mental phenomena it may be useful to consider what, if any, connection there is between them, beyond the historical one. In the early days of the spiritualist movement, down to the time of Home and Stainton Moses, the association was close. The same mediums produced both classes of phenomena, and both were attributed to spirit agency by those who accepted them. As, however, investigations became more scientific, a division developed: so far as concerns reasonably well-authenticated phenomena, the physical mediums came to form one group, the mental mediums another, and the temperamental differences between typical mediums of the two groups are striking. Were it not that both classes of phenomena appear to require for their production either trance or some less complete form of dissociation on the medium’s part, there would seem to be no reason why they should continue to be treated as both subjects for the same branch of research. Mental Phenomena.—Telepathy has probably gained wider acceptance than any other hypothesis connected with Psychical Research, and both in its spontaneous and experimental manifestations continues to be extensively studied. The most notable experiments in recent years are Professor Gilbert Murray’s two series (S.P.R. Proc., vol. 29 (1918) and 34 (1924) and Dr. Coover’s experiments at the Leland Stanford Junior University, California (1917). Inthe Gilbert Murray experiments attempts were made to transmit complicated ideas or conceptions, e.g., of pictures, scenery, incidents from literature, imaginary and often fantastic occurrences, and a proportion of successes was obtained very largely exceeding what can reasonably be attributed to chance. In Dr. Coover’s experiments with 100 students from his university it was sought to transmit the correct denomination of playing cards, and, taking all the students together, the successes only slightly exceeded the proportion attributable to chance; individual students, however, had results much above the average. The apparent discrepancy between the results of these two groups of experiments can be reconciled if the natural inference is drawn that subjects which arouse the interest or curiosity of| the experimenters are more easily transmitted than mere numbers or pips on a card, and that subconscious boredom was at the bottom of the failure of the Californian students. The Gilbert Murray experiments cannot be considered absolutely conclusive evidence of telepathy, as the conditions did not exclude the possibility of auditory hyperaesthesia, 7.¢., of Professor Murray having, subconsciously of course, overheard the agents discussing the subject to be transmitted. The records, however, especially of the later experiments, contain a good deal of evidence tending to negative this hypothesis, and it is to be noted that the experiments of Miss Miles and Miss Ramsden (S.P.R. Proc. vol. 21, 1907-9) were not prejudicially affected by the distances (in some cases hundreds of miles) separating agent and percipient. Spontancous Telepathy.—As regards spontaneous telepathy, evidence of the kind so carefully collected and discussed in

RESEARCH Phantasms of the Living continues to accumulate. In S.P.R. Proc., vol. 33 (1923), a large number of cases reported to the S.P.R., including several very striking instances of apparitions closely corresponding with the death at a distance of the presumed “agent,” are collected and classified by Mrs. Sidgwick, whose article on “‘ Hindrances and Complications in Telepathic Communication ” (S.P.R. Proc., vol. 34, 1924) also deserves careful study. The combined evidence, experimental and spontaneous, although falling short of strict scientific demonstration of telepathy, raises the hypothesis to a very high level of probability. Clairvoyance, or the supposed supernormal knowledge of matters not (as in telepathy) derived from another mind, is not so well attested, but there is a growing body of evidence in its support. Reference should be made to the experiments with Ossowiecki in reading the contents of sealed envelopes (Geley’s L Ectoplasmie et la Clairvoyance, 1924) and the investigations of the “ psychometric ” powers of a Mexican lady by Dr. Pagenstecher and Dr. Walter Prince (American S.P.R. Proc. vol. 15 and 16). In this connection mention must also be made of the ‘‘ book-tests ’’ received through trance-mediums. The sitter is informed that a particular portion of a specified page in a book, identified by its position in a bookcase in a house where the medium has never been, will be found to contain a message to a particular effect: in the instances reported to the S.P.R. the number of successes largely exceeded chance probability (see S.P.R. Proc., vol. 32 and 33, 1921 and 1923). Book-tests generally purport to be given by discarnate intelligences, and the subject matter of the messages, which is often appropriate to the supposed communicator, suggests at least some survival of memory. In addition to the references already given, see R. Warcollier, La

télépathie (1921); R. Tischner, Über Hellsehen und Telepathie (1921); C. Bruck, Expertmentelle Télépathie (1925). EVIDENCES

OF

SURVIVAL

As the results of bereavements caused by the War the number of persons consulting trance-mediums has enormously increased. Of the communications received at sittings a great part consists cither of vague generalities or descriptions of a future life which, whether true or not, have no evidential value. But facts are frequently communicated which cannot reasonably be attributed to the medium’s normal knowledge, and the question arises

whether such facts are derived, as they purport to be, from some discarnate mind, or whether they can be explained as telepathic impressions received subconsciously by the medium from some living mind. The problem is a difficult one, as, assuming telepathy occurs, we are ignorant of the exact limits of its action: a very able attempt to clucidate this problem was contributed by Dr. Walter Prince to the Copenhagen Congress. (See Compile Rendu of that Congress.) Further evidence shows that telepathy plays an important part in communications ostensibly coming from the dead. Thus a sitter received from a medium in the form of spirit-communications (1) details consciously imagined by himself regarding an entirely fictitious person and (2) statements concerning an acquaintance believed by him to have been killed in the War, accurate in every point except that the friend was in fact alive. Some of the statements referred to events recurring after the War, and some to things which happened, curiously enough, after the date of the sitting (S.P.R. Prec., vol. 35, 1925). If, then, a medium can, not only in theory but in fact, collect information from the mind both of the sitter and of a person only connected in a remote way with cither medium or sitter, the difficulties in

the way of establishing survival by information conveyed in trance seem insuperable. Where, however, as often happens, especially in ‘‘ direct control,” something more than mere information is conveyed, where, for instance, the turns of speech and the habits of mind of the ostensible communicator are reproduced in a lifelike manner, those who reject the spiritistic hypothesis have to assume, in addition to telepathy, a strong, perhaps an improbably strong, power of subconscious dramatisation on the medium’s part.

PSYCHOANALYSIS: BIBLIOGRAPHY. —Sir Oliver Lodge, Raymond

(1916); Papers by

Mrs. Sidgwick, Miss Radclyffe-Hall, Una, Lady Troubridge and a in S. P. R. Proc., vol. 28 (1915), 30 (1920), 32 (1922), 35 1925). Conscious

DESIGN

That telepathy impaired the evidence of survival derived from trance-communications was recognised by Myers and the other founders of the Society for Psychical Research, and it is of interest that evidence of a kind not readily explicable by telepathy first began to appear shortly after Myers’ death, and ostensibly on his inspiration, in the form of “ cross-correspondences ”’ in automatic writing. It was found that several automatists, writing without knowledge of each other’s scripts, would each produce fragmentary allusions to some topic. Taken separately the scripts meant little, but when compared the fragments fitted

together to form a complex whole. There secmed a substratum of conscious design, not originating with any single automatist, or, as far as could be ascertained or imagined, with any other living mind, and accordingly supporting the claim, frequently made in the scripts, that they originated in a particular discarnate mind or group of minds (S.P.R. Proc., vol. 20, 1906, et seg.). In one instance, however (the “ Sevens” Case, S.P.R, Proc. vol. 25, 1911), the mind of a living person seems to some extent at least to have influenced the scripts. Further evidence of design is afforded by the literary puzzles contained in automatic scripts of which the “ Ear of Dionysius ” is the most remarkable (see Mr. Gerald Balfour’s paper, S. P.R. Proc., vol. 29, 1918). In this case the automatic writings of a lady with little classical knowledge set out piecemeal and very

allusively the story of the obscure Greek poet Philoxenus.

Prob-

ably the majority of those who have taken honours in the Classical Tripos or “‘ Mods ”’ could not give the full story as recounted in the scripts; in fact, it is only to be found in one English book, a book never seen by the automatist, but known to have been possessed and used by the distinguished classical scholar, then dead, from whom the scripts purported to come. These cross-correspondences and literary puzzles are difficult reading, a tangle of recondite literary allusions, but no student

of the literature of survival should be deterred thereby from giving them careful consideration. If interpreted, they suggest the survival nating and carrying out an elaborate the persistence of a psychic factor,

they have heen correctly of a mind capable of origiplan, something more than which Dr. C. D. Broad is

willing to concede

and Its

(see The Mind

Place

in Nature,

1925). BIBLIOGRAPItTY.—General. Particular volumes of the Proc. Soc. Psy. Res. and American Proc. Soc. Psy. Res. have been quoted but the whole series is important. On the Continent Zeitschrift fiir Parapsychologie and Zeit f. Kritischen Okkultesmus ably represent the two main schools of thought. see also E. Osty, La connaissance supra-normale (1923); C. Richet, Tratté de métapsychique (1923); M. Dessoir, Der Okkultismus in Urkunden, Part 2 (1925); H.Driesch, The Crisis in Psychology (1925). F. Schrenck-Notzing,

Materializations-Phaenomene

(1914);

Physi-

kalische phaenomene des Medinmismus (1920); W. J. Crawford, The Psychic Structures at the Goligher Circle (1921); “ Reports on Eva C., Willy Schneider, ete.,”’ Proc. Soc. Psy. Res., vol. 32 (1922) and 35 (1925); G. Geley, L'Ectoplasmie et la Clairvoyance (1924); M. Dessoir Der Okkultismus in Urkunden (1925). (W. H. S.)

PSYCHOANALYSIS: FREUDIAN SCHOOL.—In the years 1880-2 a Viennese physician, Dr. Josef Breuer (1842-1925), discovered a new procedure by means of which he relieved a girl, who was suffering from severe hysteria, of her various symptoms.

The idea occurred to him that the symptoms were connected with impressions which she had received during a period of excitement while she was nursing her sick father. He therefore induced her, while she was ina state of hypnotic somnambulism, to search for these connections in her memory and to live through the ‘‘ pathogenic” scenes once again without inhibiting the affects that arose in the process. He found that when she had

done this the symptom in question disappeared for good. This was at a date before the investigations of Charcot and Pierre Janet into the origin of hysterical symptoms, and Breuer’s discovery was thus entirely uninfluenced by them. But he did

FREUDIAN

SCHOOL

253

not pursue the matter any further at the time, and it was not until some 10 years later that he took it up again in collaboration with Sigmund Freud. In 1895 they published a book, Studien tiber Hysterie, in which Breuer’s discoveries were described and an attempt was made to explain them by the theory of Catharsis. According to that hypothesis, hysterical symptoms originate through the energy of a mental process being withheld from conscious influence and being diverted into bodily innervation

(° Conversion’).

A hysterical symptom would thus be a sub-

stitute for an omitted mental act and a reminiscence of the occasion which should have given rise to that act. And, on this view, recovery would be a result of the liberation of the affect that had

gone astray and of its discharge along a normal path (“Abreaction ”). Cathartic treatment gave excellent therapeutic results, but it was found that they were not permanent and that they were dependent on the personal relation between the patient and the physician. Freud, who later proceeded with these investigations by himself, made an alteration in their technique, by replacing hypnosis by the method of free association. He invented the term “psychoanalysis, which in the course of time came to have two meanings: (1) a particular method of treating nervous disorders and (2) the science of unconscious mental processes, which has also been appropriately described as “ depth-psychology.” Subject Matter of Psychoanalysis.—Psychoanalysis finds a constantly increasing amount of support as a therapcutic procedure, owing to the fact that it can do more for certain classes of patients than any other method of treatment. The principal

field of its application is in the milder neuroses—hysteria, phobias and obsessional states, but in malformations of character and in sexual inhibitions or abnormalities it can also bring about marked improvements or even recoveries. Its influence upon dementia praecox and paranoia is doubtful; on the other hand, infavourable circumstances it can cope with depressive states, even if they are of a severe type. In every instance the treatment makes heavy claims upon both the physician and the patient: the former requires a special training, and must devote a long period of time to exploring the mind of each patient, while the latter must make considerable sacrifices, both material and mental. Nevertheless, all the trouble involved is as a rule rewarded by the results. Psychoanalysis does not act as a convenient panacea (‘‘cito, tute, Jucunde’’) upon all psychological disorders. On the contrary, its application has been instrumental in making clear for the first time the difficulties and limitations in the treatment of such affections. The therapeutic results of psychoanalysis depend upon the

replacement of unconscious mental acts by conscious ones and are operative in so far as that process has significance in relation to the disorder under treatment. The replacement is effected by overcoming internal resistances in the patient’s mind. The future will probably attribute far greater importance to psychoanalysis as the science of the unconscious than as a therapeutic procedure. De pth-psychology.—Psychoanalysis, in its character of depthpsychology, considers mental life from three points of view: the dynamic, the economic and the topographical. From the first of these standpoints, the dynamic one, psychoanalysis derives all mental processes (apart from the reception of external stimuli) from the interplay of forces, which assist or inhibit one another, combine with one another, enter into compromises with one another, etc. All of these forces are originally in the nature of instincts; that is to say, they have an organic origin. They are characterised by possessing an immense (somatic) persistence and reserve of power (“‘repetition-compulsion’); and they are represented mentally as images or ideas with an affective charge (‘ cathexis ’). In psychoanalysis, no less than in other sciences, the theory of instincts is an obscure subject. An empirical analysis leads to the formation of two groups of instincts: the so-called ‘‘ ego-instincts,’’ which are directed towards self-preservation and the “ object-instincts,” which are concerned with relations to an external object. The

social instincts are not regarded as elementary or irreducible.

254

PSYCHOANALYSIS:

Theoretical speculation leads to the suspicion that there are two fundamental instincts which lie concealed behind the manifest ego-instincts and object-instincts: namely (a) Eros, the instinct which strives for ever closer union, and (b) the instinct of destruction, which leads toward the dissolution of what is living. In psychoanalysis the manifestation of the force of Eros is given the name “‘ /ibido.”’ Pleasure-Pain Principle. —From the economic standpoint psychoanalysis supposes that the mental representations of the instincts have a cathexis of definite quantities of energy, and that it is the purpose of the mental apparatus to hinder any damming-up of these energies and to keep as low as possible the total amount of the excitations to which it is subject. The course of mental processes is automatically regulated by the “ pleasurepuin principle ”; and pain is thus in some way related to an increase of excitation and pleasure to a decrease. In the course of development the original pleasure principle undergoes a modification with reference to the external world, giving place to the ““veality-princtple,’? whereby the mental apparatus learns to postpone the pleasure of satisfaction and to tolerate temporarily feelings of pain. Mental Topography.—Tepographically, psychoanalysis regards the mental apparatus as a composite instrument, and endeavours to determine at what points in it the various mental processes take place. According to the most recent psychoanalytic views, the mental apparatus is composed of an “ 7d,”

which is the reservoir of the instinctive impulses, of an “ego,” which is the most superficial portion of the id and one which is modified by the influence of the external world, and of a “ superego,’ which develops out of the id, dominates the ego and represents the inhibitions of instinct characteristic of man. Further, the property of consciousness has a topographical reference; for processes in the id are entirely unconscious, while consciousness is the function of the ego’s outermost layer, which is concerned with the perception of the external world. At this point two observations may be In place. It must not be supposed that these very general ideas are presuppositions upon which the work of psychoanalysis depends. On the contrary, they are its latest conclusions and are in every respect open to revision. Psychoanalysis is founded securely upon the observation of the facts of mental life; and for that very reason its theoretical superstructure is still incomplete and subject to constant alteration. Secondly, there is no reason for astonishment that psychoanalysis, which was originally no more than an attempt at explaining pathological mental phenomena, should have developed into a psychology of normal mental hfe. The justification for this arose with the discovery that the dreams and mistakes (‘‘ para praxes,”’ such as slips of the tongue, etc.) of normal men have the same mechanism as neurotic symptoms. Theoretical Basis —The first task of psychoanalysis was the elucidation of nervous disorders. The analytical theory of the neuroses is based upon three ground-pillars: the recognition of (1) “‘ repression,” of (2) the importance of the sexual instincts and of (3) ‘ transference.” Censorship.—tThere is a force in the mind which exercises the functions of a censorship, and which excludes from consciousness and from any influence upon action all tendencies which displease it. Such tendencies are described as “ repressed.” They remain unconscious; and if the physician attempts to bring them into the patient’s consciousness he provokes a “ resistance.” These repressed instinctual impulses, however, are not always made powerless by this process. In many cases they succeed in making their influence felt by circuitous paths, and the indirect or substitutive gratification of repressed impulses is what constitutes neurotic symptoms. Sexual Instincts ——For cultural reasons the most intensive repression falls upon the sexual instincts; but it is precisely in connection with them that repression most easily miscarries, so that neurotic symptoms are found to be substitutive gratifications of repressed sexuality. The belief that in man sexual life begins only at puberty is incorrect. On the contrary, signs of it

can be detected from the beginning of extra-uterine existence; it

FREUDIAN

SCHOOL

reaches a first culminating point at or before the fifth year (“ early period ”), after which it is inhibited or interrupted

(“latency period”) until the age of puberty, which is the second climax of its development. This double onset of sexual development seems to be distinctive of the genus Homo. All experiences during the first period of childhood are of the greatest importance to the individual, and in combination with his inherited sexual constitution, form the dispositions for the subsequent development of character or disease. It is a mistaken belief that sexuality coincides with “genitality.””. The sexual instincts pass through a complicated course of development, and it is only at the end of it that the “ primacy of the genital zone ” is attained. Before this there are a number of ‘ pre-genital organisations ”’ of the libido—points at which it may become “ fixated ” and to which, in the event of subsequent repression, it will return (“ regression’),

The infantile fixations of the libido are what determine

the form of neurosis which sets in later. Thus the neuroses are to be regarded as inhibitions in the development of the libido. The Ocdipus Complex.—There are no specific causes of nervous disorders; the question whether a conflict finds a healthy solution or leads to a neurotic inhibition of function depends upon quantitative considerations, that is, upon the relative strength of the forces concerned. The most important conflict with which a small child is faced is his relation to his parents, the “ Oedipus complex ”; it is in attempting to grapple with this problem that persons destined to suffer from a neurosis habitually fail. The reactions against the instinctual demands of the Oedipus complex are the source of the most precious and socially important achievements of the human mind; and this probably holds true not only in the life of individuals but also in the history of the human species as a whole. The super-ego, the moral factor which dominates the ego, also has its origin in the process of overcoming the Oedipus complex. Transfercnce.—By “ transference” is meant a striking peculiarity of neurotics. They develop toward their physician emotional relations, both of an affectionate and hostile character, which are not based upon the actual situation but are derived from their relations toward their parents (the Oedipus complex). Transference is a proof of the fact that adults have not overcome their former childish dependence; it coincides with the force which has been named “ suggestion’; and it is only by learning to make use of it that the physician is enabled to induce the patient to overcome his internal resistances and do away with his repressions. Thus psychoanalytic treatment acts as a second education of the adult, as a corrective to his education as a child. Within this narrow compass it has not been possible to men-

tion many matters of the greatest interest, such as the “ sud/imution ” of instincts, the part played by symbolism, the problem of “ ambivalence,” etc. Nor has there been space to allude to the applications of psychoanalysis, which originated, as we have seen, in the sphere of medicine, to other departments of knowledge (such as Anthropology, the Study of Religion, Literary History and Education) where its influence is constantly increasing. It is enough to say that psychoanalysis, in its character of the psychology of the deepest, unconscious mental acts, promises to become the link between Psychiatry and all of these other fields of study. The Psychoanalytic Movement —The beginnings of psychoanalysis may be marked by two dates: 1895, which saw the publication of Breuer and Freud’s Studien iiber Hysterie, and 1900, which saw that of Freud’s Traumdeutung. At first the new discoveries aroused no interest either in the medical profession or among the gencral public. In r907 the Swiss psychiatrists, under the leadership of E. Bleuler and C. G. Jung, began to concern themselves in the subject; and in 1908 there took place at Salzburg a first meeting of adherents from a number of different countries. In 1909 Freud and Jung were invited to America by G. Stanley Hall to deliver a series of lectures on psychoanalysis at Clark University, Worcester, Mass. From that time forward in-

terest in Europe grew rapidly; it showed itself, however, in a forcible rejection of the new teachings, characterised by an emotional colouring which sometimes bordered upon the unscientific.

PSYCHOLOGY The reasons for this hostility are to be found, from the medical point of view, in the fact that psychoanalysis lays stress upon psychical factors, and from the philosophical point of view, in its assuming as an underlying postulate the concept of unconscious mental activity; but the strongest reason was undoubtedly the general disinclination of mankind to concede to the factor of sexuality such importance as is assigned to it by psychoanalysis. In spite of this widespread opposition, however, the movement in favour of psychoanalysis was not to be checked. Its adherents formed themselves into an International Association, which passed successfully through the ordeal of the World War, and at the present time comprises local groups in Vienna, Berlin, Budapest, London, Switzerland, Holland, Moscow and Calcutta, as well as two in the United States. There are three journals representing the views of these socicties: the Internationale Zeitschrift fiir Psychoanalyse, Imago (which is concerned with the application of psychoanalysis to non-medical fields of knowledge), and the International Journal of Psycho-Analysis. During the years 1911-3 two former adherents, Alfred Adler, of Vienna, and C. G. Jung, of Zürich, seceded from the psychoanalytic movement and founded schools of thought of their own. In r921 Dr. M.Eitingon founded in Berlin the first public psychoanalytic clinic and training-school, and this was soon followed by a second in Vienna. For the moment these are the only institutions on the continent of Europe which make psychoanalytic

treatment accessible to the wage-earning classes. BIBLIOGRAPHY.— Breuer and Freud, Studien tiber Hysterie (1895); Freud, Traumdeutung (1900); Zur Psychopathologie des Alltagslebens (1904); Drei Abhandlungen zur Sexuaitheorie (1905); Vorlesungen sur Einführung in die Psychoanalyse (1916). Freud’s complete works have been published in Spanish (Obras completas) (1924), and German (Gesammelte Schriften) (1925); the greater part of them has been translated into English and other languages. Short accounts of the subject-matter and history of psychoanalysis will be found in:

Freud,

Ueber Psychoanalyse

(the lectures delivered at Worcester,

U.S.A.) (1909); Zur Geschichte der psychoanalytischen Bewegung (1914); Selbstdarstellung (in Grote's collection Die Medizin der Gegenwart) (1925). Particularly accessible to English readers are: A. A.

Brill, Psycho-Analysis Analysis (1923).

(1922);

Ernest

Jones,

Papers

on Psycho(S. FR.)

PSYCHOLOGY (see 22.547b, also PSYCHIATRY; PSYCHOSIS; PSYCHOTHERAPY).—The most important influence affecting recent developments of psychology has been the widespread use of experimental methods of investigation, and a general acceptance of their implications. Experiment in psychology is, as C. S. Myers points out, “ at least as old as Aristotle.’ But its systematic and unrestricted application to psychological problems, and particularly a recognition of all that this involves with regard to the general nature of psychological theory, are a comparatively recent growth. These, more than anything else, have brought psychology into line with the other biological sciences, have transformed its questions from those of descriptive analysis to those of function, have contributed most powerfully to the destruction of the purely introspective, atomistic or mosaic psychology of the past and have encouraged and rendered possible the important practical applications of psychology which have characterised the period under review, and are particularly vigorous at the present time. Behaviourism.—This account of general theoretical developments may begin by a reference to behaviourism, itself a direct result of the application of experiment to psychology. The early behaviourists were all interested mainly in animal conduct. They studied, not merely the reactions of particular parts of an organism, but the response of the organism as a whole; not merely the effects of particular isolated stimuli, but the influence of what they called the “ whole situation,” including in the latter the past history of the organism itself. They tried to show how more complex forms of response (e.g., instinct and habit responses) may grow up out of combinations of simpler reaction (e.g., tropisms and reflexes), and they made a great amount of use of Pawlow’s principle of “ conditioned reflex,” erecting it into the most important explanatory principle of complex forms of conduct. They then applied exactly the same methods

255

to the study of human behaviour. They tended at once to become philosophical, and to assert that there is no such thing as consciousness, thereby opening up a large amount of fruitless and violent controversy. All that their method demanded they should assert was that consciousness need not be invoked as

a determining condition of any form of response with which the psychologist must deal. Perhaps no psychologist has yet provided a thoroughly convincing refutation of this position, but the attempt to establish the precise functions of consciousness in human conduct—whether stimulated directly by behaviourist writings or not—has produced much important research. Relations with Physiology —Experimental physiologists have made striking advances in our knowledge of the physics and chemistry of muscular contraction, of the effects of glandular secretion, of the conditions and character of the conduction of nerve impulses, and of the functions of peripheral nerves and of the central nervous system. These have all helped to delimit the range of psychology, to show, that is, precisely where the psychological problems emerge. Of the most direct significance to the psychologist have been the researches of neurologists— provided with unrivalled experimental material in the course of the World War—into the effects of localised injuries to the

brain and spinal cord. Perhaps the most significant of these is the work of Henry Head, who has carried further his investigations of the functions of the afferent sensibility by a thorough study of the “ high level’ responses involved in the use of language. His work represents the first attempt to carry out a searching investigation of the problems of aphasia by the systematic application of specifically psychological tests. Psychical Activity— Broadly speaking the result of all this work seems to show that conditions which at present, at any rate, have to be treated as definitely “ psychical” play an efficient part in the determination of all highly developed conduct, and that the most fundamental of these have to do (a) with the emergence of meaning as a factor in response, (b) with the development and functions of images and (c) with the growth and reactive significance of the various forms of feeling. Thus although the methods of control of pre-conscious and conscious reactions may be the same, the factors in control

appear to be different.

Gestalt Theory.—More purely psychological paths of approach seem to converge toward the same conclusion. What is known as Gestalttheorie has had a great influence upon recent psychological

formulations.

This, developed by Wertheimer and his associates,

was in the first place concerned with the psychology of perception. Its central contention is that all of the material (or “ objects ’’) dealt with at the level of psychological responses are Gestalten, (wholes,

forms,

configurations—there

is

no

exact

English

equivalent) diversified or complex, but in no sense capable of expression in terms of the parts which they may seem to contain. It is perhaps not unfair to say that the whole of this important movement is concerned with an elucidation of the character and functions of meaning in psychological responses. Imagery.—Another active development is connected with the names of Jaensch and of his collaborators and pupils.

Jaensch

claims to have discovered a new and important type of imagery, photographically accurate, projected, coloured and abnormally resistant to the usual wearing effects of time. Such imagery is common in early life, but later is overlaid or outgrown, and is called eidefic. These workers try to show that all psychological problems centre in the use and functions of images. Psychoanalysis ——Most prominent of all, particularly outside strict academic circles, has been the influence of a variety of views which are generally rather loosely put together and referred to as “ psychoanalysis ”’ (g.v.), Freud, Jung, Adler and a host of enthusiastic followers in all countries, have developed and promulgated its doctrines. Probably most psychologists would maintain that the practical significance of psychoanalysis outweighs its theoretical importance, but a convinced psychoanalyst is rarely willing to admit that this is the case. This movement, in all its many, and often conflicting forms, has con-

clusively demonstrated the enormous part which may be played

256

PSYCHOLOGY

in the determination of human response by factors which remain totally outside the range of normal waking consciousness. Here also, we have at its height the tendency to concentrate upon feeling as the predominant psychological factor in the explanation of conduct. Social Psychology —Social psychology, largely under the influence of the writings of McDougall, and also affected to a considerable extent by modern psychopathology, has been very much to the fore. Lately attempts have been made in various directions to bring social psychology more immediately into touch with ethnology, history and economics, and so to check its hitherto marked tendency to wide and rash generalisation. Experimental Psychology.—These more general and inclusive movements, though all largely influenced by experimental method, contain many features that can hardly be said to havea definite experimental basis. If we turn to a survey of the field of experimental psychology proper, we are met by a bewildering diversity of effort. There is hardly any problem over the whole range of individual conduct which some experimentalist has not attempted to tackle. Probably the chief impression to be obtained is that even in the field of sensorial reactions there is comparatively little that has been treated as completely and finally established. Yet more obviously is this true of the psychology of perception, of recall and memory, of imaging, of thinking in all its forms, and of feeling and willing. But in all these fields alike evidence is accumulating to show that no formulation of the conditions of reactions which confines itself to physical and chemical and to physiological terms is adequate to account for the complexity of life at the human level. On the whole, for example, the James-Lange hypothesis of the causation and character of emotions becomes less, rather than more certain, as research progresses. Applied Psychology—Particularly striking developments have occurred in the realms of applied psychology. The most important of these have concerned (a) education, (b) industry,

(c) medicine and (d) law. Education.—The psychological problems which have taken the most prominent position in relation to education have concerned the theory and application of intelligence tests (¢.2.). In every country numerous groups of tests of intelligence have been pro-

posed and used. At the same time the theoretical study of the relation of these tests to the nature and functions of intelligence has been pushed much further. There is still frequent and vigorous controversy as to the nature of “ general intelligence,”

or of a possible “ general factor ” in intelligence (see [NTELLI-

GENCE, HuMAN). In this, modern psychology has made great use of statistical methods. In many quarters intelligence tests have been employed to supersede or to supplement the common written examination. Numerous attempts have been made to render the tests more immediately practical by adapting them to groups rather than to individual children. Apart from intelligence tests proper, tests of capacity for practically every kind of

specific ability involved in educational attainment, from “low level” motor activities to the most complex co-ordinations of mechanical and intellectual skill, have been developed and applied. The enthusiasm of the mental test devotee has, in fact, probably far outrun his discretion. At the same time the practical application of psychological principles to methods of teaching has been much emphasised, and in particular there has been a persistent and widespread effort to co-ordinate the treatment of mental defect in children with its precise experimental study. The psychoanalytic movement has had a profound influence in most countries upon methods of education particularly of young children. Industrial —America led the way in the application of psyBut chology to industrial organisation and administration. the movement spread rapidly and at present England, France, Italy, Germany, Holland and other countries all have strong and active institutions concerned with the study of the human element in industry. In the main the problems dealt with are of three types: (a) those of vocational guidance and selection (see Jos ANALYSIS); (6) those of industrial fatigue (see INDUSTRIAL

Psycno.ocy) and (c) those of motion study, vocational guidance and selection is definitely related to the mental test movement, and is directed to the avoidance of misfits in industry, and to the guidance of individuals into those industrial occupa-

tions for which their special abilities particularly fit them. The study of industrial fatigue is directed to an amelioration of work-

ing conditions so as to avoid undue irritability, overstrain, weakening of interest and general loss of capacity, and at the same time to retain and increase industrial productivity.

Mo-

tion study is directed to the elimination of unnecessary move-

ments in manual work, and to the discovery of paths of movement and methods of work which are alike agreeable to the operative and economically desirable. A very important branch of the third of these movements is the study of the human factor

in industrial accidents. “accident

prone

class”

Standardised are

diagnostic tests for the

in process

of rapid

formation.

Closely related to its industrial application is the use made of psychology in naval and military organisation. This was greatly stimulated by the demands of the World War, and is now widely recognised. Medicine.—The War, again, had a large influence in arousing

increased interest in psychological medicine. Modern trench fighting enormously increased the incidence of mental and nervous disorders in the forces engaged, and consequently the tremendous social importance of the treatment of psychopathological states has been forced upon the public attention. In every civilised country the psychological genesis and nature, as well as the frequency, of numerous disorders possessing obvious physical symptoms are now widely acknowledged, and training in the

recognition and treatment of mental disease is far more generally a part of medical education than has ever before been the case. Legal Problems.—This once more has important and immediate applications to legal procedure. The relation of the

study of mental disease to the problems of legal and moral

delinquency is now freely admitted. Modern theories of the causation of abnormal conduct are applied to an understanding of the behaviour of the criminal. The general aim here is to be able, within limits, to control behaviour in the directions which are recognised as legally and socially desirable. A beginning has

also been made—mainly by the use of modern experimental methods of the registration of emotional expression—in the development of a psychological technology for the detection of crime. Not much work has been accomplished in the application of psychological theories and methods of explanation to problems of religious and aesthetic experience. Conclusion.—This brief survey of contemporary psychology shows the diversity of its interests, and the many-sided development which it has undergone. Such development was, indeed, inevitable. For psychology is a systematic attempt to understand the responses which man makes to his environment, and

consequently has vital significance in relation to all branches of human effort. What has emphatically characterised psychological developments during the period under survey, 1s the tendency to realistic, they can the same

make of psychology a science more concrete, more more closely in touch with actual human responses as

be observed under definite conditions of reaction. At time the older, more purely introspective, more philosophical psychology has been far from inactive. In the main it has been preoccupied with problems of an epistemological order,

and particularly with elaborate analyses of the factors which enter into perception as a form of knowledge (see KNOWLEDGE,

Tueory of).

Everywhere in psychology the main drift appears

to be away from atomistic and mechanical types of explanation toward a recognition of the unique, though complex, activities and patterns of activity which govern and direct all highly developed human conduct and feeling, and gradually build up the constructions of human knowledge. BIBLIOGRAPIHY.—The period surveyed has been one of extraordinary literary activity. Nothing more is here attempted than the selection of a few representative books. The order follows that adopted in the above article; only books having a predominant psychological interest are mentioned.

PSYCHOSIS Behavtourism: J. B. Watson, Behaviour: an Introduction te Com-

257

Psychosis and Neurosis-—-A psychosis is thus a malady of

parative Psychology (1914); Psychology front the Standpoint of a Behaviourist (Philadelphia and London, 1918). For a completely oo point of view see W. McDougall, Outline of Psychology 1923). Gestalttheorie: K. Koffka, The Growth of Mind (1924); W. Köhler, The Mentality of Apes (1925); M. Wertheimer, Drei Abhandlungen gur Gestalttheorie (Erlangen, 1925). | Eidetic Imagery: G. W. Allport, ‘ Eidetic Imagery,” Brit, Jour.

more serious import than a neurosis. The latter is a regressive and infantile mode of adjustment to reality—an act of adaptation that has failed (Jung). In a neurosis, fears, obsessions, doubts, ruminations, day-dreams and crises of agitation—incomplete, exaggerated and unproductive mental operations in-

Psychoanalysis: ete.: C. G. Jung, The Psychology of the Unconscious (1917); E. Jones, Papers on Psychoanalysis (1923); C. G. Jung, Psychological Types (1923); A. Adler, The Practice and Theory of Individual Psychology (1924); S. Freud, Collected Papers (1924-8). Social Psychology: M. Ginsberg, The Psychology of Society (1921); W. H. R. Rivers, Psychology and Politics (1923). Experimental Psychology: C. S. Myers and F. C. Bartlett, A TextBook of Experimental Psychology, Parts ¥ and 2 (Cambridge; 1925). See also current psychological periodicals. (Fe C; B:

isms, and the validity of this conception was demonstrated in the War neuroses, where the conflict between duty and the instinct of self-preservation was solved without the sacrifice of social esteem by the automatic development of tremors, paralyses and anxiety states, which, as Rivers showed, were modifications of

of Psychology, vol. 15 (1924), with bibliography.

`

PSYCHOSIS (see 22.554).—Strictly speaking, the term psychosis means a state of mind, a concrete psychical process or a mental act; but is now generally used to signify an abnormal state of mind. This definition needs qualification, however, since the technical use of the term in psychiatry is confined to certain forms of mental disorder which can be distinguished from states of congenital mental deficiency on the one hand, and from “ borderland ” conditions or neuroses on the other. A distinction should be made between “ psychosis ” and “ insanity,” which in popular and legal language signifies that an individual, owing to his state of mind, is unable to manage himself or his affairs, is in need of care and control and is not to be held

accountable to society for his actions. Psychosis, on the contrary, is a strictly medical term; it refers to a type of mental illness with certain intrinsic characteristics, assuming various forms, and due to a varicty of causes. It does not necessarily icad to serious disturbances of behaviour, and there are many individuals who though not insane in a legal sense are nevertheless the subjects of a pyschosis from the standpoint of psychiatry. Psychological Considerations —Though it is convenient to divide mental disorders into different categories based upon their causation, clinical characteristics or course and outcome, so many transformations of the clinical syndromes occur that no hard and fast division into separate disease entities is possible.

volving but little effort—serve as substitutes for eficient action. Some years ago Freud described the neuroses as defence mechan-

those instinctive processes

by which all the higher forms of

animal life were accustomed to react to danger.

Protective Function of Neuroses-——Here the neurosis clearly served to protect its subject from the situations for which he lacked the proper personal adaptation; it acted as a structure of

compromise

between himself and society; and it symbolised

the nature of the instinct which demanded an outlet and gratification. The neuroses of peace have a similar mechanism and fulfil a similar function, though the nature of the instinctive need which finds an outlet in neurotic symptoms is the subject of considerable controversy. Freud traces it to the sexual impulse, while Janet discovers in the behaviour of a neurotic a means of gaining power and love which he lacks the capacity to earn by vigorous and effective action. Psychosis and Destruciion.—In

contrast to a neurosis which

acts to the advantage of the individual by protecting him from an uncongenial environment, a psychosis always acts in the long run to the disadvantage of the individual, and tends to bring him into conflict with society. It is destructive rather than protective, and tends to eliminate rather than to conserve the individual as a social unit. A psychosis originates in the depths of the organic life. The images which flood the psychic life are stimulated by subtle changes in the vital processes responsible for the evolution of the personality, and remain until the organic balance is restored. Hesnard names this process organic symbolism, pointing out that just as the sensation is the symbolic

two types of reaction is intuitively sensed by society Jor reasons which become evident when their psychological characteristics are contrasted. One of the essential features of a neurosis is the retention of what may be called the “ herd-sense,” and a psychosis is marked by its diminution or loss. In a neurosis the patient is oriented to realities and has an intelligence alive to his own needs; his symptoms tend to be provoked by external circumstances, and he is sensitive to changes in the social atmosphere;

translation or meaning of the exciting stimulus and not this stimulus simply transmitted, so the psychosis is the psychic interpretation of organic occurrences. This formula may be applied to the psycho-physiology of hunger, which Torro aptly describes as an “ echo of physiological distress and at the same time the dawn of psychic life.” A morbid instance of this process occurs in the climacteric psychoses, in which the patient often complains of being dead, of ceasing to exist, or of being a shadow without life (delusion of negation). Here the biological changes heralding the termination of reproductivity are clearly symbolised in the content of the psychosis. The delusions and hallucinations of the psychotic should thus not be regarded as

he sees facts as they are but meets them in a faulty way. He does not seriously offend against the conventions, and however exacting his conduct may be his enfowrage still regard him as akin to themselves—as, indeed, he 1s, since all persons are apt to exhibit mild neurotic symptoms when life becomes too complex and difficult. In a psychosis, however, the irruption of images, feclings and cravings into consciousness leads to distorted views of reality and to falsification of facts; the sentiments and habits of the patient undergo a change, and his conduct becomes inexplicable

would vainly persuade him to the contrary. Two Groups of Psyvchosts.~—The differentiation by Kracpelin of the psychoses into two broad groups—manic-depressive insanity and dementia praecox—has been of inestimable service to psychiatry, though his view that these should be regarded as distinct disease entities has not been established. It is more in accordance with clinical facts to regard them as two reaction

One broad division is that made between the psychoses proper and the neuroses, 2 term embracing such morbid conditions as hysteria and obsessional neurosis. The difference between the

and (apparently) unmotivated; he becomes inditferent to public opinion and impervious to solicitations from without; brietly, he loses touch with common life and lives in a world of his own. Such attitudes naturally provoke uneasy tensions in normal people; they feel themselves to be in the presence of something uncanny and outside the range of their experience. It is disconcerting to deal with an individual whose conduct fails to be influenced by the methods hitherto found effective in dealing with other human beings, and no doubt the fear of the biologically abnormal has something to do with the attitude of society towards the psychotic.

fancies; they are the symbols of organic actualities. The patient is right in adhering to his beliefs; he knows and feels them to be true, and has more reason on his side than the psychiatrist who

types which sometimes occur in pure form but more often as mixed. The manic-depressive reaction is characterised by severe and irregular fluctuations of mood in the directions of

excitement and depression with intervals of normality. The psychosis is an exaggeration of the ‘‘ cyclothymic ” reaction of some normal people in whom the mood fluctuates between euphoria and depression more or less independently of circumstances. Dementia praecox tends to pursue an unfavourable course, and js characterised by a peculiar and often complete disorganisation of personality with predominant changes in the affective life and will.

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PSYCHOTHERAPY

Schizophrenia and Paraphrenia.—As the disease does not always proceed to dementia, and may develop at any age, Bleuler prefers to apply to it the term schizophrenia (splitting of

mind). Jung has stated that the essence of dementia praecox consists in the fact that the unconscious to a large extent replaces the conscious, and the validity of this formulation is clearly exemplified in those schizophrenics to whom the term paraphrenta is given. This psychosis is marked by the exuberant development of fantastic delusions and hallucinations, which appear all the more extraordinary as the personality is so preserved as to enable the patient to make a normal reaction to social life on occasions. The morbid mental products in these cases can properly be regarded as an echo of the ultimate realities of organic life. As Blondel observes: “ La conscience morbide Sexprime en dehors des lois de la conscience sociale par des procédés, non plus seulement prérationnels, mais prénormaux, qui

manifestent Pindividuel pur.’

In the schizophrenic there is an

hypertrophy and distortion of the instinctive life, and the delusions and hallucinations symbolise or reveal crudely the elemental cravings which seek expression. The psychosis has thus an important biological function, affording a means by which the inward craving can be actualised and freely expressed; it brings about a state of biological equilibrium by permitting a release of organic tension. These paraphrenic cases are of the highest psychological interest. It is possible at times to watch the growth of organised hallucinatory svstems which assume the characteristics of omnipotent and god-like personalities, symbolising, as it were, the ruthless and impersonal forces of nature. The interactions between the personality of the patient and the forces which control it are often as dramatic as those between the mythological characters of Greek tragedy; and the psychosis, like the latter, fathoms the depths of human life. Causation and Treatment of Psychoses.—A psychosis is a disorder of behaviour, and represents a failure of function at the psychological level. Psychiatry (q.v.) thus differs in its subjectmatter from general medicine; the former deals with disturbances in the reactions of the organism as an integrated whole, and the latter with disorders of special systems of organs. Since the behaviour of an individual, whether normal or abnormal, depends upon an infinity of factors—the nature of his life situations, the state of his organism, and the whole of his past .history, both personal and ancestral—it is impossible to select one factor as explanatory of the total reaction. The problem of causation in the psychoses is thus dissolved in relativity, and in each case an endeavour is made to seek out, and remove where possible, any factors, either physical or mental, which seem to be exerting an unfavourable influence upon the behaviour. Mode of Approack.—There is now a general tendency to approach the problems of mental disorder from the standpoints of biology, pathology and general medicine, as it is recognised that the psychoses must be the outcome of a malfunctioning organism. Many psychoses, indeed, have definite relationships to diseases of the nervous system and of the bodily organs, as well as to general disturbances due to infections, exhaustion and drug intoxications. The causal significance of foci of chronic infections from the nose, throat, teeth, uterus or intestines has recently been emphasised and investigations along these lines make it evident that the whole resources of medicine should be utilised in the treatment of mental disorder. Mind cannot be regarded as an entity and detached from the body, and the secrets of disordered personality cannot be discovered by confining researches to the brain. The mind is not merely a function of the brain; it is a function of the whole organism having its roots in the viscera, the endocrine glands, the vegetative nervous system and the musculature. Clinically, the biogenetic psychoses, the general characters of which have been outlined above, appear primarily due to deterioration and distortions of the affective and instinctive rather than of the intellectual functions, and such impressions are confirmed by the researches of Mott in relation to dementia praecox, showing that the disorder is the expression of an inborn lack of durability throughout the body, but most manifest in the organs of reproduction.

Btogenctic Psvchoses—In contrast to the toxic-exhaustive group of psychoses or an organic psychosis such as general paralysis, which are accidental episodes in the life of normal people, the biogenetic psychoses are the outcome of an hereditary or constitutional predisposition to mental disease. The psychotic episodes may be excited by mental or physical stresses, but the tendency already exists. The different forms assumed by these psychoses are independent of any specific pathogenic agent and dependent upon the personality, make-up or inborn psychic constitution. Thus a manic-depressive psychosis is considered to exhibit an exaggeration of a pre-existing cyclothymic or extraverted temperament, and dementia praecox of a pre-existing schizophrenic or introverted temperament. Kretschmer has noted a relationship between certain forms of physique and these psychic types. He finds that the cycloid types show a biological affinity with a pyknic body-build, while the schizoid types are related to asthenic and athletic body-builds, together with certain dysplastics. This work sheds light on the organic foundations of temperament, and has an intimate bearing on the problem of the biogenetic psychoses. Treatment Problems—The psychoses do not offer a fertile field for the application of formal psychotherapeutic procedures, such as hypnotism and psychoanalysis; their subjects lack insight and sense of illness, and tend to be non-co-operative and impenetrable. Indirectly, however, psychological treatment plays a large part in the prevention, cure and amelioration of psychoses. Thus re-education, the elimination of faulty habits of reaction and the stimulation and exteriorisation of interest by work and recreation are essential elements in treatment. Every administrative act intended to increase the amenities of patients

in a mental hospital is mental treatment, and results in an improvement in the reactions of the patients as a whole. The more the freedom allowed, the more the institution corresponds to the conditions of ordinary life, and the more the contacts with the outside world the more normal the patients become. Individual peculiarities and unsuspected sensitivities (conditioned responses) must be noted. Thus a relapse may be provoked by the visit of a wife; an inaccessible schizophrenic may break into blushes, smiles and loquaciousness when visited by her father; ora patient may exhibit a negativistic attitude to one nurse and respond with friendliness to another. Influence of Psychogenctic Factors —DPsychogenctic factors thus largely influence for better or worse the reactions of a psychotic. Jung points out that a normal introvert in a thoroughly congenial environment expands and relaxes towards complete extroversion; conversely, a sensitive shut-in child may regress into a mild psychotic state in what (to him) constitutes an unfriendly environment where he is not understood. Such observations have an important bearing on the problem of heredity. Some psychiatrists suggest that the continual association of a child from birth with exacting psychopathic parents (psychic trauma) is responsible for the development of psychoses later in life, but no doubt the inborn predisposition is an essential element in the causation of such cases. Psychogenetic factors are certainly in part responsible, however, for breakdowns of the dementia praecox type, and many such might perhaps be avoided if the significance and dangers of an inborn sensitivity

were more generally appreciated. BIRLIOGRAPHY.— C. G.

Jung,

Collected

Papers

on

Analytical

Psychology (1917); W. A. White, Foundations of Psychiatry (1921); W. H. R. Rivers, Instinct and the Unconscious (1922); H. Devine, “The Reality Feeling in Phantasies of the Insane," Brit. Jour. Psych. (1923); A. Hesnard, L’inconscient (1923); E. Kretschmer, Physique and Character (1925); P. Janet, Psychological Healing, 2 vol. (1925). (H. D.)

PSYCHOTHERAPY.—-The method in psychotherapy that especially characterises the period since rg1o, is the method of psychoanalysis devised by Sigmund Freud, and the theory based upon its findings bulks largely in all modern discussions. Modern Developments.—Leaving aside this modern method of psychoanalysis, (see PSYCHOANALYSIS, FREUDIAN SCIIOOL OF) we find that with many other workers in psychopathology aad psy-

PSYCHOTHERAPY chotherapy there has been a steady movement away from the employment of hypnotism, whether for the investigation of the mind or for its treatment. Pierre Janet and Morton Prince alone among the older workers have continued to employ hypnotism in selected cases. Dubois, of Berne, has modified the suggestion treatment of Liébault and Bernheim in the direction of an appeal to reason in the patient rather than to mere automatism. In this method we find the arts of persuasion developed to the utmost on the conscious plane. The patient is encouraged to look at himself sincerely, to see himself exactly and to find out what is wrong with himself, what is the cause of his symptoms, and then is persuaded to change his mental outlook. The symptoms may be helped sometimes by philosophical disquisitions and exhortations. Dejerine advocated a similar method of analysis and persuasion, in which through a series of talks with the patient, the doctor induces him to admit what is really wrong with him, and encourages him to get out of his difficulties and so dispense with his symptoms. Babinski holds a simple theory of the nature of hysteria, according to which it is caused by suggestion and therefore curable by persuasion. The methods of persuasion which he indicates are of the simplest. Analytic Psychology.—C. G. Jung and A. Adler have broken

away from the direct Freudian line of thought.

Jung calls his

method that of analytic psychology, and emphasises the special need of analysing the present situation of the patient, interpreting his past in the light of his present, quite as much as conversely. He does not accept the Freudian view of the sexual etiology of the psychoneuroses, and although he uses the word libido in his general theory, this means for him general emotional energy, not specifically sexual energy. His general theory is one of indeterminism in contrast with the ngid determinism of Freud. Self- Assertion.—Adler emphasises the important part played in the formation of nervous symptoms by the fundamental instinct of self-assertion—the will to power. In his view many neurotic symptoms are compensatory, representing the patient’s (unsuccessful) striving ‘‘ to become a complete man ”—that is the phrase he uses—and to hide his insufficiency from himself as well as from others. The patient constructs a safety net, as it were, around himself, so as to prevent his sensitive ego from being

unduly pained by the consciousness of its inadequacy. Adler would explain many cases in which a sexual etiology seems more obviously involved as really caused in this other way, through disturbance of the self-assertive instinct. The patient’s selfassertive instinct cannot realise itself in ordinary ways, so it realises itself in a round-about way. All the time there is a tendency for the person to conceal from himself his own inadequacy, or to prevent himself from facing a situation where his own inadequacy might become too obvious. He may become ill in order to escape having to face a task to which he knows that he is inadequate. The feeling of inadequacy is translated into a feeling of illness. This inadequacy may show itself in various ways. Adler claims that the psychological essentials of a case may often be revealed in a single interview. War Cases.—During the World War various forms of psychoneurosis were produced by the conditions of warfare in thousands of cases, and some of Pierre Janet’s most fundamental views on the nature of hysteria were verified. Among the numerous cases of shell shock a certain proportion suffered from hysterical symptoms, and it was found that these hysterical cases were easily hypnotised, and through hypnosis the man could be re-associated, and his hysterical tendencies thereby diminished. In other words the scientific validity of Janet’s use of hypnosis in special cases, was confirmed by the investigation and treatment of hundreds of such cases in the battle area, In ordinary medical practice these cases are not numerous. The ordinary medical man sees only a few cases a year, but when they are seen by the hundred as during the War, general conclusions can be drawn about them, they can be distinguished definitely from other cases, and cases _ of so-called natural somnambulism were most quickly cured

by the production of artificial somnambulism under special safeguards. In other cases suggestion treatment is beneficial.

259

Hypnotic Treatment.—There is thus still a place for hypnotic treatment in psychotherapy. It should be limited to the treatment of pronounced cases of hysteria with loss of memory and crude automatisms like somnambulism, hysterical attacks and fugues. In such cases it removes the symptoms, and diminishes the hysterical tendency also. To correct the hysterical tendency still more adequately, it would seem desirable to give the patient a certain amount of analytic treatment, discussing his past life with him, sorting out his past experiences, and helping him to see the relation of these past experiences to his present mental state (autognosis). Suggestion.—The method of suggestion in the waking or subwaking state, without hypnosis, has been re-introduced into practical psychotherapy by Emile Coué, Baudouin and others. The special characteristic of the method is that it emphasises the auto-suggestion element in all suggestion—emphasises the general fact that autd-suggestion is fundamental in all suggestion treatment, and that auto-suggestion may be encouraged, so that it takes the place of hetero-suggestion. Patients should be encouraged to treat themselves by auto-suggestion; and to do so they should put themselves into a passive state of concentration without effort (contention), in which state anv suggestion they give to their own sub-consciousness has more opportunity of becoming realised. Tsolation.—Besides these more specific mental methods of treatment there are certain physical methods, which may be classed as psychotherapeutical methods, since they are devised for their mental effect upon the patient. One such method is that of isolation, applied, e.g., by Dejerine, in whose clinic isolation was often made as complete as possible. A curtain was drawn round the patient’s bed, and he was allowed to see no one but the doctor. Another subsidiary method of treatment is that during the first fortnight of this isolation treatment, the patient is put upon a milk diet (sce WEIR-MITCHELL TREATMENT, 26,803). Work Cure.—The rest cure has its antithesis in a work cure advocated by some doctors, but the work cure is obviously only applicable in special cases, and where the work is congenial and does not make too large demands upon the patient’s energy it should be very effective. Pottery-painting, mat-weaving, chairmaking, carpentry, metal work, etc., have been found very helpful to certain types of patients. Simple mental exercises are also helpful. Exercises.—Massage and relaxation exercises are sometimes important, and still more important are active exercises such as golf, riding, tennis and other games of skill, which can be a great help in getting patients back to the normal. In cases where there is a lowered psychological tension which has to be corrected the patient needs distraction and stimulation. Stimulation 1s also needed where a patient is so lethargic that his fatigue is due not to outgoing energy but to failure to create energy. There are some lethargic patients who will not make any effort, and suffer from not developing sufficient energy, and in these cases stimulation is needed in one form or another. Cases on the verge of severe depression, where the tendency is to sit still and do nothing, are sometimes greatly helped if they take up riding, a stimulant that can raise the psychological tension sufficiently to take them out of themselves. Motoring and motor cycling are also useful. They involve great concentration of attention, and certain types of patient obtain much help from this continuous concentration of mind, who have become so scatter-brained and distracted that they have lost the power of steady concentration. If the mind is concentrated in one direction it receives a fillip towards concentration and unification in other directions also. Treaiment Difficulties—It is quite obvious that these diverse methods, many of which seem to be contrary in their results, should be recommended with discretion. Different methods are applicable to different cases, and to the same cases in different stages of illness. The practical thing in psychotherapy is, to a great extent, skill in the choice of means. Where skill can be shown is in the careful choice of means for different patients and for the same patient at different times. This is not a matter of routine, it cannot be described satisfactorily in a set of written

260

PUBLIC

instructions, but it is gradually acquired by the physician in the course of practice, BırLIOGRAPHY.— P. Dubois, The Psychic Treatment of Nervous Disorders (1909); B. Hart, Psychology of Insanity (gtz); J. J. Dejerine and lL, Gauckler, Psychoneuroses and Psychotherapy (1915);

J. Babinski and J. Fromont, Hysteria or Pithiatism (1917), C. G. Jung, Collected Papers on Analytical Psychology (1917); H. Crichton Miller and others, Functional Nerve Disease (1920); A. Adler, The Neurotic Constitution (1921); W. Brown, Psychology and Psychotherapy (1921); M. Prince, The Unconscious (1921); T. W. Mitchell, Medical Psychology (1922); W. H. R. Rivers, Jzstinct and the Unconsctous (1922); W. McDougall, An Outline of Psychology (1923); T. A. Ross, The Common Neuroses (1923); P. Janet, Psychological Healing, 2 vol. (1925). CW. Br.)

PUBLIC HEALTH

(see 22.627).—The main object should be

to prevent disease rather than to cure it. The one is easy and cheap, the other difficult, expensive and often impossible. As the open air sanatorium does so much for the rickety and tubercular, this should be the model for the bringing up of all

children. The open air school with the floor gently heated—as the ancient Romans heated floors by the hypocaust—should replace the indoor schools, while factories should move to garden cities as far as possible and have attached playing fields and allotments for gardening. Ventifation Proilems.—F¥or air to feel fresh it must have such cooling and evaporative power as suffices to keep the head pleasantly cool and the skin free from sensible perspiration, Movement of the air is of great importance, because it prevents stagnation of air which is made warm and humid by the body and is entangled in the clothing, and greatly promotes loss of heat from the skin by convection and evaporation. In occupied rooms not contaminated by coal-gas leaks or poisonous fumes arising from manufacturing processes, natural ventilation, sct up by differences of temperature inside and outside, suffices to keep the air chemically pure enough, even though all doors and windows are shut. There is normally § to 6°% of carbon dioxide and 143 °% of oxygen in the depths of the lungs, and the physiological regulation of breathing is such as to keep these amounts constant. Increase of carbon dioxide or diminution of oxygen, which in the worst ventilated rooms does not amount to more than $°% has then no effect. The importance of keeping the percentage of carbon dioxide in rooms very low is to insure a ventilation sufficient to cool the body and evaporate moisture from it and to keep down the number of dust particles and microbes exhaled by carriers of catarrhal or other diseases. Most uncomfortable conditions due to heat stagnation may be found when chemical purity of the air is very high, and comfortable conditions, e.g., in a submarine cooled by the sea, when owing to long submergence chemical purity is worst, The amount of oxygen breathed in each pint of air is much lower at Alpine health resorts owing to the tenuity of the air at great heights, than in stuffy, crowded rooms in a city on the plains—a further proof, if it were wanted, that the slight diminution of oxygen percentage in such rooms ts of no importance.

The commonly accepted opinion that there are chemical poisons in exhaled air has been negatived by exact experiment. Stuffy air of crowded réoms is contaminated with ,microbes explosively exhaled from the respiratory passages in coughing, sneezing and speaking, and dust from soiled clothes. Such microbes directly inhaled by others may disseminate catarrhs, sore throats, tuberculosis of the lung, etc. The number of such microbes is very greatly reduced by open window ventilation.

In several schools ventilated by the plenum system time lost by children through catarrhs was on the average six times greater than in a school ventilated by open windows. Confined air of rooms is also greatly polluted with dust stirred up by people, and in cities with soot. Some dusts, such as free silica and lead,

are poisonous, and have a most deleterious effect. The breathing of free silica dust by tin and gold miners, by sandstone, granite, and flint workers, and by gritstone grinders causes slow degeneration of the lung, ending generally in a tubercular infection. The death-rate from tuberculosis in such workers has been

extremely high, and special precautions against dust must be taken

HEALTH to Jower it (see Miners! Prtirsis). The breathing of chalk, coal, and animal or vegetable dust such as bone meal and flour are relatively harmless, but may produce shortness of breath in later middle life.

Some people are hypersensitive to certain animal or vegetable dusts and get hay fever or asthma from breathing such, e.g., from dandruff of horses, dogs, cats, from dust of feathers, from pollen of grasses, from spores cf moulds such as aspergillus. They are relieved by going to dust-free places as in the Alps, or to sea, or by sleeping in a special dust free room. The inhaled air is exhaled, heated up to almost body temperature and saturated with water by the respiratory membrane. It is important for the health of this membrane that it should receive an ample supply of arterial blood and lymph, and secrete plenty of fluid to cleanse itself, with the aid of its ciliated epithelium, of dust and microbes. Cool air contains very little moisture, even when saturated, and can take up much from the lungs and so act favourably compared with the warm moist air of crowded, stuffy rooms. The natural conditions which pertain out of doors are a cool breeze moving round the head and the feet kept warm by the ground. In stuffy, artificially heated rooms there is a draught on the floor while the head is surrounded with warm, stagnant air. As

a result, the nasal membrane

becomes congested, the air-way

through the nose constricted, and stuffy feelings and headache are occasioned. Warming the feet and cooling the bead by a fan at once relieves these feelings. While there is no evidence that “ionisation ” of the air has any influence on our feeling or health, the adequate cooling of the body 1s most important in

keeping up the tone of the muscles and the body heat production,

The body should be stimulated to keep up its own heat by com-

bustion of food, and the “‘ fire of life”? kept burning actively. Greater depth of breathing, more active circulation of blood, better appetite, digestion and absorption of food result; constipation is avoided by greater muscular tone and the deeper breathing induced by exercise taken to keep warm, and the bowels are kept clear of bacterial poisons owing to the more complete use of food, and more active circulation through and tone of their walls. General health and resistance to disease are thus promoted. Warm, moist atmospheres lower working efficiency and vigorous health. The body heat production of native students in Singapore is not more than half that of an athletic English student. The native of Singapore can do very little

work.

(See HEATING AND VENTILATION.)

Food Problems.—\U-nutrition may arise because food is deficient in energy value or in quality, or because the environment depresses the fire of life and reduces the healthy action of the bowels and the appetite, or because the body is over-fatigued, and the expenditure of nerve energy leaves insufficient for the digestive and absorptive functions. Those who carry out in factories skilled hand operations seem more liable to illness than heavy workers, e.g., coal-miners, smiths and foundry men and agriculturists. The skilled hand-workers Jead a far more caged life, using their hand muscles to make many small, fine movements, not using their big body and leg muscles, not breathing deeply, not having a high rate of food oxidation. The chest is fixed to make skilled hand movements, and this modifies their breathing. The number of fine skilled movements they have to make brings about nervous fatigue, while, their food oxidation being relatively low, and breathing shallow, the onset of fatigue is not resisted as it should be by a high rate of nutrition. The relatively warm environment brings too much blood into the skin of the factory workers, and does net tone up the body as the open air life docs. Infection with catarrhal complaints is

far more spread among them, and their respiratory membrane is not kept in a healthy state as it is in those who deep-breathe cool, dry air. Children who are over-crammed for examinations come under this category, so too college students and clerks. In some occupations 40°

of the workers may be away from work

each year for some period owing to sickness, while the number of cases seeking medical relief may number 100°% of the workers or even more each year.

PUBLIC HEALTH Housing Problems.—Millions live in one to three-roomed tenements, and the cinema and a sensational Press take the

place of fun and tenement lowers Ill-feeding comes give them fresh results from their

frolic in the open air. The crowded life of the the vitality and exhausts the nervous system. on top of this, the workers having no garden to vegetable foods. An enormous economic loss having no chance of spending their leisure hours

in gardening and in improving their homes. Civilisedl man has to have a book some hundreds of pages long merely to catalogue his diseases. McCarrison describes in the remote Himalayas a tribe of magnificent physique, amongst whom there is no dyspepsia or neurasthenia, no gastric or duodenal ulcers, no appendicitis or mucous colitis, little or no cancer. Food Requirements—We must have in our food, first, sufficient fuel value, or energy, to keep up our body heat and to do muscular work on. Next we must have proteins which will yield us on digestion all those amino-acids into which proteins are split on digestion, which are required to build our tissue, and to secure these we want variety of both animal and vegetable proteins. Some proteins, for example, zein in maize, fail in one or other of the required constituents, and disease results from restriction tosuch. Then we need carbohydrates and fats, mainly to provide fuel, but also to help build body substance. In addition, we must have certain salts, and particularly chloride and phosphate of sodium, potassium, calcium and magnesium with traces of iron and iodine, on which the processes of life intimately depend. Lastly, the food must contain vitamines (q.z.), traces of certain vital substances which have hitherto not been separated but are

known to exist by feeding experiments. The vitamines have been compared with the sparks which fire the petrol in a motor engine. A mixed diet of fresh meat, milk, butter, eggs, fruits, honey, molasses, vegetables and wholemeal bread, such as our ancestors ate, supplied all, but now this food is largely replaced by the products of the miller and canner, by white bread and polished white rice, cornflour, sago, tapioca, tinned meat, sterilised milk, sugar, margarine made out of nuts, egg substitutes, tinned or bottled fruits. Tea, sugar, white bread, margarine, and lowquality jam are the staple foods of the very poor. The effect of preservatives and refining processes has been to lessen the vitamines and essential salts, often with disastrous effect to growth, health and breeding power. Now, the growing of salads, which might be possible in gardens and courts, in window boxes and on roofs in cities, is stopped by smoke pollution; this, too, damages the fields, gardens and allotments, and lessens the supply of vegetable food and of milk of cows fed on fresh young grass, and makes these things costly to city people (see SMOKE PREVENTION). Solar Radiation.—The radiant energy of the sun tempered by the atmosphere keeps going the manifestations of life. Plants energised by the sun, and using, as a transformer of energy, the green chlorophyll, build up their substance out of inorganic materials. This substance is the food of the animal world. Modern theory suggests that all chemical change, vital and nonvital, is touched off by radiant energy, by light or heat, and that the speed of such change is determined by the intensity of radiation. The sun rays which are most active on living cells, killing these if too strong, are those beyond the violet, insensible to us, and called ultra-violet. These rays act also most powerfully on a sensitised photographic film. The visible rays, in part reflected from the skin, in part penetrate and are absorbed

by the cutaneous blood and warm that. They are absorbed by the epidermis and scarcely penetrate to the blood beneath. The red rays penetrate through to deeper tissues and warm these. The skin can stand, without being scorched, twice as much radiant energy per unit of time in the form of visible sun rays as it can of dark heat rays, because the visible rays largely penetrate, and, warming the blood locally, are carried away as

heat to cooler parts of the body.

The dark heat rays, absorbed

by the surface of the skin, make us feel warm and stufiy indoors. Out of doors, on the other hand, the blood circulating in the naked skin is warmed by the sun which penetrates to it, while

the surface of the skin is fanned and cooled by the breeze (see HELIOTHERAPY).

261

The biologically active ultra-violet rays are filtered off by glass. Exposure in rooms lighted by windows is not the same as exposure to light out of doors. In heating our rooms with hot water and steam pipes we expose ourselves to infra-red rays; fires give us chiefly infra-red and visible rays; incandescent electric light visible rays. A coal fire fouls the sky with smoke and cuts off sunlight; we must, therefore, take to gas or smokeless fuel fires. These and open windows give us the most healthful conditions. The dark heat of steam pipes and the stagnant warm air of shut-up rooms depress health, expose us to a more massive infection, and make us less resistant to catarrh, pneumonia, etc. Over-heating of tubercular, and particularly febrile, patients should be avoided. Exposure should not be in hot sun boxes, but in cool open air and to sky-shine or early morning direct sun. Sunstroke —Sunstroke may be caused by local heating of the head, while heat stroke results from heating the whole body through failure of the sweat mechanism. A wet sheet and a fan supplying this mechanism artificially prevent heat stroke. Sunburn of the skin is not produced by the high sun, which on clear days contains rays with a wave-length as short as 300295 millionths of a millimetre; but ultra-violet rays with wavelength of 310-300 wy, if intense enough, may produce severe sunburn, and it is these rays which act most in the English atmosphere, with its high content of dust, smoke and vapour. With arc lamps, probably no rays shorter than 240 wy penetrate the horny layer of the skin; but such short rays penetrate into and are absorbed by microbes and kill them. According to modern physical theory, the ultra-violet rays act in quanta and displace electrons from their orbits in the atoms. This sets up, in living cells of the epidermis and in nerve endings which lie among

these, a secondary molecular chemical action, which after a

latent period produces erythema, oedema, etc. Only those rays which are absorbed by the living substance have action.

The various artificial sources of ultra-violet radiation, carbon arc, mercury vapour, lamps, etc., have an effect on the skin similar to the sun, the amount of subsequent pigmentation depending on the intensity and depth of penetration of the ultraviolet rays. The haemobactericidal power of the blood, tested in vitro, usually increases when the dose of ultra-violet radiation is sufficient to produce erythema. The area of skin which has to be exposed to produce this effect is not large. Excessive sunburn damage is harmful, a small amount stimulating and useful. If the body is fighting an acute disease, reactions in the skin set up by irradiation may be harmful, while most useful in chronic infections and states of debility. The brown pigment, melanin, which forms in particles within the cells of the epidermis, acts as a screen protecting the epidermic cells and the blood from over-radiation. By absorbing and converting rays into heat, melanin brings about stimulation of the nerve endings in the epidermis, and this excites sweating, which in its turn protects from over-heating. Some immunity to a second exposure is set up in the epidermis of a white person within a few hours after irradiation, and long before pigmentation takes place. This is due to a thickening of the horny cells, which a few days later peels off. Just after desquamation the skin is again sensitive. These facts are borne in mind when arranging the periods of light treatment. In the choice of a garment, if any is to be worn during light treatment, an artificial silk made of acetyl cellulose, thin and open-meshed, screens off least ultra-violet rays, but with even such the loss may be 50 per cent. Smoke Pollution.—Window glass, clothing and smoke pollution screen off almost all ultra-violet radiation from citizens in winter, and their food is deficient in vitamins. Hence the development of rickets and depression of health in winter. Owing to smoke pollution in big cities, the ultra-violet rays are cut down to one-third of the value which pertains in clean country places. Every effort should be made to prevent smoke pollution and tu secure adequate exposure of the skin to ultra-violet rays. While securing the use of smokeless fuel, arc lamp baths should be instituted not only in hospitals but in schools and public

262 baths.

PUBLICITY— PUBLISHING Round a long-flame arc taking 2 to 3 kilowatts with

“ white flame ” carbon poles (metal cored), and fitted with a wire screen a yard away, children could sit for 10 minutes, wearing only a loin cloth. Two such baths a week in winter would work great good as a preventive of rickets, tuberculosis, rheumatic fever, catarrhs, skin diseases, etc., and as a stimulator of vigour. Goggles must be worn and a trained nurse be at hand. Modern Hospifals.—To build brick hospitals is out of date; all hospitals should be one-storeyed bungalows with wide

verandahs. The beds can then run easily from the ward to the verandah and to the open court outside. Nurses must be suitably dressed so as to enjoy the open air life. Only receiving stations should be in cities, with ambulances to convey patients to the bungalow hospitals in the open country. Open air and ultraviolet radiation should be used to prepare patients for operation and to hasten their cure after operation. It has been asserted that artificial light treatment cannot approach heliotherapy in curative effect. By the wise use of arc lights and sufficient exposure to open air and good feeding, progressive cure of surgical tuberculosis can be brought about in winter even in our English

cities. To eliminate tuberculosis from cattle, the shutting up in badly ventilated dark byres should be prohibited. Cattle no less than children might be given arc light baths in winter. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—C. G. Moor and E. A. Cooper, Field Sanitation (1918); League of Nations, European Heulth Conference Ifeld at

Warsaw,

March 20 to 28 1922 (1922); Medical

Research Council,

Special Report No. 60, Use of Death-Rates as a Measure of Hygienic

Conditions (1922); Ralph E. Blount, Health, Public and Personal (1922); V. C. Vaughan, Epidemtology and Public Health, 3 vol. (1922); L. C. Parkes and H. R. Kenwood, Hygiene and Public Health (1923); Jean Broadhurst, Home and Community Hygiene (2nd ed., 1923); B. N. Ghosh, A Treatise on Hygiene and Public Health, with

Special Reference to the Tropics (5th ed., 1924); Mark F. Boyd., Preventive Medicine (2nd ed., 1925); E. B. Phelps, The Principles of Public Health Engineering (1925); Carlos E. P. Soldau, A? servicio de la higien Americana (1925); Seneca Egbert, A Manual of Hygiene and Santtation (8th ed., 1926); H. H. Waite, Disease Prevention (1926),

PUBLICITY: see ADVERTISING. PUBLIC SCHOOLS.—The claim made for the public schools, using this term in the English not the American sense, that, whatever their shortcomings may be, they are at any rate suc-

cessful in producing sound character and public spirit was put to a severe test on the outbreak of War in 1914 and triumphantly sustained. Not only did the Old Boys at once join the colours in large numbers, but the boys who should have returned for another school year enlisted freely, and every public school reassembled in Sept. 1914 with numbers much depleted. Of those who served, one in every five fell, and the Rolls of Honour with striking similarity generally contain as many names as there are boys in the school. During the War, owing to the loss of many masters, and the lack of the leadership of boys over 18, the work of the schools was carried on with increasing difficulty. But their tone continued sound, and the boys maintained the standard surprisingly, considering the demands made upon their time by intensive military training and the disturbing effect of the near prospect of active service. Contrary to general expectation, the schools emerged from the War filled to overflowing, and with waiting-lists so long that

places could clearly not be found for all the aspirants.

This was

due to the success 1n leadership of boys trained in the schools, to an increased sense in the nation at large of the value of education,

and particularly this form of education, and to a wider diffusion of wealth, which made possible a public school course for the sons of many who would not have been able to afford it before.

Since 1918 the schools have remained full. Stowe, Canford and others have been opened to meet the demand, and there is

probably room for more. These years have seen a profound change in the curriculum and outlook of the public schools, of which the most striking sign has

been the abolition of compulsory Greek at Oxford and Cambridge.

This has, however, not been followed by the disappearance of classical studies (see CLASSICAL EDUCATION); on the con-

trary, they are again increasing in favour. The certificate examinersof that authority which examines most of the public schools reported 830 candidates in the summer of 1923, ọ81 in r924 and 1,087 in 1925, in the school certificate only, and nearly all these are serious students. The school certificate itself is the most important development of the years under review. Its basic principle is that it is the business of the schools to give a general education in which (a) English and allied subjects, (b) a foreign language or languages, (c) mathematics and science shall be represented, though science has not established itself as a compulsory subject. It is designed for average boys of 16, and it is assumed that till then boys follow approximately the same course of study. The examination, when passed in the right subjects at a sufficient standard, admits to matriculation at the universities, and to entrance into most of the professions (see EXAMINATIONS). The new system has undoubtedly had a marked effect in improving the work of the average boy, in giving a new spirit not only to him but to his teachers, and in rendering impossible the existence of whole classes of boys, who, being without object, and without heart, were often made the reproach of the schools in the past. To bring the army examination into line with this system, candidates without a school certificate are not at present allowed to sit. | To boys above this level the schools offer to-day a greater

variety of advanced courses and a greater choice of intellectual interests. Science has come greatly to the fore, and aesthetic studies, particularly music, have advanced considerably and will probably make still greater claims in the future. Though the public schools were never more popular than they are to-day, they are nevertheless segregated. Their masters stand outside the national pension scheme; they seldom transfer from school to school; the schools themselves are accessible to a limited class only. These are privileges not without their dangers. (C.N.) PUBLISHING (see 22.628).—The period 1910-25 saw first a brief time of prosperity, then, during and following the World War, a decade of extreme disorganisation in book publishing. The year roro was a prosperous one in the book market, as publishers are apt to remember. New books and reprints were in good demand and were readily supplied under normal conditions. Four years later and those conditions were violently disarranged. Effects of the War—The World War, which raised the cost and the market value of many staple commodities, had a specifically stringent effect on book production and the book market all the world over. The book, of all manufactured articles, is most subject to the caprices of popular taste and one of the most sensitive to any change in the normal economic conditions or the ratio of supply and demand. It is not, like food and clothes, an absolute necessity, nor is it to the idle rich what a great sybarite called an “ essential luxury.” The process of recovery after a war does not affect books, any more than works of art, with the economic certainty that we observe in boots and shoes, for instance, or in the cotton trade. At the same time certain forms of literature, which offer an escape from actuality and the newspaper, are bound, after a war, to be in growing favour. It is interesting to examine on both counts the postWar returns of books published in Great Britain. Some Figures —In 1918, when the War ended, the number of

new books printed and published was 6,750, the number of reprints 966, which together give us a total of 7,716. In 1924, six years later, the new books had risen to over 9,500, while the reprints, which had suffered badly during the War because of

the cost of production and the impossibility of supplying cheap books at a profit, showed a startling recovery. They had increased to over 3,190, actually 255 volumes more than the number of reprints in the year that immediately preceded the War— 1913. The total number of new books was not quite so large as in the earlier year, whose October output—a test month in book publishing because of its nearness to the Christmas season—had established a record, namely 1,699 volumes, new books and reprints included. The October return in 1924, it is significant to note, was only 180 behind that figure.

PUBLISHING Books in Demand.—The

increasing vogue of the reprint is

remarkable. During the War a new taste for reading grew up among the soldiers who had leisure days to pass in hospital or at the base. Some millions of volumes were collected and sent over to the army huts under the auspices of various societies organised for the purpose, or under the seal of the Red Triangle. The editor of one popular series supervised the collection in London and the dispatch to France of over 2,000,000 volumes, new and old, obtained from a house-to-house canvass of the metropolis. This popularising of literature at large helped to increase the available reading public. But certain classes of

263

price of 31s. 6d. It is so when the novel is put upon the market at a net price of 7s. 6d. GREAT BRITAIN AND THE UNITED STATES: A COMPARISON

The trade organ in New York that corresponds to The Publishers’ Circular in London, namely, The Publishers’ Weekly, does a like service in collecting annually the returns of new books and reprints that are issued from the press. In 1924 the num-

ber of new books published in the United States—or “ new titles,’ as the register more precisely terms them—written American

authors,

was 6,380.

by

In addition, over 600 English

books did not maintain their hold on the public when peace

and foreign works were printed and manufactured in America,

came again. In technology, for instance, whose manuals were specially required while the ex-soldiers were seeking work in the skilled trades, the demand fell off noticeably in the succeeding years. The analysis of books in The English Catalogue for 1923-4 marks a decrease in the latter year of over 100 published works in technology. In science the decrease was not very far short of that figure. History, medicine and geography also showed a decrease; on the other hand, fiction— easily first—biography, travel and guide books, including what we may call picturesque topography, poetry and the drama, religious books, sports and games and sociology all showed an increase of circulation.

and over 1,700 were imported. Roughly summarised, the American production, that is so far as it is comprised in the New York returns for the whole book trade, is compared with that of Great Britain in the ratio of eight to six. More to our present purpose is the comparison instituted in the Publishers Weekly between the book returns for 1923-4 in America with a further recast to the year roto. There was effectively a 2% increase in 1924 over 1923, but the new titles registered in 1924 were only on a par with those of 20 years before 1904. Six years later, in 1910, the number of new titles was 11,671, or nearly double that of 1924. As regards the comparative popularity in America of the different classes of books, in 1924 fiction was at the head of the list, but not with anything like the preponderance it showed in the British book trade. Religion came second, poetry and the drama together came third, with a total of 13 new titles more than those registered in Great Britain. Science stood relatively low in the scale and showed a decrease from the figures of the preceding year. Juvenile books, too, lost a point or two; but biography, as in the London book market at the same period, marked a distinct rise. Business books, which are rather an American speciality, also had appreciated in the scale.

A TEN-YEAR

SURVEY

If we take a ten years’ survey, we discover some curious fluctuations in the returns. In 1914 fiction came first, religioni second and science third. Sociology and technology followed close. Poetry, juvenile literature, travel and topography, literature and criticism, history, biography and finally naval and military books, complete the list of a dozen sections, named in the order of their relative popularity. In 1924 fiction was still at the head. Juvenile literature had advanced from the seventh to the second place in the list. Religion was third. Science had fallen from the third to the seventh place. Poetry had advanced while technology had lost a point. Biography, thanks in part to the interest in characters and personalities who had come into prominence during the War, or because of some new reaction to its sharp stimulus, had gained markedly. It is harder to explain why, in that case, history books should have dropped in the comparative scale. Books of travel and books dealing directly or indirectly with literature had also declined slightly. It would be easy to make too much of these differences. As between one year, or one publishing season, to another, it is necessary to allow a margin for accidental delays owing to strikes, as in the winter season of 1925-6, when the packers caused a serious break in the ordinary supply of books and periodicals, or for diversions of the public interest, as at the time of political excitement or of general elections. But after every allowance has been made, we find the yearly average in every class of book offers a very fair test of popularity. But as we note the startling preponderance of the first of those classes— fiction, especially the novel—we are driven to consider again how deceptive are the signs of success, and to recognise the notorious discrepancy between the seasonal and the permanent result. | The Publishing of Novels-—We have it on the authority of one large firm of London publishers, that nine out of every ro novels published are comparative failures; that is, they show no decided profit to author or publisher. Another firm put the

percentage of failures still higher, and it has been estimated that the average life of a market novel is no more than a month, and that very few survive the year of their birth. In an essay written by Andrew Lang on “ The Last Fashionable Novel,” he lamented that the type of story in which lords and ladies were favourite characters as during the Victorian vogue, had ceased to exist. That fall from favour serves to remind us that the novel, whether viewed as one of a group or as a single product, is the most perishable of all quasi-literary commodities, and that the producers of such books are tempted to inflate their selling value artificially.

It was so when the three-volume novel was given the absurd

CONDITIONS IN OTHER COUNTRIES

Certain wider questions which affect book production and the writers, publishers and sellers of books can only be treated summarily. We must turn to the Bibliographie de la France if we would estimate the signs of recovery in the French book market since the War.

In 1923 the returns give a total of 8,784

books, a pro rata advance since 1918, steadily maintained year by year, but not so marked in recent seasons. At the same rate of progression, the returns for 1924 should give a total of books registered slightly ahead of that for the year when the War broke out—ror4. In Germany the returns are noticeably higher than in any other country, displaying a total for 1923 of over 35,000 publications. But that includes miscellaneous publications which are not counted as books in the returns for other book-producing countries. In the Italian census furnished by the Bollettno delle Publicazioni Italiane, the lists for 1921 and 1922 are relatively encouraging, and in the international scale show an unusually high percentage of educational text books and manuals. In the former year, for example, the number of works of fiction issued from the press was 580, while in social science the number was 660, and students’ manuals are little behind that high figure. Poetry and the drama together number 477 volumes, religion only 206. Philology, surprising to say, stands higher than history. Philosophy is well placed, but cannot compete with the science of words. In the returns for the following year these classes preserve very much the same comparative position, but fiction and religion lose ground; history and biography gain. So do volumes dealing with the fine arts, and also those with military and naval science. Among other European returns may be noted those for Norway, Spain and Switzerland, as marking a slight advance in 1922 from the figures of the year previous. The Present Position.—In the republic of books all the world over the signs are in the main encouraging, andl disclose a healthy state of recovery from the War years of stagnation. In a 25 years’ review and retrospect, the publishers’ organ in New York pointed to several notable factors in the increased power of the

264

PUCCINI—PULITZER

book and the widening of its market since the opening of the 20th century. The better ordering and specialising of the bookshops, the greater intelligence of the booksellers and the national development of children’s libraries, have all contributed to that advance. England might learn some practical lessons from America in these things. Nevertheless, by the establishment of such associations as the National Book Council and the Society of Bookmen she has shown herself of late years newly alive to the cordial co-operation of publishers, booksellers, authors and bookmen. A recent writer, alluding to the book fairs in Florence, Frankfurt and Paris, advocated a similar yearly event in London itself. Paris had two book fairs in 1925, one at the Universal Exposition, the other, a smaller, more specialised bibliophilic festival, was held in connection with the time-honoured Fair of SaintGermain. Either of these might be imitated, with an English or American difference, in London or New York, with good effect in stimulating the interest of the public and the activities of the book producers and publishers. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—The Publishers’ Circular or Booksellers’ Record (London); Publishers’ Weekly and Annual Summary (New York); Bibliographie de la France (Paris); Bérsenblat (Leipzig); Brinkman’s List Van Bocken (Amsterdam); Bollettino delle Publicazione Italiane (Florence); Bibliothéque universelle el revne de Geneve (Geneva); The Bookseller (London); The Bookseller and Stationer (New York); The Publishing World (London). (E. RH.)

PUCCINI, GIACOMO (1858-1924), Italian composer (see 22.632), died in Brussels Nov. 29 1924. His later works include La Fanctulla del West (The Girl of the Golden West, 1910); La Rondine (1916); Il Tabarro, Suor Angelica and Gianni Schicchi (1918). The opera Turandot, on which he was working at the time of his death, was finished by Sig. Franco Alfano under the direction of Sig. Toscanini, and was produced at Milan in April 1926. ; PUGILISM: see BOXING. PULITZER, JOSEPH (1847-1911), American editor and newspaper proprietor, was born in Mako, Hungary, April 10 1847. His father was Magyar-Jewish; his mother Austro-German. His father was a substantial grain merchant, who retired from busi-

ness when the boy was six years old and went to Budapest to live. Here young Pulitzer was privately educated. He determined to embark upon a military career, but was excluded from the Austrian Army because of physical defects, and failed also in an attempt in Paris to join the Foreign Legion. In Hamburg, on his way home, he was induced by an American agent to emigrate to the United States as a prospective recruit for the Union

Army, and on arriving in Boston harbour in Aug. or Sept. 1864 he swam ashore at night so that he, instead of the agent, might collect the enlistment bounty. Making his way to New York City, he enrolled in Company L. First New York Lincoln Cavalry, for a term of one year, and joined his regiment at Pleasant Valley, Maryland, in November. Discharged on July 7 1865 in New York City, he looked for work there but found none. In the autumn he started west for St. Louis, where he arrived penniless. In St. Louis, with its large German population, Pulitzer’s

progress was rapid. While making his living by odd employments, he studied for the bar, and was admitted in 1867. On March 6 of that year he was naturalised. His studious habits and tireless energy made him known to the leading German citizens, and in 1868 he entcred journalism as a reporter on the W esiliche- Post staff. His labours as correspondent at the state capital drew his attention to politics, and in Dec. 1869, he was elected to the Lower House of the Legislature. Here he distinguished himself by leading a successful movement to reform the corrupt county government of St. Louis; and during his first month of service clashed with a county office-holder whom he shot in the leg. When the revolt against Grant led to the Liberal ~ Republican movement in 1871-2, Pulitzer’s reform zeal and his friendship for Gov. B. Gratz Brown, who in 1870 had appointed him one of the three Police Commissioners for St. Louis, made him an early adherent. He helped organise the Liberal Repub-

lican party in Missouri, and was one of the secretaries of the Cincinnati convention which succeeded in nominating Greeley for President. As a sequel to the Liberal Republican campaign, Pulitzer entered the field of newspaper proprietorship. Some of the owners of the lVestliche- Post sold him a share on liberal terms. This he soon resold for $30,000, using part of the proceeds for an

extended tour of Europe. On his return he executed a profitable business stroke by purchasing a moribund German daily, the St. Louis Staats-Zeitung, for a song, and selling its Associated Press franchise to the Globe for $20,000. In 1876 he took an active share in the presidential campaign, breaking loose from all his Republican associates. On June 19 1878 he married Miss Kate Davis, a distant relative of Jefferson Davis. On Dec. 9 of the same year he laid the foundation for his fortune by purchasing at auction the worn-out St. Louis Dispatch, paying $2,500 cash and giving a $30,000 lien. This newspaper he merged with the Post, owned by John A.

Dillon, as the Post-Dispatch, which immediately began to pay and soon dominated the St. Louis evening field. It was independent in politics and devoted to hard money and tariff reform. In 1880 Pulitzer purchased Dillon’s share and became sole owner. He laboured with unremitting energy, and the profits were soon running from $40,000 to $85,000 a year. Unfortunately in

Oct. 1882 his chief editorial aid, Col. John A. Cockerill, shot and killed a lawyer, Col. Alonzo W. Slayback, in a bitter quarrel of political origin. The case did not come before the courts, but public ‘reprobation was so great that the Post-Dispatch lost revenue and Pulitzer thereafter felt unwelcome in St. Louis. He departed for the East in the spring of 1883, and bought the New York IForld for $346,000, taking possession May 1o. In 1884 he was elected to Congress from the Ninth District, a position he resigned before his term expired. Under its new

management The World won an immediate prosperity. It was aided by a quarrel in which its rival, the Herald, became engaged with the newsdealers, and by the Sums disastrous decision in 1884 to support Benjamin F. Butler for the Presidency. By 1886 the annual earnings of The World were more than $500,000. With these resources Pulitzer in 1887 established the Evening World, which lost $100,000 the first year, but by 1890 was highly profitable. William R. Hearst’s purchase of the New York Journal in 1895 brought the orld a powerful competitor, and it met the challenge on Feb. ro 1896 by reducing its price from two cents to onc. The daily circulation of 7he World quickly rose to 300,000, and its Sunday circulation before the end of 1896 reached 623,000 copies. To The World, as to the Post-Dispatch, Pulitzer gave a tone of aggressive editorial independence. The paper earnestly supported Cleveland in his contests for the Presidency in 1884, 1888 and 1892. It was sympathetic to labour, and in 1892 took the side of the striking steel workers at Homestead, Pa. It opposed Bryan for the Presidency in 1896. A year later The World became an advocate of war with Spain, for Pulitzer’s sympathies were warmly aroused by the Cuban struggle for liberty. . Meanwhile Pulitzer’s health, always precarious, had in 1889

become so bad that specialists forbade him to continue his daily editorial labours. The following year his eyesight suddenly failed him, and his vision thereafter was dim and uncertain, His nerves also were shattered, and he suffered from hardening of the arteries. Though compelled to live the secluded existence of an invalid, he kept in intimate touch with Tke World and exercised absolute control over its policies until within a few weeks of his death, in Charleston, $.C., Oct. 29 1911.

During his lifetime Pulitzer had given liberally. In 1903 he endowed the School of Journalism of Columbia University, opened in ror2. In his will he established a series of prizes, to be awarded annually, in the interests of letters, the drama, music and newspaper work, and bequeathed sums for other purposes. These are known as the Pulitzer prizes. BIRLIOGRAPHY.—Don. C. Seitz, Joseph Pulitzer, Tis Life and Letters; Alleyne Freland, Joseph Pulitser—Reminiscences hy a Secre-

tary.

(W. Li; A. NEV.)

PUMPS PUMPS (see 22.645).—The principal developments in the science of pumping since the year 1910 consist mainly in improvements in the design of the centrifugal and reciprocating pumps for pumping large volumes of water and sewage, the special forms of pumps for pumping crude and refined oils and petrol due to the rapid growth of the motor and fuel oil industries, improvements in pumps for handling highly viscous substances such as tar, glycerine and molasses, and in pumps for dealing with highly corrosive substances, mine waters and liquors used in the treatment of ores for the extraction of metals. Large Volume Pumps.—For pumping, the centrifugal pump is practically universal. The high-pressure turbine pump has undergone considerable development in simplicity of construction, ease of manufacture and efficiency and an enormous increase in the pressures involved. A turbine pump has been produced to replace the three-throw hydraulic ram pump with the accumulator. The pumping of boiler feed water has resulted in the production of the long-stroke pump, which has gradually given way to the turbine pump, where a single pump can be used, to pump hot water at different pressures to suit different boilers. The turbine pump is now made in two distinct varieties, the non-regulating type and the regulating type. The roturbo and sunturbo pumps automatically prevent the sudden demand for power when the load is taken off. The turbine pump is employed for deep well pumping, but difficulties arise chiefly from the confined nature of the space into which the pumps are placed and to the impossibility of using oil for lubricating the bearings. The problem of designing bearings for this type of pump cannot as yet be said to have been solved. Such bearings are lined with lignum vitae, or various forms of rubber. The Pumping of Oil—The first successful oil pump, introduced by Worthington, is characterised by its lost motion device. It is now employed in most industries for occasional work where certainty of operation is required without skilled attention. Most of the successful oil pumps are of the reciprocating type, designed more or less on the Worthington principle. As oil is ‘viscous and its resistance to flow is greatly affected by temperature, the pumps are designed with very large valve chambers and provided with steam cylinders capable of coping with the high pressures necessary. The rotary pump has been considerably developed for this class of work. The pumping of hot oils during the process of refining has produced several special forms of pumps. In one type the hot oil does not enter the actual pumping cylinder, but a buffer of cold oil separates the working cylinder from the valve box. The difficulties in pumping petrol lie in its extreme limpidity in contrast with the high viscosity of fuel and crude oils. The semirotary and the rotary pumps are common forms for this purpose. The roadside pump is a modern feature and is designed to deliver measured quantities of, say, 1 to 25 gal. to motor cars on the road. The convenience of obtaining petrol in this manner is sufficient to overcome the inaccuracies of the methods employed, to correct which improvements are being made. One ingenious roadside pump uses the pressure of a high level water tank to force the petro! through an ordinary water meter into the purchasers’ tanks. This method avoids loss due to evaporation and the danger of fire. Displacement systems for handling inflammable liquids in order to reduce the fire risks have been developed. The pumping of oils from mines is a recognised difficult operation. It is usual to bale out oil from a deep well, but it is now possible to pump sand and oil without the danger of the sand eroding the pump barrel. In one form of pump the valves lie deep down among the sand-laden oil, and the pump barrel itself, operated by mechanism at the top, works in a buffer of clean water and oll. Corrosive Liguids.—Before 1910 the ordinary acid egg was almost the universal appliance for raising corrosive liquids, and improvements in pumping first showed themselves in attempts to make the acid egg an automatic and self-acting machine. In spite of several automatic elevators it cannot be said that this method of pumping is a success. Then came the acid resisting alloys of the iron silicon type. Many pumps were made

265

of these alloys, but owing to the high cost and the brittle character of the alloy success was limited. A distinct advance was the use of an ordinary pump acting on an inert substance which separated the acid to be pumped from the working mechanism, such as the Ferraris, in which a buffer of mineral oil is used. Leakage at the gland of an acid pump must be avoided and many attempts have been made to produce a glandless pump. In one type the resistance of an annular film of acid round the pump rod is relied upon to control leakage within small limits, suitable means being taken to collect the flow and return it to the suction side of the pump. The use of ebonite for making pumps has undergone very little change. Diaphragm pumps separating the working mechanism from the acid side have not shown much development. Improvements in the compounding ef rubber enable the design of a bellows pump free from all gland leakage to be perfected. The centrifugal pump for corrosives is made of lead and some forms are lined with rubber and ebonite. An ingenious earthenware acid pump, made of a mixture capable of resisting heat, has been produced. The acidegg type of pump has been adopted for pumping sewage in level districts. The apparatus works automatically and can be left for long intervals without attention. For pumping acid fumes the Nash-Hytor pump consists of a rotor working in an elliptical chamber and so arranged that the inlet and outlet sides are separated by a layer of water, which is kept to the surface of the

chamber by the centrifugal action set up by the rotor, no valves being necessary. It is being used to compress air for operating the sewage ejector pumps In the streets. The pumping of solid-laden HNquids has been successfully accomplished by the Gwynne-Pennell trap, in which the solids are ingeniously trapped and conveyed to the suction side without having to pass through the pump. Constantinesco uses a rapidly operated pump for the production of waves in any fluid in a closed system for the transmission of power from point to point (sce TRANSMISSION GEAR, VARIABLE). First used for firing a gun on the Fokker plane, its use has been extended to the working of rock drills in mines.

Atr-lift—The air-lift has received considerable attention. In an extensive series of tests made on a mine in California efficiencies of 70° were obtained. The researches of Dr. Owen, investigated by Swindin, show that the air-lift has possibilities of high efficiencies provided care is paid to the correct design of the footpicce. The use of the air-lift for pumping molten metals is progressing and its action is seen in the latest type of submerged flame burner. In an ingenious form of chain pump, a development of the old rope pump, by the application of the principle of surface tension a series of cells attached to a travelling band can be filled with water. A curious combination of the displacement pump has recently appeared under the name of the “ Hydrautomat,” in which a large quantity of water falling through a short distance raises a portion of itself to some greater height. It performs the same function as the well-known hydraulic ram and works by alternately compressing and exhausting air in a series of containers. Mlichell’s studies in lubrication have revived the old swashplate, and pumps having this as a vital element are now appearing. Pumping by direct explosion of a combustible mixture in contact with the water has been the subject of investigations by Humphrey. In the artificial silk industry (see ARTIFICIAL SILK) special small pumps are used; usually small rotary appliances similar to the sud pump on automatic machine tools are used for squirting viscose solutions through the dies into the coagulating bath. Pipe-lines, etc —Much ingenuity has been shown in the study of pipe-lines, tubes, hese and the manner of making joints. The difficulty of making a satisfactory joint in a pipe for petrol still attracts inventors. The best known method at present seems to be to use metal-to-metal joints and to rely on extreme good workmanship. Joints in the large mains are made by means of screwed couplings made to gauge. Petrol hose is now manufactured and some forms consist of a metallic hning reinferced with rubber and canvas. The “ Victaulic ” joint has rendered

possible the making of pressure and vacuum tight joints at low

PUNISHMENT

266

cost and with great ease. Slight irregularities in the alignment of pipes do not affect this type of joint. Theory——On the theoretical side the Reynolds-Stanton law of viscous flow has been developed in a form suitable for use by ordinary hydraulic and chemical engineers. Dr. Ing. Bruno Eck has applied the theory of aeroplane lift and drag (Lanchester and Prandtl) to the design of turbine and centrifugal pumps. The theory and practice of centrifugal and turbine pumps are at variance and cannot be reconciled by the old hydrodynamic theories, but Eck has shown that the streamline theory of Lanchester and Prandtl can be applied to the working of these pumps and thus account for the divergencies. The older theory depended upon the principle of a non-viscid frictionless fluid,

but the Reynolds theory and its extension by Prandtl have put the element of viscosity into the theory with the result that the performance of centrifugal pumps can be explained on theoretical grounds. Much light has been thrown on this subject by the researches of Camichel and M. M. L. Escande and M. Ricaud at the Toulouse University, who have rendered visible the stream lines, thus facilitating enormously the ease of study. Photographic study of the problem is also being made by Prasil and Oertli at Zürich. Photographs of streamlines round the impeller blades of a turbine pump reveal the causes of the loss of efficiency. Reference should be made to the work of Prof. Th. von Karman and his methods of turbine design. In his view turbine design is much more difficult than the study of the correct design of an aeroplane wing. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—E. J. Marey, Smithsonian Institution, Report of Board of Regents (1869); O. Reynolds, “ An Experimental Investiga-

tion of the Circumstances which Determine whether the Motion of

Water shall be direct or sinuous, etc,”

Phi.

Trans.

Roy. Soc.,

vol. 174 (1883); E. J. Marey, ‘ La chronophotographie,” Annales du Conservatorie des Arts et Métiers (1899); F. König, Der Hydrotekt (1902-3); T. von Kármán, ‘‘ Untersuch. über Knickfestigkeit,” Mitt. über Forschungsarbeiten a. d. G. des Ingenieurwesens, vol. 87 (1910); A. H. Green, Pumping Machinery (1911); L. C. Loewenstein and C. P. Crissey, Centrifugal Pumps, Their Design and Construction (1911); T. von Karman, “ Festigkeitsversuche unter allseitigem

Druck,” Mitt. ber Forschungsarbeiten a. d.G. des Ingenteurwesens, vol. 113 (1912); C. G. de Laval, Centrifugal Pumping Machinery (1912); F. Neumann, Die Zentrifugalpumpen mit besonderer Berticks.

der Schaufelschnitte (1912); A. Pfarr, Die Turbinen für Wasserkraftbetrieb, 2nd ed. (1912); Franz Prasil, Technische Hydrodynamik

(1913); T. E. Stanton and J. R. Pannell, “ Similarity of Motion in Relation to the Surface Friction of Fluids,” Nat. Phys. Lab. Collected

Researches, vol. 2 (1912); J. R. Pannell, and W. F. Higgins, “ Report on Tests of Fuel Oils, June 1914,” Nat. Phys. Lab. Collected Researches, vol. 13 (1916); E. W. Sargeant, Centrifugal Pumps and Suction Dredgers, 2nd ed. (1918); G. Constantinesco, Theory of Sonics (1920); H. Halder, Pumpen und Kompressoren (Wiesbaden 1920); G. Belluzzo, J} Calcolo e la Installazione delle moderne Turbine Idrau-

liche (Milan, 1921); J. W. Cameron, Centrifugal Pumps (1921); J. S. Owen in Engineering (Sept. 23 1921); L. Prandtl, Ergebnisse d. Aerodynamischen Versuchanstalt zu Göttingen (1921, etc.); W. Walker Fyfe, Automatic Pumping (1922); G. M. Camichel, Comptes Rendus de l'Academie des Sciences, vol. 177 (1923); vol. 80 (1925) etc.; R.S. Danforth, Friction of Ou in Pipes (San Francisco, 1923); C. V. Drysdale and others, The Mechanical Properties of Fluids (1923); M. Lo Preste, Le Turbine Idrauliche (Milan, 1923); G. Constantinesco, Variable Transmission (1924); ‘‘ Elements of the Lanchester-Prandtl Theory of Lift and Drag,’ Engineering (Jan. and Feb. 1924); also published as a separate pamphlet; N. Swindin, Modern Theory and Practice of Pumping (1924); C. M. Camichel, A ppitcations des lois de similitude à l étude des phénomènes qui se produisent à l'aval d'un corps immergé dans un fluide visqueux en mouvement (1925); B. Eck, Turbinentheorie (1925); Wissenschaftlicken Gesellschaft fiir Luftfahrt, Munich Report (1925); L. Escande and H. Ricaud, “ Lois de la similitude des fluides incompressibles,’’ Pub. de

l'Institut Electrotechnique et de méchanique appliguée de l Université de Toulouse (1925); B. Eck, “ Hydrodynamical Theory of Turbine and Centrifugal Pumps,” Engineering (Jan. 22 and 29 1926). See also recent papers by C. M. Camichel in Les annales de la faculté des Sciences de Toulouse; Les Travaux du 2me et de 3me Congrés de la Houille blanche; Le Bulletin de la Société des Ingenieurs Civils; Les publications de I’ Institut Electrotechnique et de mechanique appliquée del Université de Toulouse; l’Eclairage, Lumiere Llectrique, La Revue Générale de l’Electricité, Le Genie Civil, La Technique Mederne; Le Bulletin special de la Société Hydrotechnique on ey

PUNISHMENT

(see 22.6532).—Punishment

infliction of suffering on a wrongdoer.

is the deliberate

Originating in the prim-

itive lust for reprisal for an injury suffered, it has been rationalised into a well-nigh universal conviction that it is the best if not the only means of bringing the sinner to repentance. The new psychology, which sees deeper roots than naughtiness or wickedness in childish wilfulness and adult criminality, is doing something to undermine this faith in the universal efficacy of punishment. Wrongdoing must be corrected, but the correctional treatment must be based on a diagnosis of the

individual.

If the misconduct

is due to invincible ignorance

or to a neurotic constitution or to a morbid

emotional

state,

the infliction of punishment may only aggravate the underlying cause of the objectionable behaviour. Perhaps in any case there is a wiser alternative to punishment. | In the treatment of the criminal, as in that of the child, the concept of punitive justice still dominates action and feeling. To the common mind justice is punishment. This sentiment gains powerful support from a modern school of philosophic thought which maintains that it is only by the punishment of the offender that human society can maintain its moral integrity, a view which finds its most dramatic expression in the words of the late Mr. Justice Fitzjames Stephen in his Hitstory of the Criminal Law in England, to the effect that it is morally right

to hate the criminal and that exemplary punishments necessary to express and confirm that hatred.

are

The popular attitude is further reinforced by an undying faith in the deterrent effects of hard Jegal penalties. In the United States, at least, Beccaria’s maxim, that it is not the severity but the swiftness and certainty of punishment that gives it its deterrent effect, falls on deaf ears. We seek by severity to compensate for the discreditable delays and uncertainties of our criminal justice. It is in England, perhaps, more nearly than in any other country, that Beccaria’s principle is being reasonably applied. The great humanitarian tradition which was born of Beccaria’s epoch-making pamphlet and forwarded by the heroic labours of Romilly, Bentham

and Howard, has, in England, achieved the .

all but complete abolition of the death penalty and a general mitigation of prison sentences. But, while the same generous sentiment has, since the coming of William Penn, never failed to command distinguished support in America, it has apparently been far less effective in America than in England. Here the

county jail of John Howard still survives, and in many American

states such crimes as rape, arson, robbery and burglary, as well as murder, are still punishable by death. Consonant with these survivals is the extent to which the infliction of punishments is left to the arbitrary and capricious discretion of the judges, who frequently impose sentences of incredible severity on offenders convicted of the more serious offences. Sentences of 10, 20, 30 and even 60 years are offenders who in England would statutory term of five years. But in the United States, as in Bentham, humanitarianism has its

not infrequently imposed on rarely receive more than the

the England of Romilly and illogical but effective revenge. As in that older day when, in the mother country, the multitudinous death penalty hung in the balance, there is at present in the United States the scandalous spectacle of prosecuting officers compromising with the offender, of witnesses disappearing between indictment and trial, of juries refusing to convict, of appellate courts resorting to tricky technicalities to reverse a judgment of conviction and of governors exercising the pardon-

ing power like spendthrifts.

“ Thus,” as Romilly says, “ the

law defeats its own ends and becomes the abettor of its own violation.” Punishments must be brought into conformity with

the conscience of the people.

—R. Saleilles, The Individualisation BIBLIOGRAPHY. ment (Boston, 1911); H. Oppenhcimer, The Rationale

of Punishof Punish-

ment (London, 1913); George Ives, Htstory of Penal Methods (Loned. don, 1914); F. d. Wines, Punishment and Reformation, rev.

(New York, 1919); Mary Gordon, Penal Discipline (London, 1922); C. Philipson, Three Criminal Law Reformers (Beccaria, Bentham, Romilly) (London, 1923); E. H. Sutherland, Criminology (Phila(G. W. K.*) delphia, 1924).

PUNJAB, UNIVERSITY PUNJAB, UNIVERSITY OF THE (see 22.655).—Since 1919 m conformity with the wise policy of developing higher teaching the university, which had mainly been concerned with examinations, has instituted honours schools in Arabic, Persian, Sanskrit, botany, zoology, mathematics and chemistry. Nineteen Institutions are affiliated to it in medicine, education, agriculture, rts and science. In 1924 the chemical laboratory, which cost Rs. 450,000, was completed. ~ PUPIN, MICHAELIDVORSKY(1858), American inventor, was born in Idvor, Hungary, Oct. 4 1858. He went to America in 1874, and graduated from Columbia University in 1883. The first to hold the John Tyndall fellowship at Columbia 1886-8, he later studied physics and mathematics at Cambridge University and under Von Helmholtz at the University of Berlin (Ph.D., 1889). He was instructor in mathematical physics, at Columbia, 1890; and was appointed adjunct professor of mechanics, 1892, becoming professor of electro-mechanics there in roor and later director of the Phoenix research laboratories. By means of inductance coils placed at predetermined intervals of the transmitting wire, he greatly extended the range of long-distance telephony, particularly over telephone cables. The patent for this invention was acquired in 1901 by the Bell Telephone Co. and by German telephone interests. He has made several other inventions in electrical wave propagation, electrical resonance and multiplex telegraphy. He discovered secondary X-ray radiation in 1896 and invented in the same year means for short exposure X-ray photography by the interposition of a fluorescent screen. He was active during the World War aiding Serbia and the United States. He wrote From Immigrant to Inventor (1923). PUTNIK, RADOMIR (1847-10917), Serbian general, was born on Jan. 25 1847 at Kraguyevats. Like many other prominent figures in the life of his country, he came of a family which had emigrated to the Banat during the Turkish conquest and returned to Serbia after the expulsion of the Turks. Passing through the military school at Belgrade (which afterwards became the Serbian military academy), he obtained his commission in a line regiment. In 1876 he commanded a brigade in the war against Turkey, and when war was renewed in 1877 became

OF THE—PYLE

267

chief-of-staff of the Shumaja Division. In the Serbo-Bulgarian War of 1885 he held a similar post in the Danubian Division, and in 1889 was made deputy-chief of the general staff, and taught as professor at the military academy in Belgrade. In common with other brilliant oflicers, he suffered from the favouritism which Kings Milan and Alexander had introduced into the Serbian Army and from the consequent atmosphere of intrigue and personal rivalry. He was placed on the retired list, and it was only after the military revolution which destroyed the

Obrenović dynasty in 1903 that he obtained his real opportunity of service. In that autumn he was appointed general and chief of the gencral staff. In 1906 he succeeded Gen. Gruié as Minister of War, and again held that office in 1912, during the period when the military convention with Bulgaria was negotiated. On the outbreak of war with Turkey Putnik was made voivede or marshal (being the first holder of that title) and commanderin-chief, and was responsible for the rapid success of the Serbian ` arms at Kumanovo, Prilep and Monastir. It was largely owing to his vigilance and foresight that the treacherous night attack by which the Bulgarians opened the second Balkan War (June 29 1913) was so complete a failure, and the battle of the Bregalnitsa was won. When the World War broke out, he was undergoing a cure at an Austrian watcring place, and was at first placed under arrest, being later released by special order of the Emperor Francis Joseph and conveyed to the Rumanian frontier. His impaired health did not prevent him from resuming the position of Serbian generalissimo and he inflicted upon the forces of Gen. Potiorek three successive defeats—the battles of the Yacdar (Aug. 16~20), of the Drina (Sept. 8-19) and of Rudnik, which ended on Dec. 14 1914 with an Austrian rout and the complete evacuation of Serbia. Putnik retained the supreme command during the triple invasion of Serbia by the German, Austro-Hungarian and Bulgarian Armies in Nov. 1915, and shared the retreat of the Serbs through Albania. When, however, the exiled Government established itself at Corfu, he and most of his staff were placed on the retired list. He himself withdrew to France. He died on May 17 1917 at Nice. PYLE, HOWARD (1853-1911), American artist and writer (see 22.679), died in Florence, Italy, Nov. 9 1911.

268

QUANTUM THEORY UANTUM THEORY.—The quantum theory is essentially a theory based upon the assumption that changes in a

system with periodic motion are finite in magnitude, the steps being governed by empirical quantum rules, and the energy changes being in general multiples of a quantum of energy Av, where / is a constant (Planck’s constant) and v is the frequency of the (or an) associated motion. Previous to its for-

mulation it was thought that the energy of a vibrating electron or ofa vibrating atom, the energy of radiation emitted or absorbed by an electron or by an atom, might have any value whatever. Changes were regarded as taking place continuously and in infinitesimal amounts. The quantum theory, on the other hand, as far as it goes, assumes that any change when once it starts is not terminated until the transfer of a full quantum of energy is effected. The time necessary is very minute, but neither this nor the mechanism of the operation is known. If observed sufficiently minutely the process might, of course, appear as a continuous change, but by reason of its suddenness and the inevitable nature of its conclusion, it is spoken of as a discontinuity. The continuities of the classical theory are thus on the Quantum Theory replaced by so-called discontinuities. Such rules certainly apply to changes of a definite kind, but to regard them as universal in their application is a faith rather than a rational doctrine, for the evidence is that these rules are definitely limited in their application. Ileat Radiation —The theory originated in an attempt by Planck to explain the constitution of heat radiation, 7.¢., to explain the distribution of energy among the constituent wavelengths in the radiation proceeding from hot “ black bodies.” Classical theory has failed to do this, notably in that the possibility of continuous interchange of energy between vibrations in matter and vibrations (waves) in the surrounding ether, as assumed in the classical theory, could only result in the continuous pouring of energy into the ether with its infinite possibility of

vibrations. This would happen even in a small volume of ether enclosed by matter; whereas experiment seems to show that an equilibrium state is arrived at, when the energy transferred from matter to the enclosed ether is just balanced by the transfer of energy from the ether to matter. The enclosed radiation is then said to beat the temperature of the surrounding matter, i.e., there is statistical equilibrium with that matter. More precisely, as Rayleigh and Jeans showed, the energy stored at absolute temperature T in unit volume of the ether in the forms of waves of length between Aand A+4A should be expressed by 87k TA~*dA, that is kT for each of the 8rA~“dX independent vibrations, where 3£T is the average energy of monatomic molecules of a perfect gas at temperature T, t.e., 3AT for each degree of freedom. This expression shows that the greatest amount of energy would be found in the radiations of shortest wave-lengths. But measurement of the energy (by its heating effect} for a given small range of wave-length throughout the spectrum shows a definite maximum and a falling off in energy for both shorter and longer waves (Lummer and Pringsheim). Endeavouring to find a system giving closer agreement with experiments, Planck assumed that the oscillators in matter which emit heat radiation (electric waves) contain energy in definite quanta, the indivisible unit of energy in an oscillator being proportional to its frequency of oscillation, i.e., E=Av. This unit, however, varies for oscillators of different frequency. What is fundamental to all is the constant #—a quantity which, divided by the period of oscillation, gives the energy unit. Planck’s indivisible constant is thus a quantum of “ action ”—a quantity of the dimensions of angular momentum. The quantum of energy, however, may be infinitely small, if the frequency is infinitely small, so is not fundamentally atomic. Imposing such an imaginary condition changes the average Avi RT energy of an oscillator from kT to RV via va ?

LE.,

gay

[kt

p

with

the result that the energy with the given range of wave-lengths hiv

dx. This was found to agree almost CUE perfectly with the distribution of energy in the spectrum as found by Lummer and Pringsheim. The same formula has since been obtained from somewhat different assumptions, as by Planck assuming continuous absorption but quantum emission; by Einstein on the hypothesis that changes of energy in a molecule are only possible by a jump from one definite state to another, involving the absorption or liberation of energy equal to the difference between the energies of these states though these energies are not necessarily in quanta; others assume that an integral number of quanta exist in the radiation itself. But in general there appears somewhere the assumption of “ discontinuities ”; and Poincaré has shown that the experimental distribution of energy can be satisfied only by quantum laws. By comparison of the formula with experiment, # is found to be 6-55X 1077 erg X second. This gives the value for a quantum of energy of visible light, say sodium light, as equal to the kinetic energy of 60 atoms of monatomic gas at o° C. and equal to the vibrational energy of about two atoms of a solid heated to emit yellow light most strongly. Thus the quantum laws, while necessary and successful in explaining the features of black-body radiation, do not indicate the mechanism of an energy change. That the process of heat radiation should be explosive in nature and should occur in amounts fv was certainly new and startling but not necessarily so revolutionary as to preclude the possibility of the process being perfectly continuous. Specific Heat—The application of the quantum rules in the apparently unpromising region of the heat content of bodies themselves, particularly of solids, has had marked success. Thus, observations show that the heat necessary to raise unit mass of an elementary substance through one degree of temperature (the specific heat) varies approximately inversely as the atomic weight of the element (Dulong and Petit’s law). This expresses the fact that the average heat absorbed per atom is independent of the mass of the atom. In addition, the heat absorbed per atom

dd becomes 8rA~*——

is found to be double that absorbed per atom of monatomic gas. This is explained by assuming that each atom of the solid is capable only of vibration as a whole, the average energy being double that for a monatomic gas on account of the potential energy of vibration being equal to the kinetic energy determining the temperature. Thus N atoms of monatomic gas at absolute temperature T possess energy NAT, and N atoms of a solid possess energy 3N&T where & is the molecular gas constant. The

approximate laws are therefore in accord with the classical theory. It had been observed, however, that light elements as boron, diamond and silicon, especially at low temperatures, have a much lower specific heat than is given by the above law. Nernst and Lindemann more recently found that the specific heat of all substances diminishes rapidly at low temperatures, and this is most marked in light substances. But, as Einstein showed, if the energy of vibration of atoms is governed by quantum laws the average encrgy of atoms depends on this frequency of vibration

(vy) and the total energy becomes 3N

hiv

i.

, From

NER this it

“RE follows that the specific heat diminishes with temperature in a manner similar to that found by experiment. The agreement, however, is not close. A great advance was made by Debye by regarding the motions of all the atoms as due to superposed systems of waves through the solid—waves of compression and waves of distortion. He assumed each independent vibration into which the whole motion could be resolved had energy

as given by the

QUANTUM THEORY quantum laws above, and limited the number of such vibrations to the number of degrees of freedom of the constituent atoms. But the frequency equals velocity+ wave-length, and as the velocity of waves depends upon elastic constants of the solid, these constants were introduced into the expression for the specific heat. Quite good agreement was found between the calculated and the experimental results, and it was shown that at very low temperatures the specific heat c, should vary as the (absolute temperature), a result which was experimentally confirmed by Kamerlingh Onnes for temperatures approaching absolute zero, Further, the variation in the specific heat of gases, particularly diatomic gases, has been explained in qualified measure, by assuming that changes both in vibrational and rotational energy take place in precise quantities. Spectra.—The greatest triumph of the Quantum Theory, however, is in its application to spectra, especially those of the simplest atoms hydrogen and helium. Rutherford had given good reasons for his theory that an atom consists of a highly concentrated positively charged nucleus, with negative electrons circulating around it, and that the positive charge of the nucleus, expressed in fundamental units and the number of negative electrons outside, were alike and equal to the atomic number, viz.: for hydrogen 1, helium 2, lithium 3. According to classical laws, if an electron rotates—if it is accelerated in any way—it emits a radiation in the form of electric waves, and by emission of energy its own energy diminishes. Such an electron would thus approach nearer to the nucleus and its frequency of rotation would gradually increase. From a large number of atoms in different states, the frequencies would have all values between wide limits. This is contrary to experimental fact, for the line spectra of substances indicate definite unchanging frequencies, with wide intervals between, for which no frequencies are observed. Here evidently was a chance for a quantum theory such as Bohr provided in his quantum atom. First considering the hydrogen-like atom consisting of a positive nucleus with one electron rotating around it, he boldly assumed the following important facts:— that the electron obeys the ordinary dynamical laws during rotation in the circular orbit round the nucleus but does not radiate;

that the orbit may change suddenly to an inner orbit of smaller energy; that when it does so change the mechanical energy lost ts all emitted as monochromatic radiation;

that the frequency of the radiation is governed by the quantum laws, ie., E,—E,=/», where E, and E, are the energies in the initial and final orbits;

finally, that the possible orbits are limited to those in which the angular momentum is an integral multiple 7 of the constant A/27. This is equivalent to postulating an integral number of fundamental units of magnetic induction linked with the orbits (H. S. Allen).

These assumed numerical relations limiting the orbits and governing the frequency, combined

with the simple dynamics of a TH rotating particle, give the radius of the circular orbit as 4m’niee

where m is the mass of the electron and e the electric charge on the nucleus of the atom. Thus, only orbits of radii proportional to 7°, 1.¢€., 17, 2", 3, ete., are possible. And the frequency v of the radiaae lube, 0 am*mere? f I I tion is given by y= (= — — } where 7; and 7 are the he

TT?

T1”

integers—the quantum numbers for the initial and final orbits. Thus, also, only certain frequencies of radiation are possible. Corresponding, for instance, to the fall of an electron from the 3rd, 4th or sth orbits into the 2nd orbit the frequency of radia. . 2PM V1 I tion is =a (z ee) - As for the hydrogen atom e h E S A =¢, all the quantities in the above expression are known from independent measurements, and the theoretical frequencies of the spectral lines may be calculated with considerable precision. Such a series of lines as the above is the well-known Balmer scries. Other series of lines corresponding to the falls from outer

269

orbits into those of quantum numbers 1, 3 and 4 have since been

observed.

The constant

2 me 4

, as calculated, agrees perfectly hs with the Rydberg constant which was found from spectroscopic observations long before the theory was put forward. Similarly, spectral lines duc to ionised helium, 7.¢., helium atoms with a nuclear charge 2e, with one electron rotating around it, have frequencies found by writing e= 2e in the above formula. A remarkable extension of Bohr’s theory was made by Sommerfeld by assuming that the electronic orbits are in general

elliptical in shape, like those of the planets round the sun with the nucleus at the focus. In this case, however, each orbit needs two quantum numbers to define it, one radial, the other azimuthal, the total quantum being the sum of the two. This does

not affect the above expressions for the frequency of the emitted radiation if 7; and 7. stand for the total quantum numbers, but it provides the possibility for a given spectral line being produced by the fall of the electron both from and to various alternative elliptical orbits. Owing, however, to the relativity variation of mass with velocity, the energy of an electron in two orbits of the same total quantum number differs slightly, with the consequence that the change of energy from orbit to orbit, and thus the frequency of emitted radiation differs slightly among the various members of the system with the same initial and final total quantum numbers. Each spectral line as given by the

simpler theory therefore consists of a number of neighbouring spectral lines. Such a fine structure of the lines has been observed by instruments of high resolving power in the spectrum of hydrogen, and the theory has been beautifully confirmed from measurements of the more clearly separated lines of the helium spectrum.

The further extension of the theory of spectra to more complicated cases is in general based upon the hypotheses of (a) stationary states or energy levels, (b) Bohr’s relation kyv= EK, — Fy for the frequency of the radiation emitted in transition from one state to another, (c) a general quantising relation applied to each degree of freedom to determine the possible states (expressed fpdq=Th, where q is a generalised co-ordinate and p the corresponding momentum). A “ principle of selection ” is also introduced permitting only certain transitions between the stationary states regarded as possible by the quantising rules. The selection principle or “ principle of correspondence’ of Bohr assumes that for high quantum numbers the results obtained from the Quantum Theory for radiation emitted during transition must merge into those obtained from the classical theory for radiation emitted during orbital motion. The effects of both electric and magnetic fields on the radiating atoms (Stark and Zeeman effects) can then be very satisfactorily explained. Applications to X-ray spectra similar in nature have also had marked success. Bohr’s theory of the atom was, of course, designed to agree with experiment, vet the assumptions made were simple and of a very general nature. To explain the complexity of spectra in great detail by such simple postulates, is an achievement which scems to indicate for the model some approximation to reality. Yet it is merely a skeleton atom; the postulates are a convenient summary of certain properties; they give no indication of the physical processes by which the observed conclusions are reached; indeed, there is little doubt that the actual atom has not the rigid or precise configuration which the model demands (see ATOM). Whether the quantum phenomena will ever be explained without the discovery of further properties of electricity tosupplement those on which classical theory has been built is questionable. Useful though the quantum rules are, their application has appeared to suffer from an inconsistency which success alone could partially justify. A new theory has, however, been formulated by Heisenberg which, whether fruitful or not, promises to put quantum mechanics in much more logical form. Its physical significance, however, is not apparent. To the physicist, quantum theory needs an infusion of new and simple experimental facts such as will, without doubt, be obtained in the near future.

QUEBEC

270

Emission and Absorption of Radiation.—The most intimate acquaintance with the quantum rules is made in a study of the processes of excitation and of absorption of X-rays and of light, especially the former. Thus, when X-rays are produced by shooting electrons onto a target (anticathode), radiation of a particular frequency v appears in the spectrum only when the kinetic energy of the generating electron is equal to or greater than one 5117 quantum of the radiation 7.¢., dae’S hy. is the limiting ? frequency. The emission of light of frequency v characteristic t,

oe

p=

of a vapour, say mereury; can also be produced by the impact of electrons with energy $v" equal to X», but not by more slowly moving electrons. To excite a characteristic N-radiation, consisting of a group of spectral lines, 4 22% must be just greater than one quantum of the highest frequency constituent. These relations seem to Indicate that one electron generates one quantum

of radiation.

On Bohr’s theory this is interpreted as that the

energy of the moving electron must be sufficient to displace an electron in the atom from one orbit to another of greater energy. When this falls back, this energy is re-emitted as one quantum of

radiation. To excite characteristic X-rays an electron must be moved from an inner ring, not to the next possible orbit, which is already occupied by other electrons, but to the surface of the atom; and various frequences are produced by electrons falling back from other energy levels. Conversely, when X-radiation of frequency v is where Ais the radioactive constant of the substance.

The reciprocal of \ is called the “ average life ” of the element; the time T necessary for the transformation of the half of the atoms is called the “ period ” and related to the constant A by the expression T= loge2/\.

Radioactive substances emit three kinds of rays known as a-, B- and y-rays. The a-rays are helium nuclei carrying each a positive charge equal to double that of the elementary charge; they are expelled from the nuclei of the radioactive atoms with a great velocity (about 1-5 X10° to 2-3 X10°cm./sec.). The -rays are electrons of various velocities which may approach the velocity oflight. The y-rays constitute an electromagnetic radiation of the same kind as light or X-rays, but their wave-length is generally much smaller and may be as short as o-orA. While the emission of some radioelements consists almost entirely of a-rays whose penetrating power is very small, other raclioelements emit 8- and y-rays which are able to penetrate a consid-

erable thickness of matter.

Uranium-Radium Family.—Radium is a member of the uranium family, t.e., one of the elements resulting from the transformation of the uranium atom; its period is about 1,700 years. We give here the list of the radioactive elements of the uraniumradium family, the mode of their disintegration (a- or B-rays), the atomic number and the period. .

7

o

Element and its disintegration (Uranium)

Atomic! Niibér 92

46

UN,

gO

24°5

UXe

QI

a |

BI

UH

(Ionium)

Period

CL.

BI

a|

a ;

;

:

I-T4

X10

|

|

years

days min.

2

1-2

108 years

go

7-4

X10 years X10° years

:

: :

;

;

88

1-7

I

:

;

;

86

3°82

days

RaA

;

;

:

:

84

3:0

min.

Rab

:

:

.

82

26-8

min.

,

:

;

83

19:5

min.

a

(Radium)

Ra .

(Radon)

ae

a

a

al

BL. Ral Bl.

Ra a |

Radium and barium salts are iso-

morphous. Preparation of Radium. — Metallic radium has been prepared in the same way as metallic barium, by electrolysis of a radium salt with a mercury cathode, mercury being eliminated by heating the amalgam in dry hydrogen. The metal is white and melts at about 00°. It attacks water and is rapidly altered by the contact of air. The atomic weight can be determined by the methods used for barium, e. g., by weighing the anhydrous radium chloride and the equivalent silver chloride or bromide. Optical Spectrum.—The optical spectrum is composed, as with the other alkaline earth metals, of a relatively small number of lines of great intensity; the strongest line in the limit of the violet spectrum is 3814-64, and this line is a very sensitive test :for the presence of radium; but spectral analysis is little used in the detection of radioelements, the radioactive properties offering a considerably higher degree of sensitivity. The high frequency spectrum is in accordance with the prediction for the element of atomic number 88.

285

:

Rall

on

B

(Polonium) Po.

,

.

|

;

84

108

sec.

«=

+

82

16

years

|

.

;

83

4°85

days

.

;

84

139:5

days

a

(Lead)

|

||

:

wow.

BL

i

|

i

| }

RaG

The atoms of each element are formed out of the destroyed atoms of the preceding element.

None of these atoms can exist

in nature otherwise than In uranium minerals, unless recently transferred from such minerals by a chemical or physical process. When separated from the uranium mineral they must disappear, their destruction

not being compensated

by their production.

Only uranium and thorium are radioclements of so long alife that they have been able to last through geological times without any known production. According to the laws of radioactive transformation, in very old minerals a state of equilibrium is attained where the ratio of the number of the atoms of the different substances is equal to the ratio of their average life. The ratio radium/uranium is about 3-40X1077 in the older minerals; accordingly we cannot expect to find a mineral containing a high proportion of radium. Yet pure radium can be prepared in ponderable quantities while the other radioclements, except the slowly disintegrating uranium and thorium, are not capable of preparation in quantity, most of them because they exist in much smaller quantities. The quicker the disintegration of a radioactive substance, the smaller is its proportion among the earth’s minerals, but the

greater its activity.

Thus radium is several millions of times

more active than uranium and 5,000 times less than polonium. Radiation of a Radium Tube-—Small quantities of radium

are frequently kept in sealed glass tubes called “ radium tubes.” Radium emits only a rays and a feeble @-radiation; the penetrating radiation emitted by a radium tube comes from the disintegration products gradually accumulated by the radioactive transformations of radium; first, radon or radium emanation, a radioactive gas, the next term to xenon in the series of inert gases; secondly, radium A, B, C, called “ active deposit of rapid change ”’; thirdly, radium D, E and radium F or polonium, called “ active deposit of slow change ”; finally, inactive lead, dnd also helium generated in the form of a-rays. The strong penetrating radiation of a radium tube is emitted by radium B and C. When pure radium salt is sealed in a tube, the activity increases during about a month, till a state of equilibrium is attained between radium, radon and the active deposit

RADIUM

286

of rapid change, when the production of each of these elements is compensed by their destruction. The penetrating radiation consists in -rays and in y-rays, the latter particularly known by its valuable use in therapy. The quantity of radon inequilibrium with one gramme of radium is called the “ curie.” If the radon is extracted and sealed separately in a tube, radium A, B, C, will accumulate and the pene-

trating radiation for one curie of radon will be the same as for one gramme of radium. But the activity of the radon tube decreases to half its value in 3:82 days, the period of radon, while the activity of a radium tube remains practically constant after equilibrium has been attained; the decrease is only o-4°% in I0 years. Effects of Radiation —Radiation of radium produces all the ordinary effects of rays (see RADIOACTIVITY); ionisation of the gases, continuous production of heat, excitation of the phosphorescence of certain substances (zinc sulphide, ctc.), colouration of glass, chemical actions (decomposition of water for instance), photographic actions, biologic actions. Radium compounds observed in the dark exhibit a spontaneous luminosity, which is particularly bright in freshly prepared chloride or bromide, and is determined by the action on the salt of its own radiation. Activity of Radium.—The a-rays belonging to radium itself have a range of 3-4.cm. in air at 15° C.and normal pressure. The number of a particles emitted by radium was measured by different methods of numeration (scintillations or counting chamber); the result varies from 3-40X 10" to 3-72 X 10! particles per sec. and per gram of radium; from this data the average life of radium can be deduced. Three other groups of a rays, of ranges 4:1 cm., 4:7 cm. and 7 cm. are emitted by radon and the active deposit, radium A, B, C. The heat produced by radium itself is about 25 calories per hour and per gramme. Fora tube of radium in equilibrium with the disintegration products of rapid change, the production of heat is about 137 calories per hour and per

gramme.

This heating effect is principally due to the absorption

of the energy of the a-rays. DISCOVERY OF RADIUM

In the year 1896 H. Becquerel discovered that uranium emits spontaneously a radiation that produces an impression on a photographic plate through a sheet of black paper, and jonises the air. Mme. P. Curie proved that this property, later called radioactivity, is characteristic of the atom of uranium and is

possessed also by thorium.

But she found that uranium minerals

were much more active than could be predicted from their ura-

nium content. By the hypothesis of the existence of a very radioactive unknown substance present in very small quantity, she undertook, with Pierre Curie, research for this substance in the uranium mineral called piichblende. The method they used in that work was entirely new; the result of the separations made by the ordinary process of chemical analysis was controlled by tests of the activity of every fraction; the activity was measured quantitatively by the current produced by the substance when placed in a special “‘ ionisation chamber.” Thus concentration of the radioactive property was traced in two fractions of the treatment, the fraction containing bismuth and the fraction containing barium. In July 1898, P. Curie and Mme. Curie published the discovery of polonium, the element accompanying bismuth; in Dec. 1808, P. Curie, Mme. Curie and G. Bémont published the discovery of radium. Though the existence of these new substances was certain, they were present only in a very small proportion in the products obtained at that time; yet Demarcay was able to detect

in the barium-radium

mixture

three new

discovery of polonium and radium—chemical analysis controlled by measurements of radioactivity—has become fundamental for the chemistry of radioelements; it has served since for the discovery of many other radioactive substances. The discovery of radium and the preparation of the pure element has had very great importance in laying the basis of the new science of radioactivity. The identification of its spectrum and the determination of its atomic weight have been decisive facts for convincing chemists of the reality of the new elements. INDUSTRIAL

PRODUCTION

OF RADIUM

Radium has been manufactured in several countries. The first factory was started in France in 1904, not six years after the discovery of radium. | Afinerals.—Radium is to be found in all uranium ores; however

only those that have been mined in sufficient quantity for the extraction will be here mentioned. Pitchblende or Uraninite Uranium oxide more or less impure. Mines in Bohemia and Belgian Congo. Autuniic.—Double phosphate of uranyle (UO2) and calcium. Mines in Portugal, United States and elsewhere. Carnotite-—Vanadate of uranyle and potassium. Mines in Colorado, Australia and elsewhere. Betafite.—Niobo-titanate of uranium and calcium, with rare earths. Mines in Madagascar. The first radium was prepared from pitchblende from Bohemia. Later the principal exploitation was that of carnotite in Colorado and of autunite in Portugal. At the present time the most important supply is extracted in Belgium from the pitchblende of Belgian Congo. A mineral containing more than one decigram of radium per ton is considered as very rich. Minerals were treated down to a few milligrams per ton. Industrial Treatment.—The method of industrial extraction of radium, in its essential points, is still the original method that was used and described by Mme. P. Curie. The operation can be divided in three parts: dissolution of the mineral, purification of a barium-radium salt, separation of radium from barium by fractional crystallisation. The treatment for dissolving the mineral differs from one mineral to another. Autunite and certain carnotites are soluble in hydrochloric acid, but nearly all other minerals must be attacked by more energetic agents, for instance with the aid of sodium carbonate. When the mineral does not contain much barium, a certain

quantity of barium salt is added in order to carry away the radium. The barium-radium mixture is separated. With some variations in the mode of separation of uranium and lead (always present in the mineral) or eventually vanadium, niobium, etc., the operation consists in separating barium-radium by precipitation as sulphates and redissolving these sulphates by ebullition with sodium carbonate followed by a hydrochloric attack. Generally the radium-barium mixtures pass more than once through the state of sulphates. After the purification of the barium-radium chloride, radium is concentrated by a process of fractional crystallisation, radium chloride, less soluble than barium chloride, being concentrated in the crystals. After this first enrichment the active salt is again purified particularly by the elimination of a residue of lead, and is transformed into bromide for the continuation of fractional crystallisation (the use of bromide was suggested by Giesel). The final crystallisations are made on small quantities of salt in very acid solutions. All the operations are controlled

lines belonging to

by the ionisation method, to avoid the loss of radium. At the end of the purification, great care must be taken to protect the

Curie succeed in preparing the first decigram of pure radium salt and made a determination of its

chemist from the action of the radiations, especially at the moment of the filling of the tubes or apparatus with the radium salt. The radon liberated in the room during the fractionation must be eliminated by a constant aeration. | AMesothorium.—Some minerals of uranium contain also thorium. In these minerals radium is mixed with another radioelement, mesothorium I, isotope of radium. Mesothorium I is much more active than radium, but has less commercial value

radium. Only in t902 did Mme. atomic weight.

The separation of barium was made by a process

of fractional crystallisation. The work proved exceedingly diffcult in practice on account of the great quantities of material that had to be treated. Later Mme. Curie made a new determination of its atomic weight and prepared metallic radium. The new method used by P. Curie and Mme. Curie for the

RAEMAEKERS— RAILWAYS for the samce activity, because its life is much shorter (6-7 years). Mesothorium can be used instead of radium in certain cases. MEASUREMENTS

Measurement of the quantities of radium is very important for scientific as well as for commercial purposes. The quantities to be measured vary greatly. For instance, the tubes of radium prepared for medical use contain in general from r to 100 milligrammes, but radium has often to be dosed in natural waters or minerals, where the quantities are of the order of 107 gr. and even down to 10° gr. per litre of water or per gram of mineral. For very small quantities, only an ionisation method of measurement can prove successful. For relatively great quantities, radium could be weighed but it would require a careful purification of the radium salt and the precision would in general be very unsatisfactory, considering the high price (about £to the milligramme of this element). Here also, therefore, ionisation measurements are used for the sake of accuracy. For quantities ranging from about one-tenth of a mg. to the greatest quantities available the radium must be sealed in a

tube where radon and the active deposit accumulate. Measurements are made by comparing the ionisation produced in an ionisation chamber by the penetrating rays from the tube containing the unknown amount of radium and from a standard tube placed in the same conditions. A correction is made for differences of form or of absorbing power of the two containers. The sale of radium is made according to the certificates delivered by national technical laboratories: National Physical! Laboratory (London), Radium Institute (Paris), Radium Institute (Vienna), Physikalische-technische Reichsanstalt (Berlin), U.S. Bureau of Standards (Washington). Discrimination between radium and mesothorium I in sealed tubes is rather difficult. For this purpose, of commercial interest, scientific methods have been devised, based on the different penetrating power of the yrays, or on the different production of heat. An international radium standard was prepared in 1o11t by Mme. P. Curie. A quantity (about 22 milligrammes) of very pure radium chloride was exactly weighed and sealed into a thin tube of glass. This standard is kept at the International Bureau at Sévres, and secondary standards, carefully compared with this one, have been prepared for different countries. Determination of the very small quantities of radium contained in a few grams of a mineral, or a few litres of mineral water, is made by measuring the quantity of radon it produces in a definite amount of time. The mineral is dissolved and radoh removed by passing a slow current of air through the solution, then after a few days, the radon accumulated in the solution contained in a close vessel is conveyed to a special ionisation chamber, where the current produced by the a-rays of radon and radium A, B, C, is measured. This allows calculation of the amount of radium in the solution, if the ionisation chamber has been standardised by a similar operation made with a known quantity of radium. For the standardisation a very dilute solution is prepared by taking a small definite fraction of a solution containing a quantity of radium directly measurable by the penetrating rays. To facilitate the standardisation of apparatus, technical laboratories deliver standardised solutions or samples of radium-barium salt containing a known proportion of radium. The method of quantitative determination is exceedingly sensitive and can be used for amounts of radium from 10°° gr. to 102° grammes. APPLICATIONS

OF RADIUM

The principal application of radium is the use for therapeutic purposes of the biological action of the rays (see RADIOTHERAPY; THERAPEUTICS). The biological action is a selective destruction of certain cells and can have very dangerous consequences, but can also be directed against nocive tissue, as for instance in the case of cancer. For medical use radium is put into tubes of glass or in platinum needles, sometimes also on flat surfaces recovered by a varnish, for the irradiation of the skin. Another

form of use is to keep radium in solution and to extract from

287

time to time the accumulated radon which, introduced into small tubes, has the same efficiency as radium till its activity has disappeared. ‘The use of radium for pharmaceutical preparations has been frequently tried. The scientific basis, however, in this case is far from being well established. Experimentation on the improvement of the soil by small quantities of radium has been till now very limited and some favourable results in this

direction have been claimed. = By incorporating radium with phosphorescent zinc sulphide it is possible to obtain luminous paints giving a weak light visible in darkness. The most important use of this paint is for watches. The quantity necessary is of the order of one-tenth of a milligramme per gramme of zinc sulphide. After several years, the phosphorescent product is altered by the action of the rays and becomes less luminous, though the quantity of radium has not changed appreciably. Radium in Nature-—Radium exists in minute proportion in every kind of soil and water; the extraordinary sensitiveness of the methods of analysis has made it possible to ascertain this fact. If some inactive element is present in the same proportions, we are not able to detect it. The quantity of radium contained in the ordinary soil is of the order of 10° or ro"! gr. of radium per gramme while a good radioactive ore contains about 107? gr. of radium per gramme of mincral. Radium existing in the depths of the earth is sometimes dissolved by water and affects springs. Other springs dissolve principally the radon liberated by the radium and their activity dies out with the radon. This would explain why certain mineral waters are reputed to be efficient for curative effect only when used directly at the source. Some radio-active waters contain amounts of radium up to ro?° gr. per litre’ the amount of radon can attain ro” curies per litre. The radium in the soil is the origin of the small quantity of radon present in the air and is partly responsible for the natural ionisation of the air which is known to be an important factor in the meteorological conditions of the atmosphere. Radium and radioactive elements in general have played an important part in the evolution of terrestrial heat. It is not improbable that the radium present at the surface of the earth in a very dilute state has some connection with the evolution of life on our planet (see Mme. Curie, Traité de Radioactivité, 2 vol. (1910). (ALC EC)

RAEMAEKERS,

LOUIS

(1869-

}, Dutch

cartoonist, was

born at Roermond, Holland, April 6 1869. He was educated in Amsterdam and Brussels, and began his career by painting landscapes, portraits and posters. In ro08 he produced his first political cartoons, and subsequently gained international fame by his violent anti-German cartoons in the Amsterdam Telegraaf and other papers during and after the World War. RAILWAYS (see 22.819).—In this article the main developments since 1910 in the practice of railway engineering are described. Problems of track laying, both new construction and renovation and repair work, are discussed. New designs of locomotives are described and the substitution of steel for wood as a material for construction of coaches and wagons is recorded. The improved methods of signalling now adopted are dealt with, while the concluding section deals with the electrification of the railways, the whole being preceded bya short historical account of railway development during the years under review.

I. HISTORY The period 1910-26 was marked by a slowing up in the rate of additions to railway mileage. There were exceptions, asin Canada

where railways were extended too rapidly, and in certain parts of Africa and Asia, but elsewhere, particularly in the United States, the additions were relatively small although large sums were invested annually since 1922, in enlarging and improving existing railway facilities and equipment. The greater use of motor-trucks and ’buses on the highways has tended to take away a part of the railways short-haul traffic, thus relieving the facilitics for the longer hauls and postponing the need of new

trackage.

The annual growth in ton-miles has been smaller in

288

RAILWAYS

degree than in previous periods and the passenger traffic has ~ tended to decline in volume. War conditions and the restriction of immigration have held down the rate of growth in population and agricultural development in North Amcrica. The period under review was marked also by increases in the extent of governmental regulation of railways. The rate structures have become less flexible. Higher wages and other rising costs have borne heavily on the carriers. Rates have been increased, but not in degree corresponding with costs. Net income has suffered, the return on railway investments has declined, and railway securities have lower market values. In Great Britain and the United States, the two countries which have been foremost in faith in private ownership rather than government ownership of railways, it was found expedient to turn the railway over to the Govt. for unified operation during the crisis; but in both cases private ownership and operation were resumed after the War. In Great Britain the policy of consoli-

dation was made effective and the many small companies were reduced to four. In the United States a similar policy was written into law, but little progress has been made in carrying it into effect. In Canada the financial collapse of several weak carriers led to a substantial enlargement in the nationalised system. In no country did the War bring about greater changes in respect of the railways than in Germany. Before the War they were mostly the property of the individual States of the Empire, but in 1920 they were handed over to the Reich. The results of their operation under these conditions were far from successful, and by the end of 1923 their working expenses were seven times greater than their receipts. In 1924 it was arranged that their operation should be put in the hands of a company, the Reichseisenbahn Gesellschaft, whose concession was to run normally for 40 years, expiring on Dec. 31 1964. The capital was fixed at £1,300,000,000, made up of (1) £650,000,000 ordinary shares to be issued fully paid to the Reich; (2) {100,000,000 preference shares to be issued to the public as required; and (3) £550,000,000 Reparation bonds bearing 5% interest, with a 1% sinking fund calculated to redeem them in 40 years. The transport tax imposed in 1917 on the gross receipts of the railways was continued, its proceeds up to a maximum of {12,500,000 being paid over for Reparation purposes, for which therefore, with the sum of £33,000,000 for the service of the Reparation bonds, a total of £45,500,000 annually was charged upon the railways. Fuller details about the railway systems of the various countrics will be found under the several headings, e.g., GREAT BRITAIN: Communications; UNITED STATES: Communications. (X.) II. TRACK LAYING This article deals with: (r) the laying of track on new lines; (2) the laying of new tracks parallel to existing ones; and (3) the relaying or renewal of tracks worn out in service. Track laying on new lines has been subject to little improvement owing to the marked decrease in new railway construction. Where mechanical equipment is employed, it consists usually of a pioneering machine placed at the head of a material train, the machine comprising a combination of derricks and conveyers by means of which the rails, sleepers and fastenings are passed forward and set in place. In America, during the years 1915-25, the locomotive crane was sometimes substituted for the track laying machine because of its ready availability and its adaptability to a wide variety of other uses. The laying of new tracks in close proximity to other lines already in service imposes no particular difficulties, as the materials can be readily distributed from trains on the operated track. Relaying Track.—The relaying of track is a process constantly under way on the entire railway mileage of the world which must be carried on without obstructing trafic. The wooden sleepers or crosstics used suffer deterioration from decay and mechanical agencies. Rails are subject to wear, particularly on curves. The tread or wearing surface becomes battered at the ends by the pounding of the wheels. The most common cause for renewal is the battering of the ends. A preventive measure is to replace worn fishpjates or joint bars with new ones asa means of affording a more secure joint. Heat-treated high carbon fishplates and bolts have been used for this purpose. In the

United States and Canada marked economies have been effected by restoring or building up the rail surface with metal applied by means of the oxy-acetylene torch. Rails removed from track are often restored to a serviceable condition by sawing off from six to twelve inches of the ends. The adoption in America during 1925 of a standard rail length of 39 ft. instead of 33 ft. brings about a 15% reduction in the number of joints. Rebuilding Methods.— In Europe it is customary to rebuild the entire track structure in one operation. The intervals between these “ relayings ” vary from two to cight years or more with the density of the traffic carried. In America and on a few railways in Europe the renewal of the rails, sleepers and ballast comprises three distinct operations, which are generally handled separately. The procedure under the European method ranges from a complete removal of the old track followed by its replacement with a new track, to the construction of a new track interlaced with the old, #.e., with the new

sleepers placed between the old ones and the new rails offset a few inches to one side of the old rails. Under this plan the completion of a section of the new track is followed by the transfer of trains from the old to the new track, the removal of the old track and the shifting of the new track to correct alignment. When the rail and sleeper renewals are carried on independently, the relaying of the rails is usually completed for one line of rails at a time. The new rails are set up on the ends of the sleepers and moved over into position as the old ones are unfastened. The number of rails changed on one operation and the amount of preliminary work done preparatory to the actual change depend on the time available between trains. It has been the almost universal practice to carry on rail laying without discontinuing the use of the track by trains, even on multiple-track lines. But some of the double-track lines in the United States have greatly expedited this work by confining the movement of trains temporarily to one track for the distance between the nearest stations provided with crossovers.

Mechanical Equipment.—Much of the work of laying rails is done by hand evenin America, where heavy sections are employed. Some use is being made in England and America of hoisting equipment of various kinds, particularly for loading the old rails. In America considerable use is made also of portable hoists mounted on rollers or wheels for setting the rails into position and a few of the railways employ locomotive cranes. Renewal of the sleepers is also a manual operation except as it concerns the tamping or packing, which is now being done to a small though increasing extent with pneumatic and electric tampers in both Europe and North America. In the replenishing of the ballast the most laborious operation is the surfacing or raising of the track on the new material and it is this operation rather than in sleeper renewals that mechanical tamping has had its greatest application. More recent developments in the delivery and distribution of the ballast include the use of special cars with bottom doors designed to dump the material in any amount, and ploughs or spreader cars which distribute it uniformly over the track. The conventional method of cleaning ballast is to scrape it out from between the sleepers and shake it up on the ballast forks to

screen out the forcign matter. Sometimes it is thrown against stationary screens. Among the methods employed for accomplishing this end is a revolving power-operated screen and the use of a hoist and bucket to dump the ballast on a screen mounted onacar; a further scheme is the application of the principle of the vacuum cleaner in a large machine, which draws up the ballast through pipes into a chamber where the foreign matter is separated from the stone. (W. S. L.)

See W. F. Rench, Roadway and Track (1923); E. E. R. Tratman,

Railway Track and Maintenance (1926).

III. LOCOMOTIVE

DESIGN

Progress in the development of the locomotive steam engine during the period 1910-25 has been characterised by (a) increase in weight and power; (b) installation of superheated steam apparatus and feed-water heaters; (c) extended adoption of articulated types; (d) the application of the turbine engine with condenser; (e) the application of the internal combustion engine. Increase in Weight and Power. —In Great Britain ihe 4-6-2 express engines on the L. & N. E. Rly. weigh 934 tons and develop about 2,000 horsepower. Heavier engines of this type are in service on the Continent, while in the United States 150 tons has been reached. For freight service, the 2-8-o type is in general use, the 2-8-2 type and the 2-10-0 have, especially in the United States, been largely adopted and the 2-12-0 has been tested.

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Articulated

Locomotive.

RAILWAYS Three-cylinder engines have been at work for some years on the L. & N. E. Rly. for both express and mineral traffic and are reported to be entirely satisfactory, and the system has also been adopted in the United States and in Germany. Three-cylinder engines, arranged for “simple” or “compound ” (1 high pressure and 2 low pressure) working are standard practice on the L. M. & S. Rly. 4-4-0 type express engines. In France only, the fourcylinder compound engine has extensive application. The fourcylinder “simple” has had several applications in Great Britain notably on the L. M. & S. and G. W. Railways. Bowler Power.—The great increase in boiler power, as is indicated by the provision of large grate arcas, normally 18 to 30 sq. ft. but now reaching from 5o to 1r2 sq. ft., greatly exceeds in many cases the ability of the stoker to maintain the supply of fuel to the furnace. For such cases mechanical stokers have therefore been adopted. The use of oil fuel is still limited to countries with extensive oil producing areas, or to those in which the cost of coal is exceptionally high. Apparatus for burning pulverised fuel is now

in considerable use in the United States and to a

limited extent elsewhere. Boosters.—In all locomotives, the adhesion required for “ starting ” purposes is greatly in excess of that required for running.” If an additional temporary adhesion can be provided for “ starting,” much higher loads may be worked. In engines with hind carrying axles, the provision of a “booster” has this effect. A booster is an engine forming, on the locomotive, an auxiliary unit which can be attached to a carrying axle at will, to utilise the

adhesive weight on that axle. Such boosters are in considerable use in the United States and are now being tentatively adopted on some engines on the L. & N. E. Rly., England. Superheaters.—Superheating of the steam has been widely adopted on all main line engines. In the type of apparatus generally employed (introduced in Germany by W. Schmidt) the steam before reaching the cylinders is passed through a set of double-loop tube elements inserted in enlarged boiler tubes. The temperature aimed at is about 650° Fahrenheit. The economy of steam realised is from 15 to 25°). Many systems of feed-water heating apparatus have been installed on locomotives both on English and foreign railways, but as yet no system has commanded a general adoption.

Articulated Types —In the “ Fairlie’ and “ Kitson-Meyer ” types of locomotives, the boiler, tanks and bunker are carried on a main frame below which two motor bogies are pivotted. Greater freedom could thus (owing to the short rigid wheel base of the

bogies) be obtained for traversing curves, less weight per axle or per ft. run of the vehicle and double power with one engine crew. The “ Mallet ” articulated locomotive now represents the heaviest and most powerful engines in the world (sce plate, fig. 2). In this type, there are as in the “ Fairlie,” two sets of wheels, but the front set only are (in a bogie frame) pivotted or hinged on the main frame which carries the boiler, the hind set being mounted on the main frame in the usual manner. The engine is a four-cylinder compound, the two H.P. cylinders are on the main

289

Turbine Locomotives—A locomotive (‘ Reid-Ramsay ” of 1904) with a turbine engine driving through electric transmission to motors on the driving axles and fitted with condenser was constructed and was put through a series of tests. Thereafter a more powerful locomotive (Ramsay Condenser) was constructed; this locomotive was tested on the L. & Y. Railway. Neither of

these experiments indicated that the locomotive had attained the necessary combination of the requisite economy in construction, running charges and maintenance, with the requisite efhclency in operation. The latest system, now (1926) in process of testing, is the application of the geared turbine driving direct on to the motor axles. Four types of locomotives have been built. In Switzerland by the Zoelly method (“ Zoelly ”’), on an existing 4-6-0 type locomotive the turbine is placed transversely on the framing. The gear ratio is 30/1. The condenser is of the “ surface ” type with a condensate cooler of the air-cooled evaporative type. In Sweden on a locomotive of the two-vchicle type, one vehicle carries the boiler and the other, which has three-motor axles and one-truck axle, is equipped with the main driving machinery and also carries the condensing plant. The turbine (transversely placed) develops 1,800 H.P. at 9,200 R.P.M. and has a gear ratio of 22/1. The condenser is surface type air-cooled. In Great Britain (North British Locomotive Co. Ltd.) the locomo-

live, on the “ Reid-Macleod” system is of the double-bogie type (see plate fig. 1). Two geared turbines are employed; the high pressure driving two-motor axles on one bogie and the low pressure on the other. The turbines are arranged longitudinally on the frame. Coupling rods between the motor wheels are not required. In Germany (Krupp) the application is in principle similar to ‘‘ Zoelly’s ” but a new locomotive has been constructed of the two-vehicle type; one vehicle 4-6-2 type (as in ordinary locomotive practice) is equipped with the main driving mechanism and also carries the boiler; the other vehicle carries the condensate cooler in addition to the necessary supplies of coal and water. Internal Combustion Lecomotives.—Little progress has been made to the present time in respect of the application of the internal combustion locomotive to the work of railways. Installations up to 450 H.P. (Diesel-Electric) for a saloon car with trailers have been adopted for light railway work. The locomotive in the German-Swiss experiment (‘‘ Klose-Sulzer ”’) of 1913 was of the 4-4-4 type equipped with two Diesel engines directcoupled tothe motor axles. Starting the locomotive and running up to 6 M.P.H. were effected by the admission of compressed air to the combustion cylinders. Speeds of 12 to 20 M.P.H. were reported to have been effected, but difficulties involved by the low temperature of the air exhaust seem to have proved insuperable. At the Stettin Exhibition of 1924 was shown the two-vehicle locomotive designed by Professor Lomonossoff. The main vehicle 2-1o—2 type is equipped with a six-cylinder set of Diesel engines with generator and with electrical transmission to motors on the driving axle, and developing about 1,200 brake horsepowcr. The weight is about 120 tons. The other vehicle or

frame and drive the rear set of whecls and the two L.P. cylinders are on the bogie frame and drive the front set of wheels. The first U.S. Mallet was installed on the Baltimore and Ohio Rly. in 1905. It was of the o-6-6-0 type, and weighed 150 tons. Mallet engines are now in service of 2-8-8-8-4 type, 7.¢., three sets of eizht coupled wheels 54 in. diameter, each set being driven by a pair of cylinders 34 in. diameter by 32 in. stroke (one pair being H.P. and two pairs L.P.) with a leading two-wheel truck and a trailing four-wheel bogie. The rear wheels (eight-wheel coupled and four-wheel bogic) also form the tender carrying wheels. The total weight in working order is 376 tons.

at this Exhibition an o-8-o type “* Linke-Hofiman-Lauchhammer ” locomotive equipped with a six-cylinder Diesel engine of 4oo H.P. driving through a Lentz hydraulic-transmission-gear on to a lay shaft and thence to the eight-coupled wheels. Locomotive Types, Names and Symbols-—The following table gives the popular names which have been adopted for locomotives in general use and also their type symbols. The mid figure or letter signifies the number of wheels or axles which are coupled. In the British and American systemsit signifies number of wheels;

The “ Garratt ” type of articulated locomotive has, similar to the Fairlie, two free bogies (with the pivots located towards either end) but carries its tanks directly on the bogies. The “ Modified Fairlie,’ as its name implies, embodies all the essential features of the Fairlie with girder frame and central pivotted bogies. Both of these latter types can embody a very large boiler consequent on a large extension of their wheel base, and in their carrying their tanks fore and aft of the boiler.

in the French, number of axles; and in the German, the letter signifies number of axles, 7.e., A=1, B=2, etc. The first and third letters signify similarly the number of front and hind carrying wheels or axles. In articulated engines the mid figures or letters signify the number of coupled wheels or axles, and the end ones the carrying wheels or axles. In articulated engines with carrying wheels between the coupled sets, each set is read as for non-articulated engines, thus: 2-6-2—-2-6-2.

tender carries the circulating water cooler. There was shown also

RAILWAYS

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Articulated Locomotives—Exampies of Symbols English or American French German 0-6-6-0 0-3-3-0 C-C 2-6-6-0 1-3-3-0 r-C-C 2-6-8-0 1-3-4-0 1-C-D 2-8-8-2 1-4-4-I 1-D-D-1 2-8-8-8-2 1-4-4-4-I 1-D-D-D-1 2-8-8-8-4 1-4-4-4-2 1-D-D-D-2 4-4-6-2 2-2-3-1 2-B-C-3

BiBLIOGRAPHY.—Turbine Locomotives: Engineering, vol. 88, p. 613 (1909), vol. 114, pp. 64, 131, 163, 198 (1922); Railway Engineer, vol. 43 (1922), pp. 195, 356; vol. 46, p. 48 (1925); Engineer, vol. 138, p. 53 (1924); Etsendahnwesen (1925). Internal Combustion Locomotives: Engineering, vol. 96, p. 317 (1913); Engineer, vol. 138,

p. 552 (1924); vol. 139, p. 269 (1925); Eisenbahnwesen Articulated

Locomotives:

Engineering,

vol.

WAGON

AND

98

(1914);

(1925).

vol.

120

(1925). Superheaters and Feed-heaters: Engineering, vol. 95 (1913); Eisenbahnwesen (1925). Mechanical Stoker: Engineer, vol. 1109, pp. 40, 60, 61, 116, 163, 636 (1915). Pulverised Fuel: Engineer, vol. 128, pp. I5, 26 (1919). Booster Locomotive: Engineer, vol. 137, p. 156 (1924). (H. RE.)

IV.

CARRIAGE,

BRAKES

Broadly speaking, both in the case of carriages and wagons, the aim of designers is to secure the greatest possible capacity in relation to tare weight, due regard being, of course, paid to strength of construction. Railway companies in general attach great importance to the question of weight, due to considerations of economy both as regards hauling power and maintenance of permanent way.

|

Materials.—The scarcity of suitable timber for manufacturing coaches has become so serious a problem, that efforts had to be made to find a suitable substitute. Steel had already been used with success for wagon construction, but doubts were expressed as to whether passenger vehicles made of steel would be satisfactory. In the first place it was argued that steel coaches would be too heavy and secondly that they would prove entirely unsuitable for tropical countries owing to the heat conducting properties of the material. The latter was held to be a very scrious objection for the shortage of timber was being most strongly felt in India, where teak was becoming more and more expensive.

A strong belief existed in certain quarters, however, that a substitute for timber had undoubtedly to be found.

Considera-

tions connected with the safety of passengers also exerted a strong influence, for it was felt that with steel vehicles the risk of fire

would be reduced to a minimum sion there would be much less These contentions were borne experience. Steel Coaches.—The question

and that in the event of a collidanger of coaches telescoping. out quite dearly by subsequent

of steel coach design, therefore, received very close attention from designers. A perfectly satisfactory vehicle was not, however, produced at once. Early designs were heavy and expensive to manufacture and the modern steel coach, which matches the wooden coach in weight, in price and in comfort, is the result of a process of careful development. According to the best modern practice, steel coaches are built in

sections, that is to say, the body sides, ends and roofs are constructed on separate jigs, these parts on completion being assembled with the underframe. This method ensures that parts shall be interchangeable—a specially important point when coaches are being shipped abroad—and is economical as regards cost and distribution of labour. : The steel coach may be so designed that the body provides the necessary strength in itself, trussing on the underframe not being required. The elimination of truss rods, besides reducing the weight of the coach, affords perfect accessibility to the brakework and the electrical gear. In order to prevent discomfort to passengers from extremes of heat and cold, an inner lining of insulating material is so arranged that air can circulate freely up the sides and along the roof. This device very effectively solves the temperature question and steel coaches are now firmly established in such countries as India and Egypt. Corrosion is one of the chief problems where any steel structure is concerned and measures have to be taken to prevent this. At the design stage, therefore, ledges or receptacles where moisture might accumulate are eliminated as far as possible. When the constructional stage is reached, all parts, before assembly, receive an application of anti-corrosive paint, and a method of cold rivetting may be employed in order to avoid damage to this protective covering. In some instances lead-coated sheets are used as an alternative. Either wood or steel interior trim may be employed, but the former is generally preferred by British designers. Brakes.—The principal innovation in regard to brake gear is the introduction of the automatic slack adjuster, to reduce the

amount of slack due to wear and thus make the retarding action as uniform as possible. | Articulated Currtages—Catrriages built on the articulated principle are also an interesting development. According to this system two bodies may be carried on three bogies instead of four, or the system may be extended to any number of bodies. The object 1s to obtain smoother running with less weight and ess cost. The adoption of pneumatic operating gear for doors has proved particularly useful on underground systems where it is imperative that stops at stations should be as short as possible. Other Develo pmenis.—The modern demand for increased comfort for passengers has led to improvements in seating arrangements, increased dining accommodation, extension of heating systems, etc., and one of the designer’s chief problems is how to meet this demand without undue increase in the weight per passenger carried. Wagon Designs.—The chief object has been to obtain the maximum possible paying loads, and both bogie and four-wheeled wagons of high capacity and low tare weight have been more largely introduced in recent years. Special types of wagons have been introduced for special duties and improvements have particularly been made in the design of self-discharging wagons of the hopper and tipping type. Further interesting points are the introduction of the solid forged and rolled disk wheel, the adoption of high tensile steel for drawgear and the tendency to replace ordinary types of couplings with automatic couplers. (X.)

V. SIGNALLING Since rgro railway signalling (see 25.73) has made great strides and is now a very important part of a railway organisation. The modern signal engineer must be not only a mechanical but an electrical engineer, as both these branches of engineering play a most important part in the schemes of signalling as practised at the present time. Mechanical Signalling.—There have been important evolutions in so far as the semaphore is concerned; the lever frame, however, remains much as it did in t915. The system of tappet locking is in vogue in England; the so-called duplex locking is very little used, the locking being direct on the catch handle or in some instances on the lever only. The locking trays are usually fixecl to the frame under the cabin floor and at an angle of 45° to 60° from the horizontal, in order to be more accessible. In Europe and America as well as the British Dominions and Colonies the same type of interlocking frame is used as in England, in so far as the general design and principles are concerned.

RAILWAYS

291

Semaphore Work.—The semaphore or fixed signal arms which | inclined downwards to an angle of 60° for the clear position as shown in fig. 1 are gradually being superseded by those whose arms incline upward to 45° and go° above the horizontal. The old type of semaphore is known as the “lower quadrant” and the new the “ upper quadrant two-position and three-position.” (See figs. 2 and 3.)

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Where the two-position upper quadrant is in use, it is the general practice to fix below it, if the block sections are short, the distant signal of the home signal in advance as shown in fig. 2, but where three-position upper quadrant signals are used, this arrangement of the distant signal is not necessary. The first mechanical two-position upper quadrant signals used in the British Empire were on the railways of the Transvaal and Orange river in South Africa in 1902. Mechanical semaphore signals in England are still moved to the clear position by means of one wire, but in many other countries, particularly in Europe, two wires are used, one to pull the signal to the clear position and the other to return it to the danger or horizontal. In America, homeand starting

signals are operated by rodding, and distinct signals by two wires.

Operation of Potnts—Mechanically operated facing points are moved by rodding as in the past, but they may now be 300 yards away from the signal cabin or lever frame. Formerly they

could not be more than 2 50 yards away. Points are now operated by double wires in Europe as well as in some of the British Dominions and Colonies. Rodding transmission has been much improved in late years by the introduction of roller or ball bearings for cranks, compensators, rod rollers and chain wheels. Electrical Werk.—Safety electrical features are now added to mechanical installations. These are (1) a system of route locking to hold a certain set of points, as at a junction, until the train has passed over the facing points and is beyond the clearance point, (2) electrical disengagers which automatically set the signal to danger by the passing of a train, (3) electrical detection of facing points, which indicates in the cabin when the points are properly in position and bolt locked, (4) the use of track circuits in place of mechanical locking bars. Power Signalling.— Power signalling such as the “ All Electric ” and the ‘‘ Electro-pneumatic ”’ are now very important in railway signalling. By its use points and signals can be operated a much greater distance from the cabins and very much faster. It is possible to close certain mechanically operated cabins, and in place of them operate from one centrally located power installation—with economy in operation and a more efficient service. By the use of track circuits and electrical controls on signals and points, and an illuminated diagram in the cabins, it is not essential that the signalman should have a view of the trains running over his section. sLutomatic Signalling —Automatic signalling has enabled engineers to increase their track capacity by 20% to 30% and to operate trains more cheaply than by the old system of lock and block, because by it many cabins may be eliminated. Automatic signals may be of the 2 and 3 aspect semaphore signals or the 2 and 3 aspect light signals. The fourth aspect is receiving some attention by signal engincers, and will no doubt soon be a standard on railways where traffic is dense. Light Signals —Light signals (figs. 4 and 5) can be seen as well in bright sunshine as at night. The long range signal for country districts has a special stepped lens 8 in. in diameter and is illuminated by a low voltage electric lamp with a special filament. The low range signal, as used for underground railways or in long tunnels, usually has a 6 in. stepped lens and the same type of lamp. Light signals are much cheaper to instal and operate than mechanism semaphore signals and, their visibility being better than that of semaphores, they are being largely installed in the Dominions, Colonies and to some extent in England, and very largely in the United States of America. Track Circutting.—Track circuiting has become a necessary feature for power and automatic signalling, the most modern track circuits employing alternating current. By using this source of power, dangers from stray currents are almost entirely eliminated. (R. F. M.*)

VI. ELECTRIFICATION Electrification.—Economic conditions during and following the War period emphasised to those countries poor in fuel supply their utter dependence on foreign countries for the fuel necessary for steam railway operation. Immediately after the Armistice many European countries decided to electrify their trunk lines without delay, and rapid strides are being made toward electric operation in such countries as France, Switzerland, Austria, Germany and Czechoslovakia. The advantages of railway electrification, the elimination of smoke, dirt and steam in tunnels and terminals, the increased capacity of track and the multiple unit feature of operation, are still important factors in favour of electrification, sometimes one and sometimes another being the controlling one. The argument over the question of the best system to be used for electrification, which for many years retarded electrification, has been settled in many of the countries of Europe, cither by governmental decree or by a mutual agreement of the railroads. In the United States of America, however, where so much has

RAILWAYS

292

been done to develop both the continuous-current and the singlephase systems, the question is still unsettled. So many factors enter into the problem, the data as to first cost and operating costs are so conflicting and the relative values of the advantages possessed by the different systems are still so much a matter of opinion, that thus far no body of engineers has been able to make a decision on the subject that could be universally accepted. Local conditions and engineering, commercial and political considerations, all affect the decision in any particular locality, so that in America each railroad has thus far decided the question for itself. SYSTEMS

IN USE

There are three systems in general use for the electrification of railways, depending on the kind of current used: r. The threephase alternating-current system. 2. The single-phase alternating-current system. 3. The continuous or direct-current system. Each one has some advantage that appears to outweigh any possible handicaps or disadvantages that it may have. The Three-phase System —The three-phase system was the first real factor in trunk-line electrification, because when it first appeared there was no continuous-current railway in operation using more than 750 volts, universally admitted to be unsuitable for trunk-line work, and the single-phase motor had not yet been born. To Dr. Koloman von Kando of Budapest belongs the credit for the development of the three-phase system. It is used extensively and successfully in Italy, but in spite of the excellence of the equipment and the fine work that is really being done by over 400 three-phase locomotives, the verdict of the rest of the world seems to be against it. Engineers were attracted to it initially by the three-phase induction motor and the alternating-current transmission. The induction motor could be wound for the full line potential of 3,000 v. selected, and it had what appeared at that time to be the great advantage of a motor without a commutator. Alternating current on the

trolley permitted the use of simple

transformer

substations

which required no attendants. The chief objections to the three-phase system lie in the double overhead contact lines which become very complicated in yards, limiting the potential to the order of 3,000 or 4,000 volts, and in the constant speed characteristics of the three-phase motor. ‘The complications of the double-contact system are apparent, although they may easily be overestimated. The potential of 3,000 volts in general use is too low for an alternatingcurrent system carrying heavy loads because the inductive drop in the lines causes too much fluctuation in line voltage unless very frequent transformer stations are used. The constant speed, especially where each locomotive has two or three such speeds, is well suited to some classes of service but not to others. It facilitates adherence to schedules regardless of train load and grades. On the other hand there is danger of unequal division of load between motors, especially where a number of motive-power units are operated in the same train. Driving-wheel diameters must be maintained at the same diameter or the motors operated with resistance in the circuit. It is inflexible and gives a very bad load factor on a line where the grade changes frequently, since for any speed the load varies almost directly with the grade. On the other hand it has a special advantage in grade work, since in descending a grade the motors automatically become generators and the locomotive holds the train at a uniform speed by ‘‘regenerating ” power which is returned to the line. The Single-phase System—The predominating advantage of the single-phase system lies in its utilisation of a single overhead contact wire from which alternating current at high potential may be collected. The prevailing potential in Europe is 16,500 volts, while in the United States of America 11,000 volts predominates with two trial instances of 22,000 volts. These voltages are so high that very little copper is required in the distributing circuits and the sub-stations require simply lowering transformers which may be, and usually are in modern installations, of the outdoor type. The single-phase system was made

possible through the invention by the late Benjamin G. Lamme of the low-frequency series compensated commutator type single-phase motor. On this motor or its modifications the system has always depended. Single-phase Commutator Tvpe Afotors—From the very nature of things, this is a difficult type of motor to build. Having an alternating field, the entire magnetic circuit must be laminated. In order to secure a good power factor, a small air gap and a compensating winding are essential. To avoid heavy transformer currents under the brushes at starting, which cause bad sparking and burning, the magnetic flux in the pole must be limited to a low value or resistance leads used between the armature winding and the commutator bars. All of these features combine to make a complicated construction with relatively large dimensions, great weight, low efficiency and high initial and maintenance costs. With these limitatiéns understood, thoroughly satisfactory and reliable motors have been developed. The difficulties decrease rapidly as the frequency is reduced. The standard frequency adopted for electrification in European countries is 163 cycles per sec., as originally suggested by Lamme, and is suitable only for railway electrification. In America the low-frequency gained little support and the frequency of 25 cycles, the lowest standard frequency in use, was adopted for the single-phase railway. Aside from the motor, the single-phase car or locomotive is comparatively simple in view of the fact that transformer

tapping is used for speed regulation. While the commutatortype motor is still considered the “ first line of defence ” and is used exclusively for multiple unit car equipments as well as for many locomotives in all classes of service, both the three-phase induction motor and the low-voltage continuous-current motors are used on locomotives under the single-phase trolley in the United States. Split-phase Systems —The three-phase induction motor when on what is known as the split-phase locomotive gives all the characteristics of the three-phase locomotive. It runs at a constant speed and regenerates automatically on descending grades. It avoids the complicated double overhead contact sysitem but adds to each locomotive a rotating-phase converter by means of which three-phase current is obtained for operating the motors. Split-phase locomotives are used on the Norfolk & Western and the Virginian railways, two parallel lines from the coal fields of West Virginia to the seaboard. These locomotives are used for hauling heavy coal trains. The locomotives for the Virginian railway undoubtedly exert the greatest tractive effort of any locomotives in the world. Two locomotives, each capable of developing a tractive effort of 270,000 lb., move a train of 6,000 tons (2,000 lb. each) up a grade of 2% at a speed 14 m.

per hour. In this class of service, the split-phase locomotive is notably successful. The constant speed characteristic, with the automatic regenerative braking, is very satisfactory, increasing both capacity of the line and safety of operation over those of steam operation. Moter-generator Type—The low-voltage continuous-current motor is used on what is known as the motor-generator type of locomotive, as an alternative to the split-phase for heavy freight work and to the single-phase locomotive in all classes of service. The motor-generator type really combines the best features of both the direct-current and the single-phase alternating-current systems. It utilises the direct-current series motor at its best for driving the locomotive and the highpotential single-phase trolley for its power supply. A lowering transformer and a motor-generator set consisting of a singlephase synchronous motor and a direct-current generator connect these two. Other advantages of this type of locomotive are:— Voltage control of the generator for acceleration and speed by varying the field of the motors to give constant output of the generator; the ability to regenerate within the capacity of the generator at practically any speed down to standstill; and high line-power factor. It will be noted that both the split-phase and the motor-generator type locomotives really carry rotating substations whose losses are added to that of the traction equipment.

RAILWAYS The Continuous or Direct-current System.—The direct-current series motor is particularly well adapted to railway work by its variable speed characteristics and by its simple and rugged construction, its relatively light weight, small dimensions and high efficiency and comparative cheapness both in first cost and in cost of maintenance. About 1905 the direct-current system was limited to practically 600 volts. Large amounts of feeder copper were required in the line. The current that could be collected successfully from the overhead wire was limited to 300 or 400 amperes. Frequent sub-stations with motor-generator sets or synchronous converters were required, each with its attendants and, except in services with frequent trains, with a low load factor and consequent low average efficiency. Under modern conditions voltages of 1,200, 1,500, 2,400 and 3,000 are in regular use with a single overhead contact line. With automatic sub-stations attendants are practically eliminated; sub-station machines are shut down when not needed; efficiencyis increasedand byspacingsub-stations at frequent intervals a great reduction in the amount of feeder copper required is effected. High-speed circuit breakers in sub-stations, by inserting a resistance in the circuit, minimise the damage resulting from short circuit on line or equipment. Owing to improvements in overhead construction and in current collectors, very heavy currents of as high as 5,000 amperes for experimental work and of 1,000 to 2,000 amperes are collected on the Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul Railway and elsewhere. The steel tank mercury vapour converter is gaining ground for sub-stations, especially for higher voltages. This eliminates rotating machinery from the sub-stations, and has a very high average efficiency. It can take alternating current at any commercial frequency and convert it to direct current. It has been applied extensively for railway sub-stations in Europe. The higher voltages increase the weight and cost of motors and the complications of the control equipment, particularly for voltages over 1,500, so that it is desirable, where the cost of motive-power equipments predominates in an electrification project, to use the lowest voltage that is feasible from the standpoint of current collection, especially for congested service. The mercury vapour converter, the high-speed circuit breaker and the heavy current-collecting devices have greatly increased the possibilities of the lower voltages. A direct current of 1,500 volts has special advantages for congested service and has been adopted as standard by Great Britain, the Netherlands, France, Japan and Czechoslovakia, as well as by the Illinois Central Railroad in the United States of America. For long lines, however, with relatively infrequent trains and for very heavy trains, 3,000 volts seems to be the favourite for direct current electrification and has been adopted with notable success for several electrifications in the United States, Brazil, Chile, Spain, Mexico and South Africa. The first one of these, the Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul Railway in the United States| has the longest route mileage electrified of any railway in the country. It crosses five mountain ranges and uses regenerative braking with excellent results. With direct current, regenerative braking may be utilised at practically any speed. MECHANICAL

DESIGN

OF LOCOMOTIVES

Drive. —A great many radical schemes have been employed for the transmission of motor torque from the driving motors to the wheels. The type of drive and the locomotive arrangement are very largely governed by the type of motor used. The directcurrent motor may be used with any known type of drive. It is usually applied, however, with one motor for each driving axle, utilising either direct gearing, a gearless arrangement or some

system by which the entire motor weight is spring-borne.

Both the single-phase and the three-phase motors have their limitations. The dimensions and weight of the single-phase motor—-except in very small sizes—make it imperative to have the entire weight of the motor spring-borne. It is, therefore,

applied either with some form of quill drive or by the use of direct

or geared side-rod drive. In the case of three-phase, it is very desirable to reduce the number of motors per locomotive to a

293

minimum.

For this reason the three-phase motors have been

applied exclusively with scotch yoke or side-rod drive, either geared or gearless. Wheel Arrangement and Cab Structure-—The wheel bases and wheel arrangement of locomotives depend very largely on the type of motor and the form of drive. There are two general wheel arrangements: (a) a rigid frame similar to steam locomotives, with or without guiding trucks, and a cab mounted rigidly on the frame; (b) an assembly of two or more trucks, each with its equipment of motors, supporting a cab containing the control equipment, etc. This type 1s used both with separate swivel trucks like a car or with articulated trucks, the truck frames being coupled together. The rigid-frame type has the advantage of simplicity but generally has a long rigid-wheel base. The truck type of construction has the advantage of much greater flexibility for curving and in providing better carrying springs. Power Supply.—This varies greatly according to the local conditions in each instance. In the past a great majority of railroads have produced their own power, but for the future the tendency is toward the purchase of traction power from central station networks. This means that for the alternating-current systems a frequency for the railroad load is desirable that is an even multiple of the accepted distribution frequency. In Europe this has been secured by the adoption of 163 cycles, or one-third of the standard so-cycle system in general use. In the United States the ratio of 60 to 25 is not so satisfactory. Diesel Electric Locomotives.—There was in 1926 very important development in progress in the application of the Diesel oil engine to rail cars and locomotives, both in Europe and in America, and several locomotives have been built with engines of 1,000 to 1,200 H.I’. capacity. The favourite method of connecting the

Table of World Electrification Giving Total No. of Locomotives and Electrified Route Distance in Each Country Country

Voltage

Argentina Brazil . ‘ Canada PaE

D.C.

\Iexico

3

ieee

United States r z. Austria

;

England

.

X

;

France Se cag de Germany

; .

] lolland

a

D.C.

f

DC.

| te

D.C.

| | i |

DE

'

f Norway Spain

Sweden ! Switzerland i . Australia. Japan . i Java . i New Zealand South Africa

í 100

m 160

TO

I5

E

103

2,100 c 860

ggo

28

620

P

D.C. 25 cy. 16}cy-

33I I 245

AC.

-

68

D.C.

10

3 ph.

464

D.C.

3 ph.

600 IC; 1,500 | D.C. 1,500 D.C. 1,500 D.C. 1,500 | D.C. 3,000 D.C.

ms

34 43 12

II4 208

7

2 > 90 6

-

A 498 Ta 113

I 75

Ea

a

25

I3I

a5

, | 16,000 | 16} cy. | 15,000 | 163 cy. 3,000 | 15 cy.

;

R 39 3

II 20

45 cy. 16,000 | 163 cy. 3,000

30 118

D.C. D.C.

16% cy.

Italy

I9 73

1,300 ni 540 3 of 485

D.C.

e

2 21

180 14 67

D.C.

A

+\pprox.

25 cy. 25 cy. 163 cy.

25 cy.

|

Route Appr Distance

D.C. j tives | Miles | Km.

DC: ae rE: 25 a D.C.

.

Chile

Pie

A.C.! | No. of or Locomo-

776

W

ae 792 é te

206

it

ea

oa

ae 120

is 195

870 | 1,400 39

715 ne

63

1,150 he

840 | 1,340

eh 155 32 15

i 250 525 25

t oe =alternating current; D.C. =direct current; cy. =cycles; ph. = phase.

|

|

294

RAILWAY

engine to the drive wheels seems to be by means of an electric generator and railway motors. This offers the most flexible and reliable means by which the speed and tractive effort may be varied to suit the conditions. The Diesel electric system seems to be well suited for use on rail cars, where engines of 250 to 400 H.P. are required, and on slow-speed locomotives used in switching and freight service. The advantages of this type lhe in fuel economy, comparative freedom from smoke, dirt and noise and in greater availability for service, it should prove to be a strong auxiliary in the electrification of the steam railways. General.—The table on p. 293 contains a summary of the principal main line railroad electrifications of the world as they were on Jan. 1 1926. Multiple-unit car equipments are used extensively on the electrifications in Great Britain, Australia, Japan and the United States of America, and almost all of the suburban passenger traffic on the electrified railroads in the cities of London, New York, Philadelphia, To6ky6 and Melbourne is handled by such equipment. BrsLtioGRAPHy.—E. P. Burch, Electric Traction for Railway Trains (1911); Walter Kummer, Die Maschinenlehre der Elektrischen Zugforderung, 2 vol. (1915-20); E. E. Seefchlner, Flektrische Zugforderung (1922); F. W. Carter, Ratlway Electric Traction (1922); W.

Wechmann,

Der Elektrische

Zugbetrieb

der Deutschen

Reichsbahn

(1924); M. Gerstmeyer, Die Wechselstrom-Bahn-Afotoren; Sir Philip Dawson and S. Parker, ‘' Main Line Railway Electrification, " The Engineer, London, 1924- Se L. De Uerebély, “A New Sy stem of Main Line Electrification,” The Engineer, Dec. 5 1924; F. H. Shepard, “ Fhe Development of the Electric Locomotive,” American Railway Association Circular, DV-358. See also LIGHT RAILWAYS,

MILITARY.

(NANa)

RAILWAY STATIONS (see 22.839).—The completion of the Pennsylvania (New York) and Grand Central (New York) stations, in 1910 and 1913 respectively, marked the most Important epoch in the history of passenger station design. It witnessed, for cities of major importance, the passing of the old style single purpose passenger station buildings, the introduction of dual purpose buildings in locations where land values were high, and the intensive development oí the so-called “air rights,” thus permitting of expenditures not warranted from a purely railway operating viewpoint. Both these stations were designed for electric operation, insuring the elimination of the smoke and gas incident to steamoperated layouts and permitting the tracks to be depressed and covered over, with the consequent practicability of the utilisation of space over the yard for private and public buildings. While the advantages of electrification have been demonstrated in the operation of these stations, recent developments in passenger station design and operation seem to have proved that many features first introduced in the electrified stations mentioned can, with proper design, be duplicated in steam operated layouts. This is particularly true of the Chicago Union station, a project which had its inception about rọro, but was completed only in June 1925. Chicago Union e this station is the latest and one of the most interesting of all large stations, it is described here in some detail. It serves as a terminal for four railways—the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy; the Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul; the Pennsylvania system (these three as owners) and the Chicago and Alton (as tenant). Like the Grand Central station, the Chicago Union station is designed to serve two purposes: as a station and asan office building. It is the only station in America of major importance where passengers and baggage are handled on separate platforms, an arrangement making it possible to dispense with baggage elevators between the different trucking levels, these being connected by ramps. It embodies the most complete facilities for handling mail of any railway station in the world. Its design is marked by ap entirely new type of train shed and an ingenious arrangement of interior driveways and platforms which make the use of the city street space unnecessary in the handling of mail and passengers’ baggage. It is also one of the few large passenger stations in the world where the waiting-room, the concourse and the platforms are on the same level.

STATIONS The over-all dimensions of the station proper, or head house, are 320 ft. by 372 fect. The main waiting-room occupies the central court. Because of the necessity of carrying the streets over the tracks, the floor of the main waiting-room is depressed below streetlevel, thus securing the advantages of a common level for the station and the tracks. Necessary inequalities of level are taken care of by almost imperceptible slopes in the floor of the concourse between track grids. While the design of the station provides for greater ultimate development of railway land than any similar project ever undertaken, only eight stories of office building over the station have been completed as yet. Ultimately the office structure will be carricd up to a total height of 25 stories, The design is such that there is a complete segregation of station and office functions in the building, this being accomplished by the depression of the station facilities below street level, the use of six steps up from street level to the office building loggias and the provision of entrances to the office building as remote as possible from the entrances to the station. The office building loggias open into entrance lobbies at the ends of the waiting-room; the lobbies are at an elevation of about r4 ft. above the level of the waiting-room floor, giving the effect of balconies. The station is the only double stub layout in the United States, the tracks heing arranged in two groups separated by the concourse. The tracks vary in capacity, accommodating 7 to 18 car trains, the track group to the south having a capacity of IQI cars, and the group to the north a capacity of 141 cars. Through tracks, east of the station tracks proper, provide connection between the two groups. This arrangement also provides access to the mail terminal tracks for trains or cars entering or leaving the station by either of the two—north and south—approaches. A feature of the station track layout ts the provision of a platform on each side of each track. Alternate platforms are used by passengers and for baggage handling. This permits giving platforms the clevations best suited to their particular uses. However, the chief advantage of the separate platforms for baggage and passengers is direct access from the baggage platforms to the baggage-room

(located in the basement level) by means of ramps sufficient in width to permit the operation of baggage trains in both directions—up

and down—simultaneously. The mail terminal building is 75 ft. wide and 796 ft. long; it encloses 11 ac. of floor area and has a cubical content of 8,500,000 cu. ft.; it was designed to handle 3,000 tons of mail in 24 hours. It is distinguished by its mechanical equipment, including 65 conveyer belts totalling seven m. of belting, overhead trolley conveyer systems, spiral chutes and other devices which provide for the elimination of manual labour in the handling of mail. The train shed provided in this layout ts of an entirely new type, designed to give adequate protection from the weather, to give more than the usual headroom found in low-type sheds, and to keep the trucking platforms free from supporting columns. This involves a transverse span of nearly 50 feet. To avoid decp transverse girders to carry the roof load a heart-shaped truss was developed. With the use of such trusses over cach colurnn it was possible to secure the desired headroom, particularly efficient lighting and ventilation, and a shorter effective span of the transverse girders. To keep the passenger platforms as free as possible from obstructions, the supporting columns for the roof were spaced at nearly 42 ft. centres. A smoke slot over the centre of each track placed at a height to clear the

stacks of locamotives allows the smoke and gas from engines to be

dissipated into open air,

TABLE I. No. of tracks

Station

Grand

Central, N.Y.

;

Pennsylvania, N.Y.

South, Boston

.

4

Union, Chicago , Leipzig ; : St. Lazare, Paris : Liverpool St., London Waterloo, London

.

Northwestern, Chicago. 1 Normal.

25

;

2I

i

28

. :

2I

i

24 26 31 20 16

2 Normal winter service (1925-6).

Trains per day 418! 558! 660 300 400 1,200 1,018

1,261? 314

Passengers per day

100,000 101,400 120,000 65,000 85,000 250,000 242,000 140,000 T4700

The number ts greatly increased

in the summer,

British Railway Stations —In Great Britain very little was done during the period under review (1910~26) in the way of building new railway stations; consequently no English station is included in Table II. The most considerable undertaking was the replanning and enlarging of Waterloo Station, London, the headquarters of the Southern Railway, which was opened

formally by H.M. Queen Mary on March 21 1922.

The plat-

forms are about 7oo ft. in length, of which 540 ft. is under cover. The area covered is 560,000 superficial feet. 1,000 tons:

RAKOVSKY— RAMSAY TABLE Date

Station

completed

Washington, D.C, Pennsylvania, N.Y. . North-western, Chicago . Grand Central, N.Y. Ottawa, Canada . ' Michigan Central, Detroit Kansas City Havana, Cuba Buenos Aires Tokyo Leipzig

1907 I9IO IQII 1913 1912 I9I4 I9I4 IQI4 1916 I9ty IQIS

St. Paul, Minn. Union, Chicago

1922 1925

II. Dimensions

of main building

663x211 430x784 320X218 673Xx30I 28IxI4I 345x266 510x150 240x80 700x604 [1,083x132 9o84

Cost!

ft. |4$120,000,000 ‘' | 115,000,000 *! 24,000,000 “ | 150,000,000 “ os “ 7,000,000 * 55,000,000 “ 400,000 ag ““ 1,400,000

(Frontage) 315x220 ft. 320x372“

32,130,000 20,000,000 75,000,000

1 Includes entire cost of terminal development.

of glass and about 60 m. of metal glazing bars, weighing 95 tons, were used. The reconstruction scheme involved the clearance of a large area and the rehousing elsewhere of the population. The main “A” signal box is one of the largest in the world, and about 24,000 lever movements are performed every 24 hours. The traffic is both steam and electric. Leipzig Station—The Leipzig (Germany) station, completed in r915, has a frontage of 984 ft. and occupies an area of 172,000 sq. feet. The train shed has a high roof of steel and glass, built in the form of six arches; it is 785 ft. long, with an area of 710,soo square ft., and covers 26 tracks. The station serves as a junction for the passenger traffic of Magdeburg, Thuringia and Dresden, and the larger part of the traffic between Prussia and Saxony passes through it. The Leipzig station is the largest, though not the busiest, station in Europe. It is smaller than the Grand Central and Pennsylvania stations in New York, and handles considerably less traffic tham the Gare St. Lazare (Paris), the busiest station in the world. Retiro Station, Buenos Aires.—The Retiro station of the Central Argentine railway at Buenos Aires, said to be the finest station in South America, was opened in the latter part of ro15. The terminal, including buildings, train sheds and approaches, occupies 744,000 sq. ft., and in point of size and design compares with any of the newer stations elsewhere. Tokyo Central Station.—The Central railway station in Tokyo, completed in 1915, was erected at the very small cost of $1,400,000; in the West it would have cost 10 or 20 times as much. The explanation lies in the extremely low price paid for Japanese labour, 20 cents a day (of 10 to 12 hours) for common labourers, and $25 a month for carpenters and masons. Estimated in days’ labour, the cost was 730,000 labourer-days. The main building is of brick and granite, 1,083 it. long, 66 to 132 ft. wide and 54 ft. high, with a dome (152 ft.) at either end. The terminal took the place of three stations which formerly served the three main-line Government railways (J. G. L.) RAKOVSKY, CHRISTIAN GEORGIEVICH (1873), Russian politician and diplomat, of Bulgarian descent and Rumanian nationality, was born Aug. 13 1873 at Kotel, Bulgaria. His father’s home in the Dobruja passed after the Russo-Turkish War to Rumania and the family became Rumanian. Rakovsky’s Bulgarian ancestors, especially his grandfather, had organised risings against the Turkish rule, and the revolutionary traditions of the family were revived in Christian Rakovsky. His revolutionary career began in his college days, when in 1890 on account of his socialist activitics all schools in Bulgaria were closed to him. He therefore went to Geneva, where he joined the International Social Democratic Student movement and came in contact with Plekhanov and other Russian Social Democrats; and also to Germany, where he met Liebknecht. He was expelled from Prussia in 1894; went to France, where he graduated as a doctor of medicine at Montpellier, and wrote his famous thesis on Tke Etiology of Criminality and Degeneration (1897), upholding the Marxian conception of crime as a result of economic conditions, in opposition to the Lombroso theory of the

295

atavistic criminal type. He also studied law, and took an active part in political journalism. Returning to Bulgaria, he recommenced revolutionary activities, and in Russia in the East (1898) denounced Tsarist politics. In 1900 he served his term as an officer in the Rumanian Army. During the peasant riots of 1907 he was expelled from Rumania, his title to Rumanian citizenship not being considered adequate, and his civil rights were only restored in 1912. The five years of Rakovsky’s exile were interrupted by illicit homecomings and consequent labour troubles; the question of his citizenship became a cause célèbre, political parties being sharply divided on the issue, and the whole of the Radical press in Europe supported his claim. After Rumania entered the World War Rakovsky was arrested and imprisoned in various places, and finally at Jassy, whence he was released by the Russians on May 1 1917. Kerensky’s Government was hostile to him, and it was not until after the Soviets came into power in Nov. that he joined the Government. Rakovsky had lived in St. Petersburg in the past, and but for the persecution of the Tsarist government would have settled there. He was well known as a writer on political and economic subjects under the pen name of “‘ Insarov,”’ and a number of his books were written and published in Russia (Modern France, 1900; Metternich and His Time; Turkey and Mucedonia, etc.). Rakovsky’s diplomatic career began with his appointment as head of the delegation entrusted with the peace negotiations with the Ukrainian Central Rada. In to919 he was appointed President of the Soviet of People’s Commissars of the Ukraine, and in 1922 represented Russia at the conference of Genoa. In 1924 he was the Soviet chargé d’affaires in London, and as such negotiated a treaty between the Soviets and the British Labour Government. The treaty, however, was subsequently rejected by the succeeding Conservative administration. In 1926 he was appointed Soviet ambassador to France, and became a member of the Central Committee of the Council of the People’s Commissars. (Z. V.) RAMON Y CAJALSANTIAGO (1852), Spanish histologist, was born May 1 1852 at Petilla de Aragon (Pamplona). He graduated at the University of Saragossa, and went in 1881 as professor to the University of Valencia, and in 1886 to Barcelona, publishing in 1889 his first important work (Elementos de Histologia normal y de Técnica Micrográfica). In that year he discovered “the laws which govern the morphology and the connections of the nerve cells in the grey substance.” In the years 1890 and 1891 he discovered the primary changes of the neurin, and the genetic unity of the nerve fibres and the protoplasmic appendices. During this period of his career he discovered the axis cylinder of the fibres of the cerebellum and their continuity with the parallel fibrillae of the molecular covering, formulated the principle of the dynamic polarisation of the neurins, aided by Van Gehuchten, and worked upon the analysis of the sympathetic ganglia, In 1892 he took the chair of normal histology and pathological anatomy in the University of Madrid. In 1894, on the invitation of the Royal Society of London, he developed systematically his views on morphology and connections of the nervous cells of the spinal medulla, ganglions, cerebellum, retina and olfactory bulb. In 1899 he was called upon by the Clark University (Worcester) to give an exposition of his investigations regarding the cerebral tegumen, and in rgoo the International Congress of Medicine, which met in Paris, gave him the Moscow International Award. He was awarded half the Nobel Prize for medicine In 1906. His work in three volumes, Histologie del Sistema Nervioso de Hombre y de los Vertebrados, appeared between the years 1897 and 1904. In May 1922 he was exempted, on account of long service, from his duties in connection with the chair which he held, and, on the initiative of the Government, he founded the Cajal Institute in Madrid. RAMPOLLA, COUNT MARIANO DEL TINDARO (1843-1913), Italian cardinal (see 22.877), died in Rome Dec. 17 1913. RAMSAY, SIR WILLIAM (1852-1016), British chemist (see 22.880), died at High Wycombe, Bucks., July 23 1916. In 1904 he was awarded the Nobel Prize and in 1911 was president of the

RAMSGATE—RANGE-FINDER

296

British Association. In rọr3 he resigned his professorship of chemistry at University College, London. RAMSGATE, England (sce 22.881), with a population in tg21 of 36,560 and an area of 2,306 ac., retains its picturesque features, though it is a growing place. The district beyond the West Cliff is being developed as a western suburb, and the parade nearly reaches Pegwell. Eastward it has been carried as far as East Cliff Lodge, and the cliff above laid out as gardens. A western undercliff promenade was opened in ro25, and there is a concert hall below the West Cliff promenade. Extensive measures of cliff protection have been necessary both east and west of the town. Fifty acres of land were bought for a recreation ground in 1924, and the site and money for another were given in 1925.

A gun from a German submarine has been placed in Nelson Crescent, and a War Memorial erected in Albion Gardens. Chatham House, a Canadian hospital during the War, has been bought by the county education committee, and is used in part as a county school. During the War a large aerodrome was established at Manston, two miles from Ramsgate. Both railway stations are to be closed, and a new station built at St. Laurence; 14 m. of line, to connect with the line to Broadstairs, will be constructed and the present branch to Margate and part of the line to the Harbour Station closed. During the War 93 bombs were dropped on Ramsgate. Considerable damage was done, but casualties were light. RANDEGGER, ALBERTO (1832-1911), Italian musical composer and conductor, was born in Trieste April 13 1832. He studied piano under Lafont and composition under L. Ricci. After conducting opera at Fiume, Venice and other Italian towns, he settled in London in 1854. He became professor of singing at the Royal Academy of Music in 1868 andl at the Royal College of Music in 1896. He was conductor of the Carl Rosa Co. from 1879 to 1885 and conducted the Norwich Festivals 1881-1905. Randegger, who died in London on Dec. 18 1911, did much towards the popular revival of opera in England. His works include Bianca Capello (1854, opera) The Rival Beauties (1864 comic opera); a setting of the rsoth Psalm; Fridolin (1873, dramatic cantata); and also a valuable Primer on Singing. RANGE-FINDER (see 22.888).—Range-finders or positionfinders, as they are sometimes called, are used both in land and sea warfare.

I. MILITARY

RANGE-FINDERS

The range-finder usually consists of two main parts, viz.: a strong outer tube and an inner frame which supports the delicate telescopic system, any slight derangement of which would seri-

ously upset the accuracy of the range-finder. The outer tube is made as strong and rigid as possible, having regard to the weight which can be allowed. The inner frame is supported in such a way that any slight bending of the outer tube will not affect it. Some form of double end reflector is always used. This at one time consisted of a pentagonal prism, but large pentagonals are very costly; they absorb a good deal of light and are liable to slight distortion with changes of temperature. There is therefore a tendency to replace them by a combination of two

been extensively used by the Germans. Speaking generally, a stereoscopic range-finder contains the clements of a stereoscopic telescope rigidly mounted in a tube. It is very similar in outward appearance to a coincidence range-finder with two eye-pieces. Objects viewed through a stereoscopic range-finder are seen to stand out in stereoscopic relief; and it is comparatively easy for the observer to judge their relative distances. The actual distance of a target is obtained with the assistance of one or more marks which are seen in stereoscopic relief in the field of view. By means of suitable optical arrangements the stereoscopic relief of either the objects in the field of view or of the mark can be varied until the target and mark appear to the observer to be the same distance away from him. The range of the target can then be read off a range-scale attached. Tor

Coast

DEFENCE

Coast defence range-finding instruments may be divided into classes, depending upon the nature of their bases, as follows:— I, Depression instruments, having vertical bases (either rangefinders or position-finders) the accuracy of which depends upon their height above the sea-level. It is usually considered that, to obtain ranges with an error not excceding 1°%, 100 ft. of height is required for every 5,000 yd. of range. All that the range-taker has to do is to keep a cross wire in the telescope of his instrument laid on the water line of the target. 2. Instruments having a fixed horizontal base (usually positionfinders). Each usually consists of two instruments installed at the ends of a base which may be several thousand yards in length, the length required depending upon the range and arc of fire of the gun for which the instrument has been installed. The instrument at one end of the base is known as a transmitter and usually consists of a telescope mounted above an azimuth circle. It measures the bearing of the target and transmits it to the instrument at the other end of the base which is known as the receiving instrument. The bearings may be transmitted by telephone; or, as the telescope is traversed, electric impulses may cause some portion of the receiving instrument, e.g., a metal arm or a dial, to move automatically. The receiving instrument is usually an accurate, solidly constructed plotter, made

to a certain scale, e.g., 500 yd. to an inch.

In its simplest form it

would consist of a base plate upon which two straight arms were

pivoted, the relative positions of the pivots being, to the scale of the instrument, the same as those of the transmitter and receiving instru-

ment. The first arm would be kept set to the azimuth angles received from the transmitter, and the second arm would be kept in line with the target by means of a telescope attached to it. The point where the two arms intersect would represent the relative position of the target. The arms being graduated in ranges and moving over azimuth scales, the range and bearing of the target from either end of the base could be read off. By means of a third arm, pivoted to the base plate in the position representing the position of the gun, the range and bearing of the target from the gun could be ascertained if the arm were brought above or below the point of intersection of the two other arms. 3. One-man range-finders used for coast defences are constructed on the same general principles as those used in the field; but, as their weight and size need not be limited to the same degree, many modifications to make them as accurate and convenient as possible are introduced. Their base lengths are usually between 9 ft. and I0 metres, but even longer bases have been considered. They are practically always of the coincidence type with both fields erect. The Mark ITI. Depression Range-finder will be taken as a type of a depression instrument. In this range-finder the range-finding triangle is reproduced in the instrument on a small scale. Fig. I shows diagrammatically how this is effected by means of two arms.

silvered plane mirrors inclined to one another at 45°, and either fixed in a mount made of a metal having the same coefficient of expansion as glass, or rigidly attached to an upper and lower glass support, to prevent change in their relative positions. The central reflectors usually take the form of two or more prisms balsamed together, and are known as the centre prism combination. Their object is to deflect the rays received through the two ends of the range-finder into the eye-piece, and to

present the two images of the target in the field of view immediately above and below a thin separating line.! Stereoscopic Range-Finders.—The principle of the stereoscopic range-finder is entirely different. Stcreoscopic range-finders have not found much favour in the British services; but they have t A very complete account of the construction and accuracy of this type of range-finder will be found in vol. 4 of the Dictionary of Applied Physics.

1000

9.000

8000

T000

8.000

5,000.

4.000

3.000

2,000

1000

o

Fic. 1.—Diagram of the principle of the two-arm range-finder.

AB represents the height of the axis of the telescope above the surface of the sea BC. Ab represents the distance between the pivot of the telescope arm Ac and the range arm be, and this to the scale of the instrument, represents the height AB. When the instrument is level, the arm cb is horizontal, and therefore parallel to the surface of the sea. cb is subdivided and graduated in equal divisions

RANGER—RANJITSINJI to the scale of the instrument. Ac, which has a telescope mounted on it, is pivoted at A and can be directed on to the water-line of a

target at C. The triangles ABC and Abc are similar, and the length of bec therefore represents to the scale of the instrument, which is 1,000 yd. to an in., the actual range BC. Similarly bd will represent the range BD of a target at D. If the instrument is required for use at any other height than AB, the telescope arm pivot A would be raised to a height above cb corresponding to the new height of the range-finder above the sca. In the foregoing, the surface of the sea has been considered as a plane surface, whereas it is really the surface of a sphere with its centre at the centre of the earth. Allowance for this curvature could be made by making the arm be the arc of a circle instead of a straight line. It is, however, found to be more convenient to curve the telescope arm Ac in the opposite direction, the effect being the same. Corrections for mean refraction are made in the same way as those for the curvature of the earth, but in the opposite direction; the arm Ac being curved to allow for the combined effect of curvature and refraction. For

AIR

DEFENCE

When laying a gun on aircraft, the setting of the sight is based on the height and angle of sight of the target and on the setting of the fuse. At the beginning of the World War, no height-finders were available, so existing one-man range-finders, e.g., the Barr and Stroud, were used, and long-base height-finders which could

be rapidly made were introduced. One-man range-finders were usually of two metres base length, and coincidences were made on the target in the usual way. In order to convert the ranges into heights, a slide-rule attached to the rangefinder was employed. One scale of this slide-rule was automatically sct to the angle of sight of the target, by means of a cam, as the elevation of the range-finder was altered. ‘The other scale was sct to the range recorded by the range-finder, and the height of the target could then be read off, Long-base height-finders usually consist of two instruments at the ends of a base about a mile in length. Sighting planes in these instruments are kept laid on the target; the triangle formed by the intersection of a vertical plane with three planes, one of which is a horizontal plane passing through the base and the other two are extensions of the sighting planes, is mechanically solved; and the height of the point where the two planes of sight intersect (/.e., the height of the target above the base) is plotted at the same time. Q

297

ing to a logarithmic scale of heights. It will be noted that the angle of elevation and the range are determined by the instrument, so that the duty of the gears is to convert the angle and range scales to logarithmic form and then to add them together by means of the differential gear as explained above. The conversion of the reciprocal range scale motion of the range-finder deflecting prism gear into logarithmic range scale motion, and the angular motion, of the rangefinder in elevation into motion corresponding to a logarithmic scale of sines, is done in each case by means of toothed spiral gears.

Il. NAVAL RANGE-FINDERS The Barr and Stroud range-finder is now used almost universally by navies. From the description of the principle it is seen that the accuracy of the instrument depends upon the length of its base. Since fighting ranges at sea have now been increased up to the limits of visibility, there has lately been a general increase in the base length of the range-finders which are carried afloat. In the British service, the first Barr and Stroud instruments had a 43ft. base, and this was soon increased to 9 feet. In ro11 a 15-ft. instrument was introduced, and this became the standard for the capital ships during the World War. In some of the latest ships the base has been increased to 30 ft., these instruments being mounted in turrets and gun control towers. ‘The original mountings of the range-finders were simple and the

45 and g-ft. instruments can be worked by one man. In the larger instruments, however, it is necessary to have one man to keep the instrument “laid ” upon the object whilst the observer confines himself to making the ‘‘ cuts” or observations,

which

are as a rule transmitted clectrically to the transmitting station, The Barr and Stroud range-finder stood the strenuous test of the War and was satisfactory. it has the great advantage that any man with normally good eyesight can be easily trained to obtain accurate observations with it. Also, the adjustments which are required to keep the instrument accurate can be readily made at sea. At metre base range-finder isin use in the British service for station keeping and navigational work. A range-finder constructed on the sextant principle—the Waymouth-Cooke—has been used to a considerable extent on British destroyers. It is small and handy, but except on very short ranges it is far from accurate and has now been superseded by the

short-base Barr and Stroud. In the German Navy a Zeiss stereoscopic range-finder was used io a great extent, and it has also been adopted by some other countries. It has, however, the great disadvantage, that to use one of these instruments the observer must have stereoscopic vision—a rare gift and one which varies from day to day. This makes it inferior for general service at sea to the simpler Barr A a B Fic. 2.—Diagram of the principle of the long-base height- finder. The principle of this method is shown in fig. 2. AN and BY are two horizontal lines, parallel to each other. The sighting planes of the instrument would be attached to axles whose axes were on any parts of AX and BY. AXQZ and BYQZ represent planes of which the sighting planes form small parts. It is obvious that QZ is horizontal, and that ZK, PL or any vertical line between QZ and the horizontal line KL (which is parallel to the axes of the sighting planes) represents the height of an aireraft in the line QZ, say at P. If now the two stations, A and B, make simultancous readings of the altitude angles of P, and if one station, say B, telephones its

reading to A, the height of P can be determined by a simple form of plotter. The principal disadvantage of long base height-finders is the difficulty of getting the two instruments on to the same target. Range- and Ileight-Finder.—TVhe optical parts of this instrument are similar to those of the ordinary two-metre base range-finder, but the deflecting prism is moved by gearing so arranged that when the height of the aircraft remains constant, the coincidence will not alter, although the range may be changing. The instrument is essentially a range-finder, and in a smali casing on top ranges are converted into heights by the mechanical solution of the equation log r+log sin a = logh, where r is the range, Athe height and a the angle of sight of the target; a differential gear is employed, the upper member of which is rotated in accordance with a logarithmic sine scale of angles of sight, and the lower member is rotated in accordance with a logarithmic scale of ranges, the jockey wheel accordingly revolving around the axis of the differential with a motion correspond-

and Stroud instrument. (See GUNNERY.) (S. H. W.) RANGER, HENRY WARD (1858-1916), American painter (see 22.891), died in New York City Nov. 7 1916.

RANGOON

(see 22.891), the capital of Burma and the third

seaport of British India, had a population, very diverse in nationality and religion, of 341,962 in ig21, including about 125,000 Hindus, 62,000 Moslems, 25,000 Christians and 12,000 Chinese. The Burmese, who prefer the rural districts, were about 112,o001n number. The municipality, which is about 28

sq. m. in area, is lit with electric light and supplied with water from a large reservoir lake £7 m. distant, and has now a good drainage system, About 90% of the foreign trade of the province passes through the port, where the headquarters of the railway system and of all large commercial concerns are situated. Rangoon is the greatest rice port of the world, with a considerable I'ar Eastern trade, and the value of commerce in 1921, 1922 and 1923 was much larger than m any previous years. Native industries include wood and ivory carving, and gold and silver work. The Phayre museum, removed to make room for the general hospital, has been placed in the secretariat, pending the erection of new buildings. A teaching and residential university was opened in 1920. RANJITSINJI, KUMAR SHRI (1872), Maharaja of Na. vanagar, was born at Sarodar, in the province of Kathiawar, Sept. 10 1872. By race a Rajput, he was educated first at Rajkumar College, Rajkot and afterwards at Trinity College, Cam-

298

RAPALLO— RASPUTIN

bridge, where he leaped into eminence as a cricketer, subsequently becoming familiar to the British public by the affectionate designation of “ Ranji.” He first played for Sussex in 1895 and in 1897-8 he was a member of the Stoddart all-England eleven which went to Australia. He headed the English batting averages in 1896 and again in rg00. On his cousin’s death in 1907 he succeeded as chief of the state of Navanagar, in the Bombay Presidency of India, and quickly developed into an enlightened and sagacious ruler. During the early part of the World War, he provided troops for the Allies, and himself served at the front in France. He represented the Indian States on the League of Nations Assembly in 1920 and became vice-chancellor of the Indian Chamber of Princes. He wrote The Jubilee Book of Cricket (1897); With Stoddart’s Team in Australia (1898); Cricket Guide, and Howto Play Cricket (1906). Sce P. C. Standing, Ranjitsinji, Prince of Cricket (1903). RAPALLO, TREATY OF (April 16 1922).—During the Conference of Genoa (see GENOA, CONFERENCE OF), at which it was designed to consider the economic relations of the participating Powers with Russia, the Russian delegates showed no great desire to resume relations with the Allied and Associated Powers, but to the consternation of the latter signed an agreement with Germany, after secret negotiations. The Treaty was initialled on April 16 1922 by M. Chicherin and M. Rathenau. Germany and Russia renounced reciprocally all claims to war indemnities of any sort, including payment for the maintenance of prisoners of war. Germany renounced any compensation for losses incurred by German subjects in consequence of Russian socialisation of private property ‘provided that the Soviet Govt. does not satisfy similar claims of other States. ” Diplomatic and consular relations were resumed, the principle of the most

favoured nation was to be mutually applied, with a Russian reservation in favour of States formerly belonging to the Russian Empire. Economic relations were to be regulated “ with mutual feelings of goodwill.” The Treaty was made public

immediately on signature (English translation is printed as a British White Paper, Cmd. 1637 of 1922), and it was emphatically denied that it contained any secret political or military clauses. On Nov. 5 1922 the Treaty was extended to the Ukraine, White Russia, the Transcaucasian republics and the Far Eastern republic. RAŠIN, ALOIS (1867-1923), Czechoslovak statesman, was born at Nechanice. While at the university he took an active part in politics, and his abilities as an orator, journalist and organiser brought him into the forefront of the Czech progressive movement. His anti-Austrian activities brought him into conflict with the authorities; he was tried in connection with

the ‘‘ Omladina ” affair in 1893 and condemned to two years imprisonment and the loss of his doctorate. After serving his sentence he gained a prominent position in the Czech Liberal (“ Young Czech ”) party, which he represented both in the

provincial diet of Bohemia and in the Austrian Reichsrath. During the anti-Czech persecution In the World War period, Dr. Ragin, together with Dr. Kramar, was arrested in tors, charged with treason and condemned. to death. The sentence, however, was not carried out, and after the accession of the Emperor Karl, Dr. Rasgin, with other political prisoners, was amnestied. He then took part in the preparations for the revolutionary coup in 1918, which, as a member of the National Committee, he helped to bring about. In the first Czechoslovak Govt. he became Finance Minister and rendered inestimable services to his country by freeing the Czechoslovak currency from that of Austria and inaugurating a financial policy which led to the stabilisation of the Czechoslovak crown. He described his achievement in a book entitled Frnanciai Policy of Czechoslovakia During the First Year of its History (1921, Eng. trans., 1923). In January 1923 he was attacked by a demented youth and died of his injuries six weeks afterwards, on Feb. 16 1923.

RASMUSSEN, KNUD JOHAN VICTOR (1879), Danish explorer, was born at Jakobshavn, Greenland, June 7 1879. In i1go2 he made the first of several expeditions to Greenland

and the northern polar regions. Between 1905 and 1924 Rasmussen visited all the extant Eskimo tribes and ascertained that they were originally Red Indian tribes which had wandered east and west from the coast. Rasmussen, whose ancestors in the maternal line were Eskimos, gained a thorough knowledge of arctic peoples and customs and made them the subject of numerous tracts and publications, including Nye Mennesker (1905); Myter og Sagn fra Gronland (1921) and Gronland Langs Polhavet (1919). The last mentioned work has been translated into English by G. A. and R. Kennedy as Greenland by the Polar Sea (1921). RASPUTIN, GREGORY EFIMOVITCH (1871-1916), Russian monk, was born in 1871 in the village of Pokrovskoe, near Tyumen, in the province of Tobolsk, Siberia. He was the son of a poor peasant whose disorderly behaviour resulted in his being given the name of Rasputin, meaning “ debauchee.” He received no education, and till the end of his life was unable to write properly. He spent the first part of his life till the age of 33 in his native village; he married in 1895 a well-to-do girl, Olga Chanigoff, and they had two daughters and a son. In rgo04 Rasputin resolved to change his mode of living. He left his family and devoted himself to religious exercises, declaring to his people that he was inspired by God. His passionate nature, his great physical strength and the superstitious atmosphere in which he had been brought up, gave an unexpected direction to his religious exaltation. Jle adopted the views of the sect known under the name of “ Khlysty,?” the leading idea of whose teaching was that salvation could be‘achieved only by repentance,

“Sin in order that you may obtain forgiveness ’’—was the practical rule which he drew from this doctrine. “A particle of the Supreme Being is incarnated in me ’’—~he told his hearers. “Only through me you can hope to be saved; and the manner of your salvation is this: you must be united with me in soul and body. The virtue that goes out from me is the source of light, the destruction of sin ” (E. J. Dillon, The Eclipse of Russia). This extravagant and dangerous teaching, which resulted in practice in the most wild orgies, not only created for Rasputin immense popularity and the reputation of a holy man among his fellowpeasants, but opened before him the doors of some of the most fashionable Russian houses and even those of the Imperial Palace. Looking for new experiences Rasputin left his native village, and made long pilgrimages to various holy places, and even went to Mount Athos and Jerusalem. Hespent some time in different monasteries and applied himself to the study of holy books, but his lack of elementary education reduced the results of his labours almost to nothing. He only retained by heart some incomprehensible passages, and often used them in his prophecies. Ife had, however, a strong magnetic power, the inlluence of which was recognised by his bitterest opponents. In 1907, during a stay in St. Petersburg (Leningrad), Rasputin was introduced to the Archimandrite Feofan, rector of the ‘Theological Academy and confessor to the Empress, who took an interest in the story of his conversion. The Archimandrite, with the assistance of the Grand Duchesses Militza and Anastasia, presented Rasputin at Court, and he produced a deep impression on the Empress and Emperor. The mystic atmosphere which always prevailed at the Russian Court, and which was especially strengthened by the disasters of the Japanese War, the internal troubles in roo; and the constant fear for the health of the Tsarevich, created a convenient background for the appearance of such a man. His disdain for all rules of good behaviour, his dark prophecies, and, above all, the eventual improvement in the health of the Grand Duke Alexis, which more than once seemed to result from his influence when medicine was ineffectual,

created

an exceptional

position for him with the Empress.

Disgusted with the Russian intellectual classes and the bureaucracy, she saw in Rasputin the representative of the mass of peasantry, the only sure support of orthodoxy and autocracy, specially sent by God to save the heir to the throne and preserve the dynasty. Rasputin took advantage of this belief, and did his best to

RATHENAU persuade the Empress that his fate was closely tied with that of the imperial family. The example of the Court was followed by a large section of the upper class, and many doors were opened for the “ Saviour,” as the Empress used to call him. For some time Rasputin was satisfied by this side of his social success, and at first he did not interfere in politics. But his activity was felt in church questions. His friendship with the famous monk, Heliodor, and the Bishop of Saratov, Hermogen, which resulted in a complete rupture between them and in a

series of scandals, had a painful echo in the country. The appointment of Varnava, an illiterate peasant and a friend of Rasputin, to be Bishop of Tobolsk in 1911, and the extraordinary servility with which the Holy Synod followed the wishes of the favourite, provoked a strong opposition among ali classes of society. The most prominent upholders of orthodoxy demanded a complete reorganisation of the Russian church. and denounced the servile attitude of the Holy Synod. Guchkov, the Octobrist leader, in a famous speech delivered at the state Duma, made direct allusions to the nefarious influence exercised by Rasputin. But the influence of the “ Saviour ”? was too strong to be checked by any expression of feeling in the country, and Rasputin triumphed over all his enemies. An unsuccessful attempt to kill him, made by a certain Guseva in 1914, incited by the monk Heliodor, only strengthened his influence, which became especially powerful during the two last years of the imperial régime. No important nomination was made without his approval, and the most unexpected people rose to the highest offices as the result of hisinterference. Rasputin was too ignorant to have any opinion on political questions: he was in most cases an instrument of the reactionaries. Numberless stories of the debauchery practised at the Court, in which the name of Rasputin was coupled not only with some of the court ladies but even with that of the Empress herself, became a common topic of conversation in all classes of Russian society. At length a supreme effort to free the Empire and the dynasty from his influence was made by a small group of men of the highest social position, which included the Grand Duke Dimitri Pavlovich, Prince Yussupoff and M. Purichkevich. Rasputin was invited to a supper at the Yussupoff Palace on Dec. 15 1916, and shot dead, after an attempt at poisoning him with a strong dose of potassium cyanide mixed with wine had not produced the desired effect. His body was thrown under the ice of a canal. The death of Rasputin was a terrible shock to the

Empress; she transferred his body to the park of Tsarskoe Selo, where a special chapel was erected, and came every night to pray on his grave. The Grand Duke Dimitri Pavlovich was sent to Persia to join a fighting column. Yussupoff was ordered to leave St. Petersburg (Leningrad) and interned in his estate. Purichkevich, protected by his immense popularity in the army and by his title of member of the Duma, returned to his work on the front. (P. Vr.) See Letters of the Tsaritsa to the Tsar 1914-6 (1923); and further

letters published in Fhe Manchester Guardian, Jan. 9 and Feb. 7 1924. RATHENAU, WALTHER (1867—1922), German statesman and industrialist, was born in Berlin Sept. 29 1867, the son of Emil Rathenau, the founder of the Allgemeine ElektrizitätsGesellschaft. After studying philosophy, physics and chemistry at Berlin and Strasbourg he graduated in 188ọ, and spent a year studying machine structure and chemistry at Munich. He was then engaged as a civil engineer by the Aluminium Industrie A.-G. of Neuhausen, Switzerland.

In 1893 he became a director of the Electrochemische Werke G.m.b.H. at Bitterfeld for the utilisation of a process for making chlorine and alkalis by electrolysis. He also built large works at Rheinfelden, in Russian Poland, and in France, and elaborated processes for the production of ferrosilicate, chrome, soda and magnesia. In 1899 Rathenau became a director of the AHgemeine Electrizitats-Gesellschaft, and built central stations at Manchester, Amsterdam, Buenos Aires and Baku. In 1902 he belonged to the board of directors of about roo enterprises. During 1907 Rathenau accompanied Dernburg, the Secretary of

State of the Imperial Colonial Office, to German East and West

299

Africa, and also visited the British Colonies in Africa. His Reflexionen (1908) contain his two final reports on those visits. The year 1912 marked his first public appearance in politics. He published Zr Kritik der Seit, in which he subjected the existing social and economic order to severe criticism. His fundamental philosophic work, Zar Mechanik des Geistes, appeared in 1913. Even at the beginning of the World War Rathenau realised the

whole extent of the danger which the British blockade meant to Germany as regards raw material. In an astoundingly short time, with the acquiescence of the War Minister Von Falkenhayn, he established a huge organisation for the administration of the war raw materials then at Germany’s disposal. This Board of the War Ministry, called the “ Kriegsrohstoff-Abteilung,”’ which he left in splendid working order to his successor on March 31 1915, alone made it possible for Germany to hold out with raw material till the end of the War. After his father’s death in the summer of 1915 Rathenau was made president of the Allgemeine Elektrizitats-Gesellschaft, to which he devoted his best energy. During this time he published Vou Kommenden

Dingen (Eng. trans. In Days to Come), Eine

Streitschrift vom Glauben and Vom Aktienwesen. In 1918 his collected works were published. After the War Rathenau endeavoured to found a middle-class Democratic Party which was to bridge the gulf between the middle classes and labour caused by the revolution, and in this way to restore to the country its unity. In 1919 he was called by the government to participate in the preliminary preparations in Berlin for the Conference of Versailles. From April 1920 to May 30 1921 Rathenau was a member of the so-called ‘ Socialising Commission ” convoked by the newly founded “ Reichswirtschaftsrat ” in order to discuss the question of nationalising the coalmines. In the summer of 1920 he submitted to the public his report on this question, in which he proposed to hand over the privately owned coal-mines to the state with a reasonable compensation and within a space of about 30 years. He was appointed government expert at the Spa conference of July 1920, and in the spring of rọ21r took part in the preliminaries to the London Conference. At the end of May 1921 he was asked by the Chancellor Wirth to join the government. The two leading men of the Cabinet thus formed, Wirth and Rathenau, were united by deep confidence and friendship. The combination of the Chancellor’s original and impulsive nature, his courage and love of responsibility, was a happy blend with Rathenau’s far-sighted and extraordinary capability. Rathenau as well as the Chancellor realised that the chief task was how to bring about a better understanding abroad of Germany’s real position, thereby annulling her complcte isolation, just once more revealed at the London Conference (AprilMay 1921) and leading to a “reasonable solution” of the reparation problem. This policy of mutual understanding was to secure peace for Germany, Europe and the world, a peace absolutely necessary for the reconstruction of what had been destroyed. In a speech made at Stuttgart a fortnight before his death Rathenau characterised the task allotted to him as follows:— When in a space of 100 years the history of this epoch will be written, then the question will be carefully investigated: Where were the first threads of peace tied? llow was it possible in a world poisoned by hatred and on a planet flaming with the passion of mutual revenge, in a world of destruction and dissension to knit the first threads? The answer will be: The German nation has united these threads by its patience, its energy, its positive will, its idealism, by its sense of sacrifice.

In this spirit Rathenau co-operated in the final conclusion of the Peace Treaty with the United States of America in Aug. 1921. As Minister of Reconstruction he concluded with Loucheur, the French Minister of the Régions Libérées, an agreement at Wiesbaden, securing to France the privileged supply of deliveries in kind as reparation payment, which contributed greatly to the relaxing of the tension between France and Germany. However, this fact did not, unfortunately, react on

the Upper Silesian decision of the League of Nations.

The

300

RATIONING

disruption of the Upper Silesian coal and iron district, quite contrary in German opinion to the Versailles Treaty and to the result of the plebiscite, provoked Rathenau to a demonstrative resignation from the Cabinet. Rathenau did not withdraw his help from the Cabinet, however, and went, deputed by the same, in Nov. and Dec. 1921 to London, to enlist England's interest and understanding, and moreover to secure a British loan for the next reparation installment due from Germany. This loan was refused, for the reason that “‘ under prevailing conditions ’’ decreed by the reparation commission for the German liabilities during the next year such a loan could not be granted by Britain. Whilst in England Rathenau came in touch with the then leaders of the British Government. Under his inlluence arose George “ Project of Chequers, ” which for a certain practical form to the idea of a Europe ” by proposing the reconstruction the united economic forces of the other chief including Germany. The ideas underlying

the famous Lloyd the first time gave “ United States of of Russia through nations of Europe, the later Pact of

Locarno (1925) were also discussed. In Paris, whither Rathenau went immediately after the London negotiations, he found less support. Nevertheless, the project discussed at Chequers led to the conference of Cannes (Jan. 1922), which gave Rathenau the opportunity, in an eloquent speech, to declare before the world the impossibility of the London reparation demands and to obtain an essential diminution for the reparation payment of 1922. It led also to the great economic conference of Genoa (April-June 1922) in which for the first time since the War Germany was admitted on equal terms with the other Powers. In the meantime, at the wish of the Chancellor, Wirth, Rathenau had entered the Cabinet again, this time as Minister for Foreign Affairs. The negotiations in Genoa, opened under such great auspices, did not unfortunately produce the expected esult of a united European work of reconstruction. The fundamental theme for the settlement of the question of reparation was not discussed owing to the opposition of the French Govt, led by Pcincaré; Russia also would have nothing to do with the Chequers plan. But separate negotiations between British and French representatives took place with Russia to the exclusion of Germany. Rathenau, fearing that these secret negotiations would be carried out at the expense of Germany, accepted on April 16 1922 at Rapallo the Treaty of Peace and Friendship offered by the Russians, cancelling all reciprocal demands which had accrued from the War, thereby visibly proving that Germany was endeavouring on all sides to unite the threads which had been torn asunder by the catastrophe. The climax of his endeavour to lead back the minds of the nations from their condition of blind hatred to the “ way of reason ”? was shown by his great speech in Genoa on May rọ 1922, which, after a concise summary of the hindrances to Europe’s reconstruction and the necessary steps for the accomplishment of the same, ended with the soul-stirring cry of

Petrarch:.“* Pace—Pace—Pace!”” The question of the alleged war guilt of Germany was one that Rathenau had mostly at heart. He zealously furthered the publication of the preWar documents and declared, on July 13 1922: “‘ The way of truth is long; it is all the longer as the lack of European interest has caused the questions which to us are vital questions to be looked upon as solved and the verdict of history as pronounced. The verdict can only be pronounced by a universally acknowledged tribunal. Our search for the truth will not be satisfied till, in the name of history, a verdict has been passed by an authorised tribunal.” The effects of the inflation of the currency on the middle classes, who had made great sacrifices during the War and were now absolutely impoverished, caused him the greatest anxiety. Many relief measures for these classes were passed owing to his efforts. At the same time he fully realised that German industry,

when no longer under the influence of the inflation, would have to encounter extraordinary dangers; but that the development of reparation payment in kind and the treaty with Russia

would at least ensure some work for industry in the impending hard times of recovery. Nevertheless, he considered that all attempts in this province must of necessity be frustrated until the burden of reparation was kept within reasonable bounds. Rathenau, however, was not permitted to sce the fulfilment of his plans. On his usual morning drive from his house to the Foreign Office on June 24 1922 he fell a victim to the bullets and hand-grenades of misguided young Germans, who by this deed robbed their country, not only of a great philosopher and industrialist, but of one of their most fervent patriots and of the best Foreign Minister of that time. The intransigeance of Poincaré made Rathenau’s politics appear too lenient to the

fanaticised eyes of his youthful murderers. The anti-Semitism which is always wont to follow great upheavals contributed the rest. Numerous threats had preceded the murder; Rathenau knew too well to what dangers he was exposed during the whole of his public career as Minister, and in the proud consciousness of the integrity of his intentions he declined every attempt of the Chancellor and his friends to surround him with detectives. The space available is insufficient to deal with Rathenau’s philosophy as expressed in his writings. He was, in the philosophical sense, an idealist. Adopting the evolutionary theories of Leibnitz and Darwin, he saw the development of man’s purpose in three stages—first, prehistoric man wholly guided by instinct, then historical man led by intellect and conscious purpose, and lastly the man of the future whose fulfilment will be in the kingdom of the soul. “ The soul is no weapon, ” says Rathenau. It thus stands in contrast to the whole spiritual world of the instinct and purpose resulting from the struggle of life. In the social world, whilst believing in an aristocracy of the mind, he realised that democracy was necessary to consolidate the crumbling foundations of the socicty of his day. A capitalist by birth and training, without repudiating his creed he held that in countries like Germany, carrying the burden of a dense population, “* Consumption, like all enormous activities, is not an individual but a communal affair ”; “ The equalisation of property and income is prescribed both by ethics and by economics’; ‘ The extant sources of wealth are: monopolies in the widest sense, speculation and inheritance’; “The restriction of the right of inheritance, in conjunction with the equalisation of popular education at a higher level, will throw down the barriers which now separate the economic classes of society, and will put an end to the hereditary enslavement of the lower classes.” Rathenau’s collected works (5 vol.) were published in 1925. The following were not included and appeared separately: Die Nene Wirtschaft (1918); An Deutschlands Jugend (1918); Zeitliches (1918); Nach der Fiut (1919); Der Kaiser (1919); Der Nene Staat (1919) (Eng. trans. The New Society; Krit. der dreifachen Revalution (1919); Die neue Geselischafi (1919); Aulonome Wirtschaft (191g); Was wird werden? (1920); Demokr. Entwicklung (1920); Albert Kollmann (1921); Reden (1924); Briefe (1926). The Ruthenau Stiftung (Berlin), founded after his death, collects all bibliographical material,

(F. Sı.) RATIONING.—This is a term of military origin, indicating the apportionment to each member of a population or of an army of his due share of the available supplies. As usually understood, the process of “ rationing” is associated with the distribution of commodities in a time of shortage. It aims at just and economical distribution and the prevention of improvident consumption. During the World War most countries were compelled to ration foodstufls in the public interest. Nature of the Operation.—A complete and effective system of rationing involved the control of commodities at every stage from the source of supply to the consumer. Rationing proved to be a twofold problem, positive in the securing and conserving of supplies, negative in the prevention of injustice, waste and fraud. The consumer saw only a small part of a complex and far-reaching organisation. The economic order of the operations involved is: (1) supply; (2) distribution to localities; (3) distribution to consumers or rationing. The experience of rationing schemes has led to the establishment of a fundamental rule, T.e., “that supply must precede the ration ’’; in other words, sup-

RATIONING plies must be assured before scientific distribution can be attempted.

During the World

War

two distinct rationing plans were

evolved, by Germany and Great Britain respectively. Other countries adopted one or other of these schemes, with more or

less modification.

I. THE

CENTRAL

EUROPEAN

SYSTEMS

In Sept. ror4, the general commanding in Brandenburg assumed control of all cereals, and, before the end of the year, bread cards had appeared in many German cities. By the early ‘days of rors, all bread cereals in Germany were under official management. The method adopted to deal with supplies and distribution gives the keynote for all the Central European efforts at rationing. The control of bread was quickly followed by that of practically every article of daily consumption. The German scheme was based on the local control of consumption, and this reposed on a supply in the main nationally controlled. Distribution and control were largely conditioned by the existing machinery of local government, with ils regular gradation from the Reich to the Commune. The registration system already in use rendered it easy for the local authorities to determine the incidence of demand, and the management of actual “ rationing ” fell naturally into their hands.

Control of Bread Cereals.—VYaking the control of bread cereals as an example, the system may be thus described: The consumer was provided with a card, with dated and numbered sections, and the appropriate section was cancelled by the retailer or official distributor when the ration allotted by the local authority Gsommunalverband) was purchased. Card sections were only valid_as dated and numbered. This was to prevent fraud and sudden fluctuations in demand. RBona-fide travellers used special cards. Supplies were allotted to Kommunalverbadnde on the basis of the amounts avallable and the number of “ men ”’ to be fed. Manual workers received slightly more than a ‘‘ man’s’ ration, and women and childrén less. The Kommunalverband got its supplies either from local producers,

or from the authorities of the Kreis. These again indented on the next highest authority, and, step by step, the requisitions went on till they reached the central authority of all. This was a company formed, partly of business representatives, partly of government nominees, and capitalised partly by subscription and partly by government funds. Beyond this central company, which controlled only the supplies of its own particular group of products, was the Imperial Food Bureau, with corresponding Ministries in most of the Federal states. All supplies of breadstufts, except those allowed to the producers for their own sustenance, had to be held at the disposal of the central company, which, in the case of cereals, was the Reichsgetreidestelle.

The country’s supplies were thus centralised, and the requirements of the various subordinate authorities were met in that degree which the national or local food policy made possible. Flour and all corn products were of necessity included in the scheme. This complicated machinery resulted in faulty distribution, especially as supplies became less plentiful. The Central Empires had to rely for their food supplies almost exclusively on home production. ‘They had, therefore, to face

the problem of obtaining the articles to be distributed from the actual producers. A special ration was allowed to “self suppliers ” (Selbstversorger), which, although small, was generally greater in amount than that allowed to other people. This was inevitably accompanied by evasion of regulations. If the selfsupplier could conceal part of his output he could retain more than his official “ ration,” and this he usually succeeded in doing. As official rations dwindled, the practice of concealing output increased, and an extensive illicit trade (Schleich-handel) came into being. The activities of this trade completely upset the calculations of the German and Austrian food controllers, and by the middle of 1917 the rationing authorities themselves were obliged to have recourse to this eflicient and wide spread organisation. The German plan for rationing food was beginning to break down. ‘Till the end of the War the central European situation was one of increasing difficulty. Il. THE

BRITISH

SYSTEM

The British control of foodstuffs began to take shape in 1917. This system, as finally organised, depended principally on the

301

fact that the bulk of supplies was seaborne. Nearly all articles. therefore, came naturally and easily under public control from the moment they entered the country. Since Britain met her problems after Germany had been compelled to deal with similar difficulties, she had the advantage of the German experience. The British authorities had first of all to find out the real incidence of demand. This was accomplished indirectly by the first measures adopted to deal temporarily with the effects of shortage in the supply of sugar, and the movement of population occa-

sioned by the concentrated effort to produce munitions of war. Sugar Supplies —In Aug. 1914, a Royal Commission on Sugar Supplies was set up. By the end of 1916 sugar began to be in short supply. Each trader, wholesale or retail, was then given 50° of his 1915 supply, and left to share this among his customers as best he could. In June 1917, the Cabinet decided upon a rationing scheme, under which each houscholder was invited to register with a particular retailer, to whom supplies were issued at a given ration per head of registered customers. In order to work this first sugar rationing scheme, some 1,800 food control committees were appointed by local authorities. Their expenditure was met from national funds, and they were supervised by r5 divisional food commissioners. These commissioners were appointed by a special wartime Ministry of Food, at the head of which was the Food Controller. Food Committees Established —The 1,800 food committees were appointed in Aug. by the local authorities, and each set up its food office, appointed its executive officer and distributed to each household in its district a sugar card, showing the number of persons in the household and having a counterfoil for deposit with the retailer. Thus, the whole population was completely registered by households, in each district. In Oct. and the following months this scheme was revised, and household cards were exchanged for individual cards, which became the sole title to the sugar ration. On Jan. r 1918, the rationing of individuals began, and as meantime other food supplies (e.g., tea, margarine, bacon, cheese) had begun to run short, and there was no hope of a national rationing scheme being made effective for some months, local food committees had, therefore, to arrange for the consumers under their charge as they best could. Several of them, that of Birmingham notably, began to use the powers of requisition granted to them by the Ministry of Food, and to distribute supplies to retailers, with whom consumers had to be registered. General provision for such schemes was made by an Order of the Food Controller, dated Dec. 22 1917. The same difficulty arose, however, as had been experienced in Germany many months before; different action by the authorities of adjacent districts led to confusion and discontent while some foods, such as margarine or frozen meat, were entirely unsuitable for local control. In London these difliculties at once became pressing. Rationing in Force,—

CAMM

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4

pays

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96 000 000 000 000 000}

e000 00031

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receiving

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358 000000}

I7 Octaves

circuit. (c)Can be reflected. refracted &

diffracted.

83

HERTZIAN WAVES

83 000 000

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21470

350 000}

85900

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6x10'°——CHELMSFORD

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A

into alternating current

which can then be detected

I Octaves

or measured. (c) By rectification,

with or without “heterodyning” & production of audible telephone signals.

isa000 43x10'4

$460|————5 4a 000|

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sl—

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87 300-343 609 21800|-

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5 590 000}

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plates. (d}Can be reflected & refracted by

SQ A So

356 000000 000 |——~——— 0-0819

of light. (¢+Photographg

æ) Chemical action. RAYS (d}Photo-electric effects$ lOctave (e)Can be reflected &

eee effects an thermo-couples INFRA-RED on bolometers. (b)By rise of RAYS temperature of receivig todi (c) Photographic effects on special 9 Octoves

005 12

1460 000 000 000|————— 1-0205

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\

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N

0.00 28

: . bodies &emitted by

(a)Photography, (b)Phosphorescent effects with 1019 suitable moterials, (c)Chemical action. (d Octaves _—.. of gases. (e)Photo-electric effects. (f)Con be reflected & refracted & diffracted by finely ruled gratings.

P

375 000 000 000 000} 000008

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Ler

:

7

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ities

Detection

PEC

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23 500 000 600 cca

X-RAYS

(a) Photography, (b)Phosphorescent effects with suitable t4 Octaves materials. {c)Chemical action. (d)lonisation of gases. (e)Emission

ss 000 000

g5| e

352 000 ooo

Approximate Frequencies

Wave Lengths in Centimetres

Cait rotating in magnetic field.

WVU YIN. WRAY Detection

(a)Mechanical. (b)Electricat. (c)Magnetic.

SLOW OSCILLATIONS

CORRESPONDING TO VERY

(d) Thermal effects of alternating currents.

LONG WAVES

3-5x10°°

MMM:

Wave Lengths in ngstrom Units

Fic. 1.—Diagram showing range of electromagnetic waves.

62 octaves: uniform velocity of 30,000,000,000 centimetres per second.

From Phases of Modern Science,

By permission of the Royal Socicty.

306

RAYS

supplies? We kindle the log fire as the nights draw in and there leaps into life again the sunshine of by-gone summers. We delve into the earth for coal and oil to augment the parsimony of the northern climate and stumble into a civilisation of steam and gas and electricity, such as the world has not before scen. But the glow of its furnaces is again that of the sunshine when the world was young, stored by the giant tree-ferns of the carboniferous era, ages before there was such a thing as man. In the last analysis the chariots of science are still harnessed to the same steeds as those that Boadicea flung against the Roman legions. But though unharnessed as yet and in the keeping of the future as regards thcir application, there are now known to theoretical science the higher powers that command and equip the chariots of the suns. Radiation and Life—In the whole economy of nature there seems to be one only door through which the prodigal outpourings of energy from the sun can find their way into the world of life. It is through chlorophyll, the green colouring matter of the leaves of all plants. The ordinary processes of destructive metabolism are the same as those of combustion and may be written after the manner of a chemical equation :—

Carbon compounds with Hydrogen + Oxygen= Carbon Dioxide + Water + Energy. In the presence of chlorophyll illuminated by the sun’s rays, this process is reversed and the energy of the light is stored up in the form of the carbohydrates—cellulose, starch, dextrin and sugar—produced in the tissues of the plant out of the carbon dioxide and moisture of the air. A forest in sunshine is storing energy at the rate of some 5,000 H.P. per sq. m., recoverable when the timber is burnt. But this is but a minute fraction compared with that which eludes the vigilance of life. The solar radiation

between latitudes 45° N. and S. of the equator corresponds on the average to 1 H.P. per 4 sq. ft., or 7,000,000 H.P. per sq. m., so that a very tiny fraction of it would suffice to do all the mechanical work of the world thousands of times over. Actually, in practice, experimental solar radiation engines have been constructed developing 1 H.P. per 100 sq. ft. of heating surface. Rays, Old and New —The subject of rays divides itself naturally into the old and the new. The older known rays are all of the one type, being electromagnetic rays travelling through empty space radially outward from their source at the uniform speed of light, 185,000 m. (or 3X10! cm.) per second. Some of the more recently discovered rays are of the same type as light, with either very much longer waves and lower frequencies—the Hertzian waves—or very much shorter waves and higher frequencies—RO6Ontgen or X-rays, the ‘y-rays of radium and the most recent of all, which may be termed Millikan rays. Others of the newer rays—the a- and §-rays of radioactive sub-

stances and the cathode rays and positive rays of the vacuum tube, are not waves at all but radiant particles carrying an electric charge. When the radiated particle is a negative electron, as is the case for the cathode and -rays, it generates rays of the first or wave type on impact with matter, much as a stone thrown into water generates waves in the water. The relation, however, as is so often the case with electrical phenomena, is reciprocal, and electromagnetic waves will liberate electrons

from (i.e., “‘ionise ’’) the atoms of matter in their path, and these liberated electrons may, under suitable conditions, act as cathode rays. The a-rays consist of the flight of atoms of helium, carrying two positive. charges, and the only justification for calling them a-rays as well as a particles, both terms being in use, is that they are propagated radially from their source. The positive rays, similarly, are positively charged atoms, and like cathode rays generated inside vacuum tubes, they follow the lines of electric force in the tube. So for these there is not even

this justification for calling them rays. The most consistent definition of the term “‘ ray ” would perhaps be any carrier of physical energy across empty space, but this would include a meteor and exclude a sound wave. Nlectromagnetic Radiation—The whole gamut of electromagnetic radiation is well set forth in the accompanying chart,

prepared by the British Empire Exhibition Committee of the Royal Society and reproduced here by their courtesy. The wave-length in centimetres, multiplied by the frequency, which is defined as the number of waves per sec., obviously gives the distance travelled in one sec., or velocity of the rays. As this is uniform for all electromagnetic waves, it follows that the wavelength is inversely proportional to the frequency, and if one is known the other is also. The wave-length, or distance measured from crest to crest of the wave, is usually expressed in terms of the Angstrom unit (A) which is 1/to0,000,000 of a centimetre (ro® cm.). The known rays range from an estimated wavelength of 4/10,000 of an Angstrom unit and a frequency of 10” to wave-lengths of many miles and frequencies of the order of to,o0o. By analogy with sound, the frequency may be well expressed in octaves. It is doubled in one octave, quadrupled in two, multiplied by eight in three and so on. In the chart each octave is shown of the same length from the left-hand end of excessively high frequency and very long wave-length. The numerical details are set forth in the chart so that we may concentrate on the more important characteristics and uses of this vast range cf radiation. Light-—All that the 18th century handed on to the roth was the

visible region of the solar spectrum from violet to red, which is about one octave oul of 62 shown in the chart, which does not include the new Millikan rays at the extreme top. It would be difficult to find in science another example of a set of phenomena apparently so diverse being comprehended under essentially the same cause, the only difference being the frequency or “‘ pitch ” of the vibrations. Immediately on either side of the visible spectrum are the invisible ultra-violet and infra-red rays. The former, called also the photographic or actinic rays, are chiefly responsible for the chemical, physiological and therapeutic actions of light, as in photography, the photochemical synthesis of carbohydrates by vegetation already dealt with, sunburn and the pigmentation of the negroid races, and the modern methods of health culture and treatment of ailments by sun-baths, arc hght and mercury vapour lamps. The shorter wave-lengths ionise the air and make it a conductor of the electric current, and on this account they play a large part in meteorological phenomena such as the electrification of the atmosphere, the condensation into rain, thunderstorms and, indirectly, of the aurora. Though invisible, they produce powerful visible fluorescent effects In a variety of crystalline substances, notably the platinocyanides. Absorption of Ultra-violet Light in the Atmos phere.—In passing from the red end of the spectrum into the ultra-violet, a gradual and continuous change comes over the general penetrating power of the rays, which is reversed when we get beyond the ultra-violet into the region of X-rays. The redness of sunrise and sunset, when the rays tangentially striking the earth have to pass the maximum thickness of air in their path, shows that the red rays are Jess absorbed than those of shorter wave-length. On ascending a mountain and leaving the atmosphere more and more beneath our feet, the light becomes richer and richer in ultra-violet rays. Above 18,000 ft., the greater part of the atmosphere has been left behind, but long before this the wellknown burning action of the sun on the skin makes itself felt. It needs something of a coarser texture than a gas like air—the suspension of liquid and solid particles which constitutes smoke, fog and cloud—to stop the visible rays. But in a fog, if the sun shows at all it is usually red. A much smaller pollution of the atmosphere by smoke than is necessary to stop the visible rays suflices completely to absorb the health-giving ultra-violet, so that it becomes of vital importance to the national health, especially in northern latitudes, to deal with the smoke problem which is one of the penalties attaching to the new coal-and-oil civilisation. Sometimes, however, when there is great uniformity of size in the particles causing the fog or smoke, curious selective absorption effects occur. The writer once saw for several days together in the Rockies, during forest fires of exceptional extent even for that region and which were causing an enormous amount of smoke, a pure violet sun.

RAYS Absorption of y-Rays—The transparency and opacity of matter to radiations of the range dealt with in optics are highly specific properties of the substances themselves, though outside of this range in both directions these specific differences disappear. We think it natural that most gases are colourless and transparent, whilst most solids are opaque, and the power of the X-rays and y-rays to pass through opaque solids seems extraordinary. The y-rays of radium can still be detected after passing through 20 cm. (8 in.) of solid lead or liquid mercury, yet if the sun were made of pure radium not a detectable trace of the radiation would survive absorption at a height of 18,000 ft. above sea-level, for the absorption of the air would there be due to the equivalent of half the total atmosphere, 7.e., 38 cm. of mercury, and this would reduce the y-rays of radium to one million-millionth (1o-™“)of their original value. In this region of very short wave-length the differences of transparency, so marked for substances with light, have totally disappeared and all substances absorb a homogeneous radiation of very short wavelength to the first approximation simply according to the weight of the matter in the path of the beam. In this respect ordinary light, which reaches us so abundantly from the sun through a weight of air corresponding with 76 cm. of mercury, is far more penetrating than the y-rays. The Region Between Light and X-rays.—As we proceed from the red to the far ultra-violet, air becomes less and less transparent until we reach a point at a wave-length of 1,700 À., when air and other gases are ionised by the light rays just as they are by X-rays and radium rays, and air becomes so opaque to the rays that further progress in their investigation can only be pursued in a vacuum. Ordinary glass is opaque to waves shorter than 3,500 and longer than 30,000 Å., whereas quartz will transmit between 1,800 and 70,000 and fluorite between 1,000 and 95,000 Angstrom units. For the investigation of the Schumann and Lyman rays, which lie between 1,700 and 500 ., not only is a vacuum essential but also specially sensitised plates containing hardly any gelatin which is strongly opaque. The necessity for totally excluding the air beyond this range makes it exceedingly difficult to excite the spectrum, because the electric discharge will not ordinarily pass through a perfect vacuum. Under these circumstances, Millikan in 1920 succeeded in reaching 200 A. in the spectrum of nickel by the use of very powerful short sparks, which produced also X-rays. So that the gap between light and the X-rays may be regarded as bridged (see SPECTROSCOPY). We are here approaching the maximum opacity of gases where the wave-length is diminishing to molecular magnitude and the frequency increasing to that of the natural periods of vibration of the electrons in the individual molecules and atoms. The X-rays are generated by the collision of high-speed cathode rays with platinum, tungsten or other heavy metal targets in a vacuum, in the well-known X-ray tube. For these X-rays the penetrating power, not only for gases and transparent substances, but for all substances increases rapidly as the wavelength decreases, right up to the shortest wave-lengths known. The Reaction Between the Electrical and Optical Projections of Matier.—For any substance to be transparent it must be an insulator. The absorption of the waves is due to their communicating their energy to the electrons in matter and if these are free from, or only loosely associated with, the atoms the substance will conduct electricity. A gold-leaf which is so excessively thin that it will transmit green light becomes quite transparent by annealing and then loses its power to conduct an electric current. Air is rendered a conductor by Schumann rays and so is opaque to them. Ebonite, a splendid electrical insulator, is practically transparent to all rays of longer wave-length than the visible, and acts as an almost perfect filter of the dark heat or infra-red rays from light. It is indeed just transparent to the extreme red, as may be tried by looking at the sun through a very thin ebonite sheet, when it will be distinctly seen as a deep red ball. The writer noticed this in testing the light-tightness of a photographic shutter, of all things in the world, the leaves of which were made of this material, and so ran to earth the cause of a suc-

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cession of mysterious failures with his camera when isochromatic plates were employed! In modern thought the chemical and physical activity of light coming into evidence in photography anıl fluorescence are traced primarily to the ionising action of the rays and to the electrons temporarily “ jerked out ” of the atoms and molecules of matter by the passage among them of waves of light in tune with thcir natural periods. Dark-heat Rays.—In the infra-red region, rock salt is by far the most transparent optical material, and the spectrum can readily be explored by photography up to 10,000 A., using plates sensitised with dicyanin. Beyond this they must be investigated by their thermal effects, usually by some adaptation of the thermopile which converts the heat into electric energy. The very shortest Hertzian waves which can be electrically generated have a wave-length of about 2 mm. (20,000,000 A.) but heat waves as long as o-3 mm. have been detected in the radiation from the Welsbach gas-mantle, so that the gap here also is practically bridged. Quartz refracts these very long waves far more strongly than the others, and by the simple plan (termed “ focal isolation ”’) of passing the rays through a quartz lens furnished with a central circular disk of black paper, the long waves may be brought to a focus under conditions that leave the others divergent, the device acting as a perfect filter for this extreme heat radiation. Wood, to whom, with Rubens, this is due, made the further very interesting observation that a “ dew ” of mercury globules of diameter from o-o1 to 0-03 mm., condensed on a quartz surface from the vapour, though opaque to light and ordinary heat waves, will still transmit the longest waves of all. Wavelength and Molecular Magnitude—This is a good example of how the behaviour of matter to radiation is dominated largely by the condition whether or not it is “ in tune ”’ with the rays. We get the most interesting results when the order of fineness of the material structure corresponds with the wave-length. The ruby glass of the photographer owes its beautiful pure red tint to the merest trace of metallic gold, the particles of which are of such a size as to resonate with red light but to damp out and destroy other frequencies. In microscopy this consideration is again of the utmost importance, for the resolving power of lenses is properly expressed in terms of the wave-length of the light employed. To get higher resolving power than is at present possible—as an example, to reveal the still sub-microscopic world wherein it is suspected reside the bacterial agents responsi-

ble for many discases that baffle the physician—the only possible line of further improvement of the existing methods is by working entirely by photography in the far ultra-violet region, with objectives compounded for use with these short wave-lengths. The limit of resolvability with visible light has been already reached. Some Applications ——By photographing the lunar surface through screens capable of transmitting only yellow, violet and ultra-violet light respectively a sort of lunar survey by colour has been attempted. It revealed a remarkable deposit round one oi the craters, Aristarchus, which in all probability is due to sulphur. Screens transmitting ultra-violet light with hardly any of the visible rays produce the most revealing effects on the human countenance, distinguishing instantly false teeth from real and skin from cosmetics by their different fluorescent power. Under

radiations of short wave-lengths including the X-rays and y-rays, many natural gems, such as the diamond, shine brilliantly by fluorescence, whilst imitations remain dark, and this simple test serves to distinguish the false from the true. The Laws of Radiation.—The most important laws concerning

radiation are those connecting the quantity and quality of radiation with the temperature of the radiator. They are strictly true only for perfect radiators or “ black bodies,” but are applicable under certain conditions to all bodies: for example, when they are heated in a closed furnace and their radiation examined through a small hole in the wall. Stefan’s law states that the total quantity of energy radiated freely to outer space by a body is proportional to the fourth power of the absclute temperature. Wien’s displacement law states that as the temperature increases,

the region of maximum radiation shifts along the spectrum from

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longer to shorter wave-length, the maximum energy is radiated at a wave-length which is inversely proportional to the absolute temperature, and the quantity of energy radiated at this maximum is proportional to the fifth power of the absolute temperature. The latter law states in exact form the familiar fact that a body when treated first glows red, and that as its temperature is increased the colour changes through yellow ultimately to white. Below red heat, the maximum of energy emission occurs in the infra-red region, and the hotter the body the further is the maximum displaced towards the violet. In this way the surface temperatures of the sun and stars have been estimated. The red stars, like Betelgeuse, are comparatively cool with a temperature of about 3,000°C., which is about that of the carbon arc, the highest attainable on the earth, whilst blue-white stars like Sirius have temperatures at least four and perhaps 10 times as great. The surface temperature of the sun is estimated at about 6,000° C., and the maximum of energy emission at this temperature occurs at the yellow-green. It is probably by no means mere coincidence that this is also the most vivid colour, in the sense that light energy of this colour is perceived by the eye in smaller amount than that of any other. Probably the eye has adapted itself through the ages to make the most of that which there is most of in the sunlight. If so, and in the course of time the sun cools, people, if any were still alive, would see red most vividly. Our violet would have faded out and become ultra-violet, and our infra-red heat rays would have become visible as light. The Structure of Afatier—To understand the mode in which electromagnetic radiation originates it is necessary to be acquainted with the modern theories of the nature of matter. Matter is regarded as intrinsically positively charged, t.e., it carries a positive charge of electricity as an essential quality. In the neutral atom, this charge is exactly neutralised by a corresponding number of separate electrons or atoms of negative electricity. The atom is regarded as a miniature solar system with a positive material nucleus as the sun and the individual electrons as planets. The number of units of positive electricity on the nucleus and the number of revolving electrons both differ by unity in passing from one element of the periodic table to the next. This number is called the Atomic number, or Moseley number, after the brilliant young Oxford physicist who fell at Gallipoli shortly after his researches on the characteristic X-rays of the elements, from which this conclusion was drawn. The Atomic or Moseley number is one for hydrogen, two for helium, three for lithium and so on through the periodic table of the elements up to uranium, the last and: 92nd, for which it is 92.

But these numbers really represent the net positive charge of the nucleus, the difference between its gross positive charge and a smaller number of nuclear electrons, for all atomic nuclei except hydrogen contain some electrons. The hydrogen nucleus is regarded as the pure positive sub-constituent of all matter, and is called sometimes the “proton.” When for two atoms the nett charge is the same, but the gross charges (positive minus negative) different, we get elements identical in chemical character but of different atomic weight, called isotopes (q.2.). So far as wave radiation is concerned, we deal with the electrons external to the nucleus, but the -rays of radioactive substances are electrons ejected from the nucleus of the atom. The external electrons are regarded as arranged in sets of “ shells ” at different “ levels ” or distances from the nucleus, whilst the odd ones over are the outermost of all and are relatively far removed from the central nucleus. They are called the valency electrons, as it is they alone that confer on the atom its chemical aflinities or valencies. The others constitute with the nucleus a more selfsatisfied economy, which, however, entirely controls the configuration of the outer electrons and therefore the chemical character of the atom. The most complex elements, like uranium with 88 “ shell ”?” electrons and four valency electrons, are regarded as having many shells, called as we go outward the K, L, M .. . shells, whilst the lightest element with a complete shell, helium, has only the K shell. The Origin of Radiation. —Electromagnetic radiation arises whenever an electron alters its previous mode of coexistence with

matter sufficiently abruptly.

Beyond the range of frequency

even of the longest Hertzian waves, with wave-lengths of many miles and frequencies of the order of 10,000, we come to the frequencies of the ordinary alternating electric current of commerce, given by a dynamo, and ranging from 15 to 100 or so a second. In the conductors carrying such a current the electrons | are surging back and forth at these low frequencies, but the motion is too leisurely to excite any external radiation. Besides, the wave-length for a frequency of 15 would be 13 times the earth’s diameter. Hertstan Waves.—In the spark that occurs when a condenser or Leyden jar Js discharged, or in the lightning flash, alternating currents of precisely the same kind, but with the frequency of the order of a million are set up. The frequency is completely controlled by the resistance, self-induction and capacity of the oscillating circuit. The electrons surging backward and forward through the circuit set up waves of their own period, which carry outward through space some of the energy of the electric current as Hertzian waves. In general the smaller the dimensions of the oscillating circuit, the higher the frequency and the shorter the wave-length. As we pass along the gamut, beginning with this artificially excited surging, through the aerial and antennae of a transmitting station, to the infra-red rays, we pass to the natural motions of the electrons in the molecules of matter at their own proper periods, which are excited by heat. Spectrum Lines.—aAt first there is probably no very close connection between the vibrating electrons and the individual atoms and molecules. As in the transmission of the ordinary electric current, the electrons concerned in producing radiant heat are probably those associated loosely with aggregates of

matter rather than with single atoms and molecules. But the higher frequencies result from the constituent electrons of the individual atoms of matter moving with their natural periods around the nucleus in definite orbits, each orbit giving a sharp line in the spectrum (qg.v.) of the element. The break between ultraviolet light and the X-rays occurs at the valency electrons. Optical spectra result from the outermost electrons, and X-ray spectra from one or other of the inner completed shells, The actual emission of radiation is depicted as due to the ‘‘ falling in ” of an electron towards the nucleus, after some previous disturbance has ejected it. In the series spectra in which the lines of the series are mathematically related, which line of the series is emitted depends upon which of many possible orbits the falling electron ends up at. There are for each electron a large number of possible ‘ non-radiating ” orbits In any one of which it may revolve indefinitely without radiating energy, if undisturbed, but if it falls from an outer to an inner orbit, the atomic system as a whole loses energy, which is emitted as radiation. The frequency is a function of the amount of energy so lost (see QuantuM THEORY). Different Types of Spectra—Should the initial disturbance which precedes the emission of radiation eject the electron altogether from the sphere of influence of the parent atom the latter is ionised; that is, it becomes a positive ion, and the electron, if it has sufficient velocity, may come into evidence as the cathoderay. Without going too far into the details, we may broadly regard the emission of radiation as accompanying in general the reunion of electron and positive ion. Not only one, but two, three or even four of the valency electrons may be ejected from an atom and the positive ion may be singly, doubly, trebly or quadruply charged. This gives the explanation of the fact that certain elements give different spectra according to the mode of excitation, whether by heat as in the flame or electric arc, or by electrical agencies asin the electric spark. It has been ascertained that the are spectrum signalises the union of the electron

with the singly charged, or as the chemist would say, monovalent, positive ion, to yicld the neutral atom, whereas the spark spectra signify that a multiply charged or polyvalent ion has united with an electron to form a positive ion with one charge less than before. These phenomena are the spectroscopic equivalent of the changes with which the chemist is familiar in the reactions of

RAYS salts, bases and acids, as distinct from those of organic compounds and other non-electrolytes, or non-ionised substances. Ferrous iron, Fet*, resembles magnesium, Mg*++,in its chemistry, whereas ferric iron, Fet*+, resembles aluminium, Al*++, the element next to magnesium in the periodic table. So the spark spectrum of a metal, whilst totally different from the spark spectrum of the same metal, often bears a very close resemblance in its series relationships to the arc spectrum of the metal next preceding it in the periodic table. The spark spectrum of magnesium, due to the change Mgt+—Me*, is analogous to the arc spectrum of sodium, due to the change Na*—>Na. Sodium, magnesium, aluminium and silicon are successive elements in the periodic table. So we find aluminium giving, in addition to the arc spectrum, two spark spectra due to the changes Al}++—Al*+ and AIt+—Al', the first of which is analogous to the arc spectrum of sodium and the spark spectrum of magnesium, and the

second to the arc spectrum of magnesium.

Similarly, silicon, in

addition to its arc spectrum, possesses three spark spectra (1) Sit++*+Sitt*, analogous to the are spectrum of sodium, the spark spectrum of magnesium, and the second spark spectrum of aluminium, (2) Sittt+->Si'+, analogous to the arc spectrum of magnesium and the first spark spectrum of aluminium, and (3) Sitt—Si* analogous to the arc spectrum of aluminium. Stellar Spectra.—In some of the hotter stars the sparks or, as they are sometimes called, the enhanced lines, are found unaccompanied by the arc lines of the element. This is never the case for artificially generated spectra. Norman Lockyer ascribed their origin to veritable transmutations of the elements into

simpler ‘ proto-clements ”’ due to the intensely high temperatures. We now know that they are of electrical rather than thermal origin, and are clue to precisely the same changes as we are familiar with tn the chemistry of elements capable of acting with more than one valency. X-ray Spectra.—In the X-ray spectra the inner shells of electrons are concerned, and although these correspond with changes of a deeper character than chemical—the material counterpart of which remains unknown—yet even these are not transmutational. These spectra are characterised by relatively great simplicity. A beam of X-rays is diffracted by a crystal. The regular spacing of the atoms in the crystal is of the same order of magnitude as the wave-length of the X-rays and several thousand times finer than the finest diffraction gratings ruled by the dividing engine, which are used to produce optical spectra. The production of X-rays is, like that of Hertzian waves, an artificial rather than a natural process. The electron ejected from the cathode of a vacuum tube under high electric potentials acquires great speed and becomes the cathode-ray (the radiant matter of Sir W. Crookes). If speedy enough, it can penetrate into the deeper electronic orbits and ionise the atoms in its path. If it disturbs the deepest level of all, an X-ray of the K series is generated. These are of the highest frequency and shortest wavelength, and consist for each element

of a pair of doublets, one

strong and one weak, which alter their frequency with the utmost regularity In passing from element to element in the periodic table (Moseley’s law). So that the wave-length may be calculated for any element even if the element is not known, and in this way

several new elements, notably hafnium, have recently been discovered. What has happened is that we are now so near the nucleus that its + charge, altering integrally from element to element, alone controls the periodicity of the K electrons. The outer L, M, N levels neutralise one another’s effects, much for the same reason as that there is no effect of an external charge inside a hollow closed conductor. The L, M, N scries of X-ray spectra are not so simple as the K series, but they are still simplicity itself compared with optical spectra. They are excited by electrons of far less velocity than the K series and require for their generation only moderate voltages. But it is impossible to generate artificially the K series of the heaviest elements, 7.c., to impress on the electron sufficient energy to carry it beyond the L level. Fortunately, here nature comes to our aid. The penetrating -y-rays of the radioactive substances are the K series of the heaviest elements.

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As we pass outward from the K to the N series, the X-rays become of increasing wave-length and decreasing frequency and penetrating power, until progress can only be further made by working in a complete vacuum as for the shortest ultra-violet rays owing to the absorption of the air. The Rays of Radioactive Substances ——In the other direction, when we pass the K level and enter the “ holy of holies ” of the atom—the atomic nucleus—we come to the region of radioactive phenomena. From the artificial Hertz waves to natural heat and light rays we passed on to the artificial X-rays, but now we are back again to a natural process—withal a recently discovered one—confined to the last and most complex elements of the periodic table. So far it has proved itself one which our utmost electrical potentials are quite unable to imitate or affect in the slightest degree. Radioactivity is essentially a nuclear explosion, in which cither a 8 or an a particle is violently expelled, the former at speeds ranging nearly up to that of light and the latter at speeds between 1/r4th and r/2oth of light. As the 6 particle rushes outwards from the nucleus it may play havoc even with the K economy, which in the most complex elements is too deep to be disturbed by any available artificial agency. The most penetrating ‘y-rays are emitted as these K electrons resume their orbits, but there are also other and less penetrating types of y-rays emitted, corresponding with the L and possibly other orbits. Medical Uses —On account of their unique penetrating power and powerful ‘ burning ” therapeutic action, the X-rays and yrays are employed—dquite apart from the well-known application of the former to surgical diagnosis—as medical agents especially in the treatment of deep-seated cancers. Jt appears that young and developing cells especially are most sensitive to and easily destroyed by these agents and this explains their use in this field and also their alleged action in producing sterility both in the male and female. In America, especially, the technique of radium therapy has been ingeniously developed as an accessory in the surgical treatment of cancer. The radium emanation, which is the first gascous product of the disintegration of radtum—the y-rays being emitted in the fourth change—is sealed up in capillary glass—or more recently goll—tubes, capable of being inserted by a surgical needle into the growing periphery of the

cancer, after the excision of the main growth.

The tubes, hardly

thicker than a hair, are left in place. The radium emanation decays jn the course of a few days, whilst the original radium from which it was derived generates a fresh crop for use again. This treatment has its legitimate niche in therapeutics, but it has been grossly exploited to augment the market price of radium. The most penetrating X-rays it is possible to produce by the most powerful appliances are only one-twentieth as penetrating as the most penetrating y-rays, being quite undetachable after passage through 1 cm. (3¢ ths of an inch) of lead and for all practical purposes completely absorbed by 4 millimetres. They belong to the L series of tungsten, platinum or iridium, according to the metal used for the anticathode of the X-ray bulb. On the other hand, in regard to intensity or quantity of energy, the y-rays cannot be compared with the X-rays. The output of power from an ordinary X-ray tube is vastly greater than from any quantity of radium normally obtainable. As in so many other cases, the problem in the use of these agents in medicine is to adjust their strength to the correct quantity to inflict the greatest damage on diseased tissue with the least to the healthy tissue. The a-rays.—The a-rays of raclioactive substances, our knowledge of which is mainly due to the long and brilliant series of researches upon them by Sir Ernest Rutherford, can only be mentioned incidentally as they are sufiiciently important to deserve separate treatment. Though possessing by far the greater part of the total energy radiated by the raclioactive substances they are of relatively slight penetration, being stopped by a few centimetres of air. Indeed it is a new and most significant phenomenon to find atoms of matter capable of passing through matter at all, But, like the other rays, they are stopped by matter irrespectiveof its chemical or optical nature, and mainly according to the weight in the path of the beam, They are exceptional in that

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they have a very definite range, depending only on their velocity, which causes them to continue in unchanged numbers during absorption and suddenly to stop all together. This is well seen in the microscopic halos, called pleochroic halos, sometimes encountered in clear mica. The a-rays have the power of darkening mica, and these halos surround infinitesimal specks of radioactive materials in the mica. Under the microscope they are seen to be perfectly spherical, of diameter o-o3 mm. in the case of the uranium halos and 0.04 mm. for those due to thorium, and they often possess a clear structure consisting of a number of concentric rings, the diameters of which correspond to the ranges of the various a-rays involved. The mica has, through the ages, integrated and recorded in minute detail the properties of the a-rays from quantities of material too infinitesimal to be detected even by the most delicate direct radioactive tests. Similarly, the a-rays possess a definite though minute range of penetration in glass, very similar to that in mica, and capillary glass tubes can be drawn so excessively thin in the wall as to allow the a particles to go through. Such tubes are completely impervious to ordinary gases, but if filled with radium emanation which emits a-rays clium is produced outside the tube in quantity sufficient to be detected by the spectroscope. This constituted the final step in the long chain of proof that the a-rays are radiant helium nuclei, 7.e., hehum atoms shorn of their 2 K electrons, and each carrying therefore two positive charges. The Exploration of the Atom by a-Rays.—The central nucleus of the atom was originally put into evidence by a careful examination of the trajectories of the a particles during their passage through matter. Like errant suns invading other solar systems, it is only rarely that they make a full head-on collision with the centre of the atomic solar system invaded. ‘They scatter the electrons in their way almost as though they were not there, but a minute proportion of the impinging a particles are turned abruptly out of their paths and may even be returned the way they came. These are the ones which have passed sufficiently near to the central nucleus of the atom collided with, to be sensibly deflected from their headlong path. In some cases it has been established that the nucleus struck by the a particle suffers actual disruption, a hydrogen nucleus being detached from it and going off as a separate “‘ H-particle,” having similar properties to the original particle. This constitutes a secondary transmutation consequent on the natural one of the radioactive substance itself.

Artificial Trausmutation—To drive the positively charged helium nucleus up against the very highly positive charged nucleus of a heavy atom demands great energy, whereas a negatively charged @ particle or cathode ray, provided it has sufficient energy to overcome the repulsion of the cloud of electrons surrounding the nucleus of an atom, will, once it has got through them, tend to rush into the nucleus. If it stayed there, the atom struck would itself be transmuted into an atom of the element preceding it in the periodic table; for example, lead into thallium, thallium into mercury or mercury into gold. In the radioactive change in which a ĝ particle is expelled from the nucleus we have the exact converse. The atom from which the 8 particle is ejected constitutes an atom of the element succeeding the original in the periodic table. Its atomic number has been increased by one by the loss of a negative charge, and therefore the element moves up one place in the periodic system. In the a-ray change, in which the atomic nucleus loses two positive charges, the element moves down two places. For example, from uranium we get - an isotope of thorium, and from thorium an isotope of radium. Altogether apart from theory, Miethe of Charlottenburg has recently claimed to have effected an infinitesimal transmutation of mercury into gold, by its use in the mercury vapour lamp and in the turbine interrupters employed with X-ray coils. Since then (1926) Smits and Karrsen of Amsterdam, using a lamp with molten lead instead of mercury, have obtained the clearest spec-

troscopic evidence of the production of mercury, and to a lesser extent thallium, in the process. These results, if established by further experiments, constitute the first clear achievement of an artificial transmutation process. They are quite in keeping with modern ideas of atomic structure, always on the assumption

that the actual proportion of element so transmuted is excessively minute. It is only the infinitesimal proportion of the impinging rays accurately aligned upon the minute central nucleus that can be effective. In Rutherford’s experiments with the a particle, it was estimated that only 10 in a million million of the collisions in the most favourable cases effected the disruption of the nucleus. Millikan Rays.—It has been known since 1903 that the atmosphere was traversed by very penetrating rays similar to those given by radium but extremely fecble in intensity, and it was natural to attribute these to the small amount of radium, (g.v.) billionths of the whole, known to be present in rocks and other materials of the earth’s crust. No doubt part of the effect is due to this cause. But in 1912-4 Gockel and other German physicists, investigating this penetrating radiation in the atmosphere from balloons, made ihe remarkable discovery that it increased on ascending, slowly at first but rapidly above 10,000 feet. Millikan, in the United States, sent up recording instruments in balloons to the height of 10 m. and, though he confirmed the increase, found that it was much too small to be explained by ordinary y-rays reaching the earth from outer space. He then sunk his instruments in the deep lakes fed with pure glacier water found at high altitudes in the Rockies and (1925) completely established the existence of an entirely new radiation reaching the earth from the outside, capable of penetrating 68 ft. of water, or over 6 ft. of lead, before being completely absorbed. ‘The whole thickness of the atmosphere, though it would much enfeeble a radiation of this penetrating power, would not completely stop it. The intensity of this new cosmical radiation is not affected by day or night, so that it does not come from the sun, and most of the ordinary y-like radiation of the atmosphere appears to be a secondary result of this new radiation being scattered and transformed in passing through the air. The new rays are about as much more penetrating than the most penetrating radium y-rays as the latter are with reference to the most penetrating X-rays, and their wave-length is estimated at 0o-o004 Angstrom unit. By their discovery some 44 octaves are added to the ‘extreme top of those shown in the chart. The Origin of Radiant Energy.—Their existence gives weight to some very far-reaching cosmogonical speculations to account for the primary source of cosmical energy which have recently been put forward by Jeans. The quantity of energy that the sun and stars appear to be perennially pouring out is so great that no known process, not even radioactivity, can account for it. It must, however, be remembered that there is no actual proof that radiation is really propagated uniformly in all directions. Of recent years there has been a tendency to believe that this may be an illusion due to our being completely surrounded by matter, the air above and the earth beneath. An alternative view that has been gaining ground during the present century is that radiation can only travel along lines or tubes joining separated portions of matter. If this, just possible, point of view

should prevail there would then be no great difficulty in accounting for cosmical energy. If the sun only radiated to the earth and other worlds surrounding it, the emission of energy would be only a tiny fraction of what it must be if it is radiating to an equal extent in all directions of space. However that may be, Jeans has supposed that the primary source of cosmical energy is a veritable annihilation of matter. The doctrine of relativity points to an equivalence between energy and matter, and blends the twin laws of conservation into one. Matter is conserved when energy is, and energy is conserved when matter is, but the real relation is that the sum of matter and energy is conserved, though matter may be transformed into energy and energy into matter at a definite exchange ratio. According to this theory, the annihilation of matter would result in the appearance of energy equal to that possessed by twice the mass annihilated moving with the speed of light. Thus from a very minute amount of matter an almost incredible amount of energy would be generated. In all the processes we have considered, proton and electron maintain their separate identities, though powerfully attracting one another, by actions identical in type with those which keep

REA—RIEADING apart satellites from planets and planets from suns in cosmical systems. Whereas if proton and electron fell into one another so that their opposite charges neutralised each other, there would in all probability be nothing but the energy of the system left, and this, from analogy with the known cases of electromagnetic radiation, would be radiated outward, at a very high frequency corresponding with the colossal quantity of energy involved. The estimated wave-length and frequency of the Millikan rays is Just about of the order to be expected {rom the actual falling in of an electron into a proton, and for the total annthilation of the mass by transformation into radiant energy. This gives this otherwise extremely speculative and bold theory greater importance. Such a process would satisfy the demands of the cosmogonist for energy over almost infinite periods of time. It may be taking place in some stages of the evolution of stars. That it cannot be a complete explanation in itself seems to be indicated by the fact that our sun at Jeast does not appear to be emitting these new radiations. So science is advancing into ever wider horizons and the zoth century bids fair to hand over to its successor realms as vastly greater than it received as were the realms the 19th handed on to us. See also Astronomy; Atom; Atomic Wercnts; CANcER RrSEARCH; CHEMISTRY; CRYSTALLOGRAPHY; GASES, ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES OF; HEAT; Isotopes; MArrerR; Microscopy; PuoroGRAPHY; Puysics,; PusLtic Heavtn;, QUANTUM THEORY; RADIOACTIVITY;

RADIO-THERAPY; RADIUM; SMOKE PREVENTION; SOLAR ENERGY; SPECTROSCOPY; SPECTRUM; TRANSMUTATION OF ELEMENTS. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—A. EI. Gibson, Natural Sources of energy (1913); E. Fournier d'Albe, The /lectron Theory (1918); S. P. Thompson, Sight, Visible and Invisible (1919); H, A. Kramers and H. Holst,

The Atom and the Bohr Theory of tts Structure (1923); J. A. Crowther, Tons, Electrons and Jonising Radiations (1924); Articles on ‘' Cosmogony ”’ and “ Physics and Chemistry ” in Evolution in the Light of Modern Knowledge, a collective work (1925). (F. S.*)

REA, SAMUEL

(1855-

) American railway official, was

born at Hollidaysburg, Pa., Sept 21 1855. In 1871 he worked for the Pennsylvania Railway as chain and rod man. Irom 1875 to 1877 he was assistant engineer on construction of the Monongahela river bridge at Pittsburgh. He was next appointed assistant construction engineer for the Pittsburgh and Lake Erie, returning to the Pennsylvania lines in 1879. In 1889 he joined the Baltimore and Ohio, being chief engineer for construction of the belt-line tunnel under Baltimore. In 1892 he was appointed an assistant to the president of the Pennsylvania railway, rising through the various grades to first vice-president in rgrr. In 1913 he was elected president. He was in charge of the construction of the Pennsylvania station in New York City (completed in roti), the connecting tunnel under the Hudson river, the New York connecting railway, and Hell Gate bridge over the East river (opened in 1917). In 1917 he became a member of the special commission on national defence of the Railroads War Board. He was director of the department of railroads, electric railways, highways and waterways of the committee of public safety of Pennsylvania. In 1918, when the railways were taken over by the Government as a War measure, he was replaced as operating head of his road, but remained in charge of its cor-

porate affairs. He retired from the presidency of the railway Sept. 1925. He was the author of The Railways Terminating in London (1888). READING, RUFUS DANIEL ISAACS, ist MARQUESS OF (1860— ), British statesman, was born in London Oct. 10 1860,

the second son of Joseph Isaacs, merchant of the city of London. We was educated at University College School, London, and abroad. This education was truncated by his adventurous spirit, which caused him to run away to sea at the age of 14 and to serve for two years before the mast in a sailing ship; and it was as ship’s boy scrubbing the deck that he first saw India where he afterwards ruled as Viceroy. He entered subsequently the commercial world on the Stock Exchange, but here also his adventurous spirit resulted in complete failure. Undaunted by these early disasters he proceeded to read for the Bar, was called in 1887 and became a bencher of the Middle Temple in 1904. In 1887 he married Miss Alice Cohen. His legal career was one

of unbroken

and

immediate

success,

through

indefatigable

311

capacity for work, great personal popularity and a method of advocacy which relied on quickness and subtlety of intellect and enormous tenacity of memory. Perhaps the most sensational of his cases was the prosecution of Whittaker Wright for fraud, which was followed by the defendant’s suicide, aftera conviction obtained despite the published and declared opinion of the law officers of the Crown that no prosecution had any chance of success. Ile rose by a succession of triumphs to the position of the most distinguished advocate and verdict getter of his generation. He entered Parliament as a Liberal Imperialist, winning a seat for his party at Reading in a bye election in 109004, a seat which he retained in numerous successive elections until he was transferred to the House of Lords. In political oratory, although an clfective speaker in the country, he failed, as so many great lawyers have failed, to impress the House of Commons; being far more inclined to address his opponents as a jury with a view to their conversion than to stimulate enthusiasm for the policy of his own party. From the beginning, however, his extraordinary power of sane judgment was recognised, even before his appointment as attorney general in roro; and the high regard entertained for him by the leaders of the Liberal party was openly recognised, in defiance of all precedents, by the giving to him of aseat inthe Cabinet in June 1912, while he held that ofice. fis career of unbroken success was clouded for a time by a fierce and bitter attack upon him for having purchased from his brother some shares in the American Marconi Company at a time when the British Marconi Company was making a contract with the British Government; and as he had sold a few of these shares to the Chancellor of the Exchequer, Mr. Lloyd George, he had to bear the brunt of an onslaught concerning a transaction jn which he had been merely careless, stimulated in the main by anti-Semitic prejudice and by partisan efforts to destroy the reputation of Mr. Lloyd George. After nearly a year, however, of heated deliberations by a committee of the House of Commons and violent attack and abuse, his honour was

decisively vindicated by the verdict of the committee which was endorsed by Parliament, and a few months later (Oct. 20 1913) he was raised to the position of Lord Chief Justice of England, and a short time afterwards was created Baron Reading of Erleigh. As attorney general he only once personally undertook prosecution for murder (in the Seddon poisoning case) and although he obtained a verdict with his usual ability in this

historic criminal trial, he consistently refused to undertake such work again. He distinguished himself mainly in his high judicial office by humanity in the conduct of criminal cases, and by the deliberate establishment of the principle that the court of criminal appeal should act as a real court of revision, upsetting verdicts or reducing sentences even of the individual High Court judges. The most historical of the trials over which he presided occurred during the World War. This was his trial of Sir Roger Casement for treason in connection with the Irish Rebellion, in which he exhibited, with the granting of every kind of opportunity to the advocates of the prisoner in a political trial, an historical example of the dignity and impartiality of British Justice in face of an outburst of national feeling.

After the outbreak of the War in Aug. 1914 the Government utilised his soundness of judgment and knowledge of finance in matters altogether apart from the high court of Justice. He assisted the bankers in the drafting and the administration of those measures which saved England from financial] and in consequence economic ruin. The most sensational of these was the granting of the British guarantce to the great accepting houses, to bijis amounting to many hundred millions of pounds, without which neither food nor munitions could have been moved from their foreign places of origin to this country. This bold and daring measure not only saved Britain from starvation riots and the great firms of the city of London from bankruptcy, it also resulted in the end in the Government losing nothing by

the transaction.

312

READING

In the next two years, Lord Reading was occupied in the inner councils of the Government, especially on all questions connected with finance, and in endeavours to reconcile the growing friction between various parties in the Cabinet and between the Cabinet and the great newspapers outside. In 1915 he was President of the Anglo-French Loan Commission to the United States, where he won universal popularity and succeeded in accomplishing the most difficult of all tasks, the flotation of a great War Loan in America, which was at that time less sympathetic to the Allies than at any other time during the War. On June 26 1916 he was created Viscount Reading of Erleigh. His efforts at conciliation and sympathetic action failed, however, to prevent the breaking up of the Coalition Government of r916. But the newly-formed administration under Mr, Lloyd George was not so foolish as to leave unutilised his extraordinary capacity for sound judgment, placating opposition and manipulating the minds of men towards decisions vital to the welfare of his country. In 1917 he was appointed high commissioner and special envoy to the United States, perhaps the most important position for winning success in the World War, and in Dec. of that year was created an earl. In 1918 he was appointed high commissioner and Special Ambassador at Washington. It would be difficult to overestimate the services rendered on so critical an occasion by that capacity of judgment which distinguished his whole public career, combined with serenity of temper, impersonal devotion to the public welfare, and a charm which created innumerable friendships and persuaded men to modify their preconceived notions and to endeavour to fall in with his desires. It was obvious that these qualities were exactly those demanded on the War’s conclusion, in the troubled and unhealthy state of India, which had been created partly by prolonged development of resentment against the absolute dictatorship of British rule, and partly by the reverberations of the War. In a condition which was highly disturbed, the appointment of the Earl of, Reading to the office of viceroy and governor general of India was acclaimed by men of all parties as an appointment of the man most qualified of all living statesmen to reduce the chaos and discontent to some method of loyalty, order and peace. Lord Reading’s term as viceroy and governor general of India marked an epoch in the history of that Imperial Continent. He was faced immediately by four almost insoluble problems. First the Diarchy system of the Montagu-Chelmsford Govt. of India Act devised as a step in advance towards complete self-government, was definitely rejected by the leaders of the United Hindu and Mahommedan educated population, who in the movement known as Swaraj had resolved to make it unworkable. The second was the influence of Mahatma Gandhi, one of the most remarkable men of all time, who had inflamed millions of Indians to a boycott of the West by the East and a kind of gigantic movement of passive resistance, in which both English products and English Govt. were to be alike re-

jected.

The third was that the national temper of India had

been aroused by prohibitions and indignities put upon Indians in other parts of the Empire. The fourth, the ghastly story of the Punjab rebellion and the slaughter at Amritsar in rọrọ, with the support of General Dyer’s action there by the governing classes in England had excited a feeling of such fierce resentment throughout the length and breadth of the peninsula as might well have caused a gencral uprising. Formerly, as the new viceroy said to a friend, the disafiection was confined to the articulate classes. Amritsar spread it among the villagers and peasants. One may add to this, the general impoverishment created by the vast war expenditure and by the enormous fluctuations in currency reflected in India from similar changes in the world of international affairs. Lord Reading set himself, with patience, flexibility and loyalty to India which he had been called upon to represent, to endeavour to alleviate these sources of discontent. In dealing with the revolt against the diarchy, he found himself compelled to imprison the two Mahommedan leaders, the brothers Ali. And although he was able before the end to establish some kind

of self-government in most of the local provinces and even something like friendly co-operation Jn the Central Legislative Council the Constitution broke down in the Central Provinces and had to be suspended in Bengal, with a return to complete autocratic government. In the case of the boycott of the West and of Western Govt., the viceroy after several attempts at reconciliation with Gandhi—attempts that were condemned by some Anglo-Indian opinion—found himself compelled to authorise his prosecution for inciting to mass civil disobedience which resulted in a sentence of six years’ imprisonment, although the Mahatma was released on the grounds of ill health after two years. In the matter of the treatment of Indian immigrants in other parts of the Empire, Lord Reading showed himself as determined in assertion of the rights of India as could any elected native prime minister; challenging both the home government and the

government of the Dominions in the rights of Indians as In the ancient days of the rights of ‘“ citizens of Rome.” In the case of Amritsar and the memories of the rebellion he could only exhibit his sympathy with the Indian population and work for the healing influences of time. His difheulties were further increased by a problem altogether outside India, the struggle between Turkey and the Christian populations which was interpreted as an attempt to annihilate the Mahommedan religion. His messages on this subject to the Secretary for India, published without authorisation by Mr. Montagu, produced the dismissal of the latter; but probably assisted the Viceroy in his exhibition of sympathy with the people whom he represented. In the struggle for financial stability he was compelled to exercise the power of certification by the viceroy against the Assembly of the much-hated salt tax. But he saw, and acquiesced in, India, like many other of the Dominions, converting itself from a free trade into a protectionist country, a change

produced partly by a passionate nationalism excise cotton duties, and partly by the need revenue by a big import duty on iron and result of a stabilised budget was the raising

which rejected the for compensating steel. The happy of a new loan for

national development of railways and canals, the voluntary acceptance by the Indian representatives in the Legislative Council of the prohibition of the export of opium in conformity with the desire of the League of Nations, the substantial reduction of the military expenditure, combined with the establishment, if on the smallest scale, of an Indian navy, designed as a step forward in the realisation of the Indian demand to be treated as one of the great Dominions and not as a subject race. That he could exercise sternness when required as well as sym-` pathy was shown by his action towards the Maharajah of Indore, who was compelled to abdicate as an alternative to trial by his peers for the murder of an Indian merchant who had protected a dancing girl who had escaped from his harem. While it would be idle to assert that Lord Reading’s rule had solved all the difficulties of the almost insoluble problem of India’s future, no one can deny that that rule will stand in history as the great advance in conciliation, largely created by the personal popularity of himself and his wife and by his ability to convince the leaders of Indian educated opinion that his sole desire was to promote the welfare and fulfil the legitimate aspirations of a proud, self-conscious, if bewildered people. On relinquishing his office on Thursday March 26 1926, he addressed both houses of the legislature at Delhi in a speech which was received with an ovation. “ The differences which have occurred” he then asserted, ‘‘ have arisen from honest divergencies of opinion. There has been no difference in purpose; we have striven to attain the same end—the prosperity and happiness of India. ” He emphasised the whole object of his actions, not merely economic prosperity, but advance to new status and dignity, to enable India steadily to build up her own responsible institutions within the commonwealth of nations forming the empire. He could assert with truth that since the years of his accession to oflice there has been a great change in the atmosphere: “ Peace reigns on our borders; internal disturbances have been set at rest; law and order have been vindicated and

READING—RECALL

313

established; the financial situation has been stabilised, with

tion.

beneficent reactions on the nation-building activities of the reformed constitution. Conditions have been created which give a fair prospect to the development of India’s resources, and the anxieties of the Indian moslem population have been allayed.” This is no bombastic summary of a wholehearted intelligent and devoted work with a predominant sense of responsi-

certain percentage of votersa popular vote should be taken upon the continuance in office of the legislature as a whole. If a majority of the voters showed themselves hostile to the sitting House it was dissolved and elections were held for a new legislature. Curiously enough, although the Abberufung is moribund in Switzerland, an institution closely similar to it has been written into the new constitutions, dating from rọrọ and 1920, of the greater states of the German Reich—Prussia, Bavaria, Württemberg and Baden, Also the new constitution of Estonia (1920) provides that the legislature shall be dissolved in case it is defeated by the people on an initiative or referendum vote. Inthe United States.—It is in the United States, however, that the recall has found the widest favour recently. Unlike the initiative and referendum (g.v.) this development was inaugurated in ignorance of Swiss models. Also unlike the latter the recall, as invented anew in America, is designed for attack upon a single official, although some of the laws on the subject permit it to be directed against a number of officials at the same time. Intro-

bility towards the people whom Lord Reading was called upon

to rule, and it is probable that the modest catalogue of achievements, for which he was prepared to give all the credit to others, will come to be the verdict of time and credited to his own great labours. Upon his return to England in April, it was announced that Lord Reading had been raised to the rank of

Marquess. (See INDIA.) (C. F. G. M.) READING, England (see 22.939), had a population of 92,278 in 1921. Since rgit parts of Theale, Tilehurst and Caversham have been included in the borough, which has now an area of 9,105 acres. A new parish, that of St. Luke’s, was created on the Redlands estate in 1912, and a church, St. Andrew’s,

built at

Caversham in ro11. Among new buildings are the Shire Hall, in Forbury, and the post-office. A new bridge over the Thames to Caversham was opened in 1923, and the old one close by closed for rebuilding in 1925. It will have two arches of unequal span, the centre pier resting on an island in the river, where the remains of an ancient bridge and a 14th century chapel have

been found. READING, Penn.., U.S.A. (see 22.940), annexed several tracts between toro and 1920, increasing its area from 3,975 to 6,090 acres. The population increased 12-2°, to 107,784; and to 112,707 in 1925 according to the census bureau estimate. Reading kept its place as the third industrial city of the State, and as an important distributing centre for anthracite shipments and agricultural produce. Trolley and bus lines were developed in every direction, and daily motor-truck service was established to New York, Philadelphia and other points. Schuyikill Canal, after nearly a century of service, was abandoned. Reading is the centre of Pennsylvania's first super-power system, which furnishes electric current from Harrisburg to New Jersey. The value of factory products within the city limits was $51,135,000 in 1909; $141,561,000 in 1919; $134,501,690 in 1923, when there were 395 establishments, several of them the largest of their kind in the world. Among the leading manufactures (1925) were hosiery, silk underwear, narrow fabrics, wroughtiron pipe, goggles, hats, children’s shoes, candy, builders’ hardware and machinery. By 1925 the public school system had been enlarged and diversified; extensive improvements had been made in the sewage systems; the water supply had been doubled and improved by municipal control of the watersheds, and a bond issue had been approved by the voters (1920) for the construction of additional impounding reservoirs. The construction of a new city hall and a new court house were authorised in 1925. READING, UNIVERSITY OF.—On March 17 1926 a charter of incorporation was conferred on the university. Accommadation for 400 students is provided in the halls of residence, to which

a sanatorium

is attached.

The

faculties

are

letters,

science, agriculture and horticulture in association with the National Institute for Research in Dairying and the British Dairy Institute. The progress of this institution since 1902, when it became the University College of Reading, has been uninterrupted in every respect. It has a capital endowment of £250,000 and in r924 received £20,000 for endowing the library. In 1924 an exchange of professors was arranged with Bristol University and members of the professional stalf attended the World’s Dairy Congress at Washington and Philadelphia. REALITY: see Loic. RECALL.—The recall is a method whereby public officials may be removed from office by popular vote prior to the normal end of their term. In European States —An early instance js afforded by the Abberufung, an institution of considerable antiquity, which still

survives in the constitutional texts of several Swiss cantons, although there is no record of its use during the present genera-

The Adberufung provided that upon petition signed by a

duced first in the municipal charter of Los Angeles (1903), this

feature has been copied widely by city governments operating under the commission or commission-manager plans, of which there are now some joo in all parts of the United States. By constitutional amendment in 1908, Oregon made the recall applicable to elective state officials as well as to elective officials in counties, cities and other local government units. Between 1908 and 1920, ro other States adopted the state-wide recall, among them California, Colorado, Kansas and Louisiana. With the single exception of Michigan all the recall States lie west of the Mississippi. | Constitutional and charter provisions on the subject usually exempt officials from recall during the earlier part of their terms —as a rule for the first six months of a term of two years or longer. To be effective petitions for recall must be signed by a certain percentage of the voters of the district or State, such requirements ranging from 10 to 55%, the most common being 25°. Within from 20 to 90 days following the filing of an adequate petition a special election is held, at which, in most cases, the elector is asked to vote, first, on the question of the recall of the official under fire; and, second, on the choice of a possible successor from among the candidates presenting themselves for that purpose. The greatest controversy over the recall in the United States

turned upon its use against judges. Opponents held that such use would destroy the independence of the courts. On the other hand it

was asserted that judicial officials, like all others, might become too subservient to political machines or to corporate influence, and that

occasional reminders of their dependence upon the people would be a serviceable corrective. That the opposition was effective in part appears from the fact that of the 11 States having the statewide recall, four (Idaho, Michigan, Washington and Louisiana)

expressly exempt judicial officials. In connection with the recall of judges may be mentioned the proposal for the recall of judicial decisions, which attracted a large share of attention during the presidential campaign of 1912, being advocated in the Roosevelt Progressive platform of that year. It was destined to be stillborn, however. One State only, Colorado, attempted to adopt the recall of

judicial decisions (1913), but noemployment was made of the device, and in 1921 the state Supreme Court of the United States declared it unconstitutional. Unlike the initiative and referendum which have been employed actively and generally, the recall has been used, in sporadic cases only, chiefly against local officials such as mayors, police magistrates and county

judges.

No

higher state judicial officials have

been removed by it, and no state-wide officials of other kinds with the single exception

of the North

Dakota

case

governor and two other administrative officers recall is no longer regarded as a dangerously indeed it is considered rather ineffective as a against ‘‘ the never-ending audacity of elected

of 1920,

when

a

were removed. The radical innovation; cautionary measure persons.’” One posi-

tive beneficial result may be ascribed to the recall.

It has reduced

appreciably popular antipathy against centralising the powers and

lengthening the terms of elective officials, without which necessary

reforms in this direction, and commission-manager such great progress. J. D. Barnett, in The Recall in Oregon contains

of the recall in that state.

particularly the movement for commission government for cities, could not have made (R. C. B.) Operation of the Initiative, Referendum and an excellent detailed study of the operation

(See also INITIATIVE; REFERENDUM.)

314

RECIFE—RED

RECIFE (see 22.953), is sometimes known by the name of the State, Pernambuco. The population in 1925 was 356,000, an increase of 126,000 in 1s years. Federal, State and municipal Govts. by co-operation with the Rockefeller Foundation (1919), the erection of modern hospitals, a new water system (1917) and the extension of sanitation have improved health conditions. The death-rate has been reduced to about 34 per 1,000. Yellow fever and smallpox have been practically eradicated. Paving of old and narrow streets has advanced and in the newer parts of Recife wide modern avenues are extending. Among new public buildings are fine municipal and State oflices, a law college, a commercial museum, schools and theatres. New business build-

ings and private homes add to the city’s attractiveness.

Electric

light and street car services have extended further into the sub-

urbs. Good roads are multiplying and the use of motor cars is growing. Textile (one silk) mills, shoe, oil, soap and lock factories, better electric light equipment, modern homes for workmen, are a few of the industrial and civic advances. Port construction, now well advanced, has already cost $20,000,000; additional construction is in progress, including a new light system (1925) and the deepening of the inner harbour. Recife exports sugar, cotton, lumber, tobacco and fruits. It ranks fourth in Brazilian exports of foods and raw materials and third as regards imports of forcign goods. The total commerce handled in a recent year amounted to 363,000 tons. More than 1,000 m. of railways radiate to interior regions, providing outlet through Recife. (W. A. R). RECLAMATION: see COAST PROTECTION. | RED CROSS (see 1.801), the national and international organisation for the care of the sick and wounded in war, the assistance of prisoners-of-war, and other humanitarian purposes.

I. THE

INTERNATIONAL MOVEMENT NATIONAL SOCIETIES

AND

THE

The international Red Cross Committee, founded in 1863 by Henri Dunant and a group of prominent citizens of Geneva, promoted two diplomatic conferences which drew up the Geneva Convention of Aug. 22 1864 (revised July 6 rg06) and supplied the international legal basis to the work of the Red Cross. The International Committee was constituted to supervise the observance of the Geneva Convention, to found and develop Red Cross societies throughout the world, to act as an intermediary between governments, peoples and groups of various nationalities for mutual assistance and relief for victims of war, sickness, etc. The various societies meet at intervals in international conferences. The oth conference, held at Washington in rgr2, dealt chiefly with relief for prisoners of war. The Red Cross emblem (red cross on a white background) displays the arms of Switzerland reversed, and was adopted in honour of that country. The work of the Red Cross during the wars which have occurred since its foundation has been steadily extended. The War of rgr4 necessitated a very great development, especially as regards collaboration with the various military medical services; care of the wounded, formation of hospitals and detachments of nurses; relief for prisoners-of-war and their families; building of hospitals; supplies; hospital transport; canteens, relief for war victims in the various countries; relicf of civilians in distress and of refugees, etc. National Organisations During the War—The belligerent countries naturally made great efforts on behalf of their own nationals. The British and American services are dealt with separately at the end of this article. Perhaps the most remarkable of the other efforts was that of Germany, where the Red Cross mobilised a total auxiliary medical service of 250,770 persons, and organised 85 hospital trains and floating ambulances, 3,470 hospitals and convalescent homes, 500 portable Décker barracks, 508 homes for the troops, 490 supply stations and 421 hospital posts for men on leave. The Italian Red Cross treated close on 700,000 wounded and collected funds amounting to 51,000,000 lire. Nearly 18,000,000 parcels were sent to Italian prisoners-ofwar. Of the neutrals, the Danish Red Cross organised a large service for the transmission of letters and parcels to prisoners of

CROSS

war in Austria, Germany and Russia, and for distributing literature to internment camps.

The Prisoners Bureau at Copenhagen

had branches at Berlin, Moscow, Vienna, Paris, etc. The Danish Red Cross played an important part in the prisoners of war conference between Russia, Rumania and the Central Powers at Copenhagen in 1917. The Dutch Red Cross gave much assistance to Belgian refugees, and assisted interned prisoners and the exchange of invalids and health personnel. The Swedish accomplished much relicf work, especially regarding Germany and Russia. The Swiss organised the repatriation through Switzerland of severely wounded prisoners (80,377 men) and the internment in Switzerland of sick prisoners. International Committee During the War.—In 1914, the International Red Cross Committee set up at Geneva the International Prisoners-of-War Agency, with departments of prisoners-of-war and missing men of the Entente countries (12 sections, dealing with 30 countries); prisoners-of-war and missing of the Central Powers (4 sections); and interned and deported civilians, hospital staff, hostages and refugees. Between 1914-8, more than 20,000 people came in person to Geneva to obtain information. The daily post varied between 2,000 and 15,000 letters. The total number of index cards was over 5 million. There was a special department for naval prisoners-of-war, or men missing at sea. Further, the International Agency made enquiries about men missing on the field, dealt with the transmission of relief to and the repatriation of families in the invaded areas, with the repatriation of deported workers from reprisal camps, and of members of the ambulance corps. The International Red Cross Committee sent numerous delegates to inspect prisoners-of-war and civilian internment camps in Europe, Asia and Northern Africa. Printed reports on these visits were issued regularly. Further, the International Committee made the necessary protests against violations of the Geneva convention. Thus, on Sept. 21 1914, it reminded belligerents of their duty strictly to observe the 1906 convention concerning the care of sick and wounded without distinction of nationality. It also drew attention to the neutrality of the ambulance staff, to the desirability for suspending hostilities for the identification and

burial of corpses, to the question of the bombardment of hospitals and the illegal treatment of sanitary or Red Cross staff; the question of reprisals; the protection to be afforded to hospital ships. As a result of steps taken by the International Committee, the Swiss Govt. proposed the negotiations between belligerent

countries for the repatriation of invalid prisoners-of-war. In Feb. rors, the International Committee took steps also to secure the internment in neutral countries of sick prisoners. International Committee after the War.—Among the activities of the Red Cross Societies in repairing the effects of the War may be mentioned: repatriation (with assistance of the League of Nations) of 300,000 Russian prisoners stranded in Germany, and 150,000 German and Austro-Hungarian prisoners detained in Russia and Siberia; delegations for distribution of emergency relief and protection of hospitals and charitable institutions and of aliens during the civil wars in Russia (1918), Hungary (19109), Upper Silesia (1921); visits to political prisoners in the Ruhr (1923), Ireland (1923), Poland (1924), Montenegro (1925); relief

to starving

populations

in Poland,

Austria,

Hungary

(1919-22), Anatolia (1922), Germany (1923-4), Albania (1925), Syria (1925); the maintenance of a central office in Vienna to fight epidemics, co-ordinating with work in Poland, Galicia, the Ukraine, Rumania and Austria; work in the Ukraine against spotted typhus (1919-20); anti-malarial work and general medical study in Georgia (1923); relief for the 1,500,000 Russian refugees in Europe (1920), assisting the League of Nations when it took ever this question in 1921; relief and hospital work among Greek refugees from Asia Minor (19g22)—commission for the exchange of prisoners-of-war between Greece and Turkey; and evacuation of Russian refugees in Manchuria, in collaboration with the International Labour Office (1925). Activities after the War—Special work was undertaken by national societies, including the work of French, Belgian, British and American Societies, in re-establishing sanitary conditions in

RED CROSS the devastated regions of France and Belgium; similar work in the Baltic States, Poland, the Ukraine, Asia Minor; first aid and medical treatment to distressed populations in Austria, Hungary, Germany, Russia, Asia Minor and China (during the famine); work against epidemics; co-ordinated measures against exanthematic and recurrent typhus in the Ukraine; against malaria (Italian Red Cross); a tropical institute for prevention of malaria (Georgia); summer hospitals (China); campaign against epidemics among the natives (Siam, Dutch East Indies, Congo). Many societies organised relief for the sufferers from special disasters, notably: cyclones and fires (America); cyclones, fires, burst dams (Holland); floods (China); earthquakes and cyclones (Central and South America); eruptions, earthquakes, fires (Italy); earthquakes, especially that of Tokvé, Sept. 1923 (Japan). Still another branch of activity was the evacuation of the wounded in case of accidents, disasters, civil war, revolutions in various countries (Portugal, Germany, Russia, China, Central and South America). The system of training nurses and hospital helpers was reorganised and directed mainly towards intensifying health propaganda and performing emergency relief work. In Germany, nurses were especially trained for campaigns against epidemics and tuberculosis; in France for work with occupying troops in Rhineland, Upper Silesia, Morocco, Tongking, Syria; in the French devastated areas, against tuberculosis and for protection of children; in England as visiting nurses in slum areas, National societies also established special hospitals, sanatoria, preventive institutes, orphanages and dispensaries; they conducted propaganda for the increase of Red Cross membership, especially among young persons; they organised social hygiene courses and lectures to encourage campaigns against tuberculosis, cancer, venereal disease and further hygiene in general. Many homes for children and colonies for sick children have been established to combat tuberculosis. Lessons in hygiene have been organised in schools; the Italian Red Cross alone has given assistance to over 50,000 children. League of Red Cross Societies—In 1o19, on the proposal of Mr. H. P. Davison, President of the American Red Cross, the American, British, French, Italian and Japanese Red Cross societies founded the League of Red Cross Societies, to encourage in all countries the development of a duly authorised national Red Cross organisation, the object of which is to improve health conditions, to prevent discase, to contribute to the general wellbeing by placing new scientific discoveries at the disposal of everyone, and to act as an intermediary for the co-ordination of various relief works in the event of disasters, national or international. l The League is managed by a general council and a board of governors, and since 1922 its headquarters have been at Paris. It includes departments dealing with international relief, propaganda, publications on hygiene, tuberculosis, venereal disease, the protection of children, visiting nurses, the Junior Red Cross, etc. The League has adopted as a symbol the Red Cross in a star with five points, symbolical of the five Red Cross societies which founded it. International Conferences.—International Red Cross conferences were again convened from 1g2r onwards. The roth Conference (Geneva, March 30 to April 7 1921), surveyed the activity of the various national Red Cross societies during the War, and drew up a programme for the future. It also adopted resolu-

tions concerning the limitation of war, the preparation of a diplomatic convention concerning prisoners-of-war, civil war, and the international organisation of the Red Cross; and prepared a draft revision of the Geneva Convention. The Eleventh Conference (Geneva, Aug. 28 to Sept. 1 1923) considered the situation of civilians in the power of the enemy, and drew up a scheme of international relief for populations stricken by disasters. This report was drawn up by Senator Ciraolo, President of the Italian Red Cross, and after having been submitted to the Council and Assembly of the League of Nations in 1925, is now being considered by a special committee of enquiry.

315

The r2th Conference (Geneva, Oct. 7 to 10 1925) which was attended by 170 delegates representing 39 governments, 44 Red Cross societies and 20 other institutions, drew up the present programme for the work of the Red Cross societies, confirming, on the basis of past experience, the work of the national societies in time of war, and laying down general principles for the development of Red Cross work in new fields. The resolutions adopted at this Conference were concerned with chemical! warfare, the relations between military medical services and the Red Cross societies, measures for diminishing the number of missing in war time, the situation of non-combatants on enemy territory, the immunity of hospital air-planes,

relief for members of foreign legions, the work of the Red Cross in the event of the application of Article 16 of the Covenant of the League of Nations, relief for refugees, relief for Red Cross volunteers in the event of accidents or disasters, the creation of an identity card for members of Red Cross societies travelling abroad, the standardisation of sanitary material and the international organisation of the Red Cross. Further, an International Institute to consider the question of sanitary material was proposed, which should collect the various types of material in use in the various countries and organise competitions with a view to perfecting and standardising, as far as possible, such equipment as stretchers and other means of transporting the wounded. New Red Cross Secietics —In 1912 the number of national Red Cross societies was 38. Between 1914 and 1925 the International Red Cross Committee officially recognised the following new societies: Luxembourg (1914); Poland, Czechoslovakia (1919); Finland, Siam (1920); Soviet Russia (1921); Costa Rica, Colombia, Paraguay, Estonia, Danzig (1922); Bolivia, Latvia, Ecuador, Albania, Guatemala, Lithuania (1923); Egypt, Panama, Persia (1924); Iceland, San Salvador (1925).

Various previously existing Red Cross societies have either ceased to function or have been replaced by others. The societies of Wiirttemberg, Prussia, Hesse, Saxony, Baden and Bavaria have amalgamated into a single German Red Cross; in Montenegro, the society has ceased to exist; the Congo has become a part of the Belgian Red Cross; and the Russian Red Cross has been replaced by a new society. BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Paul Des Gouttes, Le rôle et l'action du Comité international de la Croix-Rouge pendant la guerre européenne, de

7914 à 1916 (Geneva, 1916); Rapports des délégues du Comité internutional sur leurs visites aux camps de prisonniers (17 series, Geneva, 1915-9); L'Agence internationale des prisonniers de guerre (Geneva, 1919); Paul Des Gouttes, LaCroix-Rouge internationale avant, pendant et après la guerre mondiale (Paris, 1923); Compte rendu de la Xème Conférence internationale de la Croix-Rouge (Geneva, 1921); Compte rendu de la NTéme Conférence internationale de la CroixRouge (Geneva 1923); Compte rendu de la XTIème Conférence interna-Ţ tionale de la Croix-Rouge (Geneva, 1925). See also Reports of the National Red Cross Societies.

I. THE

BRITISH

AND

AMERICAN

RED

CROSS

British.—-All existing British Red Cross societies were amalgamated in 1905 into the British Red Cross Society, with the aim of preparing in time of peace for rendering first aid to the sick and wounded in war. The War Office undertook to receive all offers of such help only through the B.R.C.S. When the Territorial Force was formed in 1908, the War Office invited the Society to form Voluntary Aid Dctachments for work with the Territorial troops. Both the B.R.C.S. and the Order of St. John set about organising these V.A.D.s for first aid work and assistance of the regular medical units during military operations. In fact, under the stress of the War, the Red Cross undertook much work which belonged strictly to the Army Medical Service. On the outbreak of war the B.R.C.S. and the Order of St. John appealed for funds. A joint war committee of the two organisations was formed, all subscriptions were pooled, and this committee carried out almost all war work undertaken in Britain. Scotland acted separately, and the Dominions, notably Canada, Australia, South Africa and Egypt, sent their own detachments to the theatres of war. The Times fund for the British Red Cross realised over {16,500,000

REDESDALE— REDMOND

316

in the course of the War, the four annual Empire “ Our Day ” collections producing over £8,500,000, of which more than fiveeighths came from overseas. There were, besides, gifts of stores and gifts to local hospitals. The latter, which were in connection with military centres and controlled by a trained nursing staff and local medical men,

| |

Communications.—A large part of Rumanian trade is carried on the Danube. The main communications of Rumania converge on Braila and Galatz. Rumania receives two-thirds of her imports from the industrial countries of Europe from the Danube river ports, and from those ports are loaded not only Rumanian produce, but the produce of other riparian States from Czechoslovakia downwards conveyed to these ports by river craft. Galatz is the principal port for timber export, Braila for cereals, vegetables, petroleum products, etc. Constanta is the only Rumanian port open all the year round. For the international régime of the Danube see DANUBE. The incorporation of the new provinces, whose communications were naturally directed chiefly to serve the States to which they formerly belonged, have made new railway communications essential to the development of Rumanian trade and industry. A new line from Oradia Mare to Arad obviates a detour through Hungarian territory. New lines, the surveys for which were provided for by credits voted on July 7 1923, are Brasov-Nehoias; Hva-Mica-Vatra Dornet; Bumbesci-Livezent;

Hamangia-Tulcea.

The

first of these

provides

a

direct route from Brasov to Constanta; the second will give a direct connection between the Bukovina and Transylvania; the third will traverse the Vulcan pass, and permit the easy transport of coal from Petrosani to Craiova. Other work in hand includes the transformation of the Bessarabian railways to the normal gauge and.the proper linking up of Bessarabia with Danube ports. Before the War the outlet for Bessarabian produce was Odessa and a necessary condition for Bessarabian prosperity under the new conditions is the provision of an easy outlet from Danubian ports. The railways would be adequately supplied with railway stock, locomotives and rolling stock having been taken over from the Central Powers, if repairing shop accommodation were sufficient. A large part of the reduction in export is due to the condition of the railways which delays the shipment of grain from the interior to the ports, and the development of Rumania depends to a considerable extent upon the improvement of her communications. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—Bulletin statistique de la Roumanie (Bucharest, annual); Mitita Constantinescu, L'évolution de la propriété rurale .. . en Roumanie (Bucharest, 1925); Reports on Rumania (British Dept. of Overseas Trade, London, annual); U. S. Dept. of Commerce, Rumania, An Economic Handbook. i

RUMANIAN LITERATURE (see 23.844).—The revival of Rumanian literature dates back to about the middle of the roth century, when, owing chiefly to the awakened interest in Percy’s Reliques, the poet V. Alexandri published his collection of folk poems— Ballades ef chanis populaires de la Roumanie (1855).

RUNCIMAN— RUPERT This, together with the Old Chronicles (1845), edited by Michail Kogålniceanu, constituted a living monument of the vernacular. Their importance as an inspiring and stimulating power to the new writers was fully appreciated by Titu Maiorescu, who be-

came the leading critical spirit in Rumanian letters. Under Maiorescu’s intluence a group of national writers gathered round the newly founded periodical Convorbiri Literare. Among them were I. Creangă, who in Amintiri din Copilärie (“ Recollections of Childhood ’’) and other tales fresh with many idiomatic expressions embodied the spirit of the Moldavian peasantry; I. L. Caragiale, who, besides a realistic drama and two volumes of short stories and sketches of unsurpassed craftsmanship, showed in his comedies Scrisoarea din Urma (The Lost

Letter) and Noaptea Furtunoasa (Stormy Night) (Collected Works, 1908) the grotesque effect resulting from a hasty introduction of Western manners into a society still stamped with an oriental character; and above all the poet Eminescu.

What

a magic

there was in his verse! The words linked together as by a strange chance, simple in appearance, but suggestive, suffused with emotion, creating a new music of their own, and apt to express— what had seemed impossible with a language as yet rather uncultivated—the highest thoughts that ever beset a great spirit. He has often been compared with Leopardi, on account of a profound, penetrating, overwhelming note of sadness, which affected all his successors, not excepting Al. Vlahutz4, a poet with a strong individuality of his own. But there is another side to Eminescu—his broad conception of the Rumanian race. It was this that impressed writers of the later generation such as Prof. Iorga, who, in his Jsforia Literaturit Romine in secolul al XVIII. lea, 1688-1821, etc. (1901), arrived at a clearer understanding

of what a national literature may be. In his own weekly, Samanatorul, as well as in such other periodicals as Convorbirt Literare, under the editorship of Prof. Mehedintzi, Luceafarul and Viata Românească, was first published almost all the modern writing which artistically reflects the deeper characteristics of the Rumanian people. A corner of the humble life of Banat is described in I6n Popo-

vici-Banatseanu’s short story, In Lume (Out in the Worlds); the romantic Vlach population scattered throughout the mountainous parts of Macedonia, Epirus and Thessaly is represented in Marcu Beza’s volume of short stories Pe Drumuri (1914) (On

the Roads) and his novel, O Viata (1921) (A Life). Transylvania has produced the poets G. Coşbuc, Octavian Goga, Stephen Josif. The first-named started a reaction against the pessimism of Eminescu by singing joyfully in rich cadences of everyday peasant life. Goga’s poetry, being essentially of an irredentist character, has burned out its flame, its stirring power, in the realisation of national aspirations; but there are still in his second volume Ne Cheama Paméntul (The Land Calls On Us), a number of poems imbued with a deep, enduring humanity. He seems for the present lost to poetry, having turned his talent to the

writing of vigorous, fiery leaders in his own weekly Tura Noastra (Our Country), the name of which speaks clearly of its tendency. To the gentle pen of Josif, a Transylvanian of Vlach paternity, are due the best renderings into Rumanian of Shakespeare’s Midsummer Night's Dream and Shelley’s To a Skylark in Talmacirt (1923). It is from the English masters of song, chiefly from Keats, that another poet, P. Cerna, absorbed and made his own that power of soaring to the higher realms of imagination. His untimely death was a great loss to Rumanian literature, as in profundity he ranked next to Eminescu. During this period public interest in Rumanian authors was awakened, so that even the national theatres of Bucharest, Jassy and other towns were able successfully to produce plays inspired directly by Rumanian history and folklore; such as Barbu Dela-

vrancea’s trilogy, Apus de Soare, Luceafarul, Viforul—Sunset, The Evening Star, The Storm—in which a strong Shakespearean influence could easily be detected. Victor Eftimiu’s poetic

excursion into fairyland, Imsira-te, margurife!, 1911 (String Ye Pearls!) is founded on a popular Rumanian tale; so is Adrian Maniu’s versified drama Mesterul, 1922 (The Masterbuilder). Returning to fiction, one has to mention first of all I. Al.

397

Bratescu-Voinesti. In to25 he was awarded the great prize of the Rumanian Academy, a well deserved recognition of his work, which, though small in output—comprising only two volumes of short stories, 7n Lumea Dreptatii (In the World of Justice) (1908) and Jn Tuncric $i Lumina (Darkness and Light) (1912) is remarkable for its delicate blending of humour and subdued pathos. Duiliu Zamfirescu in a series of three novels on Din Viata Comanestilor (The Life of Comăneşti) shows how the kind, God-fearing old boyar gradually disappears, and his place is taken by unscrupulous adventurers of no definite race or religion. Liviu Rebreanu’s novel Jon (1921) deals with the peasants’ love of the land, amounting sometimes to greediness, and fraught consequently with great calamities; it has rather impressed the public by its size, as it appeared in two large volumes, an unusual thing in Rumanian literature. Micheal Sadonuvea is undoubtedly one of the most prolific writers. He published many books of short stories and narratives, his last, Venea

o Moara pe Siret (1925) ( A Mill on the Siret ”), being considered the best. It really gives a vivid insight into the countryside, and one meets now and again with masterly descriptions, which, however, through their profusion, overshadow in a way the movement of the characters. The World War does not seem to have either altered or much inspired literary production. An attempt to depict the general spirit during the German invasion of Rumania was made in a novel, called after the national colours, Roşu, Galben st Albasiru (1925) (“ Red, Yellow and Blue’’) by I. Minulescu, known as a disciple of the French symbolists. From the same school proceeded likewise a younger poet, Ion Pillat, who in his Salul meu (1925) (““ My Village ”’) manifests a definite return to the Rumanian tradition. BIBLioGRAPHY.—Winifred Gordon, Rumania, pp. 40, 45 (1918); M. Beza, Papers on the Rumanian People and Literature (1920);

and several of the stories cited above are contained in Rumantan Stories, translated by Lucy Byng (1921) and M. Beza, Doda, translated by Lucy Byng (1925). (M. B.*)

RUNCIMAN, WALTER (1870), British politician, was born at South Shields Nov. 19 1870, the son of Sir Walter Runciman, rst Bart., a Newcastle shipowner. He was educated at Trinity College, Cambridge, and afterwards joined his father in his shipping business, being from 1896 to 1905 managing director of the Moor Line of cargo steamers. In 1898 he unsuccessfully contested Gravesend in the Liberal interest, but was elected for Oldham in 1899, although he only held the seat for a year. In 1902 he stood successfully for Dewsbury, and retained this seat until rg18. In rgos he entered Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman’s Govt. as parliamentary secretary to the Local Govt.

Board, He became financial secretary to president of the Board of Education in ident of the Board of Agriculture from 1912-4 he was also Commissioner of

the Treasury in 1907, 1908, and was presro1r to 1914. From Woods and Forests,

and from 1914-6 president of the Board of Trade. On the formation of Mr. Lloyd George’s Ministry in 1916 he retired from the Government. In 1920 he unsuccessfully contested North Edinburgh and in 1924 was returned for Swansea West. He was an active member of the Radical group formed within the Liberal party, and was thus opposed to the leadership of

Mr. Lloyd George.

(Sce LIBERAL PARTY.)

RUNNING: see ATHLETICS. RUPERT (1860), German Louis III. of Bavaria, was born 1906, after extensive travels in appointed to the command of the

prince, the eldest son of King May 18 1869 at Munich. In India and elsewhere, he was I. Bavarian Army Corps. At the outbreak of the World War he was commander of the Bavarian troops (the VI. German Army) and led them to victory in the great battles fought in Lorraine (Aug. 20-2 1914). In the following Oct. he was placed in command on the German front in Artois and southern Flanders, and, after having been

advanced to the rank of field-marshal, was entrusted in the spring of 1917 with the chief command of the northern group of armies on the Western Front. In 1900 he married Marie Gabriele, a sister of the Queen of the Belgians; she died in 1912; and in 1921

he married

Princess

Mitonia

of Luxembourg

and

Nassau.

398

RURAL LIFE—RUSSELL, B. A. W.

Through his mother, the Archduchess Muaria-Thérése of AustriaEste, Prince Rupert was the descendant of the Stuart Kings of England and, according to legitimist ideas, in the succession to the British crown. (Sce FRONTIERS, BATTLES OF THE.) RURAL LIFE.— During the period 1910-26 much has been done in Great Britain to bring to the villages some of the amenities of the town, also to arrest the depopulation of the rural districts. Women’s Institutes—The Women’s Institute movement came to Great Britain from Canada, where Women’s Institutes had been in existence for some 25 years, and where their organisation promoted War-time economics and food production and preservation. Mrs. Alfred Watt, who had long been associated with the Canadian movement, had come to England in 1913 to interest Englishwomen in the movement. In Feb. ro15 the Agricultural Organisation Society realised its possibilities in rural England. The first Women’s Institute in Great Britain was founded in

Wales at Llanfairpwll in Sept. rors; the first in England at Wallisdown in Nov. of the same year. In Jan. 1925 there were 3,476 Women’s Institutes in England and Wales, with a total membership of over 206,000, and the number was growing steadily. In 1917 the Board of Agriculture became responsible for the propaganda of the Women’s Institute movement, as part of the work of the Women’s Branch of the Food Production Department. In rọrọ the Women’s Institute became completely independent, though representatives of the Ministry of Agriculture continued to serve on its executive committee. The importance of the movement lics not so much in the fact that it has given country women a new interest in life, or even that it has set a remarkably high standard in handicraft, as that it has broken down much of the old isolation of village life. Women’s Institute members form a fellowship from which no woman is excluded by creed or politics, and the habit of meeting together monthly to discuss questions of interest to them as individuals and as members of the community is leading to a sense of the power of co-operation which seems likely to go far. Already certain institutes have taken up such questions as water supply, the preservation of footpaths, disposal of rubbish and

housing; and on more than one occasion an intelligent district council has sent to the institutes for comment on the plans of cottages they were about to erect, so that the women who would do the work of those houses had a chance to express an opinion on them before they were built. A new sense of public service and a new spirit in local government are slowly making themselves felt which may do much to breathe new life into parish and district councils. Moreover, the linking together of village to village in groups and in county federations, and of county to county in the National Federation, bids fair to give a stability to this movement which has been lacking in previous efforts to develop the social, educational and recreational side of village life, excellent as many of these have been. Village Clubs ——An attempt to do something of the same sort for men was made, after the War, by the Village Clubs Association, but did not prove successful. Certain parts of the work it had set before it were, however, being carried out by other organisations. Nothing was more striking after the War than the marked increase of interest in adult education (g.2.).. An interesting experiment in linking together educational and social work from the elementary school to advanced classes for adults, and including the provision of playing fields, is at work under the auspices of the County Council at Sawston in Cambridgeshire. Rural Community Councils——A tentative effort to establish closer co-operation between the various statutory and voluntary agencies was made in Oxfordshire in 1920, when a rural community committee was formed, consisting of representatives of voluntary societies interested in educational and social development throughout the country, and of the County Council. Simultaneously, and independently, Nottinghamshire was beginning to move in the same direction. Since then rural community councils have been formed in Kent, Nottinghamshire, Derbyshire, Leicestershire, Gloucestershire, West Sussex, Hertfordshire, Cambridgeshire, Hampshire, Somerset, Forfarshire; and

other counties are in process of forming such bodies.

These

councils not only pool information, and as far as possible resources, thus enabling villages to obtain lectures, concerts, dramatic entertainments and other such things much more

surely and economically than could otherwise be the case, but in certain cases they have taken active steps with regard to questions of public health and of rural industries. A further development has been the formation of village community councils on similar lines to the rural community councils. These do not in any sense replace the parish council, but aim at bringing together all sections of village life. There has been a great increase in the number of village halls during the post-War period. Many have been put up as War memorials, and many have been provided by the village as a whole, not by individual donors. Boy Scouts, the Church Lads’ Brigade and Young Farmers’ Clubs are all attempting to deal with various aspects of the problem; but it remains to be seen if agriculture can provide adequate counter attractions to town life. In music, drama and folk dance special efforts are made to cater for the intellectual needs of the villagers. Thanks to the enlightened policy of the Carnegie United Kingdom Trust, in every English county but two, rural libraries have been established, and visits from the village, country town and school concert parties, and from the Arts League of Service, bring music and drama to country audiences. Even more significant is the work of the English Folk Dance Socicty, the Village Drama Society and the music competition festivals, which are helping villagers themselves to develop artistic expression. Wireless is in its infancy, and its influence in bringing isolated people into touch not only with music but with great national and political events through the broadcasting of speeches cannot yet be estimated. It undoubtedly suggests great possibilities which as yet are realised only to a very slight extent. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—Adult

Education

Committee

of the Board

of

Education Reports (Nos. 3, 4, 5 and 6), On the Development of Adult Education in Rural Areas (1922): The Development of Adult Education for Women (1922); British Afusic (1924); Drama (1926); H. W. Ashby and P. G. Byles, Rural Education (1923); J. W. Robertson Scott, The Story of the Women's Institute Movement (1925); Rural Industries Intelligence Bureau, Papers; IL Morris, The Village College (1924); National Council of School Service, The Reconstruction of Country Life (1925); Carnegie United Kingdom Trust, Annual Reports; Horace Plunkett Foundation, Introduction and Report of Last Dax’s Conference on Co-operation Within the British Empire, held at Wembley (1924). (G. H

RUSSELL,

BERTRAND

ARTHUR

WILLIAM

(1872-

J;

British mathematician and philosopher, grandson of the first Earl Russell (Lord John Russell) and brother and heir of the

second Earl Russell, was born at Chepstow, Monmouthshire, May 18 1872. He became a scholar, and subsequently a fellow, of Trinity College, Cambridge, and with peculiar lucidity propounded the theory of Neo-Realism. During the World War Mr. Russell twice infringed the emergency regulations, was for some time in prison, and was deprived of his fellowship in 1916. Thereafter he lectured and wrote on the major questions of

metaphysics without the support of academic authority. He travelled through China and Bolshevik Russia and unsuccessfully contested the Chelsea constituency in the Labour interests. His most important works are: Principles of Mathematics (1903); Princtpia Mathematica, in which Prof. A. N. Whitehead collaborated (1910); Afysticism and Logic (1918); The Analysis of Afind (1921); and two books of popular exposition, namely the

A. B.C. of Atoms (1923) and the A. B.C. of Relativity (1925). Mr. Russell has been peculiarly successful in cliciting from comtemporary physics those theorems that are most nearly consonant with his temper. He began by trying to impose upon psychological and metaphysical speculation the orderly logic of pure mathematics. As time went on, he came to despair of a successful issue, and in his later work admits that neither materialism nor idealism can wholly satisfy him. He has therefore tried to formulate a neo-realism, the substance of which is the existence of some primary stuff neither mental nor material. But

RUSSELL, G. W.—RUSSIA temperamentally he is a desperate man, loving extremes, and too many of his speculations are deliberately intended “ 4 épater les bourgeois.” His wo.ks on Russia The Practice and Theory of Bolshevism (1920) and China, The Problem of China (1922) deepen the impression made by his works on general philosophy. He is, essentially, an intellectual, who believes that the truth may be acquired by well disciplined ratiocination, but does not believe that the Governments of the world, whether despotic or democratic, will ever attain to the perception of truth. Therefore he is a deliberately lonely figure, almost querulously criticising the world’s workings, ever ready to champion unpopular causes, slow in accepting any “‘ fait accompli.” He has with some justice been called a Huxley who has not found his Darwin. In collaboration with his second wife, Dora, daughter of Sir F. W. Black, he wrote The Prospects of Tidustrial Civilization, 1923. (See

KNOWLEDGE, THEORY or; RELATIVITY.)

(H. C. Ha.)

RUSSELL, GEORGE WILLIAM (1867), Irish writer and painter, known as Æ, was born at Lurgan, Co. Armagh, April 10 1867. Educated at Rathmines School, Dublin, he entered an accountant’s office, but in 1897 joined the Irish Agricultural Organisation Society, and became an organiser of agricultural societies. From 1904 to 1923 he was editor of The Irish Homestead, the organ of the agricultural co-operative movement in Ireland. In 1923 he was appointed editor of The Irish Statesman,

which post he still held in 1926. Russell’s publications include Homeward: Songs by the Way (1894); The Earth Breath (1897); Literary Ideals in Ireland (1899), a collection of essays written in collaboration with W. B. Yeats, W. Larminie and John Eglinton; Jdeals in Ireland (1901), another book of collaborative essays; The Nuts of Knowledge (1903), a selection of lyrics. In 1904 appeared two books of verse, the Divine Vision and New Poems, an anthology of verses by young Irish poets; and a collection of mystical tales, The Mask of Apollo. Other books of verse include By Still Waters (1906), Collected Poems (1913), and Gods of War (1015). The Hero in Man (1909) and The Renewal of Youth (1911) were imaginative musings, as was Imaginations and Reveries (1915). In 1906 appeared Some Irish Essays, and in 1907 Deirdre, a three-act play. Co-operation and Nationality and The Rural Community, published in 1912 and 1913 respectively, were pamphlets embodying co-operative ideals, which are further developed in bis The National Being: Thoughts on an Irish Polity (1917). The Candle of Vision, an attempt to discover the element of truth in the mystical imagination, appeared in 1918. This was followed by The Interpreters (1920), a symposium in the Platonic fashion in which world politics are related to motions in the anima mundi. A volume of poems, Voices of the Stones, appeared in 1925. RUSSELL, ISRAEL COOK (1852-1906), American geologist

(see 23.862), died at Ann Arbor, Mich., May r 1006. RUSSELL, WILLIAM CLARK (1844—T91 1), British author (see 23.865), died at Bath Nov. 8 191r. RUSSIA (see 23.869), now officially known as the Union of Socialist Soviet Republics (U.S.S.R.) The territory of Russia just before the War consisted of about 22,000,000 sq. km., 25.4% of which lay in Europe, 74.6°5in Asia. The War reduced Russian territory in Europe, partly by adding parts of it to existing States, but more especially by the creation of new States out of the territory of the former Russian Empire. As a consequence of the separation of Finland the formation of Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, the absorption by Turkey of the pashalik of Kars and the occupation of Bessarabia by Rumania, Russia lost 804,000 square kilometres. The whole territory of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics is now about

21,200,000 sq. km. (8,108,387 sq. m.) with a population of 139,700,000. (For Asiatic Russia sce SIBERIA). The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (U.S.S.R.) according to the constitution of 1923 and subsequent additions, consists of six independent republics as follows: the Russian Soviet Federal Socialist Republic (19,700,000 sq. km.), the Ukrainian S. S. Republic (400,000 sq. km.), the White Russian S. S. Repub-

lic (100,000 sq. km.), the Transcaucasian Soviet Federal Socialist

399

Republic (200,000 sq. km.), the Turkoman Republic (200,000 sq. km.) and the Uzbek

Soviet Soviet

Socialist Socialist

Republic (331,900 sq. km.), Some of these are again federations in their turn.

I. DIVISIONS

OF THE

SOVIET

UNION

The following is a complete list of the territorial divisions of the U.S.S.R. with their capitals as they existed in 1926. THE WHITE

RUSSIAN SOVIET SOCIALIST CAPITAL— MINSK

Administrative Centre

Province Minsk . Slutsk . Mozir . Bobruisk Borisov

. Minsk . . . .

.

Slutsk Mozir Bobruisk Borisov

TRANSCAUCASIAN

SOCIALIST FEDERAL CAPITAL— TIFLIS

3. Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic (a) Abkhazian (autonomous Republic) (b) Adjarian (autonomous Republic) (c) Southern Ossetian (autonomous region)

SOVIET

Klimovichi Orsha Vitebsk Polotsk REPUBLIC

. Baku Nakhichevan

SOCIALIST

| Khan-Kendi . Erivan

. Tiflis . Sukhum . Batum . Pskhinvalt FEDERAL

Soviet

REPUBLIC

Capital

Province

Altai . Amur

. Mogilev . . . .

Capital

(a) Nakhichevan area (6) Nagoini Karabakh Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic

RUSSIAN

Administrative Centre

Province Mogilev Kalininsk Orsha Vitebsk Polotsk

Constituent Republics I. Azerbaijan Sovict Socialist Republic 2.

REPUBLIC

.

Barnaul

. Blagoveschensk Archangel

.

Archangel . Astrakhan

__

. Astrakhan

Bryansk

. Bryansk

Vladimir

. Viadimir . Vologda

Vologda Voroncj Vyatka

Voronej

i Vyatka

Gomel

Gomel

Grozni (a town with Provincial Status) Yenisci . Krasnoyarsk Transbaikal

Chita

Ivanovo-Voznesensk Irkutsk f

. Ivanovo-Voznesensk .

Kaluga

. Kostroma

. Kursk

. Leningrad . Moscow . Murmansk

. Nijni-Novgorod

Novgorod. Novo-Nikolaevsk Omsk Orlovsk Penza Perm . Primorsk Pskov

. Novgorod

Ryazan Samara Saratov

.

Severo-Navkaz € Region)

Smolensk Tambov Tver . Tomsk ‘Tula Tyumen

.

-© Ulyanovsk Tsaritsin

Chelyabinsk Cherepovets Yaroslavl .

.

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Nijegorod .

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Irkutsk

. Kaluga

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; .

. . . . . . . . . . .

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Vladivostok Pskov Ryazan Samara Saratov Sverdlovsk

. Veliki-Ustyug

. Rostov-on-Don . Smolensk . Tambov Tver . Tomsk . Tula

. . . . .

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Republics inthe Union

Autonomous Republics and Provinces

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RUSSIA Autonomous Areas within the

F.S.R.

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was as fine a representative of Old Russia as the governing class of the time could muster—not a great statesman nor an original thinker, but a fearless, patriotic gentleman with practical experience in provincial administration, accessible to ideas of reform, but constitutionally adverse to radical theories. The repression of revolutionary attempts and of agrarian revolts was taken in hand with ruthless energy, and it succeeded in driving discontent underground and in re-establishing external order, but it cast its shadow on the constructive work of Stolypin’s statesmanship. After the clash with the intractable Second Duma the electoral system was altered by the manifesto

Capital Krasnodar (Temporary) Ijevsk Beslan Nalchik Astrakhan Pishpek

. .

eld

. . . .

. Turtkul

. Batalpashinsk

Karachaevo- Cherkess

Komi (Zirian) .

. Ust-Sisolsk

Marisk Oirat . Northern Ossetian Chechen

. . . .

Chuvash

Krasnokokshaisk Ulala Vladikavkaz Grozni

of June 3 1907. This coup d'état secured

. Cheboksari

Autonomous Socialist Soviet Republics within the R.S.F.S.R Capital Bashkir . Ufa Mongol- Buryat . Verkhneudinsk Daghestan . . Buinaksk Karelian . Petrozavodsk Qirghiz - Orenburg (a) Adaev County with status of | Province Aleksandrovsk Fort (Uritsk) (b} (c) (d) (e)

Akmolinsk Province . Aktyubinsk Province Bukeev Kustanai

(f) Orenburg (g) T

; . . .

.

(h) Uralsk

:

Tatar Yakutsk

:

. . . . . . .

Crimea . . German Volga .

TURKOMANISTAN

Petropaviovsk Aktyubinsk Urda Kustanai

Orenburg Semipalatinsk Uralsk Simferopol Pokrovsk Kazan Yakutsk

SOVIET SOCIALIST POLTORATSK

REPUBLIC

CAPITAL—

UzBexK Soviet Socialist REPUBLIC CAPITAL—SAMARQAND Capital

Province Bukhara

. Bukhara

Tashkent . Khwahrezm

. Tashkent . Khwahrezm

Samarqand

. Samargand

Ferghana . Tajikstan (Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic) . .

UKRAINE

. Khogand

. Dyushambe

SOVIET SOCIALIST REPUBLIC CAPITAL—-KHARKOV

Province

Capital

Volhynia ; . :

Chernigov Moldavia (Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic)

. . . . . . .

Bakhmut Ekaterinoslav Kiev Odessa Vinnitsa Poltava Kharkov

. Chernigov Balta

The above table is derived from Russian official sources.

II. HISTORY

TO THE

to the Government a numerical majority in the Third and in the Fourth Dumas, while at the same time it weakened the moral authority of these assemblies and made the Moderates more susceptible to the appeals of the Lefts. In spite of the outward pacification of the country there was no real settlement, and the flames of political passion burst out occasionally with ominous violence. The close of 1910 was marked by an increased agitation among the students—the most sensitive and audacious element of Russian society. Harrowing tales of flogging and tortures practised on political convicts in the prisons of the North and of Siberia had reached the educational centres, and a series of strikes and indignation meetings began in all the various high schools of the empire. The reactionary bureaucrats, however, with M. Kasso, the Minister of Public Instruction, at their head, decided to use these sad occurrences in order to overthrow the seligovernment of the universities, conceded to these institutions by the Imperial ukaz of Aug. 27 1905. M. Kasso issued decrees ordering the establishment of a strict régime of official inspection, the closing of students’ unions and societies with the exception of the scientific ones, and, eventually, the direct interference of the police for the maintenance of order within the universities and high schools. In Moscow the Rector (Prof. Maniulov) and his assistants declared that they could not assume responsiblilty for the carrying into effect of the ministerial measures; they were deprived of their chairs; 63 professors and lecturers tendered their resignations as a mark of sympathy with their dismissed comrades. This did not disturb the minister in the least, and he promptly accepted most of the resignations, although this involved the intellectual ruin of the oldest and most famous university of Russia. The “Prides Purge” in Moscow was followed by a number of dismissals in other educational establishments. The unsparing scourging of the academic corporations produced the desired effect of outward submission, but it brought the feelings of hatred and humiliation among the intellectuals to the highest pitch, and the outcasts and convicts of the univer-

. Jitomir

Donets Ekaterinoslav Kiev . Odessa Podolsk Poltava Kharkov

40I

(X.)

REVOLUTION

The Last Years of Tsardom.—The transition from an autocratic to a constitutional régime was rendered especially difficult in Russia by the lack of political education among the people, the doctrinaire fanaticism of the intellectual leaders and the selfishness of the Government. The First Duma had ended in a vain attempt to appeal to the country against the Government. The Stolypin Ministry, which was formed in 1906, started with a programme of co-operation between the Government and ‘leaders of public opinion,” and it sought an agreement with the more moderate sections of Liberals, especially with the Octobrists, the supporters of a policy aiming at putting into practice the manifesto of Oct. r905. The failure of this attempt is a fact of historical importance in so far as it showed conclusively how irreconcilable the tendencies of the imperial bureaucracy were with the programme of moderate Liberalism. P. A. Stolypin

sity “stories ” afterwards formed the principal contingent among the embittered intellectual leaders of the revolution. Another sign of the times may be discerned in Stolypin’s legislation in respect of the Zemstvos of the western provinces (Kiev, Volhynia, Podolia, Mogilev, Minsk and Vitebsk). The introduction of a measure of local self-government would have been in itself a boon to the population of these provinces, but Stolypin made it an occasion for a renewed humiliation of the non-Russian nationalities, strongly represented in these districts. The project of the Government disfranchised the numerous Jewish population, and drove the Poles into a position of inferiority by dividing the electorate according to national colleges and establishing beforehand the preponderance of the Russian colleges by means of an artificial scheme of repartition. The unfairness and political short-sightedness of these restrictions provoked a strong opposition even in the docile Third Duma. In the Council of the Empire a coalition between the Rights and the Lefts led to the rejection of the bill. Stolypin did not submit in the face of such an assertion of independence. He prorogued the Duma for three days (May 14-17), and in the interval obtained an Imperial decree promulgating the law as an emergency measure on the strength of Art. 87 of the Organic Laws. In consequence of this snub administered to the Legislative Assemblies, the Octobrist Centre could no longer support

RUSSIA

402

the Government; the leader of the Octobrists, A. Guchkov, re-

198-25%.

signed the presidentship of the Duma, and votes of censure on the Government were passed in both Houses on the resumption of their sittings. Stolypin’s position was made untenable by these events. His victories meant in truth the breakdown of his programme. The Premier had again to rely exclusively on the goodwill of the autocratic Tsar as against independent public Opinion, and he had to strive for that goodwill in the enervating and treacherous surroundings of Court intrigue, in which obsequious chamberlains were more expert and successful than himself.

lieve the peasants’ load of taxes. The salt tax was abolished in 1880, the poll-tax in 1882. But these measures could certainly not solve the financtal difficulties of the peasantry. Arrears grew rapidly to enormous proportions. In the province of Tamboo, for example, the arrears amounted in 1898 to 244% of the original charge. Driven by land hunger, the peasants farmed on lease a large part of the State’s appanages and of squires’ land, but this expedient cannot be considered as an effective help in the solution of the land problem. The rent paid by the peasants to the landowners was usually very high. It is important to notice that certain plots of land, the use and possession of which was an essential necessity for the whole community, for example strips bordering on watercourses remained usually after the Emancipation in the hand of the landowner. This gave him the power to require exorbitant rent for such land and keep the peasants in permanent fear of losing these grounds, without which village life was practically impossible. This led to continual collisions. Under such conditions the backward and extensive methods of peasant cultivation proved very difficult to reform. | One of the most important defects of the peasants landholding was the intermixture of strips in the open fields. The land of a community lay only seldom in a compact block. It was usually divided into a number of smaller “ shots,” sometimes mixed up with lands of other villages and landowners. The blocks of land belonging to the same community were again subdivided into strips, which were sometimes two to three yd. broad and some roo yd. long. Each household held a certain number of strips 20-30-50, sometimes even 100-150. The strips were scattered at a great distance from the farmyard, and the driving to them entailed a considerable waste of time and work; this hampered greatly the farming arrangements of the villagers. The intermixture of strips separated from each other only by narrow balks obliged the whole community to follow the same system of cultivation, which was usually the three-fields one. The very large extent of fallow land, the carelessness of the holders who were not sure of keeping their land permanently— all this had the most ruinous effect on the peasants’ farming. Under such conditions, hampering individual energy and initiative, productivity on the peasants’ holdings was very low indeed. In 27 provinces the average value of the gross produce of one dessiatine of peasants’ land was 8r. 99k., while the average cost of production per dess. was 5r. 22k.; so that the net produce per dess. amounted only to 3r. 77 kopecks. The productiveness of the squires’ estate was 12-18% higher than that of the peasants, but as a large area of landowners’ land was taken on lease by the peasants, the difference in the results of cultivation would be much greater. | Decay of the Peasantry.—The impoverishment of the peasantry after the emancipation of 1861 is reflected in a memoir of the Zemstvo of Tula:— |

The coup de grâce came from the midst of the secret police, that had become the mainstay of the Imperial system in its struggle against growing rebellion. One of the agents of this organisation, Bogrov, inflicted a mortal wound on Stolypin at a gala performance in the Kiev Opera House on Sept. 14 Igr1. The hatred of oppressed nationalities and of the humiliated intellectual class had armed

the hand of the assassin, who was a

well-educated Jew.

THE AGRARIAN QUESTION The Stolypin Land Reforms.—One part of Stolypin’s activity calls for special examination, his land reform, which may be considered as the immediate introduction to the social revolution of 1917. The agrarian revolts of rg05 attracted the attention of the Government and of society to the deplorable condition of the most numerous and important social class, the peasantry. The causes of the growing impoverishment of the peasantry are to be sought primarily in the manner in which the emancipation of 1861 had been carried out. The plots of land (xadé/) which the peasants got varied greatly in size in different provinces. “‘ Large”’ holdings ranged between 23 (about eight ac.) and 12 dess. (33 ac.), while minimum holdings corresponded to one-half of the maximum-ones. The landowner’s share comprised, besides his domain land, from one-third to one-half of the land formerly occupied by the peasants, on the condition that the latter should receive no less than the minimum holding. Besides these two principal types of holdings the Emancipation Act of 1861 established also the “ beggarly ”? or “ gratuitous ” holding, which was to be no less than one-quarter of the maximum one. The gratuitous holding was established by free agreement between the peasants and the landowner; in this case the peasants had to pay no redemption while the landowner kept all the rest of his land. On the whole the quantity of land held by the peasants had been much reduced irom that held before emancipation. The following figures for the province of Saratoff may serve as an illustration:— In 1861 688,826 peasants received beggarly holdings; they held 302,383 dessiatines. In 35 provinces 921,826 souls ! were assigned one-half of the large holding each and held 1,530,000, or less than two dessiatines per soul.

The peasants’ holdings, which were already whittled down at the time of the Emancipation, were further reduced after it by the increase of the population. A Commission for the investigation of the conditions and needs of the peasantry described the diminution of the peasants’ holdings in the following manner: in 1860, 4:8% decrease on the average; in 1880, 3-5 decrease and in 1900 2-6 decrease. Besides losing a portion of the arable land, the peasant lost at the Emancipation the right of using the landowner’s pasturage, of cutting wood in his forest, and some other subsidiary rights important in the living of peasant farmers. The redemption payments were a heavy charge on the peasant’s budget. The Agricultural Commission of 1872 found that squires had tospend on taxes less than 14-5 kopecks per dess., while the peasants paid more than 95-5 k. per dessiatine. In ad-

dition, the peasants had to pay the poll-tax, the amount of which was about 4r. 45k. per soul. The same Commission states that in 37 provinces the taxes and redemption payments of the meforr State and appanage peasants comprised 92-75% of their net

income

from land, the payments

of former

unfree peasants

1 Persons doing the normal work of a villager.

The Govértimént made some futile attempts to re-

The peasant’s life is hard and unsightly even in periods of comparative welfare. Generally he lives in a cottage of 8-9 yd. width and no more than 3 yd. in height. Cottages without chimneys are still very common, the smoke being let out through a hole in the roof. The roof is almost always thatched. In many provinces the walls are covered with dung for the sake of warmth. A peasant’s family, sometimes a numerous one, is huddled together in a space of 20-30 sq. yards. The floor of the cottage is almost always bare soil, because lambs, calves, pigs and even cows are put in during the cold weather. Skin diseases are very common among the population. Meat, bacon, oil, butter appear on the peasant’s table only on exceptional occasions, perhaps two or three times a year; his usual fare is composed of bread, porridge, kvass, cabbage and onions.

A very characteristic symptom of the decay of the peasants’ farming is the reduction of the number of horses and the increase in the numbers of horselcss households. A comparison of the figures of the horse statistics in 1888 and 1893-4 shows that in 31 provinces the number of horses had fallen by 10-88%. The number of horseless households had increased during the same period in 23 provinces of central Russia from 21-56% to

26-85%. More than 25% of the households have no horses at all; another 25°% have only one horse each.

RUSSIA Let us now examine a peasant’s normal budget as it is presented in the remarkable work of Mr. F. A. Shcherbina (edited

by Prof. A. J. Chuprov):— Income from:—

Corn on his land ; Corn on household land Straw and hay Gardening . Cattle-breeding Trade or craft Sundries .

Total Expenses:— Corn ; Food for cattle : Vegetables and fruit Meat. . é š Rent Taxes Sundries .

Total

. I6r. 20k. . Ir.g2k., 8 r. 16 k. 2r. 63k. 9r. 99 k. o Er A7 K. « 226k:

. 55r. 63 k. . Ir. rok. 8r. 45k. Ir. 30k. 3r. 90k. Ir. 2k. o 2 Y0 ke . 20r. 10 k.

. 55r. 54 k.

Assuming that 19 poods of corn per head are the minimum necessary during one year and that 7-5 poods are suflicient for fodder, Mr. Maress calculated that 70-7 °% of the peasant population had less than 19 poods per head, 20:4% had between 109 and 26-5 poods per head, and only 8-9 % had more than 26:5 poods per head. This means that 70:7% of the farming population could not live on the income from their land and would be reduced to semi-starvation if they could not find any supplementary means of existence. The state of mind produced by this situation among the peasantry may be gathered from the opinions expressed by peasant deputies in the Second Duma in the course of the debates on agrarian reform. One of the members of the Right, Prince Sviatopolk Mirski, had said that the ignorant and inexperienced mass of the Russian people had to be guided by the landlords as a flock is guided by shepherds. Kisselev, a peasant belonging to the group of toil, replied:— “We have had enough of that kind of thing! What we want are not shepherds, but leaders, and we know how to find them without

your help. With them we shall find our way to light, to truth, to the promised land!” |

Afanassiev, a non-party other things:— |

deputy, an ex-soldier, said among | | ““In the Japanese war I led a number of mobilised soldiers through

estates (of the squires). It took us 48 hours to reach the meeting place. The soldiers asked me, ‘Where do you lead us? ’, ‘ To Japan.’ What for?’, ‘To defend our country.’ They replied: ‘ What is that country? We have been through the estates of the Lissetskys,

the Besulovs, the Padkopailovs . . . Where is our land? here belongs to us.’ ”

|

Nothing

The same deputy said on another occasion:— “Work, sweat and use the land! But if you do not wish to live on the land, to till it, to work on it, you have no right to own it!”

In order to meet this disastrous situation the Government made attempts in three directions—the increase of the size of peasants’ holdings, emigration and the improvement of agricultural methods. It would be erroneous to think that the deficiency in land could be entirely removed by new distributions from the estates of the squires and the domains of the Crown. In 1906 the distribution of land among different classes of land owners was as follows (La Réforme agraire en Russie, Ministére de l’agriculture, 1912):— Crown land . ; T 133,038,883 dess. Peasants’ holdings . . , : ; Land bought by communities and associations of peasants . . ; : : ; Land bought by individual peasants Land of the gentry . ; : Land owned by other classes Land owned by various institutions

119,067,754 dess. 11,142,560 12,944,154 49,287,886 22,664,493 6,985,893

dess. dess. dess. dess. dess.

The enormous area of the Crown lands was mainly covered by forests or situated in the northern and eastern provinces, so that it could not be used for agricultural purposes; the surface of convenient land in the hands of the Crown was only about 3,700,000 dessiatines. The arable land owned by the Church and different ecclesiastical institutions amounted to 1,672,000 dess. (Statistics

403

of the Holy Synod, 1890); the appanages comprised 2,000,000 dess. ofarableland. Asalarge part of the land was covered also by forests, we come to estimate the surface of the arable land owned by squires at about 35,000,000 dless. (Yermolov.) The sum total that could be disposed of would thus amount to 45,000,000 dess., or about 30% of the area of the peasants’ holdings; divided among the villagers it would have made less than one additional dessiatine per soul. The insufficiency of the land reserve becomes even more evident if we keep in mind that about 85% of the arable land of the Crown, 90° of the appanage arable land and a considerable part of the squires’ land were already leased by the peasantry. : The peasants’ revolt of 1905 and the new schemes of Stolypin gave an entirely new direction to the agrarian policy of the State. The Manifesto of Nov. 3 1905 suspended all redeeming payments after Jan. 1 1906. Of the surface of 2,846,620 dess., which the bank sold directly from Jan. 1 1906 to June 1 1913, peasants’ communities got 5:5%, peasants’ associations 14:8%, individual owners 79-7%. The peasants also acquired from the Jandowners, with some assistance of the bank, 4,375,163 dessiatine. It is estimated by Oganovsky that the result of the bank activity until July 1 rg10 was the creation of 45,000 to 50,000 separate farms and of 130,000 to 140,000 small compact plots, the owners of which live in hamlets. a The law of 1889 had subjected emigration to official supervision. Those were allowed to emigrate who were able to pay the expenses of the journey and of the installation ofa new household, provided their departure did not harm the

remaining members of the community.

No government assist-

ance was given to the emigrants. Permission to emigrate was refused if the local authorities considered that the emigrants

could find work in the old district. Those who emigrated without an official permission had to be sent back. These regulations resulted in a great reduction of the emigration movement, which was practically closed to the poorest peasants. The events of r905 and the new orientation of the government brought a great change in the emigration policy. Greater facilities were granted, and government assistance was promised by the Provisional Rules of June 6 1906. But the growth of emigration which followed the new regulations was obstructed by a complete lack of organisation. : | We have now to consider the third branch of the government activity, directed towards the solution of the agrarian question. The scheme for improving agricultural methods was based on a reform of the distribution of the land. In 1861 a legal confirmation of the peasants’ customary commune was considered the best means to secure the return of the money advanced by the State for redemption. The statistics of landownership in 1905 showed that 23:2% of the households and 17% of the land owned by the peasants were held by private tenure; 76-8°% of the farms and 82-7% of the peasants’ land were in communal tenure. The right of property was attributed not to separate households but to the whole village community, as a juridical person. In the case of communal land tenure only the house close belonged to households in permanent tenure; other land belonged to the whole community, and was subject to occasional redivisions. Former domestic servants were assigned to peasants’ communities, but did not obtain holdings: they formed in this way a village proletariat. In the reign of Alexander III. communal tenure, which had been regulated by the Liberation Act of 1861, came to be regarded as a political safeguard, and its decay was considered to be a national danger. The law of Dec. 14 1893 made practically

impossible any transition from communal to household tenure. But the growing impoverishment of the peasantry gave evidence that the existing land system had ceased to be beneficial. The special conference established by an Imperial Order on Jan. 22 1902 recognised for the first time the necessity of a funda-

mental change in the The majority of the communal tenure and causes of the alarming

existing land settlement of the peasants. Conference were of the opinion that the the intermixture of strips were the chief condition of the peasantry.

404

RUSSIA

Stolypin’s Land Settlement.—The agrarian disorders of 1906 gave increased importance to the problem, and proved that the settlement of it could not be postponed any longer. In the years 1906-7 the problem of land reform excited the strongest interest in governmental circles, and played a most prominent part in the programmes of different parties and in the debates of the First and Second Duma. Stolypin took the initiative on the part of the government and eventually obtained the support of the Third Duma. His scheme had a political purpose, the creation of a conservative class of small peasant owners who could be counted upon to defend the existing régime. This class had to be strong and progressive economically, as it was clear that the improvement of the peasants’ condition could be attained only by more intensive farming. Some measures had been taken to enlarge the area of the peasants’ holdings without violating the interests of the squires. But government activity was principally directed to a complete reconstruction of relations inside the village, to the creation of separate farms and to the spread of individual ownership. The Imperial ukase of Nov. 9 1906, the Land law of June 14 1910 and the Agricultural law of May 29 1911 were enacted for this purpose. The features of Stolypin’s scheme were: Each householder possessed of land in a village community can demand that his land should be constituted a plot in individual property. A simple majority of the village assembly may convert holdings into privately owned Jand. The land has to be assigned to the claimant, if possible, in a single block. The conversion of the land of the entire community can be decreed by a resolution of the village meeting passed by a simple majority of the members. All the communities where there had not been any redivision of land since 1861 were declared to have passed from communal tenure to individual or household ownership. Formation of compact plots could not be refused if it was asked for by not less than one-fifth of the householders. The Land Commissions created by the ukaz of March 4 1906 were entrusted with the redistribution of land under the new land settlement. In the Duma the Right clung to the opinions which had been prevalent in the time of Alexander III.; the Radicals entertained the hope that the communal land tenure might form the cradle of future collectivism. The Cadets mostly agreed with the principles of the government scheme, but they objected to the coercive character of its methods. The majority of the House supported the government and carried its bill through the Duma. The motives that influenced the deputies of the Duma were well expressed by the chairman of the Land con S. Shidlovsky, in his speech on Oct. 23 1908:— Our attitude as regards the decree of Nov. 9 is in substance a favourable one, because this decree aims at the development of individual land tenure and individual land tenure is certainly the necessary condition of improved cultivation, and the latter means the solution of the agrarian problem... . The foundation of a State ruled by law consists in a free, independent and energetic personality. Such a personality cannot exist unless you allow the common right of ownership, and no one who wishes the State to be ruled by law should oppose the spread of private property in land. Land is, after all, only a basis for the application of labour and capital, and labour is most productive when the labourer is placed in favourable conditions. In the forefront in this respect we have to place an open door for personal enterprise, free play for creative energy, security against outside interference, personal interest. The avenue towards a permanent improvement

in the existence ‘of our peasants

is to be found in an immediate increase of production and income from land, and this cannot be achieved without the help of outside capital. A law which opens the way to personal property enables the agricultural worker to display his creative force.

The reform had apparently achieved an immediate and striking success. Before Jan. 1 1913 the Commission had arranged farms on an area of 7,413,064 dess., held by 738,980 households; strips had been concentrated into blocks on an area of 4,359,537 dess., held by 585,571 households, yet most of those who asked for separation held only a small plot, and belonged to the poorer peasantry. Even with government assistance they were unable to start separate farms, as this undertaking involves in the beginning a considerable outlay of capital. Besides, the natural conditions in some parts of Russia were not favourable to sepa-

rate farms or homesteads. One of the chief difficulties was the lack of water, which in very large tracts of the black soil area can only be found in connection with considerable rivers. This fact, together with the traditional leaning of the peasantry to village life, obliged the Land Commission to keep up on many occasions the village system even after the concentration of the fields. A memoir drawn up by the conference of Old Ritualists held at Moscow on Feb. 22-25 1906 discloses the views taken by the peasantry on the question of communal land tenure. The opponents of the commune suggested that it made impossible any improvements in agricultural methods and diminished the productive power of the soil; its supporters stated that communal tenure was the only system based on justice; this consideration is characteristic of the traditional feeling among the Great Russians. The government scheme sacrificed justice for the sake of expected increased production. Stolypin himself described the new land settlement as ‘‘ a stake on the strong.” The small size of the holdings of the new farmers and their economic helplessness had, however, a very unfavourable influence on the expected increase of production. A farmer who held only 8-10 dess. of land could not introduce any extensive improvements in his household in the absence of cheap credit. Stolypin recognised that ‘ primitive methods were used by the peasantry as before.”

The land settlement of 1906-10 was carried out with uncommon energy, but the social needs of the population were not satisfied. The government was accused of having destroyed by a stroke of the pen an institution formed by centuries. The sudden change affected not only the economic conditions of the peasants’ life, but the juridical relations between the members of the family were also shaken. Before the new settlement the life of the peasants was based on the participation in the common holding of all the members of the household. The new law substituted for this family tenure the individual ownership of the chief householder. All the other members of the family suddenly lost their rights in the Jand. Altogether it may be said that Stolypin’s agrarian measures could take effect only if they were accompanied by a steady policy making for agricultural education and backed by extensive credit. Even in such a case a long time would have been necessary to enable them to strike root. Their immediate consequence was rather to increase the fermentation in the villages and to excite and embitter the feelings of those who were losing faith in the village community without acquiring any other standard of economic organisation. Thus the legislation of 1906-11 helped to prepare the agrarian upheaval instead of preventing it. THE

STRUGGLE

FOR

REFORM

The Third and Fourth Duma.—The death of Stolypin left a wide gap in the ranks of the government, and the appointment of M. Kokovtsov, the Minister of Finance, to the premiership did not result in a rejuvenation of the bureaucratic system. The new Premier was in favour of continuity in policy; this meant that he wanted to keep on the lines traced by Stolypin’s initiative and avoid new departures as far as possible. He was a trained administrator, placed by chance at the head of the country in a time when caution and routine were certainly insufficient to meet the requirements of a critical situation. The principal achievement of the three years of Kokovtsov’s rule was apparent success in the management of financial operations. The budget grew every year and reached in 1914 the enormous sum of three milliard roubles, and yet not only was a deficit avoided, but some 1,500 millions in gold were accumulated as a reserve fund to sustain the currency and meet possible emergency calls. The instability of the vast structure buttressed on the chronic alcoholism of the people was duly perceived by public opinion, and a campaign was started in the Duma to put an end to this shameful and perilous situation. One of the Duma members, Chelyshiv, was the soul of an active agitation in the Legislative Assemblies and in government circles. He succeeded in obtaining the formation of a commission to examine and report on the

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RUSSIA subject, but his abolitionist plans were obstructed by the opposition of the Finance Ministry, which did not see its way to balance the budget without the resources supplied by the monopoly of the sale of spirits.

Yet signs were not wanting that the welfare of the country was

seriously threatened, in spite of an enormous and duly balanced budget. The harvest of 1911 was so poor that in 1912 Russia was Visited by a severe famine. Yet the government refused to let voluntary organisations assist in fighting the disaster; only associations affiliated to the Red Cross or to the Zemstvos were allowed to send agents into the provinces, to collect and to distribute funds. The public works organised by bureaucratic boards were conducted in a very unsatisfactory manner. Some progress was made in connection with insurance against ill-health,

but in other respects the employers were left very much to their own way, with the result that strikes, which had decreased considerably in number and intensity after the collapse of the revolutionary movement in 1907, began to multiply again. On many occasions the unrest was quelled by the intervention of Cossacks and soldiers. The most terrible case of the kind occurred in the goldfields of a company largely supported by foreign capital— the Lena Company; a dispute as to wages and maintenance was terminated by a fusillade in which 162 workmen were killed. The Third Duma had been led by the Octobrist party in conjunction with the moderate Right. This policy had suffered shipwreck through the absolutist bent of Stolypin’s administration and the colourless leadership of Kokovtsov. In the last sessions before its dissolution the Duma assumed a frankly hostile attitude towards the Ministry and the leader of the Octobrists, A. Guchkov, pronounced thundering indictments against the “ irresponsible influences ”’ which shaped the course of politics from behind the scenes: the egregious mismanagement of the Artillery Department, presided over by the Grand Duke Serge Mikhailovich, and the scandalous influence of the Empress’s protégé Rasputin, gave good grounds for these attacks. On the dissolution of the Third Duma the intricate and restricted franchise provided convenient handles for the gerrymandering of elections, and the Government made full use of them in order to secure a Government majority in the Fourth Duma. The Fourth Duma-—The bureaucracy and the priests mobilised by the Procurator of the Holy Synod were so far successful in this campaign that, thanks to its pressure and to the evident breakdown of the plan of a coalition with the Government, the Octobrists were defeated in a number of districts and their leader, Guchkov, succumbed at the polls. The party grouping may be tabulated as follows: (1) The Right, 67; (2) Moderate Right, 38; (3) Nationalists, 55; (4) Centre (Krupensky’s group), 28; (5) Octobrists, 87; (6) Progressists, 37; (7) Constitutional Democrats, 60; (8) Social Democrats, 14; (g) Polish circle, 13; (10) Mahommedans, 6; (11) No party, 20; (12) Group of Toil, 7; (13) Of unknown party allegiance, 17.

The new Duma was thus apparently more reactionary than the one which had preceded it. But public discontent and the inability of the Government to frame any effective policy of reform produced the unexpected result that a combination was brought about between the groups of the Left, the Octobrists, and even, in some cases, the Right Centre. In a general way the Duma assumed an attitude of opposition to the Government. This line of policy was especially conspicuous in a long series of interpellations and resolutions of want of confidence carried against arbitrary acts of the authorities. When a bill was passed

by the Duma to establish rules as to the responsibility of civil servants, the Council of the Empire refused to sanction the most modest requirements in this respect, although even the Minister of Justice had expressed his agreement. On the other hand, the government did not scruple to prosecute a deputy (Kusnetsov) for a speech he had made in the Duma, and the administrative department of the Council of the Empire decided that members of the Legislature were liable to prosecution in such cases. All measures of home policy, even the most urgent ones, were regarded from the point of view of political strife. The Education Committee of the Duma, in conjunction with the Zemstvos,

had worked out a plan for the provision and equipment of a sufficient number of elementary schools in order to secure universal instruction throughout the country. It was calculated that

some 106,000,000 children had to be accommodated in the schools, in addition to about 5,000,000 who were already enrolled for a course of three years in the schools of the towns and the Zemstvos. In order to achieve the result by 1924, the Duma proposed to develop gradually a network of schools by means of appropriations successively increased by 10,000,000 roubles a year in the course of ro to 12 years. This scheme could not be carried out in its entirety and in a systematic form, on account of obstruction from the Board of Education and from the Council of the Empire. These reactionary bodies were opposed to any policy which gave precedence to secular schools over Church schools, although it could not be contested that the former were much more advanced and perfect in teaching and organisation. The comprehensive law of consolidation was wrecked by the Council of the Empire; the “‘ enlightened bureaucrat ’’ Count Witte did not scruple to oppose the bill in alliance with the stalwarts of reaction, because, as he expressed it himself, it was an attempt to obtain paradise by means of child-murder, the murdered child being the Clerical school organisation. Thwarted in its comprehensive policy, the Duma nevertheless proceeded on its course by granting occasional increase of credits for elementary education. These constant conflicts produced a perceptible sliding towards the Left in the ranks of the Duma legislators. One of the symptoms of this process consisted in the disruption of the Octobrist party. It broke up into three small groups— the Left, hardly distinguishable from the Cadets;! the Centre,

which professed to devote its activity mainly to strengthening the Zemstvos; and the Right, which still clung to the idea of a possible alliance with a reformed Government. The dismemberment of the Duma into small groups gave influence to the Cadet nucleus, which, though it had few members in the Duma, was under strong discipline and was backed by a powerful press. In one direction only the majority of the Duma was fairly in agreement with the Government, namely as regards foreign

affairs and imperial interests. In spite of certain minor disagreements between the parties of the Left and the Centre and Right, the Duma

as a whole was decidedly Nationalist.

The Third

Duma had bequeathed to the Fourth a definite line of policy concerning the Finland conflict: the Legislature backed the Government in its endeavours to subordinate the autonomy of the Finnish State to the superior claims of the Empire. The view that the union between the Grand Duchy and Russia was a real and not a personal one led to the assertion of the supreme jurisdiction of the Imperial Senate and of the St. Petersburg Court of Appeal over Finnish tribunals; to the passing of laws commuting the obligation of personal military service for money payments; and to the demand that Russians dwelling in Finland as citizens of the Grand Duchy should be recognised on equal terms with native Finns. Even the Cadets did not contest the general principle from which such demands were derived, although they disapproved of the raising of issues which embittered the intercourse between nationalities and led to unpleasant consequences in the shape of passive resistance. Finnish officials who refused to recognise the legality of the interference of Russian institutions in Finnish affairs, apart from the traditional channel of the governor-general and Senate as representing the authority of the Grand Duke, were imprisoned or deported. The creation of the new province of Chelm (Kholm), separated

from the provinces of Lubin and Sedlitz, envenomed another old national contlict—that between Russians and Poles. The new Government was formed out of districts In which the majority of the population was Little Russian, although this population had been included for centuries within the boundaries of the Polish State and had been recognised as a part of Congress Poland annexed to Russia by the Treaty of Vienna (1815). The Duma passed the law of separation without taking heed of the violent protests of Polish public opinion. 1 Constitutional Demorrats.

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The Conflict with the Central Empires.—The Nationalistic| orientation of the Third and Fourth Dumas was put to the test by the growing entanglements of foreign policy. Russia had definitely joined the combination of Western Powers against the predominance of Germany, and opinion in the country fully supported this momentous change of front. The annexation of Bosnia and Hercegovina by Austria under the protection of Germany ‘‘in shining armour ” was strongly resented, not only by Stolypin and Isvolsky as the official exponents of Imperial policy, but by the nation at large. In 1911, during the Agadir affair,

Russia was found on the side of Kaiser William’s opponents. Matters became especially serious when the Macedonian hostilities, which had been smouldering for decades, burst out into flames in 1r912. The coalition between Bulgarians, Serbians and Greeks against Turkey had been rendered possible and effective by the support on which they reckoned from Russia; and O. Hartwig, the Minister Resident at Belgrade, was one of the principal agents in bringing it about. M. Sazonov, the successor of M. Isvolsky at the Foreign Office, cautious, but devoted to the great tradition of Russia’s protectorate over the Balkan Christians, was intent on using to the full the favourable situation created by the union between the three Balkan States, the sympathy of Western Liberals and the temporary indecision of the Central Powers. In this he was supported by the Tsar Nicholas, who, however, made it clear to his agents that Russia would not risk an actual war.

The crushing defeat inflicted on the Turks by the Balkan allies seemed to justify completely the combination engineered by Hartwig. But the harvesting of the fruits of victory proved a more difficult task than the actual fighting. The Central Powers had realised the menace of a permanent Balkan League to their ascendancy in the Near East. Austria vetoed any extension of Serbia towards the Adriatic. With the support of Germany she succeeded in depriving the Serbs and Montenegrins of the position they had wonin Albania. At the London Conference Russia did not dare to back the latter’s claims to the finish and the Western Powers were disinclined to proceed without Russia, The eviction of the Serbs from the west proved fatal to the peace of Europe. They tried to recoup themselves in the east by demanding districts of western Macedonia which had been previously conceded to the Bulgarians. M. Sazonov tried to stop the growing animosity between the Balkan allies by offering the mediation of Russia, and Nicholas II. attempted to exert his

personal influence on the wily Ferdinand of Bulgaria as well as on the Serbians. These attempts at conciliation proved unavailing: the Bulgarians broke away first, but were soon checkmated

by a coalition between Serbia, Greece and Rumania.

The Peace

of Bucharest, which gave the Dobrudja to Rumania, western Macedonia to Serbia and important districts of Thrace and Macedonia to Greece, shattered all hopes of an effective Balkan League, and laid Bulgaria open to the insidious intrigues of Austria and Germany. M. Sazonov manifested the chagrin of Russia; but his attitude only emphasised her diplomatic defeat. All these events were watched by Russian public opinion with keen interest and warm sympathy for the cause of the Slavs. It was realised more and more clearly that the struggle did not con-

cern merely the small States of the Balkans, but also their big neighbours. M. Sazonov found unexpected support from M. Milyukov, the leader of the Cadets. B. Maklakov and V. Bobrinsky came forward as the spokesmen of Slavonic solidarity. In this way, when the climax in the antagonism between Austria and Serbia was reached in the assassination of the Archduke Franz Ferdinand, the Russian public was prepared to back the Government against hostile acts of the Central Powers. The outrageous treatment of Serbia by Austria-Hungary was rightly interpreted as a provocation to the Entente, and especially to Russia. The only person of any weight who advised submission at any price was Count Witte. Everybody else, from the Emperor to the most humble citizen, understood that no choice was left but to fight for existence. (For Russian diplomatic action in the critical period before the outbreak of War see EUROPE, pt. ii. “The Outbreak of War.)

Tur Worrp WAR A United Russia.—In the light of subsequent events the decJarations made on the outbreak of the World War assume a particular significance. The representatives of alien nationalities expressed emphatically their resolve to stand by Russia in the struggle. The Russian groups expressed their resolve to spare no effort in the struggle, and to support the Government to the utmost in the task of defending the country. Only from the little group of Social Democrats came threatening notes. Their spokesman dwelt on the solidarity of the proletariat all the world round, on the common guilt of all the governments in provoking the war, on the resolve of the proletariat to bring about a speedy peace, on the hope that the present terrible catastrophe would result in

the abolition of all wars.

These discordant notes were lost in

the general display of enthusiasm. The Tsar’s Government was on the crest of a mighty popular wave; it might have steered a course towards victory and national regeneration if it had possessed the moral strength to throw away the tawdry equipment of despotism. Events soon proved that it was not only incapable of such an effort, but that its leadership was in itself a hindrance to success at home and in the War. At the start, however, two Sans in the right direction were taken by the Gos ernment: the abrogation of the State monopoly of the sale of spirits, and the promise of autonomy to the Poles.

The Gordian knot of the temperance problem was cut by Imperial decree in spite of the difficulties raised by finance experts. The beneficial influence of the measure on the morals and health of the people and of the army cannot be doubted. The appeal to the Poles was made in a proclamation of the Commander-in-chief, Grand Duke Nicholas. The grant of autonomy was held out as a reward for help against the common enemy, the Germans. It would have been better if the promise had come directly from the Tsar and if instead of vague words something tangible had been conceded at once. As a matter of fact the high bureaucracy began at once to put obstacles in the way of any reform. The damage done by these vacillations was incalculable. Instead of enlisting the wholehearted support of Polish patriots Imperial bureaucracy drove them into a position

of distrust and hostility,which became especially keen in view of the tactless and offensive behaviour of Russian authorities in Galicia, and could not be placated by occasional concessions in details. This episode may serve as an example of the stupid policy followed by the Government in regard to all minor nationalities of the Empire: their enthusiastic rally was discouraged in every way, and old enmities were revived and increased at the most critical time. The case of the Jews was especially flagrant: numbers of them continued to perform their military duties faithfully and zealously, but many others took advantage of opportunities to spy and to betray their persecutors, and the round of executions and pogroms set in again with increasing force. The Effects of M ourin, = the field the old cancers of corruption and favouritism were again producing disappointment and disaster. The army did not lack excellent leaders— the chief-of-staff of the Southern command, Alexeiev, the corps commanders Ruzsky, Brusilov, Radko Dmitriev, were generals of the first rank. The officers and the common soldiers fought with the traditional tenacity and valour; no sacrifices were spared

and brilliant victories were won.

And yet on decisive occasions

incredible things happened. Samsonov’s army was destroyed, thanks to a slackness in co-operation between commanders. In Jan. 1915 an intelligence officer, Miassoyedov, actually sold the plans of the northern concentration to the Germans, and brought about a crushing defeat of Sivers’ army. Worst of all it became clear towards the spring of 1915 that the army was insufficiently provided with munitions, aircraft, artillery and other appliances of war. The onslaught of Mackensen’s and Hindenburg’s Germans had to be met by soldiers many of whom had to man the trenches with sticks, in expectation that the death of comrades uight give the chance of picking up rifles; batteries were for-

RUSSIA bidden to fire more than a couple of times an hour; the armies were surrounded by multitudes of ‘‘ Kids ’’—marauders and deserters. Even in these terrible circumstances the Russians fought stubbornly, retreated step by step, and eventually, with the help of Alexeiev’s strategy, succeeded in arresting the stream of the invasion on the lines of the Dvina and the Dniester. But the psychological effect of this desperate campaign was a lasting one. The common soldiers had learned that their blood was wasted without stint by a criminally careless and inefficient government. The way was opened to the insidious propaganda of defeatists and traitors. The revolution of 1917 was prepared on the battlefields of Gorlice and Krasnostav. The progressive elements of Russian society attempted to save

the situation by a great effort. The Zemstvo and Town Unions, which had been doing wonders in hospital work and equipment, offered their services for the fabrication of munitions:— Towards the end of May 1915, at a congress of representatives of trade and industry, the discussion of technical questions was interrupted by an impassioned speech delivered by one of the leading Moscow millionaires, V. Riabushinsky, just back from the front and full of the impressions of the life and death struggle against the invaders. “‘ The whole of Russia forms the rear of the army,” he said. “‘ We cannot busy ourselves with our everyday affairs at the Se moment: every workshop, every factory must be used to reak the enemy’s force.” It was not a question of forming this or that committee, but of sinking all differences and appealing to the assistance of every able man, without distinction of parties, as people had done in the West, in France and in England.

Technical committees were created with the participation of leaders of industry, Zemstvo workers, representatives of the working class: they displayed fervid energy and achieved good results. But the main condition demanded by Riabushinsky and Lvov—mutual confidence between the people and the Government—was conspicuously absent. Subordinate officials joined in the efforts of the unions, but the central Government continued to flounder in the morass of Court intrigues and supine reaction. The worthless Minister of War, Sukhomlinov, was indeed dismissed and put on his trial; the ancient bureaucrat Goremykin had to resign the premiership; but the appointment

of his successor, Stiirmer, provoked a gencral outburst of indignation. He was known for his reactionary opinions, and had shown his mettle in helping to coerce the progressive Zemstvo of Tver. His great merit was his subserviency and affected devotion to the Imperial family, especially to the Empress Alexandra Feodorovna. This hysterical lady meddled more and more with affairs of State, particularly after the assumption of the supreme command by the Emperor. And behind her stood various favourites, chief among whom was the astute peasant, Gregory Rasputin, whose exploits had made the Petrograd Court a place of scandal for the whole world. No wonder that the opening of the Duma in Feb. 1916 gave rise to manifestations very different from those which had occurred in that assembly in July rg14. The ally of Stolypin, Shidlovsky, speaking on behalf of the bloc of progressive parties, said: ‘‘ The longing of the entire country towards a situation in which the country could entertain confidence in its Government, and feel in union with it, has been traduced as an incitement to seize power. . The forces of the nation, bereft of unity, aim and guidance, have been spent in vain, and the great national effort has weakened under the dissolving influence of discontent and indifference.” The discord between the Government and the Duma found expression on many occasions in connection with important questions of internal policy. A strike at the Putilov works, suppressed by military force, gave rise to a heated discussion in which the Duma, while condemning the strike as “a stab in the back,” expressed the desire that the legal activity of trade unions should be given free scope and that courts of arbitration should be founded for the settlement of trade disputes. Perhaps the most significant pronouncement was made in the course of the debates on the budget of the Holy Synod. The Duma voted a resolution to the effect that it considered necessary a reform of the Church administration on the principle of the supremacy of Councils and of a wide application of local self-government. For this pur-

407

pose a national Council should be convoked without delay. The reform should extend to ecclesiastical courts, especially in the matter of divorce procedure, and to the ecclesiastical schools; the parish should be developed as much as possible; bishops should not be transferred from one See to another, if the consent of the Church had not been obtained. The State should cease to look upon the clergy as a political instrument, and all circulars and orders in this sense should be revoked. The Government seemed to take delight in ignoring and thwarting all these resolutions. Stiirmer was called to one ministerial post after the other. In Feb. he was appointed Home Secretary in succession to N. Khvostov, in July Foreign Secretary in succession to S. Sazonov, who was dismissed because he had urged the necessity of settling the Polish question in the sense of definite and real autonomy. Altogether ministerial portfolios were shuffled like cards at the bidding of the Empress. It may be sufficient to notice the advent of M. Protopopov, a convert Írom the ranks of the Liberal bloc to the Ministry of the Interior (Sept. 1916). The dismay and indignation of the country found expression in a series of resolutions demanding the appointment of a Cabinet supported by the confidence of the people. Even conservative institutions like the Council of the Empire and the Association of the United Gentry joined in the chorus. The Popular Leaders.—Before proceeding with the narrative of events which led up to the actual revolution, let us consider the various currents of thought and party organisation of the intellectuals who were preparing for the coming conflict. It is not necessary to dwell at any length on the Octobrists and the Cadets. The former drew their main strength from the provincial gentry, the latter from the urban middle class and the liberal professions. The Octobrists pleaded for gradual development from local self-government, while the Cadets placed their hopes on the introduction of a constitutional democracy in which actual leadership would fall to the representatives of Western culture, but in spite of a recognition of the ‘‘ four-tails ’’ formula (1.é., universal, equal, direct and secret suffrage), the Cadets had no hold on the mass of the people, ancl relied on the selection of the educated by the uneducated. Socially and psychologically, the leading groups of the years of upheaval were bound to come from the midst of the extreme revolutionary intellectuals. Three leading currents may be distinguished in the history of revolutionary thought in Russia: militant idealism born of bitter resentment at the backward state of Russia in comparison with the West; the tendency to seek regeneration in a closer contact with the folklore of the common people; the economic materialism proclaimed by Marx. The views of the first group were most vividly expressed by writers like P. Lavrov and N. Mikhailovsky. They laid stress on the propaganda of progressive ideas in order to form the minds of irreconcilable fighters for emancipation in all fields of human

activity.

Lavrov had initiated a philosophical theory (anthro-

pologism) somewhat akin to the humanism of the modern pragmatic school; Mikhailovsky had preached ‘“‘ subjective ”’ ideals with great effect as a journalist and literary critic. His violent radicalism was directed not only against the “‘ powers that be ” he repudiated “‘ class struggle ” as a “ school of bestiality,” from which men issued as “ live corpses with faces distorted by rage.” In contrast to these “ Westerners ” appeared a group of writers who clung to the conception of a special aptitude of the Russian people for social brotherhood and communal economics (Zlatovratsky, Korolenko, Kacharovsky): their antecedents must be sought in the romantic teaching of the Slavophils as well as in emotional motives in sympathy with the toil and struggle of the peasantry.

In the case of active revolutionaries like Chernov, the radicalism of the Westerners was allied with the romanticism of the Populists, and in various combinations both tendencies helped to shape the views and the policy of the Social Revolutionary party. In the beginning of the 2oth century one could distinguish some five groups representative of this party. Their principal organ (the Messenger of Revolutionary Russia) proclaimed the necessity of close alliance between revolutionary intellectuals

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conspiring proletarians and the struggling peasantry. It laid as well as with the eventual overthrow of the old régime in 1917. Let us note that the Congress of the Social Democratic party chief stress on political rights, democratic organisation and in 1917 sided definitely with Lenin and the Bolsheviks. the raising of the status and consciousness of the individual. The Revolutton.—The situation in the beginning of 1917 was Their methods of terrorism and insurrection were themselves the outcome of the heightened sense of personality and of the impor- extremely tense and abnormal. The Emperor had left the capital and taken up his residence at the army headquarters in tance attached to energetic action and self-sacrifice. order to see as little as possible of the ministries, the Duma or The ways of the Social Democrats were different; they adopted Marx’s teaching as a gospel and tried to develop and to apply the Court, and to lead a “simple life’? among the selected it in every direction. Their chief exponent was for a time G. retainers of the Stavka; the Empress continued to look for Plekhanov, a philosopher and economist who held strictly to the hypnotising inspiration to monks and priests and interfered constantly in affairs of State in favour of reaction. Even the programme laid down by Marx, according to which Capitalism staunchest conservatives, like Trepov, found it impossible to reappears as a necessary stage in the development of production and gives way to Collectivism only when the majority of the main in office under such conditions, and the field was left clear for half-insane subjects like Protopopov and bigoted courtiers workers have been turned into wage-earning proletarians. Plekhanov and his followers did not consider the Russian people like Prince N. Galitsin. The army at the front held on sullenly to ready for class war against the bourgeoisie, and insisted, on the its positions, but was war-weary and distrustful of its leaders. | | (P. Vi.) contrary, on combined action with the social groups possessed of BIBLIOGRAPHY .— Documents: Russian Orange Book, Négociabetter education and greater political experience. The “ Revisionist ’’ movement, initiated in Germany by Brentano and tions ayant précédé la guerre 10-23 juillei—24 juillet-6 août 1914 (St. Petersburg, 1914); German trans. “ Das russische Orangebuch ” Bernstein, found adepts in Russia (Struve, Prokopovich). (Berlin, 1915); How the War began in 1914: the diary of the Russian The burden of increasing taxation, the disastrous conduct of Foreign Office from 3-20 July (O. S.) 1924, English trans. by W. Cyprian Bridge (1925); E. Laloy, ed., Les documents secrets des arthe Japanese War, the reactionary stupidity of the Government— all contributed to revive the revolutionary spirit in the ranks of chives du ministère des affaires étrangères de Russie, publiés par les Bolchéviques (Paris, an ; M. Pokrovsky, Aus den Geheim-Archiven the Social Democratic party. The history of this revival may be der Zaren (1912-14) (Berlin, 1919); J. von Romberg, Die Fälschungen traced from the appearance in Dec. 1900 of the Iskra (The des russischen Orangebuches (1915); English trans., The falsifications ofthe Russtan Orange Book (1923); F. Stieve, ed., Der diplomatische Spark) a newspaper conducted by Lenin and Martov. [enin’s chriftwechsel Iswolskis 1911-10914, 4 vol. published under auspices pamphlets, Wkat is to be done? (1902} and Letter to a Comrade of German Foreign Office from secret documents of the Russian (1903), express one of the leading ideas of his later activity. He archives (Berlin, 1924-5). pleads in them for centralised directions and decentralised Memoirs: A. A. Isvolsky, The memoirs of Alexander Isvolsky, ed. responsibility, that is, for an oligarchy of leaders and strict and trans. C. L. Seeger (1920); K. Nabokov, The Ordeal of a Diplomat (1921); A. Nekludov, Diplomatic reminiscences before and durtng discipline as regards the execution of their decisions by subordiWorld War, 1911-1917 (1921); Count Witte, The Memoirs of nate units. Democratic watchwords are set aside and efficiency the Count Witte, trans. and ed. A. Yarmolinsky (London and New York, of organisation is demanded at all costs. This led to the disrup1921); N. F. Grant, ed., The Kaiser's Letters to the Tsar (1921); R. tion of the party. At the London Congress of 1903 the fateful Rosen, Forty Years of Diplomacy (London and New York, 1922); division between ‘‘ Bolsheviks ” and ‘‘Mensheviks ” was inau- Sir G. W. Buchanan, My Mission to Russia (1923); G. M. PaléoLa Russie des Tsars pendant la Grande Guerre (1921); English gurated, as a consequence of disagreement concerning the prob- logue, trans. under title An Ambassador's Memoirs (1923). lem of leadership and discipline. The Bolshevik (‘‘ Majority ”’) Accounts: P. Vinogradoff, Self-Government in Russia (1915); group carried its proposals by a very narrow majority, and cap- G.’ Alexinsky, La Russte et la guerre (1915); id. La Russie et l'Europe (1917); S. Fischel, Der Panslawismus (Vienna, 1918); Graf F. von. tured the Central Council of the party, from which they entirely Am Scheidewege zwischen Krieg und Frieden (1919); E. J, excluded their opponents. The latter, who had a majority on the Pourtalès, Dillon, The Eclipse of Russia (1919); Oberstleutnant von Eggeling, staff of the Iskra, proclaimed a boycott against Lenin and his Die russische Mobilmachung und der Kriegsausbruch (1919); M. adherents. The insignificance of the immediate cause of the split Boghiéevit, Causes of the War (1920); H. Friedjung, Das Zeitalter des Imperalismus, 3 vol. (1919 and 1922); S. A. Korff, Russia's Foreign was only apparent: in truth the division arose from fundamental opposition between the democratic orientation of Plekhanov and Relations during the last half Century (1922); K. Kramaf, Die russische Krise (Vienna, 1922); Montgelas, Leitfaden sur Kriegschuldthe oligarchical spirit represented by Lenin. frage (1923); G. Frantz, Russlands Eintritt in den Weltkrieg (1924); Questions of principle arose in the course of the Japanese War F. Stieve, Isvolsky und der Weltkrieg (1924). and the first revolution. While Plekhanov and the Mensheviks HI. THE REVOLUTION AND AFTER were for co-operation with the Liberals in the fight for political The history of Russia after March 1917 divides into three freedom and for a gradual introduction of social reforms, Lenin periods. The first, after the spontaneous collapse of the autocset his hopes on the hatred of the peasantry for the landlords, and racy, is filled by the gradual crystallisation of leadership out of preached a ruthless Jacquerie. In his pamphlet, The Agrarian the interplay of many parties opposed to or favouring a social Programmes of Social Democracy, he contended that orthodox revolution in a country exhausted by war and for the most part Marxians had failed to grasp the peculiarities of the Russian inhabited by peasants hungry for land. In the second period the situation inasmuch as they were still talking about a coalition of party gaining the leadership has temporarily satisfied the peasthe bourgeoisie of the towns, while in Russia the moving power ants and ended the war; is forced by a new civil war, which by the was to be sought in the rising of the peasant bourgeoisie against intervention of foreign Powers becomes a new national war, to the squires. He contrasted the abstract views of the town proidentify itself with economic measures that would have alienated letariat with the intense revolutionary temper of the peasants the peasantry if it were not that these still feared that defeat who were “‘ ready to fly at the throat of the landlords and to would mean a military restoration of the old landlords. I the strangle them.” third period, military pressure from without has ended, the It is hardly needful to point out the close connection between peasants demand to be allowed to enjoy the fruits of the land these literary disputes and the Zimmerwald agitation! of 1915-6, which they are no longer in danger of losing, and the victorious 1 The Zimmerwald Manifesto of 1915 is full of momentous declaraparty is trying to guide the economic recovery of the country tions. The following are some of them:— ‘The war that has produced this chaos is the outcome of Imperialism, of the endeavours of capitalist classes of every nation to satisfy their greed for profit by the exploitation of human labour and the treasures of Nature. ... ‘To raise welfare to a high level was the aim announced at the beginning of the war: misery and privation, unemployment and death, underfeeding and disease are the real outcome. For decades and decades to come the cost of the war will devour the strength of the peoples, imperil the achievements of social reform, and hamper every step on the path of progress. Intellectual and moral desola-

along lines which, while satisfying the peasantry, shall confirm tion, economic disaster, political reaction—such are the blessings of this horrible struggle of nations... . ‘In this intolerable situation we have met together, we representatives of Socialist parties, of trade unions, or of minorities of them, we Germans, French, Italians, Russians, Poles, Letts, Rumanians, Bulgarians, Swedes, Norwegians, Dutch and Swiss, we who are standing on the basis, not of national solidarity, with the exploiting

class, but of the international solidarity of the workers and the class struggle. 2.2.”

RUSSIA instead of liquidating the social revolution brought about during the preceding periods. THe First Periop, Marcu 1917-Marcn 1918 The Collapse of the Tsarist Régime.—It would scem that a successful revolution is impossible so long as the existing régime is not rotten throughout.

If a régime, however bad, has faith in

itself and is coherent, the inertia of tradition will be enough to keep it in place. By the end of Feb. 1917 the imperial régime in Russia had lost all the circumstances of stability except a tradition that had at least been shaken by the attempted revolution of 1905, by the loss of the Japanese War and by a long series of military failures in the war with Germany. The imperial family

was divided against itself. The Government was divided in its views of the imperial family. The Duma was divided in its opinion of the Government, and was very far from giving it anything like the whole-hearted support that even a good government needs in the gloomy moments of unsuccessful war. The authority of the Church was shaken byaseries of scandals which touched not only the hierarchy but the reigning house. The unsuccessful War had affected everybody in the country, and, whereas most of the leaders of the Duma were dissatisfied because the War was not better conducted, the mass of the people were dissatisfied because it had not long ago come to an end. The army had lost faith in its commanders, and its commanders had lost faith in the Government that failed to supply them with adequate munitions. Petrograd in Revolution.—It is difficult to decide who was responsible for giving that final jolt. There are a good many reasons for thinking that the initiative was taken not by the revolutionaries but by the old régime. For some time before March 1917 there had been talk of a revolt in Petrograd that could be suppressed and would make less likely the revolution that everybody expected after the War. The police had been trained in the use of machine-guns, and a number of these weapons had been more or less secretly placed in commanding -situations in the city—the tops of houses, and, it was believed, in

certain bell-towers that would allow them to rake important streets. Further, the authorities had arrested just those representatives of the workmen who had been most active in pre-

venting strikes and in furthering the manufacture of munitions of war. Miliukov, the Cadet leader, found it necessary to declare that someone, disguised as himself, had been urging the workmen to strike. Asa matter of fact, the strike, urged by proclamations of the then extremely weak Bolshevik party, did not precede but

accompanied and grew with the disorders that had had a very half-hearted beginning in the streets. Eyewitnesses agree as to the strangely artificial and aimless character of those disorders, at least in their early stages, and agree also as to the presence of police agents in the crowds that gathered in the Nevsky Prospekt, urging, for example, these most peaceable crowds to overthrow tramcars. A curiously tactless proclamation of March 9 by the military governor Khabalov threw the blame for a shortage of bread on hoarders, and thus led directly to looting. This proclamation, issued at the request of Protopopov, announced that there was plenty of bread in Petrograd, and was exasperating to people who found they could not buy it. There was much that suggested conscious provocation. on the part of the authorities. The revolutionaries were later inclined to imagine that the responsibility was theirs alone, and that the revolution was planned and led. They did not make these claims at the time, and the ease with which the Duma assumed at least the semblance of authority suggests that the revolting populace

were quite unaware that they had had any leaders at all. Some of the leaders of the Duma have also been ready to claim responsibility, but their claim is even less defensible than that of the revolutionaries. The movements of crowds and individuals were, with the exception of the police, visibly without guidance or conscious objective, and the Duma leaders were themselves horrified when they realised that they were face to face, not with a change of government, which they sincerely desired, but with a collapse of the whole régime to which they belonged.

409

A few bakers’ shops were smashed on March 8. A strike movement in protest against the shortage of bread was spreading from factory to factory. On Friday, March 9, though there were crowds in the streets, it seemed that the authorities wished rather to keep them together than to disperse them. The closing of the bridges seemed to promise that something was expected to happen, and it is possible that this prolonged expectancy had something to do with the ultimate nervous, sporadic, unorganised disaffection of the troops, which developed only gradually inte active mutiny. It was remarkable on March 9 that the Cossacks were on good terms with the populace and anxious to keep so. It is said that the first blood shed in the revolution (Saturday, March ro) was that of a policeman who was attacked by a Cossack for striking an unarmed workman. Soldiers of the Petrograd garrison, when called out on Sunday, declared that they would not fire on their brothers. In order to destroy the moral effect of the obvious friendliness of the soldiery, and to prove to the crowd that the troops were still dependable, the police took 150 overcoats from one of the regiments and did some firing when thus disguised. Another account has it that soldiers were dressed in police uniforms, but for this the motive would seem to be lacking. The

incident brought the corps concerned and others into revolt. On Sunday, March 11, the 4th company of the Pavlovsky regiment broke barracks, and after some wild shooting fired at

the mounted police. On Monday, March 12, almost every factory in the city was idle. The streets were crowded with people without definite objective, waiting to see what would happen. There was no programme. To an observer it was like watching migratory birds instinctively gathering and suddenly resolving on distant and hazardous flight. Here and there, in the streets, in different barracks, in different parts of the town, without communicating, men found themselves “ on the side of

the people.” Soldiers meeting each other would call out, “ For the people or against the people? ’’ Whole regiments marching in perfect order, when they came face to face with the crowds they were called upon to disperse, would suddenly break up and give their rifles with kisses to anybody in the crowd who seemed to want them. Small boys were shooting at pigeons in the street with magazine rifles belonging to the Guards. It was as if the will of the old régime were paralysed. Nothing was left of it but prisons, barracks, government buildings and police stations. Soldiers and populace marched from one barrack to another until all had thrown in their lot with the revolution. The prisons were taken one by one, and the prisoners released regardless as to whether they were criminals or political prisoners. Police stations were burned. Documents of the law courts flung from the windows made grateful bonfires beside the frozen canal. The capture of the arsenal enabled many to experiment with fireatms that they had never handled before. Individual policemen, possibly ignorant of what had happened, kept up desultory fire from machine-guns in isolated posts until they were overwhelmed. Some of the members of the Government went into hiding. Others took refuge in the Admiralty, where they were besieged for a night, while to the accompaniment of joy-firing without they composed a proclamation ordering the people not to remain in the streets after eight in the evening. The Duma aid the Sovict.—The old régime had lost its will, but the revolution was as yet without a mind of its own and uncertain as to what to do withits victory. It had yet to become articulate. In the Taurida Palace, the seat of the Duma, were two groups ready to speak for it, one to persuade it that it had but taken the

first step, the other to tell it that its work was done.'!

The

1 On March 12 the Council of Elders of the Duma chose a temporary committee of members of the Duma: Rodzianko, Shulgin, V. Lvov, Dmitrukov, Shidlovsky, Karaulov, Konovalov, Kerensky, Rzhevsky, Miliukov, Engelhardt, Nekrasov and Tchkheidze. On the same date

was formed the temporary committee of the Soviet of Workers’ Deputies: Gvozdev, Bogdanov, Kapelinsky, Grinevich, Tchkheidze, Skobelev, Frankorussky and others. Tchkheidze was in both groups. On the evening of this day was the first meeting of the Petrograd Soviet. The new Government formally took over office on March 14, with Prince Lvov as Prime Minister.

410 abortive revolution of roos was in the minds of both.

RUSSIA The first

of these groups was made up of labour members who, with coopted friends (a likely man had but to put his head into the room to be co-opted by acclamation), formed a “ temporary com-

mittee ” of an as yet non-existent Soviet (Council) of Workers’ Deputies. These men remembered the part played by the similar Soviet in 1905, and were persuaded that it would be the chief instrument of revolution in 1917. They called upon the revolting regiments to send one representative from each company and the factories to send one for every 1,000 workmen to the first meeting of the Petrograd Soviet, which was to be held at once. The second was a much larger group of members of the Duma, who remembered with the utmost misgiving the Soviet of 1905, and were anxious at all costs to arrest the movement in Petrograd and to save what they could of the old régime. They had the advantage of being in touch with existing government apparatus, but the disadvantage of being compelled to insincerity in public utterance. In the face of the troops and the populace of Petrograd they had to welcome the revolution which in reality filled them with misgiving and disgust. The essential difference between the two groups in their attitude towards what was happening is best illustrated by their first instinctive actions. The Duma group looked in all directions for armed force that would act without “ reasoning why.” The Soviet group sought to make the revolution articulate. The Duma group asked the Tsar to abdicate in order to save the country from revolution. The Soviet group, exulting in revolution, appealed directly to it to defend itself against the Tsar or anyone else. What was an undesirable storm for the one was a fair wind for the other. Troops with and without their officers came to the Taurida Palace, and at the same time declared their readiness to support the Duma and choose delegates to the Soviet. In the prevailing chaos, Duma and Soviet were alike crystallising points. Neither at the moment had any strength, but they seemed to have direction, and, in the general breakup of the organised will of the old régime, for a thing to seem to have direction was enough to make it a straw for drowning men. The Duma rapidly gathered the emblems of power, while the Soviet, by identifying itself with the masses of the factory workers and with the garrison by means

of its invited delegates, was gathering the reality. This became perfectly clear in the course of the struggle round the throne. While the Duma was able to collect promises of support from the heads of the armies, the Soviet was able to prevent Rodzianko (President of the Duma) from going to discuss matters with the Tsar. Rodzianko had done his best to persuade the Tsar to take some action that might at least temporarily have appeased the discontent of which everyone was conscious before the revolution broke out. Abdication of the Tsar.—It was now too late to hope to do more than satisfy the revolution with a change of person. The*Tsar was to abdicate in favour of his infant son, nominating the Grand Duke Michael as regent. Guchkov and Shulgin (both confirmed monarchists) were sent on March 14 to the Tsar to obtain his abdication. The Tsar abdicated (March 15) both for himself and for his son in favour of the Grand Duke Michael, but by the time Guchkov and Shulgin returned to Petrograd the revolution had so far crystallised round the Soviet that it was clear that this arrangement for the preservation of the dynasty would not be accepted without a struggle. Miliukov, the leader of the party of Constitutional Democrats (Cadets), who consistently underestimated the forces that had been unchained, and was perhaps inclined to estimate his influence on the people by the devotion given to him in his own party, by announcing that the Duma Committee had decided to leave the dynasty on the throne, had lifted the veil that had covered the real feelings of the Duma Committee, and so had enormously strengthened the Soviet. | Already the fear of that organisation had induced the Duma Committee in forming a Government (March 14), to include representatives from the Left. Kerensky, a lawyer and member of the so-called group of Labour, had dramatically obtained

permission from that other room in the Taurida Palace before

taking a part in the Government, where he carried particular welght (together with opprobrium) because of his connection with this outside force of which the other members of the Duma committee were instinctively and rightly afraid. His attitude to the revolution was not that of his new colleagues. He could speak with an enthusiasm which they could not counterfeit. He was not hampered, at first at any rate, by a profound dislike of the events that brought him to power. After the return of Shulgin and Guchkov (who themselves realised that the situation had changed considerably during their short absence from the city) the Duma committee laid the Tsar’s abdication and the throne before Grand Duke Michael on March 16, and he, perhaps feeling that he was being offered what at that moment no one had the power to take, refused the throne, and was solemnly congratulated by Kerensky on his refusal. Pushed by events that they were quite unable to control, the Duma committee assumed with as good a grace as possible the nominal government of the Empire, the Soviet contenting itself with insisting that the proclamation of the new government should contain a clause promising that the nation should be allowed to decide the future of the country in a constituent assembly. The Provisional Government.—In a few days the whole of Russia had learnt that the autocracy was no more, that a new Government under Prince Lvov, with Guchkov as Minister for War, Miliukov as Minister for Foreign Affairs and Kerensky as Minister of Justice was in place not in power, and that there was once again a Soviet in Petrograd inviting the formation of similar Soviets throughout the country. The Provisional Government, described by Miliukov as having been “‘ elected by the revolution,” rapidly obtained a fair measure of apparent stability. It was formally recognised (March 22) by the Allied Governments. The whole civil service transferred toit their former loyalty to the autocracy. Its weakness was that it was content with these things, was deceived by the prestige which it enjoyed among a limited class and by its possession of the old administrative machine, and neither, had nor sought to obtain that right to speak and act for the revolutionary masses which was given to the Soviets by their direct connection with factories and troops. The only Government decrees that had any certainty of fulfilment were those that the Soviets would have been ready to countersign. As the Soviet was for a long time unwilling to take supreme control, the result was not ‘ dual power,” but actual though not formal responsibility of the Government to a Soviet of the very existence of which most of the ministers heartily disapproved. In time of peace the natural slackening of political tension in the masses might have brought about a decadence of the Soviets and an eventual concentration of real authority in the hands of the Government. But Russia was at war, and the continuance of the War made any slackening of political tension impossible. If the War lasted long enough it was clear that the Soviets would have to take authority openly into their hands, or submit to being crushed by military forces which would then replace them as keepers of the Government’s conscience. It was consequently natural that the first bone of contention between Soviet and Temporary Government should be the control of the army. Rodzianko, and after him the Temporary Government, sought to control the army through its leaders, and hurried to obtain expressions of their allegiance. The Soviet could not hope for support from the officers, and therefore sought to make them powerless while assuring itself of the support of the men. Remembering 1905, they knew that their existence depended on the inability of their enemies to bring an organised force against them. Not pro-Germanism, but the events of 1905, dictated the famous Prikaz (Order) No. 1, (issued on March 18) which hurried towards its end that process of disintegration in the army which had been begun by inefficient government, olhiicers who had made themselves hated, over-mobilisation and a long succession of military fatlures.} i! Prikaz No. I was composed by a commission of the Petrograd Soviet headed by N. D. Sokolov. In the name of the ‘ Soviet of Workers’ and Soldiers’ Deputies,” it ordered that committees of

RUSSIA It was proved once again that in the minds of its participants a civil war, and especially a struggle between classes, outweighs any national struggle whatsoever. In the months that followed, the parties of the Right were as ready to weaken the front by bringing disciplined troops to suppress revolution in the rear as were the parties of the Left to weaken the front by destroying the discipline of the troops. Both sides were conscious of enemies nearer and more dangerous than the Germans. Party Demarcations— Roughly speaking, there were but two sides to the struggle. There were, however, many parties engaged. Scattered remnants of the parties on the Right in the old Duma had clung to the revolution in time to save themselves from being buried in the collapse of the old régime. On this side the only well-organised party was that of the Cadets (Constitutional Democrats), who renamed themselves the party of Popular Freedom, and, after failing to preserve the dynasty, were now trying to arrest the revolution before it should overwhelm the landlords and the factory owners. The Cadets were in open hostility to the Soviets. Then came parties with a foot in both camps, supporting the Temporary Government but unwilling to see the Soviets suppressed, since they were conscious that the parties on their right would not stand on ceremony with them if the Soviets were only out of the way. Of these the most important parties were the Social Revolutionaries and the Mensheviks as they were called. The Social Revolutionaries believed that social evolution was

impossible, but desired an agrarian revolution to the advantage of the peasants who were their chief support. The Mensheviks and the Bolsheviks were the two sections of the old Social Democratic party, which was based on the factory workers of the towns. They were temperamentally divided, the former inclining always towards coalition with the bourgeois parties and doubting the possibility of social revolution in a country in which capitalism was as little advanced as it was in Russia, the latter opposed to any coalition with the bourgeois parties now that their common enemy (the autocracy) was no more, and believing that the World War had so shaken the economic system of Europe that a social revolution was possible everywhere and most possible in Russia. Skirmishing between and around these parties were many small sections of Social Democrats, Maximalist-Internationalists, groups identified with particular newspapers and loosely organised parties of Anarchists. Social Revolutionaries and Mensheviks had taken a line during the War which, in spite of the arrests immediately before the revolution, had made them much less subject to persecution than the Bolsheviks, who, in Feb. r917 were in a state of almost complete disorganisation. Nearly all the Bolshevik leaders were in prison, in exile or abroad, harried both in Allied countries and in those of the Central Empires because of their doctrine that the War was exclusively to the advantage of the bourgeois classes, that it was a capitalist quarrel and that the working classes should bring it to an end by refusing to fight each other and by turning in each country against their rulers. No fighting country could tolerate such propaganda, and a series of deportations had left the Bolshevik leaders for the most part in Switzerland, Sweden and America. It was not surprising that Swiss Socialists were easily able to get leave for Lenin to cross Germany with this theoretical baggage. Trotsky (with almost identical views, though not then a Bolshevik) was arrested on Allied soil, but allowed to proceed on the intercession of Miliukov, an intercession which proved sufficiently that real power in Petrograd was in the hands of the Soviet. soldiers were to be formed in all military and_naval units, and to send one representative each to the Taurida Palace next morning. In their political actions units were to be subject to their committees and to the Soviet. Orders of the military commission of the Duma were to be obeyed only when they did not contradict those of the Soviet. Arms were to be under the control of the committees and on no account to be given up if demanded by the officers. Strict discipline was to be preserved when on duty. Salutes, etc., when off duty were abolished. Special titles used in addressing officers, ' ‘ Your excellency ” and references to the officer’s noble birth, were abolished. Officers were forbidden to use the second person singular in addressing soldiers.

411

The Return of Lenin.—Lenin arrived in Russia on April 16 after crossing Germany in a sealed railway car, and then passing through Sweden and Finland. He made his first speech at the railway station, where he was met with mixed misgiving and enthusiasm by his old revolutionary associates. He found only a handful of his party in the Soviet. From the moment of his arrival the Bolsheviks had a definite policy. They set themselves to bring into the open the profound mistrust of the masses that actuated the Temporary Government. They urged that the Soviets should take power (in spite of the fact that they were

themselves in a minority) believing that the other parties in the Soviets would lose the confidence of the masses by showing that they had no confidence in themselves. They urged the immediate ending of the War. They were at first comparatively few, but they had none of their opponents’ psychological handicap of doubt. Revolution had always been to them of greater importance than any war waged by non-revolutionary Governments. It was not surprising that they made converts rapidly. The peasants, soldiers and workers had never considered the matter before. Russia was not a homogeneous country. Even invasion left huge areas of it quite indifferent except to mobilisations and economic troubles, for which they did not blame the invaders. Peasants and workers alike were heartily sick of the War, and were besides inflamed by the miracle of the old régime’s collapse. Everything seemed possible. The world had been turned upside down, and they had other things to think of than a war in which they had never had any personal interest. Throughout the country the peasants began to settle the land question in their own way by taking the land of the squires. The peasant soldiers wanted to get home anyhow, and began to be afraid of missing their fair share of the land if they remained too long away. None of them wanted to die just as a new world was opening before them. They wanted peace, at once, so that they could settle things to their own advantage in that new world. The masses were, as Lenin rightly perceived, far more Left? ee their representatives in the Soviets. Continuance of War.—The Temporary Govt. were quite unable to disguise their disagreement with them. The Soviet, however, acted as a buffer between Government and masses, and, while not going so far as to demand an immediate end of the War, sought to remove all obstacles to the conclusion of peace by renouncing all claims to territorial or monetary gains. If Russia was not to make peace without getting Constantinople, the end of the War was not in sight. If she were ready to make a peace based on ethnographical frontiers, she at least would not be to blame for the continuance of war. On April 9 the Temporary Govt. issued a declaration agreeing verbally to these principles, but on May 3 was published the note with which Miliukov had accompanied that declaration in sending it to Russian representatives abroad for transmission to the Governments to which they were accredited. This accompanying note (said to have been unanimously approved by the Temporary Govt.) informed the Allies that in spite of their disturbing views Russia’s position with regard to the War was unchanged. The Soviet was indignant. There were angry demonstrations, and Miliukov’s resignation (May 15) came too late to undo the work his note had done in helping the Bolsheviks by creating distrust of the Government. The Government tried to borrow authority from the Soviet by borrowing names from it. In the reconstructed Government Prince Lvov now (May 18) had Kerensky as Minister for War, in place of Guchkov, who had resigned in despair (May 12); Chernov (Social Revolutionary) as Minister of Agriculture; and Skobelev (Menshevik) as Minister of Labour. Tereshtchenko, a clever young sugar magnate, replaced Miliukov at the Foreign Office. The Temporary Govt. thus included landowners and men who had spent their lives in preaching that the land belonged to the peasants, manufacturers and men who believed in the socialisation of industry. It was damaged alike by the support and by the criticism of the Cadets, and by the support and by the criticism of the Socialist parties. A political Joseph’s coat of many colours draped a weakness that was betrayed at the

RUSSIA

412 slightest tension in one direction or the other.

Meanwhile,

without the responsibility, the Soviets were consolidating their position, though becoming increasingly conscious that the masses, interested mainly in land and peace, were steadily transferring their allegiance from the more moderate parties to the Bolsheviks. Meanwhile the War continued, though in the Russian trenches the din of continual dispute had replaced the silent discontent of the year before. Officers’ messes, soldiers’ committees and the soldiers were on the front what Government, Soviet and masses were in the capital. Without the sanction of the committees the orders of the officers were not obeyed, The committees were markedly more inclined to support the officers than were the men whom the committees represented. Just as in the rear they could

point to the support of the Government by the Mensheviks and Social Revolutionaries,

so at the front the Bolsheviks could

undermine the soldiers’ committees by pointing out how they supported the officers. The officers, however, lumped in common detestation the committees with the Bolsheviks who were undermining them, just as in the rear the parties on the Right helped the Bolsheviks by attacking the Soviets, in which as yet the Bolsheviks were in a minority. Things were moving in a definite direction. Their speed was increased by the decision that the Russian Army was once more to take the initiative on the front. After an extraordinary oratorical campaign by Kerensky in June the Russians made a spectacular advance! in the southwest, naturally sacrificing in doing so a large proportion of that leaven of officers and men who were still prepared to fight. The political meaning of the advance

was illustrated in Petrograd by the demonstrations by welldressed people which accompanied the first news of the victories. But the victories were followed by a series of defeats and a disorderly rout, during which hundreds (some say thousands) of fleeing Russians were shot down by other Russian troops. The morale of the army was finally broken. The struggle in Galicia was reflected in an intensification of political feeling in the capital, where, though one side shouted “ War”’ and the other shouted “‘ Peace,” both were less interested in war and peace than in the struggle for power in which all parties were engaged. In these critical days the Cadets announced (July 16) their withdrawal from the Temporary Govt. (disapproving of its policy in the Ukraine), thus weakening it by an attack from

the Right at the very moment when it had to fear an attack from the Left. It was in these days that a large part of the Petrograd garrison, together with many of the factory workers, paralysed

the town on July 16 by demonstrations the object of which was to persuade the Soviet leaders to assume the government of the country.

The Executive Committee—The most important feature of the Soviets in the early period of the revolution was that they were in a continuous state of general election. Agitation was going on all the time by all parties, and successful agitation ended in the recall of the delegate of one political denomination and his replacement by a delegate of another. Opinions changed from day to day, and many people, not merely those without political experience, slipped rapidly through a whole gamut of political allegiances. The result of this was that the Soviets reflected very well the changing political complexion of their constituencies. In the middle of June was held in Petrograd the first All-Russia Congress of Soviets, to which delegates came from Soviets all over the country. It was mainly Menshevik and Social Revolutionary. While in favour of all possible steps towards a general peace, it supported Kerensky on the question of national defence. This Congress elected an Executive Committee, which was to act for the Congress after its dispersal until the next All-Russian Congress should meet. This Executive Committee was thus the chief organ of the Soviets, and not subject to any change of political complexion until the meeting of the next Congress, whereas the masses for whom it was to speak were changing with extraordinary rapidity. Kerensky’s advance on the front, which seemed to the masses to mean the abandonment of any hope of peace, brought the Executive Committee within a few 1 Battles of Brzezany (July 1-6) and Zborow (July 19-26).

days face to face with the fact that it would presently be left high and dry by the movement it On July 16 and 17 regiments Kronstadt sailors and bodies extraordinary demonstration. was entirely in their hands. Yet nothing happened. The headquarters of the Executive

sought to control and represent. of the garrison, a large body of the of the factory workers made an For a number of hours the town The Government was powerless. demonstrators marched to the Committee and called upon them

to take power. The Executive Committee replied that they did not wish to do so. The demonstrators, puzzled and disheartened, melted slowly away. Finally the authorities gathered courage and hastened their departure. The effect of these events was to confirm the Executive Committce in its support, such as it was, of the Government, but to frighten the Government into measures which lost them that support until a new move from the left drove Committee and Government together again. From this moment, Kerensky (on whom more and more fell the whole responsibility of governing), together with the Executive Committee, was tossed now to the Left now to the Right by the forces on either side, until by a process of attrition he was left without support and Rights and Lefts faced each other openly in civil war. The first result of the fright of July 17 was a desperate effort to make an end of the Bolshevik agitation. Comparatively uninfected troops were brought in from the front. The offices of the Bolshevik newspaper Pravda were sacked on July 18. The headquarters of the Bolsheviks were seized. Trotsky and many Bolsheviks were arrested; Lenin and Zinoviev only escaped arrest by hiding in disguise. Kerensky, appointed Prime Minister on July 21, formed a third Temporary Government. This Government too felt the sand slipping from under it, and endeavoured to secure for itself at least a semblance of popular support by summoning a State Conference in Moscow in the hope that the atmosphere of Moscow would be less electrical than that of Petrograd. The conference met towards the end of Aug. and was a spectacular affair, but illustrated chiefly the increasing loneliness of Kerensky. On the one hand general after general expressed his views on the disorganisation of the army and the need for a strong Government, and on the other the illusion offpopular support was destroyed bya strike of the Moscow workmen. On Sept. 3 Riga was abandoned to the Germans. Five days later General Kornilov advanced on Petrograd with the object of establishing a military dictatorship. It is said that this adventure began as the result of a misunderstanding (see KORNILOV). However that may be, it was warmly approved by some of the representatives of the Allies in the capital, and led to a strengthening in the first place of the Executive Committee and the Soviets (to whom Kerensky had to turn for support against Kornilov), and in the second place of the Bolsheviks who had their thesis on the imminent danger of counter-revolution thus illustrated on a big scale. The Cadet ministers resigned, and did not attend their ministries. The Executive Committee succeeded in stopping the Kornilov troops by talking to them, and instead of hanging agitators from lamp posts, as had been expected, their representatives came into the town in a motor-lorry to explain that they had been misled. The Directorate—The Temporary Govt. resolved itself into a Directorate of five with Kerensky at the head of it, and, without waiting for the Constituent Assembly, declared Russia a republic (Sept. 15). The growth of Bolshevik influence throughout Russia was shown by the passing of Bolshevik resolutions in both the Petrograd and Moscow Soviets (Sept. 13 and 15). These were signs more threatening both to Kerensky and to the Executive Committee elected in June than the abortive demonstrations of July. It was not surprising that when Kerensky made yet another attempt to secure for his government foundations in popular support, he found the Executive Committee of the All-Russian Congress of Soviets willing to help him by joining in a conference the obvious purpose of which was to lessen the significance of the Soviets themselves. This was the Democratic Conference of Sept. 27, at which were present not only the Executive Committee, but representa-

RUSSIA tives of the trades unions, co-operatives, town and rural councils, etc. With great difficulty a resolution in favour of a coalition (i.e. not exclusively Socialist) government was passed. It was accompanied by a resolution refusing coalition with the Cadets. The two resolutions cancelled each other. Out of this conference, with the addition of other elements, grew the Council of the Republic (nicknamed the Predparliament—Preliminary Parliament)—-which was to be the supreme governing organ until the meeting of the Constituent Assembly. It too was without roots and without iniluence. Yet another government was formed under Kerensky’s premiership, including several Cadets. The

413

between two weak forces, of which one, Krasnov’s, had discipline but no convictions and the other convictions but no discipline. The latter were able to make a slightly better show in numbers. Victory in a skirmish at Pulkovo decided the event. Kerensky had fled in disguise before the defeat of Krasnov. The Cadet and the Menshevik parties supported several abortive attempts at a rising in the town of which the most important was a revolt of the Cadets of the Mikhail or other military schools. In Moscow there was nearly a week of street fighting before the Soviets were in undisputed possession. Elsewhere the new turn in events was rapidly reflected throughout the country, except in the Cossack districts, where General Kaledin had been able to organise resistance, and in the Ukraine, where the expression of separatist tendencies had produced a rather more strongly supported Government than there had been in Petrograd. It was not until Feb. that the whole of the Ukraine was in the hands of the Soviets. The events in Petrograd spread like a spark in a fuze along the Siberian railway, though officers of the old army seized power in the Far East. In various parts there were encounters between forces supporting the Soviets and small bodies migrating from the front towards the Cossack country, which became the natural focus of the counter-revolu-

Predparliament met on Oct. 20. It was never dissolved but simply faded away. Things were moving too fast for anybody to pay much attention to a wholly artificial body. Both the Petrograd and Moscow Soviets had elected their local Executive Committees with Bolshevik majorities. It was clear to everybody that when the second All-Russia Congress of Soviets met it would be likely to elect an Executive Committee that would no longer oppose the Bolshevik desire that the Soviets should take both formal and actual authority into their hands. The November Revolution.—Lenin from his hiding place had been pressing for some time for an immediate seizure of power. At last he was able to get the Bolshevik Central Committee to agree with him. On Oct. 29 this committee, together with delegations from the factory committees, the trade unions, the railway workers, etc., agreed upon immediate action. The Petrograd Soviet had formed a Military Revolutionary Committee, which, since its frst object had been to prevent troops being moved from Petrograd to the front to be replaced by others on which the Government could rely, had no difficulty in assuring itself of the allegiance of the garrison. The Government showed their lack of confidence by finding it necessary to issue orders to the troops to take instructions only from the district staff. As the second All-Russia Congress of Soviets was to meet on

of communication, that years after it was still possible to find in remote districts people who had hardly realised that anything in particular had happened since 1914. The Bolshevik Government—The Council of People’s Commissars set up by the Congress of Soviets was now the only Government in Russia, but did not, like the Temporary Govt. at the beginning of the revolution, find itself in possession of an almost undamaged administrative machine. Its opponents, re-

Nov. 8 everyone in the town knew when to expect the revolt.

gardless of the fact that Russia was still at war, seemed deter-

Kerensky in the Predparliament demanded extraordinary authority for its suppression. The Predparliament desperately resolved to ask the Allies to open peace negotiations and to hand over the land to the peasants without delay. It was too late. The trial of strength came at once. The Government ordered the suppression of two Bolshevik newspapers. The Military Revolutionary Committee replied by ordering the Government troops to protect the Bolshevik newspapers. The papers came out as usual. The Revolutionary Committee made its final arrangements openly over the telephone, and on Nov. 7 detachments of troops and workmen took possession of the Government buildings. On that day Lenin, who had left Finland some days before and was living in hiding, came to the Smolny Institute. The second Congress of Soviets met in Petrograd (Nov. 7) with a big Bol-

mined to justify the Bolshevik claim that the new Government and the old represented hostile classes—whose hostility was

shevik majority; the old Executive Committee was replaced by a new one largely Bolshevik; most of the representatives of the other parties walked out; the Government was declared overthrown, and a Council of People’s Commissars was elected by acclamation (Nov. 8). Lenin presided over the Council, which was at first exclusively Bolshevik, but presently included some Left Social Revolutionaries, representing that wing of the Social Revolutionary party which approved of the assumption of authority by the Soviets. Some members of the Kerensky Govt. were besieged in the Winter Palace and captured there. Kerensky himself escaped almost alone to meet the troops he had ordered up for the suppression of the revolt. He joined General Krasnov at Gatchina on Nov. 8 or 9. For a few days it seemed possible that General Krasnov’s force of 1,500 Cossacks would succeed in conquering the utterly undisciplined forces of the revolution, which consisted of soldiers who did not want to fight and workmen who wanted to fight but did not know how. With the help of sailors from Kronstadt and Helsingfors the Cossacks were, however, defeated. Krasnov was taken prisoner on Nov. 14, and released on parole, an act of generosity which the Bolshevik leaders subsequently had cause to regret. There was little serious fighting. It was a struggle

tionary officers. But these forces were as much opposed to Kerensky as they were to the Soviets, and within a few days there was no town in Russia that still recognised the Temporary Govt., though, so huge is the area of Russia, so limited the means

more pronounced than any that could exist between warring countries. The whole of the civil service went on strike with the exception of about a dozen young women. In many cases the civil servants deprived the new Government not only of their services but also of the petty cash of the ministries to which they belonged. A new civil service had to be built up in a hurry out of nothing, and in the beginning the whole of it was housed in the Smolny Institute, formerly an educational establishment for the daughters of the aristocracy and latterly the headquarters of the Petrograd Soviet. In one room was the President, in another the Home Office, in a third Trotsky was conducting Foreign Affairs, in a fourth a few youthful doctrinaires were covering reams of paper with sketches of what they thought should be State finance, in a fifth was the War Office and the General Staff, wrestling wildly with the defence of the capital and very resentful of the President, who insisted on bringing a kitchen table into this room and taking an active part in the military deliberations. In a big room in the building meetings were in continual progress, and one after another the members of the Government would gallop down the long corridors to address excited crowds and then hurry back to go on with their work. Many of them slept in these improvised offices, and, having at first no time for proper meals, lived on enthusiasm, sandwiches and weak tea. : With none of the emblems of authority, but with the confidence given by victory in Petrograd and by the Bolshevik majority in the Congress, which promised victory in the provinces, Lenin began at once to speak in the tone of an established Government. ‘ We are strong,” he said, ‘‘ when we express that of which the masses are conscious.” He was not handicapped as Kerensky had been by pressure from both sides. He did not claim to be representing all classes, but saw his Government as an instrument of revolution, with the immediate task before it of strengthening itself by trying to carry out the desires of those classes which had put it in power and by destroying the means

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of resistance of those classes which would otherwise destroy it. Hostility between classes was to him a strength, not a weakness, and if the bourgeoisie had not helped him by so clearly showing their hostility he would have had to provoke them into doing so. The Soviet Govt. proceeded at once (Nov. 8) to declare that all land belonged to the people, to to be used without payment; this decree legalised the agrarian expropriation begun early in the summer, which was the chief thing that the peasants thought to gain by the revolution. The Soviet Govt. decreed an eighthour working-day (Nov. 11); it abolished titles other than that of “ citizen ’’ (Nov. 23); the workers were to control the factories (Nov. 29), placing them under the general guidance of a Council of Public Economy (Dec. 18); it made labour a condition of political rights; it decreed a general arming of the “ working ” and a disarming of the “ possessing ” classes; 1t annulled all secret treaties; it disclaimed responsibility for loans made to previous governments; it nationalised the banks (Dec. 30); declared the independence of Finland (Jan. 4 1918); it introduced the Western European calendar (Feb. 14); 1t separated Church from State and School from Church (Feb. 5 1918); and while setting up a federation of Soviet Republics in the place of

the old Russian Empire, left the question of entry into that federation to the Soviets of the nations and districts concerned. This was a beginning sufficient to secure the hostility of all foreign Governments and of all but the working classes in Russia, and the instinctive support of most Socialists everywhere. The Bolsheviks, now in almost absolute control of a Government, had spent 20 years in ceaseless debate as to what a revolutionary government should do, and they set about putting their decisions into practice as fast as they could write the necessary decrees — 193 decrees were issued between Nov. 8 and Dec. 31 1917. When, as in the case of the land, they issued a decree that did not represent their own views, they issued one that satisfied the peasant and ensured unwillingness on his part to help in any attempt to replace them by another Government that might issue a decree of a less desirable character.

Aitiiude

Towards the War.—The

downfall of the Kerensky

Govt. and the accession of a Government supported exclusively by the working classes naturally brought about a radical change

in the attitude of the Bolsheviks towards the War. They had from the beginning seen the War as a struggle between capitalist groups, and had declared that revolutionaries in each of the countries engaged should desire the defeat of that country on the ground that the defeat of one capitalist group by another would weaken it not only among its peers but also in the face of revolution from below. They had assumed that German Socialists would desire the defeat of the Kaiser, that French Socialists would desire the defeat of the French Republic. For themselves they did indeed desire the defeat of the Tsar. The year 1870 had given France the experience of the Commune which for 7o days had ruled Paris. The defeats of the Japanese War had resulted in the events of 1905 and the first serious attack on the autocracy. During the War defeatism in Russia had spread far beyond the Bolsheviks, when the most loyal of Liberal monarchists could not help observing that defeats on the front meant that the voice of the Duma counted alittle in the Palace, whereas success meant an immediate hardening of the autocracy. The downfall of the autocracy was for the Bolsheviks only a preliminary to the social revolution. Their defeatism continued until the downfall of the Temporary Government. That downfall meant for them that power had shifted from the autocracy to the bourgeoisie and now to the working class. Further defeatism would now be possible only to the enemies of the working class, who would reason that defeat would now be to their advantage. From the moment that the Bolsheviks took power the defeat of Russia ceased to be desirable by them, whereas the German Empire became the most dangerous enemy of the revolution,

because it was State. On the the Allies was the revolution

the nearest and most powerful non-revolutionary other hand, a victory of Russia in concert with equally undesirable, because it would discredit in the eyes of the German working class. The

only possible course for the revolution was to retire from the struggle if it could, and to use the steps it could take towards peace as a means of rousing the working class of other countries to impatience of the continuance of the War. To understand what followed it is essential to remember that there was for the Bolsheviks no difference in kind or quality between the Governments of the Allies and those of the Central Empires. All were equally rapacious. Some of the Bolsheviks even thought it possible that in the presence of social revolution in Russia the two camps would hurriedly compose their differences and crush the revolution before it had time to entrench itself. At the moment of taking power, the revolution was powerful against its enemies inside Russia, for these were divided and impotent. But the shaking to pieces of first the autocracy and then the classes that succeeded the autocracy had been accompanied by the complete ruin of the army. After the first month of 1917 desertion had been a rapidly growing tide. The vague idea of land distribution crystallised an already existing weariness of war into a blind determination to leave the front. Even before the Nov. revolution Kerensky’s War Minister had told him that the only thing to be done with the old army was to disband it and start afresh to build a new one. The Nov. revolution found the army all but disbanded, in spite of Kerensky’s efforts to keep it together. The trains were crowded with soldiers, many of whom took their weapons with them. Most of the men were straggling back to their villages if they knew how to get there. Others simply travelled, boarding any train if it had room on its buffers or on the roof of its coaches, and changing from one train to another without care for its ultimate destination. Stations were camps of migrating scldiers. Officers were going southwest to the Cossack country to raise forces against the revolution. The Germans could easily have walked into Petrograd, and been welcomed as they were welcomed in Kiev by everybody who preferred being ruled by a Eee: to being ruined by a revolutionary. | Peace with Germany.—The Bolsheviks eodd proceeded at once to keep their promise to take immediate steps to bring the War to an end. Trotsky as Commissar for Foreign Affairs sent out (Nov. ọ) alike to the Allies and to Germany an invitation over the wireless to conclude an immediate armistice. Germany agreed. The Allies did not reply except by remonstrances, presented through their military representatives to General Dukhonin, against a separate peace. An appeal was sent (Nov. 28) by wireless to the peoples of the Allied countries urging them to compel their Governments to bring the War to an end. The Russian commander-in-chief, Dukhonin, while himself agreeing that an immediate peace was necessary for Russia, refused for technical reasons to take steps for concluding an armistice along the front. He was dismissed, arrested and lynched while under arrest. Krylenko, a rather elcerly sub-licutenant, was made commander in chief. An informal armistice began at once, a formal one being concluded a few days later (Dec. 5) for the whole front, from the Baltic to the Black Sea. The Germans were ready to accept in principle the Russian formula of a peace‘‘ without annexations or contributions on the basis of the self-determination of peoples,” but soon showed that they, like the Allies, had altogether underestimated the Bolsheviks’

sincerity. They believed that the Bolsheviks would be ready to hide under that formula the sort of peace that was desirable by the German general staff. In this they were wreng.! The Bolsheviks promptly announced (Jan. 27) both to Russia and to the world that the peace the Germans were offering was the sort of peace offered by a wolf to a sheep, too big to be eaten all at once. They hoped that the German working classes would be roused to action on finding that the greed of their rulers prevented the signature of peace. The bourgeois Government of the Ukraine signed a separate peace (Feb. g) after it had been driven over the Ukrainian

frontier,

and

invited the

Germans

to enter

the

Ukraine to replace it in power (see Brest-Litovsk). The Bolsheviks declared (Feb. 10) that they would no longer fight but 1 An account of the negotiations in Brest-Litovsk which opened on Dec. 21 will be found under that heading.

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415

would not sign the peace.

The Germans advanced and could, no | that of the peasants, and the Bolshevik vote was that of the doubt, have come to Petrograd and put a Russian bourgeois towns and of a considerable part of the army which, of course, Government in power to make peace with them. was mainly composed of peasants. The Cadets represented a After a fierce struggle in the Central Committee of the force active but very small, the Social Revolutionaries a class Communist party, Lenin persuaded the Bolsheviks that the large but unorganised, scattered and passive, the Bolsheviks a best thing they could do was to sign peace at once if the Germans class extremely active, comparatively well organised and, by its would let them. This was done. The peace signed (March 3) domination of the towns, holding all the most valuable strategical was worse than that originally offered, and, thanks to the action positions. The Assembly met on Jan. 18. As soon as it had deof the Ukrainian Rada, worse even than it seemed on paper. The clared its complexion by electing a Right Social Revolutionary, Germans occupied the Ukraine, and Russia lost the Baltic ProvTchernov, instead of a Left member of the same party in Marie inces. Petrograd was left subject to attack from the Finnish Spiridonova, as president, the Bolsheviks and the Left Social border, only a few miles away, and from the Estonian border, Revolutionaries allowed it to be told to go home (Jan. 19) by less than a day’s journey. its guards, who expressed the opinion that it had talked enough. The Government moved to Moscow! {March 9) where on An attempt at a demonstration by its supporters was a complete March 15 assembled the Fourth Congress of Soviets, which fiasco. It became thenceforward a watchword used indiscrimiratified the peace. The Left Social Revolutionaries resigned nately by all the anti-Bolshevik parties. from the Government, which was henceforth exclusively The dissolution of the Constituent Assembly, the temporary Bolshevik. settlement of the land question and the signing of the Brest The Constituent Assembly.—By adopting as soon as they came Peace marked the end of the first period of the revolution. The to power the Social Revolutionary land programme, the Bol- autocracy had gone. The struggle for leadership had ended. sheviks had assured themselves of the passive support of the Government in Russia was neither half-hearted nor divided peasants and, in the first moments of the revolution, of part of against itself, but was a homogeneous body to whose support the Social Revolutionary party, The signing of the Brest Peace, were committed the most active and determined sections of the against the will even of those Social Revolutionaries who sup- town population, while it had definitely assured itself of the ported the Bolsheviks, but to the profound satisfaction of the neutrality of the peasantry. peasants and the soldiers of the old army, destroyed the hold of MARCH 1918 TO MARCH 1021 the Social Revolutionaries on the peasants. These two actions prevented the dissolution of the Constituent Assembly from The second period of the revolution begins with the transfer having immediate political consequences in Russia. ‘The idea of the Government from Petrograd to Moscow and the ratificaof a Constituent Assembly played a part in the Russian Revolution of the Brest Peace. There had been since the overthrow of tion profitable at different times to different parties. In March Kerensky three congresses of Soviets attended by delegates from 1917 the promise of a Constituent Assembly made possible that all parts of the country. The first had appointed the Council agreement between the Soviets and the Temporary Govt. on of People’s Commissars, and the second and third had approved which the very existence of that Government depended. As it their activities. In all three there had been a considerable and was clear that immediate elections to the Assembly would have outspoken opposition, but the essential quality of that opposition, given an immense majority in the Assembly to parties represented had been that it was an opposition of politicians and that the main in the Soviets, the parties on the Right desired to postpone point at issue (the making of peace) was one on which the Governit, while the demand for its immediate summoning became a ment was taking a line that would have been incumbent on any useful lever against them in the hands of the Bolsheviks. As the Government whatsoever. Argument as to responsibility for the Soviets became more Bolshevik the postponement of the Con- past was irrelevant to the plain issue as to whether or not Russia stituent Assembly became less desirable except by those who was in a condition in March 1918 to remain fighting. The hoped that it would be possible by some military coup to sup- opposition accordingly was not one of which the Government press the parties of the Left before the elections. When, after had any need to be afraid. It had been able to destroy all armed the failure of the Kornilov adventure, these hopes were dashed, opposition within the country because the forces that opposed the Constituent Assembly became in the minds of the anti- it were less willing to fight than its own, weak as these were. It Bolshevik parties a means of drowning the extremist vote of was beginning to build up a new armed force. the towns in the slightly more moderate vote of the peasants, The Cheka and the Red Guards —The first nucleus of this force and active preparations for the elections were at last begun. was the institution afterwards known as the Cheka (ChresvyWhen the Soviets took power in Nov. the Bolsheviks, who now chainaya Kommissia), meaning ‘“ Extraordinary Commission,” regarded the Constituent Assembly as unnecessary and even formed in the beginning in the first weeks after the fall of Kerensky to deal with the attempts to organise drunken pogroms dangerous since it might mean what was to them a retrograde in the capital. The Cheka was given control of the only reliable step from the hegemony of the towns to a democracy in which the towns would be outvoted, were a little hampered by the regular troops, the Lettish Rifles. The leaders of the Cheka momentum of the agitation they had carried on formerly against included Bolsheviks and Social Revolutionaries, who retained its postponement. They decided to hurry on the elections, to their position in this organisation after the members of their split the peasant vote and simultaneously to declare that the party had resigned from their posts in the Government. For Soviets were, in a revolution, a higher authority than any practical purposes it was from the beginning controlled by the assembly in which the possessing classes could take part. If by Bolshevik party. The scope of its work rapidly widened, and it became in the end the organising’ centre of the political police hook or crook they could get the Assembly to confirm the authority of the Soviets, well and good. If not, they would use the and the instrument of the Terror which followed on the beginmethods of Cromwell. Meanwhile the rival parties prepared to nings of intervention.

make the Assembly a rallying point for a struggle with the Soviets in the capital. The Social Revolutionaries obtained 21,000,000 votes on a party list which included supporters of the Bolshevik revolution, the Bolsheviks 9,000,000, and the Cadets under 2,000,000. Roughly speaking, the Cadet vote was that of the propertied classes, the Social Revolutionary vote was 1 Moscow had been the capital until Peter the Great built St. Petersburg on the swamps at the mouth of the Neva. The Soviet Govt. housed itself where it could. Hotels and private houses became Government offices and Lenin himself lived in a room in the Hotel National before moving into the Kremlin.

The forces that fought in the earlier stages of the civil war were made up from parts of those regiments that had earliest declared themselves against the Temporary Govt., together with “ Red Guards,’ workmen who had had a day or two of drill and the military equipment of a rifle and a cartridge belt, led by a heterogencous collection of officers who felt that the future of the country was with the revolution, of officers who felt that they could damage the Bolsheviks most by getting control of their armed forces and of enthusiastic Bolsheviks who had or thought they had some slight knowledge of military technique. It was very soon discovered that dissatisfaction with one

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RUSSIA

government is not a sufficient motive to induce a soldier to risk his life for another. The “ Red Guards” were extremely inefficient, and the demobilisation that accompanied the Brest Peace scattered what was left of the old army over the Russian railway system. The soldiers found their way home as seemed best to them, on the roofs and buffers of trains already crammed. During the winter months many froze to death in these positions.

Every station was a disorderly camp and groups of soldiers would often be found travelling without particular destination on any train they had been able to board. There was no material for an army to be found in these migrating masses. An army had to be formed from the beginning with people willing to fight. Local soviets formed small bodics independently. Guerilla warfare in the Ukraine formed a training ground for many. As early as Jan. 23 a decree had been issued calling for a volunteer army. By March the Sovict Govt. could command the comparatively stable allegiance of 100,000 men. The Dispossessed Classes —Meanwhile there was a steady exodus from Russia of the classes who had lost property or privilege through the revolution. Some made their way across the deserted trenches to the Germans. Some joined the Germans in the Ukraine. Some made their way into Finland. Some tiled eastwards through Siberia. All took with them a belicf, belied by their flight, that the Bolshevik régime could last only a few weeks at most. They played the same part as the refugees from France played in the time of the French Revolution, and even used the same phrases, which were received with the same credulity by Governments similarly disturbed by similar events. Representatives of the Allies in Russia had naturally better means of knowing the old governing classes than the new, and were thus hedged by Russian malcontents from an accurate knowledge of what was happening at their doors. In a revolution the relativity of truth is carried to its utmost limits. Even for the most honest men engaged in a civil struggle the truth tends to be anything

_ that tells against their opponents. In Russia in 1918 it was impossible to expect dispassionate witnesses. The landlords had seen their estates taken from them by a rabble of peasants who, only 80 years before, had been only serfs, a species of domestic animals rather less valuable than the best horses. Manufacturers had seen their factories turned into de-

bating clubs and themselves and their managers at the mercy of committees appointed by the workmen. Politicians who had spent the best years of their lives in attacking the autocracy had been swept out of the way in favour of men whose theories they despised and of whose incompetence they were convinced. Revolutionaries with a long record of prison and exile were outraged to find that the revolution could do without them. Shortage of everything and rapidly rising prices were natural sources of wide but impotent discontent. Add to all this the fact that the German advance in the West in March 1918 made the

representatives of the Allies desperately aware that the country to which they were accredited had by withdrawing from the War eased the task of the Germans, and it is not surprising that, in spite of the lesson of 1917, they were ready to listen to those who promised that if only foreigners would help them to throw out the Bolsheviks they would be able to undertake themselves the more difficult business of fighting the Germans. i Diplomatic Relations—Intervention did not begin at once, and the Bolsheviks were so far persuaded that Germany would attack them again the moment she felt strong enough to doso, that they were building their new army in the belief that Germany would be the first foreign enemy they would have to meet. When the Germans were advancing in the last days before the signing of the peace, the French military mission offered Trotsky French and English instructors for his newly formed regiments. This offer was accepted by the Russians, but was withdrawn. Now, when the Germans were still advancing (in the Ukraine) Piatakov, whose brother had been flogged to death there, asked for quickfiring rifles to use against the Germans in guerilla warfare. His request was refused, and it gradually became clear that intervention might come equally soon from either side. The Bol-

sheviks became increasingly conscious that Russia’s diplomatic

relations with the Allies were of a most abnormal kind. The Soviet Govt. had not been recognised by the Allies, whose representatives, however, were in touch with it, but were in much closer touch with those groups of Russian subjects who were opposed to it. The British embassy left through Finland. The French was just too late to get through before the Germans occupied Finland on the invitation of the White Finns. English diplomatic representation was entrusted to Mr. Lockhart, formerly ConsulGeneral in Moscow, who with a small staff accompanied the Soviet Govt. when it moved to Moscow. The American, French and other embassies and legations moved to Vologda, a little country town which offered the advantage of two possible lines of flight, to Archangel and through Siberia, and was a very long way from the new capital of Russia. In Moscow there were several military missions of the Allies, and consulates of various nations took upon themselves the management of international politics. If it had not been that serious things were at stake the diplomatic corps in Moscow and Vologda in 1918 would have provided good material for comedy.. Some nations (including Great Britain) had several representatives of widely differing political convictions, and as the hopes of cach tended to become beliefs it was hard to tell what was or was not the policy of any particular country. The only properly accredited ambassador in Moscow was Count Mirbach, the German, whose business it was to observe, to report and to keep the Bolsheviks aware that they lived under the continual threat of a renewal of the War. The months of March and April in Central Russia were spent comparatively peacefully, though the bloody suppression of the Finnish revolution, the advance of the Germans through the Ukraine! and the resuscitation of White forces in the southeast were a clear warning of what was to come. Stil, a British and American mission travelled from Moscow far into Siberia, and reported perfect order until it reached the district affected by the raids of White officers from over the Chinese frontier (sce SIBERIA). The New Organisation.—Over a very large area the revolution had a few weeks in which to establish itself. The Soviet system showed itself capable of replacing the old administrative machine. The Government in Moscow was rapidly organising a new civil service. In the country the peasants were settling the land question in their own way. The railways were gradually disburdening themselves of migrating soldiers. The scizure of the banks and the rapid inflation of the rouble were showing themselves more powerful than the decrees that accompanied them— and, as it were, explained their effects—to bring about a social revolution in the towns. Saved money was like fairy gold that turned to dry leaves in the night. The very unwillingness of the propertied classes to believe that the Communist régime could last more than from one week to the next contributed to their disaster. Their action, which consisted in doing nothing, may be described as a general strike of the propertied and privileged classes at a time when their strike funds were not only being spent day by day but were also rapidly turning into waste paper. Inability or unwillingness of private manufacturers to keep their factories working under conditions which deprived them of effective control eased the task of the Government in nationalising large industry. The workmen saw in nationalisation a guarantee that they would at least get paper salaries regardless of the rapid fall in productivity, a fall due in part to the effects of the War and in part to the effects of the revolution, the disappearance of incentives to production and the substitution of political for productive activity. Shops were closing down for lack of goods, but there was as yet small sign of the ‘‘ militant communism ” that was to come. Speeches by Lenin make it clear that, given peace, he was prepared to proceed at once with what became known years afterwards as the “ New Economic Policy.’’ Intervention and the consequent growth of civil war on an enormous scale made that impossible. t The Ukrainian Rada which had invited the assistance of the Germans was replaced (April 25) by the dictatorship of Gen.

Skoropadsky.

RUSSIA Intervention.—Intervention was begun by the French use of the troops of Czechoslovak prisoners of war that had been formed in Russia to fight against the Central Empires. Immediately after the signing of the peace of Brest (March 3) these troops declared themselves under the French supreme command, and preparations were made, in spite of German protests, to send them to France. Russia was at this time at least formally at peace with Germany, and as a neutral country could not properly allow the transit of armed troops. The troops, however, were allowed to start on the way to Vladivostok, and had reached various stations on the Siberian railway and branch lines leading to it when signs of impending trouble caused Trotsky to order their disarmament. This was the signal for them to seize (in the last days of May) a long stretch of the railway and a number of towns. They did not proceed towards Vladivostok, but actually advanced westwards, taking Samara on June 8, where a number of members of the Constituent Assembly formed a Government while, similarly sheltered by these disciplined troops, a temporary Siberian Govt. was formed on June 15. Dutov raised the Orenburg Cossacks. Krasnov renewed activity on the Don. The Germans had pushed eastwards through the Ukraine, and within a few wecks the territory held by the Soviets was only a small part of Russia, consisting for the most part of districts in normal times cither not self supporting or barely capable of self support. The revolution was cut off from the main sources of iron, coal, cotton, oil, meat and bread. The Social Revolutionaries’ Revolt—The critical month was July 1o18, when the Soviet Govt. was faced within its now

strictly limited territory by a revolt from the Left, which had as its object the provocation of further intervention by Germany,

and revolts from the Right, which had as their object the encouragement of Jurther intervention by the Allies. The revolt from the Left came first. The Left Social Revolutionaries who had opposed the peace of Brest and wished for “‘ not war but revolt.” believing that the cause of revolution would be best served by inducing a German occupation of Russia and destroying that occupation by guerilla warfare of the kind that was keeping the Ukraine in flames, decided to force the Communists into accepting their point of view. At the Filth Congress of Soviets which met in the first week of July they made a violent demonstration against Mirbach, and accused the Bolsheviks of doing nothing but obey his orders. On July 6 one of them assassinated Mirbach in the house in which the German Embassy was lodged. On the same day they raised a revolt in Moscow, seized a considerable part of the town, and even fired with artillery into the Kremlin. Meanwhile the Communists put a cordon of troops round the Congress. All Communists left the building, and the bulk of the Social Revolutionary members were thus detained.

The revolt was suppressed by the evening of the next day, a final engagement taking place outside the town. On hearing of this revolt, Muraviev, a romantic adventurer who had taken an active part in the defence of Petrograd and in the fighting in the Ukraine and was now commanding the Red forces against the Czechs, mutinied unsuccessfully and shot himself. Meanwhile Social Revolutionaries of the Right, encouraged by French promises and believing that their rising would be the signal for an immediate advance of interventionist forces from the north, attempted revolt in several towns. They were most successful under Boris Savinkov in Jaroslavl, where they obtained possession of the town, killed a number of supporters of the Soviets, and were only defeated after a siege, the town suffering severely on account of the inexperience of the troops who, deserted by their officers, did not know when to stop bombardment and blew part of the town unnecessarily to pieces. While the revolt in Jaroslavl was still in progress an attempt was made to persuade the colony of Allied Representatives at Vologda to come to Moscow. There were several motives for this besides the naive belief that these representatives would be less hostile to the Soviet Govt. if they were in closer con-

tact with it than with its enemies. On the one hand the Bolsheviks did not know how the Germans would react to the murder of their ambassador, and in the case of a renewal of the War they

4l7

would have been prepared to ask for Allied help in organising and arming their defence. On the other hand they feared that the Left Social Revolutionaries would be likely to blow up an Allied ambassador or two in order to prove that they had not been agents of the Allies in killing Mirbach, and in order to force the revolution

to stand

alone

without

dependence

on

“ im-

perialists of either camp.” Such an event would force Allied intervention on a large scale, which the Bolsheviks still hoped to postpone. They believed that they could better guard the representatives in Moscow than in an isolated village like Vologda in a district where the Jaroslavl revolt showed that their authority was none too secure. The Allied Representatives, however, reasoned that the murder of Mirbach in Moscow was by no means a justification for their going to that city. Intervention had already begun, and was going to develop, and they determined to stay where they were.

A British Representa-

tive (independent of the Lockhart mission in Moscow) was at Vologda, and a British commercial delegation of four arrived to investigate conditions. It came to Moscow, stayed two nights there and left for the north. The Allies had landed additional troops at Murmansk, and were preparing to take Archangel. The Japanese had sent warships to Vladivostok in Nov. 1917, made a landing on April 5 and on June 29 1gt8 helped the Czechs and others to overthrow the Soviets in the town. The Terror follows Intervention.—As in the French Revolution, the intervention of forcign Powers increased the bitterness of the struggle. Political opponents became traitors, and in Russia were repeated all the horrors that followed intervention in France. The deposed Tsar with his family had been moved from Tsarkoe Selo to Tobolsk during the Kerensky régime. In the spring of to18, for fear of counter-revolutionary rising in Siberia, they were removed to Ekaterinburg (May 2). The advance of Czechoslovak troops and of White troops formed after the Czechoslovak revolt put that town in immediate danger of White occupation, and the local Soviet, rather than risk their falling into the hands of the other side, shot the whole family at night on July 16 in the basement of the house in which they had been interned. The fact was announced on July 18 to the Praesidium of the Central Executive Committee in Moscow which, in view of the circumstances, approved the action of the local Soviet. The news of this killing, horrible in itself, aroused more excitement abroad than in Russia, where, in the prevailing dearness and precariousness of living, life was the only thing that was held cheap (see Nicrrovas IT.) On July 2 allied troops had landed at Murmansk}, on the 31st they took Onega, on which day the Czechs took Simbirsk on the Volga. On Aug. 1 the Czechs took Ekaterinburg, on the 3rd Archangel was occupied by the Allies. On the roth Kazan was taken by the Czechs, and troops advancing southwards from Archangel took Shenkursk. It seemed that the revolutionary troops could do nothing but retreat when faced by forces stiffened by a leaven of foreigners. The Bolsheviks had proceeded from voluntary enlistment to conscription, and now mobilised exofficers of the old army to supply, under compulsion, the lacking knowledge of military technique. To these officers they attached Commissars whose business it was to inspire the soldiers and to watch for treachery on the part of the officers, the sympathies of many of whom were naturally on the side of the Whites. Work-

men from the factories, partisans driven from the Ukraine and sailors from Kronstadt had to fill the part on the Red side that was taken by trained foreign troops on the side of the Whites. The republic, almost throttled at the start, learnt to fight in the course of the War. Civil war is necessarily of a different character from that of an ordinary war between nations. Mobilisation of conscripts on both sides formed a huge mass of potential deserters. The smallest initial victory was enough to set this current of desertion flowing, while a successful counter-attack ! The detachments which had been in Murmansk during the War

had remained. They were now largely reinforced after agreement with the local Soviet which imagined that they were to serve as a defence against the Germans in Finland and by no means for intervention in Russia.

RUSSIA

A18

would be enough to turn the tide and set it flowing in the opposite direction. Much depended on the administration of occupied territory in such a way as to prevent the growth of disccntent in the rear of the fighting forces. In the territory occupied by the Whites, the peasantry were soon given reason to fear that a White victory would mean the return of the landlords. This fear outweighed the requisitions of food, beasts and men, which were carried out by both sides. In the end, it probably decided the

issue of the War. On Aug. 30, a woman Social Revolutionary attended a meeting of working men addressed by Lenin in Moscow, and, waiting for him as he came out, fired two bullets into him at scarcely more than arm’s length. Lenin was very badly wounded, and for some time it was thought impossible that he should survive. On the same day another Social Revolutionary killed Uritsky, one of the chief Communist leaders left in Petrograd. ‘These two events were the signal for a wholesale revolutionary terror. Five hundred persons were executed in Petrograd alone as an immediate reprisal. The diplomatic and consular representatives of the Allies, who had hitherto been unmolested in Moscow in spite of the fact that the Powers they represented were actually at war with the republic (Archangel had been taken a month before), were arrested, Mr. Lockhart being accused of complicity in a plan to raise a mutiny in the Lettish troops and to seize the Bolshevik leaders. All were subsequently released, Mr. Lockhart’s Mission being exchanged for Bolsheviks arrested in England. The Soviet Govt. abandoned all hope of coming to an arrangement with the Allies, and realised that it was already engaged in a struggle from which it would cither emerge victorious or not emerge at all. Progress of the Civil War.—lIt was as if this psychological burning of boats had an almost immediate effect in stiffening the Red troops. During this grim month and the month that followed they obtained at least small victories on all the fronts that were more immediately dangerous. By the recapture of Kazan, Samara, Simbirsk and Sysran they recovered the Volga as a line of defence behind which they could prepare for an advance towards the Urals. At the same time they made impossible a juncture between the troops advancing from Archangel and those which had been advancing from Siberia under cover of the Czechs. The Archangel front moved southwards, but was not of great importance, being in a district with only the most limited ways of communication, besides being isolated and far from any vulnerable nerve centre. When, on Nov. 6 1918, the All-Russian Congress of Soviets met in Moscow, the republic was holding its own, and news was coming from the West that greatly strengthened its belief that it had only to hold out a little longer before the idea which it represented was victorious throughout Europe. Austrian and German regiments exposed to the infection of revolutionary ideas had mutinied in Mohilev and Rovno six weeks before. The discipline of these troops in the Ukraine was falling to pieces. Now came news of the formation of Soviets in Kiel, Berlin and Budapest, the abdications of the German and Austrian Emperors and the armistice on the Western Front. The Congress was one of the wildest enthusiasm. For it, not Allied victory but revolution in Germany had made a scrap of paper of the peace of Brest, which it now (Nov. 13 1918) formally annulled.

justifed.

Russia was no longer alone.

Lenin seemed

The members of that

Congress could hear the tramp and see the banners of that world revolution on which their hopes were based. It took several years of bitter disappointment to dim the sound and vision of that triumphal march.

Although the collapse of Germany made it impossible for Russian emigrés to continue to persuade the Allies that in fighting the Soviet Govt. they were fighting the Germans, its immediate effect was that Allied ships passed through the Dardanelles into the Black Sca and through the Belt into the Baltic. 1 Latsis

(Two

Years

Struggle on the Internal

Front)

says that

8,389 persons were shot by the Extraordinary Commission (Tcheka, later Ogpu) in 1918 and 1919 in the 20 Governments of Central Russia alone. Seventyefive per cent of these were shot in the later months of 1918.

The Germans in the Caucasus were replaced by the Allies. The anti-Bolshevik Governments of the Baltic States were supported by the Allies instead of by the Germans, and the revolution rolling forward on the heels of the retiring Germans found itself arrested

by forces that the Allics were now able to equip abundantly with the material no longer needed for the war with Germany. This continuance of the War on the part of the Allies after the annulment of that excuse for interference that was provided by the Brest Peace had two other effects. On the one hand it strengthened opposition to this new war in the Allied countries, whose peoples to a large extent considered that the defeat of Germany and not interference in Russia was the object for which they had been enrolled. On the other hand it gathered to the support of the Bolsheviks a great number of officers who had considered that the Brest: Peace was the main reason for opposition to them and held that, the German question being eliminated, the war in Russia was a national war in which the Soviet Govt. was resisting foreigners who were using Russians as their instruments in weakening a country that had been a great Power until it had overstrained itself on their behalf. They were prepared to accept the revolutionary watchwords for the inspiriting of a national defence. Nor were these officers alone. In the south the forces opposed to the Bolsheviks were headed by ascrics of dictators, L. Kornilov, Alexciev, Denikin, surrounded by persons who made no secret of their distaste not only for the Bolsheviks but for politicians far to the Right of them. In the East, the Committee of Members of the Constituent Assembly had been succeeded by the Directorate, which took over the four existing White Governments in Siberia, and Admiral Kolchak had been proclaimed supreme ruler at Omskon Nov. 18. Members of the Constituent Assembly had been taken from prison and killed by officers who were allowed to go unpunished. The result of this was that members of the Constituent Assembly escaping from Kolchak publicly threw in their lot with the forces on the other side of the barricade. Even in Archangel a comparatively moderate Government under N. Tchaikovsky was seized by a group of officers and only released on the insistence of the Allies. It rapidly became clear that the choice was not between the Bolsheviks and a more moderate Government, but between the Bolsheviks and extreme reaction. The Red Terror was matched by a White Terror that affected far larger sections of the population. Refugees from the country held by the Whites brought into Soviet Russia accounts of such treatment of the working classes as cnormously increased the will of those in Soviet Russia to see the struggle through regardless of the daily increasing hardships of a starving and beleaguered camp. If 1918 saw the beginnings of intervention and civil war on a large scale and the gradual growth of disciplined forces during a period of extremely unstable internal equilibrium, ro19 saw those forces become armies to meet more serious attacks from without, which, however, were accompanied by increasing stability within. The revolution owed much to its opponents, who repeatedly gave it proofs that it was forced to fight in self defence. An example of this was given by the reaction of Reds and Whites to Mr. Lloyd George’s and President Wilson’s proposal (Jan. 22 1919) that representatives from either side should mect tor a conference on Feb. 15 on the island of Prinkipo near Constantinople. The Reds expressed their willingness to come to that aloof island (though they would have preferred a place where their negotiations would have had a better chance of being overheard by the working classes of other countries, to whom they looked to bring intervention to an end), provided that the Powers on their side would undertake not to intervene in the internal affairs of Russia. They even offered to negotiate on a basis of frontiers to be determined by the position of the various forces at the time, which would have given the whole of Siberia and huge districts of European Russia to their enemies. The Whites, confident in the attacks they were preparing, encouraged also by promises of further assistance from the Allies, refused through their representatives in Paris to consider any negotiations whatsoever, and thereby knocked the bottom out of any agitation in

Soviet Russia for an end of the civil war. The moderate Socialist

RUSSIA parties in Russia naturally declared that, while disapproving of

419

kovo (Oct. 21), driven back over the Estonian frontier, after his the Bolsheviks, they would yet support them against all inter- officers, before retreating, had sacked the Palace of Gatchina. vention from without. The war continued. Huge supplies of Collapse of the White Armies ——The Yudenich adventure may military equipment were given to the Whites. The Archangel on the whole be considered as having been a help to Soviet Russia. front had been pushed southward. Kolchak was striking across Jn failure it destroyed many illusions, and while it still seemed the Urals, and when the White forces in the south promised to likely to be successful it had greatly contributed to the desire of move northwards it was confidently assumed abroad that the end the Estonians to conclude peace. Estonian troops had advanced of the struggle would come during the summer. with the Russian Whites, but Yudenich’s officers, unwisely, did That assumption was based on a comparison of material forces. not conceal their contempt for the “‘ potato republic” (an It did not allow for that strange, incalculable x of revolutionary allusion to the chief agricultural produce of Estonia) and, resententhusiasms which, in Russia in the zoth century as in France in ful of the national airs put on by what they regarded as a Russian the 18th, continually provided miracles for the discomfiture of province openly spoke of settling accounts with the Estonians as logicians. In Russia, thanks to the domination of a single party, soon as they had dealt with the Bolsheviks. The Estonians there were none of the struggles between tendencies and, thanks realised that there was little to be gained for Estonia by helping to the extraordinary discipline of that party, none of the strug- reactionary officers to conquer Russia. In spite of warnings, even gles between individuals that made unity among the Whites threats, addressed to them by the French, they began negotiaimpossible. Enthusiasm was not dissipated piecemeal, but di- tions with Soviet Russia on Oct. 5 1919, which ended with the rected hither and thither where it was most needed. The signature of a peace treaty on Feb. 2 1920. Estonia’s belief that Communist party took every member it could spare from the peace was possible made war more difficult for other small work of organisation, and sent him to the weakest place in the Powers. On Jan. 16 1920 the blockade was formally lifted by the defence. The trades unions did the same. Throughout the Civil Supreme Council. The ring surrounding Soviet Russia was no War the Communists adopted the opposite method to that of longer complete. England had already given up active interrulers who exaggerate victories and minimise defeats. Huge maps vention. were set up on boardings in the strects of the towns with a Meanwhile Soviet Russia was rapidly recovering the old thick black line to mark the encircling front. Day by day Russian frontiers. Kolchak had never recovered after the blows during the White advances the black linc was moved nearer to of June and July. The burning of villages, wholesale floggings Moscow. Defeats intensified instead of disheartening the de- and shootings had roused the whole of Siberia against the Whites. fence, in spite of the appalling conditions in the besieged camp. Soviet Russia recovered Omsk on Nov. 15, Semipalatinsk on In this war few of the wounded could hope to survive, for the Dec. 11, Tomsk on Dec. 20, Krasnoyarsk on Jan. 8 1920. On blockade did not allow the importation even of anaesthetics or the same days in the south the Red cavalry entered Rostov. On the necessary drugs. Outside the territory of the Soviets to be Feb. 19 Soviet troops entered Archangel. On March 2 they took a member of the Communist party was a crime punishable by Irkutsk, on March 13 Murmansk, on March 24 Vladikavkaz. death. Captured Communists were shot at once. Yet at the With the withdrawal of foreign support and disorders in their worst moment, Oct. tor9, when White forces were within striking own rear, the Whites collapsed with such suddenness that town distance of Moscow and of Petrograd, thousands of working men after town was taken by internal revolt long before their inpoured into the party. adequate transport allowed the regular troops of the Reds to reach it. The year ro1rg began with the advance on a wide front of Kolchak who, with the whole of Siberia behind him, pushed his lines Three psychological moments tended towards the abandonfar into European Russia, and in April reached Kazan and ment of intervention: (1) discontent in all countries at what Samara on the Volga. The Communists threw all that they had seemed to be an unnecessary prolongation of war after the defeat against him, denuding their other fronts, and in July threw him of Germany; (2) a wide feeling among the working classes of all back over the Urals just in time to let them reorganise to meet countries that a war against the revolution in Russia was inthe rapid advance of Denikin from the south. Denikin, thanks directly a war against even non-revolutionary labour at home; to a destructive cavalry raid behind the Red front, advanced (3) growing impatience with the Russian Whites who, wherever with extreme rapidity, and in the autumn took Orel (Oct. 13) they were in power, showed an incapacity for government equalled within easy reach of Moscow. Here he was held for just long only by their capacity for quarrelling among themselves. It came enough to allow the effects of his administration in the country to be realised by a growing section of opinion in Great Britain he had occupied to show themselves in his rear. So long as that the fact that Russian Whites asked for foreign help against Denikin’s army consisted exclusively of officers it was a de- their own countrymen was in itself a sufficient proof that such help ought not to be given. Two Powers only were unwilling pendable force, but with successive mobilisations as he advanced to give up intervention in Russia. Of these one was Japan, his swelling army became much less unanimous in wanting him which had definite territorial designs in Eastern Siberia and reto win. The peasantry judged by the behaviour of his officers tained for some years the Russian part of the island of Sakhalin. what fate awaited them in the event of his victory, and mutinies The other was France. The French were more grievously affected and revolts soon made his threat to Moscow much less formidable than it seemed upon the maps. He was pushed back from Orel than the English by the non-payment of interest on the Tsarist debts. They were also afraid of a German revenge for the Peace (Oct. 19), and having once begun to retreat could not stop. of Versailles and horrified at the thought that they had lost their But the blow from the south was still to be parried when, with Russian ally. They had therefore set their hands to the carrying the help of English tanks, an army under Yudenich moved on Petrograd, took Krasnoe Silo (Oct. 16) and came within sight of out of a contradictory policy, on the one hand to create a big Poland to take Russia’s place in Germany’s rear and on the other the Cathedral of St. Isaac. Yudenich seems to have believed to help in the creation of a new Russia which should feel gratitude that Petrograd would rise to welcome him. No doubt there were plenty of people in Petrograd who looked forward eagerly to his to France. Expressions of these policies were the Polish attack on Russia in 1920 and the desperate recognition of Wrange! arrival. But these were a small minority who remained indoors (Aug. 11) by M. Poincaré immediately before that general was while children ran about banging tin cans and waving red rags driven into the sea.} and their elders dug trenches, set up barricades and prepared Phe Polish War.—Yor a few weeks in the spring of 1920 it for street fighting. Trotsky went to Petrograd to organise the defence. It is possible that even if Yudenich had entered the seemed that this was to be the first year of comparative peace, and in that hope the Russians offered to conclude a treaty with city his forces, which were not large, would have been destroyed in the streets. At the same time there were several days (Oct. 1 Nevertheless Poland and the Baltic States received a formal 16-21) when all Moscow believed that Petrograd had fallen or warning from the Supreme Council in London in Feb. 1920 aclvising was on the point of falling. Preparations had actually been made them not to continue a war which might be injurious or to make for the housing of the refugees. Yudenich was defeated at Pul- any aggression against Russia. :

420

RUSSIA

Poland on the basis of the frontiers the Poles then held, which included a good deal of ethnographically non-Polish territory. The French, however, had not accepted the Estonian peacemaking with equanimity, and the Poles, assured of French good will, money and munitions, and still dreaming of a Great Poland which was to stretch from the Baltic to the Black Sea and bea sort of Hadrian’s wall against the barbarians of the East, advanced further into Russia, and on May 8 took Kiev. This attack by the Poles had the effect of further consolidating elements in Russia otherwise hostile to the revolution in support of what was, after all, the only existing Russian Government. The Poles completed that nationalisation of the Soviet Govt. which had been begun by the interference of the Allies. In a few weeks the Russians routed the Poles, and found themselves in a position to invade Poland. Trotsky was against pushing on. Lenin allowed political considerations to outweigh the views of the military experts. His view, strongly supported by the many Polish revolutionaries who were on the Russian side and played in this matter the same part that the Russian emigrés had played in persuading the Allies to intervention, prevailed. A few weeks later the Russians were at the gates of Warsaw. But the advance of the Russians into Poland had the same result as the advance of the Poles into Russia, a consolidation of national feeling inthe invaded country. The French, besides guns and ammunition, sent the Poles a leader, General Weygand; and Wrangel from the Crimea, acting (whether he intended this or not) as an ally of the Poles and the French against Russia, began an advance in which he had very considerable technical assistance. The Russians’ retreat before Warsaw was as rapid as their previous advance, and raised in the minds of their enemies hopes of an immediate and general collapse. This, however, did not follow. The Poles were held and in Oct., by the Peace of Riga, agreed to frontiers which were approximately those which they could have had without fighting in Feb.; and by Oct. 17, the Revolutionary Army had occupied the whole of the Crimean peninsula, Wrangel with the remains of his troops escaping to Constantinople. Peace with Lithuania and Latvia had been signed in July and Aug. during the Polish war. Peace with Finland was signed in October. Raids continued to be made into Russia over the fronticrs of countries nominally at peace with her; much of the banditry that naturally follows civil war remained

to be put down; but civil war on a large scale had ended. War Communism.—lIt 1s usual, even among Communists, to describe the period of civil war as one of “ militant communism.”’ But when the economic measures of those years are separated from the words that accompanied them, it appears that there was little difference in principle between them and measures adopted in other countries during the World War, which again were not different in principle from those that are forced upon any besieged community. Russia suffered from seven years of war. It is not surprising that measures of rationing, of monopoly, had been carried further in Russia than in countries which suffered from only four. Industry in Russia was not highly developed before the War. Russia was accustomed to export agricultural produce and raw material and to import manufactured goods. During the War she could do neither the one nor the other. Her

own industry suffered from lack of transport, fuel and raw material and from a catastrophic fall in the productivity of labour. The one industry that had to be maintained at the expense of all others was that of munition-making, which does not provide goods in exchange for which peasants will willingly give corn. In such circumstances whatever measures may be taken

amount in the long run to the requisitioning and rationing of existing stores. The towns being unable to produce goods to exchange for corn, agriculture, like industry, became a State monopoly in the sense that all produce over and above the needs

of the producer was taken by the State to feed the armies and the towns. Private trade in bread was forbidden because its existence made it more difficult for the State to obtain corn. The cooperative societies were turned into a distributing apparatus to serve the whole of the town population. The rationing of the inadequate supplies distinguished in other countries between the

civil and the military population. In Russia it had to go further, and among the civil population to distinguish between those whose work required more physical effort and so more food than those whose work could be got through with less. With a view to the future, milk in the towns was distributed exclusively to children. All these were practical measures which would have been forced on any country similarly impoverished and besieged. In all countries similar measures taken during the War tended towards State and away from private control. The difference,

between these measures in Russia and in other countries lies in the point of view of the Government applying them with regard to what may be called their by-products. The Russian Govt. was not like the Governments of other countries, anxious to disburden itself as soon as possible of the factories that during the War had come into its hands. It rejoiced instead of lamenting over the rapid inflation of the currency because this, making money meaningless, facilitated the weakening of the propertied classes. The requisitioning of corn was in the hands of committees of the poorer peasants to whose interest it was to see that the rich peasants did not hold back their stores, The result of this was a general levelling among the peasantry, during which the conflict of interests between rich and poor peasants guaranteed the Government against active resistance by the peasantry as a whole. It must not be imagined that the Communists were able to make of these measures a complete system. An essential link in the system was missing in the failure of the towns to produce goods to be distributed to the peasants. The factories handed over what they made, but they did not make enough, and a proportion even of what they made was stolen by the hungry workers to exchange for food on the markets that still existed as safety valves for the private trade which, though forbidden, was carried on by “ bagmen’”’ who themselves brought sacks of produce to the towns, running the gauntlet of railway and town police and taking back to the country whatever they could get. The existence of this illegal trade meant that the peasant had a chance of getting something for his produce and, while it kept the peasant cultivating, compelled even the Government organs of supply to have recourse to the very markets that it had forbidden. If the system could ever have been put into complete operation money would have ceased to be necessary at all. As it was the printing presses supplicd the Government and its employees with the means of buying on the illegal markets the food they had not been able to bring to the towns themselves. Money tended to become valueless (it was easier to buy things from the peasants with a cake of soap or a little salt), but the existence of the illegal market made a use for it and a demand for it just sufficient to keep the rouble alive. Poverty and Privation Following the Civil War.—Life in Russian

towns reached its lowest level in 1920.

The almost complete

breakdown of transport made it impossible to bring to the towns | even the whole of the inadequate supplies that the Government

apparatus had been able to get to the railways.

In Jan. 1920,

the number of locomotives in working order had fallen from 17,000 (1914) to under 4,000, less than a quarter of the number that had been barely sufficient to maintain a very low standard

of transport at the beginning of the War. The enlargement of the revolutionary area of Russia that accompanied victory in the Civil War increased the length of the lines of communication much faster than it added to the rolling stock. At the worst moments of the civil war, 80% of the railways had been in the hands of the Whites, and during the struggle, apart from damage to rolling stock and lines, 3,672 railway bridges were destroyed and 381 railway dépôts and repairing shops. Military operations had to come first, and the towns had to do with the crumbs from the soldiers’ miserable commissariat. Every town dweller was underfed. There was no fodder for horses, Sledges disappeared. The cleaning of the streets was left to the spring thaw and the autumn rains. All shops excepting State bookshops and a few half empty co-operative stores were closed. Wooden houses were being pulled down to serve as fuel, lack of which prevented

the proper heating even of Government offices, brought the tram-

RUSSIA ways almost to a standstill and cut down the supply of electric light. Actors played in unheated theatres to audiences shivering in out-door clothes. Typhus carried off thousands of the population. The very working class on which the Government based itself began to disappear, the town workers—most of whom in Russia retain a connection with their villages—returning to the country, where there was food enough and a skilled man could easily carn a living. During the previous year one in every three

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this the feeling of a small class of rich peasants alone. The general levelling brought about during the years of the War had made the peasants more or less homogencous and united, though not organised, in sullen discontent. Their mood was naturally reflected in the army which was largely composed of their sons.

workmen had left Moscow or ceased to be a workman. Wagons clogged the stations, because there were none to unload them. Food rotted, and timber lay where it was useless, because neither

At the same time the removal of the driving motive of the War freed other discontents for expression that would not have been risked while there was still an armed enemy to profit by it. Shortage both of food and fuel in the winter months brought about a crisis. Not only were the peasants hostile, but the cold and hungry workmen of the towns were near the end of their

food nor fuel could be brought to the places where they were

patience.

desperately needed.

In Feb. 1921 there were strikes in the Petrograd factories. There was similar trouble in Moscow, where some of the regiments, without revolting, showed their very natural sympathy

|

The problem before the revolution was to get work done when it was impossible that it should be immediately rewarded. A comparatively efficient organisation of the factories had been worked out; the more extreme forms of workers’ control ceased, the technical staff in the factories as in the army being freed from dependence on the caprice of their subordinates. But the rewards were small and uncertain, and the actual physical capacity of the underfed workers was low, and much of it had to be spent in pursuit of food to supplement their rations. By propaganda and example the Communists succeeded in inducing a high level of self-sacrifice among their own rank and file. Groups of Communists undertook what became known as Saturdayings, when, in holiday hours, they combined in all kinds of labour, shifting wood, unloading trucks, etc., and many non-Communists joined voluntarily in what presently became a duty for members of the party. As the civil war slackened armies not actually fighting were turned to doing whatever work could be done wherever they happened to be. These were called “‘ Labour Armies,’’ and issued “ Bulletins from the Labour Front” announcing the building of a bridge as formerly they had announced the capture of a town. | From these beginnings came industrial conscription, a measure never put into general practice but designed in the first place to prevent the complete exodus of the workmen from the towns and to secure the preparation of fuel by peasants in the neighbourhood of the railways. If it had been possible to feed as well as to conscript something might have come of it. As it was, it was found useful in getting things done that were urgently need-

ed.

It failed as a general means of organising labour, and was

probably more useful to the opponents of the revolution abroad than to the Communists in Russia. Its chief supporter in Russia was Trotsky, who certainly succeeded in getting valuable work in the restoration of the railways done by the labour armies, and

was also able to raise the number of repaired locomotives and wagons. Transport was in 1920 the key position of the struggle and though Trotsky’s critics pointed out that the productivity of a man in a labour army was less even than that of an ordinary workman, he could reply that it was better to get work done slowly than not to get it done at all. In transport things did by the end of 1920 show unmistakable signs of improvement and improvement here promised it everywhere else. During this period were finished the land works for a huge electric power station on the Volkhov, a power station at Kashira and another

on the Shatura peat mosses (which was promptly destroyed by fire). In circumstances in which it seemed possible that Russian civilisation would disappear altogether, starving and ragged engineers were planning the future electrification of Russian industry and rationalisation of Russia’s industrial geography.

MarcH 1921 TO Marcu 1926 Peasant Discontent—The end of the civil war removed a motive that had partially reconciled the peasants to much that they disliked in the revolution. They had no longer need to fear a return of the former landowners and, whereas during the

War they had grudgingly submitted to the seizure of such corn as they could not hide, they were very certain that they had no = intention of feeding the towns in peace-time for nothing. What, they asked, was the good of getting rid of the landlord if you were not allowed to do business with your own crops? Nor was

.

with the workmen. Then, in March trouble in one of the battleships turned into a general revolt at Kronstadt (March 2). This in its beginnings was explicitly a family quarrel within the revolution, and had none of the aims of a White revolt. But the enthusiasm with which it was greeted by the Whites outside Russia brought about instant calm in both capitals, where the workmen realised that it might mean a resurrection of the civil war. Kronstadt was retaken (March 17) after a first attack over the ice had failed, and once more there was apparent peace. The New Economic Policy—The Tenth Congress of the Communist party (at that time 730,000 members) met on March 8 1921 in the atmosphere of those events, and on the invitation of Lenin took the first step towards that New Economic Policy which had been in his mind and on his lips in 1918 when intervention and the consequent development of the civil war had postponed it for three years and brought about the greater part of what was known as “ militant communism.” This first step did not seem a very big onc, nor did it promise much more than to lessen the discontent of the peasant and supply him with a motive for increasing instead of decreasing the area of land that he thought it worth while to till. Instead of the system of assessing the surplus corn and requisitioning it (at a fixed price in practically worthless paper money) it introduced the payment of a tax in corn, which was to be less in amount than the previous assessments and was to leave the peasant free to dispose of what he had left after the tax was paid.

The deficit in the State’s

supply of corn after receipt of the tax was to be made up by exchanging manufactured goods for corn, and this operation was to be left to the co-operative organisations. This meant that buying and selling of corn would no longer be a criminal offence and that the State would have to compete with private local traders for the surplus corn that the peasant had to sell. Weakness in the co-operative organisations, lack of manufactured goods, together with the famine of 1921, presently hurried the party along the road on which they had thus tentalively set foot. E Reopening of External Relations —Another influence in the same direction was the reopening of relations between Russia and the rest of the world. Kronstadt was still in the hands of the mutineers when, on March 16 1921, a Trade Agreement between

Russia and England was signed in London and a treaty between Russia and Turkey was signed in Moscow. The signature of England was an encouragement to the small border states who had felt hitherto that they were risking the disapproval of England as well as of France in withdrawing from a suicidal conflict with Russia. The Trade Agreement, while not establishing normal relations, sect up a modus vivendi which made trade possible between the two countries. On May 6 the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, denounced in 1918, was replaced by a new agreement between

Russia and Germany, signed at Berlin. A treaty with Hungary, arranging for the return of Hungarian prisoners of war, was signed on July 28. Norway followed on Sept. 2, a treaty with

Mongolia on Nov. 6 and a Preliminary Trade Agreement with Italy on Dec. 6. At an economic conference held at Riga with the Baltic States (Oct. 24-31) the basis of an agreement on transport questions, essential to Russia’s export, was reached.

Foreign Trade presupposed the possibility of Russian export.

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Russian export presupposed a surplus in the hands of the Russian Govt., which retained a monopoly of Foreign Trade. That surplus had to be paid for and the need of payment became the dominating motive of the next period of the Revolution. The Georgian Revolt—At the moment of the revolt in Kronstadt there was in progress a revolt in Georgia which had important economic consequences of a different kind. The withdrawal of the Allies after intervention had left a Menshevik Govt. in Georgia which country by the accident of its position controlled the pipe line from the Baku oilfields to Batoum. The revolt in Georgia answered the question whether Russia or Western European powers were to control directly or indirectly the South Caucasian oilfields. On Feb. 16 Tiflis was seized by the revolutionaries. On March 19, the revolutionaries now helped by the Russians, were in Batoum.! Baku oil was later on to be one of Russia’s most important exports, as it had been before the War. The Famine of 1921.—The extreme drought of the summer of 1921 affected districts that should normally have been granarics for the rest of Russia. The long series of rainless months turned the Volga country into a desert with neither food for man nor fodder for beasts. The people crowded to the river banks and died there. Women fought for scraps of horse dung and cooked them in the contaminated water of the Volga to postpone their children’s deaths. The starving population had no strength to resist the ravages of typhus. Fridtjof Nansen, the American Relief Administration, the Quakers and othcrs, organised assistance to the starving districts (see RELIEF). The Russian Govt. had to face not only a complete failure of its plan of obtaining corn by exchange, but also a big reduction in the corn tax which, even in the original plan, was less than their needs. They were unable to supply the factories with the grain they needed for their workmen. They were forced to buy grain where they could, and to buy that grain for money. ‘ We had to grab at the straw of what value was left in the Sovict paper roubles.” Saving the Rouble—It was clear that the rouble, which had been rapidly dying, and was already a very ghost-like thing, could no longer be considered as a parting guest to be speeded on its way, but had to be saved at all costs. Factories for a time paid their workmen in factory products which the workmen sold on the market and with the resulting money bought bread. It was obvious that the only hope of lasting salvation lay in a stable currency. A stable currency demanded a balanced budget and a stoppage of the printing press, on the activity of which in producing paper money faster than it became valueless the very existence of the State depended. This meant that factories must pay for themselves. Lenin told the party that they “ must learn to trade.”” The State was forced to compete in buying. It must also compete in selling, with the private person. No longer were railway tickets to be free and unobtainable, electric light free and without lamps, trams free and not running. Everything had to pay for itself and so be paid for by whoever used it. Free trade of all kinds was legalised within the country.

Revival of Private Enter prise.—-The streets of the towns began to change their appearance in the summer of 1921. Shutters came down from the closed shops and behind the broken and

patched windows appeared all kinds of secreted ancient stores. Inessential things appeared first, because it had been easier to keep them hid. Toyshops were among the first to open, together with hat shops, and it was possible to buy cosmetics in old boxes with faded labels long before it was possible to buy the saucepans and kettles and clothes that were really wanted. Private bookshops sprang up in all directions. Private restaurants opened, where better meals could be obtained by those who could afford to pay for them than at any of the State refectories which continued to function. Pedlars flourished exceedingly, no longer slinking round corners out of sight of the militia. The State retained the monopoly of foreign trade, heavy industry and much light industry. But heavy industry was run at a loss, light industry was producing only a very small proportion of its pre-War ~1The Turkish Treaty of March 16 provided that Batoum was to be ceded to Georgia under conditions of local autonomy.

output, and though there were plenty of shops belonging to co-operatives and to the State, and though the private shops were handicapped by high rents and high taxes, it seemed to the outside observer that in the competition between the State and private enterprise, the State would go to the wall. The new conditions benefited the peasantry, whose discontent with the Soviet Govt. grew rapidly less. They benefited the large class of

persons who had previously made a surreptitious living by buying cheap and selling dear when both operations were forbidden. Their beneficial effects were felt later by the workmen, and the new conditions were for some time actually injurious to the large mass of small Government officials, who had not time for trading in their off hours and soon found themselves compelled to pay rent for their rooms, and to buy their food instead of having the necessaries of life provided free. Both in town and village this new economic policy ended the process of social levelling and started a new process of differentiation into classes. To people both within and without the Communist party, who had identified “ Communism ” with the economic methods of the civil war, these changes seemed to prove that the revolution had changed its mind. Outside the Communist party and particularly outside Russia, it was assumed that Russia would rapidly “ drift back to capitalism.” Inside the party among the rank and file there was a feeling that everything they had risked their lives for had been abandoned. Once more rich men were driving in cabs while poor men walked, rich men were fat while poor were thin. Lenin himself had none of this fecling of defeat. Intervention had ended, and he was returning to the plans that it had interrupted. But for his prestige it is doubtful whether the party could have stood the shock of this sudden change of course. Later, as the party learnt to adapt itself to new conditions and saw the effect of those conditions in a rising standard of life and in Russia’s economic recovery a new hopefulness took the place of the old fanatic enthusiasm. But, from the beginning of the new economic policy, there existed ground for disagreements on questions of principle more serious than any of the disagreements on questions of tactics which had accompanied the period 1917-20. In the ensuing period the history of the Revolution is not onc of startling events but of slow processes, a long struggle between state and private industry and trade, a gradual development of diplomatic relations between Russia and the rest of the world, a series of debates in the Communist party, reflecting the new tensions and readjustments due to changes not only in Russia but outside. The year 1922 found the Soviet Govt. with a programme that included the establishment of a stable currency, a pruning of state apparatus, complete legalisation of free trade within the country and the renting out of some of the nationalised factories, etc., to private persons and co-operatives. All these planned measures aimed at the economic recovery of Russia, that is to say, at putting Russia’s town population in a position to satisfy by import or by manufacture the needs of Russia’s peasantry. It was hoped further to bribe foreign capital to help in the economic development of Russia by giving concessions of a kind which while allowing the concessionaire to enrich himself, should on the expiry of a definite period leave the State the richer by technically equipped and going concerns. None of this programme had anything in it shocking to the western world, and, if that had been all, there would have been no difficulty in the way of securing every kind of co-operation from western Governments and capitalists. The Third International—But the Soviet Govt. was an expression not only of Russia but of the Communist party, and the very nature of that party implied a further programme. It had created the Soviet Govt.; it had also created the Communist International. If the programme of the Soviet Govt. was a national programme, that of the International was one of international revolution. Founded in 1919, the Communist International was intended to unite and strengthen Communist parties in all countries. It sought to make itself a supreme general staff for all its members. It aroused greater anxicty in its

RUSSIA opponents than any previous international revolutionary association, because it had its headquarters in a revolutionary country, though its attempts to enforce the strict discipline learnt by 20 years of struggle in Russia on the parties of countries which were less afraid of freedom of opinion, led to many schisms and quarrels in those parties. Still, its very existence served as a reminder to foreign Governments that Russia’s revised economic programme did not alter the fact that the ruling party in Russia had by no means abandoned its revolutionary aims. At the same time countries with colonies in the East were unpleasantly aware that Russia’s policy of ostentatious disinterestedness tended to make oriental nations conscious of a contrast between Russia and countries with large interests in the East which they were unwilling to give up. Russia’s policy tended to increase nationalist feeling in all subject countries. In the East, Russia, apparently renouncing claims for material advantages, had actually become morc dangerous to the position of western

countries there than had been the old grasping Empire of the Tsars. (See THIRD INTERNATIONAL.) The Genoa and Hague Conferences.—Economics and politics accordingly became contradictory motives reacting in positive and negative fashion on the re-establishment of Russia’s relations with foreign countries. These motives were illustrated in the conferences of Genoa (g.v.) and The Hague (q.v.). At Cannes, Mr. Lloyd George had declared the impossibility of the recovery of Western Europe without Eastern Europe. On April to 1922, Russia met the other powers in conference at Genoa. The French insisted that nothing should be done that could in any way affect the Versailles Treaty. It was stated that the recognition of Russia’s foreign debt must be a starting point for any fruitful debate. Thereupon Germany and Russia came to a separate agreement in the Rapallo Treaty (g.v.) signed on April 16. Germany and Russia mutually cleaned their slates. Germany gave up all claims for damage done by Russia to German interests inside Russia, unless in the future Russia were to satisfy claims of this kind made by other States. Diplomatic relations were fully resumed. The treaty included a “‘ most favoured nation ” clause, subject to a limitation in favour of countries that had been part of the old Russian Empire, of Soviet Republics and of

Asiatic states bordering on Russia. The German Govt. declared its readiness to facilitate agreements with Russia made by private firms. This agreement led to the exclusion of Germany from further discussions of the Russian question at the conference in order to calm the French, who declared that they saw in Rapallo an attack on Versailles. The Genoa conference closedon May 19 without further result, excepting an agreement that there should be no aggressive acts on the part of Russia or of any of the

Governments taking part in the conference for four months after the close of discussions. A non-Russian commission was appointed, and Russia was invited to appoint a Russian Commission, both to meet at The Hague on June 26 to consider the questions of debts, foreign property sequestrated in Russia and credits. At this further conference, Russia was ready to agree (1) not to ask for com-

pensation for damage caused by intervention and the blockade; (2) to recognise pre-War debts, without the addition of accumulated interest; and (3) to satisfy foreign ex-owners of confiscated property by giving them in preference their former undertakings as concessions. After much fruitless debate in sub-commission the Russians asked for a plenary sitting. They were told that a plenary sitting would be held to consider any further proposals they might have to make. It was held on July 19, and brought the conference to an end. A suggestion made by Litvinov for a new formula on compensation to foreigners for property nationalised led only to a misunderstanding. Neither side was ready to recede from its position, the one being unwilling to undertake

obligations that would cripple its efforts towards economic recovery, the other believing that Russia’s economic position was so bad that time would bring about a capitulation not merely on financial questions. | The New Currency.—In the meantime the Soviet Govt. were

proceeding slowly with the realisation of their internal pro-

423

gramme. They printed (according to decree of Oct. 11 1922) banknotes with a definite cover in gold, foreign currency and foreign securities. These remained stable side by side with the rapidly soaring paper currency! in which the bank notes were quoted day by day. Prices were given in gold roubles, represented by the banknotes (a tchervonetz equals 10 gold roubles), and were translated into terms of the ordinary paper roubles. Gradually the paper came to be used exclusively as small change was replaced by smaller notes with similar cover (decree of Feb. 5 1924) and was finally withdrawn from circulation. It became

possible at last to issue a silver coinage of values from a rouble down to ten kopecks and copper coinage of values from five to one kopeck. The years 1922-4 saw a rapid reduction in the amount of the deficit that had to be made up by emissions of paper roubles, and the existence of the stable tchervonetz side by side with the unstable Soviet rouble made possible an increasing normality in trade long before the stabilisation of the currency as a whole. This process of stabilisation lasted from 1922 to 1924, when the Soviet roubles were finally withdrawn. Organisation of Industry.—The restoration of the currency was accompanied by, was dependent on and itself assisted radical changes in the organisation of industry. If Russia were to have a stable currency she could no longer afford to leave costs out of account and to make up for industries run at a loss by printing paper roubles. Industry had to be put strictly on a basis of profit and loss. The first step was to distinguish between paying and non-paying industries, the second to make industries themselves interested in their own successful working. The unwieldy mass of moribund nationalised industry was split into sections called trusts and allowed a certain amount of liberty. At first they were free to do what they could with all surplus production over the amount that corresponded to the amounts of raw

material, etc., supplied to them by the State.

It presently ap-

peared that the State could not supply them with raw materials, so that they were compelled to supply themselves, thereby to a very large extent becoming independent in their operations and called on by the State to account only for their results. These organisations were financed by the banks, all of which were in the hands of the State. The flax trust was the first of these organisations. It was soon followed by the timber trusts, textile trusts, tobacco trusts, etc. The co-operatives, similarly dependent on credit from the State and similarly independent in their operations, became huge trading concerns, buying in Russia and selling abroad, and buying abroad and selling in Russia under the State monopoly. In the first year after the introduction of the new economic policy production in Russia increased by approximately 46% (Oct. 1921 to Oct. 1922). In the second year production was 44% higher than in the first year. Russian exports and imports which had fallen to nil during the blockade and the civil war rose in the year 1922-3 to 9% and 12% of her exports and imports in 1913. In 1923-4, export had risen to 24% and import to 16% of its value in 1913. In 1923 Russia exported 170,000,000 poods of corn, as against 40,000,000 in the preceding season. Consciousness of the beginning of economic recovery and anxiety lest that recovery should be jeopardised by any worsening of her international relations, dictated her attitude in the first political crisis of that year and in the second showed that it might come into collision with the revolutionary interests of the Communist party. The first crisis was brought about by a British threat to annul the Trade Agreement, the second by a mistaken belief in the imminence of further revolution in Germany. Relations with Great Britain. On May 8 1923, Lord Curzon sent an ultimatum to the Soviet Govt. (which in Dec. 1922 had become the Government of the Union of Socialist Soviet Republics) in which he referred to anti-British propaganda and demanded the withdrawal of certain Russian diplomatic representatives in Persia and Afghanistan, recognition of the three1 Thus on May 5 1923 one tchervonetz was worth 485 roubles of the 1923 issue and on Aug. 28 it was worth 1,850 such roubles. A rouble of 1923 was worth 100 of the 1922 roubles, which were each the equivalent of 1,000,000 roubles of any previous issue.

424

RUSSIA

Turkey was one of the signatories to the Brest peace whereby she gained considerable Russian territory, and though a Turkish envoy accompanied Count Mirbach to Moscow in 1918, Russia’s relations with Turkey were those of a defeated country with a vassal of the conqueror until after the Peace of Sévres, the dispersal of the Turkish Parliament by the Allies and the formation of the new Turkish Govt. at Angora. Early in 1920 an emissary from Angora (Halil Pasha) reached Moscow, and by Nov. of that year there was a Russian mission in Angora and a Turkish Ambassador had been appointed, though he did not reach Moscow till early in 1921. Friendly messages passed throughout the year, and on March 16 1921 a Russo-Turkish treaty was signed, by which Russia, in accordance with her general Eastern policy, renounced the capitulations and further renounced all claim to the payment of Turkish debts. On Jan. 2 1922 a treaty was signed between Turkey and the Soviet Govt. of the Ukraine, a Russian note of July 18.1 | and on July 9 1922 a railway, post and telegraph convention On May ro two days after the delivery of the Curzon ultimawas concluded between Turkey on the one hand and the tum, Vorovsky, who had gone to Lausanne as Russian representative to attend the conference that was among other things settling R.S.F.S.R. and the Trans-Caucasian Republics on the other.’ From April 5 1918 till Oct. 25 1922 there were Japanese troops the future of the Dardanelles (in which it was recognised that Russia was interested), was murdered by a certain Conradi. It in Vladivostok. During the period of intervention, Japanese was felt in Russia that the lack of precautions taken by the Swiss troops pushed far inland, and until May 15 1925 the Japanese repolice to protect a man who, though not a fully accredited dele- tained northern Sakhalin, which they had seized pending satisfaction for the Nikolaievsk massacre. When the Russian Red gate, had yet received a Swiss diplomatic visé on his diplomatic Army reached Irkutsk, early in 1920, Japan had proposed the passport was a reflection of the hostile attitude of the Great Powers. In this way the murder of Vorovsky was connected in setting up of a buffer state, and the Far Eastern Republic was the Russian mind with the Curzon ultimatum. A street in created, which, however, instead of falling under Japanese influence, remained closely tied to Moscow and eventually, after Moscow in which many of the foreign missions live was renamed the withdrawal of Japanese troops from the continent, was after Vorovsky. Just as, during our own Cromwellian revolution England protested in vain when English Whites in Holland killed declared a Soviet Republic by a Constituent Assembly. Negoa representative of the Commonwealth, so Russia’s protests to tiations initiated in the autumn of 1922 broke down, but Nikolaievsk was evacuated by, the Japanese on Sept. 27, and the the Swiss Govt. did not prevent the acquittal of Vorovsky’s Maritime Province on Oct. 25. On Feb. 4 1923, M. Jofire was murderer, in spite of his admitted guilt. All Swiss subjects with the exception of workmen and old residents were expelled from invited from Peking to Tokyo by Viscount Goto, and there were Russia, trade with Switzerland was prohibited, and it was an- ofħcial negotiations from June 28 to July 31 of that year which were without concrete results. The Japanese earthquake and the nounced that until satisfaction had been given Russia would send no diplomatic or trade representatives to that country. The refusal by the Japanese Govt. of assistance offered by Russia to convention concerning the Dardanelles was eventually signed by Japanese “ workers ” marked the beginning of a new period of a Russian representative in Rome. This convention, against hostility on the part of Japan, but the Japanese elections of May 1924 and possibly the American Immigration Act of that Russian wishes, opened the Straits to warships, whereas before the War, against Russian wishes, the Straits had been closed to month brought about a change of Government and a renewal of negotiations. These resulted in the Russo-Japanese Treaty of them. | Russia’s Relations with the East—Within a few days of their Jan. 20 1925 signed at Peking, which came into force on Feb. 26. taking power, the Soviet Govt. foreshadowed the character of (For the terms see JAPAN, section Relations with Russia.) In their Eastern policy in a declaration to “ The Mussulmans of accordance with this agreement the Japanese evacuated North Russia and the East,” issued on Nov. 22 1917. That policy Sakhalin on May 15 1925. Soviet Russia’s relations with Japan are the same in character differs from that of the old Russian Empire and from that of as the relations with the big Western powers. Her relations with Western powers in its ostentatious refusal of all privileges (capitulations, for example) and its insistence that relations be- China illustrate her policy towards “‘ oppressed ”’ as distinguished tween Russia and Eastern nations are relations between equals. from ‘‘ exploiting ’’ nations. On July 26 1921 the Soviet Govt. informed the Chinese Govt. that Russia would not in future It is a policy that makes more difficult the traditional Eastern policy of Western nations, who have been accustomed to treat require payments on account of the Boxer Indemnity of 1900, the Eastern nations, with the exception of Japan, as races on a and renounced all special privileges in China. A treaty between lower level of civilisation than themselves. The first practical Russia and China was delayed by the influence of the Western Powers in China, by minor conflicts and by changes in Chinese illustration of this policy was given on Jan. 27 1918 in a note administration. A treaty was finally signed in Peking on May 31 from Trotsky, then Commissar of Foreign Affairs, to the Persian 1924. At the same time an agreement was signed concerning the Chargé d’Affaires in Petrograd, denouncing the Anglo-Russian Chinese Eastern Railway establishing the equality of Russia and treaty of 1907, which divided Persia into British and Russian China in the management of the railway, abolishing the extra spheres of influence. A treaty between Russia and Persia was territorial rights of the railway and putting it under the prosigned on Feb. 26 1921. On May 27 1919 a Russian declaration tection of Chinese soldiery. This agreement could not be put recognised the sovereign rights of Afghanistan, and by the end into practice for some months because Marshal Chang Tso Lin, of that year there was a Russian envoy in Cabul and an Afghan envoy in Moscow. A Russo-Afghan treaty was signed on Feb. commanding in Manchuria did not recognise the authority of the Peking Government. With that Government’s approval a 28 1921,2 and friendly relations have in general continued, despite separate agreement to the same effect was signed by Russia and some mutual exasperation when Afghanistan sheltered the forces Chang Tso Lin at Mukden on Sept. 20 1924. There have been of the deposed Emir of Bokhara and gave at least moral support several conflicts concerning the railway, of which the most to Enver Pasha in his attempt to create a Pan-Islamic movement in Bokhara. Both in Persia and in Afghanistan Russian policy serious was that of Jan. 1926. (See CHINA; CHINESE EASTERN RaILway.) came into conflict with British.

mile limit in territorial waters, compensation for trawlers seized and accidentally sunk when found fishing within the twelvemile limit which the Russians claimed, and compensation for an Englishwoman who had been imprisoned and an Englishman who had been killed in Russia, together with the withdrawal of a note in which a minor official of the Russian Commissariat for Foreign Affairs had referred to the imprisonment of Irishmen in English prisons in answer to a note from the British Commissioner in Moscow on the subject of a Russian espionage trial. In the event of non-compliance with these demands the Soviet Govt. was threatened with an immediate rupture of Anglo-Russian relations, which for two years had been those outlined in the Trade Agreement of March 1921. The Soviet Govt. replied in terms which, while not accepting all the English demands, made rupture extremely difficult, and the conflict was abandoned after

1See British White Papers 1869, 1874, 1890 of the year 1923. 2 Translation of the texts in Manchester Guardian of March 31 1921 and L’Europe Nouvelle of May 28 1921. | |

3 For details of these treaties see A. J. Toynbee, Survey of International Affairs.

At the same

treaty was signed in Moscow.

time

(March

1) a Turkish-Afghan

RUSSIA Expectation of Revolution in Germany.—In the autumn of 1923 the Russian Communist leaders believed that there would be a revolution in Germany, as a result of the occupation of the Ruhr and the Separatist intrigues in the Rhineland, which accentuated the economic crisis in Germany. They expected that Poland and France or Poland alone, would attack the German revolution, and the Soviet Govt. sent Victor Kopp as plenipotentiary to seek an arrangement with the countries lying between Russia and Germany, whereby Russia should be able to send corn to Germany, no matter what German Govt. should be in power. The Communists could not have remained indifferent if an attempt had been made to blockade a revolutionary Germany and, being extremely anxious to avoid war, hoped in this way to be able to make such a blockade ineffective without being themselves drawn into an armed struggle. Some of their small western neighbours were glad of even this frail guarantee of peace, but nothing was actually signed, and the motive for seeking such an agreement was removed when the expected day came and there was no German revolution. From that moment the Soviet Govt. began to build alike its external and internal policy upon a belief that for a very much longer period than it had at first anticipated it would be the only Communist Govt. in Europe. There had been a feeling in the minds of the masses that N.E.P.

(New Economic Policy) would be thrown overboard as soon as a German revolution made it possible to exchange Russian corn for German goods in an economically independent, self-contained Socialist world. N.E.P. now gathered an atmosphere of permanency, and was henceforward more confidently developed. Economic Recovery.—Although in Lenin’s mind it had always been the policy of a prolonged period, the phrases used in introducing it ( retreat ” “‘ a manoeuvre ”’ and “ outflanking ”’) had delayed its acceptation as such. For some time revolutionary hopes and doubts were reflected in alternating moods of repression of and exultation in the growing commercial activity of the towns. For some time minor authorities were not quite clear as to what was and what was not allowed by the new economic policy. Private traders who were too successful found themselves welcomed by the State trusts anxious to sell them goods, arrested as if at haphazard by the administrative authorities, and heavily taxed by those who had charge of the State finances. As one of them put it: ‘“‘ There was sunshine in the morning, but thunder in the air, and you never knew when you

would have to take shelter from a downpour.”

It was only after

the definite political stabilisation of Germany that they began to lose this feeling of precariousness. On the other hand they were enjoying a freedom they had not known under the civil war, the rewards were large, and in spite of the way in which the State weighted the scales against them and in its own favour they were extremely active. It was a long time before the State shops

could outlive the bureaucratic manners of the period of militant communism. It was for a long time pleasanter and quicker to buy things from a private trader than from a State shop or a cooperative store, and the State had to learn that not in industry alone is it necessary to provide the stimulus of personal interest. But the machine, though at first those of its wheels creaked in which the State was particularly interested; began to move with increasing speed. The measures introduced as a concession to the peasantry were resulting in an extraordinary resuscitation of the towns. As early as 1923 the streets were full of jostling, hurrying crowds, and impartial observers were of the opinion that a stoppage of the New Economic Policy was beyond the

power of the Communists even if they had wished it. Increasing activity in the towns, rapid growth of the tilled areas in the country, and the economic recovery of Russia in general were accompanied naturally by a series of growing pains. The first of these was a crisis which from an image used by Trotsky came to be known as the crisis of the “ scissors.” The two blades of the scissors represented the prices of agricultural products and the price of manufactured goods. At one time during the civil war a peasant could get a grand piano from its starving owners in exchange for a few sacks of potatoes. With the new economic policy there came about a sharp change.

Agricultural products became

425 very cheap and manufactured

goods very dear, so dear indeed that the peasants could not

afford to buy them. Part of the high price of goods was due to the enormous overhead cost of distribution through the cooperative organisations, part to high cost of organisation, low productivity of labour, etc., etc., and to the new anxiety of the State Trusts to show profit, which led them to screw up the price of goods instead of reducing the cost of their manufacture. The result was a market crisis, in which goods remained unsold in the factories. The Communists were threatened with a rapid growth of private trade unless they could reduce the overhead costs of sale, and with a stoppage of factories unless they could bring about a closing of the scissors—a lessening of the unequal

balance between prices of corn and of manufactured goods. At the same time the country was in the throes of its struggle to stabilise the currency, so that there was a shortage of money which resulted in very natural strikes by workmen who had not been paid their wages. The most serious effect of the crisis was a loss of faith on the part of the peasantry, who felt very keenly that they were being exploited by the towns. Party Dissenstons—These growing pains were reflected in discussions within the Communist party. It seemed to some of the Communists that the result of the New Economic Policy had been to turn the State apparatus into a capitalist organisation, whose interests were no longer those of the working class. The trade unions had already ceased to be part of that apparatus, and had returned to the task of defending the interests of the workers against their employers, whether those were private persons or state trusts, but this did not prevent the formation of two surreptitious groups in the party with a tendency towards syndicalism. These did not include any of the better known leaders. Much more serious for the party was the opposition that appeared in the autumn of 1923, which included members of the Central Committee, and in particular Trotsky. The varicty of opinions united in a single block in this opposition was itself a proof that its underlying motives were not those

openly put forward and that it reflected a widespread discontent in the ranks. It soon appeared that this opposition questioned the right of permanent leadership that seemed to be claimed by the “ old guard.” The discussion was used by the “ old guard ”’ chiefly to destroy the overwhelming prestige of Trotsky, which, outside the Central Committee, was second only to that of Lenin whereas inside it was never forgotten that Trotsky had only sunk his differences with the party in 1917. Stalin, Zinoviev and Kamenev fell upon Trotsky with great vigour, and were still attacking him when, on Jan. 21 1924, Lenin died. If Lenin had planned the manner of his dying with the object of preventing his death from shaking the Soviet Govt., he could not have done better than he did. His illness did not take him

from the leadership until he had already set the party, the Government and the country on the new road towards Russian economic recovery that the end of the civil war made possible. It took him away for a few months, as it were temporarily, and then allowed him to return. It again removed him and allowed the country to accustom itself for a year to the idea of a Council of People’s Commissars over which Lenin did not preside, and the Communist party to the tdea of looking for directives to a Central Committee which Lenin no longer personally inspired. If he had died earlier, especially if he had died during the War, there might have been trouble over the succession. As it was, Trotsky had been politically discredited by the Central Com-

mittee * just in time,” and there was no immediate dispute over the leadership which fell naturally to Stalin, Zinoviev and Kamenev, Rykov taking the part of President of the Council of People’s Commissars. At the moment of Lenin’s death, when it might have been expected that the position of the party would be shaken, the party was able to throw its gates open to new members from the working class. Many thousands enrolled themselves within a few weeks, and by 1926 the party, which had been reduced to about 400,000 by the purge that accompanied the introduction of the New Economic Policy, had grown to over a million. Lenin died, and it was presently seen that

426

RUSSIA

nothing had happened to weaken the Government. There was a moment of expectation outside Russia, a moment of fear inside Russia among those who had come to look on Lenin’s life as a sort of guarantee of Russia’s new found stability. Both were unjustified, and within a few weeks it was realised, outside as well as inside Russia, that practically Lenin died not in 1924

but nearly two years earlier, when, in 1922, he had first felt ill. Great Britain Recognises the Soviet Govt.—On Feb. 1 1924, less than a fortnight after Lenin’s death, the new Labour Govt. in England signified its recognition of the Soviet Govt. as the de jure government of Russia. Italy, Norway, Austria, Greece and Sweden had taken the same step before the end of March. Others followed. Many countries, following the lead of Italy, at once appointed ambassadors. England postponed doing this until outstanding questions should be regulated, and a conference for this purpose was called forthwith. These negotiations, which became the subject of bitter political controversy in England, began in London on April 14. The Russians, as im former negotiations, insisted that the two questions of recognition of debts and the provision of credit for development of the power to pay must be considered together. Meetings between the Russians and the bondholders ended in a deadlock. After extreme difficulty, two agreements between the Governments were signed on Aug. 8—a general agreement, and one on trade and shipping, which provided for the application of the Export Credits Act to trade with Russia. Russia was to continue negotiations with the bondholders, and an agreement with them was to be included in a further treaty and to be a condition on which the British Govt. would be prepared to recommend Parliament to guarantee the interest and sinking fund of a private loan. On Nov. 4 Mr. MacDonald resigned, and the Conservative Govt. that succeeded him did not offer the treaties for consideration by Parliament.! The position remained what it had been before the negotiations began. Sir Robert Hodgson in Moscow, and the Russian representative in England were still in 1926, two years after formal recognition of the Soviet Govt., enjoying only the privileges given to chargés d’affaires. The Economic Position.—In 1925 Russia was a very different country from the Russia of the politically chaotic period that

immediately followed the Feb. revolution of 1917 or from the desperate, starving Russia of the civil war. Both in agriculture and in industry she had recovered a level of productivity only about 30% below the level she had reached before the War. The mist of cross purposes that hung over the visible bustle of

the towns had cleared sufficiently to show that the new economic policy had not been a simple retreat towards capitalism, and that Russia’s undeniable development had been along lines fundamentally different from those followed by other countrics. That difference was much more marked in the towns than in the country. It may be said that the towns in Russia formed islands experimenting in a new economic organisation but surrounded and fertilised by an immense sea of agricultural life which was as yet only very slightly affected by these experiments. No great progress had been made in collective agriculture among the peasants, who, after the general levelling of the revolution, were working exactly as they had worked before it, some showing a tendency to get rich, others becoming impoverished and ready to work for hire instead of for themselves. In the towns, however, were definite signs of the consolidation of a new system, and the fact that the towns controlled export and import gave them an influence in the villages that showed (1926) no signs of diminishing. . 1 During the election campaign which followed the defeat of the Labour Govt. in Great Britain on Oct. 8 1924, there was published (Oct. 24), under a covering letter addressed by a Foreign Office official to Mr. Rakovsky, the Soviet chargé d’affaires in London, a provocative letter purporting to be addressed to the central committee of the British Communist party by the Praesidium of the Third International over the signatures of Zinoviev, McManus, and Kuusinen. Its authenticity was denied, but the publication roused national wrath in Great Britain, and the conversations were not renewed. For the official correspondence and the text of the “ Zinoviev letter '’ sce A. J. Toynbee, Survey of International Affairs 1924 (Oxford, 1926), (Ed. E. B.)

In Russian industry the relative proportion of private to State and co-operative industry seemed to be growing less. In the year 1923-4 it was estimated that 76.3% of industry was in the hands of the State and the co-operative organisation. In the year 1924-5, this percentage had increased to 79-3. In trade, whereas in the first six months of 1923 50% was in private hands, and the second six months 34%, in the year 1924-5 only 26° was in private hands, while there was an absolute increase in the trade turnover. Individual interest remains the primary motive of production and trade, in town as in the country, but not many persons are able to live by allowing someone else to use their money for productive trade purposes. Unearned increment is rare. Inheritance is allowed with a scale of high and rapidly increasing death duties. The clash of interests between classes inherent in the ordinary system is present in Russia also, where it is artificially reflected by a conflict of motives between different organisations, mutually independent but subject to partial control by a single centre. Thus, whereas the managers and directors of the trusts are chiefly interested in cheapening and increasing production, the trade unions are chiefly interested in seeing that these objects are not achieved at the expense of the workers employed, while the trading organisations are chiefly interested in preventing high prices from lessening their turnover. The central authority, by controlling credit, can bring pressure to bear on the trusts, while by buying and selling it can influence the market. Rates of pay are for the most part decided by collective treaty under the supervision of the trade unions. Arbitration is used for the settlement of disputes. The Economic Crisis of 1925.—The concentration of industry and trade in the hands of the State gives to economic crises a character differing from that of such crises in other countries. In other countries a crisis in one industry is felt only in a lesser degree by others. In Russia, by affecting import and export, it affects the whole economic body of the State. Since no part of that body is without some sort of contact with the Communist party every such crisis is at once reflected in a conflict of views within the party. Towards the end of 1925 the Communists were faced by the most serious crisis for several years. They had counted, in view of a fair harvest, on being able to buy enough corn from the peasants to increase very largely Russian export. Assuming that they would have this largely increased export they planned a lavish import of machinery, etc., confident that they could afford this without risking the favourable balance of trade which they regarded as essential to the stability of their currency. They gave large orders, undertaking big obligations, their confidence being increased by each month of favourable weather. Then, after the harvest, it appeared that the peasant was in no hurry to sell. His taxes had been lowered. He had no urgent need of money, knew that the Government needed the corn and hoped that the longer he held the higher would

be the price.

The favourable

trade balance

vanished.

It could be restored only by a sharp cutting down of import and that meant a loss of slowly gained confidence abroad and the slowing down of the tempo of economic recovery at home. Further, obligations had to be met in foreign currency, on the possession of which depended to a large extent the stability of the Russian bank-note. The peasant, straw in his hair and sunflower seed in his mouth, had put a spoke in the wheel of the whole community. This was the economic crisis that sharpened the dispute in the Communist party with which the year 1925 closed. It united in opposition to the central committee, though with widely different views, some of its members who, by reason of their particular work, felt the crisis most intimately. Kamenev, as president of the Council of Labour and Defence, with an economic report in his hands (that he was now allowed to present to the party congress) was very conscious that the peasant had put a stop to what had promised to be a triumphal, uninterrupted progress. Sokolnikov, responsible for Finance, saw the peasant threatening the stability of the currency. Zinoviev, of the Third International, felt that peasant domination was likely to injure the prestige of the Russian party in the minds of the Communist

RUSSIA parties of Western Europe. The peasant’s application of blue pencil to the Soviet Govt.’s export plan raised anew the whole question of the New Economic Policy. There was no question of abandoning that policy. The question was whether, under N.E.P. the Communists were doing enough to ensure that the general progress of the country was in the direction of socialism or were allowing the strengthening of a class which would eventually compel the country to move in the other direction. The question raised was, ‘‘ Which class of peasants was most profiting by N.E.P.?”? The central committee held that there was no need to exaggerate the influence of the rich peasants, who were in a small minority among those fairly well off, who profited by N.E.P. The economic recovery of the country, and particularly the development of industry was the surest means to acquire a dominating influence over the peasantry. The interests of industrial development were paramount in a situation that made it clear that fora long time to come Russia could not expect revolution in any of the big industrial countries. The leaders of the opposition were attacked and discredited in the same way as Trotsky had been attacked and discredited in earlier discussions, and the New Economic Policy received a further confir-

mation.

(A. R.)

BIBLIOGRAPHY.——The principal authorities are Russian documents; also files of Izvestiya and Pravda. A great mass of books on Russian subjects have been published in other languages. The following selection does not pretend to be exhaustive. General. L. Pozvolsky, The Economics of Communism (New York, 1921); H. N. Brailsford, The Russian Workers Republic (London, 1922); R. Luxemburg, Die russische Revolution (Berlin, 1922); V. Antonov-Ovsyeenko, Der Aufbau der roten Armee in der Revolution (Hamburg, 1923); A. Rothstein, ed., The Soviet Constitution (London, 1923). History and Politics. N. Bukharin, Vom Sturze des Zarismus bts gum Sturze der Bourgeoisie (Zurich, 1918); L. Trotsky, The Bolshevtkt and World Peace (New York, 1918); id. The History of the Russian Revolution to Brest-Litovsk (London, 1919); id. Die Geburt der rolen Armee (Vienna, 1924); id. Lenin (London, 1925); A. T. Kerensky, The Prelude to Bolshevism (London, 1919); A. M. Ransome, Six Weeks in Russia in rgtg (London, 1919); id. The Crisis in Russia (London, 1921); M. P. Price, Afy Reminiscences of the Russian Revolution (London, 1921); S. Zagorsky, L’Evolution actuelle du bolshevisme russe (Paris, 1921); M. Gorky, Ecrits de Revolution (Paris, 1922); P. N. Milyukov, Russia To-day and To-morrow (London, 1922); id. Geschichte der zweiten russischen Revolution

(Vienna, 1922, etc.); L. Pozvolsky, Russia tn the Far East (London,

1922); C. Radek, Wege der russischen Revolution (Hamburg, 1922); G. A. Aleksinsky, Du tsarisme au communisme (Paris, 1923); M. Farbman, Bolshevism in Retreat (London, 1923); also After Lenin. The new phase in Russia (London, 1924); A. L. P. Dennis, The Foreign Policies of Soviet Russia (London, 1924); O. Bauer, Bolschewismus oder Sozialdemokratie? (Vienna, 1920); M. Eastman, Since Lenin Died (London, 1925); Dr. C. Kramaf, Die russische Krisis (Munich and Leipzig, 1925); J. Mavor, An Economic History of Russia, 2nd ed. (London and Toronto, 1925, etc.); A. J. Toynbee, A Survey of International Affairs, vol. 2, part 1 (London, 1926). Law. Dr. W. Hahn and A. v. Lilienfeld-Toal, Regelung des Handels und Verkehrs in Russland (Kiel University, 1921); L. Bach, Le Droit et les Institutions de la Russie soviétique (Paris, 1923); Dr. H. Freud, Russlands Friedens—und Handelsvertrdge (Breslau, 1924). Trade. La Dette publique de la Russie (Paris, 1922); League of Nations, Report on Economic Conditions in Russia with special reference to the famine of 1021-22 and the state of agriculture (Geneva, 1922); R. Claus, Die Kriegswirtschafi Russlands bis sur bolschewtstischen Revolution! (Bonn and Leipzig, 1922); K. Leites, Recent Economic Developments in Russia (Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, Oxford, 1922); L. B. Krassin, Die Aussichten fiir die russische Ausfuhr (Berlin, 1923); L. Trotsky, Die neue ökonomische Politik Sowjetrusslands und die Weltrevolution (Hamburg, 1923); L. Pozvolsky and H. G. Moulton, Russian Debts and Russian Reconstruction (Institute of Economics, New York, 1924); L. Sesal and A. A. Santalov, ed., Commercial Year-Book of the Soviet Union. See also International Labour Office, Co-operation in Soviet Russia (Studies and Reports, Series H. No. 3); id., Russia, Nos. 1-5 (Legislative Series, 1922); Industrial Life in Soviet Russia (Studies and Reports, Series B. No. 14, 1924); Trade Union Congress General Council, The Official Report of the British Trade Union Delegation to Russia in Nov. and Dec. 19024 (London, 1925). For British relations with Russia, see Cmd. 1602 of 1922; Cmd. 1846, 1869, 1874 and 1890 of 1923; and Cmd. 2215 of 1924.

IV. THE CONSTITUTION The Constitution of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, drawn up on July 26 1923, was confirmed on Jan. 31 1924. This

427

unites in a single body a number of ethnographically and administratively distinct States with essentially similar constitutions. The Congress of Soviets —The supreme legislative power rests with the Congress of Soviets, which, when not sitting, delegates that power to an executive committee, made up of the Union Council and the Council of Nationalities. The Union Council is elected by the Congress of Soviets. The Council of Nationalities is made up of five representatives from each of the united and autonomous republics and one each from the autonomous districts. The Executive Committee can veto decrees, etc., passed by its praesidium or by individual congresses of soviets of republics, or their executive committees within the territory of the Union. It is itself responsible only to the Congress of Soviets of the Union. This Congress meets not less than once a year, for which purpose it is elected. In each year there are three sessions of the Executive Committee of the Union. In the intervals between its sessions its authority is delegated to its praesidium of 27 members. The Council of Peoples’ Commissars is the executive organ of the central executive committee of the Union. It consists of the President of Council of Peoples’ Commissars, vice-presidents and ten peoples’ commissars. The Separate Republics —Each of the republics forming the Union is ruled by its own Congress of Soviets in matters that do not con-

cern the Union as a whole. The Congress of a Republic elects its Central Executive Committee and this in turn its Praesidium and its

Council of Peoples’ Commissars, to which it admits, for purposes of co-ordination plenipotentiaries of the Union Peoples’ Commissars for foreign affairs, military and naval affairs, foreign trade, ways of communication and posts and tclegraphs. The Franchise-—Every working citizen, male or female, who has reached the age of 18 has a right to take part in elections to the Soviets unless he or she makes profit out of the use of hired labour, out of religion or out of usury (persons living on interest from capital or dividends), is a member of the one-time ruling house in Russia, has served under the old régime in the

police, secret police,

or corps of gendarmes, or has been convicted of taking or offering bribes, banditry, espionage, etc. The most elementary form of Soviet is the village soviet, to which, roughly speaking, every 100 electors send one delegate. The village soviets in a rural district (volost) send one representative for every 300 inhabitants to a volost congress of soviets, which meets once a year and elects a volost executive committee, which is the chief authority for that district. A town soviet is made by the election of one member for every 1,000 persons. Town and village soviets unite in a district (ouyezd) congress of soviets, though not on equal terms. The town soviets send one delegate for every 200 electors, whereas the village electors are represented through the volost congresses of soviets, which send one delegate for every 1,000 of the population. The owyezd congresses elect executive committees, which are the supreme authority over the territory of the ouyezd. The Government Congresses of Soviets, subject only to the supreme organs of the republic, are elected by the town soviets and the ouyezd congresses, the town soviets sending one delegate for every 2,000 electors and the ouyezd congresses one delegate for every 10,000 of the population. These congresses elect executive committees, in whose hands is their authority until the succeeding congress. The Congress of Soviets of a Republic, like the Congress of Soviets of the Union, is elected by the town soviets and the Government congresses of soviets. The town soviets elect one delegate for every 25,000 electors, and the Government congresses one delegate for every 125,000 of the population. The effect of this constitution is to give increasing weight to the voice of the industrial population of the towns in the higher organs of authority while leaving very great freedom to the peasants to conduct things in their own way in the villages. The proportion of Communists in the village soviets is extremely small. In the town soviets it is large. It is larger in the Government congresses than in those of the ouyezds o) and larger again in the congresses of republics or of the nion. The Communist Party.—With the gradual disappearance and breakup of other parties and the certainty that a Communist majority in the Congress of Soviets of the Union and in the Central Executive Committee would invariably support the views put forward by the Communists, public interest in the Congress of Soviets grew less, and interest in the congresses of the Communist party increased. It was clear that what the Communists decided to-day the representative institutions would decree tomorrow. Communist congresses were still held behind closed doors, but their debates were reported at very great length. The mechanism of the Communist party began to be as important as that of the constitution, since, for practical purposes, it was the actual, though not the formal, Govt. of Russia. A congress of the Communist party is attended by delegates from the local branches. It is met by the Central Committee appointed by the previous congress, and hears reports which represent the views of the majority of the Central Committee. It takes these reports as the starting points of its debates. At the end of the debates it passes resolutions which represent compromises between differing views (if such obtain) made with the object of finding formulae that will be supported by votes as nearly unanimous as possible. These resolutions are considered as directives binding upon the Central Committee, which the congress then proceeds to elect, It elects a

RUSSIA

428

Central Committee (63 members with 43 deputies), a central control commission (163 members and a central revisional committee of seven members).

(These figures are those of the congress that met at the

end of 1925.) Thereafter is held a “ plenum ”’ of the Central Committee, together with members of the pracsidium of the Central Control commission and the members of the central revisional commission. This “ plenum ” elects the Political Bureau of nine members with five deputies, the Secretariat of the Central Committce of five members with two deputies, the general secretary of the Central Committee (Stalin, 1926) and an Organising Bureau of eleven members with five deputies. It further appoints the editors of the party newspapers and the representatives of the party newspapers and the representatives of the party in the executive committce of the Third International.

Great efforts are made to preserve unanimity in the Central Com-

mittee, and party discipline is extremely strict. A dissenting member of the committee is considered to have infringed discipline if he presses his views outside the committee without its permission. That permission is usually given before a congress, and it is understood that in the event of those views being rejected by the congress the dissenter will wholeheartedly support whatever other views are accepted. By accumulated prestige, fear of schism, control of publication and control of promotion in the party, the Central Committee is in a very strong position in the party in the matter of obtaining support, the Political Bureau is in a strong position in the committee, while the general secretary has an overwhelmingly strong position in both. | The result is a highly centralised instrument for making political decisions which are reflected in the congresses of Soviets and carried out by the Council of Peoples’ Commissars. But this instrument is also used in the reverse way, namely, to obtain a wide understanding and support for all the measures of the Government. Every phase in the Government’s activities is debated from top to bottom of the party. No important event or change of policy (foreign or internal) takes place without a series of conferences at which the line of the Central Committee (which controls the Government) is explained and discussed. The rank and file of the party are thus kept in close touch with what is going on over their heads, while through these conferences the feeling of the rank and file is reflected back to the committee, and when this fecling seems at all uncertain studied campaigns of explanation are undertaken. This process is carried further through the part played by the rank and file in non-party organisations (trade unions, soviets, ctc.) until behind the decisions of the Central Committee is ranged the whole strength of the party and that of a considerable proportion of the non-party workers. This sort of ‘‘ democratic centralism "’ is not something newly worked out, but is a fundamental principle of a party which long before the revolution believed at the same time in mass movement and in

highly centralised leadership.

(A. R.)

V. DEFENCE It is difficult at the present time to obtain entirely accurate statistics of the armed forces of the Union of Socialist Soviet Republics or to gauge their military value. The political isolation of Russia from the rest of Europe precludes many of the normal sources of information. The following outline may, therefore, be only approximately correct. Control and Administration.—The Central Executive Committee, which is virtually the supreme governing body of the Union, exercises its control over the armed forces through the People’s Commissariat for Military and Naval Affairs, at the head of which is a Commissar, corresponding to a defence minister. He has under him two assistants and a Revolutionary Military Council, from which depend the Inspector General, the staff (z.e., general staff) and the chiefs of political work and of supply. The Inspector General has under him inspectors for naval affairs and for the air force, cavalry, artillery, etc. ‘There is also a body termed the Commissariat for Labour and National Defence, charged with the duty of co-ordinating all activities in the sphere of national defence, and in that of national economics. In its essentials, therefore, the Soviet system is, in theory at least, very similar to that of other countries. Its peculiar features are the combination of the three Services, army, navy and air force, under a single head, and the prominence of the political department of the military council, which controls political instruction in the services, watches over the political orthodoxy of the forces and has no counterpart in the military system of other countries. The Political Department has its own troops. Terms of Service.—Compulsory service is in force, and a man’s military obligations practically begin at 16 years of age. Between the years of 16 to 18 he has to do preparatory physical training for a period of four wecks or 160 hours, and from 18 to 20a more advanced

course of “ pre-conscription training,” lasting 10 weeks. Service with the colours in the regular army is for two years in the infantry, artillery and cavalry, for three years in the air force and for 4} years in the navy. Men then pass into the reserve, where they remain up to the age of 40. Those who are not required for the regular army do four years’ service in the territorial army; three months in the first year and a total of five months in the remaining years. All men over 40 are still liable to service in a form of Landsturm, up to the age of 46. The principle theoretically followed is that only workers, peasants and Cossacks may bear arms in the defence of the Republic, the bourgeoisie to carry out non-combatant duties. Man-Power.—The population of the countries which now acknowledge Sovict rule is approximately 130 millions. The full strength of the annua! contingent, after allowing for medical rejections, comes to about 725,000,! of which it is estimated that some 400,000 are called up, the remainder being exempted for various reasons. There are, at the present time, probably over 10,000,000 men between the

ages of 18 and 31 who have received some form of military training and are available to fill the cadres in the event of a general mobilisation,

Organisation of the Armed Forces.—(a) The land forces consist of the regular army, the territorial army, and certain special troops. The first two of these categories correspond generally to the same categories of the British Army, but the special troops of the political department form an entirely exceptional body. Their rôle is that of

internal security, the quelling of civil disturbances, the service of frontier guards and coast guards, intelligence, police and escort

work. They are under the control of the Ogpu, and come under the control of the Military Department only for operations. They are in fact the pillar on which Communist rule rests, and they comprise the staunchest elements of the Communist party.2. They are organised in regiments, battalions, batterics, etc. on the same lines as se forces, and include a proportion of armoured cars and aircrait,

For administrative purposes, Russia is divided into eight military districts and two ‘‘armies,” viz.: the Moscow, Leningrad (St. Petersburg), Western, Volga, Ukraine, North Caucasus, Siberia and Kirghiz military districts, the Independent Caucasus Army and the ist Turkestan Army. These districts are again subdivided into areas corresponding to the territorial divisions and regiments recruited from them, the authorities in which are responsible for all mobilisation preparations and arrangements. The highest peace formation is the Corps, of which there are 22. They consist normally of three divisions and Corps troops. These latter include medium artillery, tanks and armoured cars, and a gas regiment. There are 12 cavalry divisions, nine independent cavalry brigades, and 66 infantry divisions (regular and territorial). A cavalry division consists of six regiments and includes 12 guns and nearly 200 machine guns, heavy and light. An infantry division comprises three regiments, each of three battalions, with 48 guns and some 450 automatic weapons. The three regiments of the division are each entirely complete and self-contained with their own mounted scouts, close support artillery, transport and so forth, so that they can operate independently. One result of this is the very large amount of transport in a division, over 3,000 vehicles and 9,000 animals. The total peace strength of the land forces is approximately as follows: Regular forces 400,000; territorial forces (including regular cadres) 470,000; special troops (including their reserves) 150,000. In addition, the Milizie (armed constabulary) number 200,000. (b) Air Force.—The Soviet authorities are making great efforts to create a powerful air force. The peace establishment of personnel is about 10,000. The total number of serviceable aeroplanes available is at present probably about 550, organised into between 40 and 50 air squadrons. Squadrons are allotted in peace to the various military districts. In war they would renabl form “ army ” and “ corps ” troops. t (c) Naval Forces.—The Russian Navy is divided into two main fleets, the Baltic Fleet and Black Sea Fleet, with strengths as follows:—

Baltic Fleet:— 2 battleships,

both’ dating

from IQII, 3 cruisers, 2 gunboats, 13 destroyers, 8 torpedo boats, g submarines, A number of auxiliary (minesweepers, etc.).

Black Sea Fleet:— 2 armoured cruisers, 3 gunboats, 3 destroyers, 5 submarines, and small craft (minesweepers, etc.).

craft

The Caspian and Oxus flotillas consist of a few small armed vessels. 1 The total annual class numbers about 950,000; owing to the huge distances, the lack of up-to-date instructors and other considerations the actual contingent is reduced to the figure indicated above. 2 The percentage of Communists in the ranks of the army is only about 8 per cent. In the Ogpu troops it is much higher; also in the higher command and in certain technical units, z.e., armoured forces.

RUSSIA Estimate of Efficiency of Soviet Forces —It is difficult to arrive at a just appreciation of the actual military value of the Red forces. The chief features of their organisation are the high proportion of cavalry, to which arm great value is attached; the equipment of the smaller formations, such as the regiment, for independent action; the large numbers of automatic weapons; and the preparation made for the use of gas as an offensive weapon. In this deadly branch of modern warfare, it is believed that great progress has been made. To sum up, the Russian Army on paper is very thoroughly organised and appears formidable. On the other hand, no amount of paper organisation will at once remove failings inherent in the national character or disabilities in the economic position of the country. The old

Imperial Russian Army suffered from a shortage of educated officers and non-commissioned ofhcers and of skilled technical personnel; in present-day Russia this defect must be far more pronounced. The lack of power to manufacture her requirements in munitions and the backward state of the communications of the country were fatal to Russia’s armies in the late War; it can hardly be said that the manufacturing strength of the country has increased under Soviet rule, while the transport system went from bad to worse, though transport was reorganised by Dzerjhinsky and much improved 1923-4. It seems unlikely that discipline and morale are as high as under the old régime. On the whole, therefore, it may be doubted whether the Red forces would be as formidable in the field as they are imposing on paper. But the Bolshevist authorities have brought to a high degree of efficiency a strategical weapon which is often of more value than armies, that of subversive propaganda. The founder of Soviet policy, Lenin, laid down that “ the soundest strategy in war is to postpone operations until the moral disintegration of the enemy renders the delivery of the mortal blow both possible and easy.” In other words, the army is intended only as a consolidating agency to occupy the ground already won by political propaganda. Russia’s Defence Problems —Russia’s chief economical and strategical need has always been a free outlet to the oceans of the world. Her northern shores are ice-bound for a great part of the year; and the Baltic on the west and the Black Sea on the south are closed waters of which other nations control the exits. Only in the far east, at an uneconomical distance from her main centres of population, 1s an unimpeded outlet to the high seas possible. On land, Russia’s unwieldy size and the poor development of her communications have been serious handicaps to offensive action on her part, but have, on the other hand, always in the end baffled enemies who have sought to invade her. The value of the mounted arm in this country of wide plains and great distances has always been expressed by the high proportion of cavalry in the Russian Army. The changes brought about by the War on the European frontier of Russia have considerably simplified her defence problem on that side, since she is now bordered by a series of small and comparatively weak States, of which Poland is probably the strongest. The Finnish frontier comes uncomfortably close to the former capital (now Leningrad) and to the naval fortress of Kronstadt, but aggression on the part of Finland is hardly a probable contingency. In the south, the possession by Rumania of the former Russian province of Bessarabia may at some date prove a subject of contention. But the western frontier cf Russia certainly lies under no such threat as it did in 1914 from Germany and Austria. On the Caucasus frontier Russia is

429

In conclusion, an important tendency of the present rulers of Russia may be noted, since it may have eventually no small strategical consequences. It is their policy of encouraging amongst the non-Russian races which form part of the Union the creation of national forces; they have even indicated an intention to place the whole of the armed forces on a territorial basis. This is a complete reversal of the Tsarist policy, which was to split up the non-Russians and incorporate them in small proportions in Russian units. The new system obviously has great advantages from the point of view of morale and efiiciency; on the other hand, it may make it easier in the future for territories with a non-Russian population to break away from the former Russian Empire. For the laws regulating military and naval service, sce Izvestia

Sept. 30 1922, March 23 1924, Aug. 8 1923, Sept. 23 1925. The Report on Military and Naval affairs submitted to the 3rd Assembly of the U.S.S.R. is printed in Zsvestia May 22 1925. See also Armamenis Year Book (League of Nations, Geneva 1926). (A. P. W.)

VI. ECONOMIC HISTORY Population. —The population of Russia on Jan. 1 1913, according to the official census figures, was 178,400,000.

Finland . Estonia .

3,368,000 1,750,000

Latvia Lithuania Poland

2,500,000 2,246,000 16,022,000

Kars Bessarabia Total

;

.

492,000 2,213,000

;

.

28,591,000

The population of the Union of Socialist Soviet Republics and its principal parts was, in 1924:— Russian S.F.S.R. i Ukraine SS.R. . ; White Russian S.S.R. Transcaucasian S.F.S.R. Furkoman S.S.R. i Uzbek S.S.R. Z ‘

; :

In the east, the activities displayed by the Soviet authorities in endeavouring to extend their influence over Persia, Afghanistan and the Chinese Empire may ultimately bring them into clash with Great Britain on the frontiers of India, or with Japan in Manchuria or China. The Bolshevists will, however, assuredly seek, for as long as possible, to gain their ends by propaganda and by fostering internal disorders rather than by an open resort to arms.

; i

96,700,000 27,700,000 4,200,000

es

; ‘

i

5,400,000 900,009 4,800,000

Total ae se o o ek . 139,700,000 The comparison of these data, which cannot, however, pretend to a great degree of accuracy, shows that in the ro years the population of the former Russian Empire has not increased. It is very probable that growth had already ceased during the War. It is certain that the population decreased in the period 1918-21 during the civil war and the famine of 1921-2. Increase only began again in 1922. On the eve of the War the rural population was 86-3°, of the whole, the town population 13-7%. According to statistics of 1923 83-6°% lived in the country districts, 16-4°4 in towns. No deductions, however, can be based on these figures as to changes in the distribution of the population between town and country, for during the revolution many villages were changed into towns. These figures notwithstanding, the town population has probably decreased of late years. This is in any case true of large towns. agriculture —The most important facts are stated in tabular form in which figures are given for the quinquennium before the War 1909-13; the year of the revolution, 1917; the vear 1021, when the Soviet Govt. gave up the policy of war communism in favour of the so-called ‘new economic policy ”; and for the subsequent years as far as 1924. All the figures in this and the following tables relate to the present territory of the Soviet Union:—

faced by a much weakened Turkey, with whom, moreover, she at present maintains close relations.

‘The popula-

tion of the separated territories according to calculations dating from the years 1915-9 were as follows:—

1

1909-13] 1917 Irg2t!1922/1923/1924: Area sown (in million desyatines) . : ! . . Total yield of all cereals (in milliard poods) in 8 Wheat . Rye. Barley Oats Maize. | Potatoes

83:1

| 79-4! 58-3) 49°3)60

3'9 I-I

34l rol

17| 3

I-I 5 $ ‘I ‘2

roO 6) 4o22 Do 3l "I >I "I| I:

22| o -O 2 4 I} “4

[77-2

2-8) S

2-8 6

I| g o I

EI a2 4 cf ‘9

i

430

RUSSIA

The reduction of the area sown went on systematically till 1922. In 1923 the turning point came and the sown area began to increase. In 1925 it was about the same as in pre-War times. As to the yield of cereals, the lowest figure is for 1921, when the country suffered from the failure of the harvest. 1924 was again a bad year, so, notwithstanding the increase in the area sown, the yield of cereals was the same as in the previous year. The yield of 1925 was almost as much as in pre-War times. The table shows a marked increase during the last five years in the cultivation of potatoes. In regard to crops not shown in the table it should be said that flax, hemp and sugarbeet rose quickly after 1922, but up to 1923 had not attained their pre-War levels. There has been an increase not only in the cultivation of potatoes, but also in that of suntlower for seed. Cattle-raising also fell off very much in the time of War and revolution. In 1924 the number of horses had not reached the pre-War level. The quantity of other animals had either reached their pre-War numbers or had exceeded them, but it must be admitted that these figures are not entirely trustworthy. (In thousand heads)

1913 Number of horses

31,307

.

1917 | 1921 18,933| 15,600] 20,035/23,854

Large horned cattle 50,284] 25,648 36,817) 33, oa! 38,567|51,420 Smaller horned cattle| $3,045] 44,442 49,721| 40,022) 56,744|78,847

19,2741 1 2,696 12,491|

Pigs .

7,637] 9,105117,672

Mining —The effects of the War and revolution were even more severe in the mining industry. Its restorations began soon after the introduction of the New Economic Policy, but the results obtained did not in any branch equal pre-War production. The information given before for the period beginning in 1g2r refers not to calendar years but to a beginning on Oct. 1 and ending on Sept. 30.

Yield in Million Poods 1909-13] Oil Coal Iron Ore

1917-8 | 1921-2 | 1922-3 | 1923-4 | 1924-5

547°6 | 422:'6 | 276-1 | 315-4 | 362-9 | 424-2 I,771:8!|1,036:9 588-7 | 659:8 | 938 429:4 10-9 26-1

t For 1913.

Industry also was very much reduced in 1920-1, and before the introduction of the New Economic Policy this, together with the decrease in the productivity of agriculture, was one of the chief causes of the renunciation of the economic methods of war communism. According to the calculations of authoritative economists the production of industry in 1921 only reached 20% of its pre-War level, taking the total of the chief branches. It may not be out of place to call to mind that at this time no markets existed in Soviet Russia, and the small quantity of goods produced by the factories and workshops was divided among consumers according to “‘ cards’ and ‘“‘ orders” under a plan worked out by the organs of the Central Government. The numbers of workers in industry in the years tg1o-25 do not give a fair picture of the actual extent of production and the increase which has taken place since 1921. This is due first to the fall in the productivity of labour which accompanied the general disorganisation of all economic life, and secondly to the fact that many persons included in the numbers of industrial workers were unemployed in the most difficult years. Number of Workers in Industry 1913 Ig2I-2

1922-3.

: .

‘

.

. 1,889,000 829,000

. 1,120,000

1923-4. 1924-5

ee 1,493,000

1925 (end of the year)I, 828,000

Production (in million poods')

1909-137! 1921-2 | 1922-3 | 1923-4 | 1924-5 Cast Iron

233:6 | 10-6

18-3

4orl

Iron and Stecl

204:6

36-0

60°1

19:3

70-6

1 A pood is 36 Ib. or roughly g% of a ton. 2 The data refer to the territory of the former Rusan Empire, i.e., they include the production of Poland, about 10$% of the whole.

In order to complete the comparison of the present state of production (1923-4-5) with its condition just before the War, it will be useful to quote some calculations of the State General Organising Commission of the autumn of 1925. One of the chief tasks of the Commission was the comparison of present with pre-War data. We will here confine ourselves to percentages. Pre-War production is taken as that of rọr3. The data for 1924-5 are still provisional only. Relation to pre-War Production

Chief cereals Potatocs Flax Cotton

Coal

.

;

à

;

>

Oil

Cotton spinning and weaving . Sugar . . ; :

Foreign Trade——The foreign trade of the Soviet Union almost disappeared during the civil war and so far is still much below the pre-War level. The statistics quoted below are given as the actual prices for the years before r914 and for the subsequent years at 1913 prices in millions of gold roubles. (In millions of gold roubles)

1909- 3 IQI4 I9t5 . I9i6 . I9I7 . 1920 . I92I . 1922 1922- 3

1923-4 1924-5

Imports

Exports

Turnover

1,139'7 1,098-0 1,138-6 I,716°5 1,965°8 29:0 210-0 269-8 147°9

I,501:0 956-1 401°8 476°4 464-0 1-5 20:2 81-6 133°3

2,640-7 2,054°1 1,5404 2,192°9 2,429°8 30:5 230°2 351-4 284-2

200:8 356I

332:9

439:7 676:3

320:2

The import and export of commodities under the chief groups are distributed during the last two years as follows:— (In million roubles at 1013 prices)

1923-4

1924-5

Import | Export | Import | Export Foodstuffs : . Raw material and halffinished products Various. ; i

Total

17°5

195-2

86

126:3 63

136-4 1:3

156°7 113-4

104:2 i 213° 3:0

206-8

3329

356-1

320:2

The large amount of imported foodstuffs in 1924-5 is explained by the bad harvest of that year and the consequent necessity of importing wheat flour to feed the large industrial centres. The Currency of the Soviet Union is made up of several parts. (1) Bank-notes issued by the State Bank in a monetary unit called the chervonets. (2) Treasury notes issued by the Peoples’ Commissariat of Finance in a monetary unit called a rouble. (3) Silver and copper money. One chervonets is the equivalent of ro roubles. Bank-notes are issued in denominations of from one to 25 chervonets; treasury notes in denominations of one rouble, three roubles and five roubles; silver money from tro kopeks to one rouble; copper money from one kopek to five kopeks (one rouble = 100 kopeks}. Bank-notes must have a minimum cover of bullion and foreign exchange as to 25°, the remainder must be covered by short dated bills and easily realisable commodities. The law has not laid down any obligatory cover for treasury notes. Except, however, for 48,000,000 roubles issued for the redemption of the former paper money in 1924 and for replenishing the state treasury prior to July 1924 all the remaining treasury notes

431

RUSSIA have been issued through the State bank; e.g., they bear a direct relation to the value of business transactions. On Jan. 1 1926 the issue of bank-notes amounted to 781,363,600 roubles (the cover consisting of 216,131 roubles’ worth of gold and platinum and 48,874,700 roubles’ worth of foreign currency, dollars and sterling); 387,737,300 roubles had been issued in the form of treasury notes, 11,419,481,800 roubles in silver coins and 7,623,700 roubles in copper. The Budget.—The state budget for 1924-5 was passed at 2,558,525,934 roubles. The revenue is made up as follows:— A.

Ordinary Receipts:— 1. Direct taxes 2. Indirect taxes .

po ‘

ni ;

3. Taxes on transactions 4. Fost and telegraph. 5. Transport.

; ;

; ;

3

6. State property and undertakings 7. Other receipts . ;

Total ordinary B. Extraordinary Receipts:— I. Realisation of state funds

Total extraordinary

.

23,000,000 14 1,000,000 80,000,000 244,000,000

2,478,511,406

Grand total

ments were undertaken on a concession basis by Krupps in the

Kuban and by other companies. On both the state and the co-operative farms overhead charges for the supervising personnel tended to be high, and the hired labour expensive, with

442,729,000 525,500,000 100,655,000 88,400,000 855,000,000 188,948,000 33,279,406

2,234,511,406

2. Credit operations 3. Reccipt from currency issues.

farm. The farms leased to the co-operative societies, which by a decree of Sept. 7 1921 were allowedj to resume their productive activities without restriction, were run on a similar basis. Further, by an agreement with the Nansen Action in Moscow in 1923, two large estates in the Saratov and Ekaterinoslav Govts. (about 50,000 ac.) were taken over for a period of years by that organisation with the object of demonstrating modem production methods and of assisting the neighbouring peasants by tractor ploughing and harvesting. Similar large scale develop-

The budget for 1925-6 is not yet passed in its final form. It probably approaches four milliards. Nominally it will exceed the last pre-War budget (1913), which showed as receipts 3,45 2,577,000 roubles and expenditure 3,382,912 thousand roubles. In reality, however, it is less than the pre-War budget by about one-quarter, if we take into consideration on the one hand the loss of territory and population, on the other the different purchasing power of the rouble in r913 and 1925. The Russian National Debt (beginning with the loans concluded in 4922) amounted on Jan. 1 1926 to 437,200,000 roubles.

the result that some enterprises had to be abandoned. The three-shift system of labour which had to be adopted in order to meet the requirement of an eight-hour day entailed heavy expenses. The importance of the maintenance of model and experimental farms in a great agricultural country need not be stressed. The chief mistake in the Soviet farms system seems to have been the policy of excessive centralisation. Other forms of collective farming exist. The law permitted the leasing of land to associations of peasants acting as an arfel for the purpose of farming, or to rural communes as such, in which case a general scheme of tillage and of rotation was prescribed. Important as these experiments are from the point of view of the development of better methods of cultivation, the improvement of stock and the introduction of riodern machinery and methods, they only cover a very small part of the field. The total area occupied by collective farms of various kinds is still only about 5% of the total farmed area. Position as Regards 19,800,000 Farms out of 22,700,000—1I00,200,000 Inhabitants out of 714,200,000—and 41,700,000 Workers out of 45,900,000: 1924-5

BIBLIOGRAPHY.—L. Segal and A. A. Santalov, Commercial YearBook of the Soviet Union (London, 1925); Vess S.S.S.R. 1925-6

(Supreme Economic Council, Moscow, 1926);E. Z. Volkov, A grarnoeconomiucheskaya Statistika Rossii (Moscow, 1925); Narodnoye

Khogztiaistvo

Sovietskoy

Rossii

(Economicheskaya

1925); Promtshlenaya Rossia (Economicheskaya 1925); Obzor Vueshney Torgovly Rossii, 1884-1925

.

Soviet Union Monthly: Vneshnyaya Torgovly (weekly); Economicheskoye Obozrentye (monthly); The Economic Bulletin of the Institut de Conjoncture (monthly, in Russian). (L. N. Y.) AGRARIAN

POLICY

One of the first decrees of the Soviet Govt. was the decree on lands (Nov. 8 1917) under which private ownership in land was abolished without compensation and private, crown and church estates passed into the hands of the commune and district councils for distribution to the peasants. The decree registered (see Potitrcat History above) a process which was already in the course of being accomplished. The fundamental law on land socialisation was promulgated on Feb. 19 1918. The abolition of private ownership was strongly confirmed; possession was only granted to those who cultivated by their own labour. No private transaction in land was permissible. Distribution was to be on the basis of the work-power of the family; taking a man as a unit, the work power of women, youths, girls and boys were assessed at -80, :75, -60 and -50 respectively. Collective Farming.—In addition to the distribution to families the law contemplated the grant of land to associations of agricultural labourers, and a scheme was drawn up for the settlement of farming communities. Under the regulations for the Socialist Agrarian Organisation of the Land laid down on Feb. 14 1919 provision was made for the taking over of large model estates, the best conducted estates of the former Jandowners, which it was obviously bad policy to divide, into Soviet farms, the management of which lay with provincial committees and in some cases directly with the Commissariat for Agriculture in Moscow. The managers were appointed from Moscow, and the interests of the workers were entrusted to a workers’ committee on each

"Group II. of size 4-1-8 dess.

Group ITI. of size 8-15 dess.

Per-

Per-

Per-

Millions

Zhizn, Moscow,

Z hizn, Moscow, (Moscow, 1925);

Group I. of size o-4 dess.

cs

us

No. of farms. | 6:2 No. of workers | 11 ‘9 Area sown. Draught animals

6:9

centage

Millions

fF

31:3 28-5

cent-

age eee

9°8

pare |)e

49°5

19:9 47°7 11-7 | 27-4 | 46:3

Millions

cent-

age | ee

Group IV. of more

than 15 dess.

Millions

Fercent-

age

i—i

15:2 17:3

0-8

2-7

29/191 | 70| 45:0 23:7 | 1:7 International Labour Office, Industrial and Labour A vol. xiv., No. 13.

Although the 1917-8 distribution increased the total area of the peasants’ holdings in Russia from 70 to 96% of agricultural land, and in Ukraine from 55-5% to 96%, the average increase for each holding was very amall. Moreover, it varied from province to province and from district to district with the type of farming, the nature of the soil, and according to the former existence there or not of great estates. In addition, the famine sent into the country many new claimants for land. Redistribution involved the redivision of the existing peasant lands. A final and equitable settlement could hardly be reached in the period of revolution and civil war. The New Economic Policy—During the period of war communism, levies of food in kind had increased the general dislocation of production. Under the N.E.P., a decree was issued

by the Soviet Govt. on March

2r 1921 introducing a tax in

kind, graded according to the extent of the sown area and the livestock in each holding, the assessment to be made with the assistance of local peasant committees. The total food tax in Great Russia (the R.S.F.S.R.)was fixed at 240,000,000 poods of grain. A year later (May 22 1922) a new Agrarian Code laid. down exact regulations on the terms on which land may be held, the forms of land tenure and the machinery for distribution, the conditions of labour and the legal rights of the peasant household, the movement of rural populations and the regulation of disputes (sce the Agrarian Code of the R.S.F.S.R. Moscow,

RUSSIA

432

1923, in Russian); see also the Report on Economie Conditions in Russia (1922) of the League of Nations. The Agrarian Code introduced two fundamental changes.

It permitted the letting of land on a cultivating lease to a tenant who can cultivate the holding by the labour of himself and his family for a maximum period of six years. A peasant may let his whole farm under certain emergency conditions. Part III. of the Agrarian Code also sanctioned the employment of “ auxiliary ’ labour on farms. This, however, was subject to numerous restrictions. Further, the Agrarian Code contained no details as to the rent conditions of the employment of paid workers, and could be interpreted in a very arbitrary manner. A Decree of the Council of People’s Commissaires of the Soviet Union dated April 18 1925 and entitled Provisional Rules for the Employment of Auxiliary Labour in Agriculture completes the Agrarian Code and determines its interpretation.

decree in certain circumstances,

by agreement

Under the

between

the

parties, hours of work per day may exceed eight, the wages paid may not be less than the official minimum wage, wages may only be paid in kind if the wage earner consents to it, the employer

is to find suitable accommodation for the worker; if the employer has at least three wage-earners, he must insure them with an insurance fund which will cover all his risks. The most striking feature in this decree is that the Government has now almost without reserve authorised the employment of paid work in agriculture, and is endeavouring to fix certain rules for this employment. These two points institute a radical change in Soviet policy. | The Code provisions for land settlement proceeded on traditional lines with the object of improving the position of the

communities. In the years that followed the settlement of small villages and of individual settlements went on side by side. Where the land is rich and the water supply good, as in the Ukraine and White Russia, individual homesteads have been increased although tenure by the community is still the rule; in the Volga districts village settlement is the rule; the tendency to collective cultivation is stronger in the central industrial districts than elsewhere, though here agriculture is usually a parttime employment. In some districts, where the holdings were remote from the village, new villages have been established in a better position. To facilitate land. reorganisation the Russian and the Ukraine Agricultural Banks issue loans to individual peasants and collective farms. | The Single Tax—The Agrarian Code was followed by the regulations for the collection of the food tax. With the option to pay in money the amount of the tax collected in kind decreased, and in 1924 moncy payment entirely superseded collection in kind. For a full list of the various publications on Russian agriculture and Russian land settlement, see M. Tcherkinsky, “ Agrarian Policy in Soviet Russia,” in International Review of Agri(J. H. Go.) cultural Economics (Rome, Oct.—Dec. 1924).

VII.

RUSSIA’S

FOREIGN

DEBTS

Foreign Debt Before the War.—An estimate made by the Bankers’ Trust Company of New York?! places the national debt of Russia on Jan. 1 1914, for which the State was directly or indirectly (by

State guarantee) responsible, at $6,568,000,000, of which probably from 44 to 50% was in foreign holdings. Of the total interest, about $199,000,000, paid annually on the external part of this debt—62~ 79% was remitted to France, 7-75 % to Great Britain, 11-63 % to Holland and the remainder to other countries. Thus France was by far the most considerable creditor. Of the gross total $4,541,000,000 was direct debt, 63°% of which had been incurred for the general needs of the State, especially for military expenditure, and the remainder for railroad construction. The latter charge may be taken as partly a defence measure, since the railways were largely strategic. The guaranteed debt amounts to $2,026,506,000; the State, having uaranteed issues made by the railroads themselves amounting to 965,816,000, undertook in 1913 a further liability as guarantor for '$423,912,000 bonds for the Nobles Land Bank and for $636,838,000 bonds of the Peasants Land Bank. Since the national wealth of Russia before the War was estimated at 58,400 million dollars—approximately equal! to that of France—— a

SS

1H. E. Fisk, The Inter-Ally Debts (1924).

SS

SSS

the direct debt of the State, 4,541 million dollars, was not excessive when compared with that of France, but the large percentage held abroad made Russia’s debt potentially a much heavier burden. Up to 1917 payments were punctually made. War Debts —During the War large commitments were incurred to the principal Allies, especially to Great Britain, France and the United States, as follows: Great Britain, $2,766,000,000; France, $762,000,000; United States, $279,000,000; making, with advances from Italy and Japan, a total of $3,969,000,000. This external war debt was principally incurred for financing the purchase of war materials in Allied countries, though there was not necessarily a direct correspondence between the obligations incurred in any one country and the purchases made there. Great Britain, in fact, acted as an intermediary in the balance of accounts. The details of the credits advanced to Russia were discussed at successive Allied Conferences, notably at Paris (Feb. 1915), London and Boulogne (Sept. 1915) and London (July 1916), under which Russia obtained the credits indicated. In connection with the arrangements made by the Russian Finance Minister, M. Bark, with Great Britain ? certain shipments of gold were made to Great Britain, amounting in all to $292,000,000 in addition to a purchase of gold of $39,000,000 made by the British Government against credit in Oct. 1914. The last gold shipment was made in Feb. 1917 on the eve of the revolution. These shipments, except for the first delivered in Liverpool, were made from Vladivostok to Japan and Canada on account of the submarine danger. In the United States Russia opened certain credits in New York through a syndicate of banks during the early part of the War. After the entry of the United States into the War, the American Govt. opened a credit of $325,000,000 on Russian behalf. By Nov. rather more than half of this credit had been exhausted, and the issue of credits ceased with the Bolshevik revolution in that month. Commercial Investments in Russta.—Russia entered the world market principally as a grain exporter, and it is by her grain exports that Russia has continued to finance her need for extensive credits abroad. These needs have been, and are, conditioned mainly by the huge area and the need of communications in sparsely populated and undeveloped districts, and by the impossibility of developing the immense mineral wealth of the country with Russian capital. Railway and municipal investment has already been mentioned. The following estimate of the distribution of foreign pre-War investments in Russian commercial enterprises was made by the Soviet Govt. in 1922. The largest amount was invested in mining and cognate

industries: then, in order of importance, real estate, banking and the

textile industries.

Geographical Distribution of Foreign Pre-War Investments in Russian Commercial Enterprises

(In “ currency ” dollars-—o00,000 omitted). Amount France Great Britain . Germany . Belgium United States Holland Switzerland : Sweden Denmark . Austria Italy Norway Finland

í

.

A i :

y : a

.

i

:

:

;

S

n

Total Soviet Estimate

ae

a

š . :

2

a

;

o

g

:

.

.

.

:

2 ,

;

; :

eG

$377 261 22 165 61 IQ? I7 12 8 4 I I I

32-6 22-6 19:7 I4'3 5°2 1-6 I5 I-L o7 O-4 O-l O'I Ol

$1,154

100-0

2“ A consideration received by Russia (under the 1915 agreement) was an arrangement by which the British Govt. agreed to open in favour of Russia a non-negotiable credit for $973,000,000, which appeared on the balance sheet of the Bank of the State as ‘ gold abroad’ and afforded a basis for the issuance of bank notes in Russia. This plan was made effective in the following manner— Creat Britain made an exchange of obligations with the Russian Govt., the Russian Govt. depositing with the British Treasury noninterest bearing Russian Treasury bonds, while the British Govt. This arrangement was gave in exchange intangible credits. to expire not later than one year after the conclusion of peace, when these obligations of equal value of both parties were ta be redeemed. Thanks to this arrangement, which was pure camouflage, in banking parlance ‘ kiting,’ the decrease in the gold stock resulting from the exportation of the gold was not perceived by the public at large. Indeed, the decrease of specie under the heading of ‘gold coin, ingots and vouchers of mines’ was more than compensated by the increase in the quantity of specie under the heading of ° gold abroad. This was one of the financial secrets of the War, which only came to light after the fall of the Tsarist Govt.” —The Inter-Ally Debis, pp. 137-8.

RUSSIA, CAMPAIGN IN

newed. Steps were, however, taken by the Russian Govt. to initiate conversations in Paris. There seems to be no reason to suppose that, given an improvement in Russian trade, Russia would not be economically able to renew

Classification by Industries of Pre-War Investments in Russian Commercial [inter prises (In *‘ currency " dollars—ooo,o00 omitted)

payments

Amount

Mining. Metallurgy

.

Real Estate Banks : Textile Industries.

n : Chemical Industries . : Commercial Industries . Manufacturing of Foodstuffs Printing : . 2 . Shipping . ’ : . Lumber Industry ; Mineral Exploitations . Animal Products : Insurance

: : . ; . : . t ; ;

: : i

. ; s À ;

$429

ar

202

17:5

43 42

3:7 3°7

134 122 99

19 16 I4 13 9 F

433

11-5 10:6 8-6

L7 1-4 1:2 I-I 0-8 0-6 7

French capital was dominant in the metallurgical, locomotive and shipbuilding industries; English capital was principally invested in the petroleum, copper, thread and tobacco industries; Belgian interests were extremely various; and American investments were mainly through insurance companies. Though Germany came third on the list of investors, her financial! and industrial influence was by far the most important because of the direct participation of German banking interests in Russian industry, and of the number of Germans engaged in the management of finance. German permeation succeeded because of direct and personal contact. Repudiation.—On Feb. 8 1918 the Soviet Govt. issued a decree repudiating the State internal loans, the guarantees given to various concerns and foreign loans. Certain modifications were cleclared with regard to internal indebtedness, but the repudiation of the foreign obligations of the State was absolute. It may be pointed out here that in any apportionment of Russian debt under post-War conditions, a certain proportion, especially of the guaranteed debt for railway construction and municipal enterprise, harbours, etc. would fall on Poland, the Succession States on the Baltic and Rumania. Debt Negotiatiens.—Although the Soviet Govt. repudiated the debt of their predecessors, they came to realise that foreign capital was essential if the devastation of war, revolution, famine and civil war was to be repaired. In 1919 a tentative suggestion of the general settlement which the Soviet Govt. were prepared to accept was telegraphed from Helsingfors to the American Delegation in Paris. It included, subject to the acceptance of the existing position in Russia, the raising of the blockade, a general amnesty and the restoration of diplomatic relations, an offer to recognise the responsibility of the financial obligations of the former Russian Empire to foreign States parties to the Agreement. The offer was subject to a time limit (April 10), and lapsed. In the Anglo-Russian trade agreement of March 16 1921 the Soviet Govt. recognised its obligation to compoe private citizens to whom payment for goods and services is due. In the proposals for a European economic conference which preceded the Genoa conference (See GENOA, CONFERENCE OF), the fundamental conditions of success laid down by the principal Allied Powers included the statement that governments desiring foreign credit must “recognise all public debts and obligations which have been or may be undertaken or guaranteed by the State, by municipalities, or by other public bodies, as well as the obligation to restore or compensate for loss or damage caused to them when property has been confiscated or withheld.” The Genoa conference failed. In the Rapallo Treaty signed with Germany there was a mutual shelving of public claims, subject to the reservation that in the event of a debt settlement with other countries Germany might claim equivalent advantages. At Genoa and at the subsequent conference at The Hague a formula might probably have been reached on the pre-War Tsarist debt, given de jure recognition by the Powers concerned of the Soviet Govt., as the writing down of war debts was a foregone conclusion; the failure came nominally on the question of compensation to former owners of nationalised property. In the draft treaty between Great Britain and Russia signed on Aug. 8 1924, but never ratified, the Soviet Govt. recognised the claims of British holders of Russian State and guaranteed loans “other than holdings acquired by purchase since March 16 1921 and were in other than British ownership at that date.” The actual settlement was to be by negotiation between the parties concerned, but the British Govt. had to be assured that the terms were accepted by the holders of at least one-half of the capital value of the loans. The whole of the war debts and claims were reserved for future discussion, including the gold transferred to London, and the gold handed to Germany after Brest-Litovsk. The financial settlement was subject to the floating of a Russian loan on the London market. After the failure to secure ratification conversations were not re-

of interest

on

her

pre-War

loans,

subject

to certain

necessary adjustments. The question of war debts, as other intero PERE have shown, is another matter (see INTER-ALLIED

ERT),

See British Public Accounts (annual); H. Moulton and L. Po7volsky, Russian Debts and Reconstruction (1924); H. E. Fisk, The Inter-Ally Debis (Bankers’ Trust Company,

New ee

3

RUSSIA, CAMPAIGN IN.—The campaign in north Russia continued long after the signing of the Armistice in 1918. It must not be regarded as an isolated incident of the World War, but as a definite part of the Allies’ plan for the defeat of the Central Powers, and although the direction of the operations was entrusted to the British authorities the campaign was international. Contingents were sent from Great Britain, the United States, France, Italy and Serbia, whilst detachments were also formed from Polish, Finn, Czech, Russian and Chinese refugees. Position after the Russian Revolutton—The revolution in Russia had brought about the collapse of the Eastern Front, and the separate peace concluded between Germany and the Soviet Govt. in 1917 had enabled the Germans to transfer large forces from east to west, thereby rendering the position of the Allies in France most difficult. The future attitude of the Soviet Govt. towards the remaining combatants being uncertain, it was felt by the Allies that the building up of even a portion of the old Russian front might prevent further transfers of German troops to the west. An Allied contingent in north Russia might certainly hope to obtain assistance from all Russian elements dissatisfied with the Soviet rule and the great stores of war material accumulated at Murmansk and Archangel would be saved from falling eventually into the hands of the Germans. Allied Expeditionary Force-——The original force consisted of trgo British marines who landed at Murmansk in April 1018. They were followed by 370 more at the end of May, with a further reinforcement of infantry and machine-gunners to the number of 600 on June 23. The strength of the forces gradually grew until the maximum strengths reached by the main contingents were as follows: White Russians, 20,000; British, 18,400; United States, 5,100; French, 1,800; Italian, 1,200; Serbian, 1,000. Maj.-Gen. F. C. Poole, the commander-in-chief of the Allied forces in north Russia, arrived at Murmansk on May 24 1918 and found that the Allies were holding the Kola Peninsula with detachments at Kandalaksha. He pushed southwards down the Petrograd railway, and by the end of June had secured Kem and Soroka, the point where the road to Archangel via Onega branches eastwards. The ice-free port of Murmansk was thus fully protected against any possible raid by the German forces in Finland and the stores on the quays rendered secure. There could now be no chance of German submarines being sent up by rail for employment against the Allied shipping ffom a new and dangerously situated base.

Poole then turned his attention to Archangel.

Leaving the

Murmansk area in charge of Maj.-Gen. C. M. Maynard, he occupied the port on Aug. 3 with a force of 1,500 men under Brig. Gen. R. G. Finlayson, supported by British and French warships

and a force of Serbs and Russians under Col. Thornhill moving overland via Soroka and Onega.

The Bolshevik Govt. in Arch-

angel was overthrown by the local inhabitants and replaced by a Provisional Govt. under M. Tchaikovsky. Columns were at once pushed out to the south to secure adequate protection. Onega, Obozerskaya on the Vologda railway, Bereznik, at the junction of the rivers Dvina and Vaga, and Pinega were occupied in turn. The safety of the port and the town with its many refugees was thus assured. Although the Bolsheviks had evacuated the town of Arch-

angel hurriedly, they offered an obstinate resistance to Finlayson’s troops fighting for elbow-room. Conditions of great heat, myriads of mosquitoes and bottomless bogs in the deep forests followed one another as summer turned to autumn, and by the end of Oct. tropical rains had rendered all movement except

434

RUSSIA, CAMPAIGN

by water impossible. Operations had perforce to stop until the coming of the snow. Transport vehicles and river vessels had to be collected in great haste and manned by available volunteers. The difficulties of language were often acute, for in addition to the several tongues of the Allies there was the main language, Russian, to be considered and none of the contingents were anything but poorly equipped with Russian interpreters. Early in Oct. 1918 Gen. Poole proceeded to England, and in Nov. Maj.-Gen. W. E. Ironside, who had been chief general staff officer in north Russia, was appointed to succeed him. The commands of Archangel and Murmansk were then made independent of one another. The question of the maintenance of the Allied forces in north Russia had been early considered by the authorities. Murmansk, being an ice-free port, could be used all the year round, and the troops based upon it could be withdrawn at any time. But with Archangel the case was different. The port becomes frozen up from early Nov. till late April of each winter, access being at all times difficult and often impossible even with the help of modern ice-breakers. The War in France had not yet come to an end in Oct. 1918, nor could it be said with certainty that it would cease before the spring of ro1g. It was of the utmost importance to prevent the resources of Russia becoming available to the Germans, should they be able to continue fighting throughout rọrọ. The decision was therefore made to remain at Archangel during the winter. The expedition to north Russia in the summer and autumn of 1918 undoubtedly did much to complicate the plans of the Germans, who feared an overthrow of the Soviet Govt. and a general reconstruction of the Eastern Front. There is definite evidence that the German military authorities were unable to continue the transference of troops from east to west in the final stages of the War, despite the urgent demands of Hindenburg and Ludendorff. The original object of the expedition was therefore fully achieved. Peculiar Difficulties of the Campaign.—The winter campaign in north Russia may well be termed unique in the history of war. Never before had troops been called upon to fight under such severe climatic conditions. The Armistice in Europe also, com-

ing as it did just at the closing of the White Sea with ice, could not be acclaimed joyfully as it was on other fronts. For the north Russian force a new campaign was beginning, and all knew that relief could not come for at least six months. The feeling that demobilisation was being carried out on all other fronts had a demoralising effect upon all ranks of the force. Further-

more, the object of the campaign was obviously no longer the same. Germany as an enemy had disappeared from the scene, and the Allied troops were never again quite clear as to the reasons for the continuance of the fighting. In their efforts to reconstruct the Eastern Front, the Allies had espoused the cause of the White Russians and had called upon the Czech ex-prisoner of war units in Siberia to march westwards to join them. In this action they had come into conflict with the Soviet Govt. and they could not now abandon the White Russians who had joined them in the campaign. It was thus that the Bolsheviks became the new adversaries of the Allies. For the British authorities the campaign was a serious respon-

IN

positions with their long-range guns with impunity. Many casualties were caused and much damage was done to the carefully prepared winter quarters of the troops. The situation was at one time critical, British and Americans, supported by Canadian artillery, fighting desperately to maintain their positions. At Archangel during the winter the attitude of the Allies was purely defensive, covering the mobilisation and training of the new troops of the North Russian Provisional Government. In the Murmansk area their task was to maintain a perpetual threat towards Petrograd and to divert as much of the Bolshevik forces as possible from Archangel. Fighting continued throughout the winter in both areas at irregular intervals, the enemy becoming steadily more efficient and exerting greater and greater pressure on the Allied columns. The intense cold and the continual darkness tried even the stoutest heart. Exposure after a wound meant certain death, and to touch metal with the bare flesh was to brand oneself as with a red-hot iron. The curious noises in the forest in intense cold made sentry duty most trying. Machine guns could only be used in warmed blockhouses, the field of fire of which might be destroyed in a night by a heavy fall of snow. Flying conditions were intolerable, even with electrically heated clothing. Aerodromes were only made possible for starting and landing by marching whole battalions over the snow. Only the strictest discipline could save the troops fram heavy casualties through frostbite and sickness. The war-worn Allied troops may well be proud of their efforts during this critical winter. All the main Archangel positions were maintained intact against the repeated attacks of a superior enemy. In Muay rg19, when the frost broke, the forces of the Provisional Gevernment had been raised in numbers to 20,000 men of all arms, properly clothed, equipped and crganised. In the Murmansk area, Gen. Maynard’s troops had succeeded in seizing the northern end of Lake Onega, thus making their threat against Petrograd an effective one, and containing a considerable force of active Bolshevik forces. Arrival of Relieving Force —The general thaw commenced in the first week of May, and by the rath the river was free of ice. Two relief brigades under Brig.-Gens. Grogan and Sadleir-Jackson arrived at Archangel on May 26 and June to respectively, having had to force their way through the pack-ice of the White Sea. Evacuation of all troops which had spent the winter in north Russia commenced at once. Evacuation of North Russia——The evacuation of all Allied personnel from north Russia before the arrival of winter in 1919 having been ordered, preparations for this were at once begun. The old contingents were embarked in turn, the British being

the last to leave. Then followed those elements of the population which had elected to leave the country. In all, some 17,000 persons were transported from north Russia in British ships at a time when shipping had been much reduced through the German submarine campaign. By the end of July nothing remained but the fighting troops of the relief force and a few necessary administrative services.

It had been hoped to make a junction with Adm. Kolchak’s troops advancing from Siberia, but the defeat of the Siberians made this impossible. Nothing remained but to disengage the British troops from their advanced positions with a view to leavsibility. Food, clothing and munitions had to be unifed as far ing the local Russian troops in the best defensive positions posas possible for the simplifying of supply. Each contingent required sible. A gradual substitution of Russian for British troops and special items in its ration—rum for the British, wine for the administration was therefore commenced, the process being acFrench, coffee for the United States troops, onions for the Ital- companied by several outbreaks of mutiny amongst the new ians and a double ration of bread for the Russians. The town of troops. The fronts of the various columns were cleared by vigArchangel contained at least three times its normal population orous action on the part of Brig.-Gens. Graham and Sadleir-Jackowing to the influx of refugees, andit was impossible to let the son, ably supported by the naval flotilla under Capt. Altham. population starve. Large supplies had to be imported for this - By Aug. to the Russian commanders were handed over a satispurpose. factory situation, and the withdrawal of the British troops to the Winter of r918-9.—The transition stage from summer to win- inner defences of Archangel commenced. ter proved a difficult period for the Allies. The freezing of the Gen. Lord Rawlinson arrived at Archangel on Aug. 12 and approved of the plans already arranged. Withdrawal continued Dvina came unusually late in Nov. 198 and the Allied gunboats were withdrawn too soon for wintering in Archangel. The Bol- without a hitch, and on Sept. 27 the last 5,000 men were embarked simultaneously from 13 different points and the evacuashevik gunboats were thus enabled to descend the river from their tion of Archangel was complete. The long withdrawal in the more Closely situated winter quarters and bombarded the Allied

RUSSIA IN ASIA—RUSSIAN Murmansk area was then completed under the direction of Brig.Gen. H. C. Jackson, who had replaced Gen. Maynard on Sept. 20 Owing to the latter’s illness, the last man leaving the port on Oct. 12. BIBL1oGRAPHY.—B. Heroys, Lenin’s Fighting Force (1919); J. Pollock, The Bolshevik Adventure, 1917-19 (1919); British Parliamentary Papers, No. 2,246, The Fvacuation of Norih Russia, toro (1920);

A. F. Kerensky, Soviet Russia in rorg (1920); J. Ward, With the DieHards in Siberia, 1918 (1920). (W. E. I.)

RUSSIA IN ASIA (sce 2.741).—The greater part of the Asiatic possessions of the former Russian Empire were incorporated under the Soviet system in the Russian Socialist Federated Soviet Republic (R.S.F.S.R.), which is a constituent State of the Union of Socialist Soviet Republics (U.S.S.R.). These territories are divided into Siberia and the Far Eastern Province, which are directly under the Moscow Govt. and the autonomous SocialistSoviet Republics of Yakutsk, Mongol-Buryats and Qirghizstan, which enjoy considerable local autonomy under the general direction of the R.S.F.S.R. The country known as Russian Turkestan consists of two independent Socialist Soviet Republics, Turkomanistan and Uzbegistan, which are constituent States of the U.S.S.R. (See SIBERIA; TURKESTAN.) RUSSIAN LITERATURE! (see 23.914).—-The death, in rgro, of Tolstoy, is not a landmark of Russian literary history. Ever since his conversion he had, as it were, passed out of time into eternity, and ceased to fit into the scheme of literary values.

The publication of his posthumous work (three vol. 1911, and a fourth 1926) in spite of its immense intrinsic significance, stands outside the current of history. But the influence of Tolstoy, especially that of his later work, Ivan Ilyich (1891, Eng. trans. 1895), and Master and Man (1805, Eng. trans. 1895), is very apparent on the one hand in the problem stories of Andreyev,

Bunin, Artsybashev and Sergeyev-Tsensky; on the other, in the philosophical writings of Shestov. The Realists The traditions of the older realistic school were continued into the 2oth century by numerous writers of the older generation, none of whom are of importance, except Vladimir Korolenko (1853-1921). His autobiography The History of My Contemporary (five vol. 1909-22) is his longest and one of his best works.

.

,

At the end of the roth century the realistic narrative form had been reformed and renewed by Anton Chekhov and about the same time a group of young writers came forward, whose work, realistic like that of the older tradition, but cruder and less reticent, produced the impression of a literary renascence. Its chief exponent was Maxim Gorky (b. 1869), whose early work

(1895-1901) took the Russian and foreign reader by storm and was one of the greatest booms of the European book market. It was inspired by a semi-romantic spirit of freedom and revolt, which in conjunction with an audacious realistic style was what made for its success in Russia. After 1900 Gorky became absorbed in politics. His work of 1904-12 is tendencious and revolutionary. It marks a distinct decline and coincided with an eclipse of his popularity. But in 1913 Gorky published Af y Childhood (Eng. trans. 191s), the first volume of an autobiography, which revealed him once more as a powerful and, this time, quite unromantic realist. It was followed by two more autobiographical volumes Among Strangers (1915) and My Universities (1922), a volume of Recollections (1924) and Fragments from my Diary (Eng. trans. 1924). These

books are objective, dispassionate, unswectened paintings of Russian life. The author is present in them only in so far as he sees with his eyes and selects out of his store of vision. His attitude may be described as a fascinated disgust at the ugliness of Russian life, and an equally fascinated attraction towards all the great, the good and the original, that stands out in bold relief against the drab and joyless background. The volume of Recolt In this article the titles of all works have, for the convenience of the reader, been translated into English, although the books themselves may not have been so treated. When, however, they have been translated the date of the publication of the translation is, as far as possible, given.

LITERATURE

435

lections contains a memoir of Tolstoy which is one of the best things ever written of that great man. Of the other writers who gathered about 1900 round Chekhov and Gorky the most famous is Leonid Andreyev (1871-1919). His best stories are in the tradition of Tolstoy’s Death of Ivan Llyich and The Kreuzer Sonata. Once Upon a Time There Lived (1901); 72 the Fog (1902); The Governor (1906, Eng. trans., 1921); The Seven Who Were Hanged (1908, Eng. trans., 1909) are problem stories of death and sex written in a sober realistic style. But Andreyev early succumbed to the lure of a cheap and

rhetorical “ modernism” and his style degenerated into a tedious succession of gaudy and insincere clichés (The Red Laugh, 1904, etc., Eng. trans., 1905). The main theme of Andreyev is the vanity of life and of all earthly things and the “ craving void ” of man before the elemental forces of death and madness. More artistic and more traditional than Andreyev’s is the work of Ivan Bunin (b. 1870), a disciple of Turgenev and of Goncharov, as much as of the older Tolstoy. A sense of the vanity of all earthly values in the presence of nature and death is as apparent in Bunin as in Andreyev. But it is diluted by his sentimental attachment to the decaying life of the provincial gentry. Bunin’s most important works are The Village (1910, Eng. trans., 1923), and especially Sukhodol (1912), which, together, give an impressively gloomy picture of the spiritual decay and cultural poverty of the Russian peasantry and provincial gentry. They are among the most terrible pieces of special pleading against the whole of Russian life ever written. A more detached and less local style is that of The Gentleman from San Francisco (1915, Eng. trans., 1922), a story, in the Tolstoyan tradition, of the vanity of the things of this earth before the face of death. The same theme of vanity and emptiness moves many other writers of this group, among whom the best known is Michael Artsybashev (b. 1878). In his drearily didactic novel Savin (1907, Eng. trans., 1915), he preached, in a style unintelligently aped from Tolstoy, the gospel of complete submission to sexual impulses. More significant and sincere are his stories of death: The Death of Lande (1904, Eng. trans., rors); Breaking Point (1911-2, Eng. trans., 1915}. On the whole Artsybashev is a very inferior writer, but he is representative of the devastated generation of Russian intellectuals who had lost their old revolutionary faith and acquired none instead. More significant is the work of S. Sergeyev-Tsensky (b. 1876), a writer of real originality and, unlike the foregoing, the master of an individual style. The theme is again death and the vanity of life, but it is treated with greater sincerity and imaginative power. The masterpiece of his early period Afovements (1910) is one of the most powerful stories of dying after The Death of Ivan Ilyich. Since then he has struck a more optimistic note, but he has also lost much of his power over words (The Inclined Flena, 1914, Transfiguration, 1923). Of the other writers belonging to the “ realistic party ” Alexander Kuprin (b. 1870) acquired great popularity by his novel of army life published during the Japanese War (The Duel, rgos, Eng. trans., 1916), and by the cheaply realistic and journalistic brothel story Yama (1913). But in his shorter stories he has shown himself an excellent master of simple and forcible narrative of a kind that is rare in Russia and which recalls Kipling.

Other “realists” are Semen Yushkevich (b. 1868), stories of Jewish life, especially The Adventures of Leon Drey, Ivan Shmelev (b. 1875), The Waiter (1912), That Which Happened (1921, Eng. trans., 1926), one of the best war storics in Russian; V. Ropshin (pseudonym of the terrorist and politician Boris Savinkev 1879-1925), The Pale Horse (1909, Eng. trans., 1915) largely autobiographical, a powerful revelation of the terrorist mentality, and The Black Horse (1924), a story of the Civil War; Boris Zaytsev (b. 1881), stories of “ atmosphere,” which become almost flabby in their tendency, often present in Russian fiction, to do without skeleton or outline; and the humorist Teffi (pseud. of Mme. Buchinsky). The Mystics —While the “ realists ” occupied the front of the literary stage, a movement was going on that was to transform the appearance of Russian literature. It is difficult to define it

RUSSIAN

430

LITERATURE

in a word. Those who did not belong to it called it “ modernism.” It included a great variety of currents, but they all have this in common, that they brought forward precisely those cultural and spiritual values that had been neglected by the “intelligentsia ” civilisation of the roth century. In terms of personality it was largely an assertion of the spirit of Dostoievsky as against that of Tolstoy. It was also a victory of mystical and metaphysical religion over ethics, and of aesthetics over politics. In its first stages it brought with it a great wave of new foreign influences; Ibsen, Wilde, Baudelaire, and above all Nietzsche

were the most important. One of its first spokesmen was Dmitri Merezhkovsky (b. 1865) who in the ’nineties and at the beginning of the 20th century did excellent work as the interpreter of foreign cultural values—the historical novels Julia (1895) and Leonardo (1901). His later work, dominated by a sophisticated and essentially hollow “ religious ” philosophy, is of much less value. Alexander I. (1913), 14 December (1918, Eng. trans., 1923), are interesting fot their historical material, but their style is disagrecably hysterical and the construction disfigured by artificial and meaningless “ ideas.” As a “ religious ” philosopher, Merezhkovsky is an obvious nonentity.

The real revivers of Russian mystical and religious thought were, after Vladimir Soloviev, Vasili Rozanov (1856-1919), and Leo Shestov (b. 1866). Rozanov is also the greatest modern master of Russian non-narrative prose. His later works, especially Alone With Myself—Uedinennoe (1912) and Fallen Leaves (1913), place him in the front rank of Russian prose-writers of all times as well as in that of the greatest thinkers and discoverers of the human soul. By rejecting what he called the “ Guttenberg ” style he made prose as flexible, unexpected and spontaneous as spoken language. He was a profound irrationalist, organically adverse to logical constructions, but possessed of a sense of intuition and insight unequalled by any man. His religion was mainly a religion of sex and procreation, but he had a deeply ingrained sympathy for the traditions and the soul of Russian Christianity. Shestov is also a mystic and an irrationalist, but he is as spiritual as Rozanov is vital. In his war against reason he uses with consummate skill the weapons of the enemy. The central impulse of his work is the search for God, who is above good. His style is akin to Tolstoy’s and is admirable for its lucidity and pungency. Rozanov and Shestov are the biggest figures of the “ religiousphilosophical ” movement begun about 1903, which has very largely displaced the traditional agnosticism of the Russian

intelligentsia by some kind of mystical religion. numerous

writers, who, though they are

not

It produced

comparable

in

significance and originality to these two, have had a notable part in the history of the Russian mind. The most noteworthy are Sergius Bugakov (b. 1870), who, beginning as a Marxist later became an orthodox priest; Paul Florensky, a mathematician, who likewise became an orthodox priest, the author of a

most remarkable, sophisticated and subtle book of theology, The Pillar and Foundation of Truth (1913); Nicholas Berdyaev (b. 1874); Michael Gershenzon (1869-1925); and Vyacheslav Ivanov, who besides being a remarkable poet is the most magnificent contemporary master of ornate Russian prose. A Correspondence Between Two Corners, by Gershenzon and Ivanov (1920) is a remarkable book discussing the value of

culture before the terrible realities raised by the revolution. The Symbolisis—The most important expression of the

“ modernist ” movement was the Symbolist school of poetry. The name came from France, but except in its first stages the

Russian movement was not derivative and its most significant

poets were the genuine heirs of the great national tradition. At first the Symbolists (or Decadents as their enemies called them)

were regarded as mountebanks and charlatans and were not admitted into the literary rank. But to-day it is universally

recognised that the poetry of the Symbolists was the most important thing in Russian literature in the ro or 15 years preceding the great revolution. The Symbolist movement was, first and foremost, a general revival of poetry and poetic culture aiter the ignoble stagnation of the later 19th century. But besides that,

the Symbolist poets have certain characteristics common to all of them; these are the ‘“‘ Symbolist ” attitude, t.e., a perception of the world as a system of symbols and “ correspondences” (the word came from Baudelaire’s well-known sonnet); and a predominance of the musical over the logical, of the “romantic” over the ‘ classical’ element of poetry. In its early stages Russian Symbolism was imitative of foreign (French and English) models. The work of the first leaders of the school,

Constantine Balmont (b. 1867) and Valeri Bryusov (1873-1924) have a translated and un-Russian flavour. Balmont, a genuine poet with a great gift of song, wrote his best poetry between 1894 and 1904, Bryusov, a laborious craftsman who compared his inspiration with an ox in the plough, in the first decade of the 20th century. The importance of these two poets was chiefly that of a ferment. They liberated poetical understanding and taste and raised the general interest in problems of form. Bryusov, especially, had a powerful technical influence; few poets who began writing verse in the first decade of the century escaped it. For many years he was practically

dictator of the advanced literary world of Moscow. By their side there were other poets of a more original and at the same time Fedor Sologub more native and traditional inspiration. (pseudonym of Fedor Teternikov, b. 1863) who is also one of the most remarkable modern novelists, is the most traditional and the most perfect of the Symbolist poets. His poetry is sober and severe and almost classical in its adequacy of expression. It is dominated by a complete and consistent conception of the Universe, which is its essence is Manichaean. The evil world of life, diversity, desire, light and heat, symbolised in the hateful dragon of the sky, the Sun, is opposed to the blessed realm of death, coolness and peace. Zinaida Hippius (in Russian Gippius, maiden name of Mme. Merezhkovsky, b. 1867) is also a metaphysical poet. Intensely intellectual, in her best poems she is one of the most genuine and powerful spiritual children of the darker side of Dostoievsky. She is also a craftsman of great originality and has had an appreciable influence on the evolution

of poetical technique. Another metaphysical poet is Vyacheslav Ivanov (b. 1866). Sophisticated and complex, soaked in knowledge and in culture, his poetry

is the expression

of a mystical -philosophy

aspires to the synthesis of all religions.

is the most full of Greek reminiscences.

that

Of all Russian poets he His style is archaic and

magnificent, the most artificial and ornate style in the language.

From 1906-12 he was as much a dictator of poetry in St. Petersburg as Bryusov was in Moscow. His principal works are Pilot Stars (1903); Cor Ardens (1911); and Winter Sonnets (1920). The poetry of Innocent Annensky (1856-1909), like V. Ivanov a scholar and a translator of Euripides, is curiously devoid of all classical influences. Exiguous in extent, it all belongs to the last years of his life (The Cypress Chest, 1910). It is an infinitely subtle personal poetry of emotions, free from metaphysical sophistications, but condensed and elliptical to the point of obscurity. He is the subtlest and most refined of the Symbolists, but for intensity of human appeal he has no equal except Blok.

Alexander Blok (1880-1921) is unquestionably the greatest poet of modern Russia. His carly work Verses of the Beautiful Lady (1904) was inspired by a mystical love for a feminine

hypostasis of the Deity in the vein of Vladimir Soloviev’s mystical poetry. It is purely immaterial and musical, woven of

the thinnest atmospheric gossamer, and to the immediate perception almost elusive. But soon Blok lost his mystical visions, and his later verse is full of a passionate home-sickness for the lost ideal. It is distinctly romantic in style and in matter dominated by the unbridgeable and hopeless opposition between life and the higher reality lost touch with. Much of his later poetry is “ realistic? and instinct with a grim and hopeless irony. More

than any other poet, Blok was a “ prophetic soul.” He lived the life of the nation with passionate intensity, and much of his verse reads strangely in the light of later events. The third volume of his collected poems (1908-16) contains most of his best He accepted the revolution as an expression of the work.

RUSSIAN

LITERATURE

mystical and craving soul of Russia, and in 1917 wrote his most widely famous and in certain respects his most significant poem The Twelve (Eng. trans. 1920), a sublime symphony made out of realistic dirt. After 1917 he wrote practically nothing. Besides his lyrical poetry he wrote several lyrical plays The

Show

(1906);

The Stranger

(1907);

Puppet

The Rose and the Cross

(1913), in which he gives the most powerful expression of his “romantic irony,” and a narrative poem Retaliation (containing the life story of his father), at which he worked for over io

years and left unfinished.

It contains passages of exceptional

historical intuition. Closely connected with Blok is the personality of Andrey Bely (pseudonym of Boris Bugaev, b. 1880), the most original and “advanced ” of the younger Symbolists. His poetry is mystical in content, experimental in form, and frequently realistic and humorous in tone. He carried the musical and antilogical tendencies of Symbolist poetry to their furthest limits, and in his efforts to do altogether without the cement of sense has much in common with the early Futurists. His principal works, however, are his novels. Most of the inner Symbolists followed in the footsteps of Bryusov and V. Ivanov. Their poetry is intensely, often coldly, formal and is chiefly concerned with the visual symbolism of abstract ideas. The most notable are Maximilian Voloshin (b. 1877), whose poems on the revolution (to17 and following), splendidly ornate and highly sophisticated, became widely popular among the émigrés; and Vladislav Khodasevich (b. 1886), who treats Dostoievskian “ underground ” themes with a neat and abstract “ wit ” reminiscent of the 18th century, and is the favourite poet of the unpoetical reader. Post-Symbolist. Poetry.—The exclusively metaphysical character of Symbolism produced a reaction towards more concrete and less sophisticated poetry. The tendency appears already in the affectedly naive and exquisitely refined poetry of Michael Kuzmin: Alexandrian Songs (1906); The Seasons of Love (1907). About 1912 it took form in the movement that called itself the Acmeists and centred round the Poets’ Guild in St. Petersburg (Leningrad). Its leader was Nicholas Gumislev (1886-1921, executed by the Bolsheviks), the only Russian poet to have fought in the World War. His poetry is a strange mixture of aestheticism with a manly romanticism. It is the most “ masculine ? poetry in the language. His best books, The Quiver (1915), The Pyre (1918), The Pillar of Fire (1921), contain poems of great force and vitality. He was a great craftsman, and all the younger poets of St. Petersburg were deeply influenced by his example and his teaching. The poetry of Anna Akhmatova, exiguous in extent and exquisite in form, is also an assertion of the human against the mystical poetry of the Symbolists. It is personal and emotional. By far the greater part of it is concerned with love. It is marked by a reticent and condensed intensity of emotion and by an exquisite and delicate economy of poetic means: Beads (1914), The White Flock (1917), Anno Domini (1922). Like almost all the greater contemporary Russian poets, Akhmatova has also written remarkable poems inspired by the great sufferings of her country. Connected with the Poets’ Guild is also the poetry of Osip Mandelstam (The Stone, 1916; Tristra, 1922), the greatest master in modern Russia of the grand oratorial style, which, however, is combined in his poems with a construction along purely associational lines that makes his poetry akin to the tendencies of early Futurism. The Futurists —Russian Futurism dates from soon after gro. In St. Petersburg it was merely an assertion of the rights of vulgarity. The poctry of Igor Severyanin (b. 1887), The ThunderSeething Cup (1912), which at one moment fascinated even the most discriminating critics, is merely the expression of the mentality of a shop assistant, who happens to be endowed with exceptional rhythmical power. Much more significant are the Moscow Futurists. Victor Khlebnikev (1885-1922), whom they regard as their founder, was a delver in language rather than a poet. His poetry, which is purely linguistic, is caviare to the general, but has been a powerful stimulant to his’ fcllow-

craftsmen.

437

—

His historical importance lies chiefly in the fact that

he started the movement of what may be called the ‘ de-Ital-

lanisation ” of Russian. To give the language of poetry a more rugged and virile accent and to tear it away from the withering background of traditional associations was the principal task of the Futurists. Besides trying to transcend the limits of sensible language, they destroyed the traditional conceptions of the “ poetical” and the “ musical,” introduced the vocabulary of the street and new subject-matter from all quarters of life. The most outstanding of the Futurists is Vladimir Mayakovsky (b. 1893), a poet with powerful lungs and a voice like the roar of waters. His powerful, unrefined, hammering poetry is at its best in his own delivery. He is a poet of the street and of the open air. Much of his verse is political; like most of the Futurists, he is a Communist. Totally lacking in the “ finer touch,” it is intensely original and skilful and is one of the most vital and vigorous literary growths of modern Russia. Though loyal Communists, the Futurists are regarded by the Soviet authorities with distrust as too individual and undisciplined. An official effort was made from the beginning of the new régime to create a more reliable “ Proletarian culture ” and “ Proletarian poetry.” The “ proletarian poets ”?” are numerous and have been regularly trained by masters of the craft, such as Bryusov, in the secrets of verse writing. But in spite of this, all they write is nothing but rhetoric. The only exception is Vasili Kazin, a young workman of Moscow, who is free from rhetorical ambition and has written lyrics of exquisite freshness not unlike those of Mr. W. H. Davies. Peasant Poets.—Another group of poets connected with the revolution are the “ peasant poets ’? who saw in it an assertion of the mystical aspirations of the Russian people. Of these peasant poets Nicholas Klyuev is a genuine mystic and genuine poet, imbued with the traditional lore of North Russia. The other peasant poet, Sergey Esenin (1895-1925), was only transiently attracted by the conceptions of mystical socialism. He was a purely lyrical poet akin to the Russian folk song, to Blok and to the tradition of the roth century. His best verse has an exquisitely piercing lyrical accent. A wistful and uneasy melancholy dashed through by a dare-devil “ hooliganism ”’ are the main motives of his poetry. At one time Esenin was connected with the “ Imagist ” movement, which is spite of its noisy prominence in the years immediately following the revolution produced no poet of importance. In general, except the Futurists, most poets of the postSymbolist generation belong to no movement or school, and display a great variety of individual genius. The most absolutely independent of all is perhaps Tikhon Churilin, whose Spring after Death (1915) breathes the spirit of genuine madness and startling originality. Externally connected with Futurism, but in essence quite independent, is the poetry of Boris Pasternak (b. 1891), in the opinion of most fellow-craftsmen the greatest poet of the young generation. His principal book of lyrics, My

Sister Life, was written in 1917 and published in 1922.

Few

Russian poets have escaped its overpowering influence. Pasternak’s poetry is marked by an absolute freshness of perception and vision combined with a tensity of lyrical emotion that is to be found only in the greatest lyrical poets. He sees the world in his own way, like Adam or a new-born child, and his poems sound as if no verse had ever been written before them. But he does not always succeed in keeping in control the excessive abundance of his poetic vision and becomes at times incoherent and confused. Equally original and equally fresh is the poetry of Marina ‘Tsvetayeva, the only important poet of the younger generation living outside Russia. The variety and richness of her rhythmical imagination, the spontaneity and abundance of her inspiration, combined in her latest work with an unerring mastery and discipline of form, the absolute originality of her accent, the vitality and exuberance of her genius, make her one of the most powerful of the poets of to-day. This vitality and high-spiritedness is à common feature of almost all the major poets of the younger generation and marks them off distinctly from the

438

RUSSIAN

LITERATURE

Symbolists. Marina Tsvetayeva’s latest poems are her best: Af olodets, a fairy tale (1924), The Poem of the End (1928), The Ratcaicher (1925). Among the very youngest poets the most important seem to be Nicholas Tikhonov and Ilya Selvinsky, both of whom have written some powerful and concentrated ballads of the civil war. The New Prose —Many of the Symbolists wrote prose fiction but they failed to create a new school of prose. Some derived from Dostoievsky (Z. Hippius), others indulged in “ Impressionism”; others again fell back on foreign or ancient models and wrote what is called in Russian “stylised ” prose. The

most remarkable of the “ stylisers ” are Valeri Bryusov, whose historical novel of the German renaissance, The Fire Angel (1917), is no doubt the best Russian novel on a foreign subject and the most genuine work of the author; and Michael Kuzmin. The greatest of the Symbolist novelists is Fedor Sologub. His principal novel, probably the greatest Russian novel since Dostolevsky, Zhe Little Demon (1907, Eng. trans 1916), has all the appearance of a realistic story of provincial life, but is subordinate to a symbolistic conception. The central figure, the schoolmaster Peredonov, the incarnation of joyless evil, is one of the grimmest and weirdest creations of the Russian imagination. Others of his stories have a more or less fantastic or conventional setting. The series, The Created Legend (Drops of Blood, Queen Oriruda and Smoke and Ashes) (Eng. trans. 1916) is a strange symbolical novel dominated by the same Manichaean philosophy that permeates his poetry, but couched in the form of a thrilling romance of intrigue of the ‘‘ Prisoner of Zenda ” type. The revolution that corresponds in Russian prose to the Symbolist revolution in poetry was started by two men of the younger Symbolist generation, Bely and Remizov. Both of them use, in their principal work, the material of contemporary life, and both have greatly intensified the expressive means of Russian prose. Their prose is what has been called “ ornamental’ (not ornate), that is to say it is always charged with the

utmost expressiveness and saturated with the most varied effectiveness; it is the antithesis of the transparent prose of the realists of the roth century. Bely has been strongly influenced by Gogol. Unlike the other Symbolists, he has a genuine gift of humour. His first novel, The Silver Dove (1909), is the story of an intellectual allured and enmeshed by mystical sectarians. Petersburg (1915), the atmosphere of which is reminiscent of Dostoievsky’s The Double, isa symbolic story of Petersburg, as the incarnation of “ nihilism.” Kotik Letaev (1917) and its sequel The Crime of Nicholas Letaev (1922) are written under the influence of the anthroposophy of Steiner. The rhythmical intensity of the style reaches its farthest point. It is the story of a childhood, and of the gradual formation of the child’s idea of the world.

Besides these novels Bely has written the remarkable

Recollections of Alexander Blok (1922). Alexey Remizov (b. 1877) is a writer of great complexity and versatility. All his work is marked by a supreme sense of style and an exceptional mastery of Russian idiom. He rejects the ordinary literary syntax of Latin and French extraction and aims at creating a written Russian that will be more akin to the genius of the spoken language. The variety of his work is very great. It includes novels of ‘‘ compassion’ in the line of Dostoievsky, The Pond (1905), The Sisters of the Cross (1910); stories of provincial life, The Story of Stratilatov (1909), The Fifth Pestilence (1912) in a manner that has more than anything else affected the destinies of Russian prose; Jz a Field Azure (1922), the delightful and simple story of the childhood ofa little girl; adaptations of folk tales and legends; dreams that are real dreams with all their illusive logic; Recollections (especially Kukkha, 1923, about Rozanov); poems in prose; plays, based on the popular Russian theatre. More than anyone Remizov has been a sensitive record of the ordeals of his country’s life in the terrible years 1917-21, and the book, including his diary of

these years and stories of dying St. Petersburg (Russia in the Tornado, to be published in 1926) is one of the greatest books produced by the revolution. Remizov (especially as a stylist and as the author of The

Story of Stratilatov) has had an enormous influence on almost all subsequent fiction. A new realism, emancipated from the ‘civic’? ideas of the roth century and attracted by the characteristic and grotesque rather than by the commonplace, arose about roro, largely owing to him. The most popular and gifted of these neo-realists is Count Alexey Tolstoy (b. 1882), who began with a delightful book of folk tales (Magpies Tales, 1909), and has written more stuff that is at the same time

generally readable and intrinsically valuable than any other living Russian author. At times he becomes ridiculous, but the verve and vitality of his narrative manner is inimitable. One of his best books is Nikita’s Childhood (1922) that holds its own by the side of the best “ childhoods ” in Russian literature. More Remizovian is the work of Michael Prishvin (b. 1873), whose The Beast of Krutoyarsk (1913), the story of a dog, is the masterpiece of Russian animal fiction, and the early work of Evgeni Zamyatin (b. 1884), who later developed into an original and independent master. He is an imagist and im-

pressionist trying to attain the maximum of intensity by the use of significant detail and by constructing his stories round a unifying symbolical image. His principal work, We, a novel of the future, was still unpublished in 1926 owing to the Soviet censorship. The World War remains almost unreflected in Russian literature, and Russia has little to compare with the War literature of the Western nations. The only war poetry of any merit is Gumilev’s. The very few war books that deserve notice are Letters of an Artillery Subaltern, by Fedor Steppun (10918); The Face of War, by Ilya Erenburg (1920); and The People at the War (1918) by Sophia Fedorchenko, a wonderful collection of fragments of conversations overheard by an army nurse from private soldiers. The revolution of March 1917 remained as alien to the Russian imagination as the War. Not so the Bolshevik revolution of eight months later and the ensuing civil war. The external result of these events was the division of all intellectual Russia into two hostile camps, which has now become a geographical division between those who have remained in the U.S.S.R. and the émigrés. Roughly speaking, it may be said that the older generations are pretty equally divided between the two sections, but the younger generation (under 30) is pro-

ducing valuable work only at home. Of the vast memoir literature created by the revolution and civil war the most significant books are rọ20 (1921) by the monarchist deputy of the Duma, Vasili Shulgin, and A Sentimental Journey (1923) by the gifted and iniluential critic Victor Shklovsky. With the memoirists may also be counted Mark Aldanov (Landau), who has written clever personal articles on contemporary public men and historical novels of the age of Napoleon. . The years of the civil war witnessed the almost complete disappearance of prose fiction, but since 1921 a galaxy of young novelists have come up who choose their subjects almost exclusively from the revolution, the civil war and contemporary Soviet life. The majority of these writers have been more or less influenced by Remizov, Bely or Zamyatin and belong to the “ornamental ’”’ school. Their besetting sin is their inability to tell a story, and an over-emphasis on style and formal originality. The most typical of these writers are Boris Pilnyak (b. 1894), Vsevolod Ivanov (b. 1895) (stories of civil war in Siberia), and Leonid Leonov (b. 1899}. More original is the work of Constantine Fediin (b. 1892), whose Cities and Years (1924), an ambitious and in many ways successful attempt to show the evolution of an ‘‘ intelligentsia ’? mind against the background of war and revolution, is the most notable Russian novel written since the revolution. Isaac Babel is the author of Tales (1925) of the Cavalry Army of Budeny. For the most part they are ‘intensified anecdotes ”’ written with great artistic concentration. Their atmosphere is mingled horror, irony, and hero worship. He uses dialect in an imaginative way that is reminiscent of Synge. The young Communist, Artem Vesely (whose work at this time was uncollected), has a unique genius for the painting of mass scenes and is a consummate master of Janguage. Quite apart from the others stand the Zales (1925) of the poet Boris

RUSSO-POLISH Pasternak.

They are written with the same

freshness

and

novelty of vision that mark his poetry. The Childhood of Luvers (1918), the story of how alittle girl forms her perception of the world around her, is particularly remarkable. The greatest part of modern Russian fiction is conspicuously devoid of narrative interest, and it is no wonder that the Soviet reader prefers less original and intense or careful work as long as it is “interesting.” Their tastes are best met by the novels of Ilya Erenburg (b. 1891), whose Adventures of Julio Jurentto (1922) is a grim and significant satire of the capitalist world, but whose later novels are typical best sellers adapted to the tastes of the Soviet reading public. Drama.—The Russian drama has been in a state of stagnation ever since the death of Chekhov and cuts a poor figure by the side of contemporary poetry or even of fiction. The plays of Gorky (The Lower Depths, 1903, Eng. trans. 1910), and of Andreyev, written in imitation of the method of Chekhov, miss precisely all the inner “‘ musical ” logic that justifies the nondramatic construction of Chekhov. The ‘ modernistic ” dramas of Andreyev (The Life of Man, 1907, etc., Eng. trans. 1915), are crude rhetoric in black and red. More satisfying is the symbolic melodrama, He Who Gets Slapped (1916, Eng. trans. 1922), which was later turned with great advantage into a film. The genuine Symbolists failed to produce a theatre of their own, and with the exception of the beautiful dramas of Blok, which are lyrical rather than dramatic, gave nothing to the stage. For the Russian theatre the period was one of rapid development and of remarkable achievement. But the drama did not keep pace with it. Of the reforming producers who revolutionised the Russian stage, Nicholas Evreinov (b. 1879) is also a playwright. His theatre is subordinated to his semi-religious idea of transforming life into art by the aid of the theatre. His work has points in common with that of Pirandello. The realistic tradition has been definitely abandoned by dramatists and the dominant form of play in Soviet Russia is a kind of conventional puppet play of ideas, where the characters, stripped of all reality and humanity, are made to symbolise abstractions. Such are the crude and mediocre plays of Lunacharsky. On a much higher artistic level are the plays of the regretted Leo Lunts (1901-24) who endeavoured to create a pure and simplified tragedy of pure action that would be once again suited to the expression of genuine heroical feeling. The Futurists made attempts to create a high standard, boldly Aristophanesque propaganda drama. The only successful attempt is A Mystery Bouffe (1919) by Mayakovsky, a vigorous and effectively crude play of Bolshevik satire. There exist English translations in book form of works by Gorky, Andreyev, Bunin, Artsybashev, Kuprin, Shmelev, Ropshin (Savinkov), Merezhkovsky, Shestov, Z. Hippius, Sologub, Blok, Remizov, Aldanov, Pilnyak, Evreinov and Lunacharsky. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—-W. L. Phelps, Essays on Russian Novelists (1911): Harold Williams, Russia of the Russians (1914); Paul Selver, Modern Russian Poetry, an Anthology, Russian and English text (1917); A. Yarmolinsky and B. Deutsch, Modern Russian Poetry (1921); M. Olgin, A Guide to Russian Literature, 1820-1917 (1921); Leo Trotsky, tr. Rose Strunsky, Literature and Revolution (1925); Prince D. S. Mirsky, Afodern Russian Literature (The World's Manuals, Oxford University Press, 1925); the same, Russian Literature 1875-1925 (1926); articles in The Slavonic Review. (D. S. Mı.)

RUSSO-POLISH

CAMPAIGN.—This campaign, of 1920, which

resulted in the defeat and rout of the Soviet Army when it was within sight of the Polish capital, is full of dramatic incident.

Organisation of command, staff and administration was lacking on both sides, but above all it was the want of a proper system of supply which accounted for the sudden collapse of troops engaged in a victorious advance. The thinly populated territory lying between the Niemen in the north and the Dniester in the south was incapable of supporting large bodies of troops, and as both sides attempted to live on the country during their advances the failure of their operations followed quickly each success. Cause of the War.—During the course of 1919 and early 1920, the Soviet Govt. had succeeded in clearing their territory of the White Russian detachments under Kolchak, Denikin and Yuden-

CAMPAIGN

439

ich. They were thus at liberty to examine the situation on their frontiers. With such a mixture of races living side by side in the disputed regions no delimitation of frontier would have suited all parties, and in the absence of authority to enforce a decision, trouble quickly arose between the Soviet and the newly formed Polish State. Poland was determined to maintain her new liberty and had called up fresh levies to support the various legions which had been repatriated from the fronts upon which they had been fighting in the World War. The Soviet began to concentrate their troops towards the west. Inflammatory speeches in Moscow and a fierce propaganda amongst the Polish working people brought Polish public opinion to a fever heat. From seven divisions in Jan. the Soviet had, by March, increased the number of their troops facing the Poles to 20 divisions, with three cavalry divisions. Poland decided that she could not wait quietly for the inevitable Soviet attack by which she would certainly be destroyed, and that she must act at once. Polish Offensive.—Strategically, the territory in dispute may be divided into two separate areas: White Russia in the north and Volhynia and Podolia in the south. The marshes of the Pripet divide one area from the other. Acting in collusion with Petilura, the Hetman of the Ukraine, who had promised to raise his country against the Soviet, the Poles advanced in April as far as Kiev. By the beginning of May the Polish-Soviet front ran from Dvinsk in the north along the course of the Dnieper to Kiev and thence to the Dniester near Kamenets. No sooner were the Poles established in Kiev than the Soviet northern army began to advance. ‘The Poles were able to transfer troops from the south and counter-attacked the Soviet forces which had already penctrated as far west as Lida and Baranoicze. By the end of May the line held at the beginning of the month had been restored. Operations had been most ably carried out by the Polish Minister of War, Gen. Sosnkowski, but there were indications that the Soviet were transferring more and more troops to the west and that a renewal of their attacks might be expected. At the beginning of June, in the southern area there appeared a new Soviet cavalry leader, Budenny, who completely altered the situation. Budenny had been a non-commissioned officer in the old Russian Army and soon proved himself a man of action. Within a month he had driven back the Poles a distance of 200 m. until their line in the south ran just east of Pińsk and Równe (Rovno) to the junction of the Dniester and Siret (Sereth) (see EASTERN EUROPEAN FRONT: MAP}. Russian Success.—Fighting in the northern area continued intermittently during the month of June, preventing the Poles from transferring troops to the hard-pressed south. Despite the operations in the south it was clear that the main Soviet attack was coming in the north. On July 4 the blow fell. The whole Polish line gave way. Wilno (Vilna) and Minsk were lost in the first week. Grodno fell on July 20 and Bialystok on July 2s. By the end of July the Soviet advance guards had reached the Bug. In 25 days the Poles had lost 300 m. of territory. The main cause of the collapse was their failure to constitute reserves. In their desire to protect their new territory they had been led into a linear defence where they were strong nowhere. Their forces were insufficient to defend a line nearly 800 m. in length. Disposition of Troops.—The Polish situation was now critical. On the Bug their men fought with desperation and the Soviet advance was checked. No time was to be lost, however, or the Soviet would carry out fresh concentrations. With the help of the French military mission, under Gen. Weygand, a plan for a great counter-attack was evolved on Aug. 6. The situation of the opposing sides on that date was as follows:— Soviet: (1) Northern group. Four armies—IV., XV., IIL. and AVI.—on the Bug from Rozan to Brest-Litovsk, with a cavalry corps on the extreme north skirting the East Prussian frontier and aiming to outilank the Polish left. (2) Southern group. Two armies—NII. and XIY. with Budenny’s cavalry, along a line from Kowel through Brody to Tarnupol. The men of the Soviet Army were unfed and worn out with a month’s marching. Only the thought of the rich booty to be obtained in Warsaw maintained them in the ranks.

440

RUSTLESS

Poles: (1) Northern group. Four detachments—Roja force, 1. Army, IV. Army, Sikorski’s force—facing the Soviet northern group from Brest-Litovsk to the East Prussian frontier at Chorzele. This group was formed of units which had been retreating for over a month, strengthened by reinforcements thrown in hastily as they came up. Much material had been lost and the men were tired and hungry. The situation presented a picture of great disorder, but the approach to the line of the Vistula was beginning to simplify the supply of food and munitions. (2) Southern group. Three armies—VI., HI. and IV.— facing the Soviet southern group. Here the situation of the Poles was much better. Pressure from the enemy had been by no means so severe as in the north and many of the divisions still retained their original fighting value. Polish Plan of Attack—The Polish plan was to withdraw all but a minimum of force from the southern area and to attack the Soviet northern group with the greatest possible strength. The operation bears a close resemblance to Ludendorff’s manoeuvre at Tannenberg. In many respects the situation was similar. The Russians were advancing in two main groups divided by the Pripet marshes instead of the Masurian lakes. Here the Soviet southern group was advancing slowly like Rennenkampf’s army in rgr4. The situation would become critical as soon as the two Soviet groups converged upon the Polish Army. No time was to be lost. Would the commander of the Soviet armies in the south allow himself to be deceived in the same manner as Rennenkampf? On August 6 orders for the following fresh groupings were issued from Polish headquarters. (1) Three armies—II., I. and V.—under Gen. Joseph Haller, were to withdraw slowly to the line of the Vistula from Deblin to Modlin with the V. Army pushed well forward on the left to prevent any pune of the Polish left between Warsaw and the East Prussian rontier,. (2) Two armies, III]. and IV.—were to concentrate behind the Wieprz between Chetm and Deblin, ready to strike due north. The advance of these two armies to commence on Aug. 16. (3) One army, VI.—would withdraw as necessity arose in the direction of Lemberg, tempting the Soviet southern group away from the

critical point in the north.

By Aug. 12 all the armies, with the exception of the two on each flank, had reached their assigned positions without incident. In the south the IIT. had found the XII. Soviet Army advancing and had been forced to throw out a detachment on its right flank to cover its concentration. It had been delayed in consequence. In the north, the V. had been driven back by overwhelming strength and had been unable to prevent the enemy outlflanking movement.

Enthusiasm in the Polish Army had risen surprisingly in the days since the momentous decision to attack had been taken. The chief of the Polish State, Marshal Pilsudski, had himself taken command of the III. and IV. Armies. With the help of Weygand and his staff the service of supply had been restored. New bodies of reinforcements were moved forward from the

depéts in Western Poland and the depleted units began to raise their heads again. National optimism returned. The enemy in the south made no determined move and appeared to have no inkling of what was afoot. Every hour that he delayed meant more chance of success for the Polish plan. Polish Advance.—Gen. Sikorski’s V. Army in the north was the first to move. The Soviet movement round his left had assumed alarming proportions and had to be stopped. On Aug. t4 he pressed forward from his defensive position at Modlin and at once encountered the Soviet XV. Army advancing to the attack. Sikorski persisted in his attacks all through Aug. 15 and 16, his men fighting with determination. Not even the appearance of elements of the Soviet IY. Army in his left rear turned him from his purpose. Throwing out covering detachments to watch his rear he attacked again on Aug. 17. His determination reaped its reward, for the enemy gave way in front of him, their retreat rapidly developing into a rout. In the south Pilsudski’s armies made good progress. The blow against the left of the Soviet XVI. Army came as a complete surprise and they offered little resistance. During Aug. 16 and

STEEL 17 the Poles covered over 50 miles. By Aug. 18 the III. Soviet Army, which lay between the XY. destroyed by Sikorski, and the XVI. broken by Pilsudski, turned also in hopeless confusion. On the extreme Soviet right thcir IV. Army, containing some of the most famous Communist regiments, together with the cavalry corps, had reached the Vistula between Torun and Ptock in their great turning movement. They were preparing to roll up the Polish left when Sikorski suddenly advanced. Had they advanced resolutely even then, all might have been well, but. they hesitated and were lost. Their half-hearted attacks against Sikorski’s left had little effect. It was not till Aug. 20 that the order for a general retreat reached them. On Aug. 22 at Miawa, and Aug. 23 at Chorzele, they were successful in cutting themselves a passage, but on Aug. 24 at Kovno they ran up against Pilsudski’s IV. Army blocking the way. Almost without making an effort to attack they passed ignominiously over the East Prussian border to internment. The pace of the Polish pursuit was remarkable. From Aug. 16 to Aug. 25 the advanced units of the II. Army had covered 200 m. as the crow flies. The IV. Army averaged 25 m. a day in their advance. The service of supply was left far behind. The troops existed as they could upon the exhausted country. Luckily the Soviet resistance was so completely broken that there was no further fear of counter-attack and the Polish units had ample time in which to reorganise.

Conclusion.mThe results of the battle of Warsaw, as it has been named, are only exceeded by those of Tannenberg. The Poles captured 70,000 prisoners, 200 guns and 1,000 machineguns. Irom 50,000 to 100,000 Soviet troops passed over into East Prussia. ‘The victory of the Poles was due to the adoption of a determined offensive based upon a sound plan. The raising of the morale of the beaten troops by the Polish authorities, roused

to enthusiasm

themselves

by the inspiring presence of Gen.

Weygand, is little short of miraculous. The crisis of the battle was undoubtedly Aug. 15-16, when Sikorski’s V. Army cleared its front. If it was Pilsudski’s force which completed the Soviet defeat, it was undoubtedly the magnificent fighting of Sikorski and his men which made victory possible. BrsLioGcrapiy.—H. Fenner, Die Rote Armee, 1920 (1920); S. Szpotsanski, La Pologne nouvelle et Pilsudski (1920); M. Pernot, L'épreuve de la Pologne (1921). (W.E. L)

RUSTLESS STEEL.—Rusting under usual atmospheric conditions is a universally recognised characteristic of iron. It is everywhere accepted, like the law of gravity, as an unquestionable fact. Those who use iron or steel in exposed places always take into account that it must be protected from rust or be ultimately replaced. The rusting of iron has been studied by chemists for many generations. In the journals of chemical and physical societies, and in books, the subject has been discussed at

great length in relation to a variety of explanatory theories. Experimental Test.—A useful idea which seems to lead to the raot

of the matter can be acquired by an interesting and very simple experiment. On placing a few bright iron nails in a test tube filled with water the iron is observed, in the course of a few days, to be covered with rust. Some particles of rust may be observed on the inside of the tube above the nails. These particles may have risen from below or fallen from above the position in which they are found. If they have fallen from above it should be possible, by interposing a diaphragm, to collect them and keep them separate from such rust as may form on the bright iron at the bottom of the tube. A suitable diaphragm can be made from cotton wool or a piece of lightly rolled blotting paper. Having added two or three bright iron nails, filled up the tube with recently boiled water and adjusted the diaphragm at different heights in several tubes otherwise similarly prepared, the tubes are kept in a quiet place away from direct sunlight. During the first few days nothing appears to happen. After two or three weeks the nails are still bright, but a faint band of rust may be noticed on or in the white diaphragm. As weeks and months go by the band of tron rust in the diaphragm grows more distinct and broader. is a It scems certain that the iron visible in the diaphragm, as rust, could be found inches above the nails only if iron from the nails had dissolved in the water and diffused upwards. It seems equally likely that the band of iron rust becomes visible in the diaphragm hecause the oxygen of the atmosphere in contact with the upper surface of the water has dissolved there and diffused downwards. In an open tube the reaction between the dissolved oxygen and the dissolved iron

RUSTLESS forms rust which falls onto the bright nails. Ina tube correctly fitted with a suitable diaphragm the two diffusing substances meet anc react within or above the diaphragm and the solid product is held there, leaving the nails bright and smooth but slowly losing weight as the years go by.

One of the characteristics of pure iron is that rusting leaves it with a smooth surface. On the other hand rusted steel has generally a pitted surface. Also mild steel rusts more quickly than good wrought iron. The reason for this is worth mentioning. If polished and etched, the surface of pure iron is seen, through a microscope, to

consist of a conglomeration of grains, each white like its neighbours;

the grains are irregular in shape but may be visualised as so many silver coins lying on the banker’s counter. When similarly polished and etched, a piece of mild steel is seen to consist of dissimilar grains; some are white in appearance and others black. These may be visualised as a mixture of silver and copper coins lying side by side on the banker's counter. | On placing a clean half-crown on either side of the tip of the tongue there is no perceptible taste. On placing silver coins on each side of the tongue and nipping the free ends of the coins together whilst the tongue is between them there is no perceptible taste. On going through the same performance with copper coins similar results are obtained. If, however, the experiment be repeated with one silver and one copper coin, which singly are tasteless, it will be found that when in contact, with the tongue between them, the penny on the upper side of the tongue has a sharp metallic taste. The copper coin excites the sensation

of taste

(like an ordinary

steel knife)

because it is being dissolved and it dissolves more rapidly in contact with the silver in conformity with the general law that when dissimilar metals are in contact, in the presence of an electrolyte, one of

them is apt to be selectively dissolved or corroded.

o

= Cause of Rust—From these experimental observations the rusting of in water. to depend bility due therefore,

iron appears to depend on the fact that iron is soluble The rusting of steel at a greater rate than iron appears

on its solubility in water plus a degree of selective soluto the dissimilar nature of its constituent grains. If, iron is to become rustless under ordinary atmospheric conditions it must first be made insoluble in water. And further, in order to guard against selective corrosion, its composite grains should be made as similar as possible.

U se of Chromium.—The simplest and cheapest forms of rustless steels, but not the first in chronological order, are ordinary mild steels containing chromium. The resistance of the steel to rusting depends on the amount of chromium it contains. The addition of 10% of chromium to pure iron would suppress its solubility in water, and as the resulting pure chromium-iron would consist of similar crystals it might be regarded in itself as a satisiactory rust-resisting metal. But such pure chromium irons cannot be produced commercially. The commercial rustless steels always contain carbon which even in small amounts causes the formation of dissimilar crystals. Between 1912-4, a series of

steels containing between 9 and 16% of chromium was investigated by Brearley (see U.S.A. patent 1197256/16), who concluded that with the stipulated amounts of chromium and not

more than -70% of carbon, rustless steel articles could be produced providing they were submitted to suitable hardening operations with the object of suppressing differences in grain constitution due to the carbon in the steel. From this series of rustless steels developed by Brearley the familiar “ stainless ” cutlery is made. The resistance of chromium steels to rusting is increased by

adding

chromium

and

decreased

by adding

carbon,

Small

amounts of carbon are always unavoidably present but definite amounts are also added with the object of producing required degrees of hardness, resistance to wear or ability to cut. The useful extent to which chromium alone can be added to iron is limited because ultimately such comparatively pure chromium irons are brittle and on that account are not in great demand for

industrial purposes. Steels containing more than 9% chromium were made as early as 1892. Their rust-resisting properties were not realised because at that time the resistance of steel to general corrosion was esti-

mated by its measured resistance to solubility in dilute sulphuric acid. Since the solubility of high chromium steels in dilute sulphuric acid is greater than that of ordinary steel, the quest for non-rusting steels, depending on conventional tests, was directed

away from and not towards the undoubted merits of chromium.

STEEL

441

Nickel Steels.—-Prior to 1912 the least corrodible steels in general use were nickel steels. The more nickel they contained the less they were supposed to corrode. Steels containing 25% nickel were held in high regard, as they were notably resistant to dilute sulphuric acid, an active corrosive agent in industrial towns or under special conditions as in chemical works or mines. ‘The addition of nickel to steels which already contain enough chromium to make them resistant to ordinary atmospheric corrosion produces useful results: (1) conferring a certain degree of resistance to the corroding effect of cold sulphuric acids, whether in the liquid or vapour form, (2) making those higher chromium alloys tough which, without the nickel, would be brittle, and (3) making it comparatively easy to secure homogeneous grain constituents with or without the necessity of submitting the alloy to special forms of heat treatment. Materials of this class were investigated by Strauss in Germany 1912-4 (English patents, 13414/13 and 13415/13). Strauss appears to regard the presence of nickel as an indispensable constituent of rustless steels, and Krupps, with whom he is associated, have devoted most attention to a steel containing about 20% chromium and 6% nickel. Steels of this composition are austenitic or can readily be made austenitic by quenching from temperatures of about 1,000° Centizrade. Such steel cannot be hardened by the usual heat-treatment processes. ‘They are hardened by cold-working, as are all metals and alloys (see METALLURGY). Faradays Work—The commercially more important rustless steels owe their properties to the presence of roto 20%) chromium with or without the addition of nickel in amounts generally less than 10°. But attempts to preserve brightened and polished surfaces were made 100 years ago when both nickel and chromium were rare metals. Michael Faraday, amongst others, studied the subject in 1822. He produced an alloy which “ after lying many months had not a spot on its surface.” This alloy was a combination of stecl with a considerable proportion of platinum. Faraday appears to have made 3°% nickel and 5% chromium steels but produced nothing which resisted tarnishing except rare metal alloys which are much too costly for industrial use. Marsh's Work.—lf scalding at high temperatures be regarded as a form of corrosion, then the work of Marsh must be noticed.

Looking for some substitute for platinum wire or strip to wind resistance coils, Marsh found what he required in an alloy of nickel and chromium. This material, alloyed with more or less iron, is familiar as the coiled filament of heated metal in office and bedroom radiators. Its value for that purpose, apart from its electrical properties, is that it does not scale when it becomes red hot. Marsh’s nichrome alloy having satisfied all the requirements of a good radiator, neither Marsh nor anyone else appears to have connected its resistance to scaling at red heat with its possible value as a rustless alloy. Haynes’ Cobalt Chromium Alloys.—After Marsh, the American Haynes, who is reputed to have made the first motor-car in America, was busy with cobalt-chromium alloys. From his observations and experiments arose the well-known cutting tool material called “ stellite ”’ and a similar material in a malleable form from which Haynes made pocket-knife blades. Development.—The development of rustless steels appears to follow closely the lines on which ordinary steels have developed. The rustless chromium steels were first used for table cutlery and aero-engine exhaust valves. When the valves were required to offer great resistance to scaling, silicon was added with good effect. When valves were required to be as hard at red heat as ordinary structural steel is at ordinary temperatures, 12 to 30% of nickel was added with good effect. To resist other specific conditions, other metals such as molybdenum, tungsten, manganese and copper have been added. In this way chromium irons are becoming the base of a series of rustless, scaleless and non-corroding alloys, whose possibilities are not likely to be completely explored for many years. Special Difficulties —The development of rustless steel is hampered by two difficulties. The first relates to its adaptability to existing manufacturing processes. This difficulty starts with the actual making of the steel and is met in every hot-working

442

RUTHERFORD

SIR ERNEST—RYKOV

and cold-working process. Apart from its rustlessness the most diverse and often antagonistic properties are required. The second difficulty relates to the smelting of the ore. The ferrochromium alloy can be produced cheaply by smelting chromeiron ore in the blast furnace but it contains unfortunately some 8 or 10% of carbon. This alloy is useless for making rustless steel because it contains too much carbon. For soft varieties of rustless steel the steel maker requires ferro-chromium alloys containing practically no carbon. To take the carbon out of the blast furnace ferro-chromium, costing about £20 per ton, involves an additional cost of £100 per ton. This is the price of ignorance; and it is still not known how to adapt cheap smelting operations to chromium ore without contaminating the product with carbon. Even if suitable chromium alloys were obtainable for nothing, rustless steels would still be more expensive than ordinary steels on account of steel manufacturing defects, which it is costly to avoid or remove. Chromium Plating—Closely bound up with the future of rust-

less steel is the possible development of chromium plating, which is arrested by unforeseen difficulties. Those interested in the production of chromium-plated articles assumed the possibility of covering mild steel with a coating which should exhibit xe plus ulfra resistance to corrosion. The process appears to have failed for the same reason that nickel-plating fails when applied to steel articles exposed to weather conditions, since it is porous, and against a strong light is seen to be perforated. The same is true of chromium plating when peeled off, so that sooner or later moisture would find its way through the perforations and rust the unplated steel surface. Until this trifling defect has been overcome visions of chromium-plated steel castings and plated goods made from pressed mild steel, which would last for ever, are just visions. The unquestioned acceptance of rusting as a characteristic of ordinary steel has concealed the various causes

which promote rusting. Since the introduction of rustless steels individual causes of general corrosion have been more sharply separated and defined. The most notable causes of corrosion, apart from direct solubility, are due to distortion and contact.

Effects of Distortion and Contact.—A piece of rustless steel used for stainless knives and containing, say 13% chromium, will remain bright if exposed in a country garden providing it has been suitably heat-treated. If, however, a piece of the same material be machined in a lathe the machined surface and the turnings themselves will rust, because they are distorted and probably to some extent because adjacent parts of them are distorted unequally. The more smoothly and less violently the surface is machined the less it is likely torust. If ultimately the surface be smoothly ground and polished it will not rust. The polished surface does not offer easy lodgment for casual dirt but otherwise polishing in itself does not appear to exert a great restraint to

rusting. A piece of the same 13% chromium steel, for example, in the form of cold-drawn wite which has simply been highly polished after cold drawing rusts with surprising readiness. The corrosive effects of distortion can generally be avoided or eliminated. In many cases the direct effects are negligible, but the secondary effects of roughly machined surfaces may be serious. Foreign substances which readily adhere to rough surfaces produce contact corrosion. Almost any wet substance will cause corrosion of the lower chromium rustless steels, to start at the point of contact. A piece of string, glass, wood, paper or even the contact in still water of two pieces of the same low grade rustless steel promotes corrosion. In running water, contact corrosion is less noticeable and may even be entirely absent. When the substance in contact with rustless steel 1s some other metal of a more electro-negative character the attack is greater and occurs more quickly. The effects of contact corrosion are also quickened and greater when the contact surfaces are wetted by sea water instead of ordinary water. Contact corrosion of the simpler kinds can be avoided by using higher-chromium rustless steels with or without the addition of nickel. For a few instances —notably in machines pumping hot sea water—the problems are difficult to deal with because the effects appear to contradict general rules and tendencies. This may be taken as a sure indi-

cation that the subject of contact corrosion, a most extended and energetic destroyer, has not been completely explored. (See

also IRON AND STEEL.) BIBLIOGRAPHY.—Sir R. A. Hadfield, “f On the Alloys of Iron and

Chromium,” Jour. Iron and Steel Inst., vol. 2 (1892), with a good bibliography of early work; F. G. Bell, ‘‘ Stainless Steel,” Iron and Coal Trades Review (Aug. 10 1923); J. H. G. Monypenny, ‘ Stainless Steel, with particular Reference to the Milder Varieties,” 7vans. Amer. Inst. Mining and Met. Engineers (Feb. 1924); W. H. Hatfield, “ Stainless and Similar Corrosion Resisting Steels in the Chemical and Allied Industries,” The Industrial Chemist (March 1925); “ Chromium-Nickel Rustless Steels,” The Metallurgist, supplement to The Engineer (Oct. 30 1925); J. H. G. Monypenny, Stainless fron and Steel (1926). (H. BRE.)

RUTHERFORD, SIR ERNEST (1871), British physicist, was born at Nelson, New Zealand, Aug. 30 1871 and studied at the University of New Zealand, where he took the B.Sc. degree in 1894. After a period of research at the Cavendish Laboratory, Cambridge, he became in 1898 Macdonald professor of physics in McGill University, Montreal; in 1907, Langworthy professor of physics at Manchester University; and in rọrọ Cavendish professor of experimental physics in the University of Cambridge, accepting, in addition, in 1920, the professorship of physics at the Royal Institution, London. Ina brilliant series of researches he established the existence and nature of radio-active transformations, the electrical structure of matter, and the nuclear nature of the atom. He was elected F.R.S. in 1903, and was knighted in 1914. Many British and foreign degrees and honours were bestowed upon him, including the Rumford Medal of the Royal Society, 1905, the Barnard Medal 1910, the Bressa Prize 1908, the Copley Medal 1922, and the Franklin Medal r924. He was awarded the Nobel Prize for chemistry in 1908, and the O.M. in 1925 and was President of the British Association in 1923, and of the Royal Society in r925. His works include Radie-activity (1904), Radioactive Transformations (1906); Radioactive Substances and their Radtations (1912), and

numerous papers in The Transactions Philosophical Magazine, etc.

RUTHERFORD,

MARK

of the Royal

Society,

The

(c. 1830-1913), British author

(see

23.940), died at Groombridge, Sussex, March 14 1913. RYAN, JOHN DENIS (1864), American capitalist, was born at Hancock, Mich., Oct. 10 1864. In 1889 he went to Denver, where he was employed as a salesman of lubricating oils. In roor he secured an interest in a bank at Butte. In 1904 he was made manager of the Amalgamated Copper Co. in Montana, becoming president in 1908. He had been elected president of the Anaconda Copper Mining Co. in 1905, and after the merging of the Amalgamated interests in the Anaconda in roro he continued

as president of the latter until 1918. He developed large water powers in Montana and in 1913 electrified the railway between Butte and Anaconda (100 m.), the success of which led to a wide expansion of railway electrification. During 1917-8 Ryan was on the executive of the American Red Cross. He was appointed in April 1918, head of the aircraft board of the Committee of National Defence, and in Aug. was appointed second assistantsecretary of war and director of air service of the U. S. Army, which position he resigned in November. In rọrọ he was elected chairman of the board of directors of the Anaconda Copper Mining Company. RYDER, ALBERT PINKHAM (1847-1917), American painter

(see 23.949), died at Elmhurst, L. I., March 28 r917. RYKOV, ALEXEI IVANOVICH (1881), Russian politician, was born in Saratov, the son of a peasant. Saratov was a place of banishment for revolutionaries, and Rykov came under their influence. When he went to Kazan he was already taking part in social democratic organisations. He was imprisoned and sent back to Saratov to remain under police supervision. Continuing his revelutionary work, he was rearrested, but escaped abroad before his trial. He visited Lenin at Geneva and returned to Russia as a propagandist in various industrial districts. In 1904 he was in Moscow, and in 1905 attended a

congress of the Communist party which elected him a member of the party’s central committee. On returning from the Congress he was arrested in St. Petersburg (Leningrad). He was

443

RYKOV freed by the revolution of 1905, was a representative of the Bolsheviks in the St. Petersburg Workmen’s Soviet and escaped from the capital when the Soviet was arrested. He took part in the Dec. revolt and the fighting on the barricades in Moscow, escaped to Odessa after the failure of that revolt, but presently was again working in Moscow, where he was arrested but once more succeeded in escaping. In 1907 he was arrested and banished to Samara, but went abroad to visit Lenin. He was arrested on returning and exiled to the province of Archangel for three years. He escaped shortly before the end of his term of exile and went to Paris. He

returned to Russia to organise a congress, was arrested in 1grt and remained in prison till 1913, when in Oct. he was sentenced to exile to the Narym district for four years. In 1914 he escaped, went to Samara, was recaptured and sent back to the Narym district, where he remained until the March revolution of r917, after which he worked in the Moscow organisation of the Bolsheviks. He took an active part in the Nov. revolu-

tion, was for some

time president of the supreme

economic

council, and, after the death of Lenin, became president of the council of people’s commissars. He was still occupying this posilion in 1926.

444

SAAR

TERRITORY—SACHAU

AAR (SARRE) TERRITORY; (sce SAAR, 23.953), an industrial and mining district situated on the Franco-German frontier, north of Lorraine and near the iron ore deposits of Briey. Its area is 741 sq. m., its population 770,000. The 31 coal mines employ 72,000 men; the 5 iron and steel plants and subsidiary industries a further 32,000. The larger part of this most important district is Prussian, the smaller Bavarian. From Nov. 1918 to Jan. 1920 it was occupied

by French troops and administered by a French general. Administration under the League of Nations —By Section LV. of the Treaty of Versailles (Jan. 10 1920} Germany ceded to France the full and absolute possession of the coal-mines in the Saar basin as compensation for the destruction of the coal-mines in the north of France and as part payment towards the total reparation due from Germany for the damage caused by the War. The district containing the mines was formed into the

Saar Territory, of which

the frontiers were roughly defined

in the Treaty and afterwards to be exactly traced by a commission. This territory, which is not a state, possesses no sovereign rights and has no permanent existence; it is administered by the

League of Nations, acting as trustee, for the period 1920-35. During this period all powers of government formerly possessed by the German

Empire, Prussia and Bavaria are ceded

by Germany to the League of Nations and exercised by a governing commission of five, to be nominated by and responsible individually and collectively to the League of Nations. One of these five persons must always be a Frenchman, a second always a Saar inhabitant of German nationality; the remaining three members belonging to three countries other than France or Germany. The five are appointed for one year by the Council of the League of Nations, which designates one of them as President. Each member may be reappointed or revoked by the same authority. In view of the dominant French interests, M. Rault, the French member, has held the presidency of the commission from 1920 up to March 31 1926. A consultative council, consisting of 30 members, elected every three years by popular vote of the inhabitants, usually from the local political parties, has been established in an advisory capacity without power of initiative. All new laws and modifications of old ones are submitted to it before being promulgated by the governing commission. A commission of 9 is nominated by the governing commission and tenders its advice on all problems submitted to it by the commission. The power of the commission is not sovercign. France owns the mines! and the territory is subjected to the French customs

Work of the Commission.—The work of the governing commission has been exceedingly diflicult, and was not accomplished without friction, especially during its opening stages. ‘The first acute problem to arise was that of the status of the local officials. It was decided that they should retain their position as German ` officials, but pledge fidelity to the new government. Certain disagreements led, however, in July 1920 to an eight days’ strike of all officials, which threatened to spread to the coal-mines. It was suppressed by the French military, by courts martial and expulsions. That again raised the question whether the presence of a French garrison was desirable in a plebiscite territory. In fact, the French garrison was subsequently reduced and a local gendarmerie raised. The establishment of a Court of Appeal of mainly neutral composition in June 1920 went some way to quieting apprehensions; another step in this direction was the appointment in Sept. 1922 of a Swiss Commissioner to inquire into and provide for the preservation of the records necessary for drawing up the voting test to be used in the plebiscite of 1935. In the spring of 1923, when tension between France! and Germany was high owing to the occupation of the Ruhr, 75,000 miners struck from Feb. 5 to May 15. A second grave political crisis now arose, especially after the Governing Commission had increased the French garrison and promulgated certain repressive measures (decree of March 7). ‘This decree was severely criticised, both in the meeting of the League of Nations on April 23 and

in the British House of Commons in May. The British Govt.

régime. ı France under the Treaty terms had also the right

declared itself in favour of “an impartial inquiry conducted by the machinery of the League into the question of the general administration of the Saar territory.” On Jan. 1 1923 the franc was substituted for the mark as the legal currency. A public inquiry was conducted by the Council of the League on July 6. The Council found it unnecessary to discuss the Provisional Decree of March 7, as this had already been withdrawn (June 18). It “ appreciated the economic considerations ”? which had led to the change of currency; and declared it desirable that “the support of a foreign garrison should be withdrawn so soon as the development of the local gendarmerie permits.” It expressed its “ great appreciation of the administrative work achieved by the Governing Commission.” The present régime in the Saar Territory is inevitably and ipso facio unpopular among the local population. Causes of friction have, however, now been eliminated as far as humanly possible. Economically, on the other hand, the Saar Territory enjoys considerable advantages. It has no army to support, no reparations to pay, no foreign debt and no war debt. It has always been able to balance its budget out of normal current revenue and the per capita taxation on the inhabitants has been low.

to use French money in all matters connected with the exploitation of the mines. In fact, the French franc became the only

Unemployment has rarely exceeded 1-5% of the total working population. Exports in 1924 amounted to 1,123,441,499 francs,

legal currency after June 1 1923. In many other respects, however, the status quo under German rule at the time of the Armis-

imports to 874,642,000 francs. In 1913 the annual production of coal was 13,000,000 tons, the coal reserves about 16,000,000 ,000. Coal production sank in Feb. 1920 to 743,000 tons but rose by Oct. 1923 to 1,223,000 tons. It is thus over the pre-War average.

tice is maintained. The inhabitants retain their local Assemblies, religious liberties, schools, language and nationality. The governing commission administers the following departments: public works, railways, ports, telegraphs, agriculture, social insurance, forests, public instruction, trade and commerce, foreign relations, finance, public welfare and decides all ques-

tions arising from the interpretation of the Treaty stipulations which concern the government of the Territory. In 1935 a plebiscite will be held, on the result of which the League of Nations will decide whether the Territory or certain portions of it shall continue to be governed autonomously under the League, be united with France or again be governed by Germany. After 1935 the coal mines may under certain conditions be repurchased by Germany. 1 The mines now belong to the French State and are under the direct control of the French Minister of Public Works in Paris through an administrative head in Saarbrücken.

The monthly average production of pigiron (115,000 tons) and steel (120,000 tons) is also above pre-War figures. Since Jan. 10 1925, under the Treaty terms, a customs barrier has been imposed between Germany and the Saar, which thereby becomes incorporated within the French Customs régime. This has necessitated finding and developing new markets throughout the world. Future prosperity will be influenced by the terms of an ultimate Trade Agreement between France and Germany. Biptiocraruy.—J. Kollmann, Die Grossindustrie des Saargebiets (Berlin, 1911); Treaty of Versailles, Part III, Section IV, Annex. Chapter I (1920); League of Nations Official Journal (1920-5); A. Allot, Le Bassin de la Sarre (1924); A. Ruppertsberg, Geschichte des Saargebiets (Berlin, 1924). (G. W. S.)

SACHAU, CARL EDUARD (1845), German scholar, was born July 20 1843 at Neumünster in Holstein. In 1869 he was

SAFEGUARDING OF INDUSTRY appointed Professor of Semitic languages at the University of ‘Vienna, and in 1876 professor of Oriental languages at Berlin, where he became director of the school of Oriental languages. In 1879-80 he travelled extensively in Syria and Mesopotamia, and in 1897-8 in Babylonia and Assyria, for the purposes of study. Sachau was a member of the academies of sciences of Berlin, Vienna, London, Leningrad and Helsingfors. His chief works are: Gdwdltki's Almurrab (1867); Syriaca Inedita (1870); Syrisch-romisches Rechisbuch aus dem 5. Jahrhundert (1890); Reise in Syrien und Mesopotamien (1883); Neuarabische Volkslieder aus Mesopotamien (1889); Katalog persischer Handschriften. (1889); Muhammedanisches Erbrecht von Zanstbar und Ost-Afrika (1894); ‘im Euphrat und Tigrts (1900); Syrische Rechisbiicher (1907-14); Vom Asiatischen Reich der Ttirket (1915). For a complete bibliography of the works of Sachau, see S. Weil, Die Festschrift zu Ehren Ed. Sachaus, 1915.

SAFEGUARDING OF INDUSTRY.—This is a term which has come into use to designate a policy, entered upon by Great Britain after the World War, of tariff protection to particular industries under certain definitely prescribed conditions. The idea took shape at the Economic Conference of the Allies in Paris in 1916. The first of the resolutions concerning permanent measures, as distinct from war and reconstruction measures, was as follows :— The Allies decide to take the necessary steps to render themselves independent of the enemy countries in so far as regards the raw materials and manufactured articles essential to the normal development of their economic activities.

The signatories—including, of course, Great Britain—retained complete freedom as to the nature of the measures to be adopted, and expressly added that, in deciding upon them, they would “ have regard to the principles which govern their economic

policy.” The Balfour Committee —The further consideration of the matter was at once referred by Mr. Asquith, the Prime Minister, to the Committee on Commercial and Industrial Policy after the War, presided over by Lord Balfour of Burleigh. In an interim report in March 1917 it drew a distinction between the great

staple industries of the country and those producing “certain special commodities essential to national safety as being absolutely indispensable to important British industries, which were supplied before the War entirely or mainly from present enemy sources or from sources under present enemy control.” The report also set forth the position with respect to synthetic dyes, spelter, tungsten, magnetos, optical and chemical glass, hosiery needles, thorium nitrate, gauges and drugs, as pivotal or “‘ key ” industries. The committee presented its final report on Dec. 3 1917, definitely recommending that ‘some Governmental action should be taken to promote and safeguard the development in the United Kingdom of industries of a special or pivotal character ’’; and also expressing the opinion that “ the producers of this country are entitled to require from the Government that they should be protected in their home market against dumping.” Dumping was defined as “ the sale of goods at prices lower than those at which the goods are currently offered in the country of manufacture.” No action was taken on these recommendations until Aug. 1921, when the Coalition Govt. secured the passage of the Safeguarding of Industries Act, 1921. This dealt, in Part I., with the safeguarding of key industries, and in Part I]. with the prevention of dumping, authorising, in each case, a duty of one-third of the value. Key industries were specified in a schedule to the Act; the Board of Trade was authorised to issue lists in accordance therewith; and

complaints as to improper inclusion in, or exclusion from, the lists were to be considered by a referee appointed by the Lord Chancellor. The duration of this part of the Act was for five years. The enactment as to dumping in Part II. was restricted to goods other than articles of food or drink; and dumping was defined by implication as sale “at prices below the cost of production,” which was itself defined as “ 95%% of the wholesale price at the works.” But under Part II. were now included conditions beyond those contemplated in 1917. The depreciation of the exchanges of continental countries, especially of Germany, had been accompanied by a “ lag ” between the internal and external value of their currencies, which, so long as

445

it continued, gave their exports an advantage in forcign markets, thus exposing the home manufactures of those markets to an exceptional but, it might be, ruinous competition,

Accordingly the Act added to the goods with respect to which action could be taken those sold “at prices which, by reason of depreciation in the value in relation to sterling of the currency of the country in which the goods are manufactured (not being a country within His Majesty’s dominions) are below the prices at which similar goods can be profitably manufactured in the United Kingdom.” On complaint being made to the Board of Trade, the Board must satisfy itself that the value of the currency of the country in question had fallen by at least one-third in relation to sterling. Whether it was alleged that the imports were being “ dumped ” in the usual sense, or sold cheaply on account of the rate of exchange,

the Board was required to satisfy itself that there was a prima facie case for maintaining that such imports were seriously affecting employment. It might then refer the complaint to a special committee, selected from a permanent panel mainly of persons of commercial or industrial experience, which was directed to report as to whether the conditions were satisfied; into the effect which the im-

position of a duty would exert on any other industry using the goods

as materials; and also as to whether the threatened industry in the ae Kingdom was being carried on with reasonable economy and emciency.,

If the report was satisfactory, the Board of Trade was given power, but not required, to make an order applying the Act, so long as it was not at variance with any engagement with any forcign state. The draft of the order must, however, be approved by the House of Commons before it became operative. Such an order, unless renewed, would not be valid for more than three years, and if made on the ground of depreciation of currency for more than three years after the passing of the Act.

Four Classes of Goods Safeguarded.—Most of the applications received were adversely reported upon; but four having been adjudged to fulfill all the conditions, formed the subjects of a draft order laid before the [louse of Commons in June 1922, and approved by Resolution of the House at the end of July. In each instance the complaint had been made on the ground of depreciated exchanges. The order applied to four descriptions of goods manufactured in Germany: fabric gloves and glove fabric, domestic glassware, illuminating glassware and domestic hollowware. The case of fabric gloves had previously been referred back to the committee that it might consider the assertion that the Lancashire cotton trade would be injured by the effect which the duty would have on the export of yarn from England, and it had reported, repeating its former recommendation. In the case of glassware, though the report of the committee had included imports from Czechoslovakia, that country had been so successful in stabilising its currency before the order was actually prepared, that the President of the Board of Trade, in the exercise of his discretion under the Act, determined to limit the imposition of duties to imports from Germany. In Oct. 1922 a further order was made with respect to gas mantles from Germany, the complainants having satisfied a committee that the conditions of the Act were in fact satisfied. The time required by so elaborate a procedure and the limited duration of the promised safeguarding prevented any further action being taken before the fall of the first Baldwin administration at the end of 1923. Asto the effect of the orders it is difficult to form any confident opinion, in view of the continuance, outside the particular trades under the Act, of the severe general

depression of trade. But there seems reason to believe that in the case of domestic hollow-ware some improvement was discernible, and that in the other cases the trades were enabled to keep alive, and were saved from the still greater decline they would otherwise have experienced. zl Change tn Procedure.—On the formation of tne second Baldwin administration a new procedure was adopted. The general conditions on which safeguarding duties would be granted were announced on Feb. 3 1925, ina White Paper (Cmd. 2327, 1925), together with the intention of the Government, when a prima facie case had been made out and reported on favourably by a special committee, and the imposition of a duty had been concurred in by the Board of Trade and the Treasury, to proceed by the ordinary methods of financial legislation, with all their customary safeguards. To the conditions imposed by the earlier Act were now added (1) that the applicant industry should be “of substantial importance, on account of the volume of

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SAFETY

FIRST

employment or the nature of the goods,” and (2) that the competing imports should be “ abnormal.” The term ‘‘ dumping ” dis-

of educating their employees in the necessity of being on their guard against the risks of modern machinery and high speed

appeared; and it was now made necessary to prove that the competition came “‘ largely from countries where the conditions are so different ... as to render it unfair.” ‘‘ Unfairness ” was

transport.

limited to one or more of the following causes:— (a) Depreciation of currency, operating so as to create an export bounty. (b) Subsidies, bounties and other artificial advantages. (c) Inferior conditions of employment of labour. The special committee in each case might “ call attention to any special circumstances by reason of which the industry in the United Kingdom was placed at a serious relative disadvantage.” Finally, the committee was called upon, in the event of the claim to a duty being made out, to express its opinion as to the rate of duty which ‘‘ would be reasonably sufficient to counteract the unfair competition.” The operation of the previous Act had been restricted by existing treaty obligations, and a commercial treaty had recently been made with Germany extending to that country most favoured nation rights. The Government therefore now determined that any safeguarding duties imposed under the new Act should be general in their application and not limited to imports from particular countries. Four Further Applications Granted.—Out of more than a score of applications in the course of the next few months, four succeeded in satisfying the conditions of the Act. The first of these reports, that on lace and embroidery, was in time to be given effect to in the Finance Act 1925, which imposed an import duty of one-third of the value. The other three were given effect to in the Safeguarding of Industries (Customs Duties) Act 1925, which, after long debates, became law on Dec. 22. This imposed for five years a duty of one-third of the value on imports of certain classes of cutlery and on both leather and fabric gloves, and also a specific duty on incandescent mantles. The lace, cutlery and glove trades were deemed important by reason of the volume of employment they provided. The gas mantle industry was considered important in view of its character. During the War it had been discovered that there was vital need in every branch of gunnery of the rare metals thorium and cerium for the manufacture of searchlights, and it was held that the only chance of maintaining the production of these metals was to give those engaged in their extraction the one commercial market furnished by the gas mantle trade. The report of the committee appointed by the Board of Trade upon:— (a) The effect of Part I. of the Safeguarding of Industries Act 1921, on the Development of the industries manufacturing the goods covered by the Schedule to that Act. (b) The question of the Desirability or otherwise of an extension of Part I. of the Act after its expiry on Aug. 19 1926. (c) The question of the desirability of inclusion within the ambit of the Schedule of any articles or substances not now covered.

was published on April 22 1926 (Cmd. 2631 of 1926). The committee recommended the continuation, and in certain cases, the increase or extension of rates of duty, and the continuation of the safeguarding Duties for a minimum of five years, and preferably ten years. BIBLIOGRAPHY.— Final Report of the Committee on Commercial and Industrial Policy after the Wer (Cd. 9035, 1918); and Oficial Reports of Parliamentary Debates (Hansard’s), especially those in the House of Commons (Aug. 11 Ig21, July 31 1922; and Dec. 9 1925). (Wa. A.)

SAFETY FIRST.—The origin of the safety movement or, as it is more popularly called, the Safety First movement, is often disputed. The United States first developed the idea on an organised national basis, but the principles were in practice much earlier in Great Britain and elsewhere. In the middle of the roth century an association was formed in Manchester to prevent the disasters due to boiler explosions; early in the 2oth century certain undertakings, notably Lever Bros., Cadbury Bros. and

the Great Western Railway Co., were developing the principle

The slogan “ safety first ’ was certainly used on a large scale in America first of all. Its origin lies in an old railway rule “ The SAFETY of the public shall be the first consideration of the staff.” The slogan caught on, and, though often misinterpreted as implying that all other considerations are of secondary importance, no better substitute has yet been evolved. It is the motto for a movement which aims at educating the community in the common sense principles necessary to cope with the everincreasing and inevitable risks inseparable from modern conditions. The majority of all accidents should not, and need not, occur. Campaign tn Great Britain.—The beginning of the British national campaign was in London in 1916. At an important conference it was decided to form the London Safety First Council to deal with London’s street dangers, and this body has been in active existence ever since. Composed of representatives from the various London local authorities, transport and business undertakings, together with experts on traffic matters, it has waged a continuous educative campaign in the London area, particularly in the schoals. Nearly 200,000 school children participate annually in its essay competition; over 15,000 motor drivers enter annually for its “ freedom from accidents ’? competition. Over 1,000,000 posters and warnings have been displayed in schools and elsewhere, whilst the chief transport undertakings have supplemented the campaign by additional efforts. It is claimed that, owing to these activities, there are fewer children killed on the London streets than was the case previously; that the rate of increase in London’s accidents is less than in the provinces; and that the standard of both drivers’ and pedestrians’ watchfulness is higher in the metropolis than elsewhere. Safety Work in Industry—tIn 1918 attention was directed to the value of accident prevention work in industry, and the British Industrial Safety First Association was formed to deal with this side of the problem. Its gravity is best indicated by the fact that 200,000 More persons were compensated for industrial accidents in the five years following the War than were wounded in the previous five years of War. Members of this Association, who took up organised accident prevention work, found that they were able very materially to reduce the number of their accidents, in some cases by as much as 70 to 80%. These results were achieved by co-operation between employer and employed, and by impressing the necessary common-sense precautions by means of posters and allied measures for interesting and educating the workers. A National Campaign.—The growth of motor traffic, and so the toll of street accidents, which rose from 36,000 in 1918 to well over 100,000 in 1925, directed attention to the need of a general national campaign. In 1924 the British Industrial Safety First Association and the London Safety First Council were merged in a National Safety First Association, and in that year

and in 1925, with the support of the great motoring and other organisations, a national campaign was inaugurated. With the co-operation of many local authorities, education committees and chief constables, safety instruction was given in schools; the public were instructed through the medium of the Press, of posters and of the association’s journal, Safety First, and arrangements were made whereby a pamphlet on safe motoring was issued with every motor driving licence. In eight of the chief provincial centres, branches of the association were formed for the purpose of initiating work on the lines successfully carried out by the London Safety First Council. Other Countries Corresponding accident prevention bodies exist, or are in process of formation, in practically all countries. The oldest and most influential is the National Safety Council of America, with a very large membership and field of activity. Other bodies are the Canadian National Safety League, the Industrial Accident Prevention Association of Canada, the

Association des Industriels (Accident Prevention) of France, the Association des Industriels (Accident Prevention) of Belgium,

.

SAGE—ST. GERMAIN, TREATY OF the Associazione degli Industriali (Accident Prevention) of Italy and the National Insurance Institute, Trieste. The International Labour Office at Geneva has a special department dealing with accident prevention. (See INDUSTRIAL WELFARE.) (J. A. À. P.) SAGE, MARGARET OLIVIA SLOCUM (1828-1918), American philanthropist, was born at Syracuse, N.Y., Sept. 8 1828. After graduating in 1847 from the Troy (N.¥.) Female Seminary, afterwards known as the Emma Willard School, she taught in various schools until 1869, when she became the second wife of Russell Sage (see 23.1002). She proved herself a shrewd business woman and for several years before his death had full control of his affairs. She had long been interested in charities, and he left to her without restriction his entire fortune, over $64,000,000, doubtless foreseeing its probable final distribution to charity. In 1907 the Russell Sage Foundation was incorporated for the “ improvement of social and living conditions of the United States of America,” and to it she gave $10,000,000. In 1912 Mrs. Sage bought Marsh I., off the Louisiana coast, containing about 79,000 ac., later turned over to the state as a permanent refuge for birds. She died in New York City Nov. 4 1918. Her will provided that after bequests to relatives and friends amounting to about $12,000,000, the residue, some $36,000,000, should be divided into 52 parts and variously distributed to many colleges, museums, hospitals, charitable institutions, Bible societies and missions. To most of these she had made gifts during her lifetime. The largest portion, seven parts, was left to the Russell Sage Foundation. It was estimated that during her life she had made public gifts of some $40,000,000. SAID HALIM, Prince (1863-1921), Turkish statesman, the son of Halim Pasha and the grandson of Mohammed Ali, the founder of the present Egyptian Dynasty, was born in Cairo and was educated in Turkey, completing his studies in Geneva. Exiled because of his sympathy with the Young Turkish movement, he affiliated himself to the Committee of Union and Progress in Paris. After the revolution of July 1908 he returned to Constantinople and was nominated Senator. At various times from 1908 to 1918 he was President of the Council of State, Minister for Foreign Affairs and general secretary to the Union and Progress party. On June 17 1913 he became Grand Vizier, in which capacity he endeavoured to settle the questions of Armenian reforms, Mosul oil, and the participation of English, French and Russian capital in the Baghdad railway. He also endeavoured to establish close relations with Greece. Prince Said Halim favoured a Turco-German alliance, but sought to keep Turkey neutral in the World War. On her entry into the War he tendered his resignation, which was refused, and he remained in office until Feb. 1917. After the Armistice of Moudros, Oct. 31 1918, Prince Said Halim was imprisoned by the British in Malta. Released in 1921, he was assassinated in Rome on Dec. 6 r921. One of the last representatives of old Turkish Grands Seigneurs, Prince Said Halim was a connoisseur of Oriental as well as Occidental fine arts. He founded the Evkaf for Muslim Arts in Constantinople, and the school for Turkish decorative writing and miniature. SAID PASHA, MEHMED (1838-1914), Turkish statesman, was born at Erzerum, the son of Ali Namik Effendi, formerly

chargé d’affaires at Tehran.

In 1876 he became first secretary

to the Sultan Abdul Hamid II. and afterwards senator. After the Russo-Turkish Peace in 1878, he became minister of justice, and

showed energy and initiative in carrying through important legal reforms. In 1879 he was appointed grand vizier, a post which he held nine times in all. In 1881 he established the administration of the public debt, and the tobacco monopoly. In 1885, owing to his having advocated armed intervention to restore the status quo in Bulgaria, he was replaced by Kiamil Pasha. At the time of the Armenian massacres he was again in power, but was dismissed in 1895, and was forced to take refuge at the British Embassy. During the revolt of the Young Turks in 1908 he was called on by Abdul Hamid to form a Cabinet, but was unsuccessful in his attempts to defend the old régime. After the revolution he was for some time president of the

447

Senate, and in rorr succeeded Hakki Pasha as grand vizier. In rọr3 he again became president of the Senate, and died in Constantinople March 1 1914. Said Pasha was a remarkable speaker; and, combining as he did the culture of both East and West, may be considered as one of the most experienced and farseeing Turkish Ministers of the roth century. His Memoirs in three volumes are a justification of his policy; and an account of his legal reforms will be found in the blue book, Turkey (1881, No. 8). ST. ALDWYN, MICHAEL EDWARD HICKS-BEACH, rst Ear (1837-1916), British statesman (sce 23.1013), was created an earl in 1915. He died in London April 30 1916.

ST. ANDREWS, UNIVERSITY OF (see 23.1015).—In St. Andrews, the Chandos chair of medicine has been converted into the chair of physiology and new chairs have been instituted in anatomy and English. In the scientifc departments lectureships in various branches have been instituted. The gift, by Prof. Thomas Purdie, of a chemical research laboratory gave a great impetus to research work in chemistry, and Prof. Purdie’s widow bequeathed an endowment fund for the fostering of research. The laboratory has played an important part in the development of research. Among the modern additions to the university may be mentioned the establishment of a botanical garden and of the Gatty marine laboratory. The original scheme of the colleges involved the residence of the students in the college buildings and that system continued till about the beginning of the roth century. Towards the middle of that century an effort was made to revive this system, which, however, was not maintained. In 10921 a residence for men students was established, and in 1926 a beginning was made with the erection of a residence hall on a more extensive scale. Dr. and Mrs. Younger, of Mount Melville, gave to the university the site and building of a large graduation hall adjoining the united college buildings. By Mr. Andrew Carnegie gifts were made to the university of a large recreation park with pavilion adjoining, a gymnasium and a very considerable addition to the university library buildings. Mrs. Carnegie gave to the university a building for a women students’ union or club house. The men students’ union (originated in 1898) has been extended and improved under a gift to the university by Dr. William Low of Blebo. A number of bursaries, scholarships and prizes have been established by the donation of funds to the university, and among other funds is the Lady Donaldson fund for the benefit of students who fall ill during their college course. At University College, Dundee, a chair of bacteriology and a large number of Iectureships in various branches of medical science and practice have been established. | To the original buildings of University College, Dundee, have been added a block of medical buildings, an electrical engineering laboratory, a mechanical engineering laboratory, library, fives court and students’ union. A hostel for women students has been established in Dundee.

ST. GERMAIN, TREATY OF (see also VERSAILLES, TRIANON AND NEUILLY, TREATIES OF).—Austria and Hungary had up to 1918 formed a diplomatic unit; but in Oct. 1918 they were virtually two separate States. The Armistice of Nov. 3 still recognised Austria-Hungary as a diplomatic unit, but Austria was proclaimed a Republic Nov. 12, as was Hungary Nov. 16. The Armistice concluded by the Powers direct with Hungary (Nov. 13) recognised Hungary’s de facto independence of Austria. All the Powers, except the United States, early asserted that the “Fourteen Points,” etc., did not apply to the settlements with Austria and Hungary. In fan. rọrọ it was known that even Wilson favoured including in Italy part of the Slovene population of Istria and Carniola, and would make Italy further concessions. On April 14 he agreed to grant Italy the Tirol south of the Brenner Pass, with over 250,000 Germans, as well as the Trentino, as already agreed by France and Great Britain. It was known also that the Czechoslovak State would include over 3,000,000 Germans. Austria was to be reduced to some two-thirds of her German-speaking territories. In mid-April

448

ST. LAWRENCE—ST.

M. Clemenceau obtained from his Allies the further important

LOUIS

ST. LOUIS (see 24.24)——-The population of St. Louis July r 1925 was 821,543 (census bureau estimate), an increase of 48,545 since 1920. The increase from rgro to 1920 was 85,868, or 12%. The population figures are for limits fixed in 1876, when St. Louis city and St. Louis county were separated. An amendment (adopted in 1924) to the constitution of Missouri authorises the extension of the city limits into the county if the plan is On May 2 the Austrian delegation was invited to Paris. approved by the voters of both city and county. The city, the On June 2 they were presented with a very imperfect draft counties of St. Louts and St. Charles in Missouri and the counties of St. Clair and Madison in Jilinois form the St. Louis industrial treaty, followed by a more detailed one on July 20. Austria made great protests, turning mainly on two points. She asserted the district of the U.S. census. The city charter of 1914 reduced elective officers to mayor, applicability of the ‘“ Fourteen Points” to her case, and her comptroller, president and board of aldermen, collector, treasurer, tight therefore to retain all her German subjects. President Wilson alone was willing to extend the application of the “ Four- recorder of deeds, sheriff and coroner with four-year terms. Each of 28 wards has a resident alderman elected by citywide vote. teen Points ” to Austria; the Treaty assigned 3,500,000 Germans to Czechoslovakia, 230,000 to Italy. The other main point of The mayor, the comptroller and the president of the board of dispute was how far Austria must accept the responsibilities of aldermen form a board of estimate and apportionment with conold Austria-Hungary. The Allies finally decided that the trol of appropriations. The board of public service (appointive) Austrian Republic was not a new State but an old one lopped of consists of a president and four directors of divisions—public welfare, public safety, public utilities, and streets and sewers, with certain outlying provinces and endowed with a new Government. The Allies recognised this Government de facto by accept- departments and bureaus under them. The tax rate of 1925 was ing their credentials on May 22 and de jure on Sept. 10, by sign- $2.57 per $roo assessment. Assessed valuation of realty, personalty and utilities increased from $775,500,000 in 1921 10 $1,075,ing the treaty with them at St. Germain-en-Laye. It came 099,930 for the taxes of 1925. into force on July 16 1920. City Improvement Plan.—In 1923 St. Louis voted $87,000,000 Part I. The Covenant, and Part XIII. Labour, are as in the in bonds for a great scheme of city improvement. The bonds Treaty of Versailles. . Part II. of the Austrian Treaty details the borders of the new provided $8,500,000 for widening and $5,800,000 for improving Austrian State. i , , 69 m. of streets; $12,000,000 for waterworks on the Missouri Part III. Political clauses for Europe.—This deals with technical river, doubling the present supply of water taken from the Misdetails such as the financial obligations of the former Austrian sissippl; $11,000,000 to put underground the River des Pères in Empire, as affecting Italy, Yugoslavia, Czechoslovakia and Rumania. Articles 49-50 arranged for a plebiscite in two areas of the Klagenthe western suburbs; $2,600,000 for a plaza and park fronting furt basin. This plebiscite, taken in 1920, went in Austria’s favour. Union station; $2,500,000 for new parks and playgrounds, with West Hungary, with about 333,000 souls, was transferred from $1,300,000 for improving old ones; $8,000,000 for city-wide Hungary to Austria but ultimately, in 1921, without its chicf town electric lighting; $8,000,000 for reconstruction of sewers; $400,000 (see BURGENLAND). Further clauses in Part II. dealt with the protection of racial and religious minorities. Article No. 88 prohibits for an aquarium; $4,000,000 for eleemosynary institutions; and Austria from alienating her independence (7.e¢., joining Germany) $1,250,000 for city markets. The bonds voted provide also otherwise than with the consent of the Council of the League of $5,000,000 for a memorial plaza occupying 9 city blocks (27 ac.) Nations. : between Market and Olive streets, west of Twelfth street boulePart IV. Austrian Interests Outside Europe.—As in the Treaty vard. The new buildings on the plaza will be a courthouse, of Versailles this part provides for a total renunciation of State properties immovable and movable outside Europe, and also of treaties, $4,000,000; and auditorium and convention hall, $5,000,000; and capitulations, concessions, etc., in the following countries: Morocco, a World War memorial, $1,000,000. Existing public buildings igypt, Siam and China. in the plaza group include the municipal courts, the city hall and Part V. Military, Naval and Air Clauses followed the general the public library. lines of the similar clauses in the Treaty of Versailles but showed somewhat more consideration to Austria. A long-service voluntary | Municipal improvements accomplished since roro include a force not exceeding 30,000 was allowed. The manufacture of arms, permanent open-air theatre in Forest Park with seats for 9,275; etc., was confined to a single factory (article 132). The naval clauses a free steel bridge costing $7,500,000; viaducts over railways, were very drastic; the whole Austro-Hungarian Navy was broken $700,000; and new school buildings, $5,000,000. Additions to up or distributed among the Allies, Austria only retaining four patrol boats on her inland waters. The air clauses were as in the German Washington University were endowment gifts ($1,500,000) and Treaty. new buildings for the medical, art, biological and other departPan VI. Prisoners of War and Graves; Part XI. Aerial Navigaments, costing $3,000,000. To St. Louis University James tion, were asin the German Treaty, with a few very small alterations. Campbell left an estate of $10,000,000 for a hospital and the Part VII. Penalties provided for the trial before Allied military Tribunals of Austrian offenders against the laws and customs of advancement of medicine and surgery. Three new hospitals— war. This provision was not executed, Barnes, the Jewish and the Children’s—represent, with endowPart VIII. Reparations; Part IX. Financial Clauses; Part X. ments, $5,000,000. Irom the surplus of the Louisiana purchase Economic Clauses.—By article 177 Austria accepted responsibility exposition the Jefferson memorial was built, costing $500,000, for herself and her Allies for causing loss and damage to the Allied for the Missouri Historical Society. (Entente) Governments by the War. The rest of the “ Reparation Chapter ”’ followed the corresponding section in the German Treaty. Trade and Industry —The total resources of banks and trust No lump sum was fixed, but discretion was, in effect, given to the companies in 1925 were $523,114,561; deposits, $536,701,672; Reparation Commission to fix it. Austria handed over her whole capital stock $42,950,000. Clearings for 1924 were $7,174,034,commercial flect and much livestock to the Allies. Czechoslovakia, ooo. In 1925 St. Louis industries included the largest plants in Yugoslavia, Poland and Rumania had, however, to contribute to the expenses incurred by the Allies in liberating their territory from the United States for the manufacture of shoes, street cars, Austria. The financial clauses involved many complex questions stamped ware, stoves and ranges, drugs, tobacco, lead and as to the allocation of pre-War debt and the distribution of war brick. Operating 11 tanneries and 4o factories, the Jeading shoe debts. All these provisions were somewhat relaxed by the Supreme company reached a production of 150,000 pairs daily in 1925. Council on March 17 1921, and the process was completed by Austria placing her finances under control of the League in Sept. 1922 (see Recent development in metals has been marked, giving St. Austria). | | Louis the largest steel-casting plant in the world. An industrial Part XII, Ports, waterways and railways, merely stressed some district employing 55,000 has developed in northwest St. Louis points in the corresponding section of the German Treaty. See Treaty Series, No. 11 (Cmd. 400 of 1919); also H. W. V. since ro15. Rail freight tonnage received increased from 43,Temperley (ed.), A History of the Peace Conference of Paris, vol. 000,000 in 1920 tO 52,000,000 in 1923; shipments out increased iv. and v. (Institute of International Affairs, London, 1921). from 29,000,000 to 35,000,000 in the same years. Receipts of (IL W. V.T.) grain in 1924 were 113,974,000 bushels. Receipts of hogs in 1923 ST. LAWRENCE: see GREAT LAKES ANDST. LAWRENCE; also 24.21. were 4,800,000. (W. B. ST.) decision to prohibit union between Austria and Germany without the unanimous consent of the Council of the League. This was embodied in the draft treaty with Germany of May 6, and formed article 80 of the Treaty of Versailles of June 28, appearing as article 88 of the Treaty of Saint-Germain, and Article 72 of the Tieaty of Neuilly.

ST. MIHIEL, BATTLE OF—ST. PAUL ST. MIHIEL, BATTLE OF.—For four years the St. Mihiel salient had projected 28 km. deep into the French lines. Its original purpose, to serve as one of the jaws of a nutcracker attack on Verdun having failed, it was used in 1916 as the anvil against which Von Falkenhayn sought in vain to drive home his hammer blows against Verdun from the north. In the spring of 1018 Ludendorff again hoped through its possession to gain Verdun, and much more by the wider encircling attack in Champagne of July rs, but again the attack failed. During all these years the salient had been not only a threat of further German aggression but a serious interruption of French railway communication with both the Verdun and Lorraine front. In 1915 the French Army had twice attacked to compel evacuation of the salient, but both attacks had failed, the first, made in April at Les Eparges, with serious losses.

Tactically the salient afforded

the Germans a strong defensive position. The Côte de Meuse, a range of hills rising abruptly 1,600 ft. above the Meuse valley, afforded strong supporting points on the western face of the salient, while Mont Sec and the lower-lying hills south of the Rupt de Mad were well adapted to a strong defensive organisation (see WESTERN FRONT CAMPAIGNS). The Attack Assigned to the A.E.F.—To the General Staff of the American Expeditionary Forces, even before its arrival in France, the reduction of the St. Mihiel salient had appealed strongly as a favourable initial operation for the American Army as soon as sufficient forces should have arrived to undertake it. The reason for this selection was in part that the nature of the salient enabled an offensive to be undertaken there with relatively small forces such as the A.E.F. might hope to have by the following spring, but mainly because at this point the eventually preponderant American forces could strike a most serious blow by the capture of Metz, which was not only important as a railway centre, but the heart of a vital industrial region. The staff further deemed it important to begin at once the installations and lines of communication necessary for both the reduction of the salient and the subsequent operations. Gen. Pershing discussed this view with Gen. Pétain in June tory, and, after a further study of the front, port facilities and railway lines, it had been adopted as a working plan. However, the success of the German offensive operations in the spring of 1918 caused the plan temporarily to be laid aside, and during both the spring and summer of that year American troops in France were scattered along the Western Front to meet needs of the moment. By the end of July the situation had stabilised sufficiently in favour of the Allies to enable the question of reuniting the troops of the American Army to be again discussed. On July 24 Foch confirmed the understanding arrived at the previous year that the first independent American operation should be the reduction of the St. Mihiel salient. A few wecks later he authorised the transfer to the American LI. Army of the sector of the Allied front facing the salient. This transfer was made on Aug. 30. The Allied Plan —By this time the American Army consisted of forces far beyond the number required for the mere reduction of the salient, and the question of their subsequent employment had to be considered. Pershing had naturally desired to exploit the St. Mihiel attack to the utmost. Foch, with other plans in mind, limited the attack strictly to the reduction of the salient. By Foch’s direction, Pétain on Sept. 2 issued the directive for the operation, which called for a main attack on the south to debouch from the plateau Seicheprey-Limey toward the objective Vigneulles-Thiaucourt, and a secondary attack, to debouch from the vicinity of Eparges-Mouilly toward the southeast and, in connection with the main attack, to effect the cutting off of the German forces in the salient. To the main attack there were assigned eight American divisions; to the secondary, one American and one French; the French troops occupying the intermediate sector were to exercise pressure against the enemy forces in the apex. The wording and date of this directive and the disproportionate number of American divisions assigned to the main attack, which alone could hope speedily to reach the Afichel Stellung, across the mouth of the salient, suggest that it was

449

originally drafted with a view to at least a partial exploitation of the attack, to include the seizure of the Michel Stellung, but that in a subsequent alteration, to conform to Foch’s insistence on a

more limited scope to the attack, only the names of the objectives were changed. Dispositions of the Opposing Forces.—Gen. Pershing’s order for the attack assigned the main attack to the I. and IV. Corps, each of which were given four divisions, including two regular divisions, and the secondary attack on the Côte de Meuse, to the V. Corps, the attacking troops of which consisted of one American National Guard Div. and one French division; the French If. Colonial Corps in the centre was to guard the adjacent flanks of the main and secondary attacks, to execute deep raids, and to be prepared to follow up a withdrawal. At the disposal of the American I. Army for the operation were 2,971 guns, mostly French artillery. The I. Army also had a marked superiority in aviation, thanks to French co-operatien and the assistance of the British Independent Air Force. On the German side the salient was held by Army Detachment C, under Gen. Fuchs, comprising eight divisions on the line, organised into three corps groups, and three divisions in reserve. As early as Sept. r a deserter had given the Germans warning of the impending attack, and Ludendorii had at the {ime seriously considered ordering a withdrawal from the salient, but was deterred by the representations of the army detachment and army group commanders, who were confident of their ability to hold. By Sept. 8, however, the evidences of the coming attack on the salient had become unmistakable, and Army Detachment C was ordered to withdraw to the Michel Stellung. No need for haste was felt and the preparations were deliberate and methodical. The night preceding the attack the dismounted batteries were being withdrawn, and consequently could not be

used in the battle. Launching of the Alfack.Preceded by a four-hour bombardment the main attack was launched at 5 A.M. on Sept. 12; the secondary attack at 8 A.M. Deprived of most of its artillery support the German infantry, although ordered to hold, made virtually no resistance. The American I. Army on the right made its objectives in a few hours and, in spite of German counterattacks brought by two of the divisions in reserve, begged permission to continue its advance; but, because of the precise instructions by which Pershing felt himself bound, this permission was refused. The IV. and V. Corps also made at an early hour their first-day objectives and halted awaiting further orders. Instructions were at once dispatched for the two corps to join hands at Vigneulles to cut off the apex of the salient. These instructions did not reach the troops until after dark on the 12th, so that the connection, though unopposed, was not effected until the morning of the 13th. Meanwhile the German commander had ordered the complete evacuation of the salient, which had not been attacked from the front, and the movement was successfully carried out during the night. In the course of Sept. 13 and 14 troops of the American IV. and Y. Corps and French II. Colonial Corps moved forward without opposition to the line designated by Foch, facing the Michel Stellung, which the I. Corps had already reached on the r2th. Of the troops engaged on the Allied side 555,000 were American, and 1r1o,ooo were French. American losses were 7,511, of which considerably more than half were borne by the I. Corps, which received the brunt of the counter-attack; French losses were 597. The captures included over 15,000 prisoners and 443 guns.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.—J. A. de Peireton Chambrun

and

Charles de

Marenches, The American Army in the European Conflict (1919); F. Palmer, Our Greatest Battle (1919); Final Report of General John J.

Pershing (1919); A. W. Page, Our rr0 Days Fighting (1920).

|

|

(A. L. C.)

ST. PAUL, Minnesota, U.S.A. (see 24.35), had in 1920a population of 234,698, of whom 51,722 were foreign-born (Swedes and Germans predominating) and 3,376 were negroes. The census bureau estimate for 1925 was 246,001. Bank clearings increased from $538,600,000 in Igro to $1,659,900,000 In 1924,

450

ST. PETERSBURG—SALISBURY,

The factory out put was valued at $58,990,000 in 1909; $149,638,000 in 1919; and about the same in 1923 ($1 50,355,075), representing recovery after the depression of 1920-1. Building permits in the five years 1920-4 represented new construction valued at $96,691,000. A new charter establishing a commission form of government was adopted in 1912 (in effect Jan. 1 1914). In 1921 a proposal to change back to the federal form was defeated at the polls. The City Planning Board (created by an ordinance of 1918) submitted in 1922 a city plan with many interesting features, including suitable approaches to the state capitol (based on the suggestions made by the architect of the building, Cass Gilbert, in 1905, when it was completed) and to the new union depot, and designs for a city and county administration building. A zoning ordinance was adopted in 1924. The desirability of a metropolitan planning commission for the Twin Cities and their environs was under discussion. The Amherst H. Wilder Charity (incorporated 1910, with an endowment of $2,778,018) erected an administration building (1913) which became a central ‘ charities building ” for the city, where other agencies are housed without charge for rent;it made surveys of housing conditions (1917) and of health (1919) besides establishing a day nursery, public baths, etc. St. Paul, like Minneapolis, has a low general death rate, a low infant mortality and relatively little child labour and illiteracy; its percentage of home ownership is appreciably higher. ST. PETERSBURG: see PETROGRAD. ST. QUENTIN,

SAINT-SAENS,

BATTLE

OF:

CHARLES

see GERMAN

CAMILLE

OFFENSIVE.

(1835—1921),

French

musical composer (see 24.44), died in Algiers Dec. 16 1921. SAIONZI, KIMMOCHI, PRINCE (1849-— ), Japanese states-

man, was born in Oct. 1849 at Kyoto. When less than 20 years of age, he took part in the councils which led to the Restoration, and at 19 was commander-in-chief of an imperial army. In 1881 he commenced his official career, and in the following year accompanied Mr. (afterwards Prince) Ito to Europe and the United States to investigate the parliamentary system. In 1885 he was appointed minister to Austria; three years later he became vice-president of the house of peers and was raised to the privy council in 1894. In the same year he received the portfolio of education in the second Ito Cabinet. In July 1903 he became the leader of the Seiyu-Kai and in 1906 formed his first Cabinet as prime minister; he was again premier in rgrr to 1912. In 1919 he represented Japan as chief envoy at the Peace Conference and was invested with the Grand Order of Merit. He was made Prince in 1920 in recognition of his services in connection with the World War and the Peace Conference. SAITO, MINORU, Viscount (1858— ), Japanese sailor and administrator, was born a commoner, at Iwata Ken. He joined the navy in 1873, and proceeded steadily towards the highest advancement, being gazetted commander in 1897. The discipline of the Japanese navy, strict as it was, still left something to be desired, and when he became captain in 1898, Saito declared his intention of revising some of the existing regulations and enforcing a stricter observance of others. In the same year he

was appointed vice-minister of the navy under Adml. Count Yamamoto. Two years later he was gazetted rear-admiral in recognition of his valuable services in the development of the navy along Western lines. He was promoted to vice-adml. in 1904 and became adml. in 1912. He received several decorations for his services in the Russo-Japanese war, where he profited by his experience as naval aide-de-camp to the Emperor in the Chino-Japanese conflict. He was Minister for the Navy in 1913 and ror4. After the upheaval of Koreans in 19r9 under the rule of Marshal Hasegawa, Baron Saito was appointed

governor-general of Korea. His chief concern was education; there were only 250 schools in the peninsula at the time of his appointment, but by 1926, there were nearly five times that number. He was created Baron in 1907, and was raised to the rank of Viscount in 1925. SAKHALIN or SAGHALIEN (see 24.54), a Pacific island, area 24,560 square miles. In Oct. 1905 Russia ceded to Japan that por-

MARQUESS

OF

tion of the island lying south of the parallel of 50° N. lat., known officially as Karafuto, with an area of 13,158 sq. m. and population (1920) 105,899. Sakhalin contains important coal-fields, the three exploited in 1925 producing about 114,000 tons annually; iron pyrites in the Notoro peninsula; alluvial gold in the river beds; and oil-bearing strata which were first discovered in large areas in Anshi and Notosanu in 1913. Natural Resources of Karafuto.—In Karafuto the chief industry is that of the fisheries. About 43,000 ac. of land were under cultivation in 1922, the main crops being barley and wheat. About 900,000 ac. suitable for cultivation and pasturage were still available. There were over 8,000,000 ac. of practically untouched forest. The wood-pulp manufacturing industry was growing. The Japanese treasury makes a fixed annual grant to supplement taxes and sources of revenue. The budget for 1924-5 balanced at 19,948,463 yen. SALANDRA, ANTONIO (1853), Italian statesman, was born at Troia, Puglia, in 1853. He first entered parliament as member for Lucera, and from the beginning of his political career was a Liberal of the Right wing. When Baron Sonnino became Treasury Minister in the Crispi Cabinet of 1893, Salandra was chosen under-secretary in that department. He was Minister of Finance in the first Sonnino Cabinet of 1906 and Treasury Minister In the second (1909-10). When in March rọr4 Sig. Giolitti resigned, Sig. Salandra was called upon to form the new Cabinet, and he was premier on the outbreak of the World War. It was the Salandra Cabinet which took the momentous decision of bringing Italy into the World War on the side of the Allies. On resigning office in June 1916, he continued to support both the Boselli and the Orlando Cabinets. During the disturbed period from 1919 to 1922 Salandra upheld the principles of orthodox Liberalism, and opposed the policy of the various cabinets who truckled to the extremists. He succeeded Senator Tittoni as Italian delegate on the League of Nations Council and Assembly, and represented the Italian thesis in the Italo-Greek conflict arising from the massacre of the Tellini mission in Epirus in Aug. 1923. The Fascist movement was supported from the first by Sig. Salandra, but he did not join the Fascist party, and when he felt that Fascism was incompatible with the old Liberal tradition, especially after Mussolini’s speech of Jan. 3 1925, he withdrew hissupport, without, however, abandoning the Chamber. SALFORD, England (see 24.67), with an area of 5,202 ac., including Pendleton and Broughton, incorporated in 1919, had a population in 1921 of 234,045. Suggestions for its amalgamation with Manchester, or for the inclusion of Eccles, Swinton and Pendlebury in Salford have not come to fruition. Large clearances of insanitary and overcrowded areas have been made, and the death-rate has fallen to about 13 per 1,000. A wide new road was opened at Pendleton in 1925, and further road improvements were under consideration in 1926. There are 297 ac. of parks and recreation grounds in the borough; these include 46 ac. at Pendleton, bought before the War and laid out after it; Langworthy Park, Pendleton (6 ac.); Wallnes Lane, Salford (12 ac.); an extension of Peel Park; and the Light Oaks Estate, Pendleton. The power station at Agecroft, one of the largest in the country, was finished in 1925. The Salford War memorial ward at the royal hospital was opened in 1922. SALISBURY, JAMES EDWARD

ATH! MARQUESS

OF

(1861-

HUBERT

), British

GASCOYNE-CECIL,

politician,

eldest

son of the 3rd marquess, the Prime Minister (see 24.76), was educated at Eton and University College, Oxford. He was a

member of Parliament from 1885, with the exception of one year, till he succeeded his father in 1903. He fought in the South African War with the 4th battalion of the Bedfordshire regiment, and was mentioned in dispatches. On his return to England in 1900 he became under-secretary for foreign affairs, a post which, on succeeding to the peerage, he quitted for that of Privy Seal in the Cabinet of his cousin, Mr. Balfour; and he held, for some months in 1905, the Presidency of the Board of Trade. Lord Salisbury, who had not made his mark in the Commons, gradually came to occupy a position of considerable authority in

SALISBURY—SALONIKA the Lords. In the crisis over the Parliament Bill he threw in his lot with the “ Die-hards.” During the early years of the World War he was energetic in the discharge of his military duties as lieutenant-colonel of his yeomanry regiment. He did not join either Coalition government, but was critical of both, taking an independent line. In the last months of the War and during the early years of peace he gradually came to assume the informal leadership of the Conservative Opposition first in the House of Lords, and afterwards in the party generally. As the reluctance of the Conservatives to support the Coalition grew, the discontented rallied round him; and, in a speech on Oct. 16 1922, he categorically demanded

the freedom of the party.

Three days later the policy was accepted at the Carlton Club meeting. He became Lord President of the Council in Mr. Law’s Cabinet and continued in the same post in Mr. Baldwin’s first Cabinet. In Mr. Baldwin’s second Cabinet he was Lord Privy Seal, and on Lord Curzon’s death in 1925 he succeeded to the leadership of the House of Lords. He married in 1887 Lady Cicely Alice Gore, daughter of the 5th Earl of Arran, and had two sons and two daughters. He was created K.G. in IQI7. SALISBURY, Rhodesia, the capital of Southern Rhodesia (see 23.260), lies 374 m. northwest of Beira and 301 m. northeast of Bulawayo. In 1921 the white population was 6,462. Situated at an altitude of 4,700 ft. above sea level and at the foot of a kopje, the town is well laid out, has many handsome public buildings and possesses nearly all the amenities of a European town. There is an excellent water supply. Government House, at the northeast end of the town, a large singlestorey building, dates from ro10. The churches include an Anglican Cathedral (not completed in 1926). The private residences are mostly of the bungalow type set in large gardens. Salisbury is the centre for a large mining and agricultural

district. The Jesuit Industrial Mission Farm at Chishawasha, 16 m. distant, is noted. The first parliament of Southern Rhodesia met here in 1923. SALMON FISHING: see ANGLING. SALONIKA (see 24.85), a seaport

of southeastern Europe. When the first Balkan War broke out in 1912, Salonika surrendered to the Greeks on the festival of its patron, St. Demetrios, Nov. 8, after 482 years of Turkish occupation.

King George

I. proceeded to what was now the second largest city of his kingdom, but was assassinated there on March 18 1913, by a Greck, named Schinds, to whom he had once refused money. The Treaty of London of May 30 1913 assigned Salonika to Greece, and the battle of Kilkis in the second Balkan War of that year prevented the Bulgarians from approaching it. Salonika was becoming more and more hellenised when the

World War brought it into prominence as the base of the Allied operations in the Near East. On Oct. 5 1015, despite a merely formal protest from M. Veniselos, then premier, allied troops landed

there and a few days later Gen. Sarrail arrived and

subsequently took over the duties of commander-in-chief. The War Council of the Allies decided to hold it, and held it was, despite several air raids. The Allies arrested and deported the four enemy consuls, occupied all official buildings and proclaimed martial law. In 1916 a Veniselist revolution against King Constantine broke out there, and on Oct. 9 M. Veniselos arrived and formed a Provisional Govt., which the Allies recognised, and to which Lord Granville was accredited as British representative. From Salonika this National Govt. declared war on Nov. 23 against Bulgaria and Germany. On Aug. 18 1917 a great fire destroyed a large part of the city, including the ancient church of St. Demetrios. After the War an arrangement was made, by which Yugoslavia, now only three hours distant by rail, should have a so-called “‘ Serbian Zone” in the harbour. But the question of the railway from Salonika to the frontier at Gjevgjelija was one of the obstacles to the renewal of the GrecoYugoslav Alliance. After the proclamation of the Greek Republic, Salonika, as an important military centre, often had a decisive voice in politics, and the large immigration of Greek

CAMPAIGNS

451

refugees from Asia Minor has further hellenised the country round it, now 90% Greek. Salonika is rapidly becoming a great modern city, and it is proposed to endow it witha university. The population at the last census was 174,390, but it is now much larger. See General Sarrail, Mon Commandement en Orient, 1916-8 (Paris, 1920); P. Risal, La Ville Convoitée, Salonique (Paris, 1914).

(W. Mi.)

SALONIKA CAMPAIGNS 1915-8.—Under the heading of SrErRBIAN CAMPAIGNS the collapse and subjugation of Serbia in 1915 is related in this work. The present article describes the campaigns in Salonika which formed the sequel to this Allied disaster. The narrative is presented in four sections, under the headings: I. Objects of the expedition; II. The retreat to Salonika; III. The first and second Allied offensives; IV. The defeat of Bulgaria.

I. OBJECTS OF THE EXPEDITION Although undertaken for political objects—to bring relief to a hard-pressed ally and to check the influence of Germany in the Balkans—the Salonika campaigns were ultimately crowned by the first decisive military success of the World War. For on the Macedonian front the continent-wide trench barriers of the Central Powers were first breached beyond repair, and there too was knocked away the first national prop—Bulgaria—of the Germanic alliance. To disentangle cause from effect is difficult where moral, military and economic threads are so closely interwoven as in the years 1914-8, yet the fact at least stands out that the overthrow of Bulgaria began the series of national capitulations which ended with that of Germany on Nov. 11 1918. If Salonika was for several years an unproductive field of military effort, an infringement of the law of economy of force, which

in some measure justified the German gibe that it was their largest concentration camp—‘‘ an enemy army, prisoner of itself ”—the historian, when weighing his verdict, must throw the counterpoise of 1918 into the scales. And not this only, for it

must be remembered that the Allied occupation of the Salonika front made possible the rebuilding of the Serbian Army—from the ragged and disorganised survivors of the 1915 winter retreat through Albania to the well-equipped and irresistible force which broke through the Vardar front in Sept. 1918. On the credit side also must be set the fact that the Salonika expedition prevented the danger that Greece might become a submarine base for the Central Powers, one which would have lain in deadly proximity to the British artery of communication with the East via the Suez Canal. And again, that the Allied force contained the bulk of the Bulgarian Army—although it is perhaps doubtful whether these would have placed their services at Germany’s disposal for any front more remote from their homeland. Origins.—lf the Salonika expedition was the direct outcome of the Serbian débacle of Sept.—Oct. 1915, the idea had an earlier origin. For Salonika was not only the one feasible channel of Allied communication with and supply to Serbia, but that front offered a possible strategic flank for attack once the trench line’ on the western front had been welded into a seemingly impenetrable barrier. As far back as 1914, British and French naval missions, with guns, had been sent to support the Serbians, and they had also been supplied with munitions by the Salonika route. The question, too, had been mooted of a larger employment of military force in that theatre, but British commitments at Gallipoli led to this project being shelved—until the Bulgarian mobilisation for war on the side of the Central Powers. Bulgarian Intervention.—Throughout the summer of rors the two warring coalitions had been bidding for Bulgaria’s support, and in this diplomatic bargaining the Entente suffered a moral and a material handicap—the first, their obvious failure at the Dardanelles; the second, Serbia’s reluctance to concede any part of Bulgarian Macedonia, which she had seized as her share of the spoils of the second Balkan war of 1913. As this was the one prize on which the Bulgarians had set their heart, and as Austria had nothing to deter her from offering territory that belonged to her enemy—Serbia—the Entente offers failed to attract Bulgaria. Her intervention on the opposite side meant that free communi-

452

SALONIKA

CAMPAIGNS

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cation could be easily established between Germany and Turkey, and as a consequence that the Entente forces on the Gallipoli peninsula were imminently menaced.

Il. THE

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SALONIKA

Faced with this critical situation, the French and British Govts. decided, albeit tardily, to succour Serbia with an expeditionary force. Allied Expeditionary Force.—The French took the lead, nominating as commander Gen. Sarrail, the former chief of the LLL. Armyin the Verdun sector. Sarrail’s political activities had earned him the distrust of the military authorities; but the same factor, through his influence with the parties of the Left, made it dificult to ignore him completcly. His removal by Joffre from the III. Army command placed the Government in a temporary dilemma, and they eagerly seized the opportunity of placating Sarrail and his political supporters by appointing him to a conveniently distant theatre of war. While the constitution of Sarrail’s force was still under discussion, the Bulgarian mobilisation on Sept. 22 forced the hands of the Entente Governments, A hurried order was sent for the dispatch to Salonika of contingents from Gallipoli, preliminary to the arrival of reinforcements from France. Preceded by staff officers, the British roth and French 156th Divs. began to disembark at ‘Salonika on Oct. 5, and they were followed by the French 57th Division. On the same day, however, the Greek promise of aid to Serbia, made by M. Veniselos, was repudiated by King Constantine, and the Veniselist Govt. fell—to be replaced by that of M. Zaimis, which took neutrality as its keynote. This reacted at once not only on the Franco-British plan but on their operations. The Greek officials, civil and military, at Salonika did their best, or worst, to obstruct the disembarkation of the Allied contingents. To increase the confusion, the intended concentration point was several times changed by successive orders from Paris until,

on Sarrail’s arrival on Oct. 12, he decided, in view of his slender resources and the doubtful attitude of the Greek Army in his rear, to concentrate no further forward than the Demir Qapu (Demir Kapija) defile. The limited object was to protect the railway and to ease the pressure on the Serbian forces to the north by repelling a Bulgarian advance from Strumitsa (Strumica)—which would sever that line and so the Serbian line of retreat. Meanwhile, the British troops under Gen. Mahon began moving up to Doiran, in echelon behind the right of the French.

The Reircat-—On Oct. 14 the leading French troops came into action at Strumitsa station (in Serbia), driving back a Bulgarian reconnaissance, and on Oct. 17, in response to Serbian urgings, a brigade was sent forward beyond the Demir Qapu defile as far as Krivolak. Reinforced by the arrival of the French 122nd Div. Sarrail began, on Nov. 3, an offensive northward to facilitate the Serbian retreat. But the seizure of the Babuna pass by the Bulgarians closed the channel of southward retreat for the main Serbian Army, and finally shattered the hope that the Serbians might fall back on the relieving force, as was the advice of their allies.

Sarrail was thus faced with a difficult problem. On the one hand the gallant French efforts to break through towards the Babuna had failed and they were forced on the defensive, and, on the other, he received news of the Serbian decision to retreat westward through Albania towards the Adriatic. With his small force thus isolated he took the only possible decision—to fall back towards Salonika. This decision raised further problems. Were they to hold on there, or evacuate Greek soil altogether? With the disappearance of Serbia beneath the enemy flood, the Entente Powers could no longer claim that they were at Salonika merely to use a line of communication to which Serbia was by treaty entitled. The other justification, that they had come at the request of the Greek Govt. was now nullified by the downfall of Veniselos. Considerations of prestige and their desire to use Salonika as a base for diplomatic operations in the Balkans led the Entente Govts. to remain, but without any clear policy as to the future. Even with the decision to retreat taken, the Franco-British forces were not “ out of the wood.” The withdrawal had to be made down a single-track railway, through a country without roads—converted by the autumn rains into a swamp—and in face of a pursuing encmy. The retreat was made by echelons, in four stages, and only by a narrow margin did the French frustrate Bulgarian efforts to outflank and cut their retreat, first at the Demir Qapu defile, and again at Strumitsa station. The British, too, on the right were heavily attacked, and any weakening might have been fatal to the extrication of the Allied forces from the noose into which they had been pushed. Fortunately, once the Greek frontier was regained the pursuit halted—mainly because the Germans were reluctant to undertake further commitments in the Balkans to the detriment of their strength in other theatres. Falkenhayn held that the Macedonian operations should be left to the Bulgarians, but this policy

SALONIKA overlooked the fact that the Greeks, however friendly to the Germins, would have resented any invasion of their territory by the Bulgarians. Thus by Dec. 12 the retreating forces were safely out of reach of their pursuers, facing them across the frontier. After pausing for a few days on a line stretching roughly from Sorovicevo to Lake Doiran, the withdrawal was resumed, and by Dec. 18 the forces of Sarrail and Mahon were back in the vicinity of Salonika. Covering this base an entrenched line was constructed, on an 85 m. arc stretching from the mouth of the Vardar throuzh Dozganji to the Gulf of Orfano, and occupied early in the new year. Allied Reinforcements Arrive-—The delay in the expected enemy offensive enabled the Entente force to receive reinforcements, not only French and British but Serbian, for the remnant of their army, after resting and being re-equipped at Corfu, was brought round to Salonika. From April onwards the stream steadily swelled until by July their strength on the Salonika front reached a total of 152,000, divided into three armies of two divisions each. The French had four divisions. The British had been raised to five divisions (roth, 22nd, 26th, 27th, 28th), and later a sixth (60th), organised in two army corps; in May Lt.-Gen. G. F. (later Sir George} Milne took over command as general officer commanding British Salonika Force. The total allied force was thus a little over 300,000 men. Opposing it early in r916 were the Bulzarian I. and II. Armics and the German XI. Army—a total of some 289,000 men—aligned on a front from Lake Oxhrida on the west to the point where the Struma enters Bulzaria on the east. But from March onwards the drain on the G2rman forces at Verdun led Falkenhayn to withdraw the Germin troops, all but one division; by 1918 the XI. Army, though Germain in name and in staff, contained only one complete German battalion. On the Entente sid2 the reaction of Verdun took the form of

orders from Joffre to Sarrail to pin down the enemy on his front, in order if possible to prevent Falkenhayn drawing upon the forces there. Accordingly the French moved out west of the Vardar towards Vodena and the British advanced north to Kukus. This advance althouzh it lengthened the front to be defended and the lines of communication was of essential value for the security of the Allied force, for the entrenched position at Salonika itself was dominated from the mountains east of the town, and might become untenable if these heights were occupied by the enemy. But in how small degree the Allied advance fixed the Germans can be gauged from the previous paragraph, and Sarrail, who had been placed under Joffre’s supreme commandin Dec., received instructions to act more vigorously and prepare a definite offensive in conjunction with the anticipated entry into the war of Rumania.

Effect of the Action of Greece.—Mcantime, however, the situation was complicated by a Greck incident; from now on until 1918 politics were to play a larger part in the Macedonian theatre than warfare. The neutral Greek forces, five corps, were distributed throuzhout the region, in theory to guard the frontier; and such a situation, while Gilbertian in its absurdity to the distant observer, was a source of serious anxiety to the FrancoBritish forces on the spot. Feeling that they would be safer without such dubious protection, they brought diplomatic pressure to bear 01 the Greek Govt. for the withdrawal of the Greek forces from Macedonia and their demobilisation. Reluctantly the Greeks comolied, but while the Allies occupied certain of their forts the Bulzarians seized the opportunity to cross the frontier, and appeared before Fort Rupel, which commanded the Strum. gate into the Macedonian plain. The Greek commander thereupon handed over the fort to them (May 26). This unfriendly act bared the eastern flank of the Entente Army, and gave the whole of Eastern Macedonia into the hands of the enemy. To meet the danger the British occupied the Strum line in force. Further, the Entente Govts. instituted an economic blockade of the Greek coast, sent a brigade to Athens, and by the ultimatum of June 21 enforced the demobilisation of the Greek Army and the resignation of the Government. As it proved, however, the seizure of Rupel and Eastern Macedonia

CAMPAIGNS

453

did not develop into a general offensive by the German-Bulgarian forces. Problems Facing the Expeditionary Force —While these external troubles with Greece beset the Entente Powers, they were far from the sum of the handicaps which hindered effective action by the Salonika force. The idea of an offensive was constantly discussed between the French and British Govts., as also between Joffre and Sarrail; but, apart from reluctance to provide adequate forces, it depended on too many contingencies,. in particular the uncertain and often postponed intervention of Rumania. [Furthermore the internal troubles of the Salonika force were notorious. Sarrail had the title of ‘‘ Commander-inchief of the Allied Armies in the Orient,” and with him Cordonnier commanded the French forces; but his status was a nebulous one. Not only was the British commander to all intents independent, but also the Italian—a detachment arrived from Italy in Aug. 1916. Apart from the defect that Sarrail’'s orders were issued from French headquarters without consultation with the other Allied Powers, Sarrail’s own personality was not such as to weld this loose understanding into an effective co-operation. In a heterogeneous force, composed of French, British, Italians, Serbians and Russians, it was hardly a recommendation that the chief commander should be known not to have the confidence of his own supreme command, and that even the suspicion should exist that he was conducting operations with one eye on the political game at home. The British, by polite but firm insistence on their independence, maintained tranquil relations; wrangles and disputes between the other Allied commands were continual, and the majority were unfortunately attributable to the policy or tactlessness of Sarrail. The Bulgarian Alttack.—While the Alhes were still debating, the opposing armies moved, on Aug. 17, to forestall and dislocate the Allied offensive, which they judged would synchronise with Rumania’s intervention. The Bulgarians made their effort on the two wings. The eastern wing from Rupel drove back the French cavalry on the east of the Struma and pressed down towards its mouth. But they dissipated their force by detaching part to seize the coastal strip of Kavalla, and the stout resistance of the British prevented them forcing the river line. On the western wing the position was more critical, for the Bulgarian advance from the Monastir area drove the Serbs out of Florina

and reached Lake Ostrovo before they were ultimately held.

III. THE FIRST AND SECOND ALLIED OFFENSIVES These reverses caused a further change in Sarrail’s plan for the Allied offensive; the forces east of the Vardar were merely to contain the enemy, while those west of the Vardar carried out the offensive. Thus to all intents it became no more than a counteroffensive to restore the impaired situation in this sector. To release additional French troops the British extended their line west from Doiran to the Vardar; Sarrail was thus enabled to form an offensive group (of 23 French divisions, one Serbian division and a Russian brigade) under Cordonnier, in addition to the Serbian striking force of four divisions. | Sarrai’s Tactical Errors—On Sept. 10 the British detachments crossed the Struma in raids at six points to divert the enemy’s attention, and on Sept. rr the real attack developed west of the Vardar. The Serbs, skilled mountain fighters and inspired by the closeness of their native soil, made good progress, and on Sept. 14 gained the pass of Gorniéeyo, breaking through the hostile front. But the Cordonnier group was slower, partly because of transport difficulties and Cordonnier’s own inclination for the secure methodical advances he had practised successfully in France. Asaresult, however, the Bulgarians, broken by the Serbs at Gornitéeyo, were able to fall back across Cordonnier’s front and re-establish their lines on the Brod. Sarrail, incensed, ordered fresh attacks by both groups, which were repulsed by heavy loss—as Cordonnier, protesting, had prophesied. Between Sept. 30 and Oct. 8 the British X VI. Corps (Briggs) advanced its front to the line Agho Mahale-Ormanli, asa fixing move, coincidently with a fresh attack on the main front by the French

454

SALONIKA

and Serbs from Kaimakéalan westward. The pressure of the Serbs turned the Bulgar left and forced a further slight withdrawal, but a Franco-Russian attack on Oct. 6 failed. Cordonnier urged the idea of a wider turning manoeuvre, but Sarrail, in the mistaken belief that a Bulgarian collapse was imminent, ordered a fresh blow on Oct. 14. This was a costly failure and led to a violent scene between Sarrail and his subordinate. Cordonnier left for home a few days later. This internal friction caused a temporary breakdown of action, and the Serbs were left to fight unsupported, until Sarrail took the step of putting the whole attacking force under the Serbian Gen. Michich—a man of real military genius and with the knack of inspiring not only Serbian but other national forces. Michich attacked in the Crna bend on Nov. 12 while, to aid this offensive, Milne’s troops made local attacks and raids as a diversion on the Struma. Despite rain and snow the Serbs pressed on, turning successive positions, with the French, Russians and an Italian brigade on their left. Monastir was outflanked and on Nov. 19 was found evacuated—the first important Serbian town to be regained. For a moment there was a real opportunity of exploitation, as the Bulgarians were in full retreat towards Prilep; but the immediate attacking forces were tired and hungry, and Sarrail suspended the advance—to the annoyance of the Serbs, who, in default of

CAMPAIGNS The preliminary move began on March 12 and was soon suspended, achieving little apart from a creditable French local success on a spur west of Monastir. Then came the British turn— to attack the key position formed by the Dub and lesser ridges which commanded the passage between Lake Doiran and the Vardar. Milne had rejected an alternative proposal of Sarrail’s that he should attack to gain Seres, which while attractive as a political advertisement had no military value, and being dominated by the hills behind would have been difficult to hold. After a two days’ artillery preparation, in vile weather, the British infantry advanced to the assault, on a two-division front (22nd and 26th), at 9:45 P.M. on April 24, the late hour being to gain surprise and protection. On the left the enemy’s first position was gained and held, but in the centre and right

the difficulties of the Jumeaux ravine and the strength of the resistance foiled the attackers. Worst of all, their sacrifice was in vain and their “ fixing ” rôle rendered abortive because the attack west of the Vardar was postponed by Sarrail, ostensibly for climatic reasons. Not until May 9 did the other attacks develop. Sarrail had rejected the Italian proposal for a flanking manoeuvre, in preference for a frontal blow, and this, made by the French and Italians, was a costly failure. The Serbian attack was even less effectual, in fact hardly developed, partly owing to internal political troubles receiving fresh reserves, tried to press on unsupported until then rife and partly to their want of confidence in the higher direction and in the genuineness of its intention to support their exhaustion stopped them. By this time the Rumanian collapse, under pressure of the efforts. Once more the British, on the night of May 8, had delivered a fixing attack, and once more their heavy sacrifice convergent German and Bulgarian attacks, was clear, and on had been purposeless. The offensive was definitely closed down Dec. 11 Sarrail received instructions to consolidate a defensive by Sarrail on May 24. line embracing as much of the regained territory as possible. The Bulgarians, content with the prestige of this successful This line stretched from Lake Prespa—just north of Monastir— north slopes of Kaimakéalan—to the Vardar, and thence by repulse, attempted no counter-stroke, and as the Allied forces were neither in the mood nor the condition for further efforts, Doiran to the Struma and down to the sea. Its worst feature was that the commanding heights were held almost everywhere by the front relapsed into stagnation for the rest of the year. The only minor incidents were a successful local advance in Sept. by the enemy. This front was to remain practically unchanged the French on the extreme left, west of Lake Okhrida, and until Sept. 1918. Milne’s withdrawal of his right from the marshy valley to the Preparations for 1917,—Apart from the incident of a threatening Greek concentration in Thessaly—settled by a fresh ultima- foot-hills west of the Struma, a precaution to lessen the danger of The focus of interest again became tum—the winter months of 1916-7 passed quickly, and the op- malaria and dysentery. political—common action was taken to settle the simmering portunity was taken to reorganise and regroup the forces. From the Gulf of Orfani to the Vardar the front was held solidly by menace and intrigues of Greece. In June, Allied troops invaded the British, owing to Milne’s insistence, but on the rest of the Thessaly, but the abdication of King Constantine was forced without fighting, and the Veniselist Govt. returned to power. front Sarrail followed his usual plan of interspersing detachments of the various nationalities—presumably on the principle “ divide The consequent reinforcement of the Allies by the Greek Army came as a prospective counterpoise to the contemplated withet impera? Whatever its personal advantages it was hardly conducive to prompt and effective action. Reinforcements had drawal of two British divisions in Sept. for the projected offensive now brought the French up to a strength of eight divisions, while in Palestine. Sarrail S uperseded. —At the end of the year the new Clementhere were six Serbian and 14 Italian divisions—making with the British 214 divisions, plus two Russian brigades. The total Al- ceau ministry recalled Sarrail, in response to the renewed requests of the British and Italian Govts., which were suplied strength was approximately 600,000, while the Greek Naported by Foch. His successor was Gen. Guillaumat, who tional Defence, or Veniselist Army, was in process of formation. This concentration afforded adequate reserves for a resolute had distinguished himself as an army commander on the Verdun front. His first aim was to restore confidence and cohesion in offensive in the spring. Confronting the Allies were still the nominal German XI. the Allied forces at Salonika, while hastening the reorganisation Army, and Bulgarian I. and II. Armies, comprising the equiva- and training of the Greek Army. His second, to think out and lent of one German and 13 Bulgarian divisions,’ of which prac- prepare the plan for a fresh offensive, adopting in its main outtically half faced the British. Apart from the II. Army, these lines one which Gen. Michich had suggested in 1916. But to obtain the sanction of the Allied Govts. was more diffiforces were under a German Commander-in-chief, Gen. Von Scholtz. On their side no large move was considered, partly be- cult, obsessed as they were with the threatened German offencause the Bulgarians had already achieved their principal ter- sive in France, and in any case dubious of the effectiveness of any major operation in Macedonia. While biding his time, ritorial aims, and merely desired to hold tight, while the Germans were satisfied with immobilising so large an Allied force at no however, Guillaumat scized the opportunity to ‘‘ blood” his new Greck troops in an ably planned coup de main against the expenditure to themselves. Srka di Legen ridge. Supported by a powerful concentration Allied Attacks Renewed.—Sarrail’s plan was for a preliminary flanking move on the extreme west, between Lakes Okhrida and of French artillery it was completely successful, and Guillaumat withdrew the attackers into reserve before any possible counterPrespa, to shake the enemy’s hold in the Monastir area, following stroke might dilute the moral tonic. On the main front there this was to be the main fixing attack by the British on the Doiran were no other incidents of note between Jan. and Sept. 1918; but front; then the French, Russians and Italians in the southwest of the Crna bend were to advance; and finally the Serbs were away on the Adriatic coast, in Albania, Ferrero’s Italian XVI. Corps, aided by a French division, advanced in July from the to strike the decisive blow to the west again. Viosa to the line of the Semeni and Devol rivers; an Austrian 1A Bulgarian division had almost twice the infantry strength of a counter-offensive late in Aug. regained most of the lost ground. French or German division.

SALOUN—SALT LAKE CITY In July also, Gen. Guillaumat, his task of reorganisation completed, was summoned back to France, to be entrusted with the defence of the capital in view of the critical situation caused by the German offensives. A man who put first not his own interests, nor even those of France, but his duty to the Allied forces as a whole, his military ability had won the respect, as his character had won the esteem, of the multifarious contingents. He was succeeded by Gen. Franchet d’Esperey, who if, perhaps not possessing the exceptional tact and supra-national outlook of Guillaumat, was yet an able strategist, and well able to maintain allied cooperation. He adopted and put the finishing touches to Guillaumat’s offensive plan, while the latter utilised his position at the centre of policy to gain sanction for its execution. Winning over M. Clemenceau, he then went to London and Rome on the same mission, and at last on Sept. 1r Franchet d’Esperey was authorised to attack—if there was still little confidence in its success.

IV. THE DEFEAT OF BULGARIA The military situation on the eve of the offensive was numerically little changed. The Bulgarians had a ration strength of some 700,000 and a rifle strength of 200,ooo—divided into the same three armies. The Allies had a ration strength of about

574,000 and a rifle strength of 157,000, although against the inferiority of numbers they could put a slight preponderance in artillery and a heavy one tn aircraft. But the real defect on the enemy’s side was the first underlying war-weariness of the

Bulgarians and their dissatisfaction with their German directors; and secondly the divided command by which the so-called German XI. Army and the Bulgarian I. Army—from Doiran westwards—were under Von Scholtz, while the Bulgarian II. Army and the coastal detachments were under the Bulgarian commander-in-chief, Gen. Gekoff. Allied Offensive Plan.—Franchet d’Esperey’s plan was first to strike a concentrated blow with a Franco-Serb group under Michich on a narrow front of seven miles along the SokolDobro Polje range, aiming at a tactical break-through and a subsequent expansion of the breach to gain and clear the triangle formed by the Crna and the Vardar. This would menace the enemy’s communications on both flanks, and the offensive would then be taken up in turn by the other forces along the front. The initial objectives were relatively modest, for the possibility of a strategic break-through, ending in the overthrow of the enemy armies, was no more than an idea in the commander’s mind. The immense difficulties of the terrain and the scantiness of reserves made even this limited aim far from certain of success. But Franchet d’Esperey’s plan, made possible by the wholehearted co-operation of the other Allied commanders, was an admirable fulfilment of the principle of concentration. On the vital sector six Serbian and two French divisions with 600 guns—more than a third of the total artillery strength in Macedonia—were concentrated against one Bulgarian division, and to do this the other sectors were almost stripped of their artillery. Opening of the Attack —On Sept. 1 the British 27th Div. made a feint attack in the Vardar valley to divert the enemy’s attention, and on the night of Sept. 14 a heavy bombardment was begun on the real front of attack. Next morning at 5:30 A.M. the French divisions assaulted and after hard fighting gained the Dobro Polje ridge, the Sokol also falling by the evening— opening a path for the Serbian divisions of the I. Army, hitherto in reserve, to be pushed through. At the same time the Serbian Il. Army ‘advanced to the attack. By nightfall on Sept. 16 a penetration of five m. had been made. British and Serbian Successes —The Serbs, now inspired fy success and the sight of their homeland, swept forward with such élan that by the night of Sept. 17 they were 20 m. forward, and the breach had been expanded to 25 m. by Greek and French divisions on the flank. After the initial clash resistance was feeble, partly because the mountains hampered the lateral movement of reserves. By Sept. ro the left wing of the attackers had reached across the Crna, while the right wing was rolling up

455

the front eastwards towards the Vardar, and between the two wings the Serbian cavalry had penetrated to Kavadarci in the apex of the Crna-Vardar triangle. Meanwhile on Sept. 18 Milne’s troops attacked on the whole front from the Vardar to Lake Doiran in order to prevent the Bulgarians withdrawing troops to dam the breach west of the Vardar. Facing the British were the pick of the Bulgarian troops and also the strongest fortified positions, so that although they penetrated the enemy's lines along most of the front, it was little wonder that lack of reserves and artillery compelled them to yield up the larger

part of their gains. But they had fulfilled their mission of pinning down the enemy including the reserves during these critical days, Sept. 18 and 19, and by Sept. 21 the whole of the enemy’s front west of the Vardar had collapsed under the convergent pressure of the exploiting Serbs and of the French on their flanks. Collapse of the Bulgarians.—By the afternoon of the same day the collapse spread to the Doiran—Vardar front, and the British aircraft spread havoc among the troops of the Bulgarian VI. Army falling back through the narrow Kosturino pass. Similarly, on the extreme west, facing Prilep, the Italians joined in the advance. From now on the advance became a strategic pursuit, now fast, now slow, in which successive rearguard resistances of the enemy were outflanked. On Sept. 23 the Serbian spearhead reached Gradsko, and Veles three days later. Seizing their opportunity, a French cavalry brigade under Gen. Jouinnot-

Gambetta made a dash for Skoplje (Uskiib), and seized this vital centre of communications, the key to the whole front, on Sept. 29. This definitely separated the XI. Army from the remainder of the Bulgarian forces, forcing them on divergent lines of retreat. To the southeast the British had already invaded Bulgaria itself, taking Strumica on Sept. 26. ‘That night a Bulgarian staff officer arrived at British headquarters to ask for an armistice, and three days later the Bulgarians capitulated, accepting the Allied terms unreservedly. The first national prop of the Central Alliance had fallen. While the reoccupation of Serbia proceeded rapidly, a mixed striking force was rapidly organised under Milne’s command to advance through Thrace on Constantinople, and had pressed as far as the Maritsa, seizing the bridgeheads, when Turkey—her force in Syria already annihilated by Allenby—surrendered on Oct. 30. BIRLIOGRAPHY.—G. W. Price, The Story of the Salonica Army (1917); C. Price, Serbia's Part in the War (1918); M. P. E. Sarrail, Mon Commandement en Orient (1920); L. Villari, The Macedonian Campaign (1922). See also WORLD WAR: BIBLIOGRAPHY., (B. H. L. H.)

SALOUN, LADISLAV

(1870-

), Czech sculptor, was born

at Prague, and was a pupil of the sculptor B. Schnirch. He first became known in roor when he won the competition for a monument of Jan Hus. This group of statuary which dominates the Old Town Square of Prague forms an example of that plastic impressionism which Saloun represented. He also produced a number of portraits which are distinguished by an acute sense of reality. SALT LAKE CITY, Utah, U.S.A. (sce 24.92), the manufacturing and trading centre of the western inter-mountain territory, increased in population to 118,110 in 1920, of whom 190,897 were foreign born; and to 130,948 in 1925 (census bureau estimate). Products manufactured within the city had a value of $13,351,000 in 1909, $33,357,000 in 1919, $31,130,287 In 1921, $47,572,228 in 1923 and $106,000,000 in 1924.. Many important plants were established after the World War, increasing the aggregate factory pay-roll by about $4,000,000 per annum. Electric ight and power were supplied by an interconnected hydroelectric system with an installed capacity of 250,000 H.P., supplemented bya steam emergency plant of 50,000 horse-power. An additional generating station, to add 45,000 H.P., was under construction in 1925. The retail trade for 1924 was estimated at $52,312,000; the wholesale and distributing business at $148,116,000. A branch of the Federal Reserve Bank of San Francisco was established here in 1918. The parks and playgrounds of the city itself by 1925

456

SALVADOR—SALVAGING

contained 1,035 ac., and expert supervision was provided for organised play. There were 58 public schools, including two high and seven junior high schools, with an enrolment of 30,218 pupils. The University of Utah had a registration of 2,692, exclusive of the summer school. A state capitol, built of marble and Utah granite, well placed on an eminence, was completed in 1916. In

Igtt the city adopted the commission form of government. SALVADOR (see 24.96), the smallest of the Central American republics. Salvador became a member of the League of Nations in 1920. During the World War the republic maintained an attitude of benevolent neutrality towards the United States and the Allies; but in a note of Aug. 24 1917 the Foreign Minister stated that the Govt. of Salvador would permit the vessels of the United States to enter or remain in Salvadorean ports irrespective of their condition of armaments. Area, officially estimated, 13,176 square miles. The population in 1923 was 1,506,176, indicating a population denser than that of any American republic except Haiti. The estimated population of the chief cities in 1924 was: San Salvador, 82,000; Santa Ana, 71,000; San Miguel, 35,000; San Vicente, 31,000; La Paz, 30,000. In 1923 the births numbered 56,184; deaths, 25,296; nearly 60% of the births were illegitimate. Half-castes or Lavinos and Indians constitute the bulk of the population; but most of the educated classes are of European descent and reflect European influences. Political History.—The presidential succession after 1909, when Gen. Fernando Figueroa held the presidency was mainly peaceful. Figueroa was succeeded in rorr by Dr. Manuel Enrique Araujo, who was murdered in Feb. 1913. The vacant presidency was filled by the vice-president, Carlos Meléndez, who resigned in Aug. ror4. Alfonso Quinones Molina governed as temporary president until rọr5, when Carlos Meléndez was elected to ofħice. In March roro Jorge Meléndez was inaugurated for the term rọr9-23, and was succeeded for the term 1923-7 by Alfonso Quijones Molina, the vice-president.

Salvador alone of the Central American Republics declined to declare war on Germany, though she allowed U.S. war vessels the use of her ports. The inclusion, without definition, of the Monroe Doctrine in the Covenant of the League of Nations, led Salvador to interrogate the United States Govt. as to the interpretation of the doctrine. In 1920 Salvador attempted to renew the Central American Court of Justice established by the treaty of 1907. This movement gave place to that of the Central American Union (g.v.). Salvador signed the “Tacoma” agreement of Aug. 20 1922, but did not approve all the resolutions of the Washington Conference on Central American affairs of 1922-3. In the General Treaty of Peace and Amity she failed to approve the International Central American Tribunal and the international commissions of inquiry. She also rejected the agreement not to recognise the election to the presidency of leaders of revolts or high government officials involved in them, and she declined to set a constitutional limit to re-election. She also rejected the convention relative to the preparation of electoral legislation and convention for establishment of free trade. Approval was given to limitation of armaments, the establishment of permanent Central American Commissions, the extradition agreement, the convention establishing agricultural exncrimental stations and thit rerulating the practice of the liberal professions. Several of the conventions still awaited approval in Aug. 1925. A loan of $6,000,qoo was effected in Oct. 1923, through a New York banking firm. It was secured bya first lien on 70% of the total customs. The contract provided for underwriting the loan by the United States; differences concerning interpretation of the terms were to be submitted for ruling to the Chicf Justice of the U.S. Supreme Court. The proceeds were used in consolidating and paying the outstanding loans. Education has long been nominally free and compulsory, but until 1919 received little attention from the Government. In I9it there were 486 schools with 21,569 pupils, out of a total of 173,495 children of school age. In 1919, a law for eradicating illiteracy was enacted, anda campaign begun to reduce the proportion of illiterates, then 70°, of the population. In 1924 there were 733 primary pubiic

schools with 1,110 teachers, the registered pupils numbering 44,791

with an average attendance of 30,070. There were 37 private primary schoels and 3% municipal schools, in addition to normal, technical and continuation schools. The National University at San Salvador has faculties of medicine, chemistry and pharmacy, law and social sciences, engineering and industry. In addition the Popular University for working men offers lectures on personal and shop hygiene and the duties and rights of citizens. Finance.—In 1919 the colon was fixed at the value of $0.50 American, and by the law of July 16 1920 was made the monetary unit, and given a fineness of goo milesimos and a content of 836 milligrammes. It is issued in denominations of 5, 10, 20 and 40 colones, with auxiliary silver and nickel coins. United States gold and silver coin is legal tender up to 10° of payments. The national revenue and expenuiture tor the three years 1920-1, 1924-5 and 1925-6 was:—

1925-6 18,205,860

Revenue

18,166,715! | 16,414,034!

Expenditure 1 Estimated

1924-5 16,464,034!

1920-1

£2,945,234 £3,245,516

in colones.

The total debt Dec. 31 1922 was 34,259,059 colones. The foreign debt on Dec. 31 1925 was as follows: Bondsin the hands of English creditors to the amount of £1,008,314; other foreign debts $13,683,900. Customs receipts from Jan. I 1923 were $3,776,819.

Interest and sinking fund on the loan above-mentioned required $682,000. For the first six months of 1924 customs receipts were $3,180,008, and loan requirements $411,599. Agriculture and Commerce.—Agricultural production for 1923 was valued at $36,699,000. Coffee, the principal crop, totalling 60,000 metric tons, was valued at $16,800,000; corn, totalling 250,000 metric tons, Was worth $12,500,000; cattle were valucd at $2,500,000. Cotton production has been encouraged for several years; the crop

in 1923 Was 55 metric tons, worth $33,000. Sugar production reached 20,000 tons, valued at $2,000,000. Other agricultural exports are tobacco,

heneqguin

and

rice.

Lumber,

balsam

and

hides

are

also

exported. Foreign trade was chiefy with Great Britain, the Unite| States and France. The movement of trade in the period 1912 24 was: — |

Year

Imports

Exports

$6,744:859 | $9,942,184 5,668,000

9,970,000

8,456,453 8,479,548 10,958,500 | 24,367,674 Communications. —\With the opening of the third section in 1922 of the line from San Vicente to Cojutepeque, the International Railways line from cast to west was completed. There were 253 m. of narrow gauge railways and 1,476 m. of national roads in the republic in 1925, also 2,401 m. of telegraph lines and a little greater extension of telephone lines. There were 20 wireless receiving stations. Material for 200 m. of railway to Guatemala had been ordered before June 1925. The lines from Santa Lucia, Santa Ana province, to Ahuachapan and from Santa Lucia to Metapan were soon to be completed. BiBLioGRAPHy.—P, F. Martin, Salvador of the Twentieth Century (1911); J. Leiva, The Republic of il Salvador (1913); F. Gavidia, Historia Moderna del Salvador (1917); D. G. Munro, The Five Republics of Central America, Carnegie Endowment for Inter. Peace: Div. of Econ. and History (Oxford, 1918); L. Quinóñez, La cuestion económica (1919); Department of Overseas Trade Reports. Annual Series (London, 1923-); H. G. James and P. A. Martin, The Republics of Latin America (1923); L. E. EHiott, Central America (1924); W. S. Robertson, History of the Latin-American Nations (1925).

(H. 1. P.)

SALVAGING (see 24.97).—Salvage work, or the raising and recovery of suike1 shins and cargoes, has always had a fascination, first for the reason that very little is known of the subject by the outside public, and secondly the spirit of adventure appeals to us to-day, although possibly in a modified degree

compared with that which sent our forefathers out to search for hidden treasures in far-off lands. It is still one of the professions which retains a spice of romance in this commonplace world. Salvage enginecring has alwavs been confined to a small number of the engineering profession, although it is a highly technical business, where skill, experience and determination are pitted against wind and sea. It necessitates trained men and special appliances and is a work that must be carried on night and day whenever the elements permit. Divisions of the Subject.—Marine salvage may be divided up under a few principal headings:—

SALVAGING (1) The raising of vessels sunk in deep water by means of pontoons, etc.

(2) Raising by the application of compressed

water.

air to expel the

.

(3) Refloating of ships stranded on rocks or sand where the bottom is damaged and temporary repairs have to be made by divers, and where pumping plant of different descriptions is used to free the vessel of water. : (4) Uprighting of capsized vessels, etc.

The Salvage Ship.—The salvage ship is one of the most important factors in salvage operations, and, although generally a small vessel, carries a very complicated equipment of appliances for use in the work with a view to rendering her as independent as possible of assistance from ashore, and enable her to make repairs, etc., in out-of-the-way places where it would be difficult to obtain other assistance. As an example, one of the most modern type is composite built and her dimensions are 170 ft. long by 30 ft. wide, fitted with triple expansion engines, and has a speed of 14 knots. She accommodates about 80 officers and men, consisting of engineers, artisans, divers, motor engineers, electrical engineers and others.

457

capacity of 30 ft. the submersible is able to raise the water to a height of 80 ft.; no priming is necessary, and no particular attention need be paid to the discharge hose as far as making it air and watertight. Former electric salvage pumps that were tried were fitted with watertight cases, and proved entirely unsuccessful for this particular kind of work. In the submersible pump water is allowed free access to the electrical parts. LIFTING

OPERATIONS

From

DEEP

WATER

With this somewhat brief description of salvage plant used particulars of actual salvage operations will be explained, commencing with the raising of sunken vessels from deep water by means of lifting barges dependent on the rise and fall of tide. it

Her equipment consists of portable pumping plant of 5,000 tons per hour which can be transferred to the wrecke.! vessel, portable oil driven air compressors, portable electric lizhting plant and electric submersible pumps which work under water. The vessel has powerful electric arc lamps at the mastheads of 5,000 c.p., with sufficient length of water-tight cables to allow of them being placed on the wrecked ship and operated by the salvage ship's dynamos; also searchlights, submarine arc and incandescent

Wb 4 MEM Fic. 1.—Lifting wires in position and buoyed.

cutting plates under water, also a complete equipment of submarine neumatic drilling machines up to 3 in. in diameter, pneumatic ammers, rock-boring drills and submarine photographic appara-

The method of procedure is to place lifting vessels of sufficient buoyancy over the wreck and pass a number of g in. steel wire ropes under the vessel, bringing the ends of the wires up and making them

lamps for the divers, submarine

oxyacetylene burning plant for

tus. She is fitted with long-range wireless telegraphy, and has a fully equipped workshop with electrically driven lathes, drilling machines, etc. In the store-room are all descriptions of blocks, shackles, ropes and other appliances necessary for discharging cargoes and other work in connection with the salvage of a wrecked vessel; she is also

fitted as a first class and powerful tug boat, and carries line-throwing

guns.

Being constructed of wood she is able to remain alongside a

ZA

fast to the lifting ships at low water: then as the tide rises, if the calculations have been correct, the vessel is raised from the bottom the height of the rise of tide, and carried into shallower water where the wreck is grounded, and the operations are continued each tide until her decks are above water (see figs. 1, 2 and 3). The fractures are then patched by the divers, salvage pumps installed and the vessel pumped out and floated. The dimensions of lifting vessels

damazed ship in weather when the vessel of ordinary construction would have to leave.

Salvage Pumps.—At one time steam pumps were entirely used in salvage operations, and were supplied with portable boilers so that they might be placed on board a wreck. They performed very excellent service, generally under most difficult conditions. To place such heavy gear on board a wrecked ship from a salvage craft rolling alongside on a winter night required a large amount of skill and care. When placed in position they had to be connected up to the portable boilers and steam raised before they were available for pumping. It was also necessary to place a supply of coal on board if the ship’s bunkers were not available, and this supply was often washed away. Steam pumps are still retained on board the salvage ship, as they are able to perform work that the present type of pumping plant cannot do; for instance, sand, coal, grain and even copper and iron ore can be discharged by them from under water. The internal combustion engine (q.v.) went a great way to revolutionise salvage pumping plant. It was much lighter than the steam pump, required no boiler, and the fuel could be car-

ried to the wreck in barrels or drums in an ordinary ship’s lifeboat. Further, when not required for work it can be stopped and started again in a few minutes, while steam has always to be kept on the portable boilers of the steam pumps. The advantages of the oil motor driven centrifugal pump will be obvious; it is just as efficient for pumping water as the steam pump, saves in cost of running, takes up less stowage space and uses paraffin as fuel, which can generally be obtained without difficulty. The sizes in general use are 12 In. and 6 inch. _ The latest type of pumping machinery is the electrically driven submersible. It has been well tried under all conditions and found more efficient than any of the older types. It can be placed aboard in boats and driven from the dynamos of the salvage ship lying off the wreck. There is no necessity to secure it, as it works practically without vibration and can be used from the derricks and lowered down into the water. Its great advan-

tage is that while the ordinary salvage pump has onlya lifting

VMs Fig.2 Fic. 2.—Lifting lighters in position.

low tide. Fic. 3.—Wreck lifted.

YW Fiq.3 Wires secured, and pinned at

that have been employed in a large number of cases are: length 165 ft.; breadth 36 ft., and each with a lifting capacity of 1,500 tons maximum. One of the principal difficulties with this method is the placing of the heavy wire cables under the bottom of the wreck, especially if she has sunk in the sand, mud or clay. If not too deeply embedded this is generally accomplished by towing them under with two vessels, one on each side, and the ends of the cables attached to them.

Where this is not found to be possible owing to the wreck having become too deeply embedded a system of hydraulic boring at nigh pressure is resorted to, by which method the wires are rove under the wreck in the required positions for lifting.

In cases where there is little or no rise of tide submersible pontoons are used. These are really steel cylinders with a lifting capacity ranging from 50 tons each to 250 tons or more. They are divided into three watertight compartments and fitted with

458

SALVATION

low pressure air connections for expelling the water, and with high pressure air for opening the valves. The ends of the cylinders used at the lifting of H.M.S. “ Gladiator” were domeshaped, and covered with collision mats to protect them against chafing. Strong channel bars were riveted around the pontoons at intervals to carry the wire cables, and the whole of the cylinders between the channel bars were covered with 3-in. fr planking for protection against obstructions when lifting. Double 6 in. strops of special extra flexible wire ropes were fitted in the required position around the pontoons, and to these were attached plate shackles to which the g-in. lifting wires were fastened, In this case the pontoons were used to uprighten the vessel, which lay over on her beam ends at an angle of 113 degrees. The g-in. wire cables were swept under the wreck and the out-

side ends attached to the pontoons. These were filled with water and sunk alongside the ship; the other ends of the wires were then hove in as tightly as possible and made fast to massive steel bollards fastened to the upper side of the ship. The cylinders or pontoons were then emptied of water by means of compressed air and the vessel uprighted, assistance being also given by compressed air and pumping from some of the sound compartments. In this case pontoons were only used on one side,

but in order to raise a vessel that is sunk and lying upright on the bottom two sets of cylinders are necessary, and the plan of lifting is as follows:— A sufficient number of g-in. wire cables are placed under the ship, the pontoons are attached to the ends of the wires on one side of the ship and filled with water, and by heaving in on the opposite cables they are hauled down into the required positions alongside the wreck. A special form of hydraulic gripping machines is attached to the pontoons on the other side of the wreck and the wire cables rove through these hydraulic grips. When everything is ready the pontoons are filled and allowed to slide down the wire cables to the bottom. The grips are then closed from the surface vessel and compressed air pumped down to all the pontoons, which expels the water, and if sufficient buoyancy has been given by the pontoons the vessel is brought to the surface. Lifting by Compressed Air—A}l openings are closed by the divers, and compressed air pumped down to connections made to all the different compartments from air compressors of the salvage ships. The water is then expelled through the fractures and the vessel rises to the surface. This method entails a very large amount of diving work, as funnels, etc., have to be cut away and the openings closed and made airtight. Decks under air pressure have to be strongly shored up and supported. Refloating Stranded Ships——The conditions of stranding are very varied. Assuming a large vessel stranded on a rocky bottom on an exposed coast and sustaining such damage that all compartments are filled with water and the vessel appears at first sight to be a hopeless wreck. A diver’s survey of the position is made as soon as possible, and at the same time a careful survey is made of all compartments to ascertain whether the water falls in each at the same rate as the tide. Some compartments will generally be found to be holding water, that is to say the tide does not ebb and flow in them as it does outside. The amount of pumping plant required can thus be easily gauged for com-

partments under these conditions.

When

the tide ebbs and

flows as it does outside it shows considerable damage to the

outer bottom, which neccssitates extra pumping plant and the patching of the fractures by divers. Should the vessel have cargo on board a portion of it will probably have to be discharged to lighten the ship. After all this work has been done the vessel is pumped out and refloated. The patches used by divers to close up fractures are generally made of wood and secured into position by bolts drilled through the patches and through the plating of the ship. Jagged or outstanding plating is cut away by explosives or by submarine oxyacetylene cutting plant to make a fair surface for the patches. If any rocks are in the way or have entered the hull of the wreck they are removed by drilling holes with submarine pneumatic rock drills and dispersing them by explosives. (F. Y.)

ARMY

SALVATION ARMY (see 24.100d).—The Salvation Army is a religious organisation of international scope, founded in 1865 under the title of the “ Christian Mission ” in the east of London. Its founder, William Booth, formerly a Methodist minister, died in 1912. | The announcement of the founder’s death was accompanied by the intimation that his eldest son, William Bramwell Booth (g.v.), formerly his chief of staff, had become the new general. Under a deed-poll of the Salvation Army, dated 1878, each general appoints his successor under seal, but the name of the person so chosen is not divulged until the proper time. At an International Staff Council in 1904 a supplementary deed-poll was adopted, the principal object of which was to set up machinery for removing from the position any general who proved to be unworthy of confidence, and also for the selection of a general by a high council of the Army called into being for this purpose, in the event of the position becoming vacant through failure to appoint or other cause. Extension.—In many quarters it was feared that after the withdrawal of the forceful and picturesque personality who had dominated Salvation Army affairs for a generation, and had raised up a worldwide following from what was originally a despised and derided local effort in the slums of London, the Army would decline. The World War also was a menace to all international organisations. These fears, however, proved to be groundless. The number of adherents has steadily increased, and the “ field’ occupied has grown greatly in extent. At the time of the founder’s death the Army was operating in 59 countries. At the end of 1925 its flag was planted in 81 countries and colonies, Extension has taken place on every continent. In Europe new spheres of activity have been found in Czechoslovakia, Latvia and Hungary. In Asia, where the Army had its oldest mission field (India 1882), it has opened in China and Burma. Africa has become an important sphere for its missionary operations, and, in addition to what ts known as South Africa, regular work is carried on in Nigeria, the Gold Coast, in Kenya and the Portuguese territories in the East. In the Western Hemisphere the accessions to the Army's fteld include Cuba, Honduras, Chile, Bolivia and Brazil. In the earliest countries to be occupied outside Great Britain important consolidation has taken place. Canada has been divided into two “‘ territories ” (a “territory ” being usually a country or large part of a country under one command), one east and the other west, with Toronto and Winnipeg as the respective headquarters; Australia has been organised also into two ‘‘ territories,” with headquarters at Melbourne and Sydney; and the United States into three, with headquarters at New York, Chicago and San Francisco. In Great Britain sub-

territories have been set up in Scotland and Wales.

The Corps—The Army has more than 14,000 corps or societies, each of which serves not only for the establishment of its own members in the faith, but as a centre of aggressive evangelistic effort. It has also 1,400 social institutions for the friendless, unfortunate and wayward. In the British Is. the centres number 1,500, and reach a similar figure in the United States; in Canada there are between 600 and 700, and in Australia and New Zealand nearly 1,900. India, with Ceylon, has nearly 5,000 such centres, and the Far East 450. The number of officers and cadets engaged in field and social work is about 22,360. The Army’s mission field has greatly extended, and many of its officers who work devotedly in their own dark lands were, but a few years previously, themselves in the bondage of superstition. The right method of evangelising the people is found in the employment of converted officers of their own race and speech. In Japan, for instance, 98% of the officers are Japanese. New Organisations.—The progress which continued under the second general is not to bemeasured merely by an extended front. New organisations have been called into existence, especially for influencing and instructing the young of both sexes. Careful provision has been made to insure a constant replenishment of officers by means of institutes for the training of cadets. In each year upwards of 1,800 young men and women are trained for Army work, to which they have to devote the whole of their time. Congresses on national and international lines are held frequently for the instruction and encouragement of officers. Constantly increasing use is made of the printing-press. The

SALVEMINI—SAMOA various War Crys, as the principal periodical publication of the Army is called, are issued in between 30 and 4o languages. Finance.—Greatly increased sums of money have been raised as the movement progressed. The financial system of the Army is of a very carefully organised character. Roughly it may be said to be divided into two parts, local and central, the one concerned with the

local unit or corps, financing itself by its own efforts; and the other concerned with the provision of funds (1) for propertics, the training of officers, missionary enterprise, and (2) for social work in Great Britain. In the year ending in Sept. 1925, the total income received at International Head Quarters for (1) was £599,768, and for (2)

£71,174.

Social Work.—The social work, which received its first great impetus in 1890 with the publication of In Darkest England and the Way Out, by William Booth, has become not only more extensive but more varied in character. This work from the first has been regarded by the Army leaders as an organised warfare against social evils in order to clear the way for evangelisation. It was realised that the physical and environmental condition of many of the people, especially in great cities, made it extremely difficult for them to apprehend the spiritual message which the Army had to deliver. Therefore various social activities arose, diverse in character but all actuated by the same purpose, from the provision of free breakfasts and night shelters to the settlement of people in overseas dominions. This last is a department of work characterised by careful selection of the emigrants, and is coupled, particularly in the case of the young, with training beforehand and effective provision for future care, while work is assured upon arrival. The efforts of the Army in getting men to work on the land, both in England and overseas, have called forth many commendations from statesmen and others. Rescue work among women was one of the earliest social tasks to which the Army set its hand. In this work Mrs. Florence Booth, wife of Gen. Bramwell Booth, was the responsible leader from its inception until 1912. Maternity work has been carried out by the Army’s ministering women, and for this in 1918 the Army received a grant from the British Govt.—the first state subsidy ever made to the Army in the country of its origin. In other lands also social work has proceeded, adapted to the different national conditions and needs, and often. commended and assisted by the governments concerned. This is true also of eastern lands: thus settlements for criminals have been established in India, and leper colonies in the Dutch Indies; and these are but instances of many such works.

Spiritual Character of the Work.—With this development of organisation the Army has maintained its original character as a body of spiritual witness and aggressive evangelism. In theory and creed it is at one in almost every respect with orthodox evangelical belief, but its methods—its realistic presentation of religion, and its use of various constraining means to bring people to salvation—distinguish it from other religious bodies. It continues to lay the greatest emphasis upon the need for conversion, preceded by penitence, and followed by growth in holiness. The people gathered into its ranks are cared for by its officers and trained in a real separation from the world and devotion to Christ. They are set to work immediately with a definite objective, their zeal is employed in the winning of others, and public testimony is required from them, however unlearned or backward in religious experience they may be. A large place in the Army’s endeavours is given to music and song. In every country the band—usually a brass band—is a feature of Army work. The strains of such a band, reaching farther than the human voice, draw numbers within earshot of the Army’s message who would otherwise not be attracted. The Army has also made use of improvisations of various kinds, not only because in this way public attention is more likely to be caught, but because these methods prevent the officers from falling into the conventional and the ordinary. Those who conduct Army meetings are instructed to talk in a colloquial fashion, and, speaking generally, formal sermons are discouraged. Ideals of Conduct—The Army exacts a high standard of behaviour from its adherents. In the series of Orders and Regulations for officers and for the rank and file definite guidance is

459

given even in the smaller matters of everyday conduct. Officers accept a relative poverty, being content to receive sufficient for their simple needs. There are contributory funds from which they receive allowances on retirement, and from which provision is made for widows and orphans. Marriages are solemnised “under the flag,” and children of members are dedicated to become soldiers or officers in the “ war.” Officers wear a regulation uniform, which it is not permissible for the individual to vary. The uniform is regarded as a means of confessing to the world the fact of separation and consecration, as opening the way to many opportunities of usefulness which would not otherwise appear, and as making possible instant recognition and fellowship amongst Salvationists themselves. One of the great principles of the Army, firmly adhered to, is that women have absolute parity of privilege, position and dignity. An order of the founder has been instituted to mark distinguished and memorable services, revealing the spirit and purpose of the Salvation Army, such as would have especially commended themselves to William Booth. Some 30 officers have been admitted to this order. A memorial to the founder was projected in the shape of an International Training Institution in London, at a total estimated cost of £350,000, towards which about £250,000 sterling had been raised up to Dec. 1925. BrsLioGRAPHY.—H. Begbie, The Life of William Booth M. L. Carpenter, The Angel Adjutant (1921); Mrs. B. Booth, of Salvation Army Officers (1923); M. L. Carpenter, Notable of the Salvation Army (1925); H. L. Taylor, General Booth's

(1925); B. Booth, Echoes and Memories (1926).

(1920); Powers Officers Journal

(W. B. B.*)

SALVEMINI, GAETANO (1873), Italian historian, was born in Molfetta in Sept. 1873. In 1902 he became professor of mediaeval and modern history at Messina University. He then went to Pisa University, and in 1917 was appointed to the chair of history at Florence University. His best known works as a

historian are Magnati e Popolani in Firenze dal 1280 al 1295 (1899); La Rivoluzione francese 1789-92 (1905); Mazzini (1915) and L'Italia e gl’ Imperi Centrale dal 1871 al 1975. He became known to the British public through his lectures delivered in London University in 1923 and 1926. In politics he showed views of a liberal trend which brought him into conflict with the Fascist Government. He edited the liberal newspaper L’Unité

(1911-21). Before the World War he vigorously criticised the Socialists for their half-hearted social work, and attacked Giolitti’s electoral methods. During the War he was a leading advocate of Italian diplomatic moderation. He was a member of the Italian Parliament from 1919-21. After the Fascists captured power, however, his political activity was made impossible, and, being suspect, he was in constant personal danger. In June 1925, while in Rome, he was arrested and taken to Florence, where he was charged on the hearsay evidence of a printer with complicity in the production of an anti-Fascist newspaper NonMollare. He was imprisoned for 35 days before being tried. No evidence but that of the printer was cited, and his case was postponed till July 1925 when he was provisionally released. Professor Salvemini was compelled to leave Florence and was kept under police surveillance until Oct. 1925, when he took the occasion of the government amnesty, proclaimed for the Matteotti murderers, to leave the country. He resigned his post at Florence University on Nov. 5 1925 and was “ dismissed ” from it on Dec. r. Afterwards he resided in London. SALVINI, TOMMASO (18209-1915), Italian actor (see 24.103), died at Florence Dec. 31 1915. SAMOA (see 24.115), a group of islands in the South Pacific, which were before the World War divided between Germany and the United States under an agreement made between these Powers and Great Britain in 1900. West Samoa—The former German islands of West Samoa were occupied by a New Zealand expeditionary force on Aug. 30 1914, and on May 7 1919 a mandate for these islands was conferred by the Supreme Council in Paris on New Zealand. The Govt. of New Zealand asked the British Govt. for legal authority to act under the mandate, having no special desire to exercise independent action in the matter. The German holdings

460

SAMUEL—SANCTIONS

of land, amounting to over 8,000 ac., were taken over by the New Zealand Government. The constitution was settled by the Samoa Act of 1921, and an Amending Act of 1923. It is administered by an Administrator appointed by the Govt. of New Zealand; he has the assistance of a legislative council, and a consultative native council. The principal islands are Savai, with an area of 725,000 ac. and Upholu, and the total population of the islands was estimated in 1925 at 38,829. Cocoanut, cacao and bananas are the principal products and copra is the principal article of export. The total exports in 1924 were valued at £361,418, and imports at £274,803. The revenue in 1925 was £130,914 and the expenditure £135,523. The revenue is augmented by an annual subsily from New Zealand based on the

additional costs of the education and medical services since the acceptance of the mandate by New Zealand, and on the cost of the wireless station in excess of revenue. (See MANDATES.) Eastern (American) Samoa is administered by a command-

ant who also holds the governorship by commission from the President of the United States. Almost the whole of the land is owned by the natives, the principal article produced for export being copra. The total area is about 58 sq. m. and the population 6,125, the largest islands being Tutuila and Tau. The harbour of Pago Pago is a United States naval station. Tutuila has a hizh power naval radio station, which is also used for ordinary commercial traffic. See the annual Reports of the commandant at Tutuila, Pazo Pago, Samoa (Washington, D.C.), and the New Zealand Official Year Book (annual, Wellington, N.Z

SAMUEL, SIR HERBERT LOUIS (1870), British politician, was born at Liverpool Nov. 6 1870. He was educated at

University College School, London, and at Balliol College, Oxford, where he graduated in 1893. In 1895 and 1900 he unsuccessfully contested South Oxfordshire as a Liberal, and in 1902 was elected for the Cleveland division of Yorkshire. He entered Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman’s Government in 1905 as parliamentary under-Secretary to the Home Office. In 1908 he was sworn in the privy council. From 1909 to 1910 he was chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster, with a seat in the Cabinet, and in 1910 became postmaster-general. He held this office until 1914, and then became for a year President of the Local Government Board. From rors to 1916 he was again postmaster-general and chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster, and in 1916 became Home Secretary. He acted as chairman of the select committee on national expenditure (1917-8), and in 1919 was special commissioner to Belgium. In 1920 he was appointed high commissioner to Palestine and was created G.B.E. This post he retained until Aug. 1925, when he returned to England and was made chairman of the royal commission appointed to inquire into conditions in the coal industry, as a result of the

dispute between the coal-owners and the miners in the summer of that year. The report issued by the commission is often referred to as the Samuel Report. (See Coat.) SAN, BATTLES OF THE: see DUNAJEC-SAN, BATTLES OF THE; VISTULA-SAN, BATTLES OF THE. SAN ANTONIO, Tex., U.S.A. (see 24.126), continued its rapid growth after 1910. In the following decade the population increased 67%, reaching 161,379 in 1920, of whom 14,341 were negroes and 36,824 foreign born (including 28,477 Mexicans). The census bureau estimate for 1925 was 198,069. San Antonio is the centre of a rich oil-producing area which developed rapidly after the opening of the first field at Somerset in 1919. Two direct railway lines connect it with the new deepwater port at Corpus Christi. Five irrigation projects (under construction in 1925) will bring under cultivation about 500,000 ac. of new land. The large and varied establishment of the U.S. Army (with about 12,000 troops) included three flying grounds, a great motor-transport camp, an artillery camp, and an artillery and rifle range, in addition to the arsenal and Fort Sam Houston, which is a cavalry post and headquarters of the VIII. Corps area. The output of the factories was valued at $13,435,000 in 1909, $35,456,000 in 1919 and $34,756,016 in 1923, when there were 297 establishments, employing 5,581 wage-earners.

AND

GUARANTEES

The leading industries were iron and steel, candy, textiles, cigars, leather goods, clothing and soap. Gas and electric current for industrial and domestic consumption were supplied by the San Antonio Public Service Co., which was constructing a highpower hydroelectric station on the Guadalupe river in 1925. The commission form of government was adopted in ror. Among the public improvements under way in 1925 were floodprevention works and a municipal auditorium. The water supply (derived from 17 artesian wells and sufficient for a city of over 500,000) was purchased by the city for $7,000,000 from a private corporation. In respect of school attendance, San Antonio in 1920 ranked last but one among the cities of 100,000 population and over; and in “illiteracy” third. SANCTIONS AND GUARANTEES (see 14.695) in international law correspond to the means adopted in national law to enforce legal decisions, but the decisions to be enforced are international decisions. During the years which followed the World: War it became increasingly apparent that the most important and the most enduring of European political problems was that known as the problem of security (g.v.). Terminology.—As a deduction from the new conception of security the word “ sanctions ” began to replace in the language of diplomacy the word “alliance.” Security was now to be sought not in limited agreements between small groups of states to fight together whenever any of them should, for whatever cause, be involved in international conflict, but in common agreements among a greater or smaller number of states to act together when—and only when—the established rights of one of them had been violated by force. Security, therefore, must be found in sanctions ”’ against the wrongdoer. For some time indeed, the word “ guarantees ’’ was used instead of, or on an equal footing with, the word “ sanctions.” The first security scheme prepared by a commission of the League of Nations was, for example, originally called a “ treaty of mutual guarantee,” but gradually the use of the word “‘ guarantee ”’ disappeared and the word “ sanctions ’”’ took its place. This change in phraseology was right, for the security arrangements which European politicians after the War endeavoured to

set up constituted nothing more nor less than an attempt to create a rudimentary international police. They constituted an attempt in international affairs to limit and control the use of force as it is limited and controlled in national affairs; an attempt, that is to say, to put force within the law instead of leaving it without the law to cause the international disorders which have resulted from its use in the past, and to this end to create a system of sanctions closely analogous in principle, though not of course in form, to the sanctions which support the legal system of every civilised state. The discussions which occurred during the years immediately after the War soon showed that there were two ways of achieving the result in view, the first was by the creation of a general system embracing all the States throughout the world; the second was by the creation of hmited arrangements applying to a certain number of States situated in geographical proximity to each other and bound together by common bonds of material interest. The first corresponded broadly to the application in international affairs of the principle of the sheriff’s posse; the second was an elaboration, with of course essential changes, of

the method of the pre-War military alliance. Article 16 of the Covenant.—It was by the application of the general method that the first step was made towards the organisation of a true system of international sanctions. This first step consisted in the adoption of the Covenant of the League of Nations, Article 16 of which imposes obligations upon every member of the League to adopt common coercive measures,

including especially a financial and economic boycott against states which, in violation of the undertakings of the Covenant, resort to war. It was believed by the authors of the Covenant that the system of Article 16 would, if loyally applied by the members of the League, act as a very powerful deterrent against aggression. But Article 16 unfortunately contained ambiguities the effect of which was to create in the minds of many govern-

SANDBURG—SANDFLY ments doubt as to the kind and the amount of help which the members of the League would in practice give to any state that might be wrongfully attacked. It was not, therefore, generally regarded as by itself creating a sufficiently sound system of sanctions to solve the problem of security. For that reason the temporary mixed commission set up by the Council of the League of Nations prepared in 1923 the draft treaty of mutual guarantee (or assistance), on the basis of which was prepared the Geneva Protocol of 1924. Both instruments were founded on the clear acceptance by all signatory states of obligations to co-operate by military or other necessary means against an aggressor, and if they had been ratified they would have been regarded by the governments which drew them up as a substantial progress towards providing the common action required for the protection of loyal members of international society against disloyal attack. Regional Guarantees—The second method, which in the early stages of the security discussions had great prominence, received its first application in the Anglo-American-French guarantee treaties drawn up in 1919 at Paris. These treaties failed to secure ratification, and were replaced by the Franco-

Belgian, Franco-Polish and other similar treaties of alliance. The Little Entente was another example of the same method.

But it was recognised even by the authors of these treaties that although they were subject to the Covenant of the League they were nevertheless, liable to degenerate into alliances of the old sort, and that therefore they would be dangerous unless they were effectively controlled by the League. It was the temporary mixed commission above mentioned which first established the principles of the League control which would make such partial treaties consistent with a general system of sanctions. The Commission recognised that in cases where for whatever reason there was great danger of war, special reinforcement for general

obligations might be required, and in the draft treaty of mutual assistance the two methods were for the first time combined into one coherent system. The Protocol similarly recognised the utility of special treaties in support of general sanctions, but on condition

that such special treaties could only be applied

after it had been recognised by some impartial arbitrator that aggression had taken place. After the first failure of the combination method of the Geneva Protocol, a return was made in the Locarno Agreements and the Rhineland Pact to the method of partial treaties. These agreements, however, In no way resembled an old-time alliance; the concern of their authors was plainly to create one more stable

element

in a new

system of international

sanctions against

aggression. Whatever developments may follow the Locarno Agreements, it is certain that the problem of security throughout the world will only be solved when satisfactory arrangements have been made for the provision of effective sanctions in support of international law, and that such sanctions can only be effective if they are founded on a combination of the two principles of

general and partial guarantees. bibliography thereto.)

(See LEAGUE oF Nations and (P. J. B.)

SANDBURG, CARL (1878ì), American author, was born at Galesburg, Ill., Jan. 6 1878. In 18ọ8~1902 he studied at Lombard College, Galesburg, and in 1910-2 was secretary to the mayor of Milwaukee, Wisconsin. He became associate editor of System, Chicago, in 1913, and was also editorial writer on The Chicago Daily News.

He served in the 6th Illinois Volunteers

in the Spanish-American War, seeing active service in Porto Rico. In 1918 he was a member of the editorial board of the National Labour Defence Council. His poetry is distinguished by an intense realism, set off by an abrupt irregularity of line which intensifies its effect. His choice of words is always significant and adds greatly to the force of his verse. He has been termed the laureate of industrial America. Among his published works are Chicago Poems (1915); Corn Huskers (1915); The Chicago Race Riots (1919); Smoke and Steel (1920); Slabs of the Sunburnt West (1922); Rootabaga Pidgeons (1923); Abraham Lincoln—the Prairie Phase (1926).

FEVER

AOI

SANDFLY FEVER.—“ Sandfly ” or ‘ phlebotomous fever ”’ is an acute specific fever, common in tropical and sub-tropical countries. It is caused by a virus, possibly a leptospira, conveyed to man bv the bite of a small midge of che dipterous family, Psychodidae. The incubation period is about five days. Symptoms.—The fever is sudden in onset, and of short duration, accompanied by severe headache and pains in the limbs. The attack starts with a general feeling of depression and loss of appetite, soon followed by weakness of the legs, and pains and tenderness in the muscles, especially those of calves and back

of neck. The temperature rises rapidly to 102 to ro4° Fahrenheit. There is flushing and fulness of face and eyes as though some constriction were being applied around the neck. The bloodshot eye is typical and in some countries has led to the disease being called “ dog disease’’ (Hundfieber). Frontal headache and pains in the eyes and leg muscles are usually severe. The pulse is relatively slow throughout. There may be vomiting and diarrhoea. Rashes are uncommon and are not to be confused with insect bites. A blood examination shows a marked decrease in the number of white blood corpuscles. The temperature usually falls to the normal level within four days, although one- to sevenday types of fever are to be scen. Recovery is slow, depression and other nervous symptoms may persist for weeks or months, Treatment.—The sooner the patient takes to bed the less severe are the pains likely to be. The bowels should be moved by means of calomel, followed by salts. Then the aches and pains may be relieved by the administration of 10 grains of aspirin every four hours, or by half a teaspoonful of liquid extract of opium. Quinine is useless. Hot tea is very soothing for the pains, especially during the night. It is advisable to surround fever cases with a sandfly net to lessen the chance of the infection spreading. Tonics anda change of climate may be necessary during convalescence. | Etiology.—While the nature of the causal organism is uncertain, Phicbotomus papatasti is the proven carrier of the disease. Sandfly fever is liable to occur wherever the P. papatasii can breed, 1.e., where for eight consecutive weeks the mean dail temperature lies between 65° and 9go° Fahrenheit. Epidemics of the fever depend on the number of infected Phichotomus, and the number of susceptible people. Other conditions, such as temperature, humidity, winds and reaction of soi, may modify the prime factors. The Virus.—Doerr in 1909 and Birt in 1910 showed that, m sand-

fly fever, the blood of man ts infective by direct transmission to other men only in the first day of disease. Kilroy in 1909 infected himself by Phlebotomus bites, and, by inoculation of his blood transmitted

the disease to a non-immune subject. Birt in I910 showed that the virus could pass through a very fine filter. In 1921 Couvy reported that spirochactes had been seen in cases of dengue in Beirut. In the same year the Royal Air Force Sandily Commission isolated a leptospira in six cases of so-called sandfly fever in Malta, while in 1922, Vervoort and Van de Velde, working in the Dutch East Indies, found Ieptospira in cases of fever resembling phlebotomous fever. However, the correct diagnosis of some of these cases was doubtful, and until further transmission experiments have been carried out this organism cannot be accepted as the causal virus. The Vector—Doerr and Birt in Igto claimed that P. papatasii which had fed on cases of sandfly fever were capable of transmitting the disease, but only seven to ten days after sucking virulent blood. Doerr suggested that the adult female Phlebotomus transmits infection to her offspring. During the years 1907 to 1922, parts of the bionomics of the sandfly had been worked out, but its life history was not fully elucidated. The R.A.F. Sandfly Commission, working in Malta and London during 1921, 1922 and 1923, bred the sandily in captivity and extensively studied the bionomics of this insect. The fever was transmitted to man by the bites of Phlebotomus bred in captivity in London, showing that these flies were the true carriers of the disease, Further experiments showed that the infection was handed on from generation to generation of sandfly in its breeding grounds, by the grub feeding on the excreta and dead remains of the parent flies. Phlebotomus papatasii is a small midge measuring about 3 mm. tn length; of a very delicate build and thickly covered with fine, long hairs. The body is of a pale lemon tint and shows the morphological characters common to its genus. Eyes are relatively large, black and conspicuous. The antennae are long and filamentous. The proboscis is long and prominent. The fine wings are lancet-shaped, covered with hairs and held erect, except when newly hatched and shortly before death. The female fly has a spindle-shaped abdomen,

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SAN FRANCISCO

The life-history of this fly covers a period of about eight weeks, the exact time depending on food supply, temperature and humidity. The egg stage occupies about nine days; the grub stage about 28 days; and the chrysalis stage about 10 days, ending in the emergence of the adult fy. The wings of the newly hatched fly are crumpled and moist. Until these are dry the young fly can only crawl. The recognition of this stage is most helpful in detecting breeding spots of the insect. During the night, when the atmospheric humidity is usually great, the wings cannot dry. The process of drying is usually completed within three hours after dawn, and the mouth parts are sufficiently hardened to allow of the sucking of blood during the first 24 hours of adult life. Copulation can take place within the next 24 hours, and eggs to the number of 40 are laid 6 to 10 days later. The length of life of the adult female fly in nature is about two wecks, though in the laboratory life may be prolonged for 30 days. Only the female Phlebotomus bites. A feed of blood is essential for the eggs to become fertilised. The insect usually bites after sunset. Man is bitten wherever the skin is exposed. The sandfly progresses by a short hopping flight usually to one side. The distance of a single flight is never more than four yd., and it does not travel more than 50 yd. from its breeding haunts. It is attracted by the odours of man and other animals, and enters buildings by apertures in the walls, windows, doorways, ventilators or cracks. The flight of the Phlebotomus is so fecble that it avoids all currents of air, natural or artificial. Upstair rooms, which are more exposed to air currents, are less infected than those on the ground-floor. In nature the grub and chrysalis forms are found in the cracks in embankments, in the

loose earth at the base of walls and buildings, in cultivated soil and in other places where suitable conditions of food, moisture and temperature exist. The grubs are found even to a depth of a foot or more in loose soil, and can migrate to the level of optimum environment. Hibernation takes place in the last grub stage, a very resistant stage. When ready to pass into the chrysalis form, they seek a drier spot, usually within a few inches of the surface of the ground. Excess of moisture is injurious to all stages of the life of this insect. The Recipient.—About 80 °% of newcomers to sandfly regions suffer from the fever during their frst summer of residence, and about 15° develop a second attack within three years. Such factors as atmospheric temperature and humidity affect the development of the Virus in man,

Prevention.—It is necessary to eliminate the hiding and breeding places of the fly. Cracks in the ground or in masonry must be got rid of by levelling, pointing, etc. Premises must be thoroughly cleansed, and dust and cobwebs removed. Good refuse disposal is essential. The sandfly must be kept away by sandily proof nets (45 meshes to the square inch), electric fans or repellants, such as paraffin or camphor; whilst insects living in corners of rooms must be destroyed by swatting with a damp

cloth or spraying with 1% cresol. There must be a daily war against this pest. All the necessary repairs, tarring, painting and lime-washing must be carried out Immediately before the warm weather sets in. Each year the interior of all rooms should be washed down and painted or lime-washed. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—C, Birt, “ Phlebotomus Fever in Malta and Crete,” Jour. Rey. Army Med. Corps, vol. 14, pp. 143, 236 (1910);

‘f A. Sinton, ‘‘ Notes on Some Indian Specics of the genus Phleotomus,”’ Indian Jour, Med. Research, vol. 10, No. 3, vol. 11, No. 4 (1923-4); H. E. Whittingham and A. F. Rook, “‘ Observations on the

Life-history and Bionomics of Phlebotomus papatasii,” Brit. Med. Jour., Part 2, p. 1144 (1923). (H. E. Wa.)

SAN FRANCISCO, Cal., U.S.A. (see 24.144).—The population increased 21:5% in the decade 1ọr0o~20, reaching sṣo6,676 in 1920, when it ranked 12th among the cities of the United States, and was outranked in California for the first time by Los Angeles. The population of the San Francisco-Oakland metropolitan district, however, was still (1920) somewhat greater than that of the Los Angeles metropolitan district (g00,921 and 880,653 respectively). For 1925 the census bureau’s estimate for the city proper was 557,530; local estimates were considerably higher, over 700,000. The population still had (1920) the frontier characteristic of a preponderance of males (116-6 males to 100 females). The leading nationalities among the 149,195 foreign-born were Italians, Germans, Irish and English; there were 4,497 Chinese, 4,198 Japanese and 3,810 Mexicans. The amount of illiteracy and of child labour was relatively small; the percentage of men employed relatively high; the general death-rate slightly above the average (probably because olf invalids from the east); the infant mortality far below the average. San Francisco is the seat of the federal reserve bank for the twelfth district.

Communications and Commerce.—Between t9to and 1925 the Western Pacific Railroad was greatly developed, and important improvements were made by the Southern Pacific and the Santa Fe companies. Traffic by sea greatly increased, especially after the opening of the Panama Canal; the total tonnage of cargoes received and shipped in 1924 (including foreign, coastwise and local commerce) was 11,395,012 short tons. Foreign commerce in 1924 amounted to 3,083,513 cargo tons (imports, 1,244,242 tons; exports, 1,839,271), giving San Francisco eighth place among the ports of the United States. Extensive improvements were made in port facilities: pier space was more than doubled; warehouses were built; and a tunnel was made connecting the government docks andl the Presidio with the Belt railway. Passenger and motor traffic across the bay increased beyond the possibility of accommodating it by ferries, and in 1923 the war department gave permission for the construction of a cantilever bridge for vehicular traffic across Carquinez Straits in the upper bay, and of two vehicular bridges across the lower end of the bay. The Bay Shore Highway to San Jose, a boulevard 125 ft. wide, was under construction in 1925. Industries —Products manufactured in San Francisco were valued at $133,041,000 in 1909; $417,321,000 In 1919; $327,490,417 In 1921; and $416,317,535 in 1923, when the city stood — 15th among the industrial centres of the country. During the World War shipbuilding was very important; in 1919 the output of the yards within the city limits was 11% of the total value of the factory products; in the yards of the metropolitan district 165 cargo ships of 1,553,433 tons were constructed in 1916-20, besides 110 naval craft, including three super-dreadnoughts. Following a strike of the longshoremen in 1916, which completely tied up the port, the chamber of commerce, at a mass meeting of business men, declared for the principle of the “ open shop ” in labour relations, and appointed a ‘‘ law and order ” committee, for which an initial fund of $1,000,000 was subscribed. An ordinance making picketing illegal was secured in Nov. 1916. The organised effort thus begun to establish the open shop, in the city which had long been the greatest stronghold of organised labour, was continued after the War by the industrial association, an organisation of employers formed for the purpose. Public Utilities and Building —In 1910 a bond issue of $45,000,000 was voted for the municipal project of bringing water from the headwaters of the Tuolumne river in the Sierra Nevada mountains, 150 m. away; an additional $10,000,000 was voted in 1924, with $20,000,000 more still needed. The dam in the Hetch-Hetchy valley was completed in 1923.

By 1925 an 18 m.

tunnel through the mountains had been completed to Moccasin creek, where the first powerhouse of the system (100,000 H.P.) had been built; the western end of the project also had been completed, including conduits and tunnels across the bay to the Crystal Springs Lakes, in order to make immediately available an additional supply of water from the Mount Hamilton range. Condemnation proceedings were begun in 1913 to acquire the property of the Spring Valley Co., which owns the local distributing system and the reservoir on the peninsula; and in 1922 an agreement with the company gave the city the right to purchase at any time before 1934, at $38,000,000 plus expenditures for improvements. Up to 1925 the voters had refused to approve the necessary bond issue. On Aug. 14 1925 the Moccasin Power Plant was put into service, with the Pacific Gas and Electric Company as temporary distributor. The net revenue from the power and from the rental of the Bay Crossing aqueduct. is sufficient to pay the interest on the outstanding bonds. With the reconstruction of the Geary Street Railway in ror2, the city government entered the business of local transportation. By 1925 it owned 72 m. of track, and had met all expenses out of earnings while keeping a five-cent fare. An amendment to the city charter in 1920 authorised negotiations for the purchase of the privately owned street railways (286 m. of track) with provisos that the price must be paid out of earnings and that the agreement must be submitted to the electors for approval. A tunnel under the Twin Peaks (about 12,000 ft. long, completed 1917) brought within easy reach of the business sec-

SAN GIULIANO—SAN

REMO, CONFERENCE

tion a new territory, where several well-planned residence districts of great beauty were developed. The Stockton street tunnel (orr ft.) was completed about the same time. The Dubose tunnel (4,232 ft.), for which bids were received May 5 1926,

will serve the Sunset district. l Land for a civic centre was acquired in 1912, and by 1925 it had been improved with a notable group of buildings: a large and well-designed city hall, the public library, the state building and the auditorium which was presented to the city by the administration of the Panama-Pacific exposition. A municipal opera house is to be added soon. A city-planning commission was authorised in 1912, and a zoning ordinance (regulating use of buildings) was adopted in 1921. The building permits issued in the five years 1920-4 represented new construction to the value of $198,832,000, but there was still a housing shortage. For the fiscal year 1925-6 the assessed valuation of property (on a 50% basis) was $734,000,000. Education.—After a long and bitter struggle, the charter of the city was amended in 1920 to provide for a board of education appointed by the mayor (but subject to ratification by the electorate), serving with only nominal compensation, who should appoint a superintendent of schools responsible to the board. This superseded a system in which the superintendent was elected by popular vote. Upon the establishment of the new board a comprehensive building programme was mapped out, for which a bond issue of $12,000,000 was voted in 1923, and by 1925 most of the buildings were under construction. The Panama-Pacific Exposition, celebrating the opening of the Panama Canal, was held in rors (Feb. 20 to Dec. 4). There were 80,000 exhibits, valued at $350,000,000, representing 39 foreign countries and 37 states and three territories of the United States; 800 congresses and conventions were held in connection with the exposition. The attendance aggregated 1%,413,399; the average per day was 62,000. Architecture, colour scheme and effective illumination at night combined to make it an artistic success. Financially, there was a final net profit of about $1,000,000. It left to San Francisco as a permanent heritage not only the municipal auditorium at the civic centre, but the Marina Park lands, extending along the Bay for eight blocks between Fort Mason and the Presidio, and the Palace of Fine Arts with the surrounding park lands of 20 acres. Government.—James Rolph, Jr., elected mayor in r91I as a ‘reform ”’ candidate, was still in office in 1925, with two more years of his fourth term to run. SAN GIULIANO, ANTONINO PATERNO-CASTELLI, MARQUIS pI (1852-1914), Italian statesman, was born at Catania Dec. 10 1852, a member of a noble Sicilian family. After graduating in law at the university of Catania he became, in 1879, Mayor of his native city, and in 1882 was elected to Parliament. When in 1892 Sig. Giolitti became premier, San Giuliano was selected as under secretary for agriculture, while in the second Pilloux Ministry (1899-1900) he held the portfolio of posts and telegraphs. Having been defeated at the election of 1904, he was nominated senator. When in Dec. 1905 Sig. Fortis became prime minister he was appointed minister for foreign affairs, and on the fall of the Cabinet early in 1906 he was appointed Ambassador in London, where he remained until r910. From London he was transferred to Paris, but he soon returned to the Consulta as foreign minister in the Luzzati Cabinet (1910-1), and continued at the same post in Sig. Giolitti’s administration. San Giuliano was an ardent believer in the Triple Alliance but having retained his portfolio under Salandra, after Giolitti’s resignation in March r914, he carried out with complete loyalty the policy of neutrality adopted by Italy on the outbreak of the World War. He died in Rome on Oct. 16 r914. SAN MARINO (see 24.153) had, in 1920, a population of 12,069. The peaceful revolution of March 25 1906 had restored the original system of election to the council (which had become a close corporation, renewed by co-option) by the Arengo, or assembly of heads of families, one-third of the council being henceforth renewable every three years. But in Sept. 1920 the

council resigned in a body and enlarged the Arengo into a single

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constituency, electing the 60 councillors under practically universal suffrage and proportional representation, illiterates not being disqualified. : The march of democracy at San Marino is shown by the figures of the general election of 1920, when 2,352 persons voted as compared with the 802 heads of families who polled in rgo6. San Marinese public life takes its colour from Italy; thus, the Catholic Popular party there, as in Italy, was powerful in 1920, and Socialism, imported from abroad, was largely represented, while Fascism has appeared. Pending the election of their successors after the vote of 1920, the two half-yearly presidents of the republic, for the first time since 1787, remained in office after their six months’ legal tenure had expired, and, for the first time since 174c, the new Capitani Reggenti came into power on Dec. 5 instead of Oct. 1 or April 1, the timehonoured dates, a return to which was effected at the ensuing election of presidents. | Effect of the War.—The World War affected even this neutral republic. The Germans accused it of espionage through the wireless station on Monte Titano, which stands 2,437 ft. above the sea. The republic refused, however, to receive the threatened commission of inquiry. When Italy entered the War, San Marino showed its sympathies by voting £1,500 for the Italian sufferers, and one of the regents publicly expressed his hope for an Italian victory. Some amusement was caused by the order

of the council of the League of Nations in Rome in 1920 that its permanent military commission should inquire into the “military and naval forces’ of this landlocked republic. Relations with the Powers —San Marino has been since 1862 in treaty relations with Italy, and the Italian ex-premier, Sig. Luzatti, acted as its adviser. In rgr11 it had a separate pavilion at the Rome exhibition; in ro21 the flight of Bolsheviks into the republic, and the “ punitive expedition ” of the Fascisti in search of them, led San Marino to invoke the aid of the Italian Carabinieri, who were placed under the republic’s authority. With Great Britain San Marino, which has a consul-general in London, signed an extradition treaty In 1899, and sent an envoy to Edward VII.’s coronation; correspondence passed between George V. and the regents on the death of Edward VIT.; and in t919 a celebration in honour of “ our smallest ally ” was held in London. The republic no longer confers titles for a consideration, but finds a fruitful source of revenue in the frequent changes of its postage stamps (first issued in 1877 and divided into two series, one for foreign and the other for internal postage, in 1899). However, it has had to resort to a loan, and new taxes were imposed to provide higher salaries for officials, causing the peasant rising in rgro. But it has steadily refused the offer of a gaming-table. In recent years newspapers have been published. The only exports, besides postage stamps, are stone from Monte Titano—the legendary founder of San Marino was a Dalmatian stone cutter—and the strong wine grown on this volcanic soil. The museum contains among other curiosities the banner oas Garibaldi’s “‘ Italic Legion,’”’ which sought refuge at San Marino

in 1849. The archives were rearranged and described by Malagola. The present Government House, built from the designs of Azzurri, and inaugurated with an address by Carducci in 1894,is a handsome building, and a fine statue of the republic adorns the Pianello. The cold climate should make San Marino a good summer resort now that it is connected with Rimini by motors. Education is provided at the Belluzzi College, founded in 1691 and refounded in 1883, and the republic has produced two native historians. BrsLiocrapuy.— Verbale dell’Arriugo Generale dei Capt- Famiglia tenutosi il giorno dt Domenica, 25 Marzo, 1906 (S. Marino, 1906); Di Marino Fattori, Ricordi storici della Repubblica di S. Marino, 6th ed., edited by O. Fattori (1912); Verbale del Consiglio Grande e Generale della Seduta, 18 Settembre, 1o20 (S. Marino, 1920); W. Miller, “ Democracy at San Marino,” History, vol. 7 (April 1922). (W. Mı.)

SAN REMO, CONFERENCE OF (April 19 to 26 1920).—This conference was preceded by a meeting of the Supreme Allied

SANTAYANA—SANTO

404

Council (Mr. Lloyd George, M. Millerand and Signor Nitti) from Feb. 12 to 23 in London, where the main lines of the future

Treaty of Sévres with Turkey were laid down, and the draft treaty with Hungary and the Fiume question were discussed. At San Remo itself, where the three statesmen above mentioned

were Joined by representatives of Greece, Belgium and Japan, the Turkish Treaty was the first and principal business dealt with, and the framework of the Sévres Treaty was there constructed. The mandates for Syria, Palestine and ‘Iraq were assigned to France and Great Britain respectively, and an AngloFrench Oil agreement was negotiated which covered Rumaria and the French and British non-self-governing colonies as well

as the Middle East. The most controversial question dealt with, as between the Allies, was that of the maximum strength of the German Army, both as to its total and as to the number of troops allowed in the neutral zone skirting the area under

Allied occupation.

_

During the preceding month the reactionary Putsch organised by Herr Kapp had temporarily driven the Republican Government from Berlin; the swing of the pendulum had produced a Communist rising in the Ruhr, with which the Republican Government had come into armed collision; the Government had dispatched against the Communists (whose outbreak happened to have occurred in the neutral zone) more troops than were allowed in this zone under the Versailles Treaty; France had retaliated by occupying Frankfurt and Darmstadt without consulting her Allies; and Great Britain had protested against this sharply. In these circumstances the German Govt. asked the San Remo Conference to sanction the doubling of the maximum strength for the German army as fixed by the Versailles Treaty. In a joint declaration made at San Remo the Supreme Allied Council refused this request and charged Germany with default in respect not only of disarmament but of reparation. At the same time they announced their intention of inviting the heads of the German Government to a direct conference. (See SPA, CONFERENCE OF.) (A. J. T.) SANTAYANA, GEORGE (1863}, American philosopher and writer, was born in Madrid, Spain, Dec. 16 1863. At the age of nine he went to America and was educated at Harvard (A.B. 1886; Ph.D. 1889), where he taucht from 1889 to 1912 as instructor, assistant professor, and, after 1907, as professor of phil-

osophy. He then retired to devote his time to literary work. In 1905 he was Hyde lecturer at the Sorbonne. As an essayist he attained a high position in American letters, being one of the acutest opponents of the pragmatic attitude in matters of conduct and education. To the most abstruse subjects he never failed to bring an acid wit and a romantic beauty of style. His chief work is The Life of Reason: or the Phascs of Human Progress (1905-6), 5 vol., entitled respectively Reason in Common Sense; Reason in Society; Reason in Religion; Reason in Art and Reason in Science. His other writings include: Sonnets and other Verses (1896); Lucifer, a Theological Tragedy (1899); A hermit of Carmel and other poems (1901); Three Philosephical Poets (1910); Winds of Docirine; Studies in Contemporary Opinion (1913); Egotism In German Philosophy (1916); Character and Opinion in the United States; with Reminiscences of William James and Josiah Royce, and Academic Life in Amperica (1920); Soltlogutes In England (1922); Poems (1923); Scepticism and Animal Faith (1923); The Unknowable (Herbert Spencer lecture, Oxford, 1923); and Dialogues in Limbo (1925).

SANTIAGO,

Chile, the capital of Chile (see 24.191), had a

population of 507,296 at the census of Dec. 15 1920, an increase of 52-5% since 1907 (332,724), compared with an increase of only 21:2% in the same period for the province of Santiago outside the city, and 15-6°% for the entire country. As the natural increase of the population is small (3:3 per 1,000 of the province of Santiago, 1923) and immigration had been inconsidcrable, it is evident that the growth of the capital was due largely to migration from the smaller towns and rural districts. The city had 9-5% of the entire population of the country in 1895, 10:2% in 1907, 13:5% in 1920. Birth-rates and death-rates both are excessive (37:7 and 34:4 per 1,000 respectively for the province of Santiago in 1923); 38-40% of the births are illegitimate.

DOMINGO

While Santiago remained primarily the political and cultural centre of the nation, its importance as a commercial and industrial metropolis increased. There were many wholesale firms, doing a large business in cattle, hides and other agricultural products. Chilean manufacturcrs received a stimulus from the dislocation of international trade during and after the World War, and by 1923 Santiago had over 1,300 industrial establishments, with a capitalisation of 163,000,000 pesos. Among the leading industries were breweries, flour-mills, foundries, machine-shops, woodworking plants, tanneries, knitting-mills, soap factories, factories for making shoes, hats, umbrellas and various articles of clothing. There was a rapid development in labour organisation, and the chronic shortage in the labour supply persisted. By 1925 Santiago was described by travellers as one of the most beautiful cities of South America, with all the characteristics of a modern capital; fine public buildings and private residences, broad avenues, well paved and well lighted streets, and modern conveniences of every sort. Among the new buildings were the Palacio de Bellas Artes, in the Parque Forestal; the national library then under construction, for which a site was purchased in 1913; the Agronomical Institute and the School of Engineering; and two banks of steel construction. The electric tramway and lizhting company, which before the War hag been in German hands, was reorganised as a Chilean enterprise. It constructed hydroelectric projects at Santiago in 1921, and secured the contract for supplying power to the railway from Santiago to Valparaiso after its electrification, as well as for lighting the city and running its tramcars. In Oct. 1924 the Government granted a concession to a local firm for the construction of an underground way through the centre of the city (og km. long, ro metres below the surface). The water supply was increased by bringing water from Laguna Negra in the Andes, 53 km. away. The fifth international conference of American States was held in Santiago March 25 to May 3 1923. SANTLEY, SIR CHARLIS (1834-1922), British singer (see 24.194), published The Art of Singing (1908) and Reminiscences of My Life (1909). He died in London Sept. 22 1922. SANTO DOMINGO (see 24.195), a West Indian republic on the eastern portion of the island of Haiti.

Estimated area, 19,332

square miles. The first census of the republic ever taken was completed by the military government in 1921, when the population was declared to be 897,405. The estimated population in 1923 was 708,000. The inhabitants are mostly of mixed European, African and Indian blood, though there are some creoles of Spanish descent. Santo Domingo, the capital, had a population of 30,957 in 1923; Santiago de los Caballeros, 17,052.

I. POLITICAL HISTORY The assassination of President Ramén Caceres on Nov. 19 1911 brought toanabrupt end the internal peace that was hoped to follow from the fiscal treatyof 1907. Gen. A. M. Victoria, the dominant military figure, secured the selection of his uncle Eladio Victoria as president. Revolutionary outbreaks followed, and the United States President appointed a special commission to help establish order. As a result Victoria was induced to resign, and Arch-

bishop Nouel was chosen provisional president. Further political disturbances developed, and Archbishop Nouel resigned on March 31 1913, the national congress selecting Gen. José Bordas

Baldez as provisional President. Once more revolutionary outbreaks prompted the United States to proffer its good offices, and on the advice of the American commission Baldez resigned and Dr. Ramon Baez was elected provisional president on Aug. 27 1914. In Oct. of the same year the former president, Juan Isidro Jiménez, was chosen constitutional president, and a period of peace and prosperity followed until April 1916, when Gen. Desiderio Arias precipitated a revolution by marching on the capital. He seized military control, swept aside the aged president Jiménez and proceeded to assume the executive power. His plans were thwarted by the United States Govt., which dispatched an army of occupation to Santo Domingo in May 1916. Jiménez resigned office and retired to Porto Rico, and the

465

~SANTOS—SAO PAULO | American commander promptly suppressed Arias. The complete pacification of the interior was rapid, and was effected without any serious resistance. On July 25 1916 the Dominican Congress selected Dr. Francisco Henriquez Carvajal as temporary president. The United States, refusing recognition until assured of the non-recurrence of civil disorder, proposed a new treaty based upon the convention adopted between the United States and Haiti (¢.v.), which should provide for the collection of customs under American auspices, the appointment of an American financial adviser and the establishment of a constabulary force officered by Americans. On the refusal of President Henriquez to enter into this arrangement, the American authorities proceeded to withhold from the Government all the revenues collected by their officers. When Henriquez announced his intention not to retire from the presidency upon the expiration of his provisional term, but to present himself as a candidate for popular election, the deadlock threatened to continue indefinitely. On Nov. 29 1916 Santo Domingo was placed under the military administration of the United States. Executive departments were taken over by American naval officers, ex-president Henríquez left the country, order was quickly established and Santo Domingo entered upon four years of civil quiet and economic improvement. On July rr 1922 the Department of State at Washington announced a plan for the termination of the military government in Santo Domingo. A special commissioner to the Dominican Republic was appointed to make the plan effective. On Oct. 21 1922 Juan Bautista Vicini Burgos was installed as provisional president to hold office during the period necessary to carry out the proposed plan of evacuation and to re-establish a Dominican constitutional government. The executive officers of the military government continued on duty in Santo Domingo to assist the provisional government during this time. On July 12 1924 General Horacio Vásquez was inaugurated constitutional president of the republic, having been chosen at the elections held on March 15 1924. Control of all fiscal and administrative

affairs was again placed in Dominican

hands, with the

exception of the custums service, which continued to be administered by officials nominated by the President of the United States. The treaty with the United States for the withdrawal of the American forces was ratified by the Dominican Congress on June 26 1924, and on Sept. ©7 the last of the American marine forces of occupation left the republic. Education,—Primary education is compulsory and free. The

Government educational scheme comprises primary and secondary schools, technical and training colleges. By a presidential decree of Nov. 29 1914 the professional institute was raised to the rank of a university. There were 972 public schools in 1920, with 105,000 pupils; in the same year the government expenditure on public instruction was $966,952. The period of American occupation was marked by the building of schools and the extension of educational facilities. In 1924 the Dominican Govt. made provision in the budget for the establishment of 300 schools in the republic, and legislation provided that the tax impuesto de Patentes should be used for educational purposes.

Il. FINANCIAL

AND

ECONOMIC

HISTORY

Finance.—Political disturbances delayed the course of financial extrication ensured by the convention of 1907, but after 1916 rapiil progress was made. Of the $20,000,000 loan of 1907 there was on

Dec. 31 1924 an outstanding liability of only $3,868,716, which was to be paid off before 1929. The total bonded debt of the republic on

Dec. 31 1924 was $13,534,276.

One of the first acts of the new Government was to negotiate a convention with the United States to replace the convention of 1907. In effect, this proposed convention followed the lines of the convention of 1907, authorised the Dominican Govt. to issue $25,000,000 in bonds, and provided for the appointment by the President of the United States of a general receiver and the necessary assistants to collect the customs duties in the republic and to allocate to the interest and sinking fund of the bond issue the necessary amounts. This convention was signed in Washington on Dec. 27 1924. It was ratified by the United States Senate at that session, and its ratification by the Dominican Congress was approved by the president of the republic on May 25 1925. During 1924 the customs receipts were $4,386,602 as against

$3,596,166 in 1923. The internal revenue for 1924 was $2,998,686 as against $2,575,055 in 1923. Deposits in the savings banks during

1924 showed an increase on those for 1923. Estimated receipts for 1925, according to the budget promulgated Dec. 28 1925, were $11,968,L10, leaving after certain deductions an available balance of $6,006,840. Production and Indusiry.—Agriculture is the chief source of wealth in the republic, the cultivation of sugar taking first place amongst the industries. Cacao, tobacco and coffee are the other staple products. From ror2 to 1914 the increase in production was arrested. but in 1915 production went up. The military occupation and high prices caused by the World War maintained high export values through 1920, when record prices were reached, ta be followed by an abrupt reaction. The 1924-5 sugar crop at 340,870 short tons cxceeded the estimate by 21,722 short tons. Cocoa exported in 1924 was 23,142,478 kilos, as against 19,830,722 kilos in 1923. The value of the 1924 heavier exports at $2,793,502 was less than that of the 1923 exports, which were valued at $2,917,165. Exports of coffee increased in value from $427,588 in 1923 to $863,531 in 1924. Sugar and molasses exports in 1923 were $19,042,067, compared with $22,484,656 in 1924. [Imports and exports for the years 1914 and 1924 were:— 1924 I9l4 Imports $21,580,571 $ 6,729,007 Exports 30,262,896 10,588,787 63°73.% of the import and 30-68% of the export trade being with the United States in 1924, as compared with 59-29% and 52-31% respectively in r911. The chief imports in 1924 were cotton goods. foodstuffs, manufactures of iron and steel and oils.

Communications. —-During the American military occupation a number of much-needed highways were constructed, of which 405 m. of highways had been completed by 1924, 96 additional m. were under construction, with a further 452 m. projected. _ A government owned telephone system operates over 1,034 m. of lines, with telephonic connection with the republic of Haiti. In 1924 there were wireless stations at Santo Domingo and at La Romana; the latter was opened to foreign traffic in 1912.

| a (J. H. Ho.) BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Reports of the Council of the Corporation of Foreign Bondhotders (London, annual); S. Bonsall, The American Mediterranean

(1912);

C. A, Noucl,

Fistorica

Eclesiáslica

de la

arquidiócesis de Sanio Domingo, 2 vol. (Rome, 1913); C. L. Jones. Caribbean Interesis of the United States

the Dominican

Republic of 1908 (San

(1916);

Domingo,

The Constitution

of

1918); O. Schén-

rich, Santo Domingo: the Country with a Future (New York, 1918); A. Rodríguez, La Cuestión Dominico-Haitiana: Estudio Geogrd phicoHistórico (San Domingo, 1919); C. N. de Moya, Bosquepo Historico dele Republica Dominicana (t919); U.S. Navy Department, Santo Domingo, iis Past and tts Present (1920); Report of Inquiry into the occupation and administration of Haiti and Santo Domingo, before select committee of the U.S. Senate (1922).

SANTOS (see 24.196), population 1or.o00, has made notable progress since toto. An annual rainfall of about 77 in. and a mean temperature of 69° F., combined formerly to create unhealthy conditions, but the building of a series of drainage canals, ex-

tension of modern sanitation, paving of streets, construction of better business and dwelling houses, pori improvements, all representing an outlay of millions of pounds, are largely responsible for the change to a healthful citv. A suburban seaside resort, Guaruja, with new hotels, now draws many visitors from inland

parts of Brazil. | Santos has passecl Rio de Janeiro in the amount of its exports anc is now the world’s greatest coffee port, shipping annually from 8,000,000 to 13,000,000 bags. The annual imports have increased in 20 years from about 500,000 to 1,500,000 tons. About 1,500 ships visit the port yearly, the busiest season being from Aug. to January. New docks extend for three miles and can accommodate šo steamers at one time; belt conveyors operated by steam load several thousand bags of coffee per hour. Many warehouses are splendidly equipped with machinery which replaces manual labour. Fhe RBritish-built railway to Saéo Paulo (‘ Heart of Coffee Land”), 40 m. distant, transports the bulk of coffee of that region to Santos, making the line the best paying railway in South America. A congestion of rail trafic at times has been pronounced and plans are proposed for additional facilities. Motor trucks are gradually replacing horse-drawn carts. A

good highway from São Paulo to Santos was completed by the stale government in 1919. (W.A. R.) SAO PAULO (sre 24.200), capitalofthe Stateofthesame name in Brazil, and its commercial and industrial centre, grew very rapidly between 1900 and 1925, especially after the close of the World War. In 30 years the population increased ninefold, reaching 579,033 according to the census of to20, and was estimated at

466

SAO SALVADOR—SARGENT

about 625,000 in 1925. The high rate of natural increase (as indicated by a birth-rate of 40-8 and a death-rate of 20-5) was supplemented by a considerable immigration, Italians leading among the foreign population, followed by Germans, Portuguese, Spaniards, French and English. Manufactures (especially textiles and clothing, hats, boots and shoes, machinery and other articles for home consumption, and meat products for export) were greatly stimulated by the War and, in a few years, the annual output was valued at $20,000,000. In 1923 four large packing-plants were in operation near the city, with an output valued at 89,799,210 milreis (1 milreis=approx. so cents). With the in-

crease in business the old and narrow streets in the business quarter of the city became seriously congested. SAO SALVADOR: see BAHIA. SARGASSO SEA.—The portion of the Atlantic Ocean extending from Bermuda to the Azores, bounded approximately by 25° and 30° N. and by 38° and 60° W. is termed the Sargasso Sea, because of the prevalence throughout this area of the weed known as Sargassum bacciferum. This plant, floating on or near the surface, is about one foot in length and consists of a single layer of feathery branches of varying degrees of yellow in colour. Scattered among these branches are numerous globular air bladders or capsules, the size of a large pea. The term ‘‘ Sargasso ”’ is derived from two Portuguese words, signifying the sea of the little grapes—having reference to these air capsules. The weed is not matted, but is always found floating nearly free, only sufficiently entangled for the mass to keep together, with long lanes of open water between the masses. The weed-infested region, though it apparently expands and contracts at uncertain times through unknown causes, is approximately one-third the size of the United States, and within this area is found a highly specialised and unique series of pelagic animals. Though large in point of numbers, only 15 species have been met with, for the most part distinct from normal pelagic fauna. The Sargasso Sea was discovered by Columbus on his first voyage and received from him the name of the Mer de Sargaco. Geographers, sailors and scientists have varied greatly in their estimates respecting the extent and density of the area of weed, and also as to its source and propagation. Some have stated that many of the branches show signs of having been attached to rock and that the individual plants have travelled a great distance, since in a large proportion of instances only a part of the weed is living. From these facts the suggestion is made that the weed is torn off from the Bahamas by the force of the waves and is then caught in the eddy of the great system of Atlantic currents. On the other hand it has been maintained that the weed propagates itself in the high seas. Again, the statement has been made that the weed is so dense at times as to be an obstruction to navigation, whereas others have affirmed that it offers no resistance to ships, and even its very existence has recently been denied. The widely credited possibility of ships becoming embedded in the weed, and being unable to escape, is disproved by the expedition of the ‘ Michael Sars,” under the direction of Sir John Murray and the Norwegian government in 1910, which found the surface covered with weed only in patches. It would appear that at times the weed sinks, remaining suspended 12 or 18 in. below the surfaces of the water, and this phenomenon may have given rise to the divergent opinions met with. Other similar tracts exist covered with floating weed, e.g., in the solitary part of the Pacific, north of the Hawaiian Islands, between 30° and 40° N. and between 150° and 180° W. There is a smaller tract southeast of New Zealand and along a belt of the southern ocean extending from the Falkland Is., south of Africa and southwest of Australia, similar floating banks of weed are discovered. SARGENT, JOHN SINGER (1856-1925), Anglo-American painter (see 24.219). For 40 years before his death John Singer Sargent was too towering a personality for his contemporaries to judge either him or his work in true perspective. A tall and commanding presence, with a small head well set on broad shoulders, with large, somewhat prominent grey eyes, kindly

in expression though nothing escaped them, with a close-cut beard at a time when nine men out of ro were clean-shaven, he made an instant impression upon those who came into contact with him. During the last years of his life, especially, with his great size, his dark hair and beard turned silver-white, his complexion florid, and an air about him of singular freshness and calm, he had a look as of some serene and beneficent Jove. That he was a great artist is universally acknowledged, but that he was a great man his life attested—in its austerity, its generous highmindedness, its breadth of vision, and above all in its independence of praise, fame or wealth. Essentially a cosmopolitan, he was of American descent. He appreciated with amusement the anomaly of his own situation, claimed as he was by two countries—the land of his immediate forefathers, the land of his adoption. | His record of extraordinary good fortune was based as much upon character as upon incidental circumstance. The simplicity of his aim was a citadel of strength. He knew what he wanted, and any distraction, however tempting, that interfered with his object he summarily brushed aside. Yet he was in no sense an ascetic. He had a vigorous relish for good plays, good music, good books, good company. His movements were deliberate, he never seemed to hurry; but it was always a question whether his self-control did not consist rather of the coolness of the born fighter than of the phlegm of a somewhat contemptuous philosopher. He himself would have said that he was most fortunate in the choice of his parents. Eis father, Dr. Fitzwilliam Sargent, was born in Gloucester, Massachusetts, where his ancestors, emigrating from Gloucester, England, settled before 1650. For his medical training Fitzwilliam Sargent went to Philadelphia, practised there for a short period and married Miss Mary Newbold Singer, a member of an old Philadelphia family. In 1854 (Mrs. Sargent not having recovered from the death of her first child) the young couple, with Mrs. Sargent’s mother, went for change of air and scene to Europe, with no premonition that this journey would result in their permanent establishment abroad. Two years later, on Jan. 12 1856, in Florence, at the Casa Arretini, on the Lungarno Guicciardini, their son, John Singer Sargent, was born. He showed his special aptitudes from his earliest childhood, which was spent at Nice, in Rome, in Dresden, with periodical returns to Florence. Whenever possible he took drawing lessons of a desultory kind, interrupted by the exigencies of schooling and a life of constant travel. His mother, who herself loved to sketch in water-colours, recognised and encouraged his unusual gifts. His own awakening to the enchantment of being able to express his delight in the visual world came to him, he once mentioned, at Miirren, with his closer acquaintance with mountains, in the summers of 1868 to 1870. His early drawings were carefully painstaking efforts to show every variation in rock forms, or in the verdure that sprang from their crevices. This creative ardour, this eagerness to attack a difficult problem, were char-

acteristic to the last day of his life. In 1873 he won a prize for drawing at the Accademia in Florence. In 1876 he paid the first of many visits to America, but before the short interruption of this trip he had begun his artistic education in earnest, haying entered the studio of Carolus Duran, in Paris, in 1874, at the age of eighteen. Rarcly, if ever, was a student better equipped for his profession. Travel had enriched a naturally receptive and keenly observant mind. He had absorbed beauty in landscape, pictures, music or architecture as instinctively as he breathed, and extensive reading had made each place of sojourn live for him with all the intensity of the immediate as well as of the remote past. A fellow student described him as a tall, slenderly built, rather silent youth, with a friendly, somewhat shy manner, who could, on occasions, in spite of his diffidence, express himself with startling decision. Mature for his years, he was never inclined to exuberance, and was more the amused observer than

a participant in the riotous diversions that varied the routine of student life in Paris. His industry was no less remarkable

SARGENT than his physical strength, his youthful powers of endurance not being unduly taxed by the strain of attending not only the class at Duran’s studio, but the Beaux Arts and an evening life class as well. Contrary to many published recollections, Sargent himself declared, perhaps with characteristic modesty, that he was by no means a brilliant pupil, that he was considered, at first, somewhat dull and slow, and that he only acquired his amazing technical skill by continued concentrated effort. What he did recognise, with instant appreciation and lifelong acknowledgment

of his debt, was the scientific precision of the method taught

by Carolus Duran, who had occupied himself deeply with questions of technique. Duran had based his own theories on a close study of Franz Hals and Velasquez. He believed that painting was a science necessary to acquire in order to make of it an art. Few painters have the stamina to remain faithful to principles at once so precise and so erbitrary, where a slip invites disaster, and an error in one particular the failure of the whole. John Sargent, not without struggle, made this technique his own, and it gave him, at the start, the assured mastery of his materials, enabling him to devote all his energies to more engrossing problems. His first picture exhibited in the Salon of 1878 won an honourable mention. It was called “En Route Pour La Pêche,” and is now in the Corcoran Gallery at Washington. In the next

year’s Salon he showed the portrait of his master, which he had painted in 1877, at the age of 21, and which was instantly acclaimed as of extraordinary promise. Shortly after, emancipated from schools, he made a pilgrimage to Spain, which he had already visited as a boy, and the studies done in the Prado Gallery, which, after his death, were sold at Christie’s at such phenomenal prices, were painted on this occasion. Some were quite small, some of the size of the originals, and all were interpretations rather than copies. Immediately after his return to Paris he painted the beautiful canvases “‘ El Jaleo” (Salon 1882), now at Fenway Court, Boston and “ The Children of E. D. Boit ” (Salon 1883), now in the Boston Fine Arts Museum. Of “ The Lady of the Rose ” (Miss Burkhardt), which was shown in 1881r and gained a second

class medal, Henry James wrote that it was the work of “a talent which on the very threshold of its career has nothing more to learn.” This was a phrase, for to the end of his days Sargent remained the student, making ever briefer the span between brain and hand, between conception and achievement; yet these early canvases are remarkably mature, with a suave beauty of surface texture he rarely excelled, and with the added sense of atmospheric reality, the “ quality ” he had learned from Velasquez. He had the special readiness of genius to absorb great traditions, to take valuable hints from every source, and incorporate them into his own work with the freshness and vigour of a deeply original mind. From the outset commissions came to him unsought. He had to knock at no doors; but it was not till the Salon of 1884, when he showed the portrait of Madame Gautreau (Metropolitan Museum of New York), that the painter awoke to find himself famous—or infamous. Madame Gautreau was the friend of Gambetta, acclaimed by the Republican party, and Sargent was accused of having purposely done a caricature. The journalists outdid each other in senseless abuse. | This experience, with its astounding unreason, Its venomous personal bias, probably laid the foundation for his almost incredible independence of all critical comment. Irritated by adulation, detesting every form of publicity, he could never be induced, unless it was forced upon him, to read any criticism of his own work, appreciative or the reverse. So furious and so prolonged was the outcry in the French Press that finally, in a fit of disgust, Sargent left Paris and moved to London. His first studio was in Kensington, but in

188s he had already settled at 33 Tite Street, Chelsea.

In rgo1

he bought the adjacent house (No. 31), and a door was cut through between the two studios. Here he lived and worked

till his death on April r5 1925.

467

Into these 40 years of his London domicile was crowded the

experience of a dozen ordinary lifetimes. His first exhibited study of childhood: ‘‘ Carnation, Lily, Lily, Rose,” was bought in 1887, by the Chantrey bequest, for the Tate Gallery. A few years later the Luxemburg acquired the picture of the Spanish dancer ‘‘ Carmencita,” painted 1890, shown at the Royal Academy 1801. In spite of adverse criticism, it was not long before he was in great demand as a portrait painter, and the unflagging zeal of his industry kept pace with every triumph of public recognition. He numbered among his sitters princes and princesses, musicians, actors, teachers, writers, statesmen and diplomats. Many of his distinguished models he painted in their habit as they lived. The great groups of ‘‘ The Duke of Marlborough and his Family ” (1905), the ‘‘ Ladies Acheson,” (1902), the “ Daughters of the Hon. Percy Wyndham ” (1900), the “ Misses Hunter ” (1902}, etc., and a noble series of single portraits, notably those of the Duke and Duchess of Connaught (1908), the Duke (1901) and Duchess of Portland (1902), Lord Russell of Killowen (1900); of Francis Penrose, Esq. (1898), and of innumerable beautiful women: The Duchess of Sutheriand (1904), the Countess of Warwick (1904), Lady Agnew (1893), Lady (fan) Hamilton (1896), Mrs. Hammersley (1893), increased his ever-growing prestige. In 1894 he was elected an associate, in 1897 to full membership of the Royal Academy, and at the exhibitions at Burlington House his portraits were the centre of interest and of controversy. It became a high distinction to be painted by him, and hundreds clamoured for the honour in vain. Universities offered him degrees, he had as many medals as a war veteran. Quite unmoved by all this acclamation, he retained the serene simplicity of manner that made him so exceptional and so distinguished a figure. Yet people, even his friends, went in secret awe of him. In the sense of being generally understood John Sargent was never a popular painter. Painting is the most outspoken of the arts, but its language is not easy to read. Its apparent simplicity and the directness of its appeal to the eyes are misleading, and in the case of pictures so incisive and brilliant, so uncompromising in their truth, so unerring and authoritative in their presentation of character, it was no wonder that they awakened as much resentment as admiration. Sargent chronicled his enjoyment in no uncertain tone; like music made visible, each brush stroke seemed to resound, like a note on the violin, ringing and clear. There are mysteries of light, as well as of darkness, and the secrets of this accomplishment were no less inscrutable, became actually more tantalising, because the method of expression was so frank, and looked so unexpectedly, amazingly easy to imitate. And he was imitated, inevitably, but in no single instance With any distinction. His own processes were individual. {fe made no concessions to popular prejudice. His inspiration was peremptory and knew few ingratiating moods. Referred to as a psychologist or a satirist, he was frequently accused of deliberately accentuating the less pleasing qualities in his sitters—a foolish legend he dismissed with a shrug of his shoulders. “TI chronicle,” he once said, ‘I do not judge.” Though his outlook on life was essentially indulgent, his sense of humour was irrepressible, and the unerring rectitude of his realism struck at a deep-rooted human weakness—a preference to be seen not as we are but as we should like to be. In that its conclusions are so little deliberate painting differs from literature. John Sargent did not sum up his characters, he painted what he saw; but he caught, subconsciously perhaps,

each fugitive betrayal of a passing thought, a restless movement, a smile or a glance. This subtle power of definition has been, in all ages, the peculiar gift of great portrait painters.

In recalling the astonishing variety and scope of his work, it may be assumed that he was almost indifferent to the form in which he was called upon to portray the modern spirit. His only prayer must have been that that spirit should not be utterly commonplace. For dullness he had no talent, even his magic touch failed to enliven it. Before the strange, the unexpected, the bizarre, his resource and his freshness were unfailing.

SARRAIL

468

No happy invention was permitted to degenerate into a formula. He never repeated himself. For the extremes of youth and of age he had undeniable tenderness; with incredible delicacy he portrayed the flower-like freshness of one, and if he did not disguise in the other the hint of decrepitude it was generally illumined by more than a suggestion of wisdom and dignity. At the very height of his fame, in roto, he decided to give up the painting of portraits. This decision, so typical of his artistic integrity, he lived up to. He was his own severest critic. He had grown tired of the tyranny of sitters, and had begun to lose interest in his work. He pulled himself up sharply. Only in exceptional instances was he afterwards induced to break his rule, and then never for considerations of money. Though he lived on a generous scale, he was never a wealthy man. Always ready to give a helping hand to a student, or to a brother artist, he was at once too busy and too impatient of all forms of implied superiority ever to want to teach. Deliberately then, perhaps, he set his face against the scattering of his energies over too wide a field. An omnivorous reader and a passionate musician, an excellent host and a most entertaining guest, his rare leisure was all too adequately filled. In a holiday spirit he began to play with water-colour (in which medium he had made his earliest efforts at painting) and the result of his first summer of freedom may be seen in the sparkling brilliance, the irresistible gaiety of the 80 sketches bought en bloc by the Brooklyn Fine Arts Museum. His disciplined hand had acquired an almost miraculous lightness and certainty of touch. But a heavier task had already for years been engaging his energies, and the last 20 years of his life were given more and more to the magnificent series of decorations which illustrate the range of his great gifts. It was said of his “ History of

Religion,” begun in 1890 and not completed

till 1916 (the

subject for the great Hall in the Boston public library known as Sargent Hall), that his work here was not only a monument to the picturesque possibilities of his colossal subject, but to the sheer erudition of the painter. This task took him on several journeys to Egypt, Palestine, etc., as well as for a few months almost every year to America, where he had a studio in Boston, in the Columbus Avenue Building; and he had also another

studio in London, for these huge decorations, at The Avenue, 475, Fulham Road. In zror4, at the outset of the War, he was on holiday in Austria, and he witnessed with horror the disintegration of the Europe he had known. He gave without stint; and when the opportunity offered went to the front to record his impressions at first hand. In his famous war picture “ Gassed ” (London War Museum) he testified to his deep admiration for the invincible pluck of the British soldier. In the background, through the waning light of the late afternoon we see a football game going on; the ground is carpeted by writhing figures; while a trazic procession of wounded men, blinded by gas, staggers towards the dressing station.

The quieter life in London

suited his temperament

better

than the more buoyant, distracting, lavish social exactions of Boston. In London finally he was to know an honour no living

painter had hitherto experienced. The magnificent series of portraits, bequeathed to the nation by Asher Wertheimer, were hung in the National Gallery. A wing in the Tate Gallery, the gift of Sir Joseph Duveen, will one day house these, and such other works by Sargent as are already in national possession—the portraits of Lord Ribblesdale (1902), of Coventry Patmore (1895), of Henry James (1914), Octavia Hill (1899), of Ellen Terry as Lady Macbeth (1899), and many others. Sargent is represented in the principal galleries of the world, but the Metropolitan in New York, and the Boston Fine Arts Museum, are particularly rich in fine examples. The decorations for the Boston Library, for the Boston Fine Arts Museum, for the Harvard Memorial Chapel, absorbed him till, fortunate to the end, at 34 Tite Street, death overtook him in his sleep, in his 7oth year, with no evident diminution of his forces, no weakening of his physical or mental energy.

Mr. Sargent had never married. He had been a devoted son and brother, and was survived by his two sisters, Miss Emily Sargent and Mrs. Francis Ormond. His body was interred at Brookwood Cemetery. Memorial services were held at Westminster Abbey, at the request of the Royal Academy and a replica in bronze of the Crucifixion in the Boston Library, with a memorial tablet, is to be placed in the Crypt of St. Paul’s Cathedral. | In looking back over his immense achievement in so many different fields of art, his extraordinary vitality strikes one first.

His slightest sketch pulsates with life. The beautiful suavity

of his style he acquired through the iron discipline of years. He would paint a head 20 times over in order to give it the look of perfect ease and fluency he aimed at. He kept his palette and his brushes as carefully clean as a soldier keeps his weapons. At his easel he had the calmness of intense concentration. His brush would pause in mid-air and descend in a stroke calculated to a nicety. The knowledge of a lifetime was behind it. His insight into character was instinctive; character wherever it was exhibited—in the cut of a coat, in the detail of a building, in a dog, in the hands of a woman, in the head of a philosopher. This went far beyond ordinary perception; at its best 1t became a miracle of intuition, of skill in rendition. He knew no greater joy in life than this concentration

on work provided him. What he lacked entirely may be called, for want of a better term, the feminine touch. Beauty and charm that were not in direct relation to his subject he could not entertain. This severity was his strength, as it was the weakness of so much of the art of the period that it perpetuated the worship of purely irrelevant sweetness. Idealisation, he felt, must come of itself with the enriching processes of time, when the years, helped by the imagination, give that nobility that is partly aloofness, partly an inherent quality in all great painting. Taken as a whole, his portraits may come to be considered an epitome of the period in which he painted, not divested of those characteristics that make the human panorama so diverting, but bearing, with their unflinching realism, the very stamp of truth. Compared with these powerful representations, drawn from every class of modern society, the living people who pass before them seem shadowy and ill-defined. It is certainly to him above all that the age he lived in owes an appearance of stateliness and splendour, which was evidently as much a part of his own vision of life as the grace and elegance he could lend to the portraits of women—clothed with all the eccentricities peculiar to the late Victorian era—or the beauty that flamed for him wherever light played: on the rushing waters of a mountain stream, on heavily laden oxen, on a palace courtyard, or the interior of a stable. The exact measure of his greatness may safely be left to the future to determine. (J. He.) SARRAIL, MAURICE PAUL EMMANUEL (1856-— ), French soldier, was born at Carcassonne (Aude) April 6 1856. He passed out from the St. Cyr Military Academy in 1877, and after a series of promotions was appointed in 1907 director of infantry at the War Office. In 1911 he was promoted general of division and on Nov. 1 1913 was given command of the VIIJ. Army Corps, being later (April 24 1914) transferred to the VI. Corps which he commanded on the outbreak of the World War. On Sept. 2 1914 after leading the VI. Corps with credit at the battle of the Frontiers, he succeeded Ruffey as commander of the III. Army which

played a brilliant part during the retreat to the Marne. During the trench-warfare operations of 1914-5 he was less successful, however, and he was transferred to the chief command of the French Army of the East. He later became commander-in-chief of the Allied forces on that front (see SALONIKA CAMPAIGNS). After the World War he devoted himself to politics and having stood unsuccessfully as Radical deputy for Paris, he was, in Jan. 1925 appointed high commissioner in Syria. In this capacity he showed undue favour towards certain of the native elements and a rebellion broke out among the Jebel Druses during which Sarrail bombarded the native quarter of Damascus. These events

SASKATCHEWAN—SAVINGS caused a bad impression in France and a section of the press began to clamour for Sarrail’s recall. In Oct. 1925 as a result of the report by General Dupont who had been deputed by the Government to inquire into the matter, he was relieved of his post. SASKATCHEWAN (see 24.225), a province of the Dominion of Canada. Area 251,700 sq. m. of which 8,319 sq. m. are water. In rg2t the population numbered 757,510, an increase of 53-83% over 1911. The rural population amounted to 538,552; the urban to 218,958. The principal groups were English 206,472; Scotch, 104,678; Irish, 84,786; German,

68,202; Scandinavian,

58,382;

Russian, 45,343; French, 42,152; Austrian, 39,738; Ukranian, 28,097; Dutch, 16,639; and Indians, 12,914. The capital city, Regina, had a population in 1g2r of 34,432. Saskatoon is the seat of the provincial university. Moosejaw is an important railway and milling centre. Prince Albert is well-known for lumber and fur trading. The province is governed by a legislative assembly, consisting of 63 members, with an executive council of seven members. It is represented in the federal parliament by 21 members in the House of Commons and 6 senators. The educational system has been carefully developed by the provincial Government, and includes elementary and high schools, two normal schools and a provincial university. Production and Indusiry.—The province is essentially agricultural. Grain growing in the prairie sections and mixed farming

in the prairie and woodland parts are carried on with conspicuous success. The transcontinental railway lines have a network of branches which serve the agricultural districts. The farmers are strongly organised co-operatively for the marketing of their products. | The following table gives the yicld in thousands of bushels and value in thousands of dollars of the principal field crops for 1922-5:

MOVEMENT

469

SAVAGE, MINOT JUDSON (1841-1918), American divine and author (see 24.239), died in Boston, Mass., May 22 1918. SAVINGS MOVEMENT.—Professor Alfred Marshall in his Principles of Economics says that “ man’s character has been moulded by his every-day work, and the material resources which he thereby procures, more than by any other influence unless it be that of his religious ideals; and the two great forming agencies of the world’s history have been the religious and the economic.” The National Savings Movement is a definite and well thought out attempt to apply the economic forming agency to the improvement of the social conditions of the people of this country. The movement has two functions; the first is the education of all classes in the knowledge and practice of using wealth for the promotion of welfare. The second is to provide facilities for saving by the small investor on advantageous terms.

I. GREAT BRITAIN Origin.—The movement in Great Britain was established in Feb. 1916 on the recommendation of the committee on War loans for the small investor, presided over by Mr. E. S. Montagu. It was recognised during the War that the fighting forces required all, and more than all, the available material and labour for the conduct of the War, and that non-combatants ought to restrict their demands to as great an extent as possible in order that everything required for war might be supplied. The economic doctrine of ‘‘ goods and services” was developed and popularised, and many people came to realise more fully than before the great extent to which national well being depends upon the way in which individual citizens spend their money. A more attractive motive for saving than has usually been presented, was put forward. Saving is a process which may be good or bad according to the purpose to which savings are applied. It is beneficial to the individual and to the community

Crop

Spring Wheat . Oats...

Potatoes

271,662 218,075

19,278 8,582 5:494

1 Cwts.

4,512 7,439

4,370!

:

Ilay and Clover Fodder Corn

240,551 174,967 27,061

264,606 57:739 12,177 2,888 14,580 3:949

5,080 1,560

425° 1,309

2 Tons.

Livestock in 1924 included 1,170,745 horses, 468,151 milch cows, 1,060,716 other cattle, 123,362 sheep and 872,819 swine. Poultry farming is increasing in importance. Rapid and sub‘stantial progress has been made in dairying, the province being well suited for milch cows and stock of all kinds. The values of dairy products increased from $6,051,000 in 1918 to $19,357,329 in 1924; the output of creamery butter increased from 1,548,696 Ib. in roro to 13,583, 902 lb. in 1924; in the same year 19,250,000 lb. of farm-made butter was produced. The output of factory cheese increased from 26,730 lb. to 165,000 lb. in the same period. There were 64 creameries in operation in 1924, 28 of which were equipped with mechanical refrigeration. Manufacturing industries are not important, the chief development being in flour milling and lumbering. The conditions are favourable to the production of non-metallic minerals. Lignites are mined in the southern part of the province. Ordinary brick clays are widely utilised and there are extensive beds of clays used in the manufacture of fire brick, stoneware, pottery and sewerage pipe. Water power resources are being actively developed: in 1924 the available 24-hour H.P. at 80% efficiency, at the ordinary six months flow, was 1,030,634. The railway interests are looked after by a provincial department of railways. In 1924 there were 6,956 m. of track in the province. Highways on March 31 1924 included 124,613 m. of unimproved earth, 10,387 m. of improved earth, ro m. of gravel and 25 m. of bituminous concrete. The number of motor-cars is increasing, 70,561 being registered in 1924. (D. A. MacG.)

when saving results in more but wiser spending. That more spending can result from saving is obvious from the fact that if fio a year is saved for 174 years, and interest is accumulated at 4° per annum, the capital will be sufficient to yield at the same rate of interest {10 a year in perpetuity. While the meney is being saved and interest earned by it, the money directly or indirectly finds its way into industry, helps to develop the business of the country and in particular to increase employment. Truths of this character were more readily appreciated during the War than in normal times, and this prepared the way for the better understanding of the economic doctrine of “ goods and services ’’ as applied to peace conditions. Organisation.—Early in 1916, on the recommendation of the Montagu Committee, two committees were established, one to undertake organisation, and the other to advise about matters of finance. After a few months the two were merged into one under the title of the National War Savings Committee. This was concerned with England and Wales, and shortly afterwards a separate committee was appointed for Scotland. Corresponding work in Ireland was subsequently undertaken. The method of organisation is interesting and has proved effective. Local committees were established in most towns and country districts; their task was to educate public opinion and to establish savings associations which should receive subscriptions for savings certificates among groups of people who are associated for other purposes, such as children in schools, employees in business firms

and members of clubs.

The members of the local committees

470

SAVINGS

MOVEMENT

and the officials of the Savings Associations are all voluntary and unpaid workers, but there is a small paid staff, the expenses of which are met by a Parliamentary grant. The organisation has been well described as a “‘ voluntary movement that is also a government department.” Every effort has been made to give the fullest expression to the views of the voluntary workers. The associations are represented on the local savings committees, and each savings committee nominates two members to attend an annual Regional Conference. Formerly there was a Conference for almost each county in England and Wales, but after a time the territory was divided into twelve regional areas, in each of which a large and important conference is held every year. The original Savings Committee consisted only of nominated members who represented certain interests, or whose services were valuable on personal grounds. Among the interests now represented on the National Committee are the Post Office, the Board of Education, the National Union of Teachers, the joint stock banks, the trustee savings banks, the Ministry of Health and the Municipal treasurers. It was thought desirable that other members of the committee should be elected by the voluntary workers. To achieve this each annual conference elected representatives to serve on a national savings assembly, which normally meets annually, and which at its outset elected six representatives to serve on the National Committee. This representation was so successful that the number of elected representatives was increased to twelve, and on the division of the country into twelve regions, one representative is nominated at each of the twelve regional conferences. These elected representatives contribute to the management of the Movement the result of their personal experience in their respective areas, and to this is largely due the flexibility and initiative that 1s usually more characteristic of a voluntary movement than of a government department. War Savings Certificates—In order to make better provision than previously existed for saving by the small investor, the ‘“‘ War savings certificate’? was introduced in Feb. 1916. It originally cost 15s. 6d. and accumulated to {1 by the end of five years. The life of the certificate was subsequently extended to ten years, when it became worth 26 shillings. So far as savings certificates are concerned, income tax does not exist, the interest upon them not being taxed, and not having to be included in returns for either income tax or super tax. The certificates can be cashed at a day or two’s notice for their cost price, plus the accrued interest. The ingenious plan is adopted of allowing a rate of interest that, speaking generally, increases with the length of time which the certificate is allowed to remain before being cashed. The first series of certificates yielded just under 53% if cashed at the end of five years, and a trifle over this rate if allowed to remain for ten years. The second series of certificates was commenced in April 1922. The purchase price was raised to 16s., but the general conditions were almost identical with those of the first issue. With a further fall in the prevailing rates of

interest a third issue was commenced in Oct. 1923; the purchase price remained at 16s. and the value at the end of ten years is 24 shillings. Important characteristics of savings certificates are that they can be cashed at any time without loss of capital; that the interest accumulates instead of being paid in dividends; that they are entirely exempt from income tax and super tax; that the rate of interest, especially if held for the full ten years, is high; that they can be purchased by instalments, and that they are registered securities which can safely be kept by those who have no accommodation for the custody of valuables. These attractive features immediately won recognition. By April 1925 more than 764,000,000 certificates had been sold, representing a cash investment of nearly {600,c00,0c00, of which, after deducting withdrawals, more than £372,000,000 remained invested, in addition to the accrued interest. In the financial year ending April 1926, the sales exceeded by about 10% those of the previous year, and the amount paid for withdrawals was substantially less though the total amount remaining invested had increased.

The Movement in Peace Time.—During the War the purchasers of certificates knew that they were lending their money to the Government to help pay for the War. When peace came, it was thought advisable that the money might still be earmarked for some national purpose. It was therefore decided that half the money paid for savings certificates in any area could be borrowed by the local authority of that area for capital expenditure on housing. The purposes to which loans could be applied was subsequently extended, and up to April 1926 loans had been made to nearly five hundred local authorities. The use of savings certificate money for War purposes became so predominant that many people failed to realise, when peace came, the great advantages that would still accrue to individuals and to the community by the continuance of savings associations, and in consequence many of these came to an end. It took some years to make generally understood the great advantages of the movement to individuals and to the community. This is now being accomplished with increasing success, and in 1926 more than four hundred new savings associations are being formed every month. One contributing cause of this success is that extremely simple schemes for the purchase of savings certificates by instalments have been devised which involve practically no time or trouble for account keeping. Special savings stamps costing six pence each are used under one scheme, and six penny coupons under another. These stamps and coupons are stuck on cards which, when they contain thirty-two coupons or stamps, can be exchanged for a Certificate. There are other schemes admirably suited for different circumstances, which also reduce the work to a minimum. Saving in the Schools —From the outset the work has been most successfully and extensively undertaken by the schools. The Board of Education, the local education authorities, the National Union of Teachers, inspectors and directors of education and the schoolmasters and schoolmistresses throughout the country, have rendered a service to the country in this connection that cannot be valued too much or praised too highly. In April 1926 there were more than thirteen thousand school savIngs associations in existence. The National Committee were confronted with the somewhat difficult problem of seeing that the work done in the schools and the habits there formed, were not lost when the children left school. For this and other reasons, it became important to establish savings associations in as many works, shops and offices as possible. The importance and social value of the work was at first inadequately recognised, but in 1926 savings associations among industrial groups are being formed at the rate of over two hundred a month. Employers can render no better service either to their employees, to the community or to the prosperity of the industry of the country than by encouraging the formation of savings associations among their employees. In Feb. 1926 the earliest issued certificates reached maturity at the end of ten years from the date of issue, and a committee under the chairmanship of Mr. Cecil Lubbock was appointed to consider what steps should be taken in view of the approaching expiry of the term for which the certificates were issued. The committee recommended that an option should be given to all holders of first series certificates to continue to hold them until March 1932, receiving interest after the tenth year at the rate of one penny per certificate per month. This recommendation has already been adopted. The committee further recommended the issue, for the conversion of savings certificates of the first series, of a special savings bond designed to meet the needs of the small investor, and of the new 44% conversion loan; the encouragement of early conversion of savings certificates of the first series by the grant of a small bonus on certificates converted before they have run ten years; and finally that conversion of certificates should be made possible without the necessity of encashment and reinvestment.

In order to avoid undue loss of income tax, the purchase of certificates by any one individual is limited to five hundred, and five hundred certificates of the first series have at the end of ten years a cash value of £650, whereas five hundred certificates of

SAVINGS MOVEMENT the third series would cost only £400. Hence some fresh security was deemed advisable. Doubtless the holders of comparatively small numbers of maturing certificates will convert them into certificates of the current series, while other holders may decide to have the value of the maturing certificates placed to their credit in the Post Office Savings Bank. (R. M. K.) TuE

PuBLICITY

CAMPAIGN

Prior to the outbreak of War in 1914, Government loans in Great Britain were subscribed by a very limited circle of large investors, businesses and corporations. Publicity in connection with the floating of them began and ended with the issuing of a prospectus, its publication in the Press and its distribution by a limited number of bankers and stockbrokers. Initial Operations.—The first attempts at the application of modern methods of publicity to the flotation of War Loans were on a limited scale, being hampered by official reluctance to depart from traditional procedure and a prejudice against any lapse from official “ dignity.” A slight expansion of newspaper advertising, at first not widely departing from mere “ publication of prospectus ” advertising, and the use of posters displayed in the streets and on hoardings, marked the beginning of a new state of things. The work of the War Savings Committee from 1916 onwards, together with news of the successful publicity work in the U.S., helped to reconcile British officialism to an increase of activity in this direction. By the time the so-called ‘Victory ” Loan was floated, early in 1917, newspaper advertising had increased both in volume and effectiveness. Many more posters appeared on the hoardings. The services of local authorities were invoked, and public meetings were held, up and down the country, at which speakers drew attention to the country’s pressing need of money and appealed openly for subscriptions. It was, however, in connection with the campaign for National War Bonds, which were first offered to the public in Sept. 1917, that organised publicity on behalf of British War Loan subscriptions displayed the fullest measure of its possibilities and achieved its greatest success. The National War Bonds were short-dated securities continuously on offer—in contrast to earlier loans the subscription lists for which had remained open only for some weeks. They were introduced by Mr. Bonar Law, the then Chancellor of the Exchequer, in order to inaugurate a period of “ continuous borrowing ’’—to provide a method

by which the public could subscribe each week the weekly cost,

or more than the weekly cost,of the War. It was hoped by this means to avoid the dislocation of the money market and the inflation of currency. Despite attractive terms the subscriptions for National War Bonds for the first two or three weeks were distinctly disappointing. Starting at an exceedingly low weekly total the receipts rapidly fell, and it says much for the extent to which publicity methods had already justified themselves that in Nov. 1917 the Chancellor of the Exchequer, faced with the prospect of the failure of the whole new scheme of continuous borrowing, saw fit to appoint Sir George (then Mr.) Sutton, the chairman of the Amalgamated Press Ltd., as Directory of Publicity for the War Bond Campaign—with a free hand as to methods employed, and, within very wide limits, a free hand as to expenditure. Value of Advertising-—The backbone of the campaigns was undoubtedly newspaper and periodical advertising. This advertising was practically continuous, though very widely varied. The appeal of it was cast and recast ina hundred ways. It struck first the finance note, the self-intcrest note, the explanatory “ see what you get and what security ” note and then the loftier note of patriotism, of service, of exhortation to duty. The advertising was intensely human, written to appeal not merely to business men but to the people at large. It reached its highest pitch of emotional appeal during the terrible spring of 1918 when the Germans, pushing far into the Allied lines, threatened Amicns, and the whole British nation hung breathless upon the march of events. During those dark weeks the War Bond advertising told, almost day by day, the story of England in terms of Belgium; pointing out the inevitable and hideous consequences of

471

defeat, and urging the duty of supporting with money the brave men then fighting. Appropriate “copy ’”’ was actually kept standing for immediate publication in the event of certain contingencies such as a great victory, or (on the other side of the picture) the air bombing of important British towns. It was recognised that in order to sustain interest in War Bonds over a long period the steady appeal of the press advertising required reinforcing by periods of special activity. The necessary stimulus was obtained by the organisation throughout the country of special ‘“‘ weeks” such as “ Tank Weeks ”—

“ Business Men’s Weeks ’’—‘‘ War Weapons Week ’’—“‘ Feed the Guns Weeks.” The main features of these were similar. They consisted essentially in the provision of some spectacular feature round which the appeal for subscriptions could centre. Tanks, for instance (then just newly invented), each with an officer and crew, took up their stand for a week at a time in the leading towns and cities. Officials of the Bank of England and of the Post Office accompanied the tanks, and many million pounds’ worth of bonds were sold by them. Forms of Appeal.—All these separate campaigns of special weeks were “led off” by spectacular displays in Trafalgar Square, London, which was transformed for each occasion into something resembling a huge circus. Tanks or guns, as the case might be, were “ parked ” and surrounded with skilfully built imitation trenches and entanglements; barriers and huts were erected, painted scenery was provided to form a background, giant posters almost hid the facades of the National Gallery and the buildings surrounding the Square, and hundreds of thousands of people were attracted of a class which could probably not have been reached by any other form of appeal. Carrier pigeons wero also used, with great success from the point of view of publicity, to bring in applications from a distance to Trafalgar Square. Another important publicity aspect of these special weeks was the opportunity each provided for an important official opening. Thus “ Business Men’s Week ” was preceded by a great public meeting in the Connaught Rooms, London, at which the Chancellor of the Exchequer was the chief speaker and to which all the leading bankers of the kingdom were invited. ‘“ Feed the Guns Weeks ” were introduced by another great meeting at the Guildhall, addressed by the Chancellor of the Exchequer and the Rt.-Hon. A. J. Balfour. The extent of the response to these special weeks was enormous, as may be judged by one of them only, the “ Business Men’s Week,” which brought in £160,000,c00— nearly eight times as much as the average weekly total.

Apart, however, from greatly increased purchases, these special weeks, “ booms ” and ‘ stunts ” were very valuable as yielding a continuous “ news” story. The problem before the publicity director was to maintain interest in War Bonds week after week and month after month; and had the campaign once been allowed to become a matter of routine, lacking new incidents, the ‘‘ news ” story of it would perforce have dropped out of the columns of the press. As it was, so great was the variety and so many the incidents that a full-size news agency had to be installed at headquarters, where a large staff was kept busily engaged in collecting news by telegram and telephone from all over the country and passing it on to the press. A successful publicity device was the inter-town War Bond race. The race, of course, was to secure the largest total of local holdings in War Bonds, and, promoted and fostered by the Publicity Director, it went gaily on for months-—-the varying position of the leading cities, now one leading, now another, forming for over a year an almost staple article of news. Varied Devices.—Many other publicity devices were employed, among which the following may be noted :— (1) Arranging with the Postmaster-General to adopt a cancellation mark carrying the words “ Buy War Bonds,” so that practically every citizen received a daily reminder of his duty on the envelope of every letter reccived. (2) A letter signed by the Chancellor of the Exchequer urging investment as a patriotic duty—sent out by the Bank of England with each dividend on a Government security. (3) A letter signed by the chairmen of banks to the individual depositors urging that deposits should

472

SAVINGS

be reduced and the money invested in War Bonds.

MOVEMENT

(4) A letter

sent out by limited liability companies simultaneously with the dispatch of their dividend warrants, urging that the amount of the dividend should be at once invested in War Bonds. After the Armistice a closing date for War Bonds was announced, and a very extensive final appeal was organised which brought the total of investment in them up to the magnificent figure of £1,600,000,0co—subscribed in under 17 months. Publicity in connection with post-Armistice loans, notably the Thanksgiving Loan of 1919, was conducted on similar lines. | (G. A. S.)

TI. THE UNITED STATES In the United States the term Savings Movement was used in a somewhat wider sense than was the case in Great Britain. The publicity campaign carried on in Great Britain found its counterpart in the one conducted in the United States on behalf of the Liberty Loans (see LIBERTY Loans). | Upon the declaration of War by the United States in April 1917 it became evident that the nation must practise strict economy if the huge War-time expenditures were to be successfully financed and material aid given to the Allies. President Wilson outlined a food control programme, after the U.S. declaration of War in April 1917, appointing Herbert Hoover Food Administrator. Congress passed the Lever Act (effective Aug. 10 1917) designed to encourage the production and conservation of supply and to control the distribution of food products and fuel. The administration of the Act was under the direction of a U.S. Food Administrator and a U.S. Fuel Administrator. The ends sought by the Food Administration were: (1) to save food and eliminate waste; (2) to distribute food equitably and cheaply; (3) to stimulate production; (4) to prevent hoarding; (5) to save transportation; (6) to provide for the needs of the U.S. Army and Navy; (7) to secure the largest possible amount of food for the Allies. | Sugar and \Wheat.—The most vital early need both for America and for the Allies was the conservation of sugar and wheat. In Aug. r917 an International Sugar Committee was appointed. It was faced by a scarcity of sugar that had sent the price of Cuban raw sugar to $9.15; this was fixed at $6.90 for the season’s

crop, the retail price being kept at 8} to 1o cents per pound. From May 15 1918 the sale of sugar for manufacturing purposes was prohibited except through special permits (certificates) by which records of consumption could be kept. Retailers were restricted from selling sugar to consumers in quantities greater than 2 Ib. for city residents and 5 Ib. for those residing in the

country, except for home canning, in which cases the dealer was required to secure certificates for the amount sold. By such means asaving of between 400,000 and 600,000 tons was effected in 1918. The wheat shortage of the season 1917-8 left the United States

with only enough of this grain to meet normal demands for home consumption. The total production of France and Great Britain was considerably less than one-third their normal consumption and it was essential that they should receive from the United States an additional 75,000,000 bushels. All manufacturers in the United States using wheat flour in the production of various foods were placed under licence and their supply was strictly limited. Wheatless days and other measures for wheat conservation were established. Mills were permitted to grind only a certain percentage of the amount of wheat milled during a corresponding period the previous year. Wholesale dealers were prohibited from purchasing wheat flour in excess of 70% of the amount they had purchased during a corresponding period the previous year. In sales to consumers the retailers were required to sell an equal quantity of substitutes to the purchaser at the time wheat flour was sold. Between 13,000,000 and 14,000,000 women pledged themselves to the conservation of wheat by the use of substitutes for wheat products. These various measures made it possible for the United States to send abroad in 1918 approximately 140,000,000 bu. of wheat. Export of fats to neutrals was greatly restricted and the

amount of fats used in bakery products limited. In 1918, 1,125,397

short tons of hog products were exported as against 839,000 in the fiscal year ending June 30 1809, the largest in any year prior to 1918. In 1918, 773,000,000 lb. of beef were exported, or over three and a half times the exports on the average of the three previous War years. by the conservation

These supplies were made available

of meats

formerly

wasted,

by voluntary

rationing and by the adoption in many localities of meatless days and meatless meals. : To remedy the congestion of rail terminals and keep open the transportation routes, a regulation was promulgated providing an average increase in the minimum car-loads of about 50% over those of the published tariffs of the carriers. Thus the number of cars required for the distribution of the commodities on the list of non-perishable

groceries

was

reduced

fully 25°.

The

Waste Reclamation Service was instrumental in reclaiming during 1918 waste material valued at approximately $1,500,000,000. The National Emergency Food Garden Corporation put 1,500,ooo ac. of city and town land under cultivation In 3,000,000 gardens, resulting in an increase of the food supply to the value of over $350,000,000 in one year. Fuel Administration.—The U.S. Fuel Administration began its work in Aug. 1917, with Dr. Harry A. Garfield as director. The Administration set out to accomplish: (1) increased produc-

tion; (2) better distribution; (3) fair sale prices; (4) the elimination of waste. It succeeded largely, throuzh agreements, in preventing strikes, with their resulting interruption of production. In April 1918 a nation-wide plan designed to insure equitable distribution of coal was put into effect. More than 5,000,ooo tons formerly shipped from eastern mines to western territory adjacent to western mines, were saved for the eastern states, where the demand of War industries was greatest. Rationing was put into effect, the supply of coal to non-essential industries being greatly reduced. It was estimated that this saved over r,000,000 tons. All industries were held to thcir minimum needs. Stores and office buildings were encouraged to take their electric current from central plants. A “ skip-stop ’’ system was adopted on electric street railways by which no stops were made at unimportant crossings. Economy was also effected by “ lightless

nights,” which affected window lighting, electric display and street illumination. Home instruction was given in the operation of heating systems and in the use of electricity. For several weeks heatless Mondays were observed in stores, office buildings and places of amusement. A saving of 12,700,000 tons of coal for the first half of the coal year was thus effected in addition to large economies made possible by “ daylight saving” (q.v.). From so-called gasolene-less Sundays, involving a voluntary cessation of Sunday motoring, resulted an estimated saving of t,000,000 bar. of gasolene. The Conservation Division of the War Industries Board was established May 9 1918. Its purpose was to eliminate wasteful

or unessential uses of labour, material, equipment and capital. Its specific aims were: (1) to secure the maximum reduction in the number of varieties of products of the various industries; (2) to eliminate accessories which used material for adornment or convenience, but which were not essential; (3) to substitute materials which were plentiful for those which were scarce; (4) standardisation; (5) reduction of waste; (6) economy in samples; (7) economy in containers and.packing. By such means enormous savings were effected in textiles, paper and other materials, as well as in storage space and labour.

Reductions in varieties

of particular commodities held out such promise of permanent economies that this activity was later continued through a Division of Simplified Practice in the Dept. of Commerce (see STANDARDISATION). The request that the people of the United States lend money to the Government to provide necessary funds for the prosecution of the World War met with an almost universal response. Over 22,000,000 people purchased Liberty Bonds and Victory Notes in various denominations from $50 to $10,000, and other millions invested in the smaller war savings securities. War Savings Certificates and Thrift Stamps.—Section 6 of the Second Liberty Bond Act, approved Sept. 24 1917, authorised

SAXONY—SAZONOV the Secretary of the Treasury to issue war savings certificates, redeemable within a maximum term of five years from the date of issue, on which interest to maturity might be discounted in advance. A limitation of $2,000,000,000 (later $4,000,000,000) was placed by the Act upon the amount of war savings certificates which might be outstanding at any one time; a limit (later withdrawn) of $100 was placed on the amount of certificates which might be purchased by one person at one time; and no individual was permitted to hold more than $1,000 in such certificates (later $1,000 in a single issue). Four series of war savings certificates were issued—on Dec. 3 1917 (series of 1918); Jan. 1 1919; Jan. t 1920; and Jan. 1 1921. Each certificate, in the form

of a stamp, when affixed to a war savings certificate (a folder with spaces for 20 stamps) would have a fixed maturity value of $s, with the date of maturity not to exceed five years, the purchase price to vary one cent each month throughout the year of issue, beginning in Jan. at $4.12 and increasing to $4.23 in December. The stamps might be redeemed before maturity, their redemption value increasing one cent each month. There were also provided 25-cent ‘ thrift stamps,”’ bearing no interest and not redeemable for cash, but to be accumulated on a “ thrift card’ until there were 16, when they could be exchanged for a war savings certificate stamp by paying the additional odd cents necessary to cover the current price of the war savings certificate stamp.

In addition to the original securities there were offered in July 191g, Treasury savings certificates, one of $100 and the other of $1,000 maturity value. Treasury savings certificates were registered at the Treasury Dept. at the time of purchase and increased in redemption value monthly on the same interest basis as War savings certificate stamps. In Jan. 1921 there were offered for sale $1 non-interest-bearing Treasury savings stamps and $25 Treasury savings certificates, in addition to the other Treasury savings securities. | Organisaiion.—The sale of these securities was furthered by a National War Savings Committee, assisted by six Federal and 52 state directors. The ultimate goal was to offer every man, woman and child in the United States the privilege of aiding the Government by investing in government securities, and at the same time to develop habits of thrift. The war savings securities were put on sale at every post-office, at banks and in thousands of voluntary agencies. House-to-house canvass for their sale was made by postmen, boy scouts, representatives of insurance companies and members of women’s organisations. Sales from Dec. 3 1917 to Jan. 1 rg2r totalled $1,176,111,000. Redemptions in the same period amounted to $415,174,000. Partly with a view to rendering permanent the habits of thrift imparted during the War, the War Loan organisation, through a savings division, took over, in the autumn of 1918, the work of the National War Savings Committee. It aimed to sell Treasury savings securities and to develop and protect all War issues of the Government. School Government savings systems were established and instruction in thrift, saving and the principles of sound finance was introduced into schools. (J. W. T.) SAXONY (see 24.265).—A free state and territory (Freistaat Sachsen) of the German Reich. The area is 5,787 sq. m.; the population (1926) 4,970,300. Conflict Over the Constitution.—In the years immediately preceding the World War political life in the German kingdom of Saxony was dominated by a conflict about the constitution. The Left had for years demanded a reform of the First Chamber, the Upper House, by which the predominance of the agrarians in that House should be broken, and commerce, industry and handicrafts should obtain greater influence. In Jan. 1910 the National Liberals, Liberals and Social Democrats once more introduced resolutions with this object in the Lower House, but these met with keen opposition from the Government. Notwithstanding the majority in the Lower House for the reform, it was thrown out by the Upper House. In Dec. 1917 the Government introduced a bill for the reform of the Upper House, which again led to fierce conflicts in Parliament, which only ended with the advent of the German Revolution. Simul-

473

taneously controversy concerning a new electoral law for the Lower House had been raging since 1910. War Conditions.—Saxony, which is chiefly industrial, suffered more under War conditions than most other German States. The problems of supplying the population with food were extremely difficult. There was a widespread dearth of the most important foodstuffs, such as corn and potatoes, so that the population was frequently obliged to use substitutes. The Revolution.—In 1917 the extreme Left in the Saxon Diet had begun an agitation, which never abated, for the early conclusion of peace. On Oct. 26 1918 the Cabinet gave place to a more liberal Government under Dr. Heinze. On Nov. 9 1918 the revolution broke out, on Nov. 1o the Republic was proclaimed, and King Frederick Augustus abdicated on Nov. 13. A Cabinet of Commissaries of the People (Volksbeauftragte), composed exclusively of Independent Socialists, was formed. Revolutionary conflicts in Jan. 1919, which entailed sanguinary street fighting in Leipzig, Dresden and elsewhere, led to the resignation of the Cabinet, which was succeeded by a Government of Majority Socialists. The extreme Left instituted demonstrations throughout the country, and there were serious © excesses, especially in Plauen and Leipzig. In April 1919 a Soviet Republic was proclaimed in Leipzig, which was dissolved by troops of the Reichswehr under Gen. Marker on May 12. Serious disturbance followed in the Vogtland and in Chemnitz in June and August. On Oct. 2 1919 the Democratic party joined the Ministry, which kept in power till April 25 1920. It was replaced by a coalition of Majority and Independent Socialists, which was vigorously combated by the non-Socialist parties. l In the spring of 1920 formidable unrest recurred, especially in West Saxony. In Leipzig sanguinary fighting continued for several days. In the Vogtland the Communist Hölz formed a band of several hundred men, with which he conducted a reign of terror in the towns and villages. The Government long hesitated to take action against him; finally, however, Hölz’s force was surrounded and dispersed by Reichswehr troops. Hilz fled to Czechoslovakia. In March 1g21 he returned and took command of the Communist insurgents in Central Germany. After the collapse of the insurrection he fled to Berlin, where he was ultimately arrested, and condemned to penal servitude for life with the loss of civic rights (June 1921). The New Constitution—On Nov. 1 1920 the definitive new constitution was adopted unanimously by all parties. The supreme organ is the Diet (Landtag), consisting of one chamber. Its rights are only limited by those of the people, which can dissolve it, and themselves initiate legislation by means of a popular initiative (Volksbegehren) or give a referendum on measures passed by the Landtag. The Landtag elects the Minister President, who then nominates the rest of the Ministry, which, like himself, must enjoy the confidence of the Landtag. The Minister President also determines the general lines of the policy and the Ministry; his position entails real authority, but he is not the titular head of the State. In 1923 the Zeigner Ministry, which was not able to control the Communist agitation, came into conflict with the Government of the Reich, which sent a Commission and troops to Saxony to restore order, Zeigner’s Ministrv was replaced by a Ministry composed of German People’s Party Democrats and Social Democrats. Zeigner was prosecuted for corruption (see GERMANY). (W. v. B.)

SAZONOV, SERGHEI DMITRIEVICH (1866), Russian statesman, was born in the province of Ryazan July 29 1866 the son of a landed proprietor, and educated at the Alexandrovsky Lyceum, St. Petersburg (Leningrad), a high school for the sons of noblemen destined mainly for the civil service. Having

occupied various diplomatic posts in Rome and served six years in the Russian Embassy in London he was promoted, in 1906, to be Minister-Resident at the Vatican, where his engaging manners, frankness and taste for ecclesiastical affairs enabled him to make great headway. In 1900 he entered the Ministry of Foreign Affairs as coadjutor to Izvolsky, and in 1oro succeeded the latter as Minister and thus became one of the international group of statesmen into whose hands chance rather than personal ambition or specific fitness placed the destinies of their respective countries. This appointment, ascribed to the iniluence

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SAZONOV

of his brother-in-law, the dictator Stolypin, was so agreeable to Nicholas II., whom Sazonov attracted by his great charm of manner, that when the Minister fell ill and seemed unlikely to recover, the Tsar steadfastly refused to name a successor. Sazonov’s line of action was definitely traced for him by the European situation on the one hand and by the limitation of his rôle to that of confidential secretary to the Emperor on the other. His chief functions were to parry Austria’s fitful thrusts at Serbia, to curb Serbia’s explosive impatience, buoying her up with hopes of a vast legacy to fall due on the death of the Emperor Francis Joseph, and to bespeak the help of England, Italy, Rumania and Bulgaria in the coming struggle. These tasks exceeded his powers, and his abortive Near-Eastern policy did not prevent Russia’s ruinous collapse during the World War, a momentous event for her allies. Although the principal governments were making ready for the “ unavoidable conflict ” none was rash enough to provoke it deliberately, and only one was sufficiently purblind to fancy that a ruthless campaign against Serbia might be opened without bringing on a general struggle. In this delusion, harboured by the Austrian Minister, Count Berchtold, lurked the most redoubtable danger which Sazonov and Europe had to encounter. Berchtold strove to catch Serbia on the horns of the dilemma: friendship or enmity. Turkey, the oppressor of the Slavs, he argued, having been eliminated in the Balkan War, Serbia no longer had a motive for maintaining a standing army unless meant for use against Austria. If, therefore, a friend, she must disband her army and cultivate close amity with her powerful neighbour; and if an enemy, she could not complain of being dealt with as such—neither could her protectress, Russia. In this lay the crux of the situation. This peril might perhaps have been exorcised had Germany insisted on having a say in Austria’s Balkan plans. But dreading to forfeit the support of her “‘ last sure ally ” she eschewed all preliminary conditions and felt bound withal to uphold the most extravagant sallies of her Austrian partner. This obligation proved fatal at last owing to Berchtold’s resolve at the close of the Balkan War to reduce Serbia to the status of a protectorate. By way of thwarting this design Sazonov frankly announced that any attempt to force upon the Slav kingdom terms incompatible with its sovereignty would compel Russia to make the quarrel

her own. But neither in Austria nor in Germany was the Tsardom credited with military strength enough to enable it to carry out this threat. Down to the 11th hour Sazonov, eager to gain time for Stolypin’s far-reaching domestic reforms, worked for peace with a fervour which won general recognition but scant success. The arrangements come to during the Tsar’s visit to Potsdam (Nov. 4-5 1910) and the Kaiser’s return visit to Wolfsgarten (Nov. 11) respecting the Baghdad railway, North Persia and the maintenance of Turkey, eased the strain without dispelling the atmosphere of mistrust. Sazonov was suspected of a lack of a straightforwardness by the Kaiser. Russia’s diplomatic representatives abroad were largely to blame for this, and in particular the rashness or awkwardness of ambassador Charykov in Constantinople who secretly proposed to guarantee that city to Turkey and protect her from all attacks by the Balkan States in return for the freedom of the Straits. Other covert moves also lent colour to the charges of underhand dealing. For example, Turkey’s prostration during the conflict with Italy suggested to her enemies, the Balkan States, a defensive alliance under Russia’s patronage; and this was secretly arranged first (March 13 1912) between Serbia and Bulgaria and then (May 29) between Bulgaria and Greece. But the difficulty of limiting the alliance to legitimate defence and the imminence of a Balkan War became forthwith so obvious that Russia alone felt incapable of dealing with the situation. Sazonov decided to seek Germany’s help in overawing the Balkan States without disclosing to her the secret cause of their combative mood. He accordingly arranged an interview between the Tsar and the Kaiser at Baltischport on July 4-5 1912, which was followed by a three days’ exchange of views between the German Chancellor and the members of the Russian Govt. in St. Peters-

burg. On this occasion Sazonov’s advocacy of close co-operation between Germany and Russia was approved by Bethmann Hollweg, but doubts were again awakened concerning the Russian minister’s straightforwardness owing to his concealment from Germany of the existence of the Balkan Alliance. Sazonov next repaired to London, Paris and Berlin and the Great Powers authorised him and Berchtold to announce their determination to uphold the status gute, so that if the Balkan States broke the peace their victory would be fruitless. But this, like most vetoes of the Powers, was ignored by the restive kingdoms and the sequel justified their disregard. By Nov. Europe was on the verge of a general war. During the crisis the Kaiser oscillated from one extreme to another; Archduke Franz Ferdinand gave proof of surprisingly sound views and Sir Edward Grey successfully discouraged the would-be belligerents. Sazonov, keeping a tight hand on Serbia, obliged her to content herself with a railway harbour on the Albanian coast, a railway connection and the secret assurance that her ‘‘ promised land ” lay within the dual monarchy.

Turkey’s future now became one of the main cares of the Great Powers, and Sazonov, in collaboration with Bethmann Hollweg, drafted a liberal scheme of reforms for Armenia (Nov. 5 1913). Immediately afterwards Germany sent military instructors to reorganise the Turkish army and a German General, Liman von Sanders, to wield extensive powers and virtually to garrison Constantinople. Sazonov endeavoured to move the Allies to get Liman recalled or transferred to Asia Minor, but Sir Edward Grey held that a reassuring statement by the Porte would answer

all reasonable requirements. Sazonov, however, gave vent to his dissatisfaction in unusually strong terms, but on the Kaiser ordering Liman to lay down the command of the first Turkish army

corps, while retaining his other functions, Nicholas II. let the matter drop. Sazonov then drafted a memorandum to the Tsar on Russia’s claim to the freedom of the Straits (Nov. 1913) and three months later (Feb. 21 1914) convened a council of political and military experts to discuss the ways and means of realising the scheme In case of a European war. But the military experts announced that in the plans of campaign no such side-problems could be included. The murder of Archduke Franz Ferdinand on June 28 1014 changed the political outlook radically and supplied Austria with an opening which she utilised to the fullest extent. Berchtold was for an immediate invasion of Serbia. Count Tisza was successful in his demand that an ultimatum should first be sent, but it was in vain that he opposed the terms of the document which were obviously intended to provoke rejection. After having lost much precious time Sazonov proposed modifications which Berchtold declined to accept. He fancied that by undertaking to abstain from annexing Serbian territory he could insure the Tsar’s neutrality. Russia meanwhile adopted the military

measures known as “‘ pre-mobilisation ” (July 25) and the plan of a merely partial mobilisation to follow was entertained by the Tsar and Sazonov in case Serbia should be attacked. But the General Staff objected that it had no plan ready for a transition irom partial to general mobilisation, and that as war seemed unavoidable the latter was imperative. Sazonov, however, still insisted on waiting. Meanwhile, Berchtold declared war against Serbia despite her acceptance of most of the humiliating conditions of the ultimatum (July 28), whereupon Sazonov’s views underwent a complete change and (in the night of July 28-209) Nicholas signed the fatal edict. A belated telegram, however, from the Kaiser adjuring him to preserve peace for the sake of the monarchic principle moved the Tsar to withdraw the order for general, and substitute that for partial, mobilisation. This command was obeyed in words but the military experts having convinced Sazonov that it would be suicidal, the Minister next morning (July 30) presented himself to the Tsar and obtained his consent to the radical measure advocated by the General Staff. On the following morning this order was posted up in St. Petersburg and the catastrophe broke loose. During the War Sazonov countered all influences tending to the abandonment of the struggle by Russia but he followed the

SCA LDS— SCEPTICISM Tsar’s lead in demanding frst the opening of the Straits and the internationalisation of Constantinople and later on the annexation of the Turkish capital. The hostility of Turkey and Bulgaria deprived Russia of aid from the Allies, whereupon Sazonov made a bid for the help of the Poles in the shape of a Home Rule scheme, but the proposal was scouted in Court circles and he was dismissed from his post. Thus ended his career. His fall was gently broken by his appointment as Ambassador to Great Britain, but before he reached his destination the revolution of March 1917 had deposed the Tsar. Sazonov, however, was willing to represent the Government that had thrust aside his imperial master but it too was suddenly swept away. He was next appointed Minister for Foreign Affairs by Admiral Kolchak but played no further part in the destinies of his country. (E. J. Dr.) SCALDS: see BURNS AND SCALDS. SCAPA FLOW, an expanse of sea, in the south of the Orkneys, bounded by Pomona on the north, Burray and South Ronaldshay on the east and southeast, and Hoy on the west and southwest. The area contains seven small islands and is about 15 m. in length from north to south, and about 8 m. in mean breadth. There are two chief exits—one, 7 m. in length and 2 m. in mean breadth, into the Atlantic Ocean by Hoy Sound, and the other, 33 m. in length by 2m. in mean breadth, into the North Sea by Holm Sound. Admiral Jellicoe chose Scapa Flow in preference to the Cromarty Firth as his chief naval base, but in Aug. 1914 no preparations had been made and everything had to be improvised, guns being landed from the ships to strengthen the defences. By the middle of Oct. 1914 “‘ U ” boats were active in the neighbourhood, and on Oct. 16 an enemy submarine was reported to be in the Flow. It was recognised that the base would be unsafe until anti-submarine defences were installed, and by the end of 1914 the entrances had been adequately protected, facilities for carrying out all but the most serious repairs were installed, and Scapa Flow gradually assumed the aspect of a great naval station, which

it retained to the end of the War. As a precaution against espionage, navigation in the adjacent waters was very severely regulated, and an everwidening region of the mainland (ultimately extending as far south as the Caledonian Canal) was proclaimed as a prohibited area. The German ships which were surrendered in Nov. 1918 were interned in Scapa Flow, where on June 21 1919 all the battleships and battle cruisers, with the exception of the battleship “ Baden ”’ and five light cruisers, were scuttled. Three light cruisers and some smaller vessels were beached. SCARBOROUGH, England (see 24.301), had an area of 2,727 ac. (increased from 2,562 ac. in 1913) and a population of 46,179 in 1921. The town was bombarded by German cruisers in 1914 and by submarines in 1917. The castle (since repaired), the lighthouse, two churches and many other buildings in the town were damaged. The residential districts on the north and south cliffs have increased considerably, and large sums have been spent on buying and laying out the undercliff in the north and south bays, on a park with an artificial lake and on acquiring open spaces. The Floral Hall in Alexandra Gardens was opened in 1910; Londesborough Lodge has been purchased by the corporation to house the trophies given by Colonel Harrison; and the People’s Palace, used as a store during the War, and subsequently closed, has also been acquired. The remains of a Roman signalling station, excavated on Castle Hill, were opened to the public in 1925, and a War memorial has been erected on Oliver’s Mount. The herring fisheries have been successful, and seven firms were engaged in packing and curing in 1924. A scheme for the improvement of the harbour to meet the growing demand has been drawn up. A special excursion station, half a mile from the main railway station, has been built to provide for the large numbers of summer visitors. SCARFOGLIO, EDOARDO (1860-1917), Italian journalist, was born at Paganico (Aquila). He was one of the most vigorous and ablest journalists of his time and an excellent newspaper manager as well as editor, although some of his journalistic

475

methods were much criticised. He founded the Corriere di Roma, the Corriere di Napoli, the Ora of Palermo and the Mattino of Naples. It is with the latter paper, which he owned and edited for many years, that his name is chiefly associated. He was the husband of the novelist Matilde Serao (see 24.661) from whom, however, he had been separated for many years. He died at Naples Oct. 6 1917. SCARLET FEVER: see INFECTIOUS FEVERS. SCEPTICISM (see 24.306) mcans in Greek philosophical (oxerropat) usage to hesitate, reflect, examine, consider pros and cons, unable to arrive at a decision; to surmise rather than assert. Like certain general terms it conveys one meaning to the technical philosopher, another to the average man. Strictly defined, it is denial of capacity to know reality; that is to say, the human mind, by its very constitution, can never comprehend the ultimate nature of things. For ancient sceptics, the senses deceive, therefore what seems to him to be is true for each individual, rendering fundamental agreement out of the question, Tor modern sceptics, the senses alone merit reliance, and, being what they are, confine one to appearances, if not to illusion. But this meaning belongs to the rarefied region of pure theory; so much so that all-round denial has been the exception even among professional thinkers. Hence the historical importance of the less stringent, even popular usage. For, in general acceptation, scepticism commonly suggests denial of current or customary beliefs, pertaining to a definite system usually, and this, in turn, often theological. | Transitional Periods——Taken thus as a repudiation of traditional or authoritative views, it so far tallies with the stricter

philosophical definition in that scepticism has as matter of history flourished most during periods of transition when attacks upon previous systematic (or even common sense) constructions were rife. Obvious examples are furnished by the assaults of the Sophists upon the Greek cosmologists; of Pyrrho and his pupils upon the followers of Plato and Aristotle; of the Middle and New Academies upon Chrysippus and the Stoics; of Sextus Empiricus upon all the principles of Graeco-Roman thought; of Montaigne upon scholasticism; of Glanvil upon the crusted Aristotelians of the Oxford schools; of Locke upon certain aspects of Cartesianism; of Hume upon Locke and the doctrine of representative perception; of Kant upon natural theology; of L. Feuerbach upon Hegel; of agnostics upon the spiritual interpretation of nature and man; of Nietzsche upon the practical postulates of European Christendom. All agree in repudiation of what they hold to be é “ overpast standpoints,” and, on the whole, with the exception of the thoroughgoing Greeks and Hume, they strike at a definite group of doctrines rather than at the validity of experience itself. Thus, in the light of history, scepticism generally implies dissent from dominant judgments. It may, although it commonly does not, assert human incapacity to grasp ultimate Reality, but this remains the precise philosophical implication. And, when recent movements came in question, the more general meaning is also the more apposite, thanks to the variety, not to say confusion, of “ modern ” thought. Compromise and Instabiltity—Hume aside, scepticism was restrained during the 17th and 18th centuries by a silent com-

promise which had profoundest statement from Leibniz, most popular from Paley. Rationalism and its theological ally, Deism, agreed to extend “ mechanical explanation ” to the known universe, always on the understanding, however, that the physical order was secondary because dependent upon a deity whose existence could be demonstrated by abstract proofs. Quite apart from its intellectualism, against which Rousseau revolted, this compromise was inherently unstable. For, as Kant was to indicate, on such premises objective validity attached only to the objects of mathematico-physical science. The euthanasia of Deism, Hume’s work, put the agreement out of court. Positivism and New Types—Further, during the same centuries, the methods of measurement and enumeration achieved extraordinary success, so that, by 1850, a new scepticism, in the shape of positivism unaware of its own dogmas, acquired vogue.

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SCEPTICISM

This was the heyday of materialism. The natural universe, with “matter ’? as substratum, came to be viewed as a given changeless system wherein everything followed from an irreversible cosmic order. The spiritual must be accounted merely a side-issue, devoid of intrinsic reality. On this scheme gravitation, electricity, magnetism and other forces were paraded as properties of matter—all else betrayed the taint of illusion or, to be plain, superstition. The hidden postulate—that nothing is valid save sense perception—inevitably led to dogmatism. Hence new types of scepticism arose successively, agnosticism the earliest while, very gradually during the final quarter of the roth century, more rapidly during the first quarter of the 2oth, the theological aspect of the issue fell in shadow, thanks to unprecedented

extension of natural knowledge and profound socio-economic changes.

The Reign of Law.—The mechanical conception of nature ruled between 1850 and 1870. The atomic theory, reverting to implications as old as Democritus, the theorem of the conservation of energy when energy was accounted a purely mechanical principle, the early hypotheses of physiology after the enunciation of the cell-theory, and the doctrine of evolution thrust into physical categories, lent seeming authority to the uniformity of ‘“matter ” as the whole import of the uniformity of nature. The “ reign of law,” reducing all phenomena to motion, appeared to warrant an ultimate philosophy bound to oust ‘‘ Romantic ”’ sentimentalism. Experiential test had established calculable truths, therefore it alone can guarantee the truth. In short, Hume’s view, that nothing is valid save sense-perception, came to be identified with the system of actual science. Huxley, to select the most notable name from many, did not catch the theoretical contradiction. Nevertheless, he was among the first to divine the practical difficulty. In Evolution and Ethics (1889), he serves notice that, whatever we may say of nature, we dare not treat it as the source of ethical judgments.

Accordingly, the universe is two; experience confronts us with incommensurables, which compel agnosticism; for, as concerns the good and the beautiful, the stark unmorality of nature forces us to fall back upon principles incapable of demonstration. Beset by inner strife, experience could not rest here. Push the human factor, and, as Aliotta points out, a sensorial mvthology is substituted for a mechanical. Exact science ceases to be a description of the course of things; its office is reduced to that of a valuable guide through the maze of events, leading to an economical adjustment of ideas. Agnosticism was quietly dispelling the notion that “ force ” is “ rate of change in momentum;” it was casting doubt upon the grim ultimate which had taken the place vacated by the Supreme Being central to the powerful tradition of natural theology. Naturalism.—Meanwhile, other influences were leaving their mark, and this agnosticism lost point. The conjoint results of the historical and biological sciences, all presupposing the framework of evolution, served to create a fresh positivism—naturalism. But this type of scepticism maintained itself intermittently. Its silent dogma proved too vulnerable. The doctrine that the terminology of evolution is in every way preferable, because it connects man and his creations with the other phenomena of the universe, obviously implies a plan already elaborated or informed by reason of some sort; and this order reduces to the principle that, if any event can be traced to its origins, explanation then and thereby supervenes. One kind of causality (causality itself remaining unexamined) must bear the entire burden of the possibility of the situation. Like the mechanical theory before it, predeterminate evolution, unable to abide its own simplicity, loosed fresh doubts. Current forms of scepticism bear intimate relation to discoverics in the natural sciences and psychology, to the perspective induced by the historical outlook, and to social displacements accompanied by the development of anti-intellectualism. A summary (and therefore partial) statement follows:— Physiologism.—Things are external to us in space. If so, the physiological conditions antecedent to perception interpose a veil between us and objects; direct knowledge is ruled out.

Again, the cerebrospinal states on which perception depends may as well be effects of disturbances within the organism as of stimuli from without. Evidently, this view assumes the existence of objects out of relation to consciousness; also that one part of knowledge is valid, disclosing, as it does, pertinent reasons for the dubiety of perception. Psychologism.—Granted that the mind is merely a “ natural object,” it occurs under the condition of time no less than of space. But reference to past time presupposes memory, and to future time anticipation. Psychologically, both are untrustworthy, therefore man is confined to the specious present. In any case, whatever may be said for knowledge derived from the past, the future baffles penetration; even “laws of nature ” may alter or lapse. It would seem to follow that all experiential conjunctions are casual. Scepticism of this kind involves the dogma that hypotheses as to uniformity are inadmissible, and that objective “ fact,” other minds included, is at best a perilous inference. It may be added that Behaviourism is dogmatic rather than sceptical, being a subtle recrudescence of materialism. Historicism.—This is sometimes treated as if it were identical with naturalism; that is, given an evolving series, discovery of origins suffices for “‘ explanation,” not merely of “ species,” but also of “ values ” in the spiritual and social life. The underiying assumptions are too plain to require comment. Thus, in its sceptical drift Historicism rather implies that, on review of the past, all opinions and, equally, their practical consequences, in institutions, etc., can be shown to have been bemused by hopeless diversity of judgment. In particular, thinkers, who profess to decide fundamentals, exhibit irremediable contradiction. It is absurd, then, to claim that ultimates are capable of settlement. This view involves a negative dogma, by denying the possibility of progressive insight—hypothesis can never rise to theory. The process of phenomena, each member its own witness, hides aught that may lie behind. Pragmatism.—In so far as it embodies a mere protest against certain types of philosophy, pragmatism cannot be identified with scepticism off-hand. But, being a species of geneticism, it favours sceptical tendencies. “‘ Logical forms and structures are distinctions within the process of reflective and experimental enquiry.” If so, all “laws” must be judged evanescent. On this score, pragmatic geneticism and futurism are anti-intellectual. Notwithstanding, they embrace belief in the creative function of an evolutionary process (Bergson), and justify the voluntaristic creed of modernism (Blondel). Even so, the reason for the validity of the hypothesis is made secondary to other considerations. Consequences are good, because subserving happiness, etc., not řrue, because in agreement with a ratio essendi. Hence the sceptical thrust Truth is relative to individual activity, which, frankly, happens to be in continuous process of transmutation. Thus, truth can never be more than the best relevant, temporary adjustment; hence, all questions about the truth must be reckoned artificial. Coming in at the death, intellect can but offer bad reasons for manifest effects. Meantime, it were prudent, perhaps, to regard pragmatism rather as a search for a technique by a generation eager to formulate new values than as bare scepticism. Taken thus, it employs dogmas of its own—reality on the make in linear progress, for example. Nevertheless, it is the symptomatic philosophy of a period of disintegration, often doubtful whether the ‘ world-spirit ”? be for it or against it, and seeking a criterion in “ social utility.” The achievements of knowledge in modern times have rendered

precise scepticism unfashionable.

Moreover, the doctrine basal

to scepticism is now well understood to imply a dogmatic reference. The deepest doubt has already gone beyond doubt. For the rest, temporary scepticisms would seem to oscillate between attempts to recover the irrecoverable, which necessarily land in mysticism, and protests against ‘‘ conventional thinking,” which, as recent movements show, run the gamut between suggestive criticism at. the upper and indefensible gomjaterte at the lower level. Being what it is, rational experience has some basis (even if we cannot as yet fathom it fully), or we must account it a miracle.

|

SCHACHT—SCHLESWIG BipL1oGRAPHY.—George

Santayana,

Scepticism

and

Animal

Faith (1923); W. Pepperell Montagu, The Ways of Knowing and the

Methods of Philosophy (1925).

(R. M. W.*) SCHACHT, HJALMAR (1877), German financier, was born at Tingleff, near Flensburg, Jan. 22 1877. After studying political economy, he became secretary of the Handelsvertragsverein (Trade Agreements League) 1901-3, and was then deputy director of the Dresden Bank until 1916. From 1916 to 1923 he was a member of the Board of the Nationalbank fiir Deutschland, afterwards the Darmstädter und Nationalbank. He was appointed president of the German Reichsbank in Dec. 1023. In 1924 he collaborated in the Conference of London and the deliberations of the Dawes Committee. Dr. Schacht also established the Gold Bank of issue (Goldnofenbank). SCHEER, REINHARD (1863— ), German sailor, was born at Oberkirchen, Hesse-Nassau, Sept. 30 1863. After serving in Cameroon and East Africa, in 1903 he was given command of the 1st torpedo division. In 1910 he became chief-of-staff of the High Sea Fleet under Von Holtzendorf and in 1913 became commander of a battle squadron. At the outbreak of the World War he was stationed at Kiel with his squadron. In Jan. 1916 he was placed in command of the German High Sea Fleet, which he led at the battle of Jutland. On July 2 ror8 he succeeded Von Holtzendorf as chief of the Admiralty Staff, but on Nov. 14 1918 he was placed on the retired list, and took up residence in Weimar. Scheer’s account of the battle of Jutland appears in his book Deutsch'ands Hochseeflotte im Weltkriege (1920). (See GERMANY:

NavaL Poticy.) SCHEIDEMANN,

PHILIPP (1865), German politician, was born at Kassel July 26 1865. In 1903 he entered the Reichstag as deputy for Kassel, and in the course of the World War became leader of the Majority Socialists. He voted for the governm>>’s war credits and supported its policy up to 1917, when. he wis associated with Erzberger in the ‘‘ Peace Resolution ” of july 19 1917, which demanded‘ * peace without annexation orind «.tdes.’’ He was already exercising influence in German internal politics and was frequently consulted by Bethmann Hollweg. In June 1918 he became vice-president of the Reichstag, and on Oct. 3 secretary of state without portfolio in Prince Max of Baden’s Cabinet. On Nov. 9 Scheidemann proclaimed the German Republic from the buildings of the Reichstag. On Nov. 10 he was one of the three Majority Socialists who formed the first Provisional Govt. of the Republic. Although violently attacked by the Spartacists and Minority Socialists as a counter revolutionary,” he undoubtedly helped to save his country from bloodshed and anarchy, and on Feb. 8 1919 was elected president of the first republican ministry of the Reich by the

Constituent Assembly at Weimar.

On June 20 rgrg he vehe-

mently opposed signing the Treaty of Versailles and resigned when a majority of the government decided to sign. He then resumed the leadership of the Majority Socialists in the National Assembly and subsequently in the republican Reichstag. In Jan. 1920 he was elected first burgomaster of Kassel. His reminiscences Der Zusammenbruch published in 1921 form a valuable historical document. (See also GERMANY: Pelitical History.) SCHELDE.—The dispute between Belgium and the Netherlands over the control of the Schelde estuary is dealt with in the articles BELGIUM; NETHERLANDS.

SCHENECTADY, N.Y., U.S.A. (see 24.319)——The population increased 21-8% in the decade after 1910, reaching 88,723 in 1920 (of whom 20,564 were foreign born),and was estimated by the Census Bureau at 102,161 in 1925. Additions of territory by 1925 had brought the area up to 10-34 square miles. In the year 1924 when the population reached 100,000 a “‘ progress exposition ” was held specially to celebrate the following achievements: the construction of the fine, broad Erie boulevard, along the abandoned bed of the Erie canal; the construction of the Great Western Gateway Bridge across the Mohawk river, connecting the highway systems of the east and south with those of the north and west; the building of the Hotel Van Curler at the eastern bridgehead, commanding a wide view of the Mohawk valley; the installation of “ intensive ” street lighting; the com-

477

pletion of the Union College Memorial Chapel, built by public subscription; the establishment of a community chest for financing philanthropic agencies; and the expansion of the two leading industrial establishments, the General Electric Co. and the American Locomotive Company. The two latter dominating industries employed (1925) 23,000 and 5,000 persons respectively. The Schenectady establishment of the General Electric Co. is not only the largest of the company’s manufacturing concerns, but it includes also the general offices and research laboratories for the entire company, and the broadcasting studio of WGY. The value of all factory products in the city was $38,165,000 In 1909, and $106,531,000 iN I9QT9. There were in 1925 31 public schools, with a roll of 17,840 pupils, including 1,031 in the continuation schools. The city has five parks, of a total area of 280 ac., with tennis courts, lakes for swimming and boating and four golf courses. There are 37 playgrounds for children, and a health centre, conducted by the Health Dept. which includes various specialised clinics. SCHIFF, JACOB HENRY (1847-10920), American banker and philanthropist, was born at Frankfurt-on-Main, Germany, Jan. 10 1847.

He was educated in the schools of Frankfurt and for a

time worked ina bank. In 1865 he went to New York City and organised the brokerage firm of Budge, Schiff & Co. In 1875 he married a daughter of Solomon Loeb, head of the banking firm of Kuhn, Loeb & Co., was taken into the firm and, on Loeb’s retirement in 1885, took his place. Largely due to Schiff’s energy, the firm greatly expanded its business and became known throughout the financial world. In 1897 his house assisted E. H. Harriman in reorganising the Union Pacific Railway. In ygor a struggle took place between the Schiff and Harriman interests on the one side and James J. Hill and J. P. Morgan on the other for possession of the Northern Pacific Railway. The resulting compromise was the formation of the Northern Securities Co. as a holding company for their joint interests (see 27.733). In his later years he gave much personal attenticn to charities, especially for the Jewish people. He was a founder and president of the Montefiore Home for Chronic Invalids, New York City. In 1903 he presented a Semitic Museum building to Harvard University. He died in New York City Sept. 25 1920. His estate was estimated at about $50,000,000. He bequeathed $1,350,000 to various institutions, most of which had received benefactions during his hfe. SCHIMMEL, HENDRIK JAN (1825-1906), Dutch poet and novelist (see 24.326), spent his last years in work on spiritualistic research, and died at Bussum in 1906. SCHISTOSOMIASIS: seé BILHARZIASIS. SCHLESWIG or SLEsvic (see 24.334), a ate: now divided between Denmark and Germany. North Schleswig (Danish) has an area of 1,938 sq. m. and a population of 166,895; South Schleswig (German) forms part of the Prussian province of Schleswig-Holstein, with a total area of 5,802 sq. m. and a population (1925) of 1,534,817. During the years immediately preceding the World War, German officials and private societics continued their efforts to force Germanisation on the Danish inhabitants of Schleswig by colonisation of the land with Germans and discouraging the use of the Danish language. But their efforts only s rengthened Danish national consciousness, so much so that in Aug. 1914 the possible effects of this spirit were so feared in Germany that a number of prominent Danes were arrested and imprisoned. Among them was H. P. Hanssen, a member of the Reichstag, who, however, was released very quickly. During the War the expression of desire for union with Denmark was silenced, both owing to the German censorship and the Schleswig Danes’ anxiety not to let Denmark abandon her ncutrality. Yet the hope of ultimate union with Denmark was not abandoned; in Aug. 1915 Hanssen indicated on a map to a German colleague a frontier very similar to that now established. On Oct. 23 1918 Hanssen raised the demand for reunion in the German Reichstag; on the same day the Danish Rigsdag unanimously passed a resolution in favour of a readjustment of the frontier on the principles of nationality. On Nov. 28 the Danish

478

SCHLICH—SCHLIEFFIEN

Govt. communicated its wishes to the Allies, and when the Peace Conference in Feb. 1919 reached the discussion of the Schleswig problem, a united Danish North Schleswig delegation was sent to Paris to present the Danish point of view: a plebiscite ex bloc in North Schleswig (zone 1); a community ballot in Central Schleswig and Flensburg (zone 2) and voting rights to all those born in the voting district. The Peace Treaty, presented May 7, further provided for a plebiscite in a third zone, but this was later dropped. On the Peace Treaty coming into force (Jan. 10 1920) an international commission took charge of the plebiscite district. Zone t gave 75,431 votes for Denmark, 25,329 for Germany (Feb. 10); zone 2, 48,148 votes for Germany, 13,029 for Den-

mark (March 14). The frontier established by the treaty of July 5 1920 gave effect to this verdict, and restored to Denmark that part of Schleswig which lies north of the Flensburg fjord, and of a line drawn approximately west from it. On July 7 the

international commission handed over the executive power in Zone 1 to Denmark. The results of subsequent elections have shown the line to be fairly drawn. The highest Danish vote polled in Germany has been 7,700 (1924)—insufficient to return a Danish representative. The German votes for the Rigsdag in 1921 and 1924 totalled 7,500, returning one member under the system of proportional representation prevailing in Denmark. In each country some Social Democrats do not vote nationally. The Treaty of Versailles imposed no special obligations upon Denmark with regard to her German minority, considering the Danish constitution to offer adequate safeguards; on the same grounds the Danish Govt. has declined the proposal for a special treaty with Germany for reciprocal protection of the minorities, a measure which might easily lead to undesirable interference by the Government of one country in the affairs of another. The

Danish Govt. has, however, offered the German minority every facility to maintain and develop its culture on a German basis. The entire school system of North Schleswig has been reorganised with this view; parents are allowed to decide whether they will have their children educated in German or Danish at primary schools, while the German private schools receive grants from the State on the same condition as the Danish private schools.

(G. M. G.-H.)

SCHLICH, SIR WILLIAM (1840-1925), British forestry expert, was born at Darmstadt, Germany, Feb. 28 1840, and educated there and at the University of Giessen. In 1866 he entered the Indian Forests Department, became conservator of forests in 1871, and 10 years later inspector-general of forests to the Govt. of India. In 1886 he became a naturalised British subject. He was one of the pioneers of the study of forestry in Eng-

land, organising in 1885 the first school at Cooper’s Hill, which was transferred to Oxford in 1905. He was appointed professor of forestry at Oxford the same year and retained the post until 1919. Among his books on the subject are: A Manual of Forestry (1889-95; new ed., 5 vol., 1925) and Forestry in the United Kingdom (1904). In 1gor he was elected a fellow of the Royal

Society, and in 1909 he was created K.C.I.E.

He died at Oxford

Sept. 28 1925. SCHLIEFFEN, ALFRED, Count von (1833-1913), Prussian soldier, was born on Feb. 28 1833 in Berlin, where his father, an officer, lived. The Schlieffen family is of Pomeranian origin and is now found chiefly in Mecklenburg. Schlieffen came from the

same nobility and the same province as two other great field marshals, Bliicher and Moltke. In his youth he studied for a short time at Berlin University before he became an officer. He attended the military academy (Kriegsakademie) and served in the war of 1866 against Austria and in that of 1870-1 against France as a general staff officer. In 1891, after following the usual career of a general staff officer, he was appointed chief of the general staff of the army. He held this position for 15 years, during which period he exercised an extraordinary influence on the development of the German general staff and the whole German army. There was ever present with him the problem of a war on two fronts which would have

to be waged with a single army, far superior in numbers and material to any that had been employed in previous wars. He energetically promoted the training of general staff officers in the leading of huge armies and urged on the development of the German army’s technical equipment to the end that rapid transfer and sure handling of the troops might be ensured. Finally he threw the whole weight of his position and authority into the endeavour to equip the army with mobile heavy artillery. He retired in 1907. On his retirement he proceeded to pronounce his views on war in literary form and he is indeed far better known in his capacity of author than as chief of the general staff of the army. In military science Schlieffen was a disciple of Clausewitz, the Prussian philosopher of war, who in his turn had deduced his doctrine of strategy from Napoleon. Field-marshal Von Moltke, whose successor and disciple Schlieffen was, had also based his ideas on Clausewitz, and it was the Napoleon-Moltke strategy that Schlieffen sought to carry on. The essence of their doctrine is that the enemy forces should be not merely defeated but destroyed. To this end it seemed to them necessary that not

only the front but the flanks attacked, so that the enemy a reversed front. Schlieffen conclusion. He saw Germany

and if possible the rear should be should be forced to give battle on pushed this system to its logical surrounded on all sides by enemies

who, together, were far more powerful than herself. It seemed to him that the only salvation lay in opposing one of the enemies with a superior force, inflicting on him a decisive defeat, and then, using a well-developed network of railways and manoeuvring on inner lines, turning upon the other enemy against whom until then a defensive attitude would have been maintained. For this end rapidly decisive blows were needed and his writings aimed at proving such blows to be possible and showing how troops could be handled for that purpose. With a marked singleness of purpose Schlieffen sought out the appropriate examples in military history and presented them

in anew guise. His works are not military history in the accepted sense; they do not purport to describe objectively the course of campaigns and battles. He used military history as a source from which to draw instances which corroborated the doctrines with which he sought to imbue his pupils and his readers. His books are in fact definitely instructional. He points sarcastically to the errors made by commanders and subordinate commanders and dismisses with cutting irony those opinions which opposed his own. It is plain from his writings how anxiously he watched the military-political situation of his own country and how apprehensive he was lest the grave hour should find, in the position he had had to leave, a man unequal to the overwhelming task. ‘‘ A commander-in-chief must be inspired by something superhuman, something supernatural, call it genius or what you will.” . Schlieffen died in Berlin on Jan. 4 1913, but in 1914—-seven years after his retirement—he still played his part in the world’s history; for on retiring, he had bequeathed to his successor, General Moltke the younger, the plan for deployment against France. This plan embodies his strategic convictions. It is at once immensely bold and also simple. Only the bare minimum was to remain facing the Russians; in the West the left flank was to be held back and the troops in Alsace were to withdraw behind the Rhine and face attack on the line Metz-Strasbourg. The bulk of the army was to deploy on the right flank and, pivoting on Metz, to drive forward against the line Dunkirk-Verdun. In this way the strongly fortified east front of France would be turned and the French army forced to give battle with a reversed front. Schlieffen intended not to give a recipe for victory, but to indicate the operative idea which, if logically carried out, would make possible the swift decision which alone could save Germany from her doom. The German army commander of 1914 considerably diluted the Schlieffen plan and, particularly in its execution, followed other courses than those pointed to by the dead strategist. And so it was that the inspired scheme of Schlieffen did not bear the fruits which were expected.

SCHMIDT—SCHOOLS

479

How armies are to be handled in the Schlieffen spirit the war

expected that if he were chancellor, the Allied and Associate

on the Eastern front showed. The battle of Tannenberg has very justly been called a super-Cannae, and the campaign of Lodz, the German attack against the Warsaw-Thorn line—the best-conceived operation of the whole War, which was directed solely against the right flank of the Russians—rests upon Schlieffen’s ideas. It was not granted to the field marshal to test his strategic thoughts in the fire of battle, but his influence on the German leadership is incontestable and his lifework cannot be ignored by anyone who intends to study the history of the World War. For Schheffen’s writings, see Graf Schlicfien, Gesammelte Schriften (Berlin, 1913); Cannae, selection from the above (Berlin, 1925). Brs_ioGRAPHY.—General Freiherr von Freytag-Loringhoven,

Powers would be willing to grant the large loan necessary to restore Austria’s chaotic finances, and he was selected to form a non-party ministry in June 1921. His term of office was not so successful as all friends of Austria had hoped, since the requisite loan was still delayed and Schober, more honest than brilliant, saw that his administration, minus loan, did not satisfy Austrian public opinion. Nevertheless, he really took the first step towards establishing friendly relations between Austria and her neighbours when he concluded the pact of Lana with Czechoslovakia Dec. 16 1921 (see AUSTRIA). ‘This move aroused the hostility of the pan-Germans, who formed a part of the Government coalition, and who resented any pact with Czechoslovakia as putting difficulties in the way of the ultimate Anschluss with Germany. They withdrew from the Government coalition. The Christian Socialists were not strong enough to govern alone against the opposition of the Social Democrats. On May 24 1922 Schober resigned the chancellorship and returned to the post of president of police. SCHOLL, AURELIEN (1833-1902), French author (see 24.356), died in Paris April 16 1902. SCHÖNBERG, ARNOLD (1874), Austrian composer, was born in Vienna Sept. 13 1874. At an early age he began to study violin and cello and also to compose chamber music. In musical theory he was self-taught. After writing a number of songs he composed in 189ọ the string sextet Verklärte Nacht; and in the following year he commenced work upon Gurrelieder, a ballad cycle in three parts for chorus and full orchestra, which was eventually produced in Vienna, 1912-3. In 1903 he began his career as a teacher of theory in Vienna; meanwhile (1902-3) he had composed the symphonic poem Pelléas and Mélisande. Further songs and ballads followed and the years 1907-10 saw the development of Schénberg’s art from the classical to the new period. He was largely inspired by the painting of Kokoschka and others who inaugurated a new artistic movement at that time. His new style was revealed in a number of piano pieces and the monodrama Erwartung. In 1911 he moved to Berlin and in the following year had performed one of his most famous works Pierrot lunatre, a cycle of 21 poems for recitation with a piano, flute, clarinet, violin and cello. In r91s—7 he was working upon an oratorio, Jakobsleiter, and in 1918 he foundedin Vienna the society for private musical performances. A revised edition of his manual Harmoniclehre (1911) was issued in 1922. See E. Wellesz Arnold Schénberg (1924). SCHONHERR, KARL (1869), Austrian dramatist, was born at Axams in the Tyrol, Feb. 24 1869. He took his degree in medicine, but soon began to devote himself to literature. He began with dialect poems of an unassuming nature and with short stories, but in 1897 he turned his attention to drama and the stage with the unpublished Judas von Tirol. Schönherr stood midway between realism and symbolism, and expressed himself in a vigourous and original style. His accomplished technique, applied frequently to peasant or medical life, enabled him to evolve a successful drama with a very limited number of characters. In his pieces, quite elementary and simple emotions, and the problems and crises arising out of them, are presented with inexorable consistency. His treatment was less sure in the realm of fancy or of history: his most famous drama, Glaube und Heimat (1910), dealing with the time of the Counter-Reformation, and also Der Weibsteufel (1915), have a strong Roman Catholic bias. Schénherr’s other important works include Die Bildschnitzer (1900); Erde (1908); Volk in Not (1915); Frau Suitiner (1916); Vivat academia (1922); Es (1923); Hungerbloc-

Generalfeldmarschall Graf von Schlieffen (Leipzig, 1920); Hugo Rochs, Schiteffen (Berlin, 1921); Wolfgang Förster, Graf Schlieffen

und der Weltkrieg (2nd edition, Berlin, 1925).

(K. von O.)

SCHMIDT, WILHELM (1868— ), Austrian philologist and Roman Catholic priest, was born at Il6rde, Westphalia. He held the chair of primitive language and culture in the University of Vienna and devoted himself to the isolation and classification of the Austric family of languages (see PHILOLOGY). His works include:—Die sprachlichen Verhélinisse Ozeaniens (1900); Grundziige einer Lautlehre der Khasi-Sprache (1905); Grundziige einer Lautlehre der Mon-khmer-S prache (1906); Die Sprachlaute (1907); Die Stellung der Pygmdenvolker in der Entwicklungsgeschichte des Menschen (1910); Der Ursprung der Gottesidee (1912); Ethnelogische Bemerkungen zur theologischen Opfertheologie (1912); with W. Koppers, Völker und Kulturen (1924); Die Sprachfamilien und Sprachenkreise der Erde (1925). SCHMOLLER, GUSTAV (1838-1917), German political economist (see 24.344), died in Bad Harzburg June 26 1917. SCHNITZLER, ARTHUR (1862), Austrian playwright and novelist, was born in Vienna May 15 1862. He took a medical degree, and practised fora time as a physician. In 1908 he won the Grillparzer prize. Schnitzler first began to write plays and fiction in the ’nineties, and from that time onward his narrative powers steadily increased, while his dramatic powers hardly diminished. His style is informed by a kind of tempered realism, never quite losing sight of beauty. His province is chiefly the intellectual circles of pre-War Vienna; his problems those of love, life, death and art. His distinction is piquant and graceful dialogue. In modern costume his characters move confidently across his stage; in historical, more uncertainly; nor

did his verse attain the inimitable charm of his prose. The most remarkable of his plays are: the Anatol cycle (1898); Liebelei (1896); Der griine Kakadu (1899); Der einsame Weg (1904); Der junge Medardus (1910); Professor Bernhardt (1912); Die Schwestern (1919); and the much-disputed Regen (printed privately in 1903, produced in 1920). Conspicuous among his tales are the great novel Der

Weg ins Freie (1908); and the short stories, Lieutenant

Gustl (1901), Casanovas Heimfahrt (1918), Eng. trans. Casanova’s Homecoming (1922); and Fräulein Else (1924, Eng. trans. 1925). See Monographs by J. Kapp, Arthur Schnitzler (1912); and R. Specht, Arthur Schnitzler (1922).

SCHOBER, JOHANN (1874}, Austrian politician, was born and educated in Upper Austria, entering the Imperial Austrian police service as a young man, and became the Austrian president of police in 1918, some months before the revolution. On the proclamation of the Austrian republic (Nov. 12 1918), Schober immediately placed his force at the disposal of the new Government, and by this action and by his moderate conduct in general did much to ensure a peaceful and bloodless change of régime. At the same time, he succeeded in securing the safety of the ex-Imperial family, whose departure from Vienna he supervised. During the two years of social democratic Government which followed, Schober’s force was reproached by extremists with being reactionary, quite unjustly, as he aimed at strict impartiality. His administrative ability, and above all, his conspicuous honesty, gained him the confidence of all moderate opinion in Austria, and especially of the interallied missions and advisers.

Largely because he was known to enjoy this confidence it was

kade (1925). Most of his dramas were first produced in the Burgtheater and in the Deutschen Volkstheater in Vienna. Schénherr’s

other

works

include

Caritas

and

Aus

meinem

Merkbuch, which express the same trend of thought and motif as his dramas. He won the Schiller Prize in 1908 and the Grillparzer Prize in 1911, 1917 and 1920. Sedlmaier (1920) and Lederer (1925). SCHOOLS: see EDUCATION; PUBLIC SCHOOLS.

See

monographs

SCHOOLS;

by

SECONDARY

SCHOULER —SCIENTIFIC

480

SCHOULER, JAMES (1839-1920), American lawyer and historian (see 24.377), published in 1913 a seventh volume of his History of the United States of America Under the Constitution, covering the period of reconstruction (1865-71). The original plan of his work had been enlarged by the publication in 1899

of a sixth volume, covering the period 1861-5. He died at Intervale, N. H., April 16 1920. SCHREINER, OLIVE (1862-1920), pen name of Mrs. Cronwright Schreiner, was born in Basutoland, the daughter of a

German missionary.

In 1882 she brought to England the MS

of her first novel The Story of an African Farm and submitted it to George Meredith, then reader for Chapman and Hall. It was published in 1883 by this firm over the pseudonym “ Ralph Iron,” and proved an immediate success, entirely surpassing any of her subsequent writings in literary merit. Her later work includes Dreams (1891); Trooper Peter Halkett of Mashonaland (1897), a much-criticised attack on the first settlers in Rhodesia; An English South African’s View of the Situation (1899); and Woman and Labour (1911),a fragment of an earlier MS which had been burnt during the South African War. She died at Cape Town, Dec. 12 1920. She had married in 1804 S. C. Cronwright, a member of the Cape Parliament, who afterwards took the name of S. C. Cronwright-Schreiner. He wrote Tke Life of Olive Schreiner, which appeared in 1923. Her brother WILLIAM PHILIP SCHREINER (1857-1910), was born in the district of Herschel, Cape Colony. After studying law at Cape Town, and at Cambridge and London Universities, he was called to the Bar (Inner Temple) in 1882 and on returning to South Africa in the same year was admitted as an advocate of the Cape Supreme Court. He was for many years leader of the Cape Bar; in 1887 he entered Cape politics as attorney-general in the Second Rhodes Ministry. He was Prime Minister on the outbreak of the South African War, (1899). In 1914 he was appointed high commissioner for the Union in London, and he died at Llandrindod Wells, Wales, June 28 1919. SCHROEDER, EDUARD (1858), German philologist, was born May 18 1858 in Witzenhausen. He was a high school teacher in Göttingen (1883), Berlin (1887) and Marburg (1889), and in 1902 was appointed professor of German language and literature at the University of Göttingen. His publications comprise works on old German literature, modern German philology and the history of German literature. From 18go, in conjunction with Gustav Roethe of Berlin, he published the Zeitschrift fiir deutsches Altertum und deutsche Literatur.

SCHUCKING, WALTER (187s—

}, German jurist, was born

Jan. 6 1875 at Munster in Westphalia. He taught at the universities of Breslau and Marburg 1900-21, andin 1921 was appointed a professor at the Berlin commercial high school. In 1919 he was appointed a member of the National Assembly and chief German delegate to the Peace Conference at Versailles. In 1920 and again in 1924 he was elected to the Reichstag and became one of the leaders of the German Democratic party. His works include: Das Ktisienmeer im internationalen Recht (1897), “ Die Verwendung von Minem im Seekrieg ”’ (in Niemeyer’s Zeitschrift, vol. 16), Die Organisation der Welt (2nd ed. 1909), Der Staatenverband der Haager Conferenzen (1912) (Eng. trans. 1918), Neue Ziele der staatlichen Entwicklung (ard ed. 1913), Internationale Rechtsgarantien (1918), Die Satsung des Volkerbundes (2nd ed. 1924), Garantiepaki und Riistungsbeschrankung (1924), Das Genfer Protokoil (1924).

SCHULTZ, HERMANN

(1836-1903), German theologian (see

24.382), died in 1903. SCHURMAN, JACOB

GOULD (1854), American educationalist and publicist (see 24.386}, was appointed in 1912 U.S. Minister to Greece and Montenegro, serving one year. In 1915 he was first vice-president of the N. Y. State Constitutional Convention. In Oct. 1917 he was appointed a member of the N. Y. State Food Commission. He was opposed to many of President Wilson’s policies, especially in connection with Mexico, and also to Article X. of the Covenant of the League of Nations, believing that it would involve the United States in war. He resigned the presidency of Cornell University in 1920,

MANAGEMENT

giving as his reason that every great institution was entitled to a new chief executive at least once In a quarter of a century. Appointed minister to China in 1921, he returned to the United States on leave of absence in Aug. 1924, and was appointed ambassador to Germany, March 17 1925. Among his later works are The Balkan Wars, 1912-1913; lectures at Princeton (1914); Why America is in the War (1917). . SCHWAB, CHARLES MICHAEL (1862), American capitalist, was born at Williamsburg, Pa., April 18 1862. He was educated in the public schools and at St. Francis College, Loretto, Pa., where he gained an elementary knowledge of enginecring. From 1878 to 1880 he ewas a clerk ina store at Braddock, Pa., and then became a stake driver in the engineering corps of the Edgar Thomson Steel Works of Carnegie Bros. & Co. His ability brought him rapid promotion and in 1881 he was made chief engineer and assistant manager. Six years later he was appointed superintendent of the Homestead Steel Works. In 1889, on the recommendation of Henry Frick, he was made general superintendent of the Edgar Thomson Steel Works, and in 1892, after the formation of the Carnegie Steel Co., he was made also general superintendent of the Homestcad Works. In 1897 he was elected president of the Carnegie Steel Co., and when this was merged in 1901 in the U.S. Steel Corp. he was made president of the latter. He resigned in 1903. He then turned his attention to shipbuilding and a few years later with other capitalists secured control of the Bethlehem Steel Corp., which owned the Bethlehem Steel Co., and several other corporations engaged in the iron, steel and shipbuilding business. He was made chairman of the board of directors. After the outbreak of the World War in 1914 and before the United States entered it, these companies filled orders for the Allies aggregating between 400 and 500 million dollars. It was generally understood that German interests made attempts to secure control of the Bethlehem works in order to shut off munitions from the Allies, and a report that Mr. Schwab was offered $100,000,000 for his interest was never denied by him. The division of the stock of the Bethlehem Steel Corp. in 1917 into two classes, A and B, the latter being publicly owned and non-voting, an arrangement designed to prevent German money from obtaining a voice in the company’s control, set a precedent for later issues of this type in the financial world. After America’s entrance into the War, at the urgent request of President Wilson Mr. Schwab became in April 1918 director-general of the shipbuilding board of the Emergency Fleet Corporation. His power of rousing enthusiasm among workers by personal contact immediately produced results. The resulting output for 1918 was 410 steel vessels, 106 wooden ships and 10 composite ships, a total of 526 vessels. After the signing of the Armistice in Nov. 1918, he resigned from the Emergency Flect Corp. and returned to his position as chairman of the board of directors of the Bethlehem Steel Corporation. His benefactions include a Catholic church at Loretto, as well as buildings and endowment for St. Francis College; a church at Braddock, Pa., a school at Weatherly, Pa., and a country home on Staten Island, N. Y., for children of the New York Foundling Hospital. SCHWEINFURTH, GEORG AUGUST (1836-1925), German traveller and ethnologist (see 24.392) in 1918 brought out a revised edition of his principal work The Heart of Africa. He died in Berlin Sept. 20 1925. His botanical and geological collections were given to the Prussian state. SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT.—Originally this doctrine had reference particularly to the management of shop operations in industrial establishments, but it has been given broader significance. It holds that the accurate investigative methods of science may be utilised to discover the objective facts and laws which govern effective accomplishment of purposive effort, and that such facts and laws, expressed in standards of purpose, instruments and methods, permit control which effects accomplishment with the most economical expenditure of human and material energies. sa Origins and History.—Scientific management did not originate as an argument a priori; it was the generalisation of an engineer

"P,

SCIENTIFIC

MANAGEMENT

executive, Frederick W. Taylor (g.z.), derived from analysis of controlled experiments in management of shop operations which had been stimulated by problems arising out of particular industrial conditions. The last three decades of the roth century in the United States were characterised by a second industrial revolution. There was rapid expansion of transportation facilities, which consolidated local markets into a national market, increase of available raw materials and of machinery for their fabrication, increase of population through immigration which en-

larged both production and consumption capacity, and a consequent rapid development of large organisations to secure the advantages of large scale production and distribution. ‘This development brought with it serious problems of management, particularly the problem of supervising and co-ordinating the work of men no longer under the immediate supervision of owner-managers. The “ management movement,” expressing social consciousness of these problems, was generated by these circumstances. This movement became vocal among mechanical engineers because they who were designing and installing the new machines were called upon to devise methods of control in their operation. - Moreover, the mechanical engineers, organised into a professional body (1880), had available the only forum for discussion of managerial problems. Their first attack on the problem sought a solution along the line of differential wage systems, for it was believed these would create an incentive which would accomplish indirectly the results of direct supervision. From wage incentives their attention turned to such mechanisms as cost systems, organisation and systematisation. These contributions in the early stages of the management

movement

were of importance,

but

they related to isolated phases of the management problem and did not offer any general doctrine expressing an integrated system of management. THe Work or F. W. TAYLOR

Tavylor’s Initiative —Such a doctrine came from Frederick W. Taylor in A Piece Rate System (1895), Shop Munagement (1903) and The Principles of Scientific Management (1911). It has served as a focal point around which have gathered the various other contrioutions to the management movement. Taylor as a young man had been appointed gang boss in 1880 or 1881 in a machine shop of the Midvale Steel Co., Philadelphia. Eager to secure better produ:tion, he began his supervision of workers with the drivinz methods of foremanship then prevalent. Controversy with the workers resul.ed, so distasteful that his highly imaginative and inventive faculties were challenged. Believing that a prime cause of low production was destruction of workers’ good will by such autocratic actions as arbitrarily changed wage rates resulting from management’s lack of precise knowledge of what constitutes a proper day’s work on each operation, he began a series of investigations and experiments lasting more than 17 years anl having no equal outsi:le the field of pure science. Fortunately, within the first few months these experiments led to positive and important results. He discovered facts and laws pertaining to elements of machine operation—to shafting, belting, machine adjustments, materials and methods of manipulation—which when analysed suggested devices and procedures to increase the output per machine at lowered unit costs without additional human effort. The combination of these best elemental conditions of each operation he set up as a standard for that operation, established identical standard conditions and methods for all machines in the shop, planned and directed more carefully the flow of work under these standardised conditions, and increased the total production of the shop to a revolutionary degree. Subsequent investigations and experiments, at the Midvale Steel Co., the Bethlehem Steel Co. and other plants, served not so much to add new fundamental data to these early basic discoveries as to enlarge their significance and prove their adaption to more complicated conditions. Taylor's Doctrine-—During the early years of these experiments, Taylor formulated no theories; he was simply first a gang boss, and later foreman and engineer, concentrated upon solving

481

practical problems of management as they came to him. Later, stimulated by contacts at the meetings of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers, he formulated as generalisations from his observations and experiments the doctrine of scientific management.

The doctrine in the final form stated by Taylor consisted of four propositions: (1) The development of a ‘‘ true science '’ for each operation to replace traditional, rule-of-thumb methods. This ‘true science ’’ and a corresponding art for a given operation on a given machine are determined by ascertaining experimentally the combination of conditions which will yield a unit of product with least cost of human and mechanical energy, cost betng chiefly a function of time consumed in the production of a unit as measured by stop-watch observations. (2) The selection of workmen and their assignment to operations in accordance with scientific analysis of their natural capacities and acquired skill. (3) Continuous instruction of workmen in the science and the art of each operation. (4) Recognition of qualitative differences, as to capacities required and the conditions of routine performance, between the function of execution in manipulating machine or tool and the function of planning and preparing work; and the grouping of operatives into two major divisions responsible respectively for these qualitatively different groups of functions. ,

The AManagement.-—The group of workers concerned with planning and preparation Taylor conceived as the “ management.” Given a true science and art for each operation, and conditions surrounding an operation meeting the requirements of its art, the planning group is enabled to make calculations which will so co-ordinate operations and govern the flow of work as practically to eliminate delays, idle machine time and unbalanced production, to reduce investment in raw and worked materials, and to permit individual equitable wage payments in

accordance with that increased productivity which inevitably results from the more perfect technical conditions and manipulation at each machine, and from the more precisely calculated control of work and co-orcination of specialised efiorts uncer Civision of labour. | The Taylor System.—-These propositions were the stater ent of a doctrine. ‘The “ Taylor System ” is another matter; it is that system of practices which Taylor had built up as gang boss, foreman and engineer, from which the conclusions in the doctrines were drawn. He believed the doctrine presented truths of permanent validity, but that the details of his system would be modified by later experience. The framework of his system was as follows:— 1. A planning department in which specialist foreman and workers should (a) make the investigations from which are derived the science and art of each operation, formulate the art of each operation for the benefit of operatives in the form of an “ instructicn card,” and establish and maintain standard conditions and standards of performance-time and wage rates; (6) plan the sequence of operations, prepare materials and equipments, and in general direct the flow of work; (c) check performance against plans as an aid to maintenance of standards. 2. Specification, to aid in selection and assignment of workers, indicating the physical, mental and tem-

peramental characteristics required in workers on any particular

operation or group of operations. 3. Functional foremen, t.e., specialists in the different elements of execution, who should train the workers in the various operations., Functional! foremanship is

essentially instructional as opposed to driving foremanship.

Governing the mechanisms of the system here outlined was a policy of human relations which embraced such ideals as the fcllowing: arbitrary authority must give way to the reign of law in management as determined by investigation and experiment; managers and workers are each subject to the respective functional requirements of the same law; high wages are more important than big profits; high wages make low labour costs. Taylor's Doctrine Restated.——Taylor was not a skilled publicist, and his statement of scientific management was not as scientific as had been his conduct and analysis of the experiments from which the doctrine was derived; yet it constituted an analysis so inclusive and logical that it has provided the dominant element in all subsequent expositions of management theory. From the point of view especially of later knowledge of social organisation and of psychological science, the significance of the doctrine becomes more impressive. It may be restated as follows:—

SCIENTIFIC

482

MANAGEMENT

In modern large-scale organisation with its large investments specialisation of capital in fixed forms and division of labour, management must meet five important technical problems: r. Conservation of the investment by greater accuracy in calculating the demands of industrial society. 2. Economy in the expenditure of productive energies by more precise specialisation of efforts. 3. More precise co-ordination of specialised efforts. 4. Economy in the expenditure of productive energies by more perfect understanding by each specialist operative of the related part he is to perform. 5. The establishment of good will among the workers to assure

effective voluntary application of intelligent effort in the absence of

detail supervision.

,

Referring to these problems in inverse order, the base for the establishment of workers’ good will are: removal of the dread of intermittent

employment,

by more

accurate

determination

of

social demand; equitable sharing of the results of joint productive effort, by more accurate measurement of individual efforts and results in terms of standard objectives, instruments and methods; and provision for the opportunity for individual selfexpression without violation of co-operative technical responsibility, by formulation of the laws of the technical situation and substitution of voluntary obedience to such laws for involuntary obedience to unstable and inconsistent individual authority. More perfect understanding on the part of workers may be established by accurate analysis and formulation of functional relationships and of the conditions for most productive results in each elemental operation. More precise specialisation and co-ordination of specialised efforts may be accomplished bya similar analysis of functional relationships and conditions, by accurate calculations of productive capacity in terms of present and future availability, by accurate calculations of the flow of demand in terms of orders or jobs, and by understandable communications to technical co-operators informing each of his task demanded by the law of the situation. Greater accuracy in

calculating the demands of industrial society is to be had by applying to the pertinent field of observation and experiment the same order of scientific method which is applied to determination of the adherent requirements of any detail operation. Practically every one of these suggested methods of solving the five basic managerial problems enumerated above were anticipated in the specific system of management which carries Taylor’s name. Dominance of a Sellers’ Market.—¥For the emphasis on shop management in the early statements of scientific management

there is an historical reason. It was conceived, formulated, published and discussed during a period when industry in the United States was enjoying a “‘ sellers’ market ” (1880-1914), when the problem of management was chiefly one of production to meet a rapidly growing consumer demand. In these circumstances the applicability of the doctrine to other aspects of management did not receive especial consideration.

Development of a Buyers’ Market-—However, beginning about 1921, as a result of economic maladjustments following the World War, industry in the United States experienced a “buyers’ market ” in which ascertainment of consumer demand and selling replaced production as the dominant problem of management. This stimulated consideration of scientific management as a doctrine pertinent to all phases of management. Utilising the methods of quantitative measurement made available by a rapidly developing statistical science, industry began to analyse consumer demand (market analysis) as it had already analysed conditions of individual machine operations, and this made possible the formulation of tasks for an enterprise as a whole and for departmental major functional units. These tasks took the form of master and departmental budgets and quotas. Market analysis and the formulation of budgets, schedules and quotas express, for the business as a whole and for its larger functional units, the major principles of scientific management—scientific method in investigation, the establishment of standards, planning and the control of operations in accordance with standards and plans. SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT

IN THE UNITED STATES

Scientific management has profoundly influenced the attitude and practice of management in the United States. This influence

has been due chiefly to the fact that in a time of necessity scientific management has offered the only consistent and inclusive

doctrine concerning management, and also in some measure to the increase in the number of executives in industry who have had college or university training and are accustomed to the ideas and practices of scientific method. However, the particular system of management developed by Taylor as an expression of the doctrine is to be found in reasonable entirety in but few enterprises, although many of the elements of the system, such as segregation of planning, have been widely adopted. The conservatism in adopting the particular system has been due to fear of the practical difficulty of modifying fixed habit of conduct within the personnel of large organisations, particularly the difficulty of

making such modifications with a provision which effects changes

without disorganising current operations, and to uncertainty con-

cerning the reactions of workers to the doctrine as understood by them and to specific modifications of habit involved. Relations with Labour.—The reaction of labour, especially organised labour, to scientific management has had interesting phases. Generally where individual plants have undertaken to modify their managerial methods in accordance with the doctrine, the workers concerned have been at first indifferent, later satished, in many instances strongly approving. However, following the Eastern Rate Case hearings in roro, the administrative headquarters of the American Federation of Labor declared strongly against the doctrine as well as against elements of Taylor’s system. The political influence of organised labour led to Federal legislation prohibiting stop-watch time study and the use of standards of performance and of remuneration, derived by time study, in arsenals and other government enterprises. This attitude of organised labour was caused by a many-sided fear of scientific management; that intensive investigation and standardisation of operating conditions and methods would break down

whatever monopoly there might be in labour’s special knowledge

of craft skill, that wage payments in accordance with measured individual performance would break down uniform craft rates of remuneration established by labour organisations, that control of work through planning and the assignment of tasks would permit such a speeding up of operations as to impair the workers’ health, and in general that these and other elements would put management in a stronger position to resist the increasing influence of organised labour. The opposition of organised labour has gradually diminished, because labour is conscious of greater strength and security since the World War; because its observations have established the fundamental facts that scientific management’s investigations include the problem of human relations in industry and disclose the technical necessity of workers’ good will; and because therefore proponents of scientific management are by circumstances led toward sympathetic understanding of labour’s problems. Influence Outside the United States.—Notwithstanding the translation of Taylor’s Principles of Scientific Management into ro languages, the influence of scientific management outside the United States has been moderate. This is due in large measure to inhibitive mental attitudes derived from experience under different physical and social conditions of industry, and in no small measure to the fact that the meagre translated literature has not been supplemented by concrete illustrations in practice. In the United States concrete illustrations were in existence before the doctrine was formulated and published; in other countries the doctrine has been published without illustrations in practice. This has resulted in a marked difference in understanding and in influence. In western Europe the literature of discussion gives evidence of understanding of the mechanical aspects of the essential technique, but not, with certain noteworthy exceptions, particularly in France, of scientific management’s advanced views concerning human relations. The literature of discussion in eastern Europe gives evidence of the fundamental misconception that scientific management connotes merely the utilisation of the various sciences in industry, and not, what is its outstanding characteristic, the development of a science of managing the elements brought together in enterprise.

483

SCOPOLAMINE—SCOTLAND BrsLtioGRApHy.—Frank B. Copley, Frederick W. Taylor, Father of Scientific Management, 2 vol. (1923); Frederick W. Taylor, The Principles of Scientific Management (1913) and Shop Management (American Society of Mechanical Engineers, New York, 1903); Henry L. Gantt, Work, Wages and Profits (1913); Frank B. Gilbreth, Motion Study (1911); Conference on Scientific Management (Hanover, N.H., 1912); C. Bertrand Thompson, Scientific Management (Cambridge, Mass., 1914); and The Theory and Practice of Scientific Management (Boston, 1917); Dwight V. Merrick, Time Studies as a Basis for Rate Setting (1919); Robert F. Hoxie, Scientific Afanagement and Labour (1915); Edward E. Hunt, Scientific Management since Taylor (1924); Bulletins of the Taylor Society (New T I2n CHE. eB

SCOPOLAMINE.—Scopolamine or hyoscine is a complex alkaloid closely related to atropine and having the chemical formula Cy;HaNO,. It is laevorotary to polarised light but in its commercial form may be mixed withits dextrorotary isomer. Scopolamine occurs in varying proportions and is extracted from deadly nightshade, henbane, thornapple and a few other lessknown plants. Hyoscine hydrobromide, the official preparation of the British Pharmacopocia, consists of transparent colourless crystals which have a bitter taste, are soluble in water and have the formula Cy;H2NO,HBr3H20. The therapeutic dose is

z to iw grain.

Action.—The chief action of scopolamine is hypnotic, a condition very similar to natural sleep being induced. This usually lasts for about six hours and the patient wakes up with an unclouded mind but may complain of thirst and dryness of the mouth and throat. In some cases a stage of excitement, giddiness and incoherent speech may precede that of sleep, and it is this uncertainty of action which renders the drug somewhat unreliable. A certain degree of tolerance is produced after prolonged exhibition of scopolamine so that the dose has to be increased to have the same effect. Administration —Scopolamine by itself does not relieve pain, so that for anaesthetic purposes it is usually combined with morphia. Some such mixture as:—Morphine gr. 1%, Scopolamine gr. qq, is injected hypodermically, the scopolamine being repeated as necessary in doses of gr. zg. This “ twilight sleep ” method does not produce surgical anaesthesia, but has the double action of dulling pain and producing loss of memory. It is thus useful in labour, especially when the process is likely to be prolonged, as in primiparae. In these cases the initial dose should

be given when the first stage is well established. The patient should then fall Into a somnolent condition from which she is partially roused when each pain occurs. To obtain the best effect, the patient’s ears should be plugged with cotton wool, her eyes bandaged, and the room kept perfectly quiet. The chief disadvantage in the “ twilight sleep ’? method in labour is that the child may be born in an apnoeic condition and a considerable time may elapse before regular respiration is established. If skilled attention is available, however, it is rare for the baby to suffer any ill effects. The action of the drug upon the foetal heart appears to be negligible. If forceps have to be applied or any other form of instrumental delivery is necessary, an inhalation anaesthesia will have to be administered in addition. “Twilight sleep ” can also be used as a preliminary to the various types of regional analgesia. For instance, a severe operation can be performed under preliminary morphine-scopolamine injection and subsequent spinal analgesia without the patient being aware that he has been moved out of bed. Some anaesthetists also use the drugs as a preliminary to general anaesthesia, such as nitrous oxide-oxygen. This method undoubtedly lessens the apprehension of a nervous patient and has the advantage that less general anaesthetic is necessary, but it tends to depress respiration so that cyanosis and a difficult administration may ensue. The breathing may in fact become so shallow that the requisite depth of anaesthesia may be 1mpossible to attain. The blood pressure also tends to fall, while the eye and other reflex signs which are useful in estimating the depth of anaesthesia can no longer be trusted. Again, scopolamine-morphine is definitely contra-indicated in children, in severe abdominal operations and in cases of intestinal obstruction, as the drugs may tend to increase the paralysis of

the gut. Furthermore, it should not. be given to patients who are known to have an idiosyncrasy for either of its constituents. For these reasons, scopolamine-morphine should not be used as a routine preliminary injection but should be reserved for selected cases. | BIRLIOGRAPHY.—Munro Kerr and others, A Combined Textbook of Obstetrics and Gynaecology (1923); A. R. Cushny, Pharmacology

and Therapeutics (1924); H. E. Boyle and C. L. Hewer, Practical Anaesthetics (1923). (C. L. H)

SCOTLAND (sce 24.412).—The history of Scotland from 1910 to 1925, apart from an important ecclesiastical movement, to which reference will be made later, resolves itself largely into the effect of the World War, and of the conclusion of peace, upon social, industrial and political conditions. For matters that affect Scotland as a part of Great Britain, the article GREAT BRITAIN

should be consulted. By the military operations of the War Scotland was affected only to a small extent; Zeppelins attacked Edinburgh and did considerable damage on April 2 1916, and there were further raids upon Scotland in May and in Aug., but on both occasions the airships lost their way and dropped their bombs in rural areas. On the other hand, for the first time in the history of Great Britain as a seapower, the main activities of the Fleet were conducted in Scottish waters, from Aug. 1914 to the surrender of the German fleet on Nov. 21 1918. It was in Scapa Flow that the crews of 70 German men-of-war scuttled their ships on June 211920. Anincident of the naval warfare was the bombardment of the remote island of St. Kilda on May 15 1918, when damage was done to the church and some other buildings. The part plaved by Scotland in supplying man-power, and in providing munitions of war, was worthy of the national tradition; the Clyde, naturally, took the chief part in naval construction and repairs, but all over Scotland munition factories came into existence—the largest was built at Gretna in r915. Politics —Since the conclusion of the War a great change has occurred in the political complexion of the country. The Representation of the People Act (1918) increased the number of voters from 800,448 at the general election of Dec. rọro to 2,211,178 at the general election of Dec. 1918. It also severed the last Jink with the old tradition of Scottish parliamentary representation by its redistribution of constituencies; the shire ceased to be the unit of county representation, and the old Scottish system of the separate representation of groups of burghs was almost entirely abandoned. With the change in the electorate came a break in the traditional fidelity of the Scottish constituencies to the Liberal party. In Dec. 1910, Scotland returned 58 Liberal, 11 Conservative and three Labour members; in 1918, when a proportion of Liberals supported the Coalition Govt., there were 58 Coalition, seven Labour, seven Liberal and two Independent members. After the break-up of the Coalition, in the autumn of 1922, the Liberal representation was 28, against 29 Labour and 15 Unionist members. In 1923 the Liberals were reduced to 22, and in 1924 to nine; the Labour members were increased to 35 in 1923 but fell to 24 in 1924; the Conservatives held 16 seats in 1923 and 40 in 1924. One Independent, with a leaning to Labour, was returned at each election, and in 1922 an avowed Communist was elected for the Motherwell division of Lanarkshire. Land and Temperance Legislation.—The social life of the country was affected by a number of important legislative

enactments, most of which were passed immediately after the War. With regard to land tenure, a considerable change has been made by the Small Landholders (Scotland) Act of 1911, by

which the Scottish Land

Court

(which among other duties

decides upon applications for small holdings and fixes fair rents) was constituted, the earlier Crofters Acts were extended and

amended, and a Scottish Board of Agriculture was created. Further provision for the acquisition of land for small holdings was made by the Land Settlement (Scotland) Act of 1919, which widened the range of activities of the Board of Agriculture. A pre-War measure which came into operation in 1920 was the Temperance (Scotland) Act of 1913, which provided that

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SCOTLAND

local authorities, on the receipt of signed requisitions from electors in their areas, should take a poll on three alternative resolutions dealing with the number of licences in an area, viz., (1) that there should be no change in the system of licensing, (2) that the licensing court should grant not more than 75% of the licences previously In existence and (3) that all licences in the area should be withdrawn, except, in special circumstances, to bona. fide hotel and restaurant keepers, who might be allowed to sell drink to residents in hotels or to persons taking meals at restaurants. The areas were defined as burghs of a population not exceeding 25,000; separate wards in larger burghs; and parishes in the counties and the voters as electors to town councils in burghs and to parish councils in the counties. A no-licence resolution requires 55% of the recorded votes in a poll of not less

than 35% of the electors in order to be carried; a limitation of licences requires only a bare majority vote in a similar poll, and where a no-licence resolution is not carried the votes given for no-licence are added to those given for limitation. Polls were held in Nov. and Dec. 1920, in 580 out of 1,221 polling areas; in about 300 of the remaining areas no licence existed. Five hundred and nine areas voted: for no change, 35 for limitation of licence and 4o for no licence. The contest of 1920 was fought by the Temperance party upon a prohibition programme, and

the result was rather a repudiation of prohibition than an indication of satisfaction with existing licensing conditions. Subsequent polls, taken on requisitions made in accordance with the Act of 1913, have not seriously modified the results ascertained in 1920, and it has been generally felt that the Act requires amendment, especially in the definition of an “‘ area ” as a single ward in the larger burghs, which must be treated as a whole in order to render possible a more equal distribution in any reduction of licences; in Glasgow the withdrawals of licences after the polls of 1920 were chiefly in middle-class residential districts. Education.—Just after the close of the War the machinery of the system of education was reorganised, with a large increase of expenditure, both national and local. The English Education Act of 1918 marks an era in State provision for education, and the Education (Scotland) Act which accompanied it swept away the system of parochial or burghal school boards created in 1872. Five large burghs, Edinburgh, Glasgow, Aberdeen, Dundee and Leith, remained separate educational areas (the number was reduced to four by the amalgamation of Leith with Edinburgh In 1920); elsewhere the area is the county, including the burghs within its bounds. Electors to the administrative bodies (known as Education Authorities) are persons registered as local government electors, and voting is conducted on the principle of proportional representation. Education authorities are empowered to expend money on the provision of food and books for the children, and also to give assistance to qualified persons attending a university or training college. The maintenance of a limited number of fee-paying schools is permitted. Nearly all the preexisting voluntary or denominational schools have been transferred to education authorities in accordance with a provision of the Act; the teachers in such schools are appointed by the local authority after being approved, as regards character and religious belief, by the denomination concerned. The Act contemplated an extension of the school age to 15 years and the provision of an elaborate system of continuation schools, but its provisions have only been partially carried out. Contemporaneously with these developments in elementary and secondary education, the Treasury grant to the universities was largely increased, and, since the end of the War, private benefactions have greatly improved the teaching equipment of all four universities, and especially Glasgow and Edinburgh.

Housing —The depression in trade and commerce which followed the unproductive activity of the War period and the short post-War ‘‘ boom ”’ has deeply affected Scotland, and the ‘‘heavy ’’ industries in the Clyde valley, and in the Glasgow area generally, have suffered very severely. It is in this area that difficulties in regard to housing have been most severely felt, and the housing problem and the operation of the various Rent

Restriction Acts, have been complicated by a series of unfortunate incidents. A decision in the Scottish Law Courts, in the case of Kerr v. Bryde, upheld on appeal to the House of Lords in Nov. 1922, invalidated notices of increase of rent under the Rent Restriction Act of 1920, unless actual notice to quit had been given to the tenant for the date on which the increase was to operate. This decision, interpreting a carelessly drafted statute, placed many owners of houses, chiefly among the poorer classes, in a very difficult position, and also affected the collection of local rates which had been levied on the increased valuation. In Jan. 1924 the eviction of the defender in this case from a tenement in the burgh of Clydebank was followed by a “ rentstrike,” which produced considerable embarrassment not only to landlords and factors but also to the municipal authorities and the Scottish Office. An intervention by Mr. Adamson, the Secretary for Scotland in the Labour Govt., was unsuccessful, and the struggle, in the course of which eviction scenes caused great local excitement, was not terminated until 1925. An effect of the controversy was to check any private building, and the housing schemes of local authorities have been hampered by trade union disputes and by a scarcity of bricklayers, masons and plasterers. The Royal Commission on Housing estimated the shortage of houses in Scotland in rg17 at over 121,900; official figures show that up to Oct. 1925, only 34,639 houses had been built, and 12,791 were in process of construction, in Scotland, under the Housing Acts of 1919, 1923 and 1924. The failure of Scottish local authorities to solve the housing problem led to Government intervention at the end of 1925. A reflection on the condition of trade, and possibly of housing, is to be found in the report of the Registrar-General for Scotland for 1923, which estimated the population in the middle of that year at 4,901,100, a decrease of 3,356 upon the estimate of the previous year, though an increase of 18,603 over the figures of the 1921 census. This decrease, a novel feature in statistics of the population of Scotland, is attributed to emigration, the number of emigrants in 1923 showing an excess of 52,345 over the number of immigrants. : Presbyterian Reunion.—A main feature of national interest since the War has been the development of negotiations for a union of the Church of Scotland with the United Free Church; the latter is itself the result of a union between the Free Church and the United Presbyterian Church in rgo00. With a view to the reunion of the two great branches of Scottish Presbyterianism, the Church of Scotland obtained in 1921 an Act of Parliament the effect of which was to transform the relations of the Church with the State, and to give the Church liberty both ‘ to adjudicate finally in all matters of doctrine, worship, government and discipline,’’ and to interpret and modify (within the limits of Trinitarian Protestantism) the Articles of the Constitution, which were scheduled in the Act. This legislation removed the difficulties, of historical origin, that led to the Dis-' ruption of 1843, but it was felt that the system of endowment also required a readjustment, after the lapse of nearly three centuries since the settlement made in the reign of Charles I. In April 1922 a departmental committee was appointed by the Secretary for Scotland, with Viscount Haldane as chairman, and it made recommendations most of which were embodied in the Church of Scotland (Property and Endowments) Act, 1925. By that measure the system of endowment has been altered, subject to a reservation of the life interests of existing ministers. Each parochial stipend, which had hitherto been paid by the heritors or proprietors to the minister of a parish, the amount varying with the prices of agricultural produce each year, will become a fixed charge upon the land, payable not to the minister of a parish, but to the general trustees of the Church of Scotland, and the trustees may arrange for the redemption of the charge by the heritor. Redemption, by payment either of one capital sum or of instalments spread over eighteen years, will be compulsory upon all heritors liable to an annual charge exceeding one shilling and not exceeding one pound; liability for an annual payment of one shilling or less will be extinguished. In the past it has been customary in parishes (numbering about 360 out of

SCOTT, C. P.

485

became in 1925 the National Library of Scotland Act. The library is now administered by a body of trustees, some of whom are ex officio, and others are appointed by the Crown or by administrative and educational authorities or are co-opted by the trustees. The books continue meanwhile to be housed in the premises judges of the Court of Session sitting in the Court of Teinds. belonging to the Faculty of Advocates, which retains in its own This process will now come to an end, but one final application, within eleven years of the passing of the Act, may be made in possession its collection of professional law-books, but has inthe case of each parish, and, if it is upheld by the court, the re- cluded in its gift to the nation such part of its existing premises as is not needed for its own administrative purposes. sulting augmentation will follow a scale laid down in the Act. Afiscellaneous.—The most important municipal developments A further important change is effected by the Act in regard to upkeep of parish churches and manses, a burden which has have been the inclusion of the burghs of Govan, Partick, Pollokshaws, and some suburban districts within the city of Glasgow hitherto been borne by the heritors. They will now be required to put churches and manses into a reasonable state of repair (if by an Act of 1912, and a further extension of the municipal necessary), and to hand them over to the general trustees of the boundaries of Glasgow by an Act of 1925; the amalgamation of Edinburgh with Leith, and the absorption of the suburban disChurch, who will be responsible for all future repairs. Glebes tricts of Liberton, Colinton, Corstorphine and Cramond by the will also become the property of the trustees, but churchyards city of Edinburgh in 1920; and the amalgamation of Motherwell will be transferred to the parish councils. After the extinction with Wishaw in 1920. Among miscellaneous matters of interest of existing vested rights, the revenue received by the general trustees as representing any particular parish will be applied in may be mentioned a series of gifts of historical buildings to the nation—Dryburgh Abbey by the late Lord Glenconner, and the first place to mecting the requirements of that parish, but Melrose Abbey by the Duke of Buccleuch in 1918, the farm of the General Assembly of the Church will have power to decide Ellisland, in Dumfriesshire (occupied by Robert Burns from 1788 upon such requirements and to transfer any surplus to a fund to 1791) and Duddingston Loch, near Edinburgh, in 1923. which will be at the disposal of the Assembly. A body of Scottish Kelso Abbey, Restenneth Priory (Forfarshire) and Inchcolm ecclesiastical commissioners has been appointed under the Act to give effect to a number of its provisions, including the transfer Abbey have also been placed under national custody. On the other hand, by an outrage attributed to women suffragists, of endowments to the general trustees of the Church. Scotland lost, on Feb. 26 1914, the church of Whitekirk (East The two Acts of 1921 and 1925 were promoted by the Church of Scotland for the purpose of removing ‘‘ the main causes keep- Lothian), one of the few beautiful pre-Reformation churches. A feature of the period has been the increased number of state ing the two Churches apart,” and while the Act of r925 was visits paid to Scotland. An accession Court was held at Holyrood passing through its last stages in Parliament the General Assemin 1gt1, and, except during the War, courts have been held bly of the United Free Church passed, by a majority, a resolution periodically in Edinburgh and visits have been paid to other recognising the progress achieved in this direction, and ordered its presbyteries and congregations to send to the Assembly of towns. An awakening interest in Scottish history has been shown by a number of celebrations—the quincentenary of the university 1926 indications of their opinions upon the desirability of union. of St. Andrews in 1911, the sexcentenary of Bannockburn in 1914, An ecclesiastical event of minor importance which aroused widespread interest both in England and Scotland was the ap- the septcentenary of the burgh of Dumbarton in 1922 and the pointment, on the recommendation of the Labour Govt., of septcentenaries of the foundation of the cathedrals of Elgin and Mr. James Brown, M.P., as Lord High Commissioner to the Dornoch in 1925. An announcement, made by the Prime Minister General Assembly of the Church’ of Scotland in 1924, the first in Dec. 1925, that the Government intends to restore the office instance of the selection of a commoner for this post since 1643. of Secretary for Scotland to the dignity of a Secretaryship The King and Queen themselves visited Edinburgh in Oct. of State was a recognition of a Scottish demand which had been 1922, when they unveiled the memorial to King Edward at persistent for years. Holyrood, and again in July 1923, when they gave a reception BIBLIOGRAPHY.—Sir H. Craik, A Century of Scottish History, 2 vol. (1901); P. Hume Brown, History of Scotland to the Present and a garden party in the palace. Time (1911); W. R. Kermack, Historical Geography ef Scotland Scottish National Librar y.—The year 1925 witnessed the institu(1913); N. Hill, The Story of the Scottish Church from the Earliest tion of the National Library of Scotland. The Library of the Times (Glasgow, 1919); P. Hume Brown, Surveys of Scottish History Faculty of Advocates, founded in Edinburgh in the reign of (1920); J. Mackinnon, Social and Industrial History of Scotland (1920); The Constitutional Ilistory of Scotland to the Reformation Charles II., was given the copyright privilege by the Copyright Act of Queen Anne, and it became one of the great libraries of (1924); A. Mitchell, The Story of the Church in Scotland Doe À (R.>5. R. the United Kingdom. It was the property of the Faculty of Advocates, which, though its library was open to the public, SCOTT, CHARLES PRESTWICH (1846), British editor bore the whole responsibility for maintenance and upkeep. and journalist, born at Bath, Somersetshire, on Oct. 26 1846, was Even before the War this burden was too heavy for a small body the youngest son of Russell Scott. He was educated privately of professional men, and the rise in prices after the Armistice and at Corpus Christi College, Oxford, where he graduated with rendered it impossible for the Faculty to maintain the library a first class in 1869. After training under Alexander Russell of on the old scale and to continue the facilities given to the public. The Scotsman, he, in 1871, began a long connection with The In 1g22 the Faculty offered to transfer the library, with the Manchester Guardian, of which his brother-in-law, J. E. Taylor, exception of the collection of legal books, to the nation. The was proprietor. He himself became editor in 1872, and, after Government replied that in the existing state of the national the death of Taylor in 1905, also chief proprietor. He enlisted finances it was not possible to accept the proffered gift apd to the services of W. T. Arnold and many of the leading critics of undertake the financial responsibility for the library, but made literature, art and music of two generations, so that the paper an annual grant of £2,000 as a contribution towards the cost of became one of the foremost journals of the day. Gradually upkeep and use. A small endowment trust was formed to raise developing from Whiggism to advanced Liberalism, The Manan endowment suflicient to meet the requirements of the Governchesier Guardian, as directed by Mr. Scott, was always sober in ment with a view to the transfer, and in June 1923, within a tone and scrupulous in policy. It lost nothing by its opposition few days of the announcement of the creation of the trust, Mr. to the Boer War or its reluctant acceptance of the breach with Alexander Grant (afterwards Sir Alexander Grant, Bart.), Germany, and able articles on the strategy of the World War intimated a gift of £100,000, the sum stipulated by the Treasury. appeared in its columns. Fhe policy of Irish Home Rule was Negotiations were at once resumed with the Government, whose zealously advocated, as well as women’s suffrage and proporacceptance of the offer of the library was announced in the House tional representation. After the War a weekly edition and a of Commons on June 28. Arrangements for the transfer, and commercial supplement were instituted. The centenary (192r) two changes of Government, delayed the passage of a bill which of the foundation of the paper was celebrated, not only by the 884) in which the whole teind had never been assigned in payment of stipend, for ministers to make from time to time applications for augmentation of stipend from the “ free’ or surplus teinds, and such applications were heard and decided by

486

SCOTT, SIR G. G.—SCOTTISH-GAELIC

issue of a special number to which foreign and Dominion statesmen contributed, but by a dinner to the editor attended by eminent men of all political parties. Always active in local politics, after three unsuccessful contests for the representation of North-East Manchester, Mr. Scott was elected Liberal M.P. for the Leigh division of Lancashire in 1895 and sat till 1906. SCOTT, SIR GILES GILBERT (1880-— ), British architect, born Nov. 9 1880, was the son of George Gilbert Scott and grandson of Sir George Gilbert Scott, R.A. Educated at Beaumont College, Old Windsor, he began to practice in London in r902. In the following year his designs for the projected cathedral at Liverpool were accepted, but, in consideration of his youth, G. F. Bodley, R.A. was associated with him as joint architect. In July 1904 the foundation was laid by King Edward, the corner stone of the chapter-house by the Duke of Connaught in 1906, and the Lady Chapel was completed in tg10. After some delay occasioned by the World War, the consecration took place on July 19 1924, in the presence of King George V. and Queen Mary. Designed in Gothic style it was the first Anglican cathedral built in the northern provinces since the Reformation, and when completed, will be the largest church in Great Britam. The exterior is of red sandstone and the building is specially adapted for lighting by electricity. Chief among the other works of the architect are the Church of the Annunciation, Bournemouth; St. Manghold’s Church and Presbytery, Ramsey, Isle of Man; the Chapel of the Visitation Convent, Harrow; and new buildings at Clare College Cambridge. Scott also did restoration work on Chester Cathedral. He was elected A.R.A. in 1918, R.A. in 1922, and was president

of the Architectural Association in 1920-1. He was knighted after the consecration of Liverpool Cathedral in 1924. (See ARCHITECTURE.) SCOTT, SIR PERCY MORETON (1853-10924), British sailor, was born July 10 1853. He entered the navy in 1866 and served in the Ashantee War 1873-4, the Congo Expedition 1875 and in the Egyptian campaign of 1882. In 1893 he was promoted captain and in the following year became a member of the ordnance committee. In 1896 he took command of the cruiser “‘ Scylla ” and came into prominence as the inventor of the “ dotter ” and “ deflection teacher ” devices, which signified an important advance in the evolution of naval gunnery. He served with the Naval Brigade in the South African War, when he got the naval 6-in. guns up to Ladysmith andin 1900 assisted the International Brigade in China during the Boxer Rebellion. In 1903 he took command of the gunnery school ship “ Excellent,” in 1905 became rear-admiral and inspector of target practice and in 1908 was promoted vice-admiral. Created K.C.B. in 1gro In recognition of his services, he was made a baronet in 1913 and retired in March of the same year with the rank of admiral. On the outbreak of the World War he returned to the service and was for some time in charge of the air force defences of London. Sir Percy Scott later became an advocate of the submarine, and was strongly opposed to the building of battleships. He diced Oct. 18 1924. He wrote Fifty Years in the Royal Navy (1919). SCOTT, ROBERT FALCON (1868-1912), British sailor and explorer, was born at Devonport June 6 1868. Entering the navy in 1882, he became a commander in 1900, and led the National Antarctic Expedition in 1901-4 (see 21.966). On his return he was promoted captain, and commanded successively the “ Victorious,”’ the ‘‘ Essex”’ and the “ Bulwark.” In 1910 he set out in command of another expedition to the Antarctic (see POLAR EXPLORATION). A party of five under Scott reached the Pole on Jan. 18 1912, but on the return journey the severity of the weather prevented them from reaching supplies at One ‘Ton depét with the result that they perished on or about March 27 1912. On Nov. 12 1912 a search party found Scott’s tent, containing the bodies of Scott, Dr. E. A. Wilson and Lt. H. R. Bowers, as well as Scott’s records and diaries, in which was given a full account of the journey and the deaths of Captain Oates and Petty Officer Edgar Evans, the other two members of the party. On Feb. 14 10913 a memorial service was held in St. Paul’s Cathedral, Lon.lon, an:1 a Mansion House fund was subsequently

LITERATURE

raised to make provision for the surviving relatives of the lost explorers. The rank and precedence of the wife of a K.C.B. were by royal warrant conferred on Captain Scott’s widow. SCOTTISH-GAELIC LITERATURE (sce 5.635).—In the period I9to-25 the literary use of Scottish Gaelic probably increased. A greater respect for the language, greater desire to become proficient in it and to use it both in speech and in writing were apparent. Among the reasons for this were the continuous activity of An Comunn Gàidhealach, the position which Gaelic now occupies in the universities and in the leaving certificate examination for secondary schools, and above all the clause in the Education Act of 1918, which enjoins that Gaelic shall be taught in all schools throughout the area in which the language is spoken. Two new forms were attempted with considerable success,

the novel and the play. Examples of the former are John MacCormick’s clearly written tale of Dùn Aluinn (1912), Angus Robertson’s Axtogha Mór (1913), episodical but vigorous, and James MacLeod’s Caitlin Sgiathanach (1923), a thoughtful and well-constructed romance. The authors are Islesmen. The most notable of the plays are perhaps Mairead by Archibald MacCulloch, and Rath-innis by John MacCormick. The MacDonald Collection of Gaelic Poetry (1911), edited by Rev. Archibald MacDonald and Rev. Angus MacDonald, contains many pieces hitherto unpublished, some of which are of great merit. A volume of contemporary poetry, entitled Bardachd Leédhais (1916) by natives of Lewis was edited by Ian N. MacLeod; another Lewisman, Murdo Morrison, produced his work under the title of Fear Siubhal nan Gleann (1924). In 1688 and following years Duncan Macrae of Inverinyate in Kintail made a MS. collection of poetry, some of it by himself,

known as the Fernaig Manuscript, written on a phonetic system of his own. Most of it has been dealt with by various scholars from time to time, and in 1923 Malcolm Macfarlane published a complete revised text together with a fairly successful rendering into ordinary spelling. Fifteen poems addressed to Gaelic nobles from the phonetically spelled Book of the Dean of Lismore (c. 1530) appeared in An Gàidheal, restored by Prof. W. J. Watson, who also edited Specimens of Gaelic Poetry, 1550 to 1900 (1918) and Specimens of Gaelic Prose, c. rooo to roro (1915). During the World War rọ booklets for the use of British Gaelic-speaking soldiers were issued by the Scottish Churches under the editorship of Rev. Malcolm Maclennan and Prof. Donald Maclean, and were much sought after and appreciated. Among new editions may be named the Songs of Duncan Macintyre (1912), edited with translation by G. Calder, the Spiritual Songs of Dugald Buchanan (1913), edited by Prof. Donald Maclean, and the Poems of Alexander MacDonald (1924), edited with translation by the editors of the Afac Donald Collection. Mrs. K. W. Grant’s Aig Tigh na Beinne (1911) is a collection of short stories and sketches. The Hon. R. Erskine edited three volumes of A2 Rosarnach (1917, 1918, 1921) consisting of poems and essays by living writers. Iain Moffatt-Pender’s Mo Nighean Donn Bhòidheach (1924) is a collection of sketches, including an account of a walking tour on the West Coast, remarkable as being written by a man who has learned to speak and write Gaelic within recent years. Messrs. Blackie & Son published, under the general editorship of Prof. W. J. Watson, a finely produced series of school readers, six in all, of which the prose parteis specially written. An Gàidheal, formerly An Deo-Gréine, the monthly magazine of An Comunn Gàidhealach, included many Gaelic articles and essays which obtained prizes at the annual Mòd. The monthly magazines of the Presbyterian Churches have Gaelic supplements, and while all are good, the supplement to Life and Work, edited and written by Rev. Donald Lamont, is of quite outstanding literary merit. Gaelic articles form part of the Transactions of the Gaelic Society of Inverness, which in 1925 had produced 30 volumes of valuable matter. It is unfortunate for scholarship that the Celtic Review ceased during the World War and was not revived. Its ro volumes included, among much else of value, the text and translation by Prof. Mackinnon of the

SCRANTON—SCULPTURE Glenmasan Manuscript and of the Gaelic version of the Thebaid of Statius. Miss Frances Tolmie gave to The Journal of the Folk-Song Society (No. 16) 105 songs of Occupation from the Western Isles, forming a most important contribution towards the preservation of our traditional music and poetry. Mrs. Kennedy-Fraser and Rev. Kenneth Macleod published three volumes of Songs of the Hebrides. Alexander Macbain’s studies in Place Names, Highlands and Islands of Scotland (1922) were collected in one volume edited by Prof. W. J. Watson. A. R. Forbes’s Place Names of Skye and Adjacent Isles, though of far less authority, contains much useful information. A most useful dictionary in three volumes, containing the gist of all previous dictionaries, together with new material, was completed in rg1z by E. MacDonald (E. Dwelly), who not only compiled the book but also printed it with his own hands. In 1925 a serviceable Pronouncing and Etymological Dictionary, containing Gaelic-English and English-Gaclic, was produced by Rev. Malcolm Maclennan. A list of books printed

in the Gaelic of Scotland, entitled Typographia Scoto-Gadelica, appeared in 1915, compiled by Rev. Donald Maclean, A. O. Anderson’s two volumes of Karly Sources of Scolttsh History A. D. 500 to 1286 (1922) is a learned and indeed monumental work of over 1,450 pp. of text and 105 pp. of index, a work which, though not in Gaelic, was possible only for a competent Gaelic scholar. (W.J.W). SCRANTON, Pa., U.S.A. (see 24.476), “ the anthracite capital,’ had a population of 137,783 in 1920, of whom 28,568 were foreign born; and 142,266 in 1925 (census bureau estimate). Russians and Lithuanians, Italians and Poles had become more numerous in the mines and in the general population than the Germans, Welsh and English who predominated in earlier days; and diversified industries had developed until the number of wage-earners in factories was larger than the number of coalminers. The leading manufactures of the district were silk, lace, lace curtains, buttons (3,000,000 a day), phonograph records, hydraulic machinery, cotton and woollen fabrics, mining machinery and heavy hardware. The output of the establishments within the city was valued at $26,365,000 in 10909; $54,630,000 in 1919; $64,169,077 in 1923. Anthracite mining, however, was still the dominating industry: coal-mine operatives were a fifth of all persons engaged in gainful occupations in 1920; breakers, culm piles and surface subsidence were visible evidence of the work underground; and whenever a long suspension or strike occurred, aS in 1912, 1922 and 1925 it affected seriously the whole economic fabric of the city. SCRIABIN, ALEXANDER NICHOLAEVICH (1871-1915), Russian composer, was born at Moscow on Christmas day 1871 (O.S.). His father was a lawyer; his mother, a good pianist and pupil of Leschetitsky, died when he was one year of age. His schooling was received in the Moscow Cadet Corps, but he never showed any liking for the military career for which he was intended, and at 18 entered the Moscow Conservatory of Music where he was a pupil of Safanov and Tanier. On leaving the conservatory Scriabin was greatly helped by the patriotic music publisher Belayev, who brought out his earlier works and arranged a European piano recital tour for him. At 20 he returned

to Moscow and joined the conservatory staff. Later he again travelled, this time for six years, visiting the United States amongst other countries. He then settled in Brussels for some time, and in rg1o returned to Moscow. In 1914 Scriabin visited England, giving two piano recitals, playing his own Concerto and appearing as pianist in his Prometheus. He was then sutfering from a tumour of the lip, from which, soon after his return, he died, April 14 1915. As a composer Scriabin represents what may be called the classical school carried forward to its most advanced point. The form of his sonata and symphony movements he derives from Mozart, through Beethoven; however bewildering these may at first sound, ‘they will be found, on a second or third hearing, to be laid out on essentially the Mozart-Beethoven lines. In his Pianistic idiom and general pianistic qualities of style, Scriabin derives largely from Chopin, of whose work he was a great admirer. All this then indicatesa conservative side to his composition, but he was more radical in hia

487

harmonies, and it was, probably, largely the novelty of these that retarded appreciation of his later works. Gradually he evolved what may be called a new scale or, from another point of view, a new chord. It consists of the upper partials of the fourth octave from the Aaa. note, Jess two {taking C as the fundamental note— C, D, E, F, A, Bb or, arranged as a P A of fourths, as Seri:a ‘most frequently uses them, C,F#, Bp, E, A, D). The hint of this new harmonic scheme may be seen in the earliest compositions, and its development was fairly regular and consistent, until it came to dominate his later output. In his later works he discards entirely the old key signatures, In his orchestration Scriabin calls for a large force, and uses it very freely: his scores are excessively contrapuntal in texture, the various instruments moving very independently and weaving together their respective themes: muted brass

playsa large part in his orchestral colour scheme, In_the First Sy oo a chorus is used in the finale; the ‘* Poem of Fire ’’ also uses a chorus, butin an orchestral way, no words being supplied.

For

the last-named work the composer also wrote an optional part for a “ Tastiera per luce,” or keyboard of light, the intention being that varying colours should play upon a screen as the work was being performed. The composer was greatly interested in theories as to a correspondence between the musical scale and the scale of colours. In hisgreat Mystery eft unfinished at his death) music, dance, speech, perfume and colour were to be combined; this work was to be rather a work of ritual than of art, and was to express its author’s idealistic mysticism through the medium of 2,000 participants. It is usual to look upon Scriabin’s musical work as largely the expression of theosophical views, and undoubtedly much of his inspiration was drawn from the works of Blavatsky and others. He

was not, however, a close reader, or a careful thinker. Seizing the main idea of a book or a creed, he would neglect the details, and the imagination would quickly dev elop a huge scheme of thought having little relation to what he had read. The titles of many of his works and of their separate parts, and the marks of expression affixed to particular passages, indicate plain] the existence of a spiritual programme.” The emancipation i the human soul through ceaseless striving, and its achievement of self-expression, may be said, very roughly, to represent the general sense of the spiritual basis of Scriabin’s musical works. The works of Scriabin have been variously classed into periods. A logical classification is into four periods as follows: Ist period, with a strong Chopin influence; the dividing line between this and the 2nd period runs through the First Symphony, and the 2nd period shows some Wagner and Liszt influences; the dividing line between this and the 3rd period runs through the Fifth Sonata, and a 4th period begins with the " Poem of Fire.” Works.—Orchestral: Revery (op 24); Symph. I. (26); DA Il. (29); Symph. HI, or Divine Poem (43); Symph. (Ra): Prometheus, or “ Poem of Fire’’ (60). Piano: Sonatas I. (op. 6);

IT. (19); ITE. (23); EV. (30); V. (53); VIL (62); VIL

(64); VII.

(66); IX. (68); X. (70). A very large number of preludes, études, impromptus, mazurkas, poems, etc., including the great “ Vers la

Flamme ” poem and the much-discussed last work, the Five Preludes (op. 74). Piano and Orchestra: Concerto (ep. 20). .No songs or chamber music are included in Scriabin’s output. (PAS)

SCRIPPS, EDWARD WYLLIS (1854-1026), American newspaper publisher, was born at Rushville, Ill., June 18 1854. He was brought up on a farm in Winchester Co., O., and in 1872 joined the staff of the Detroit Evening News, of which he became city editor in 1875. Three years later he founded the Cleveland Penny Press, which under his direction achieved immediate success. He gradually acquired other journals in Ohio and elsewhere, which later became known as the Scripps-Howard group. In 1896 he, in conjunction with M. A. McRae, formed the ScrippsMcRae Press Assn. for the purpose of providing his various papers with cable news. Fle also, in r90r, organised the Newspaper Enterprise Assn., with the object of supplying features to local papers. In 1908 the Scripps-McRae Assn. was merged with the Publishers’ Press Assn. and the Pacific Coast Press Assn. under the name of the United Press Assn., Mr. Scripps holding a controlling interest. In 1917 his health broke down under the strain of war work and in 1920 he retired from business activity. In 1924 he transferred control of his various interests to his son Robert P. Scripps. He died on board his yacht in Monrovia Bay, Liberia, W. Africa, March 12 1926, having spent the last four years of his life in cruising around the world. SCULPTURE (see 24.488).—In the years immediately preceding the World War Rodin remained the dominant influence

in all schools of sculpture, although by then all his most vital works had been created. However posterity may judge him, it must at least see in him the beginnings of the spirit of revolt

against academic art, which is the distinguishing feature of this

SCULPTURE

488

period and which had made the rebirth of the craft possible.

Rodin himself was not free from the curse which was to a great

extent responsible for the decline of sculpture—the use of the full-scale model from which skilled masons or bronze founders produced the finished work. But the passionate emotions of his figures prepared the world for a type in which the presentation of beauty is not necessarily the aim of the artist; and the controversies which centred around the “ Age of Bronze’ and the “ Balzac ” showed that sculpture was becoming an art to be reckoned with and not one concerned chiefly with official monuments and the graveyard. The revolt became partly a matter of technique, and. the younger artists recognised that only by working in their material themselves could they hope to approach the living art of the great periods of sculpture. These earlier years were the period of the Vorticists in England, the Post-Impressionists in France and the Futurists in Italy-—societies which stated their views with exaggeration—a form of propaganda now generally recognised. Their members were neither madmen nor ineflicient artists, but searchers after an art the secret of which had been lost. Their experiments led them into all manner of odd by-ways, but they remained true sculptors, if at times their intentions are difficult to understand, and they have originated a type of sculpture which may ultimately be of considerable importance in the history of art. I.

GREAT

BRITAIN

Epstein and Gandier-Brseska-—Developments in sculpture in Great Britain since 1910 begin with the work of two foreign artists, the American-born Epstein and the Frenchman Gaudier-Brzeska. Jacob Epstein (¢.v.) came into general notice in 1908 with his masterly series of figures on the British

Medical Assn. building in the Strand. These figures, with their close affinity to archaic Greek art and their essentially sculptural qualities, were followed by a number of expcriments in abstract art conceived under the influence of the Vorticist movement, such as the marble group ‘‘ Two Doves” (1913) and the marble figure of Venus (1914) with its broad planes and monumental structure—one of the most important pieces of sculpture

of recent times.

The bronze “ Christ ’”’ (1917~9) foreshadows in

its rugged surfaces and intense power

of characterisation the

long series of bronze portraits of his later period, of which the bust of Lord Fisher in the Imperial War Museum is typical. The much-discussed panel of Rima in the Hudson memorial in Hyde Park is a fine example of the sculptor’s direct stone-cutting and extraordinary feeling for form.

Henri Gaudier-Brzeska (b. 1891, killed in France rọrt5), worked almost exclusively in this country. From his intimate connections with the Vorticists he may be considered as an English artist. Among his expressionist works are “The Dancer,” a crouching figure in brown varnished stone, “‘ The Singer” in stone, “‘ The Embracers ” (1912-3) in marble and the marble “ Seated Figure” (1914)—almost his last work. Three of his more naturalistic figures are in the Victoria and Albert Museum. Eric Gill studied at the Chichester school of art. His early works were exhibited at the Chenil Galleries in ro11, and others have been shown at the Goupil and other galleries in London. His most important commissions have been the low relief ‘“‘ Stations of the Cross ” (1914-8) in Westminster Cathedral and a second series in the cathedral at Bradford (1921). The majority of his works, of which the “ Boxers ” (1913) is typical, are examples of direct stone-cutting. He has also made war memorials for Bryantspiddle in Dorset, Chirk in North Wales (1920) and Leeds University (“ The Money Changers ’’)—the latter an example of his unequalled skill as a designer of beautiful lettering. Frank Dobson (q.v.) owes a great deal of his unusual technical skill and knowledge to his work with the sculptor ReynoldsStephens and the Cornish granite cutters. His first works, of - which “‘ The Concertina Man ” (1919) and “‘ The Man Child ”

- (1921) are perhaps the most typical, are definitely Cubist in their inspiration. Inhis later sculpture, such as the figure of “ Cambria” and the “ Susannah ” he has freed himself from the conscious

restraint of these earlier figures and has evolved a style of great charm and real sculptural feeling. The figures of Laurence Atkinson are of a more advanced type, reaching at times the region of pure abstraction. Alan L. Durst worked at first almost entirely in ivory. Since 1921 he has carved a number of important works—excellent examples of direct cutting—which include a wood statue of ‘‘ The Virgin

and Child ” (1922) for the Dominican Priory, Haverstock Hill, London, Another “ direct ” worker is Professor Ernest Cole, who has made groups for the London County Council buildings. War AMfemorials—Among the many War memorials scattered over the country, the group comprising the memorial to the

24th Div. in Battersea Park (1924) by Eric If. Kennington is of interest. The majority, however, are of a more academic type, and most of the well-known sculptors have contributed typical examples of their art. Very accomplished works, if at times a little tedious, they give a fair idea of sculpture of the official class—no better and no worse that that of other countries. The younger sculptors who have executed memorials are John Angel, the Scottish artists Thomas J. Clapperton and W. Reid Dick,

Thomas Mewburn

Crook, Richard Reginald Goulden, Charles

Sargent Jagger, Leonard Jennings, Leonard Stanford Merrifield, Louis Frederick Roslyn, Newbury A. Trent, F. J. Wilcoxson and Alan G. Wyon. In the Durban memorial, Phoebe and

Harold Stabler have made a new departure by the use glazed terra-cotta applied to a huge granite cenotaph.

II. THE

UNITED

of

STATES

The United States, with its mixed population, has not yet developed a national school of sculpture, and the constant influx of foreign artists, bringing with them their own typical art, makes such a development more difficult. George Grey Barnard, who was strongly influenced by Rodin, may be considered as the first sculptor whose conception of form and feeling for material are in keeping with modernist tendencies. He is chiefly known in England by his massive figure of Abraham Lincoln, which was refused by London in favour of the more florid statue by Saint-Gaudens, but accepted by Manchester. The most ambitious of his works is the series of groups commissioned by his native State of Pennsylvania for the Capitol of Harrisburg. His later work is well shown in the group “ Adam and Eve.” Paul Manship.—To a later generation belongs Paul Manship (b. 1885), although his work, modernist at first sight, is strongly infused with classicism. His figures and groups have a superficial charm which it is difficult to criticise, but they have little feeling for sculptural form. His bronze statuette “ Little Brother” (1912), his portrait of his infant daughter Pauline (1914) and his “ Dancer and Gazelles ” (1916) in the Luxembourg, Paris, are most representative of his eclectic style. The same characteristics are to be ŝeen in the work of several other American sculptors, for example Albert Henry Atkins, Leo Friedlander and Carl Paul Jennewein. Gaston Lachaise received his training in Paris and went to America in 1905, working for a time with Manship. In his earlier figures and animal subjects he shows a vivid power of sculptural simplification, although his later model for a heroic figure for the Telephone and Telegraph building in New York misses some of this quality. The work of Alfeo Faggi is at times strongly reminiscent of that of the Serbian MeStrovié, especially in a figure of St. Francis of Assisi. He has made a number of other statues in which there is the same mystic quality, and his portraits point to considerable powers of characterisation. The Russian painter Maurice Sterne also excels in portrait busts. Among the more advanced American sculptors John Mowbray-Clarke has attained a certain sculptural quality by means of the flattening of his planes and Cecil de B. Howard in such works as his group “ Afternoon

of a Faun ”’ and other figures shows a definite experiment in the

search for a new means of expression. The work of the more conservative sculptors was well illustrated in the exhibition held in New York by the National Sculpture Society in 1923. In the mass it is not essentially different from that produced in England, and the figures of Chester Beach,

SCULPTURE

PLATE

r YAE:

S

~~

£

Fic. 1. “ The Boxers”; Relief, Eric Gill.

Fic. 2.

“Susannah”;

Frank Dobson.

(By permission of: 1. Ernest Benn Lid.

2 and 3. The Sculptor.

cts

pii dia ms tt tie

Fic. 3. Portrait of the Artist’s Mother;

lic. 4. “* Two Natures of Man”’; George G. Barnard. 4. Museum

of Art, New

York.

I,

I. MeStrovic.

PLATE II.

SCUL

Fic. 5. Lord Fisher; J. Epstein.

PTURE

Fic. 6. ‘‘ Head of a Woman”’; A. Maillol. Fic. 7. “ Little Brother ”’; P. Manship (Detroit Museum of Art). Fic. 8. ‘* The Kneeling Woman ’’; W. Lehmbriick,

(By permission of: Fig, 5. Imperial War Museum, London.

Copyright of the sculptor.

Fig. 7. The sculptor.

Fig. 8, Photo,

P. Cassirer, Berlin

SCULPTURE Jo Davidson, Arthur Lee, Malvinia Hoffmann and two artists of English origin, Leonard Craske and John Gregory, fulfil all the canons of academic art. A foreign temperament is discernible in the vigorous work of the Czechoslovak, Albin Polásek. Among the many sculptors of animals are Hunt Diederich, Heinz Warneke (who has carved some admirable figures in brass), Laura Gardin Fraser, Edith Barretto Parsons and Herbert Heseltine (who exhibited in London in 1925). Grace Mott Johnson has made reliefs of animals which have some of the charm of primitive sculpture.

III. FRANCE Although Rodin did not die until 1917, his work is eminently that of the 19th century in its treatment of plastic forms. A man of immense genius, he made the rejuvenation of sculpture possible and yet at the same time the very facility of his art rendered this rejuvenation more difficult. In the large collection of his works which he gave to the British nation in 1914, and which is now in the Victoria and Albert Museum the two main aspects of his sculpture are clearly visible. The “Age of Bronze” has the quality of cubical content and repose common to all great work; the “ Prodigal Son,” in its restlessness and broken outline, is of a type only too frequent in modern art. Much recent sculpture on both sides of the Channel has been influenced by this easier, ephemeral side of Rodin’s art—helped by the skilled bronze founders of France. Maillol and Bourdelle—Aristide Maillol (b. 1861) studied painting at the Ecole des Beaux Arts, coming later under the influence of Gauguin and the Post-Impressionists. By the production of numberless figures of women in various materials he has

arrived at a type of static beauty combined with an architectural unity of structure which gives him a foremost place among living sculptors. Rodin’s figures are shown at a moment of critical intensity, Maillol’s have a restfulness and dignity devoid of all passion. Rodin with his enormous technical skill overstrains his material to capture some fleeting aspect of the emotions; with Maillol the figure and the material grow together and result in an architectural beauty and intelligibility of form closely akin to the monuments of the Egyptians. Among his larger figures the “Pomona” in the Morosoff Museum at Moscow and the dainty “ Flora ” are typical of the static quality of his art, and even in the works in which movement is involved—such as the well-known relief of “ Two Lovers ” and his large bronze figure ‘‘ Action Bound ’—the repose and monumental quality are not sacrificed. A few of Maillol’s works were shown in the Matisse exhibition at the Leicester Galleries in 1919; among them was his first terra-cotta sketch of a reclining woman for the memorial to Cézanne to be placed in the Garden of the Tulleries. His later works include a war memorial at Banyuls-sur-Mer and a bronze torso exhibited in 1923. A third artist whose works have had a great influence on modern French sculpture is Emile Antoine Bourdelle (b. 1861 at Montauban). As a young man he became attracted by Rodin, with whom he remained for a number of years. His early work was strongly influenced by his master, but gradually he evolved

good example.

489 His larger works include a half-length granite

figure “ The Prayer,” ‘‘ The Voice,” also in granite, in the Lyons Museum, and a monument to Michel Servet. The Expressionisis.—With the works of Archipenko, Lipschitz and Brancousi we approach a type af sculpture utterly different from all that had preceded it. It has little or no relation to nature, and must be judged purely from the emotional! or aesthetic effect which it has on the spectator. Alexander Archipenko, a Russian, is the greatest exponent of this “‘ expressionist’? school. His earlier works, such as the bronze torso of 1909 and his plaster group “ Two Women ” (1912), have qualities which identify his aims with those of Gaudier-Brzeska in England. His “‘sculpturepaintings ’’—uniting form with colour in the manner of Egyptian bas-reliefs, and his “ non-being ”’ sculpture, are experiments in purely abstract art which have a strange aesthetic appeal. Other important figures are the marble torso of a woman (1913) in the National Gallery of Berlin and a bronze figure of a woman (1921) in the Rotterdam Museum. Archipenko has had schools in Paris and Berlin and is now settled in New York. With him may be

grouped the Russian, Jacques Lipschitz (b. 1891) and Henri Laurens. A typical work by Lipschitz is his panel of “ Musical Instruments ” (19109). It is an axiom of modern sculpture that form should be influenced by the material. But many of the most advanced sculptors consider that materials have their own forms and individual characters, and should therefore not be given a resemblance to something that nature has created in another material. This is exemplified in the art of Constantin Brancousi, a Rumanian working in Paris. Three works which were shown at the Chenil Galleries, Chelsea, London, in 1925 were especially noteworthy for their beautiful technical qualities. IV. OTHER

COUNTRIES

Germany.—Although in the roth century German sculpture had become involved in the morass which had engulfed the art in all European countries, yet the tradition of craftsmanship which had always been the distinguishing feature of German art enabled it to develop, more quickly than in any other country, a modernist style of its own. The earlier lead given by Hildebrand (d. 1921) was eagerly followed by numbers of young artists encouraged by the foundation of the Berlin Sezession in 1899. The colossal “ Battle of the Nations” monument at Leipzig, which was

completed by the Bohemian, Franz Metzner (1870-1919), in 1912, is a typical development of Hildebrand’s theories of archttectural sculpture. The influence of Rodin is evident in the early figures of George Kolbe—for example, the ‘‘ Dancer” (1912) and the Heine monument (1913) at Frankfort-on-the-Main. His style becomes more formal] in his later work, two examples of which, the ““ Water Nymph ” (1920) and the “ Portrait of a Russian Girl ”’ (1925), were shown at the 29th exhibition of the International Society held at the Royal Academy in 1925. Maillel, rather than Rodin, is the inspiration in the work of the Swiss Hermann Haller, Ernesto de Fiori (b. 1881, the son of an Italian fatherand a German mother) and, toa lesser degree, Karl] Albiker. The ‘ Kneeling Man ” (1921r) in the Berlin National Gallery

a more monumental and less emotional style, reminiscent rather

is typical of Haller’s work. In the sculpture of De Fiori can be

of the work of Dalou. His reliefs for Perret’s Théâtre des Champs Elysées (1912-3), with their extraordinary fertility of invention and power of design, were a new step in the direction of architectural decoration, paralleled only by Epstein in England and Metzner in Germany. His more recent works are the monument to the Polish poet Mickiewicz (1917), the figure of ‘‘ The Virgin and Child ” (1920-2) erected on the Vosges and the colossal monument to the Argentine general Alvear (1923). Charles Despiau and Joseph Bernard, in their search for sculptural harmony, may be regarded as followers of Maillol. Despiau has made a number of heads which have at times the quality of Roman portraits or the charm of the Florentine renaissance. Bernard is chiefly known by a number of statuettes and groups,

seen the struggle between the southern and northern elements of his mixed parentage. The bronze figures of a “ Standing Man ” (1917-8) at Hamburg and a “ Woman ” (1919) at Bremen have a vivid sense of surface modelling superimposed on a construction almost primitive in its starkness. In the “ Walking Man ” he attacks again the same problem of action so successfully overcome by Rodin in his “ St. John the Baptist ” 40 years earlier. Although in point of date a contemporary of these artists, Wilhelm Lehmbruck (1881-1919) shows yet another stage on the road towards the ‘“‘ absolute ” sculpture of the present day. In his large “ Kneeling Woman ” at Berlin (1911), Mannheim and elsewhere, in spite of the elongated and attenuated figures, he has attained great rhythmic beauty of form; in “ The Thinker ” at Berlin the function of thought has become spiritualised. Among his last works are a monument to the fallen (1915-6) and a seated figure of a naked man now placed on the Ehrenfriedhof

such as his “ Girl with a Pitcher ” (1912) in the Luxembourg and

his “ Woman and Child Dancing.” Among his sculpture en luille directe the marble “ Singer ” in the Grenoble Museum is a

490

SCULPTURE

at Duisburg, the sculptor’s birthplace. Fritz Huf (b. 1888 at Lucerne), who owes much to his early training as a goldsmith, may be regarded as a follower of Ernesto de Fiori and Lehmbruck. The influence of Maillol is again to be seen in the earlier figure of Bernhard Hoetger (b. 1875), but his later work has many of the characteristics of negro art. The modernist movement is carried further by his pupil Emy Roeder in her series of figures of women—‘S Puberty ” (1918), ‘‘ The Moorlander ” (1919), ‘* Pregnancy ” (1919) and her group of ‘‘ Two Horses ” (1919)—and by Milly Steger in her graceful dancing figure “‘ Jephtha’s Daughter.” The later works of Ilerbert Garbe, such as his two groups of “ Death ” (1919) and his “ Eros ” (1920), show little of the spirit of Maillol which imbued his earlier figures, and in his naked man ‘Upward ” the emancipation from classical art is complete. Ernest Barlach works almost entirely in wood, and has carved a number of reliefs and figures of Russian peasants and beggars,

which show strong characterisation combined with extraordinary sense of movement. Kurt Edzard has executed many female figures in terra-cotta and bronze showing the influence both of Rodin and Maillol. ‘ The Bather ” and the life-sized figure “ Nuna,” both of 1923, have a strange Individual sense of plastic beauty. Among the modern experimenters in the principles of abstract art are Hermann Obrist, Karl Hermann, Oswald Herzog, Wiliam Wauer and Rudolf Belling. Yugostavia.—Ivan MeStrovié (q.v.) studied in Vienna, and the influence of the Secession and Metzner is obvious in his work. He obtained universal recognition at the Rome international exhihition in ror, and later at the war-time exhibition held at the Victoria and Albert Museum in 1915, and his large scrics of figures in connection with a projected temple at Kosovo seemed to indicate a new force in European sculpture. In all these works, of which the portrait of the artist’s mother is a typical example, there is the feeling of seriousness, even depression, so common to the Slav temperament; but the technical skill, depth of religious sentiment and patriotism—which are the keynote of his carly work—are undeniable. With the proclamation of Yugoslav unity in 1918 the religious and patriotic influences have become less insistent, and his later works seem to point towards the development of a freer plastic conception. Toma Rosandić was born at Split (Spalato) in 1878, the son of a marble mason. He studied for two years in Venice, and later worked at Vienna with Meštrović, who exercised a great iniluence on his art. He exhibited at Zagreb in 1910 and at Rome in 1911, and became known to the British public by his exhibitions at the Grafton Galleries in 1917-8, Edinburgh in 1918 and Brighton in 1919. The majority of his early works were destroyed at Belgrade during the War. An important feature of his later work is the series of large figures cut in wood, in which he shows great technical powers, and a certain charm and sculptural feeling which is at times absent in the work of his more famous compatriot. Italy —Up to within comparatively recent years the influence of classical art and its derivative, the sculpture of the Renaissance, was paramount in Italy, as may be seen from the groups connected with the colossal Victor Emanuel If. monument (tors) at Rome. The work of the younger men, which Js little known in this country, shows the divergent iniluences of Rodin and the Viennese school, but there are few exponents in “ expressionist ”’ sculpture.

Among the more important sculptors of religious subjects are Ermenegildo Luppi (whose “ Pieta ” was one of the most impressive works in the Rome exhibition of 1921), Corrado Vigni, Guido Calori, Nino Galizzi, Giovanni Manzoni and Libero Andreotti. Andreotti also excels as a portraitist. Amleto Cataldi exhibited a number of works in Paris in 1923, from which his

figure “ Girl Combing Her Hair ” was acquired for the Luxembourg. Adolfo Wildt has made portrait busts with strongly simplified planes, of which that of Mussolini is characteristic; by him is a charming symbolic marble relief of “ The Virgin with Three Children.” The animal sculptors include Sirio Tofanari, Rembrandt Bugatti and Renato Brozzi. Important works have also been produced by Antonio Maraini and Giuseppe Graziosi (both of whom exhibited extensively in the Venice exhibition of 1924),

Nicola d’Antino, Michele de Benedetti, Attilio Selva, Claudio Botta and L. de Stefanis. Belgium.—Joris Minne (b. 1866 at Ghent) was trained at the Ghent Academy, at Brussels under van der Stappen and at Paris. His early works—such as “ The Fountain with Five Kneeling Youths,” the “‘ Bricklayer ” and the Volders monument—had a mystic idealism and a sculptural feeling which was rare in a world accustomed to the florid realism of Meunier. In his more recent figure of a “ Young Man Holding a Shell ” and various figures of ‘ The Virgin and Child,” the starkness and tendency to abstraction shown in his first works has been modified, with a resultant rhythm which is reminiscent of the figures of Maillol. A complete contrast to Minne’s severe sculpture is that of Rik Wouters (1886-1916), whose early death, one of the tragedies of the War, was a great loss to Belgian art. His work ts essentially modern, and is marked by a bold and vigorous execution. Among his portraits, those of the painter James Ensor, “ M. H. Elslander ” and “ Madame G.,” are important. Other young sculptors whose work is worthy of mention include Ernest Wynants, who worked with Wouters, Josef Cantré, Oscar Jespers, Dolf Ledel, Schirren, De Kat and Gustave Fontaine. The Netherlands —An important feature of modern sculpture in the Netherlands is the success with which it has been utilised in architectural decoration and the strongly nationalist art which has been evolved. J. Mendes da Costa and Hendrik Albert van den Eijnde may be regarded as the originators of this style—the latter being more especially concerned with architectural sculpture. Tjipke Visser, J. C. Altorf and L. Bolle—followers of Mendes da Costa—have made some interesting animal studies. Visser has also executed a large number of statuettes and has exhibited at all the European art centres. In his work for the Scheepvaarthuis at Amsterdam (1915-6), for which he made nine granite figures, Van den Eijnde was assisted by Theo van Reijn, who decorated the Polytechnic high school (1921) and other buildings at Delft. Hildo Krop—whose work approaches that of GaudierBrzeska more nearly than that of any other Dutch sculptor—and Jan van Lunteren have done important work on public buildings at The Hague and Rotterdam. By the former sculptor are the Albert Hahn monument at Amsterdam (1919) and the marble clock for the Rotterdam Town Hall (1920). Lambertus Zijl also shows in his architectural sculpture the features to be found in the best modern Dutch work—a strong feeling for decorative forms combined with a treatment almost cubist in the simplicity of its planes. Among other sculptors are Johan Raedecker, Herman Frederik Bieling, Bernard Richters, Gijs Jacobs van den Hof, Adrianus Remiëns and Johan Polet. Denmark.—Foremost among the younger sculptors of Denmark is Einar Utzon-Frank, professor of sculpture at the Royal Academy at Copenhagen. Some of his works were included in the exhibition of Danish art held at Brighton in 1912, and a larger selection was shown at the Leicester Galleries in 1924. Most typical of his art are the small bronze figures of women, call the work of Joseph Bernard, as also do those of Bjerg, Mrs. Old Wagner and Willie Wulff. Kai Nielsen a number of large groups for Copenhagen. The figures Rathsack are more academic, and in his figure, (1914) he shows considerable sculptural ability. J. Jensen has modelled a number of animal groups.

which reJohannes has made by Svend ‘ Adam ” P. Dahl-

BIBLIOGRAPITY.—General W. Radenberg, Afoderne Plastik (1912); R. Bosselt, Probleme plastischer Kunst und des Kunstunterrichts (1919); L. Taft, Modern

Tendencies in Sculpiure

(1921); A. Kuhn,

Die neuere Plastik von Achtzehnhundert bis zur Gegenwart (1922); K. Parkes, Sculpture of To-day, 2 vol. (1921); C. R. Post, History of European and American Sculpture (1921); Modern British Sculpture, an olficial record of some of the works by members of the Royal Society of British Sculptors (1922); F. M. Huebner, Nieuwe Hollandsche Beeldhouwkunst (1922); C. Laurin, E. Hannover and J. Thiis, Scandinavian Art (1922); A. Adams, The Spirit of American Sculpture (1923); Catalogue of Exhibition of American Sculpture held by the Natural Sculpture Society (1923); P. Westheim, Architektonik des Plastischen (1923); S. Cheney, A Primer of Modern Art (1924); E. Gill, Sculpture, an Essay on Stone-cuiting (192.4); J. W.

McSpadden, Famous Sculptors of America, with bibliography (1924); M. Sauerlandt, Deutsche Bildhauer um 1900 von Hildebrand bis Lehmbruck (1925).

SEAP

Fic. 1. Fairey “Titania” Seaplane.

LANES

Fic. 2. Blackburn ‘‘ Velos’”’ Torpedo-carrying Seaplane. Fic. 4. Curtiss Seaplane (Winner of 1925 Schneider Cup).

PLATE I.

Fic. 3. Fairey III D Seaplane.

Courtesy of Fairey Aviation Co. (Figs. 1 and 3); Blackburn Aeroplane & Motor Co. (Fig. 2); “Aero Digest” (Fig. 4).

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rendered four of the forts untenable.

Meanwhile the Belgians,

assisted by men of the Royal Naval Division, had entrenched a position on the line of the rivers Nethe and Rupel, some two miles in rear of the forts. Several attacks were made on these field defences, and it was not until Oct. 6 that the Germans were able to cross the Nethe. The city was now open to bombardment, and the majority of the defenders having been withdrawn across the Schelde the city surrendered on the oth. Here again the armoured forts were unable to resist the fire of the heavy howitzers and

fell in three days, while the hasty defences of the Nethe were able to hold out for six. Permanent Defences of Northeastern France-—These were planned by- General Seré de Rivière in 1874 in three main positions—the first close to the German frontier consisting of the linked fortresses of Verdun-Toul and Épinal-Belfort, with two premeditated gaps, one to the north, the Trouée de Stenay (20 m. wide), between Verdun and the forest of the Ardennes, and the other the Trouée de Charmes (30 m. wide) between Toul and Epinal. Behind these were the La Fére-Laon-Reims line, with the escarpment of Epernay-Nogent and the fortresses of Langres

and Dijon to the south; and finally the defences of Paris itself, The northern frontier was protected by the neutrality of Belgium, but as this was one of the historic lines of invasion into the rich

SIEGECRAFT

540

AND

industrial areas of Flanders and Artois it was considered that Lille, Valenciennes, Maubeuge and Mézières should be strengthened and their intervals covered by inundations and detached forts—Flines, Hirson, etc. In addition, certain barrier forts, as Longwy and Manonvillers, were reorganised or built. However, in 1912 it was decided not to maintain the fortresses of the second line La Fére-Laon-Reims or the detached forts on the Belgian frontier. Dijon and Langres were already third class, and Lille on April 3 1914 was declared open, only to be reclassed as a fortress on Aug. 21 and again declared an open town three days later. The defences of the Verdun-Toul zone, which were the most modern on the French fortresses, were organised in depth with two or three lines of works in which the forts formed centres of resistance. With the exception of an occasional 75 mm. or 155 mm. gun in a steel cupola for direct fire, and “ traditore ” guns in Bourges casemates for the defence of the flanks, the artillery was situated outside and in rear of the forts. The forts themselves were generally small—Vaux was designed for a garrison of 150 men. They contained concreted underground galleries and casemates protected by masonry arches three ft. thick, with a three ft. cushion of sand between them and the main protective layer of eight ft. of concrete, and were enclosed by ditches 30 it. wide and 20 ft. deep, which were in turn flanked by fire from concrete counterscarp casements.

The existence of the fortified zone on the Franco-German frontier undoubtedly exerted a profound influence on the German plan of invasion. Moltke, ina memorandum written in 1912 on the subject of the violation of Belgian neutrality, which is quoted by Ludendorff, remarked that an advance through Belgium was likely to be more successful than an attack on the French fortified zone, which would degenerate into fortress warfare, cause great delay and lower the offensive spirit and initiative of the army. General von Kuhl, in Der Marne Feldzug, also states that ‘ even the fortresses which were not attacked exercised a great influence on the operations. The existence of the line Verdun-Toul, Epinal-Belfort forced us to undertake the invasion of Belgium.” While the main German attack was from the north, preparations for a subsidiary advance through the Trouée de Charmes were made by the reduction of the barrier fort of Manonvillers. This concreted fort with its steel cupolas and casemates was reduced in two days to ruins by the fire of the heavy German

howitzers.

The main zones Verdun-Toul and Epinal-Belfort,

however, though they formed pivots for the successful defence of the Trouée de Charmes, were not seriously threatened. Later, during the battle of the Marne, the centre of the Verdun-Toul line between the forts of Troyon and Liouville was violently attacked. Troyon, flanked by fire’from Fort Genicourt, held but the Germans succeeded in capturing the fort Du Camp des Romains and secured a crossing over the Meuse at St. Mihiel. This gap, however, was too narrow to be of further use. Maubeuge.—On the northern frontier the only French fortress subjected to siege was Maubeuge. With a garrison of 40,000 men of low category, with few guns, and with defences completely out of date as shown during Gen. Fournier’s trial, the fortress

held out for 11 days. This was largely due to the energy of the commander, who from the first day of mobilisation employed every available man on constructing a system of field defences and wire obstacles, providing communications and collecting supplies. On Aug. 25 the town was invested, and three days later the heavy artillery bombardment began. Energetic sorties by the garrison kept the besiegers at a distance and compelled

them to reinforce their troops. By Sept. 5 the bombardment had rendered the defences on half the perimeter useless and the defenders began to be pressed back. Desperate fighting continued for the next two days and the town finally capitulated on the 7th. This delay was of the greatest value to the Allies. Strong German forces were absent from the Marne and the blocking of the important line of railway made the supply of Von Kluck’s army a matter of great difficulty. Verdun.—The comparatively rapid and shattering fall of the Belgian fortresses in 1914 caused a complete revulsion against

SIEGE WARFARE the use of permanent fortification.

It was considered that under

the fire of heavy modern artillery the demolition of fixed defences was a foregone conclusion. Instructions were therefore issued by the French command that reliance was to be placed on continuous zones of field defences, and that any permanent forts were to be incorporated in these zones, their permanent garrisons abolished, armament that would be of use in the field removed, and any clements remaining which might be of use to the enemy prepared for demolition. It was under these conditions that Verdun was attacked on Feb. 21 1916. The lines of trenches and field defences which had been established some 4 m. beyond the outer forts were thinly held. Under the cover of an intense bombardment by weapons of all calibres up to 17 In., the main attack was launched on the east bank of the Meuse. After four days’ bitter

fighting the line was pushed back about four m. and Fort Douaumont, undefended, was occupied by the Germans. On the following day, in view of the possibility that Fort Vaux might shortly fall into the hands of the enemy, orders were issued for its com-

plete demolition. These, however, could not be carried out, as it was fourd that a 17-in. shell had destroyed the electric cables and means of firing the charges. Meanwhile, it had been discovered that the concrete casemates and cupolas of the modern forts had suffered little damage in spite of the violent and persistent bombardment by shells up to 17-inch. General Pétain, who assumed command on Feb. 26, therefore ordered the forts to be reoccupied, put in the best state of defence possible at the time and the demolition charges removed. The intervals between the forts were also to be held to prevent any infiltration. Lt.-Col. Tournes, in an article in the Revue Mil. Française of May and June 1923, vividly describes his experiences while holding Fort Vaux, emphasises the great value of the protected observation posts and shell and shockproof casemates, and deplores the lack of any telephonic communication, subterranean passages to the rear and the absence of the flanking guns which had been removed from the Bourges casemates. After months of heavy fighting Verdun was successfully held. The permanent forts with their shell-proof casemates and protected observation posts had proved their value as a part of the trench zone, and had probably saved many casualties. On the other hand, purely field defences such as those of Mort Homme, sited in equally important natural positions,

resisted the fiercest attack for many weeks, and exacted an even greater toll of lives before they fell. Defences of the German Western Frontiers In 1870 Moltke wrote: ‘‘ The most powerful defence is a network of good railways, and the best protection of these railways is the offensive.” However, in 1895, Von Schlieffen, whose plan it was to invade France through Belgium, considered it necessary for the success of his plan to have in Alsace-Lorraine a pivot of manoeuvre which could be held with the minimum of troops and strong enough to withstand any attack by the French. Metz and Strasbourg were therefore strengthened, and in 1900 their radius of action increased. At the same time the defences of Metz were extended 25 m. northwards along the Moselle to connect with Thionville, while 10 m. west of Strasbourg the new fortress of Mutzig was built to close the road over the Vosges across the Col de Saales. In these defences a new form of fortified work known as the “‘ feste ’’ appeared. This, as its name indicates, is rather a self-contained fortress on a small scale than a fort in the old sense. The *“ festes ’’ built just prior to 1914 covered a large irregular arca some 1,200 yd. in depth and width. Within their wired perimeter were sited all the elements of the defence both for infantry and artillery. Strong self-contained infantry works were situated at each of the salient angles; while the batteries (generally 6-in. howitzers and 4-in. guns) were dispersed within the area with their weapons in revolving steel cupolas embedded in concrete. Ditches 20 ft. deep, wired at the bottom and flanked by loopholed galleries, protected the outer face of the infantry works. Each battery and work was surrounded by wire, and the main perimeter wire sunk 6 ft. deep and flanked by the redoubts. There were numerous steel and concrete command and observation posts for the artillery and infantry, and casemates protected by 9 ft. of concrete were provided for the whole garrison. Deep underground galleries and a complete telephone system connected the various parts of the “‘feste.”

SIEGECRAFT

AND

These ‘“‘ festes ’? were never subjected to the test of war, but the fortifications of Thionville-Metz fulfilled their réle as a pivot

of manoeuvre and prevented any French advance while the great wheel from the northward was being carried out.

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German-A ustrian- Russian Frontier —The fortresses of Poland and Galicia differed from those of France and Belgium in that they were purely ring fortresses, designed to hold the few and therefore very important road and railway junctions of Poland.

Of these Modlin (Nowo-Georgiewsk) was invested and rapidly fell by siege, Brest-Litovsk and Grodno fell as parts of the battle line, Deblin ([wangorod) was evacuated by the threat of an encircling movement, while Przemyśl alone was successful in withstanding a siege. In Sept. 1914 the Austrians, driven back in Galicia, left a garrison of about 60,000 men in the fortress. The defences consisted of 65 forts of the early Brialmont pattern (1854) disposed on a perimeter of 35 miles. The concrete was thin and few shelters were capable of

withstanding 6-in. howitzers. During the first months of the War, however, trenches protected by strong wire entanglements had been dug in the advanced positions and in the intervals between the forts. Przemysl, invested by the Russians on Sept. 24, held out against vigorous attacks for three weeks until relieved, caused the attackers

70,000 casualties and detained 250,000 men from the main Russian offensive. In the interval between the first and second sicgcs,

ammunitions and rations for 2} months were brought into the town. On Nov. 4 the fortress was again invested by a force of 84 Russian divisions, but without super-heavy artillery. The defenders, by a very active defence and constant sorties, held out for 43 months, until the last ounce of food, including 21,000 horses, had been eaten and all the ammunition expended. On March 22 1915, having blown up all the guns and the greater part of the works, the defenders sur-

rendered. They had caused the besiegers heavy casualties, blocked the communications of the main Russian Army, and detained a force of twice their own number. Przemyśl, now held by the Russians,

was attacked a third time on May 14 1915. The principal forts which had been demolished in March had not been repaired, and ammuni-

tion was lacking. The Austro-German Army brought up 12-in. and 17-in. howitzers and bombarded the defences. By the 31st the ruins _ of the three northern forts were captured, and the Russians, removing their guns, stores and ammunition, withdrew.

The value of both ficld defences and an active defence is clearly brought out in the first two sieges, while the overwhelming power of superheavy artillery is shown in the third. On the German

frontier the fortresses of the Vistula—Torun (Thorn) and Grau-

SIEGE WARFARE

541

denz,—were neverattacked. Of the forward line, however, Kénigsberg held two Russian army corps from the battle of Tannenberg; and the small fortress of Létzen, with a strong line of field defences, flanked by the lakes, never gave way. Trench Sysicms.—While fortresses and permanent works were falling into disrepute, and the forts gradually merged into the ficld defences, the continuous trench lines of the Western Front were assuming the aspect of a fortress. The German WotanSiegfried (Hindenburg) lines were deliberately planned, with concrete machine-gun and observation posts, masses of wire, deep trenches, tunnelled communications and dug-outs, and were essentially a part of the fortress of Germany besieged by the Allies. A properly organised trench system, having depth and well placed wire and machine-guns, provided its flanks were secure, was found capable of resisting the strongest attacks even after a heavy bombardment. This was the case in all theatres of war, whether in France, Gallipoli or Mesopotamia. The old methods of siege warfare, attack from parallels with bomb and mortar, sap and mine, were therefore revived, and it was not until the advent of anew weapon—the tank—and the arrival of unlimited artillery ammunition that these defences were definitely overcome. The resistance of these field defences to shell fire due to their dispersion and concealment was remarkable. Of their elements, two stand out as of the greatest value—the concrete “ pillbox ” or machine-gun emplacement and the deep dugout, the one as a protection for the weapons which were required to fire at short notice and the other for command centres and the counterattack reserves. Effect of Bombardment on Forts —The difference in the degree of resistance to shell fire shown by the various forts is remarkable. Manonvillers, though not entirely modern with its two steel cupolas, disappearing 6-in. guns and casemates protected by 8 ft. of ordinary concrete, became a blazing inferno under the rain of 17,000 shells directed upon it. The garrison, after two days, blinded by the dust and fragments, asphyxiated by the fumes of the constantly bursting shells and almost demented by the concussion, were rendere} quite incapable of defending the fort,

which was captured by the Germans without the loss of a single man. The forts of Liége and Namur similarly, when subjected to the concentrated fire of 17-in. howitzers, were soon rendered untenable; casemates were penetrated, cupolas overturned and the whole structure reduced to ruins. On the other hand, the more modern forts of Verdun appeared to have withstood the heaviest bombardments without vital damage. French writers claim that of the steel gun cupolas orly one was permanently destroyed. Forts Moulainville and Vacherauville received 6,000

to 8,000 shells, each of which, in the case of Moulainville 330, were 17-1n., Without permanent damage to casemates or turrets. In Fort Vaux the only cupola that was destroyed was one from which the demolition charges laid by the French had not been removed. These charges were detonated by a German shell. The difference in the performance of the forts was due to the higher quality of the French concrete, which was mixed with a large proportion of cement and laid with the greatest care to ensure that the masses were monolithic without lines of cleavage. Also to the great thickness and to the large masses which are necessary to withstand the overturning ard disruptive effects of bombardment. The French cupolas had 30 cm. thickness of steel compared with the 22 cm. of the Belgian and German ones. The Belgian forts were large, crowded and conspicuous targets; they contained guns of the main artillery armament and were sited on commanding positions. In spite of the lessons of Port Arthur, they were only built to withstand shells up to 8-inch. The Italian barrier forts in the battle of the Isonzo failed because their armour and concrete were not sufficiently thick and there was no protection against gas, while the small Austrian works in the south of the Tirol, although bombarded by 12-in. howitzers, held out for months. II. PRINCIPLES

OF

MODERN

FORTIFICATION

Value of Permanent Works.—From the lessons of the value of permanent works in the War there have grown two schools of

542

SIEGECRAFT

AND

thought. On the one hand it may be argued that the fortresses on the Franco-German frontier completely justified the money expended on them. By their existence they forced Germany to violate the neutrality of Belgium and so brought the British Empire against her. The more modern forts proved their ability to resist bombardment by the heaviest shells and saved many casualties. Verdun as a pivot of a battle line was of incalculable value during the decisive battle of the Marne, and later as a bastion in the trench system. Liége, in spite of its comparatively rapid fall, gained the Allies at least four days, enabled the French V. Army to change front and the British to comeinto line. Antwerp kept two German corps from the decisive front, and ‘every day gained at Antwerp meant a French port saved.” Maubeuge, Przemyśl, Königsberg all detained important forces from the battles of the Marne, Cracow and Tannenberg. Strasbourg and Metz-Thionville fulfilled their rôle as the immovable pivot for the great German wheel. The expenditure on keeping these fortresses up to date was not great. The average annual amount spent on the defence of Verdun and the heights of the Meuse for the 4o years prior to the War was £200,000, 7.e., less than the cost of a destroyer; while the total spent on Metz was about equal to the cost of a modern battleship. Battleships are not expected to last more than 12 to 15 years; they are then considered obsolete, and replaced. | The other school of thought point out that the inherent weakness of fortresses is in their immobility. Once built they remain, and when war comes may not be in the right place. They contravene many of the important principles of war—offensive action, surprise and mobility. Their position and extent is accurately known. They rapidly fall out of date and are expensive and difficult to renew. Apart from the expense involved, their reconstruction is a heavy feat of engineering, and not only takes time but frequently renders them useless for the period of the repairs. In ror4 four of the principal works of Belfort were out of action as they were being rebuilt. New weapons for their destruction are rapidly invented and made. Manonvillers, Liége, Namur and Modlin (Nowo-Georgiewsk) were destroyed with ease and rapidity. Reliance based on the security afforded by fortresses may be a delusion. Of the three great entrenched camps of Antwerp, Paris and Bucharest, designed as a refuge for the Government and Army, not one performed its rôle. Antwerp, on which much money had been expended—and therefore considered by the Belgian nation as up-to-date, was given up by the field army and Government as soon as it became a question of withstanding a siege or continuing the war in the open. Bucharest was surrended as the result of a battle in the foreground; while Paris, though it held as a part of the battle line, was evacuated by the Government. Field defences, by their concearment, dispersion and facility for rapid renewal, are just as effective for defence as permanent fortification. It was not the permanent forts of Verdun and Przemyśl but the trench lines of the advanced positions and intervals that stopped the enemy. At Verdun the important tactical position of Mort Homme, defended by nothing but field defences, held out against the heaviest bombardments and attacks for six weeks, and caused the attackers terrible casualties. The expenditure is undoubtedly great, and the money could be more profitably spent on the field army, since if the field army is overwhelmed the fortresses must fall. The answer probably lies between these two points of view, and the line taken will depend on the situation of the country which has to solve the problem. For France and Poland, in close proximity to powerful and potential enemies, the matter is an actuality; while for Great Britain or the United States, except in regard to coast defence, it borders the realm of theory. Fortresses are expensive and slow to build; if they fail to gain the time they were calculated to gain, or require for their defence more men than the enemy would require to mask or neutralise them, they have been built in vain. It is the difficulty of estimating the time that fortresses are likely to hold out against the un-

known weapons of the future that makes their value doubtful. For it will always be easier to make new guns or other weapons

SIEGE WARFARE to overcome the protection than to increase the thickness of armour or concrete.

There are, however, occasions when material defensive preparations in peace time will have to be made and areas held for military, industrial or political reasons. Munitions play so vital a part in modern war that the retention of certain areas of manufacture or supply may be essential. In other places, where for purely military reasons it might be wiser to withdraw and de-

molish the communications, public opinion may insist on a forward position being held. Again, the effect of the systematic destruction of industrial areas by an invader is now so great that victory even cannot efface all trace of his presence. Every effort will therefore be made to fight on enemy’s ground. But to protect areas until the effect of the offensive is felt, and to economise men so that the striking force is at a maximum, some form of permanent fortification built in peace will at times and in certain places be required. The question is, What form will it take? Ring Fortresses Obsolete —From the lessons of the War it appears that ring fortresses are doomed. It was not Verdun the ring fortress, but Verdun as a solid bastion of the battle line, that resisted all assaults. The immense perimeter now necessary as a protection against long-range guns requires a vast garrison, and for the ammunition and supply of this garrison for any length of time railway communication must be kept open. Moreover, an extended perimeter is no protection against bombing aircraft. There are, however, rare occasions when for political considerations it may be necessary to hold a ring fortress for a limited but definite time. In the northern salient of Poland it is conceivable

that the Poles for political reasons alone might wish to retain command of Wilno (Vilna), while withdrawing from the salient until their field army was mobilised and ready to take the field. Zone fortification has its uses, but the maintenance of an unbroken front depends on the security of the flanks. Where a position is long and open, its defence by a continuous zone is impracticable. But when the flanks are secure, as with the Chatalja lines of Constantinople or on the Viborg Isthmus between Lake Ladoga and the Gulf, a fortified zone is of great value. In other cases defensive curtains or limited zones of defence may be essential to delay and impede an enemy’s advance; but when these zones are turned and surrounded they will be of no further use. Some form of parabolic front of defence may, therefore, delay this end. For the same reasons the construction of barrier positions in undeveloped or mountainous countries, combined with a complete destruction of communications in front of the positions, may be advisable. The difficulty and time taken to bring up heavy artillery for their reduction would enable them to justify their réle of delaying action. Had the Rumanians fortified the passes of the Carpathians before or directly after their declaration of war, the German attack of Nov. 1916 might have failed. Butifin the future anti-aircraft artillery is unable to prevent accurate acrial bombing, the use of barrier positions will be further restricted. The devastation of zones and communications will, however, remain a powerful weapon of defence. This can seldom be carried out in industrial arcas, but in less developed countries or where communications are restricted thorough and complete demolitions will cause a modern army considerable delay. The thorough demolition of a tunnel will take months to repair, and the delay caused will be greater than that affected by a barrier fort. In 19t8 the destruction of the roads and railways by the retreating German armies delayed the Allies more than their resistance; while the total destruction of the communications in the area between Maubeuge and the Ardennes in 1914 would have had far-reaching effects. The value of field defences, which can be rapidly made in accordance with the latest tactical ideas and sited in positions found most suitable at the time, is undoubtedly very great. With well sited and concealed machine-guns, anti-tank guns and ob- ` stacles, covered by the fire of artillery (itself protected by mobility and concealment), positions will have considerable powers of resistance. These will be increased if certain previous work can be carried out in peace time.

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Preparations in Peace Times.—The degree of material preparation attempted in peace time will vary considerably; but in all places where a defensive attitude is considered likely the most important means will be the preparation of complete plans and schemes of defence. The position of battle headquarters, observation posts, machine-guns, batteries with several alternative positions, infantry localities, lines of communication and zones of obstacles will be selected, and large scale maps prepared ready for issue. Arrangements will also be made for the work to be clone at the shortest notice, and for the defence schemes to be revised

and periodically brought up to date to keep pace with modern requirements. Where it is decided that for military, economic or political reasons some degree of permanent fortification in peace time is necessary, the limitation of military expenditure will control the amount that can be carried out. Within these limits the fol-

lowing will probably be considered :— (a) The provision of an obstacle against a ‘‘ coup de main ”’ carried out by cross country armoured vehicles. Waterways and inundations such as those of Fortress Holland or the Yser afford protection, while judicious afforestation would limit the lines of approach. Where these are lacking, ditches with one vertical face or minefields covered by fire would be required. (b) Arrangements for air defence, gun and searchlight emplacements, telephonic communications and sound-location installations. (c) The provision of observation posts for artillery, infantry and intelligence services—concealed, dispersed and protected by armour or concrete, with sufficient interior space for the observers to use their glasses and maps and remain in comfort for some hours at a time. (d) The provision of road, rail and tramway communications or improvement of existing ones, both laterally and from front to rear, in order to facilitate the rapid movement of troops, artillery, ammunition and stores. (e) The provision of a complete system of signal communication with cables buried eight feet deep, connecting all headquarters, observation posts, artillery positions, anti-aircraft defences, soundranging and flash-spotting posts. (f) Afforestation to give cover from aeroplane observation to facilitate surprise; and the control of building and planting so as to keep clear the field of fire or view. (g) Construction of shell-proof cover for command posts, signal offices, observation posts, artillery and machine-gun personnel and local reserves, either in mined dugouts 50 ft. deep or in conerete chambers. To give protection against bombardment by the heaviest weapons of the present day at least 6 ft. thickness of ferroconcrete is required, and large masses are necessary to mitigate the effect of concussion anc overturning. (k) Construction of subways 50 ft. deep to give protected communication from the rear to important infantry localities, and to connect up the various dugouts. Some of these subways would contain tramways, and their entrances and exits would be carefully concealed. (i) Arrangements for the electric lighting of all subways, dugouts and chambers, their gas-proofing and the supply of pure air. (j) Provision of landing grounde for aircraft kept free of obstructions and provided with sunken sites for hangars to minimise the lateral effect of air bombs. | (k) Organisations of important infantry tank-proof localities with obstacles, fire trenches and alternative and concealed machine-gun positions.

Whatever the form or degree of fortification adopted may be, one can seldom rely on the theory of complete protection, or say, like Pétain at Verdun, “ On ne passera pas.’

To gain time and

economise force are the objects of fortification, and the essence of defence lies in organisation, concealment, observation, communication and the stout hearts of well-armed men.

Ill. MILITARY

MINING

Mining in Trench Warfare-—Although no new methods had come to light, considerable experience had been gained as to the value and practice of mining during the siege of Port Arthur, and the conclusions reached up to 1910 are described in 10.716. At the commencement of the War the power of the heavy howitzers, which had so rapidly destroyed the Belgian forts, appeared to indicate that for the reduction of fortresses mining would be unnecessary. It soon, however, became evident that with the advent of position warfare, and the difficulty of making any advance above ground in the face of machine-guns and barbed wire, the

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attack of important localities by mining would be advantageous. Further, the opposing trench lines approached each other so closely thąt a bombardment of the hostile front trenches could not be carried out by either side without damage to their own. The tactical conditions, which resembled those of fortress warfare, being favourable, the Germans commenced mining in 1014, and by Dec. had exploded mines in several sectors along the front. As a result the Allies were compelled to countermine in reply. At first these mine systems were shallow—rarely being deeper than 20ft.—but by 1915 there were a great number of them, and special units and tunnelling companies were formed to carry out the work. For these R.E. units coalminers were enlisted, and the officers selected from those who had mining engineering experience in all parts of the world. In addition, for work in the clay areas, a number of specialists known as “ clay kickers ” were included. These men, working on their backs and supported on a board, could make rapid and silent progress by using their feet to push a special shovel into the clay. To co-ordinate the work along the whole front a mining staff was established and the advice of expert geologists obtained. By the middle of 1916 the British had 25,000 troops on underground work, and probably over 60,000 men were so employed on the Western Front. During 1915 and 1916 mining continued on an unprecedented scale, and deep systems down to 200 ft. were made. Mines were effectively used in the opening stages of the battle of the Somme, 1916, and some brilliant mine attacks were carried out by the French. A few instances of mining also occurred on the Italian front and in the Dardanelles campaign. It was, however, during the attack on the Messines ridge in 1917 that mining reached its greatest achievement. At 3:10 A.M. on June 7, on a front of 9 m., and within an interval of 30 sec. no less than 20 mines, containing 1,000,000 |b. of explosives, were detonated. The largest of these mines (at St. Eloi) was 125 ft. deep, took months to complete, and contained 43 tons of ammonal, while the earth shake was clearly felt at Cassel, 16 m. away. The use of these enormous mines, whose destructive effects could not be definitely foretold, wasa matter of some anxicty, but they were certainly successful. Ludendorff writes in his memoirs: ‘‘ We should have succeeded in retaining the position but for the exceptionally powerful mines used by the British which paved the way for the attack. . . . The moral effect of these explosions was simply staggering. At several points our troops fell back before the onslaught of the enemy's infantry.”

With the introduction of tanks and certain changes in the tactics of the defence, offensive and defensive mining declined. The tactical results obtained by mining had seldom been worth the labour, time and material expended, and when the front line was no longer strongly held mining objectives were lacking. The mining units were consequently employed on the provision of underground protection against the increasing bombardment by artillery and bombing aircraft. Deep dugouts for the protection of reserves, headquarters, signal offices, dressing stations, etc., and subways for underground communications were constructed. These subways, lighted by electricity, and containing water mains, telephone cables and tram lines, were of considerable extent. On the Vimy front there were 12 subways with a total length of 6 m., while east of Béthune it was possible to patrol four m. underground. Use was also made of the old underground quarries of Arras, which, provided with bunks, cookhouses, latrines, telephones, lighted with electricity and connected by subways to the front line, could accommodate 11,000 men. Technical Progress —Efforts to speed up the work at the mine face with the help of mechanical instruments have so far been unsuccessful. The labour and difficulty of disposing the spoil and concealing it from air observation make it essential that the gallerics should be small in section—¥4 ft. 10 in. by 2 ft. 9 in. the normal size. In this confined space it is difficult to use a machine, and reliance is still placed on the miner with his pick, shovel and grafting tool.

While the actual method of making mines has altered but little, considerable improvements have been made in instruments and

SIENKIEWICZ—SIGNALLING

544

accessories. The miner’s dial and “‘ dumpy level ” facilitate the accurate alignment and levelling of shafts and galleries. Light is provided by electricity, and ventilation improved by means of mechanical fans and blowers. Ammonal and other high explosives have replaced powder. For mine rescue work, to overcome the great danger of gas poisoning by carbon monoxide, Proto and Salvus sets are used; while mine stretchers enable a man to be dragged along a gallery and lifted out of a shaft. But perhaps the most Important advance is in the provision of listening apparatus. Two types are used—-the geophone, which works on the principle of the stethoscope, and the seismophone, which is an electrical detector. With two geophones the direction of the source of the sound can be obtained, while with seismophones (which do not give direction) one operator can listen in several galleries if they are connected up to the switchboard of a central listening chamber. BIBLIOGRAPHY. —General

Benoit,

La

fortification

permanente

pendant la guerre (1922); Revue du Génie Milttarre (Aug., Sept., Oct.

1922 and Oct. 1925). The Work of the Royal Engineers in the War 1To14—g, section ‘‘ Military Mining” (1922); R. P. Pakenham-Walsh, Royal Engineers Journal (Sept. 1923); Revue Militaire Française (May, June 1923, and May and June 1925). For German mining see M. Schwarte, Militarischen Lehren des Grossen Krieges, chap. 2 (1920). (E. II. K.

SIENKIEWICZ, HENRYK (1846-1916), Polish novelist (sce 25.54), died at Vevey, Switzerland, Nov. 15 1916. SIERRA LEONE (see 25.54).—In rorr Sierra Leone acquired the Kanre-Lahun area from Liberia in exchange for a district on the Morro river. Revised estimates give the area of the colony and protectorate at 27,250square miles. Population (1921) 1,541,311. There were 1,161 whites and 599 Asiatics, mostly Syrian traders. The native population had increased by 137,000 since rgir. Freetown, the capital and chief port, had 44,142 inhabitants. Steady, though somewhat slow, progress has been made since 1910 in education (vocational as well as literary), in sanitation, in communications and in better social conditions generally. In 1920 the importation of “ trade spirits ”? was totally prohibited, in 1926 the last vestige of Government recognition of domestic slavery was withdrawn. Political progress was marked by the grant in 1924 of a new legislative council which contained three members elected in the colony on the basis of manhood suffrage, and also direct (nominated) representation of the protectorate. A notable event in 1925 was the visit to Freetown of the Prince of Wales. Industry and Trade-—Commercially, Sierra Leone is still dependent on the products of the oil palm and on kolanuts, while ginger is the chicf of the lesser exports. Experiments in the cultivation of cotton and maize for export were unsatisfactory, but promising new crops were cocoa, swamp rice and cocoanuts. During 1910-3 trade developed satisfactorily, and in this period a railway to serve the northern province was begun. It was completed to Kamabai, 182 m. from Freetown, in 1916. The World War caused a great shrinkage in trade, Germany having taken 87% of the export of palm kernels. The War, however, demonstrated the loyalty of the natives to Great Britain, and the Sicrra Leone forces played a prominent part in the Cameroons campaign. In 1918 there was a severe epidemic of influenza at harvest time and this, added to adverse weather conditions, led to a famine in rọrọ, which was marked by serious rioting, the Syrian traders being accused of hoarding foodstuffs. The year 1920 was one of great activity andinfated prices. It was followedin 1921-2 by a period of financial stress, but by 1923 trade had revived and in the two succeeding years steadily increased. Taking 1913 and 1924 as normal years, imports (which are mainly foodstuffs and cotton piece goods) increased from £1,292,000 to £1,475,000; exports from £1,490,000 to £1,510,000. (In 1920 imports had been £3,175,000 and exports £2,916,000). In 1924 Great Britain took 97% of the palm kernels and supplied 65% of the imports. Revenue in 1913 was £618,000 and in 1924 £868,000. Expenditure in 1913 was {£622,000 and in 1924

£777,000. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—1T. N. Goddard, The Handbook of Sierra Leone (1924); H. C. Luke, Bibliography of Sierra Leone, 2nd ed., revised

and annotated (1925); Sir A. R. Slater, Sierra Leone, an address by the Governor reviewing conditions in 1925 (Freetown, 1925); and the annual Reports on Sierra Leone, published by the Colonial Office, London. (F. R. C.)

SIGNALLING (sce 25.71).—The functions of signal communications in the field are threefold, namely :— (1) To enable information to be transmitted from front to rear, so that the higher command may know the course of events in the forward area and the administrative requirements of the troops; (2) to enable orders to be transmitted from rear to front, so that the higher command may exercise effective control; (3) to facilitate co-operation in battle between different bodies of troops and different arms, and between troops and aircraft.

The importance of these functions increases with every advance in the application of mechanical science to war. When armics fought in close order and generals commanded from the saddle, effective control could be exercised by means of gallopers bearing orders to different parts of the field. To-day infantry and machine-guns, artillery, tanks and aircraft have to act together in a concerted effort which demands the closest intercommunication. A modern commander is provided with an instrument of unprecedented striking power but of such complexity that it cannot be controlled without a very complete system of signal communication. Provision of Signal Communications.—In the British Army the responsibility for providing signal communications is shared between the Royal Corps of Signals and the regimental signallers of cavalry, artillery and infantry units. The sphere of the Royal Signals extends from the base forward to the headquarters of reziments, batteries and battalions. Within these units communication is provided by their own regimental signallers. Each formation, whether division, corps, army or lines of communication, has a unit of the Royal Signals allotted to it to provide communication between its commander and his subordinates as well as with commanders of formations co-operating with him. Methods En ployed —Four means of intercommunication are employed.

These are:

1. Message-carrying by runners, dispatch

riders and sometimes pigeons. 2. Visual telegraphy by lamp, flag or heliograph. 3. Line telegraphy and telephony. 4. Wireless telegraphy and telephony. Š A sound signal system demands all four methods, co-ordinated so that each by its special capabilities makes good the weak points of the others. Reviewing cach in turn, it may be said that the first, the oldest method of all, remains one of the most important. In the confusion of the infantry fight the runner is often the only possible means of conveying information and orders. At the same time, in the most highly organised signal system the dispatch rider on horse or motor-cycle is indispensable. Ilis usefulness lies in the great volume of correspondence he can carry, and his réle is to release the telegraph for its legitimate work of sending short and urgent messages without delay. On the other hand, a dispatch rider may be killed or captured with dispatches on him, while his use may be forbidden by natural obstacles or a hostile population. The use of pigeons is limited by the fact that they take a considerable time to learn their way to a loft In a new position. Consequently, they cannot be employed in mobile warfare. In static operations between fixed opposing lines they have proved valuable. The next method, that of visual telegraphy; has its chief use in the forward area, where complicated electrical apparatus cannot be carried. A small electric lamp is the most generally used instrument for both day and night, except in sunny climates, where the heliograph is extensively used in daytime. The flag under modern conditions is often too conspicuous for use under fire. An important branch of visual telegraphy is the display of signals on the ground, in the form of white canvas strips, to convey information to friendly aircraft. Thirdly, there is wire communication, for which the medium varies from light cables laid on the ground in the forward area to heavy overhead routes of the regular G.P.O. pattern on the lines of communication. Communication by wire is the best method of all when it can be established and maintained. It carries a greater volume of traffic than any other means, and it

SIK HISM allows telephony to be used. It is comparatively secret, and any number of lines can be run in a given area without mutual interference. The military drawbacks are that a great weight of cable and other material has to be carried; the lines take time to construct; their maintenance absorbs many men, and they may be cut by shell fire or bombing, by raids, enemy agents or a hostile population. So vulnerable were the ficld cables to shell fire on the Western Front in the World War, that in long established sectors they were buried six ft. or eight ft. under ground. Finally, we have wireless. This avoids all the drawbacks of line telegraphy, but it has weaknesses of its own. It is easily intercepted by the enemy, and if cipher is used to counteract this it entails serious delay. Communication is liable to interruption by atmospheric disturbance, by our own or neutral stations or by the enemy. The apparatus is delicate, and the technical training of the men is slow and costly. The number of links of communication which can be established in any area, without mutual interference, is limited. But some of these drawbacks should pass in time, and wireless communication has two great advantages. The first is that it is the only effective means of communicating between aircraft and troops; the second is that it reduces the extent to which a commander is tied to a telegraph line. Beyond these palpable facts is the less solid, but no less important, consideration that wireless offers the greatest possibilities of development to meet the needs of the future; whereas the older methods have been exploited, so far as can be seen, almost to their limit. The wireless apparatus ranges from ight forward sets carried on a pack animal or on

men’s backs, for use within brigades, to semi-permanent installations with a range measured in hundreds of miles for use between stationary and widely separated headquarters. Principles of Limployment.—Signals, like every other branch of war, are subject to the principles of economy of force, security and co-operation, and certain rules have been evolved under the stress of experience for applying these principles. The means are economised by making no attempt to provide a direct link wherever communication is required between two points; a system of signal centres 1s established instead, connected from front to rear and laterally, so as to cover the theatre of operations with a grid of signal communications. Each link of the grid is made as strong as possible by employing on it not one method only, but as many of the four means as are available. Every headquarters is then either sited at a signal centre or gains touch with the system through the nearest signal centre. In the back area a signal centre may consist of an important signal office at a junction of permanent wire routes with a number of telegraph instruments and a large telephone exchange, several long range wireless stations and a group of motor cyclist dispatch riders. In the forward area it may merely have a small man-carried wircless set, a signalling lamp and a few runners. During an advance the headquarters of each leading formation moves forward by bounds, establishing at each halting place a signal centre connected with its subordinate headquarters, those on either flank and the higher formation in rear. The higher formation moves forward in its turn, takes over and consolidates the gridwork thus formed, and embodies it in the rearward administrative system. Co-ordination of the four methods is secured by establishing a signal office at every important headquarters in the field. The signal office controls all the available means of intercommunication at the disposal of the headquarters concerned. It contains the line telegraph instruments and telephone exchange; the wireless stations are sited as close to it as possible, and the dispatch riders are within call. All messages for transmission are hanced in there; they are registered briefly so that they may be traced at any time, and are then either handed to a dispatch rider or a telegraph operator, to go by whichever one of the four methods is most appropriate. All messages destined for a headquarters go first to the signal office, whence they are distributed to the officers concerned. For signalling on railways, (see RatLways). See H. M. Dowsett, (1923).

Wireless Telephony and Broadcasting, vol. 1 (C. TR.)

545

SIKHISM.—When Sikhism revived (see 25.84) its divisions also sprang into new life. In the main democratic in political and congregational in religious government, the Sikhs had passed through a monarchical phase under Maharaja Ranjit Singh and his successors, a phase reflected dimly in a Hinduising tendency in religion. In the soil of India the reformer may graft exotic ideas upon an indigenous stock, but, sooner or later, the alien growth wilts and the old type reasserts its vigour. The Sikh, not unlike David Deans, prone to evolve his own principles and practice, retained his many sects and orders; but all tended to revert to an Indigenous type. The strict Sikh neglected all but a few outward signs of his adhesion to the Guriis, while the laxer brethren became virtually Hindus, worshinping Hindu gods and, perhaps more especially, goddesses, early legends attributirg even to Gurii Govind Singh the patronaze of Devi, te goddess, and merely adding the Sikh Gurits and many minor holinesses to the Hindu pantheon. Hindutsing Tendenctes.—~One sect indeed retained its vitality. The Kiikas or “ Shouters,” always credited with hatred of British rule, maintained in practice an implacable anti-Moslem attitude, which took the shape of carefully planned murders of Mahommedan butchers; it being a characteristic of Sikhism that while it disavowed polytheism it retained ihe ancient Hindu veneration for the cow and resented the slaughter of kine for food or sacrifice. The sect never regained much influence or repute. Its ethical teaching in its inception was probably that of Govind Singh, but it is said to have fallen to the depths of degradation usual ina secret society. The significance of its emblems, a high, straight turban and a knotted woollen necklace, has never been disclosed, but they suggest a militant asceticism. Of still less moment until recently was the fanatical Akali order which had given trouble to Ranjit Singh himself. It had sunk to the réle of mere buffoons at Sikh gatherings, recalling the preaching fox in a mediaeval choir, but its latent militancy has proved to be only too easily fanned into flames. On the other hand, the great Sikh orders of the Hinduising Right, the Udasis and the Nirmalas, the “sad” and the “stainless,” had retained much of their wealth, prestige and even spiritual influence, but tended to approximate to sacred castes on the model of the Brahmans. Failure of the Theocratic Ideal—In its ideals a theocracy ruled by its sacred volume, the Granth Sahib, Sikhdom once possessed a Convocation in its Guriimatta or House of Clergy, which might have developed into an effective constitutional body by co-optation of the laity but for its complete disappearance under the military chiefs who arose after the death of the last Gurti. The Sikh monarchs made no attempt to resuscitate it. Hence the Sikh congregation, lacking any organisation or central control, rapidly disrupted. Apart from the great fanes, the village became the only real unit. And the orders were equally unorganised, having at best a titular head whose powers were undefined, no corporate body capable of holding property, and only the weakest agencies for enforcing discipline. ‘Thus when a village, as it often did, built itself a gurdwara or ‘ guriét’s portal ”’ for the recital of the sacred books and the teaching of the sacred script, it would elect as its incumbent a brother of a religious order or even a spiritually minded layman. Phe Village Temple.—This humble temple it endowed with a glebe, but, just as the orders had no written statutes, so the temple rarely, if ever, had a written grant. The incumbent was trustee of the glebe and shrine, but no law of trusts existed. At best he was under the de facto control of the village congregation and less definitely under that of his order. But the principles of

each order varied.

Some leaned towards congregational control,

others towards priestly authority. Sometimes a vacancy was filled by the disciple designated by the last incumbent, with or wichout ratification at an assembly of priests convoked from neithbouring shrines; at others it was filled by a loosely constituted gathering of all who frequented the temple. At times efforts were made to set up something not unlike episcopal control or a royal right of presentation. Yet, whatever the founders’ intentions, the terms of the traditional grant, the unrecorded rules of the order, or the unvoiced wishes of the worshippers,

546

SIKHISM

the succession both to the spiritual power of the first incumbent

disputes, the more orthodox Sikhs resenting its adornment with and to the temporal benefits of his endowment tended more and pictures from Hindu myths painted at the instance of Hinduising more to vest in a holy family by physical inheritance. Even brethren, and other lapses from strict monotheism. Eventually “ celibate ” Udasis founded families who are owners of wealthy a provisional advisory committee of 175 members, partly religious properties and rich refectories, though bitter dispute nominated by Government, was accepted by a large mecting of as to division of the inheritance and the right to succeed to the Sikhs. It was to draw up a scheme of management, but never office of chief abbot may from time to time impair their re- functioned. At critical junctures the manager, a Government sources. Under Sikh rule such matters were doubtless settled nominee, had intervened on the side of law and order, exasperatnot by rule of law, but by the ruler’s will. Still they were settled, ing some Sikh feeling by bestowing a dress of honour on Gen. and popular feeling probably kept his caprice within bounds, Dyer, after the affair of Jallianwala Bagh, and other steps. just as it constrained him to prevent gross abuses. With that Whether the Sikhs had any just cause to complain of his acts as achieved he and his subjects were content, and if he failed to do manager is not apparent, but in 1920 on Mahatma Gandhi’s sugmore he had before him a precedent in the history of the Ten gestion a Sikh public meeting held at Amritsar appointed Gurtis themselves. No one of them had established any rules for _a Shiromani Gurudwara Parbandhak Committee—“ for the the succession to the Guriiship or method for election to that management of shrines.” office. : High-handed Acts of Shrines Committee. —This committee, The Pontificate Itself Hereditary.—The first, Nānak, had ap- swollen to 240 in number by 6o co-optations, claiming to have pointed his successor and clearly did not intend the pontificate been chosen by universal adult suffrage, seized the Golden to become hereditary, yet that principle was promptly asserted Temple and other places of worship. But it went beyond mere by the Udāsīs, who ascribe the foundation of their order to his irregularities in procedure when it reorganised the Akālīs into eldest son and set but little esteem upon the teachings of Govind lawless gangs or jathas recruited from more dubious elements Singh. And the succession to the Gurūship itself soon became than all Sikhdom could supply. One of its earliest steps, in almost rigidly hereditary after the 4th Gurū. The Eastern feeling 1921, was an attack on the very birthplace of Sikhism—Nankdna, that holiness runs with physical descent was doubtless further the home of Nanak’s mother. Dissatisfied with the Udisi strengthened by the rise of the Sikh aristocracy and monarchy, mahant's régime the committee called on him to institute reforms, both hereditary and impelled by self-interest to suppress the failing which it would eject him on a certain date. Fearing an elective principle. Hence the history of every ecclesiastical attack the abbot enlisted mercenaries, many of whom were office tended to reproduce in miniature that of the Guris’ Moslem Afghins. This roused fresh resentment that one of the dynasty. But this did not result in reducing all the Sikh endowholiest places should be so guarded, and precipitated matters. A ments to personal appanages of saintly families, and many re- gang of Sikhs seized the sanctuary several days before the date mained under the rude but effective control of the monarch, the notified. They achieved their purpose but made the enclosure orders and even the people, until power and responsibility their sepulchre. Massacred by the mercenaries, not one escaped. passed into British hands. In this encounter 130 lives were lost. The facts that the makani The Act of 1863.—In 1863, however, the British Govt. passed was defending his property and that the initial aggression was an Act to divest itself of the management of religious en- on the Akālīis’ side were ignored, and feeling against many dowments, and thereby denuded itself of all power to prevent mahants, especially those of the Udāsī order, was aroused. waste or malversation. The Sikh layman or the religious brother Trouble at Gurtt ké Bagh and the Dodba.—Other lawless seizures who witnessed the decay of his village gurdwdra or the house of of shrines followed. That of Gurii ka Bagh in 1922 led to much his order falling into disrepute could indeed have recourse to the unnecessary suffering, fortunately without loss of hfe. In regular law courts, but the complexities of his suit would make it Feb. a band of Ak&lis had captured that gurdwdra, but the costly beyond the measure of ordinary litigation. To a court mahant retained its house and lands. The committee took steps trained in the subtleties of ecclesiastical and canon law as laid to seize some land, claiming it as appurtenant to the shrine. The down for the diverse denominations and varying statutes of re- law was’ vindicated but 5,000 Akalis were arrested. By then, ligious fraternities in the West the questions arising in such a however, the Akalis had thrown out a new and more dangerous cause would have been difficult of decision. offshoot in the Babbar (“ lion ”’) Akali jatha, devoted to the task The Lay Tribunal’s Failure to Prevent Abuses——To courts of murdering village officials and others known to be loyal to innocent of such a learning they were insoluble. The arraigned Government and virtually defenceless in their isolation. Its incumbent would deny his pursuer’s membership of his congregaproceedings deepened the terrorism already imposed by Akali tion or order, the right of any such member to call him to account bands on the fertile country known as the Doaiba, between the and plead his own unworldliness as explaining any deficit in his Sutlej and Bias rivers, and beyond it, full advantage of the funds or defects in his administration. But matters were worse temporary paralysis of the administration being taken by the when the shrine had become tn effect purely private property. lawless elements in general to commit murders and organise As their inheritance followed no law but indeterminate custom gang robbery. Misplaced economy reduced the police force to the courts adopted the fatal principle that in all points each a cadre inadequate to protect life or property, and marked men shrine was governed by its own customs, without regard to the were assassinated openly and with impunity, the employment general tenets of Sikhism or the particular rule of the order. The of soldiery merely maintaining some semblance of order. Yet minor temples were in effect freed from all control, and to such when in 1923 riots between Hindus and Moslems occurred at Ama depth of corruption did some sink that a professedly celibate ritsar the Akalis not only held aloof but aided the authorities. priest was heard to depose that no Udasi was truly qualified for The Jatioke Affair —In 1924, however, their sympathies were spiritual office until he had seduced a married woman of his flock. aroused by the abdication of the misguided Raja of Nabha, who Many endowments were wholly alienated to pay for open de- had been levying private war against the sister Sikh State of bauchery, a result the more regrettable in that the beautiful Patiala. The Shiromani Committee, exceeding its mandate to Hindu temples of the Punjab Himalayan cantons owe their secure reforms of endowments, espoused the Raja’s cause and preservation to the fact that the executive has retained control asked the Sikhs to conduct perpetual recitation of the sacred of their secular affairs, leaving religious matters to their priests, volume in all temples for his restoration. This behest was but nominating their bursars and auditing their accounts. carried out in a temple at Jaitoke in the State territory, a Sikh Protests and Lack of Unity.—Sikh discontent at this state manifesto of revolt against the new ruler. The recital was not in of things was expressed against the administration of the Khalsa fact interrupted, but a seditious meeting was broken up. “ MarCollege and the Golden Temple, both at Amritsar. The council tyr’ bands of Akdlis were thereupon organised to march to the of the former was reconstituted to the general satisfaction, but temple and continue the recitation. One band, numbering 500 owing to internal dissensions the latter offered a knottier men, was reinforced as usual by a huge mob, and the latter

problem.

For years its calm had been disturbed by theological

charged the State forces.

Fire was opened on it and it lost some

SILESIA, UPPER so men, including 21 killed; but of the jatka nucleus only three or four fell. The Shrines Act.—More seizures of shrines followed, but without untoward results, and in 1925 the Sikh Gurdwdaras and Shrines Bill became law. It might equally well have been enacted in 1863. It provided, for the first time in Sikh history, legal methods for controlling Sikh religious endowments. Unfortunately, it confessedly allows the minority—the Udiasi and other orders—to go to the wall. For this result the failure of the Sikh orders to devise and enforce statutes for their self-discipline and to secure the rights of their congregations is mainly to blame. The Udasi order is conspicuously distracted, having four or more suborders, bewildering varieties of garb, usage and doctrine, and tendencies to further disruption. So nebulous a body does

not lend itself to legislative incorporation. The Revival Anti-Brahmanical.—Briefly, the genesis of the reform movement may be explained. During the past two decades the Sikhs have swung distinctly to the left, i.e., towards a more democratic, militant, un-Hindu platform. In 1909 their representatives obtained validation by a statute of the marriage ceremony called anand—“ rejoicing.” In Sikh eyes its validity (quite unnecessarily questioned in the courts) consisted in substituting their sacred writings for the sacred fire of the Hindus and in not employing Brahmans at weddings. This simple “reform ”’ was carried by the efforts of the Singh Sabha or True Sikh Union, which aims at purifying Sikhism of accretions. The revival of Sikhism has thus some analogies with that of the Wahhabi sect in Islam. Going back to the teachings of the great Guriis, the Sikhs are more attracted to the militant teachings of Govind Singh than to the quietist doctrines of Nanak. Sikh Services in the War.—To this rekindling of the martial Spirit may be fairly ascribed the fact that while the Punjab as a whole mobilised one man in 28 as against the rest of India’s one in 150, the Sikhs in 1917 had supplied about one-sixth of the fighting forces of the Indian Empire with less than a hundredth of its population. And their contribution was almost entirely to fighting units. As an emigrant also the Sikh has achieved much. With the general anti-government movements in India the Sikhs have had no close solidarity. To a great extent the Sikh liability to paroxysms of popular passion is due to lack of education which makes no marked progress among the community, though it is one of the few in India which gives its women instruction in its sacred script. Nevertheless it is markedly less apt to be swept off its feet by incredible rumours or tendencious canards than some better read denominations. At his best the Sikh is dignified, level-headed, and in action sedate. But he has the defects of his qualities. He is reticent, and it is difficult to fathom the real grievances underlying discontent. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—The Sikh has produced little recent literature, but Khazan Singh’s History and Philosophy of the Sikh Religion (Lahore, 1914) is valuable. Gokul Chand Narang, Transformation of Sikhism (i912) and “Sikh Relics in Eastern Bengal,” Dacca Review (1916), also throw light on Sikh history. (H. A. R.)

SILESIA, UPPER (see 25.90).—Article 88 of the Treaty of Versailles (1919) provided that the inhabitants of Upper Silesia (pop., in 1919, 2,280,902) should be called upon to decide by plebiscite whether they would belong to Germany or Poland (see PARIS CONFERENCE). The purely German districts of Falkenberg (pop. 37,526), Grotthau (pop. 40,610), Neisse (pop. 7,781), part of Neustadt (pop. 25,000) and Hultschin (pop. 45,552), in northern and western Upper Silesia were exempted from ‘the plebiscite. Up to the day of the plebiscite the supreme authority in the plebiscitary area was to be vested in an InterAllied commission, consisting of one representative of France, Great Britain and Italy respectively. In this commission France was represented by Gen. Lerond, Great Britain by Col. Percival and Italy by Gen. de Marini. On Feb. 1 1920 Allied troops occupied the plebiscitary district. The local German officials were then subordinated to the Inter-Allied authorities. The German police was replaced by a special polling police (Abstimmungspolizet), composed half of German-speaking, half of Polish-speaking inhabitants.

547

The Plebtscites —On the whole, the collaboration of the InterAllied control and the German officials proved satisfactory; but various differences arose, such as that which led to a strike of judges in May 1920. Both the Poles (under Korfanty) and the Germans opened an active canvassing campaign; and under Polish pressure the Germans in the southern and eastern districts were subjected to oppressive treatment. On Aug. 19 1920 the Poles made an attempt to seize the country by force. Bands, chiefly recruited from Congress Poland, usurped authority. A number of Germans were forcibly carried into Poland, and many were killed. Order was not restored for several weeks. In Jan. 1921 the date of the plebiscite was fixed for March 20 1921. The Polish terrorism immediately revived, especially in the district of Rybnik, Pless, Kattowitz and Beuthen. It reached its climax in the days preceding the plebiscite. Voters from other parts of the German Reich were frequently refused admission to the polls; sometimes they were maltreated or even murdered; and houses where outvoters were staying were set on fire. The day of the plebiscite passed, however, without disturbance except at a few places, such as Rybnik and Pless, but on the following day the Polish excesses recommenced. The poll showed 717,122 votes for Germany and 483,514 for Poland. In 664 districts there was a German, in 597 a Polish majority. Practically all the towns voted for Germany. There was a Polish majority in the administrative districts of Rybnik, Pless, Beuthen, Tarnowitz and Gross-Strehlitz. The decision of the InterAllied Commission as to the allocation of the disputed regions was delayed by differences within the commission itself. The French representative, Lerond, who had from the first been accused of tacitly supporting the Poles, wished to allot the whole of southern and eastern Upper Silesia to them, while the British and Italian representatives wished to apportion the industrial region to Germany. Protracted diplomatic negotiations between Paris, London and Rome led to no result. At the end of April a report became current that the Council of Ambassadors had given only the districts of Rybnik and Pless to Poland. Korfanty’s Insurrection.—In consequence of this rumour the first days of May witnessed a new and more serious Polish insurrection. Korfanty had secretly raised a well-organised Polish force which received arms and reinforcements from Poland. He now occupied the whole southeastern part of Upper Silesia, on a, line extending from the south of the district of Kreuzburg through Gross-Strehlitz to the Oder in the south. He nominated himself dictator of the districts under Polish occupation, took over the administration, and treated even the Allied officials with such scant consideration that they were obliged to withdraw to Oppeln and the regions not occupied by the Poles. It was only in the larger towns that the Allied troops, supported by the German population, were able to maintain themselves. A further Polish advance was prevented by the German defence force (Selbstschutz) under Gen. Höfer, composed of Upper Silesians and volunteers from other parts of the Reich. There was severe fighting between this force and the Poles, especially round Ratibor and Gross-Strehlitz. Col. Percival, the British representative, was obliged to resign owing to ill-health, and was succeeded by Sir Harold Stuart. Attempts by the InterAllied Commission to put an end to the insurrection by negotiations with Korfanty having failed, the Allies dispatched reinforcements of French and British troops to Upper Silesia. After lengthy negotiations which were carried on with the German defence force, which refused to withdraw unless guarantees were secured that the Poles would first quit the field, an agreement was ultimately effected with regard to the evacuation. By June 20 the British troops had again occupied the larger towns, while the Poles commanded the rural districts. As a result of difficulties in paying and provisioning his followers Korfanty now lost control over them. Independent bands plundered the villages, ill-treated the Germans and murdered many of them. In the industrial districts work in many of the mines and iron works came to a standstill. By the end of June the loss suffered by the industrial region was estimated at three milliard marks. |

SILK

548 THE

DECISION

OF THE

LEAGUE

OF NATIONS

The French persisted that the greater part of the industrial region should be assigned to Poland. Great Britain, on the other hand, firmly maintained that such a partition would, as Mr. Lloyd George publicly expressed it, be “ unfair ? to Germany on the basis of the Treaty of Versailles and the result of the plebiscite. There were at one time three rival proposals for partition: (2) the Korfanty line, the extreme Polish demand; (b) the Sforza line, a proposal put forward by the then Italian Foreizn Minister; (c) the British proposal, giving Poland only the southeastern corner with the towns and districts of Pless and Rybnik. France was ultimately left in a minority of one on the supreme council, Italy and Japan having adhered to the British view. After prolonged debates and open differences among the principal Allied Powers it was arranged, at a Paris conference in Aug. 1921, that the solution should be entrusted to a commission of the council of the League of Nations. This commission was ulti nately constituted by the representatives of Japan, Brazil, China, Spain and Belgium, with the Japanese representative, Baron Ishii, as chairman. On Oct. 20 1921 the text was published of the documents containing the award of the League of Nations on the partition. The area assigned to Poland contained at least 75% of the ag zregate material wealth of the disputed territory. The division here made in the industrial area, previously German, was such that the council of the League declared it to be desirable that measures should be taken to guarantee the continuity of the economic life of the region during a provisional period of readjustment, and to provide for the protection of minorities. It was recommended that a general convention for this purpose should be concluded between Germany and Poland, so as to place Upper Silesia under a special régime during the transitional period, and that an “ Upper Silesian Mixed Commission ”’ should be set up as an advisory body, composed of an equal number of Germans and Poles, with a president of some other nationality to be designated by the Council of the League, together with an arbitral tribunal for settling private disputes occasioned by the temporary

2asures.

zone. (6) lor the 15 years, any inhabitant regularly domiciled or ‘occupied in the plebiscite area should receive a “ circulation permit,” free of payment, enabling him to cross the frontier without other ee (7) Generally, the two countries should respect private rignts.

The League followed up its recommendation by organising a German-Polish conference, which met at Geneva on Nov. 23 1921

under the presidency of M. Calonder (former president of the Swiss Confederation), and resulted in the signature of a detailed convention on May 15 1922. The subsequent friction between the two parties living under this convention was not more than was to be expected, considering the antecedents of the League’s award. The most serious incidents were a strike in the Polish area over the question of lengthening the hours of work, which lasted from April to Aug. 1924, and an appeal by the German Govt. to the Permanent

Court of International Justice under Art. 23 of the convention of

May 1§ 1922. This article provided for recourse to the International Court in case of disputes over articles 6-22 of the convention, which dealt with the rights of Poland to expropriate private property. The Germans claimed that these articles were being infringed, while the Poles contested the court’s jurisdiction in the matter. The German case was filed on May 16 1925, and on July 18 the court found that it did possess jurisdiction, so that the trial of the case proceeded. (See GERMANY; POLAND.) A. J. T.)

SILK (see 25.96).—The most important and significant event in connection with silk since 1910 has been that, despite the vast development of artificial silk (g.v.), the genuine article has not only held its own but has steadily increased in demand. The chicf cause of this growth has been the increasing demand for silk from the United States. In r900 the world’s total output was 17,211,000! kilos. In 1913 the total output was 27,320,000 kilos. It fluctuated during the War, but in 1919 stood at 27,290,000 kilos. ‘The next year marked the commencement of the trade slump, and the first indication of its approach was given by the refusal of the “ buycrs’ to purchase their normal] supplies of raw silk. In that year the output fell to 20,349,000 kilos. But the setback was only temporary, and since then output has mounted till, in 1924, the world’s total production was 39,100,000 kilos. Sources of Supply.—The principal sources of supply are Japan, China, Italy, the Levant, France, India and Spain, in that order. Of the various producing countries in 1900, 1913 and 1924, unfortunately India and China are not properly distinguished before 1922, but were included with Japan, which was the chief collecting area in the Far East:—

The provisional or transitional period was to be 15 years, and certain stipulations were laid down by the League of Nations for the economic arrangements during that period in the “ plebiscite area.” (1) Railway and tramway systems, privately owned or municipal, Countries 1900 1913 1924 were to continue under the terms of their concessions, and the Ger- | |————————_______—_ |]— | 1MM] mlM Kilos Kilos Kilos man state railways were to be put under a joint system of operation. Japan . 11,037,000 20,760,000 24,525,000 Railway rates were to be uniform. The state insurance of employees Italy 3,275,000 3,540,000 5,255,000 in the Silesian railway system was to be undertaken by that system. Levant 2,079,000 2,588,000 1,095,000 A single accounts office was to be set up for the whole system. France 736,000 350,000 335,000 Expenses of new construction were to be charged to a separate Spain ; . 84,000 82,000 95,000 account, and borne by the state in whose territory it was carriel out; China . : . : = s 7,715,000 the working capital for operation to be lent by the German State, India 80,000 and interest charged to the account of this system; profits or deficits to be divided between the two countries in proportion to the lenzth The manufacturing countries of Europe and the U.S.A. are of line and amount of traffic belonging to each. (2) The German mark was to be the only legal unit of currency, and Poland was; toa becoming more and more dependent on Asia, especially on recognise the rights of the Reichsbank for a period not exceeJinz Japan and China, for their supplies of raw material. The year 15 years, but by agreement the two governments might modify this 1924 showed an abnormally high output for Europe, and in arrangement earlier. (3) While the German monetary system was maintained in the Polish zone, the postal, telegraph and telephone charges should be in German currency. (4) The customs frontier should coincide with the political frontier, and the German and

Polish customs law should apply, with certain exceptions.

For six mənths incoming goods from other countries, on which German or Polish duties had been paid previously to the partition, should cross the frontier without duty. For 15 years, natural products originating or coming from one of the two zones of the plebiscite area and destined for consumption in the other should cross the frontier free of duty. For six months, raw, half-manufactured and unfinished products of industrial establishments in one zone, destined for industrial establishments in the other, should cross free of duty; and this should continue for 15 years when the products, as finished, were intended for free importation into the country of origin. Natural or manufactured products originating in the Polish zone should, on importation into the German customs territory, be exempt

from duty for three years from the date of the frontier-delineation. As regards export, the two countries should facilitate for 15 years the export of such products as were indispensable for industry in

either zone.

(5) Poland was to permit, for 15 years, the exportation

to Germany of the products of the coal-mines in the Polish zone, and Germany similarly to Poland in respect of the mines in the German

particular France had a much bigger production than had been her average for the previous nine years. For example, her output in 1922 was only 198,000 kilos, although the total world’s output was 31,660,000 kilos, or the highest previous to 1924. As France is a very important silk manufacturing centre, the fact is somewhat disquieting. Her consumption in 1924 was 6,031,400 kilos, whereas she produced only 335,000 kilos and had 1,053,476 throwing spindles. Italy, on the other hand, produces’ nearly as much silk as she uses, the position in 1924 being that she produced 5,255,000 kilos of raw silk and consumed 5,610,000 kilos. The danger is that the important silk manufacturing industry of France is very largely dependent on supplies of raw silk from abroad, and the fact that the main supplies have to be obtained from the Far East means that she and other countries as well, are at the mercy of unforeseen circumstances which may, even temporarily, destroy this source of supply, such as a disease ‘For full tables see The Manchester Guardian Commercial Supplement, “ European Textiles,’ Dec. 10 1925, p. 42.

SILVER which attacks the silkworm, an earthquake on a vast scale or serious political disturbances. On the technical side, nothing very startling has occurred, but it may be that a new invention which appeared in 1925 in

549

The output in 1904 was 206,875 oz., and in roto reached 32,869,264 ounces. It is quite probable that even more valuable deposits, buried beneath the vast Canadian forests, await similar chance discovery. The increase in the Asiatic contribution is chielly attributable to the active development, under British management, of the Burmese mines; these mines had been worked intermittently in past times by Chinese labour. The output rose from 105,603 oz. In 1916 to 5,287,711 Oz. in 1924. Mexican Output.—The magnificent contribution of Mexico in 1924, amounting to 91,486,136 oz., is by no means the utmost that can be expected from that quarter, though it represented over 37% of the world production. Many wide areas known to be rich in mineralised ore are still untapped, owing to their inaccessibility and to the lack of capital. Given a government whose stability would encourage the entry of foreign capital, and extension of railways, it would be difficult to forecast a limit to the amount of silver which Mexico would produce. Other points worth notice are the gradual exhaustion of the European output, and the substantial increase in the production of South America in consequence of favourable mining developments in Peru. The large production of the United States of America during 1923 was owing to the desire of American mining companies to obtain the high price of 100 cents an oz., paid by the United States Treasury under the Pittman Act. This mcasure authorised the replacement at that figure of the silver represented by the dollars which were broken up and sold to the Indian Govt. in 1918. The figures of the world production of silver during the period 1917-24 by no means include all the world supplies for those years, for very large amounts of silver plate were melted and realised, and enormous quantities of silver coins were demonetised owing to the rise in the price of silver, which caused the intrinsic worth of the coins to exceed their nominal value. During 1922 alone over 50,000,000 oz. is estimated to have been placed upon the market. Silver continues to flow, as it has for centuries, from West to East, where it is absorbed by the popu-

Italy may in future years be regarded as important. By this new method the silk can be detached from the cocoon without the use of boiling water, and if this invention proves satisfactory when tried on a large scale two important results will be achieved. Firstly, much illness and even death among the operatives will be eliminated, as the fumes given off in the present process are often very injurious; and at the same time, if desirable, the silkworms themselves, which at present are killed by the boiling water, can be saved and allowed to develop into moths, lay eggs and so considerably increase the supply of silk. In conclusion, it may be added that while the chief demand for silk fabrics is for female attire, an important and comparatively new source of demand is in connection with the development of air navigation, especially for parachutes (q.v.). BIBLIOGRAPHY.—J. Chittick, Sik Manufacturing and Its Problems (1913); S. Kline, Manual of Processes of Winding, Warping, and Ouilling Silk, ete. (1918); R. C. Rawlley, Economics of the Silk Industry (1919); G. S. Boulger, History of Stik (1920). See also artic'e on ‘‘ European Textiles,’ The Manchester Guardian Commercial Supplement (Dec. 10 1925). (J.S. M. W.)

SILVER (see 25.112).—The annual world production of silver, which exceeded 200,000,000 fine oz. for the first time in 1908, continued above that figure during the next five years. The outbreak of the World War affected the output unfavourably, and the civil wars in Mexico—actively prosecuted during the years 1914~-7—still more reduced production, for the Mexican contribution fell from 81,233,887 oz. in 1912 to 22,910,058 oz. in 1915, roughly a reduction of 58,000,000 ounces. The world production in 1914—172,263,596 oz.—was the lowest recorded since the year 1906, 165,054,497 ounces. The official authority for these world statistics is the report of the Director of the U.S. Mint, whose tabulated data from 1910-25 are appended:—

Silver Production (in fine oz.) (Units of thousands) —

Year

I9IO;

Canada

Mexico

Aiea

Central

A MmETICA

14,477

IQII 1912} I9I3 1914, IQI5| I9I6| IGI7|

60,399 63,767 66,802 72,455 74,961 74,415 71,740

57,138

32,869

2,741 31,625 31,525 28,407 26,626 25,460 22,221

71,372

79,032 81,234 55,486 26,062 22,910 29,771 42,020

2,027

1918)

67,810

21,384

62,517

2,900

1c

73,296 65,367

17,755 19,736

5

I9Ig| 1920| 1921 1922

|

U.S.A

16,021 12,794 13,135 18,5381

56,682 55,361 53,052 56,212

1,212 2,846 2,136 2,755 2,920 2,603 2,370 2,800 2,700 2,000 2,000

65,904 66,662 64,465 81,077

South

|

Africa

| Europe

|

1,037

14,434 13,981 13,126 10,449 13,687 15,580 15,451

1,064 1,217 1,056 1,059 1,188 1,203 1,183

14,712

1,257

2

Asia

World

15,992

21,546

5,257

221,716

12,663

9,934

9,982

203,159

15,693 15,992 16,446 14,535 15,563 14,001 11,916 6,990 8,372 7,774 8,342

1,272 1,232 1,012 1,320

14,753 14,588 15,614 21,395

| Australasia

5

16,578 14,738 18,12 11,000 9,250 10,700 10,000 7,188 2,685 5,362 11,485

.

226,193 230,904 210,013 172,264 173,001 180,802 186,125

5,039 5:505 5,308 5.542 5,894 7,070 9,224

8,240 8,903 8,870 9,403

179,850 173,296 171,286 209,815

10,240 11,139

246,010 239,068

Messrs. Samuel Montagu & Co., London, estimate the production for 1925 as follows:

LSA,

Canada

Mexico

Elsewhere

World

66,000

19,000

91,000

64,000

240,000

The above table records a drop in the average Australasian figures for the years

1914-9

of about

8,000,000 oz. from the

average of the four preceding years 1910-3. This is chielly owing to the reduced output outside Australia. The very low figures for 1920 and 1921 were caused by prolonged mining strikes and

lous countries of Asia, mostly in payment for foodstuffs and raw material needed by Western nations. Before the World War nearly 50° of the world’s production was thus absorbed. The following are the net imports in the official returns of the Chinese and Indian authorities :—

an outbreak of fire at the Broken Hill Mines—the great producing centre in Australia. Ever since the discovery, about the middle of the r6th century, of the rich silver deposits in Mexico and Peru, the Americans have contributed the bulk of the world’s production: in 1924 their proportion was about 80%. Canada has become an important producer following the discovery of rich deposits in the cobalt region of Ontario, uncovered accidentally during the cutting of the Temiskaming and Northern Ontario Railway.

Net Imports of Silver into China (in oz.) IQIO IQII Igk2 1913 1914 I9I5 1916 IỌI7

23,756,000 41,753,000 20,981,000 39,205,000! 14,849,000! .

1 Net export.

20,036,000! 31,259,000! 22,871,000!

ris. IgIQ . 1920 . 1921 . 1922 . 1923 . 1924 .

25,609,000 57.907 ,000 . 100,976,000 35,349,000 43,134,000 73,243,000 28,342,000

SIMMEL— SIMONDS

550

Net Imports of Silver into India (in 03.) Year

On Government

alc

On Private a/c.

IgiO-I IQII-2

223,237 164,061

54,880,471 32,065,039

1912-3

56,025,301

35,052,341

1913-4 1914-5 1915-6 1916-7 1917-8 I918-9

35,309,524 * 4,251,329 * 2,697,540 104,140,566 72,150,731 233,702,408

35,797,827 60,017,452 35,629,913 11,946,760! 2,380,707 3,326,211

1919-20 1920-1

99,853,233 138,629

2,911,451! 22,378,075

1921-2 1922-3

.

608,680 659,599

1923-4

r

1,176,094

+ 7 :

63,525,636 85,397,544 92,081,963

1 Net export.

Appreciation During the World War.—-The annual totals varied greatly, largely owing to the influence of the War upon the Far Eastern demand. China, taking advantage of the high price of silver as compared with gold, exported silver to India and imported gold, later replacing the silver. Indian demand was increased by restrictions placed upon gold imports from the United Kingdom. Failing the unlimited supply of gold to which they had been accustomed, the natives took silver instead. The high cost of commodities in the United Kingdom and allied countries during the earlier years of the War, together with the need of providing small change to the military camps scattered throughout these countries, called for the provision of subsidiary coins on a large scale. Russia, France and Italy were in a similar plight, and even neutrals like Holland came into the market, impelled by rising prices. As the War continued, the greatest strain fell upon India, which had to provide currency for

troops and munitions in three great theatres of the War—Mesopotamia, Indian it had secure Govt.

East Africa and Egypt. The stock of silver rupees in the treasuries on Aug. 15 I914 was 3,776 lakhs; on April 7 1918 fallen to 1,044 lakhs. The United States Govt., unable to rupees to pay for purchases from India, sold to the Indian 207,000,000 oz. of silver derived from United States dollars

lying idle in the Treasury. At the same time the high value of silver was unearthing supplies of silver coin from out-of-the-way places. Manila dollars, the Maria Theresa

dollars current

in the Arabian

Gulf, and Afghan and other coins were pu into the melting pot to be reminted into rupees, whilst most of the silver coins of Russia filtered into the interior of Asia in exchange for goods, in lieu of Russian notes, which, before the Russian debacle, were freely current. During 1914-7 nearly 90,000,000 oz. were shipped from China to India—a temporary measure only—caused by high prices. These heavy movements account for China’s large imports of silver in succeeding years. The replacements of these exports, notwithstanding sales of demonetised silver by Germany and other countries during 1919-20, drove the price of silver on Feb. 11 1920 to 893d. an oz., the highest quotation on record. Drastic measures were then taken by the British Govt. to check the advance in price, which was adversely affecting the value of the rupee. The quality of the silver currency of the United Kingdom and its dependencies was reduced from -925 to :500 fine; the surplus from this source was about 59,000,000 ounces. When this important step was taken by the United Kingdom, the edge of the China demand, then accentuated by speculation for the rise, was blunted. In 1920, 70,000,000 oz. were imported into China from San Francisco and 20,000,000 oz. from London.

As the price of silver fell, the United States Treasury com-

menced purchases in 1920, which were completed in 1922, to replace the silver sold under the Pittman Act to India, and, though the new demand provoked some competition from China, the possibility of

shipments of silver from India and supplies of demonetised

Silver Ores,” Eng. Min. Jour., vol. 110 (1920); H. B. Cronshaw, “Silver Ores,” Monographs on Mineral Resources, Imp. Inst., London (1921); N. M. Penzer, The Mineral Resources of Burma (1922); J. W. Moule, ‘‘ Burma Corporation Ltd., a Description and Review of Early Chinese and Present-day Operation,” Proc. Inst. Min, Met., Melbourne, No. 46 (1922); J. M. Bell, “ Ore Genesis at Keeley Silver Mine,’ Mining Mag. (1923). (B. Wu.)

Con-

tinental silver soon restored the market to normal conditions, In 1924 a new inquiry set in from Europe; silver was acquired for coinage by the governments of Russia, Germany, Austria, Poland and other countries. Currency conditions, however, were still unstable, and some of the newly minted coins, melted into bars, came back to London for realisation after a few months. The employment of silver for the arts and sciences, which languished during the War and in the years immediately succeeding, became more normal by 1924. The amount thus applied is usually about 40,000,000 oz. a year, the great bulk of which is used in the United States. Barring unexpected discoveries, the principal source of supply in the future is likely to be Mexico, should local conditions remain favourable, whilst the great material progress of India, owing to War profits, new industries and a series of good monsoons, will probably keep that great Empire in the forefront of consumers. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—B. White, Silver: Its History and Romance (1917); W. L. Uglow, ‘‘ Gneissic Galena Ore from the Stocan District B.C.,” Econ. Geol., vol. 12 (1917); T. A. Rickard, ‘ Flotation of Gold and Silver Mineral,” Miz. Sci. Press, vol. 115 (1917); V. Dolmage, ‘* The Copper-Silver Veins of the Telkwa District B.C.,” Econ. Geol., vol.

13 (1918); J. A. Carpenter, “ Recovery of Silver from Manganese-

SIMMEL, GEORG (1858-1918), German philosopher and sociologist, was born in Berlin March 1 1858. Professor of philosophy first in Berlin’ (1901), then in Strasbourg (1914), Simmel was one of the first academic philosophers to apply philosophy to history and sociology. His philosophy centres round the conception of a spiritual life, various in its forms, and obedient to its own laws, whose external manifestations are to be seen in sociology and the arts. The ultimate theme of his works, which are written In a brilliant and very personal style, is nearly always the connection between life and the metaphysical general principles, revealed to the philosopher in concrete existence. He died in Strasbourg Sept. 28 1918. Simmel’s chief works are: Uber Sociale Differenzierung (1890); Finleitung in die Moralwissenschaft (1892-3); Philosophie des Geldes (1900); Kant (1904); Die Probleme der Geschichtsphilosophie, 2nd ed. (1905); Schopenhauer und Nietzsche (1907); Die Religion (1907); Philosophische Kultur (1911); Rembrandt (1917); Grundfragen der Soztologie (1917); Lebensanschauung (1918). See W. Knevels, Sinmels Religionstheorie (1920); N. J. Spykman, The Social Theory of G. Simmel (1925).

SIMON, SIR JOHN ALLSEBROOK (1873), British politician and lawyer, the son of a Congregational minister, was born Feb. 28 1873 at Bath, and educated at Fettes College, Edinburgh, and Wadham College, Oxford, where he was a scholar. He became president of the Union in 1896, and was subsequently elected fellow of All Souls. He went to the Bar, became Barstow Law scholar in 1898, and was called in 1899. His manifest abilities and the persuasiveness of his advocacy soon brought him to notice; he was chosen one of the counsel for the British Govt. in the arbitration on the Alaska Boundary in 1903; and he rapidly attained so considerable a practice that he was able to take silk in 1908. He had gone into politics, and was elected Liberal member for Walthamstow at the general election of 1906. At first, probably owing to his absorption in his legal work, he did not command nearly so much attention in Parliament as his Wadham contemporary and fellow-lawyer, Mr. F. E. Smith (afterwards Lord Birkenhead). But he gradually made his way, and was appointed by Mr. Asquith Solicitor-General in 1910, was knighted the same year, and became Attorney-General with a seat in the Cabinet in 1913. On the outbreak of the War in 1914, his resignation, along with those of Lord Morley and Mr. Burns, was confidently expected; but he finally decided to remain with his chief and the bulk of his colleagues. When the first War Coalition Govt. was formed, in May 1915, he was offered the lord chancellorship, but he declined the greatest prize of his profession as he preferred a political career in the Commons. Accordingly he accepted the home secretaryship, and gave up his legal practice. Early, however, in the following year, owing to his inability to accept the Government bill for compulsory military service, he resigned his office and led a fruitless opposition to the measure in the House; and then went out to the front in France as a major in the R.A.F. He subsequently resumed practice as a barrister, and immediately regained his position in the front rank of his profession. On the break between Mr. Asquith and Mr. Lloyd George in 1916, Sir John Simon adhered to the former. He lost his seat in Parliament at the general election in Dec. 1918, but was returned for Spen Valley in 1922. On the occasion of the general strike in May 1926 Sir John Simon argued in Parliament that the strike was not covered by the Trade Disputes Act and his speech, coming from such an eminent legal authority, created a deep impression. SIMONDS, FRANK HERBERT (1878), American writer, was born at Concord, Mass., April 5 1878. He graduated from Harvard University (A.B., 1900), after having seen active service in the war with Spain. He became a reporter on the New York Tribune 1891, and was its Washington correspondent in 1903 and

SIMS, G. R.—SINGAPORE its Albany correspondent in 1904. He was Albany correspondent of the New York Sun 1905-8. He became a member of the editorial staff of Te Sun in 1908, editor of the New York Evening Sun in 1913, andin rọr5 joined the New York Tribune as associate editor in charge of its editorial columns. His brilliant articles in The American Review of Reviews (1915-8), analysing the military and political situation from month to month, brought him a wide reputation. After the Armistice he continued to contribute articles on international politics to this review and other periodicals. He published, besides other works, They Shall Not Pass—Verdun (1916); History of the World War, 5 vol. (1917-24). SIMS, GEORGE ROBERT (1847-1922), British journalist and dramatic author (see 25.136), died in London Sept. 4 1922. He published a book of reminiscences, My Life, in 1917. SIMS, WILLIAM SOWDEN (18;8), American naval officer, was born at Port Hope, Ont., Canada, Oct. 15 1858. In childhood he removed to Pennsylvania, and he graduated from the U.S. Naval Academy in 1880. Then for eight years he served on board various ships in the North Atlantic. During 1889-93 he was with the nautical school ship “ Saratoga,” and then was transferred to the Pacific Station, and later to the China Station. From 1897 to 1900 he was naval attaché to the American Embassy, first at Paris and afterwards at St. Petersburg (Leningrad). In 1g00 he returned to the Pacific Station. Convinced of the inadequacy of American methods of target practice, he pressed his views upon the Government, and in the end was enabled to arrange for a gunnery test and prove his claims. In 1902 he was assigned to the bureau of navigation, serving for the next seven years as inspector of target practice, which remarkably improved under his guidance. Meanwhile in 1907 he was made commander and appointed naval aide to President Roosevelt. He became commander of the battleship “ Minnesota ” in r909. The following year, during a visit of the Atlantic Fleet to England, Commander Sims caused a stir by certain indiscreet remarks made at a dinner at the Guildhall, London, where he said: “ Speaking for myself, I believe that if the time ever comes when the British Empire is menaced by an external enemy, you may count upon every man, every drop of blood, every ship and every dollar of your kindred across the sea.” A semi-official protest against this utterance was made at Washington by the German Govt., which took offence at it, but the incident ended in a severe reprimand from the Secretary of the Navy. In rorzr Sims was promoted captain, and for two years was a member of the staff of the Naval War College, Newport, Rhode Island. During 1913-5 he was in command of the Atlantic torpedo flotilla, and then returned to Newport as president of the Naval War College. When America entered the World War in April 1917 he was chosen to command the American naval forces in European waters. In Jan. he had been promoted rear-admiral, and in May he was made vice-admiral. In his book The Victery at Sea (1920, in conjunction with Burton J. Hendrick) he shows how the convoy system, used in transporting 2,000,000 American troops, frustrated the submarines. On conclusion of the War he relinquished command of the fleet, and in Feb. rg19 resumed his position as president of the Naval War College. In rọrọ he criticised the manner in which naval honours had been awarded. He received the G.C.M.G. from King George V. in 1918. In 1920 he made a formal report to the U.S. Senate, charging the U.S. Naval Board with serious errors in the conduct of naval operations during the War. SINGAPORE (see 25.147).—A hundred years ago, Singapore

was no more than an insignificant fishing village built on piles on the outskirts of a tropical forest. To-day it is one of the world’s greatest ports, with a population of 457,000, and is the capital of the Crown Colony, the Straits Settlements. Its amazing growth is due to three causes, so closely interdependent that no one of them would have been effective without the other two. First must be put its geographical position on the island of the same name which lies at the southern extremity of the Malay Peninsula (1° 20’ N.—103° 50’E.); secondly, British enterprise; thirdly, Chinese business capacity and efficient labour. Strategically and commercially it occupies a unique position. It is a

55I

natural gateway through which must pass all the vast traffic on its way from Europe to China and Japan, and upon which converge the great ocean routes connecting India with the Dutch East Indies, Australia and the Far East. With its great advantages Singapore is able to cover expenses without either income tax or death duties; but nearly one half of the revenue is derived from opium. By treaty the Straits Settlements may be called upon to pay 20% of their revenue towards the upkeep of the military establishment maintained for defence, but for many years past the cost has never been more than about two-thirds of that sum. The main defences and the artillery barracks are at present on the island of Blakan Mati; the royal engineers are on a smaller island, Pulau Brani,

on which also stand the largest tin-smelting works in existence; the infantry are stationed at Tanglin on the main island. Phe War Situation.—At the outbreak of War in 1914 the British battalion which forms the backbone of the garrison was withdrawn for active service elsewhere, and the protection of the island was entrusted to Indian troops, who were not altogether well affected. A large number of German civilians were placed in an internment camp, and there is reason to believe that some communication passed between the prisoners and the troops. A dangerous mutiny broke out in r9r5. The Indian troops shot several of their officers, and many other Europeans were killed. For several days the situation was extremely critical, and all women and children were removed from their houses to ships in the harbour. In the absence of regular troops the mutiny was suppressed by local volunteers (by no means all of whom were familiar with the use of arms), who received great assistance from H.M.S. “Cadmus” and from H.H. the Sultan of Johore. French, Japanese and Russian ships hurried to the spot, but by the time they arrived serious trouble was at an end. With this exception the years 1914 to 1918 may be said to have been uneventful in comparison with the terrible experiences in Europe and elsewhere; but so soon as hostilities ceased and the German fleet had surrendered, the military importance of Singapore underwent a remarkable change. Singapore as a Naval Base.—Yroperly to understand this change, it is necessary to go back to the Russo-Japanese War, and to remember that the destruction of the Russian Fleet in the battle of the Sea of Japan completely altered the balance of

sea-power in the Far East. Upto that moment it had been necessary for Great Britain to maintain a considerable naval force in the China seas, but so soon as the supremacy of the Japanese was unchallenged every available ship was brought back to the North Sea, where the German menace was already making itself felt, and our eastern interests were confided to our Ally. These conditions underwent another complete alteration when the German Fleet had been safely escorted to Scapa Flow. On the one hand all danger had been removed from European waters, while on the other hand our commitments in the East had grown. It was no longer right, or indeed possible, to ask others to shoulder responsibilities which were our own, and it was argued that we must ourselves be in a position to safeguard our vast trade with China and Japan, as well as with Australia and New Zealand. This could not be done without a base in the Far East, and the choice evidently lay between Hongkong and Singapore. Hongkong had many advantages, but it was somewhat isolated and distant from possible support in India; morcover, a naval fortress there might be taken as provocative and a direct threat to Japan and China. Singapore, on the other hand, provided adequate facilities, and as it was not less than 3,500 m. from Tokyo the establishment of a naval base there could be represented as a reasonable precaution and not as a hostile decision. This decision was followed soon afterwards by the naval conference at Washington (q.v.), when the Anglo-Japanese alliance was replaced by the Four-Power Pact. England, as part of her contribution towards peace, bound herself to undertake no new fortification east of rro” of latitude. Hongkong was thus definitely ruled out, and the decision to establish the base at Singapore was almost immediately made public.

SINGING

552

Opponents of this decision have declared that it is an infringement of the spirit of the Washington conference, but for this allegation there are no grounds whatever. Great Britain’s intention was well known both to America and Japan. Other objections which have been raised are that we are threatening our former Ally, and that Great Britain cannot afford the expense entailed. The former objection has already been answered; with regard to the second it can only be said that security cannot be measured in terms of pounds, shillings and pence. A more serious objection is that Malaya and the Straits, with all their wealth, provide none of the real necessities of life. Everything is imported: meat from Australia, vegetables from Java, rice from Siam, Burma and China, milk in tins from Switzerland. With a large Asiatic population this is a serious consideration; but if we can safeguard our trade routes we can equally safeguard our own supplies. The Singapore base is now an established fact in British Imperial strategy. The Government of the Straits Settlements have made a free gift of the necessary land, and many of the Dominions and Colonies have contributed, or promised to contribute, towards the expense of construction. Its Imperial Significance could not receive more sincere or more practical acknowledgment. BrntroGrarny.—H. C. Bywater, Sea Power in the Pacific: A Study of the American-Japanese Naval Problem (1921); W. Makepeace, G. E. Brooke and R. St. J. Braddall, One IZundred Years of Singapore (1921); The ro21 Census of British Malay (1922); C. M. Crivelli and Plouvet, L'Australie et le Pacifique (Paris, 1923); Song Ong Siang, One Hundred Years of the Chinese in Singapore (1923). (N. M.*)

SINGING.—In singing and speaking, the voice is produced by the action of breath on the vocal cords, the vibrations of which are transmitted to the air passing upward between them. These vibrations are developed in volume and quantity in the resonating cavities above. It is generally conceded the world standard of vocal technique in the 2zoth century is lower than formerly, and considerably Jower than that which prevailed in Italy 150 years ago. Various reasons are advanced for this, the absence of standardised theories and methods of teaching, excessive emphasis laid upon physical phenomena and physiological details in the education of singers, the demand for artistic rather than vocal excellence in public performances, the amount of vocal music now written

that is not skilfully adapted for the voice, and the unwillingness or inability of singers to give sufficient time to their period of study before terested will published in writing, not

launching upon a professional career. Those infind the subject discussed in one of the lectures Hahn’s book, which, however, has, up to the time of

been published in English.

I. THE

MECHANISM

OF SINGING

Vocal Cords and Larynx.—That the vocal cords do not invariably vibrate throughout their breadth in the same manner has been shown by the experiments of Oertel, Koschlakoff and

Simanowski.

Further evidence of this has been obtained by

Curtis, who has experimented with an improved model of Oertel’s stroboscope, and has proved that in the lower or chest register of the voice, the vocal cords vibrate throughout their entire length, and throughout their entire breadth in a manner which increases the extent of the excursion of individual points as their distance increases from the fixed border of the cords. The vibrations of the two cords are synchronous, and the extent of oscillation considerable. When a note of higher pitch is sung, an increase in length and a decrease in breadth in the cords is noticeable. In the upper register the cords are again seen vibrating throughout their entire length and entire breadth, but the characteristics of the movements are different. The cords are flatter and have thinner edges, and are divided into segments which have their own rate of vibration. The division in each cord is characterised by a faint nodal line, marking off a narrow zone comparatively close to the free border, and this nodal line divides the cord in its breadth into two unequal segments, that

nearest the free edge taking up three-quarters of the width, and vibrating freely; and the inner, smaller segment vibrating to a much smaller extent. It has been noticed that the vibrating cords have also on their free edges nodal points in their length, the membrane dividing into separate vibrating segments. Considerable experiments have been made to determine the functions of the ventricles of the larynx. Working on the similarity (observed by Savart) of the human larynx to the metal decoy-bird of the sportsman (sce hig. 1), Baratoux maintains that the ventricles fulfil exactly the conditions found in that instrument.

The experiments of Lootens, who discovered the cyclones (which bear his name) existing in tubes made to sound by means of an air current, confirmed by Van Tricht, of Namur, are quoted. These cyclones in the decoy-bird followed a circular course on either side of the cavity, and by variation FIG. 1.— in breath pressure alone a variation in pitch of Section of a decoy. ; ird produced by Savart. In like octaves was twoz manner it is claimed by Baratoux that the ventricles of the larynx are inflated and that similar cyclones occur within them, causing regular variations of air pressure, which by their pulsation preduce vocal tone. Registers —TVhe practice of dividing the voice into three registers is still followed by the majority of musical writers on singing. William Shakespeare, Plain Words on Singing (1924), illustrates this with a plate showing the appearance of the vocal cords In chest, medium and head registers. On the other hand laryngologists tend to reduce the number of registers to two, at least so far as mechanical changes in the larynx itself are concerned (Curtis, Moure and Bouyer, Baratoux). The medium register is by some of the latter regarded as a species of voce mista, including characteristics of registers above and below it. zlitack.—-The subject of attack in both song and speech has received much attention. The evil of the “click” type or coup de glotte has been demonstrated by anatomist, physician and singing master (Hulbert, Aiken, Dodds and Lickley), and agreement seems to have been reached that physically, functionally and vocally the most desirable method is that of the simultaneous action of vocal cords and expiratory muscles, whether for singing or speaking. Vowel Tones —The division of the resonance of the voice into tone resonance and vowel resonance has been further demonstrated by the researches of Aiken, and also by Sir Richard Paget. The latter has shown, by experiment in public, that it is possible to construct an apparatus which, fitted with a bellows and reed to obtain tone, can be attached to resonating cavities of various kinds which will add vowels to the sounds already produced by the reed, and by using the hands to produce simple

Ps

ah Ex.Bard

ee

ù Bud

er Bird

a Bat

2 8ed

eh Bait

Bit

ee Beet

Fic. 2.—Series of tongue vowels and their resonating pitch in each resonator.

consonants like “Z” to obtain as a composite result words or even short phrases (see VorcE Sounps). Aiken has experimented extensively with whispered vowels, and states that the two principal vocal resonators are the neck cavity, for tone resonance, and the mouth, for vowel resonance. He therefore regards singing and speech as a combination of two instruments. His series of

tongue vowels and their resonating pitch in each resonator is given, in its simplest form, in fig. 2. The upper note gives the mouth resonance pitch, and the lower the neck resonance pitch, of the vowel printed below. He also gives a list of 12 English vowels with similar resonance pitches for women and men (see fig. 3). The average pitch of men is a minor third lower than that of women, beginning on the note F, first space treble clef. Aiken has worked out on this basis a very extensive list of whispered resonances, showing the pitch of the possible har-

SINGING

“do

Ex.Hoot

(00).

(Hood)

of

Hope

or

Horn

O

Hot

ah

Hard

ù

Hut

er

Her

a

Hat

Ë

Hen

Fic. 3.—List of 12 English vowels with similar resonance pitches for women and men.

monics to be obtained on the simple vowels 00, aw, uh, ch and ce when sung on each note within a compass of two octaves of the chromatic scale. He claims, therefore, that the singer is playing upon two instruments, one producing notes in obedience to mental perception, the other producing an entirely independent series of vibrations, resulting in articulate speech. The second can perform all its functions, though feebly, in a whispered voice

alone, but when assisted by the vibrating note of the first, its influence is much greater. He states that in singing practice “this separation of the two regions in which the conscious activity of each instrument must be definitely realised is one of the fundamental principles of the use and development of the voice, and is absolutely in accord with the physical and physiological distinctions between the two instruments.”

On this subject some practical work has also been done by W. S. Drew, who, acting upon the arguments given by D. C. Miller in Tke Science of Musical Sounds, applies the theory of vowel resonance to tone production, and states that the vowel resonator can be tuned to amplify the note which is being sung. If the resonance region which gives the characteristic sound to a vowel is high up in the scale, there should be no difficulty, for men’s voices at least, in singing that vowel throughout the compass; the characteristic

resonance

is low there will be found

if

notes, or

regions of notes, where it will be difficult to make the vowel sound quite “ natural.” "

He also states that so long as the harmonic which gives the characteristic sound to the vowel is present, the other harmonics may be modified in many ways to give varieties of tone quality, but if the characteristic vowel harmonic is lost then the modification of the pronunciation is apparent, and the vowel itself is heard to have changed.

II. SINGING IN GREAT BRITAIN Improved Standards.—The development of the musical aspect of song in Great Britain during the first quarter of the 2oth century has been greater than in any similar period since the 17th century. In schools, homes, and at so-called “ popular ” concerts the older type of popular ballad is gradually being superseded by a better type of song in which a lyric of poetic beauty is set to music bearing real art value. Many causes have contributed to this. The work of Parry, Stanford, Mackenzie, and to some extent of Sullivan, has kept the stream of British music flowing, and latterly, the influence of Elgar, though stronger orchestrally and chorally than in song, has been a great factor in national progress. Another factor is the rise, largely through the teaching of Corder at the Royal Academy of Music, and of Stanford at the Royal College of Music, of a school of British composers, who in song are today producing works which at least equal anything that is being produced abroad. Among the best of these are Granville Bantock, Arnold Bax, Arthur Bliss, Rutland Boughton, Frank Bridge, George Butterworth, Thomas Dunhill, Ernest Farrar, Armstrong Gibbs, Hamilton Harty, Gustav Holst, Joseph Holbrooke, John Ireland, Roger Quilter, Cyril Scott, Martin Shaw, Arthur Somervell, S. Coleridge-Taylor, ‘‘ Peter Warlock”? and Ralph Vaughan Williams. It is to be noted also that the World War had a marked effect by turning the attention of the nation to British musical art, and giving more opportunities for the performance of native works. Owing to the increased demand for copies, music publishers had a greater inducement to speculate in the production of the works of British composers. Lastly, British composers have undoubtedly added to their popularity by adopting to a much greater extent a musical idiom in composition which is founded upon national models,

particularly of the Tudor and Elizabethan composers, instead of following the trend of foreign musical taste or development. Unaccompanicd Song.—The most primitive type of song was of course unaccompanicd, and some composers have written songs of this type, but with all the freedom of the modern idiom in musical line, rhythm and chromaticism. It is claimed that in modern songs with orchestral accompaniment the human voice is associated with a volume of instrimental tone which overwhelms it, and that, though simplicity for its own sake is not desirable, in songs for voice alone a vehicle for expression is found that is, vocally, more complete; and that, as an artist can express himself in a line drawing and omit nothing that is essential, so a composer may, by-the vehicle of the voice, express in song all that is contained in the poet’s lyric, and the composer’s reflection of his own mental and temperamental counterpart of it in music. Unaccompanied songs have been composed by Herbert Bedford, Cyril Scott, Gerrard Williams, Frederick Austin, Felix White, Jane Joseph, George Oldroyd, Harry Farjeon, Francesca Hall, Eugene Bonner, Liza Lehmann and John Tobin, and a list of 39 is given in Herbert Bedford’s book. It is claimed that not only is the poet better served but that the composer and singer alike are freer in their possibilities of expression, and that the audience can be stimulated to an alertness ` of imagination similar to that required when witnessing a stage play produced without scenery. Lutenist Songs.—For many years the wealth of song to lute accompaniment contained in the forgotten resources of the British Museum and elsewhere was known to few musicians, and but for some enthusiasts would probably have remained unknown. Thanks to the efforts of Frederick Keel, Philip Wilson, “Peter Warlock ” and, most of all, Canon Edmund H. Fellowes, we are becoming familiar with a national heritage of song which is having a strong influence on our musical taste and upon our composers. The English school of lutenist song-writers began in 1597 with the publication of John Dowland’s first volume of airs and ended with his Pilgrim’s Solace (1612), save for one volume of songs by John Attey, published in 1622. Besides Dowland, who published four books of songs, the principal composers were Thomas Campion (five books), Robert Jones (five books),Thomas Morley, Phillip Rosseter, Thomas Ford, William Corkine and Francis Pilkington, and their combined work produced about 30 books of songs. Each book contained 20 or 21 numbers, and comprised a voice part with accompaniment in lute tablature or notation. A large number of songs were also alternatively arranged for unaccompanied part-singing by four performers. Fellowes states in his preface to the first volume of the reprint of Dowland’s airs, ‘‘ We have in this collection of volumes a rich store of national song, the music of which is wedded to superb verse belonging to the finest period in national literature.” The songs are in free rhythm, without time signatures, and, although barred, are quite irregular in time, the accents varying in accordance with the rhythm of the words. The manner is one which is once more being adopted by modern composers, and may be found in some of the songs of Holst, Vaughan Williams, ‘“‘ Warlock” and others, save that in most cases these adhere to time signatures, and change them as often as they desire. In their harmonised forms the lutenist songs resembled more the modern part-song than the contrapuntally written madrigal with which it was contemporary. Itis probable that the increasing popularity of the spinet and virginal was responsible for the brevity of the life of the English lutenist school. The lute was much more difficult to play than any keyboard instrument, and though

554

SINHA

songs were published with accompaniments for the lute until the end of the 17th century its use was almost confined to the work of professional experts. The rise of the popularity of the violin also detracted from that of the lute. Folk-songs.—The active interest in English folk-song dates only from the last quarter of the 19th century. Previous to this, collections of Irish, Welsh and Scottish songs had been gathered and published, also W. Chappell’s National English Airs which appeared in 1840, but until the work of Child, Baring Gould,

Vocal Composers —Edward MacDowell, Arthur Foote, George W. Chadwick and Horatio Parker have been termed the “ Big Four ” of American composers. Their work enjoys international appreciation, and though it cannot be said, even yet, that their musical successors have succeeded in establishing a definite American school of composition, it is undoubtedly true'that to-day (1926) there exists a coterie of song composers who are producing works which are of definite value in musical progress, not only in the United States, but internationally. Frank Kidson and one or two other pioneers drew attention to It is unfortunately also true that more bad music, vocal and the beauty of their discoveries, little was known of the folk-music instrumental, is produced and sold in the United States than in of the English people. There are at present folk-song societies in any other country, the taste for jazz and other “ best-sellers ”’ England, Scotland, Wales and Ireland, though in Scotland a being even greater than in Great Britain; but the amount of central body has not yet been established, and the work of col- good music being produced, circulated and taught is growing lection and publication is in the hands of various local societies. rapidly, and the songs and vocal works of such composers as the Work of great value has been done in England by Cecil Sharp, following can be cited as evidence of what is best in American who devoted his life to folk-song and folk-dancing, R. Vaughan song at the present time: Charles W. Cadman (operas, cantatas, Williams, Frederick Keel, George Butterworth, Lucy Broad- songs), John A. Carpenter (songs), Frederick S. Converse wood, H. Fleetwood Sheppard, J. A. Fuller-Maitland, Charles L. (operas, songs), John Densmore (songs), Henry F. Gilbert Marston and W. G. Whittaker. The recent publication of (songs), Rubin Goldmark (songs), Charles T. Griffes (songs), Songs of the Hebrides by M. Kennedy-Fraser and Kenneth Henry Hadley (operas, cantatas, 150 songs), Richard Hageman Macleod has added yet another and distinctive type, and the (songs), Henry H. Huss (cantatas, songs), Edgar S. Kelley arrangements of Irish airs by Herbert Hughes have popularised (operas, miracle play, songs), Charles M. Loeffler (cantatas, afresh the national airs of Ireland, though the popularity of these songs), Daniel G. Mason (songs), John Powell (songs), Ernest was already assured by the editions of Stanford and research Schelling (songs), David S. Smith (cantata, anthems, part-songs), work of W. H. Grattan Flood. A collection of Welsh songs, Emerson Whithorne (songs). (See also CHORAL SINGING; VOICE edited by J. Lloyd Williams and Arthur Somervell, is also a SOUNDS.) valuable contribution to these publications, as is the work of BIBLIOGRAPITY.— Mechanical m DE aes. Attack, Vowel Sir Richard Terry, whose collection of Sea Chaiities is already tones: E. J. Moure and å. Bouyer, Fils, The Abuse of the Voice, translated by Macleod Yearsley (1910); W. A. Aiken, The Voice (1910); well known. H. Holbrook Curtis, Voice Building and Tone Placing (1909); Rey: British composers have of recent years gone increasingly to naldo Hahn, Du Chant (1920); H. H. Hulbert, Eurhythm (1921); the folk-song for their pattern and inspiration, either basing W. S. Drew, Voice Training (1923); Wiliam Shakespeare, Plain their melodies on the style of the folk-song, or using the folk- Words on Singing (1924); J. Baratoux, The Voice (1925); George melodies in their works, as in Rutland Boughton’s lyrical drama Dodds and J. Dunlop Lickley, The Control of the Breath (1925); How Human Speech ts Produced, Lecture by Sir Richard A. S. Paget Bethlehem and Gustav Holst’s opera The Bear’s Head. Inthe (Tyneside Sunday Lecture Society, Nov. 22 1925). Songs: A. Eaglecollection of the words of English and Scottish Ballads the work ficld Hull, Dictionary of Modern Musicians (1924); Ralph Dunstan, of Francis J. Child must be noted. From 1882-98 he published Cyclobaedic Dictionary of Musie (1925). Herbert Bedford, Modern five volumes, containing 305 distinct ballads, some with as Unaccompanied Song (1923), Lutenist Songs: Edmund H. Fellowes, English Madrigal Composers (1921); Edmund H. Fellowes, First many as from ro to 28 variants, with the history and bibliogra- Book of Airs (John Dowland) (1920); Jeffrey Pulver, Dictionary of phy of each, an index of ballad airs and a collection of tunes. Old English Music and Musical Instruments (1923). Folk-songs:

III. SINGING IN THE UNITED STATES In many directions vocal music in the United States has made great progress since rọro. The scientific side of singing has been assiduously studied by both laryngologists and singing masters, and many volumes on the subject have been published, notably by Curtis, Herman, Miller, Shaw, etc. The result has been a steady improvement tn the general standard of voice production and cultivation. The attention paid to vocal tuition in schools and colleges throughout the country testifies to an increased recognition of the importance of music as a factor in education. As in Great Britain, there has been an active interest in folk-song. Indian, negro, American-English, American-Hungarian and other varieties of folk-melodies have been collected, and have been used by American composers, as, for example, in the orchestral compositions of Henry F. Gilbert, wherein are employed both Indian and negro melodies, Daniel G. Mason’s string quartet and John Powell's “ Rapsodie Négre,” which are both based on negro themes, and Griffes’ “ Two Sketches ” for string quartet, based on Indian themes. Interest in opera is undoubtedly growing. ‘The American Opera Society of Chicago publishes a list of 60 American composers of opera, though less than a dozen of their 90 works survived a first performance. A recent statement has been made (March 1926) that there are 24 grand opera companies touring the United States, besides those more or less permanently established in New York and Chicago. Public support of opera is lavish, and new works have opportunities for presentation probably equal to any in Europe, and, though a national school of opera is still in the future, the way is being paved for further talent and enterprise in this direction. German, Italian and Russian opera still hold popular taste to a great extent.

W. Chappell, National English ¿lirs (1840); F. J. Child, English and Scottish Ballads (1904); Cecil J. Sharp, English Folk- Song, Some Conclusions (1907). Books on the Artistic Aspect of Singing: David Ffrangcon-Davies, The Singing of the Future (1905); H. Plunkett Greene, Interpretation in Song (1912); Herman Klein, The Bel Canto, with particular reference to the singing of Mozart (1923); Dawson Freer, The Teaching of Interpretation in Song (1924); H Gregory Hast, The Singer's Art (1925). United States: A. Eaglefeld Hull, Dictionary of Modern Music and _Musicians (1924); Laurence Gilman, Nature in Afusic (1915); R. L. Herman, An open door of singers (1912); Frank E. Miller, fhe Voice (1910); W. Warren Shaw, The Lost Vocal Art (1914); Mathews, A hundred years of music in America; Ritter, Music in America; O. G. Sonneck, Survey of music in America; B. M. Steigman, 7fe great American Opera (Music and Letters Oct. 1925). From the Afusieal Quarterly: Henry F. Gilbert, The American Composer (April 1915); Herbert F. Small, On Opera (Jan. 1918); Daniel G. Mason, Folk-song and American Muste (April 1918); John T. Howard, Jr., Our Folk-music and its probable impress on American music of the future (April 1921); O. G. Sonneck, The American Composer and the American Publisher (Jan. 1923). See also Jan. 1920, April 1920, April 1922, July 1922, Jan. 1923 and

July 1924.

(G. Do.)

SINHA, SATYENDRA PRASSANO, rsr Baron or RAIPUR (1864), Indian statesman, was born of an ancient Kayastha family in the village of Raipur, Birbhum district, Bengal, in June 1864. From the Presidency College, Calcutta, he went to Lon- ` don in 1881 to join Lincoln’s Inn, where he won many prizes and scholarships, and was called to the Bar in 1886. He was the first Indian to be appointed advocate-general of Bengal (1908), and the first to become a member of the Government of India. He held the law portfolio from April 1909 to Nov. 1910. He

then resumed his lucrative practice at the Bar, and presided at the Indian National Congress session at Bombay in rors. He and the Maharaja of Bikaner were the first Indians to participate in Empire deliberations in London, for in 1917 they jointly assisted the secretary of state at the meetings of the

SINKING

FUND—SKIN

DISEASES

599

Iniperial War Cabinet, and were members of the Imperial War Conference. Sinha joined the Bengal executive council in the same year, but returned to England in 1918 as a member of the Imperial War Cabinet and Imperial War Conference, subsequently becoming a representative of India at the Peace Conference. Knighted in 1914, in 1918 he was made K.C., a distinction not previously conferred upon a barrister of Indian birth or practice.

individual predisposed by some lowered resistance. In the group of the eczemas it is customary now to include the various forms of occupational dermatitis. These are attracting attention, as they are responsible for considerable disablement. The list of irritants, chemical and physical, which may cause them, is continually being extended, and the problem of their prevention is receiving the close attention of the Public Health Authorities

At the beginning of rorg he established further records for an Indian by being appointed to the Ministry as under-secretary for India, and being raised to the peerage as Baron Sinha of Raipur. He was the second Indian to be sworn of the privy council. He skilfully conducted the Government of India Act, 1919, through the House of Lords, and at the close of 1920 was appointed governor of Bihar and Orissa, being the first Indian to preside over a British province. Ill-health prevented

Actinic Action.—The actinic rays of light have been shown to be an important factor in causing inflammation of the skin. For years it has been known that they are responsible for the peculiar eruption of the face and hands which recurs in summer in individuals sensitive to light (//ydroa aestivale), and for the more serious freckled affection which goes on to cutaneous cancer (Xeroderma pigmentosum). It is only recently, however, that the peculiar, dry, atrophic, freckled condition of the skin, dotted over with dilated capillaries, and horny thickenings which may become malignant, has been shown to be due to the sun’s rays. This is met with on the unprotected parts, namely the arms, hands and face, of people long exposed to the sun, in countries where its rays are Intense, such as India, South Africa, Australia, etc.; it is now designated as chronic solar dermatitis, and corresponds closely to a chronic burn from the X-rays. Microbial -Action.—The réle of micro-organisms and parasites in causing skin disease is being more appreciated. Bacteria (see BACTERIOLOGY) have been shown to be the cause, not only of the common forms of septic impetigo, but of a variety of scaly affections, previously regarded as forms of eczema, which are now included under the heading of Dermo-épidermites microbiennes. Ultra-microscopic organisms, capable of passing through a

him from serving his full term in that office, and in 1921 he resigned. SINKING FUND: see GREAT BRITAIN: FINANCE. SISAL: see FIBRES.

SKEAT, WALTER WILLIAM

(1835-1912), British author (sce

25.168), died at Cambridge Oct. 7 1912. SKIN DISEASES (sce 25.190).—Since ro1o our knowledge of skin diseases has been advanced by the discovery of the cause of certain affections, by the addition of new methods of treatment and by the recognition of new entities. Classification.—The classification of skin diseases, at first based on naked-cye appearances, and, later, on the underlying pathological changes, is becoming simplified by the adoption of an etiological basis, and, as our knowledge of their causation becomes more com-

plete, such an ideal becomes possible, and is being attempted

in the

more recent text-books. At the present time, however, the cause of certain skin diseases remains obscure, but, as the gaps in our knowledge become gradually filled in, the group of the unclassified affections becomes correspondingly diminished. With the improvement in classification, the nomenclature also has become more rational

and etiological. In the early descriptive period it was complicated by an attempt to divide cutaneous diseases into hard and fast varieties, usually designated by ‘‘ dog-Latin ” adjectives, such as Eczema erythematosum, FE. papulosum, E. vestculosunt, etc.; by an effort to indicate the disease by some compound name, suggesting its essential characteristics, such as Ervthema multiforme exudativum; or, still worse, by the disease being named after him who claimed to have first described it. It has now been simplified by the realisation that certain skin affections, believed in the past to be discases per se, are

only variants of a common pathological process, modifed by individual peculiarities or situation, and, by making it etiological, as in such names as blastomycetic dermatitis—a disease due to a yeast—or

Tuberculosis cutis—skin tubercle bacillus in situ.

lesions

caused

by the

presence

of the

Of the new forms of skin disease which have been recognised in recent years, the most numerous have been those occurring in tropical countries, and of them a considerable number are due to fungi, and constitute the group of the tropical dermato-mycoses. In Great Britain the cutancous lesions associated with diseases of the blood have been the subject of careful study, especially those which occur in connection with the leukaemias and lymphadenoma. Ringworm.—lIt is now established that the disease, popularly known as ringworm, is due to a number of mould-fungi, which vary in different climates and countries, like other members of the vegetable kingdom, and which have a wide distribution in the animal kingdom, occasionally even in birds, from which they are capable of being transmitted readily to man. Certain resistant forms of dermatitis, affecting various parts of the body, but more especially the groins and the extremities, which may closely resemble eczema, are not variants of that protean disease, but the result of the presence in the skin of certain ringworm fungi. This type of ringworm has increased since the World War, as it was common among the troops, especially those who went through the Gallipoli campaign, or served in the East, and was brought home and spread by them. Eczema.—Eczema, the commonest of skin affections, is no longer regarded as a disease due to a single cause, but as a form of cutaneous reaction, due to a variety of irritants, acting either locally, from without, or circulating in the blood, possibly in an

(see INDUSTRIAL WELFARE).

Berkefeld filter, which have become prominent lately in connection with cancer (see CANCER; FILTER-PASSING MICROBES), would seem to be responsible for the small epidermal growths, known as Molluscum contagiosum, and it is more than probable that similar organisms will be found to be the cause of other types of benign and malignant epithelial growths. In the Tropics, the so-called Calabar swellings have been found to be of filarial origin, and the Oriental sore to be due to a parasite of the trypanosome family. Focal Infeciion.—Focal infection, in the sense of protein poisoning from bacteria in some crypt or tissue, or in the alimentary tract, has of late years been advanced as a possible cause of Lupus erythematosus, circumscribed patches of eczema, and other erythematous conditions, and the improvement in them which sometimes follows the injection of an autogenous vaccine has been taken as evidence of an etiological connection. Nervous System.— Although certain affections of the skin, such as Herpes zoster, or shingles, have been proved to be of nervous origin, the trend of recent research has gone to show that the influence of the nervous system as a cause of cutaneous disease has been overrated, and that a number of affections, which were vaguely attributed to reflex nervous disturbances, are either of toxic origin, or due to imperfect action of a ductless gland, or to some «disordered state of the blood. Anaphylaxis —The doctrine of anaphylaxis (which means the state of hyper-sensitiveness occurring when the organism has reacted to some toxin or irritant and reacts more acutely to a second dose of the same toxin), has contributed to our knowledge of certain cutaneous phenomena, and has explained the hability to recur of a dermatitis due to local irritation, or to the presence in the blood of some foreign protein.

Therapeutics—The

advances

in treatment

have been re-

markable. Internal treatmént has become based more on general medical principles and on the discovery and correction of some underlying disturbance in an organ or system than on so-called specific medication. That sheet-anchor of the earlier physicians—arsenic—has lost its position as a panacea for chronic skin affections, and any value it may have in the treatment of psoriasis, pemphigus, etc. is being regarded more as the result of its value as a nerve tonic than as a specific drug. It has attained, however, a new importance In its organic preparations, in the treatment of syphilis (see VENEREAL DISEASE).

556

SKRZYNSKI—SLAVERY

Orgauno-therapy.—The increase in our knowledge of the ductless glands (see ENDOCRINOLOGY) has added organo-therapy to our methods of treatment, and thyroid medication has proved to be of benefit in various skin affections in childhood, associated with retarded development, and especially in mild ichthyosis, in which eczematous changes are so liable to be superimposed.

Vaccine

Therapy.—The

value

of vaccines

(see VACCINE

THERAPY) in the treatment of skin diseases has been overrated, and their use in the past was too promiscuous. They are of most value in acute suppurating lesions of staphylococcic origin, such as recent boils. The development in local treatment has been even more striking than that from internal medication. Refrigeration; Diathermy.—Reirigeration, with carbon dioxide as the freezing agent, has become established as a useful means of destroying vascular naevi, moles, warts, superficial rodent ulcers, and of ameliorating Lupus erythematosus of the fixed type. Diathermy has proved of great value in inoperative cases of rodent ulcer, and for cauterisation of malignant growths in the mouth of naso-pharynx (see ELECTRO-THERAPY.) Radiotherapy.—The greatest advances, however, have taken

place in connection with radiotherapeutics (see RONTGENOLOGY). The newer methods of X-ray dosage, made possible by the use of the Cuolidge tube, has increased the usefulness of the X-rays as a means of healing chronic ulcers, relieving local irritations, reducing epidermal thickening and causing the defluvium of the hair for the cure of ringworm of the scalp. Radium has proved to be of special service in the treatment of rodent ulcers and hypertrophic scars (see Raptum). The value of the actinic rays of hght, when applied locally, in the treatment of tuberculosis of the skin, and in healing chronic ulcers, has been greatly enhanced by its use over the whole cutaneous surface, in the form of actinic ray baths, which have been found to improve the general health by stimulating metabolism and increasing the bactericidal power of the blood. See HELIO-THERAPY. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—]J. M. H. MacLeod, Diseases of the Skin (1920); J. H. Sequeira, Diseases of the Skin, ard ed. (1919); Norman Walker,

Introduction to Dermatology, 8th ed. (1925).

(J. M. H. McL.)

SKRZYNSKI, ALEXANDER, Count (1882), Polish statesman, was born at Zagorzany, Galicia. Educated at Cracow and Munich, he entered the diplomatic service in 1906 and was appointed secretary to the ambassador to the Holy See in rgro. When the World War broke out he was secretary to the Austro-Hungarian Ambassador in Paris. After a short military service at the beginning of the War, he completed his studies for the Bar, receiving the degree of Doctor of the Law at the University of Vienna. When the new Polish State was established, he was appointed

Polish Minister Plenipotentiary

at Bucharest, and later succeeded in concluding a PolishRumanian political treaty In 192r. In Dec. 1922, after the murder of Narutowicz, the first international President of the Republic, Skrzynski became Minister of Foreign Affairs. He threw himself energetically into the task of settling all open questions, inaugurated a pacific policy based on the final stabilisation of frontiers and gained the necessary confidence of the Powers. When a Cabinet of the Right was formed in May 1623, Skrzynski thereby lost office, and he was appointed in the following month Polish delegate to the League of Nations. In Aug. 1924 he again accepted the portfolio of Minister of Foreign Affairs in the Grabski Cabinet. By a number of conventions, the regulation of the British and American debts, the concordat with the Vatican, the rapprochement with Czechoslovakia, Skrzynski strengthened Poland’s international position, taking an active part in the League of Nations in elaborating the scheme for the Geneva Protocol and in securing settlement of the Danzig disputes in a manner favourable to Poland. He tried to disarm the suspicions of Moscow as to the new configuration of Europe by receiving Chicherin at Warsaw (Sept. 1924). In the negotiations in connection with the German proposals with regard to the Locarno Pact (1925), Skrzynski sought to reconcile Polish interests with the general scheme of the conference, and signed an arbitration agreement with Germany and also a convention with France in

AND

FORCED

LABOUR

accordance therewith. After the fall of Grabski’s Government Nov. 13 1925 Skrzynski was entrusted with the formation of a government by Wojciechowski, the President of the Republic, and with the participation of the Socialists formed a coalition cabinet in which he himself was Prime Minister and Minister

of Foreign Affairs. In May 1926, however, the Socialists seceded from the Cabinet. Skrzynski considered that the Coalition rested on too narrow a basis, and therefore resigned the Premiership. See also POLAND. SKYSCRAPER: see ARCIUTECTURE. SLAVERY AND FORCED LABOUR (sce 25.216).—Before the first decade of the 2zoth century was past, a more or less settled administration had been established throughout Africa under European control, except in Abyssinia and Liberia. Forcible seizures and even small raids on frontiers not yet under effective control, especially on the borders of the Sahara, still occurred from time to time, and slave-dealing still surreptitiously existed, but these were dealt with as ordinary crime. Effective administration of the territories controlled by the Great Powers was maintained throughout the World War, and in the world settlement which followed a fresh convention was concluded at St. Germain in 1919, in which the signatories pledged themselves to suppress “ slavery in all its forms ’’—~a new and very significant formula. The New Convention.—This convention superseded the Berlin and Brussels Acts so far as its signatories (the Allies in the War) were concerned, and it seemed doubtful to what extent those Acts remained operative. The new convention, like its predecessors, dealt with many subjects: navigation of rivers, freedom of trade, etc. The liquor traffic and the arms traffic were, however, dealt with in separate conventions, while slavery and the slave trade occupied but a single clause in the convention. Enquiry by the League of Nations.—The admission of Abyssinia to membership of the League in Sept. 1923—a country in which slavery still remained a legal institution, and in which slave-raiding and the slave trade had until recently been carried on, and were alleged to be still existing—was the proximate cause of the revival of the question as a subject of international concern. The League of Nations appointed a committee to investigate the subject. It met in session in July 1924, and again in the following year. It recommended inter alia a new convention, to which the adherence of all States, whether members of the League or not, should be invited. This proposal was accepted, and the British Government submitted a draft convention. All States members of the League, and also Afghanistan, Ecuador, Egypt, Germany, Mexico, the Sudan, Turkey and the United States were invited to send to the secretary-general not later than June 1926 any observations they might desire to make regarding its provisions . . . and to assist one

another

forthwith

in the abolition

of the slave

trade,

slavery and conditions analogous thereto by all practicable means.

These ‘ analogous conditions,”

>

says the official report, “are

intended to include all forms of debt slavery—the enslaving of persons disguised as the adoption of children and the acquisition of girls by purchase disguised as payment of dowry, etc.” The convention purports to represent the highest minimum standard to which it was anticipated that general acceptance could be secured, but “it is hoped that no States will be satisfied with compliance with the minimum standard which is now proposed.” Domestic Slavery.—In regard to domestic slavery and serfdom a larger experience has Jed to recognition that among primitive

tribes, and also among communities which have adopted the Moslem faith, or a Christianity (as in Abyssinia) based on the law of the Pentateuch, the institution has become so intimately interwoven with the social fabric that sudden and enforced emancipation would bring ruin and misery to the slaves no less than to their owners. In such cases, therefore, absolute prohibition of the acquisition of new slaves, and of all dealing in slaves, combined with the abolition of the legal status—so that no court of law can recognise any rights based on the claim of property in the person of another—is the preferable method. This gives to every slave the right to assert his freedom without any

SLAVONIA—SLEEPING ransom or formality, but does not make it a crime for a master to retain a slave if both desire to remain in that relationship. It is permissive as contrasted with compulsory freedom. Forced Labour.—The convention “ deals for the first time in international agreements with the question of forced labour,”

which may be viewed from two standpoints. There is probably a consensus of opinion that in certain cases a State may find itself under the necessity of compelling labour for essential public works or services. There is also probably a predominant opinion that such labour should be fairly remunerated, though some hold the view that if compulsory labour is imposed under the guise of a tax—as a fiscal measure—it need not be restricted to urgent public services, and of course would not be remunerated, —as the Central African mandates require. The second principle to be determined is whether it is permissible in any circumstances to use compulsion for the supply of labour, even though paid, in enterprises conducted for private profit. Abuses of the system known in South America as ‘‘ peonage ” fall under this category, by which labourers become involved in debt which they can never repay, and so become slaves for life. The Slavery Commission pointed out that this system merits particular condemnation when an alicn employer deliberately adopts measures to secure by such means the life-long servitude of an ignorant and unsuspicious peasantry. From this brief outline it is evident that the standards and aspirations of to-day show a fuller appreciation of the true interests of the backward races than was possible a couple of

decades ago, and a conscientious desire to deal with them by liberal and practical methods. BIsLIoGRAPHY.—II.M. Stationery Office, The Berlin Act, C. 4361 of 1885 and Protocols; The Brussels Act, C. 6048 of 1890; The Convention of St. Germain-en-Laye, C. 477 (1919); Sir F. Lugard, The Dual Mandate in Tropical Africa, chap. 17-21 (1922); Sir F. Lugard, “ Slavery, Forced Labour and the League,’ The Nineteenth Century and After (Jan. 1926).

See also the following publ. of the League of Nations: Report of Slavery Commission, Ist session, Minutes, A. 17 and 18, 1924 VI.; Afinuies 6th Committee Supp. 29, also A. 42 and 42 (a) 1924 VL; 2nd Session, A. 19, 1925 VI. and C. 426, M. 157 VI. of (1925); also A. 130, 1925 VI. A. 39; Minutes 6th Session Mandates Commission, C. 386 M. 132, 1925 VI., p. 47 and 142; Verbatim report of fifth assembly 17th meeting;

Verbatim report 6th assembly roth eg *

SLAVONIA:

he

see CROATIA-SLAVONIA.

SLEEPING SICKNESS (sce 25.240c).—At the Internationa] Conference held in London in June 1rgo07 nine problems were stated for future solution. Some of these have been completely, others partly, solved (1) and (2).! Transmission of Infection —It was at first believed that the transmission of Trypanosoma gambiense by the tsetse fiy, Glossina palpalis, was direct or mechanical, and that a fly lost its power of infecting 24-48 hours after feeding on an infected man. Kleine (1909) showed that this is not the case. In a certain percentage of flies the germs ingested with the blood do not die but multiply exceedingly in the fly’s gut, change in form, come forward and at last invade the salivary glands, where they resume their blood form. During the process, which occupies 14-28 days or more, the fly is not infective, but when the germs are established in the salivary glands it regains its infectivity and may retain it for a long period, for at each feed germs are poured into the puncture. Unless the salivary glands contain the germs a fly is not capable of infecting, but only in a small proportion is this development completed; in nature the proportion of infected flies rarely exceeds one in 1,000. Conveyance is therefore indirect. Direct infection may occur in nature, but the failure of the disease to spread in the absence of tsetse, even though biting insects of many kinds are present, seems to show it must be rare, e.g., hundreds of cases of sleeping sickness were recorded in the West Indies among slaves brought from Africa, but there is no recorded instance of spread in the New World. The disease was formerly rife in the island of Principe in the Gulf of Guinea, where palpalis abounded, but no cases occurred in the neigh1 These numbers refer to the problems discussed in 25.240.

SICKNESS

557

bouring island of San Thomé, with the same insect fauna, but, like America, with no tsetse. Duke believes that when the disease is epidemic direct infection is the rule. There is no evidence that the fly can transmit the germs to its offspring. The dy has been shown to be capable of infecting for at least 96 days. Other species of glossina, e.g., morsitans, tachinoides, become similarly infected, and it is probable that all the species are capable of conveying sleeping sickness; whether they do so or not depends in part on their habits; e.g., some species rarely attack man. I. Rhodesiense—In 1909 a second species of trypanosome was discovered in a case of human infection from Rhodesia and called J. rhodesiense. It is found in areas infested not by G. palpalis but by G. morsitans, and was shown by Kinghorn and Yorke (1911) to be conveyed by this species and to undergo in it a similar development. 7. rhodesiense infections are founc in Nyasaland, Portuguese East Africa and Tanganyika Terri- | tory, besides northern Rhodesia, and, rarely, south of the Zambezi river. T. rhodesiense cannot be distinguished from gambiense by its appearance in human blood; after inoculation into animals microscopical differences can be detected; since such inoculations are rarely made it may be more often the cause of sleeping sickness than is believed; its carrier is widely distributed. Indeed, a few cases have been found as far north as the AngloEgyptian Sudan; and near Mwanza, south of Lake Victoria, a small epidemic occurred in 1922, conveyed by a tsetse akin to morsituns. This type of human trypanosomiasis is rarely epidemic; cases occur in sporadic fashion. It is more acute and more rapidly fatal than the gambiense varicty, and is more resistant to T. brucei, Zululand to be the separated

drugs. Whether or not T. rkodesiense is identical with the parasite of nagana, first described by Bruce in (1893), is undecided. Bruce and Yorke consider them same; Kleine makes a distinction. They cannot be by their appearance under the microscope, the symp-

toms and course of the illness produced in animals, or the manner and site of development in the tsetse. Both complete their development in the salivary glands. If thcy are the same, man must, as a rule, be refractory to infection, for T. brucei is common in animals over a large fly-infested area of Africa. T. brucei and T. rhodesiense are found in big game, especially Waterbuck, bushbuck, reedbuck, haartebeest, on which G. morsitans feeds. These animals are, therefore, reservoirs of germs capable of infecting man, and much discussion has taken place as to the rdle played by big game in the spread of 7. rhodesiense, some claiming that the passage of the parasite is game to fly to man; others that it is man to fly to man. A decisive opinion cannot even now be given. | An experiment was made in East Africa during the World War in which blood was taken from transport animals infected with 7. brucei and inoculated by Taute into himself, his colleague Huber and 127 natives. Though animals inoculated at the same time always became infected, there was no single instance of infection in man. They concluded that man is immune to infection by T. brucei. This striking experiment, however, does not convince those who believe man to be susceptible but very resistant. As regards T. gambiense, it is generally agreed that infected

man is the chief reservoir of infection, though Bruce (1911) found that antelopes can be infected with this trypanosome by

allowing infected palpalis to feed upon them, and they continue to harbour the trypanosomes in their blood for many months, and though the sitatunga antelope (Tragelaphus spekei} is commonly infected under natural conditions on Lake Victoria

(Duke).

Domestic animals also harbour both trypanosomes, in

the case of T. gambiense without sign of illness; whether they play any appreciable part in the spread of the human disease is unknown. Field observations have shown that in northern Nigeria and French Africa, south of Lake Chad, another tsetse, G. tachinoides, conveys a human trypanosome, probably T. gambiense. In these areas fachinoides is the only tsetse.

558

SLESVIG— SMALLPOX

Treatmeni.—Sleeping sickness is now treated by compounds of arsenic, especially afoxyl and tryparsamide, the latter a product of the Rockefeller Institute; by compounds of antimony, as tartar emetic; and by a drug of undisclosed composition called Bayer 205, or Germanin. The French and Belgians use afoxyl largely in the African villages, where doses are injected at the proper intervals by trained natives. A high degree of success is claimed, both curative and preventive,in that the blood is kept free from germs which might be taken up by the tsetse. Al fimonials are used as a rule in conjunction or alternation with arsenicals. Bayer 205, first employed in the treatment of man in 1921, has remarkable successes to its credit in Europeans, especially in cases of the Rhodesian type which were refractory to other drugs; unless used with caution it has a harmful effect on the kidneys. It has been less successful in natives, perhaps because infection is usually detected in them at a later stage when the spinal cord and brain are affected, and at this stage treatment nearly always fails. French chemists have prepared the same or a similar drug. Tryparsamide, introduced about the same time, appears to be still more potent, and especially in cases in which the nervous system is involved, but it also has a serious effect in that it sometimes affects vision. Though sleeping sickness in the European is nearly always a fatal disease if left untreated, in the natives of parts of Africa it is very chronic, does not interfere with the patient’s activities, and almost certainly may end in natural recovery. The means of prevention of sleeping sickness have been known in principle for 20 years, and depend upon the fact that infection 1s conveyed by tsetse flies and in no other way.

An International Conference—At the instance of the League of Nations an International Conference on Sleeping Sickness met in London in 1925. In its recommendations it laid down administrative measures which should be taken on both sides of the frontiers between infected countries for the control of the disease, and advised the dispatch to Uganda of an international commission to study certain problems, such as immunity to the

disease, the function of wild and domestic animals as breeding grounds for the virus, and the relations between T. gambiense and 7. rhodesiense infections; work with curative and prophylactic drugs was also envisaged. The commission started work in 1926. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—Report of the Interdepartmental Committee on Sleeping Sickness, 11.M.S.0O., London, Cd. 7349 (1914); Sir David

Bruce, ‘‘ Croonian Lectures,” Lancet (June and July 1915); B. Blacklock and W. Yorke, “ The Trypanosomiases,’’ in W. Byam and R. G. Archibald’s Practice of Medicine in the Tropics, vol. 2 (1922); also Tropical Diseases Bulletin, Tropical Diseases Bureau (London 1912-25). All the scientifc publications on sleeping sickness are abstracted in this periodical. (å. W. G. B.)

SLESVIG: see SCHLESWIG. SMALL HOLDINGS: see ALLOTMENTS. SMALLPOX (see 25.247).—Since about roro much knowledge of the nature of this disease has accrued in the course of attempts to discover the causal organism. This has been sought, though fruitlessly, in many direct investigations of the rash and of the blood by microscopical examination and by attempts to inoculate animals. The failure is explained, in part, by the discovery that the virus of vaccinia and, by analogy, also that of smallpox belong to the group of filter-passing viruses (see FILTERPASSING MICROBES). Jenner believed that cowpox (vaccinia) and smallpox (variola) have the same origin and nature. But attempts to inoculate the cow with smallpox matter failed and Jenner’s opinion was not substantiated until Monckton Copeman and others proved that the virus of smallpox can be inoculated in the cow by a process of transmission or passage and that in the cow, under these conditions, typical lesions of vaccinia are produced. But although vaccinia is the same disease as smallpox, during its passage through the cow it has lost the power of producing a generalised septicaemic infection in man though it induces the typical lesion at the site of inoculation and by means of this local lesion, pro-

tects the vaccinated individual against the from which the vaccine matter was derived.

major

infection

Use of Lymph.— Establishment of the homologous relationship between variola and vaccinia widened the field of investigators into the nature of the contagium of smallpox by providing a material, viz., vaccine lymph, which is at once abundant and easily produced. By experiments in the rabbit, which is susceptible to vaccinia, the immunity conferred by vaccinia has been studied and it has been shown that certain specific substances or antibodies are produced in the blood and tissues of the vaccinated animal similar to those produced in typhoid fever and cholera, and that the antibodies in vaccinia and variola are apparently identical. It has been claimed, thongh on insufficient grounds, that this identity affords a means of certain diagnosis of the disease in doubtful cases of smallpox. Serum Therapy.—tIn so far as the therapeutic application of the knowledge thus acquired is concerned, it has been shown that the serum of animals which are immune to vaccinia not only has protective power against vaccinia but also is possessed of curative properties because it destroys the virus of vaccinia in vitro. Whether this curative property is susceptible of increase by means of a graduated increase of dose of virus has not been investigated. In France, the serum of convalescent smallpox patients has been used in treatment and it is claimed that an undoubted curative result was obtained in cases which from clinical experience would almost certainly have proved fatal. But so far the virus of smallpox has not been obtained in quantity sufficient to permit of the attempt to manufacture a therapeutic serum, nor has it been shown that the immunity of an animal to vaccinia can be raised to a degree which might make its serum of value in the treatment of smallpox. Polyvalent vaccines and serum prepared from pyogenic organisms have been used with some success in the treatment of severe confluent smallpox. This treatment is based on the assumption that the severity of the later stage of the illness in confluent smallpox, z.c. the stage of maturation or pustulation of the rash with the secondary fever of the disease, is closely associated with a secondary pyogenic Infection. HISTORY

OF THE DISEASE

The mode of spread of smallpox may be illustrated by a short account of the incidence of the disease in Europe since 191o. It is convenient to divide the period into three quinquennia:— 1. 1910-4, the period preceding the War; 2. 1915~-9, the period of the War; 3. 1920-4, the period of gradual recovery from the War. Pre-War Incidence—During the first quinquennium no satisfactory arrangement existed among the European powers for the interchange of information concerning the incidence of epidemic diseases, and particularly from large areas where the disease is endemic and vaccination negligible, such as Spain, the Balkan States, Turkey and Russia, information concerning the rise and fallin incidence or even of serious epidemic extensions of the disease was scanty and unreliable. During this quinquennium the disease was very prevalent in Italy where a severe epidemic occurred in 1911-2. On the other hand, in France, Belgium, Austria, Germany, Denmark, Holland and the Scandinavian countries, smallpox was a rare disease as it had been since the beginning of the century. In England and Wales no extensive epidemic had occurred since the outbreak of 1002-3-4 and in the five years period before the War only 88 deaths from smallpox were recorded in Great Britain.

.

The War Period.—With the outbreak of War in 1914 the decline was arrested and the movement of armies and migration of civil population to and from the endemic centres in the east of Europe rapidly made itself felt by an uncontrolled and increasing spread of smallpox which reached its greatest intensity in rọrọ. In the end of 1914 and throughout 1915 severe epidemic smallpox carried by prisoners of war from Russia and refugees occurred in the states of the old Austrian Empire which bordered on Russia and also in the Balkans. Similar agencies scattered the infection throughout Germany and in 1916-7 there were outbreaks in Hamburg and other western towns. The incidence of the disease in Germany rose continuously throughout the

SMEDLEY—SMETONA years of the War. Over 2,000 cases were recorded during 1917 and upwards of 5,000 during rọrọ. The infection reached Sweden on more than one occasion and a few cases occurred in Norway. In the Netherlands at least one serious outbreak occurred. | The experience of France during the war period was remarkable. The serious epidemic which swept over the country during the war of 1870-1 had not been forgotten and the French army of the World War was efficiently protected by vaccination. The invading German troops were also protected and no doubt acted as a screen to France on the east. Throughout the country, with the exception of districts on the Mediterranean coast and bordering on the Spanish frontier, the incidence amongst the civil population was low during the War. The freedom of France was reflected in the freedom of England during this period. The British army, like the French, was vaccinated and therefore in contrast to the experience of England in 1870-71, and in spite of the enormous volume of cross-channel traffic, only a small amount of smallpox infection reached England through France. In the later years of the War the revolution in Russia sent many refugees into this country who brought the infection via Scandinavia and the Murmansk coast. But the close guard maintained on the North Sea ports of Britain and the vigilance of her public health authorities prevented any serious attack on the civil population in spite of the increasing neglect of vaccination among the people. Post-War Incidence—In the third quinquennium, 1920-4, the bureau for the service of epidemiological intelligence and public health statistics was initiated under the authority of the League of Nations for the purpose of collection and interchange of information concerning epidemic diseases. The annual report from this source for 1924 deals with 29 European, 17 African, 20 American, 16 Asiatic countries and Australasia, and shows that in Europe smallpox incidence has diminished year by year since 1919. The effects of the War on the incidence of the disease in Russia and neighbouring countries, viz.: Czechoslovakia, Rumania, Austria, Poland, Finland and Germany reached their culminating point in 191g and since that year the decline in prevalence in all these countries has been continuous and rapid. Similarly in Italy, where 34,365 cases were recorded in roro, only 190 cases occurred in 1924. Although Spain continues to be the chief endemic centre in the west of Europe, the recorded deaths from smallpox in that country fell from 3,620 in rgi9 to 1,214 in 1924. During the quinquennium England and Switzerland were the only European countries in which the incidence rose. In Switzerland the figure for 1924 shows a fall but in England the increase was progressive to the end of the period as seen by the following table :— Number

of Cases of

Smallpox Recorded in

In England Wales

and

.

In Switzerland

a

OF EPIDEMIC

diseases and regard it as a newly identified member of the group,

while others maintain that it is a hybrid of smallpox and chickenpox, a true varioloid-varicella. On the other hand the weight of medical opinion in England inclines to the view that the disease is simply a mild type of smallpox. Chinical——Differentiation of the smallpox eruptions similar in type has become more certain and rapid through the work of Ricketts. Ricketts’ thesis is that the focal rash of smallpox has a characteristic distribution governed by two complementary factors, viz.: exposure to irritation and protection against irritation, which determine a relative increase and decrease of the incidence of the rash on any part of the skin surface. These factors are independent of the course of the disease and of the evolutionary changes which constitute the features of the rash. They are also independent of modification of these changes resulting from variation in immunity possessed by the patient or of variation in the toxic power of the infecting virus. ‘They have the further advantage of being objective and therefore less Hable to confusion in Interpretation than any others. They begin to be established with the beginning of the outcrop of the rash, are fully established when eruption is completed ‘and remain unchanged as long as the rash lasts. Experimental —Blaxall, Cleland and Ferguson, Green and Gordon in England, and Leake and Force in America, have experimented on lower animals with material from the mild disease and also with material from severe cases of acknowledged smallpox, in order to determine what differences, if any, exist between the two conditions and in their immunological relations to each other and to vaccinia. The results of these investigations have been summarised by Ledingham, and confirm the opinion that the mild disease as it exists in England is smallpox of which the virus has lost a degree of its toxicity for man but retains its Important properties for other animals. The distinction between the two viruses is one of lethal power only and the factors which govern this property are unknown. Over five years’ experience in England of a widespread infection by the mild type of smallpox has afforded very little, if any, evidence of a tendency to increase in virulence. But in the absence of knowledge of the cause of variation in lethal power or of the natural conditions which may favour its occurrence, It is unsafe to assume that a low degree of virulence is a permanent feature of this type of smallpox and on that assumption to relax the stringency of administrative precautions against the disease. BIBLIOGRAPITY.—A. Béclére, Chambon and Ménard, ‘ Etudes sur

2

In both countries the mild type of the disease associated with the almost complete absence of fatality, led to the concealment of cases and an increasing neglect of vaccination. VARIATION

559

Kaffir-pox, another by Ribas in Brazil in 1910, under the name of Alastrim, and others of a similarly mild character have been recorded in the United States, the West Indian Islands, Australia, and, as mentioned above, in England and Switzerland. The opinions of many modern observers differ from that of Jenner who was satisfied in calling his outbreak a “ variety of smallpox.” That the form of disease observed in so many parts of the world belongs to the smallpox group is common ground. But some observers hold that it is more closely allied to chickenpox than to smallpox; others differentiate it from both

TYPE

Outbreaks of smallpox, like those of other infectious diseases, vary in their lethal power. In 1789 Jenner described an outbreak which occurred about seven years before in Gloucestershire, “ of so mild a nature that a fatal instance was scarcely ever heard of . . I watched its progress upward of a year without perceiving any variation in its general appearance. I consider it then as a variety of smallpox.” Observers in different parts of the world have directed attention to the occurrence of outbreaks which apparently resemble the one described by Jenner. An outbreak in South Africa was described by de Korté in 1904, under the name of Amaas or

immuniteé |vaccinale,”’ Annales de l'Instit. Pasteur (1899): 5. M. Copeman, * The Inter-relationship of Variola and Vaccinia,” Proc. Roy. Soc. (1902); T. F. Ricketts, The Diagnosis of Smallpox (1908); Epidemiological late igence No. 9, Statistics of Notable Disesases for the year 1924 (Geneva, June 1925); M. H. Gordon, Studies of the Viruses of vaccinia and variola,” Report to the Medical Research

Council (1925); J. C. G. Ledingham, Lancel (Jan. 24 1925); S. B. Woodward, Boston Medical and Surgical Jour. (1925).

(Aee Car) SMEDLEY, WILLIAM THOMAS (1858-1920), American artist (see 25.251), died at Bronxville, N.Y., March 26 r920. SMETONA, ANTANAS (1874),Lithuanian politician and journalist, was born Aug. ro 1874 in the Ukmerge district, Lithuania. In 1897 he went to the University of St. Petersburg (Leningrad) as a law student, and received his diploma in 1902. Smetona edited the first Lithuanian daily, Viniaus Zinios (Vilna News), and the democratic party organ Lietuvos U kininkas. In 1905 he was elected a member of the Presidium of the Vilna (Wilno) Diet, which proclaimed Lithuanian autonomy, but

SMILLIE—SMITH, THEOBALD

560

he continued his journalistic activities as editor successively of Viltis and Vairas. During the World War Smetona acted as chairman of the Lithuanian war relief committee. On the convocation of the Tautos Taryba, or national council, during the German military occupation of the country, he was unanimously elected its president, and in the spring of 1919 first president of the newly-proclaimed independent state of Lithuania, a post which he held till the spring of 1920, when the Constituent Assembly was convened at Kaunas (Kovno). After his retire-

ment from the Government Smetona returned to journalism as editor of Balsas, Vairas and Lietuvis, which represented the National Progressives. In 1921 he served as chairman of the Lithuanian delegation at Riga during the negotiations on the settlement of the Latvian-Lithuanian boundary dispute. Early in 1923, when the insurrection broke out in the Memel territory against the German Directorate, Smetona was requested by the Lithuanian Govt. to compose the trouble in co-operation with the Allied representatives. In the same year he joined the teaching stafi of the newly established university as lecturer on philosophy.

SMILLIE,

ROBERT

(18s50-

} British

politician,

was

born on March 17 1859 in Belfast, of Scottish parents. He left school when only 14 and worked first in a Clyde shipyard and later as a miner in the Lanarkshire pits. In 1894 he became president of the Scottish Miners’ Federation, and later formed the Miners’ Federation of Great Britain. Under his leadership the great strike of coal miners of 1912 was conducted and a national minimum wage secured. He was a member of the royal commission on mines set up in 1919 and presided over by Mr. Justice Sankey. He resigned the presidency of the Miners’ Federation in 1921. Though best known as a miners’ leader, Smillie possessed strong internationalist sympathies, and was an ardent pacifist during the World War. After seven unsuccessful contests he was elected M.P. for Morpeth in 1923. In 1924 he published Afy Life for Labour. SMITH, ALFRED EMANUEL (1873), American politician, was born in New York City Dec. 30 1873. The son of humble parents, his father being a truck driver, he was educated in the St. James parochial school, and for several years was employed in the Fulton fish market. He was very popular with his associates, and at the age of 29 was offered the Democratic nomination for the New York State Assembly by the Tammany leader of the district in which he lived. He was elected for 1903, and by re-electionserved for 12 years. In rg1r he became Democratic leader in the Assembly, and was appointed vice-chairman of the factory investigating committee, which made a searching inquiry into industrial conditions in the State, resulting in remedial legislation. In 1913 he was Speaker of the Assembly. In 1915 he was chosen a delegate to the State Constitutional Convention, taking an active part in its proceedings. He opposed the constitution as finally revised, one reason being that it contained a provision designed to prevent New York City from having a majority of legislators. He “stumped” the State against its adoption, and it was overwhelmingly rejected. The same year he was elected sheriff of New York county, then a lucrative post because of the system of fees (later abolished), and in 1917 president of the board of aldermen of New York City. In 1918 he was elected Governor of the State of New York. He had been a strong supporter of woman suffrage, and in June 1919, as governor, called a special session which ratified the woman suffrage amendment to the Federal Constitution. The constructive legislation passed during his first term, including emergency rent legislation and the codification of the child welfare laws, established him as a progressive leader. In 1920 he was again the Democratic nominee for governor, but was beaten in the overwhelming Republican landslide of that year; he lost, however, by only 73,000 votes, whereas the Democratic candidate for president was at the same time defeated by 1,000,000 votes in New York State. In 1922 Smith was renominated by the Democratic party for governor, and was elected by the largest majority ever given to a candidate for the office, receiving 1,397,633 votes as against

1,011,725 for N. L. Miller. At the Democratic National Convention of 1924 he received strong support for the presidential nomination, dividing the votes with W. G. McAdoo so as to produce a deadlock, until, on the ro3rd ballot, J. W. Davis was nominated as a compromise. At the state election in Nov. 1924 he was re-elected governor, receiving 1,627,111 votes as against 1,518,550 for Theodore Roosevelt, the Republican nominee. ‘This was the first occasion in one hundred years that a governor had been twice re-elected. This was another striking demonstration of Governor Smith’s popularity, especially as the Republicans carried every other state office by large majorities. His record of constructive legislation has continued throughout his three terms, and includes housing legislation, a state park system, improvements in child welfare and labour laws, the recommendation and adoption of bond issues for the construction of State hospitals and other public buildings, and the final adoption of the Hughes plan to reorganise the State government, including the adoption of an executive budget. SMITH, ALFRED HOLLAND (1863-1924), American railway official, was born in Cleveland, O., April 26 1863. He began

work on the New York Central railway system as a messengerboy in 1879. After serving in various capacities he was in 1890 appointed superintendent of the Kalamazoo division of the Lake Shore and Michigan Southern Railway. He was successively division superintendent, assistant general superintendent and general superintendent of the Lake Shore road. In 1902 he became general superintendent of the New York Central Railroad, in 1906 vice-president of the New York Central system, and in ror4 president. When the American railways were taken over by the U.S. Govt., Dec. 27 1917, he was appointed assistant director-general and worked out the form of central and regional administration under which the railways were managed during the 26 months of Government operation. He was reelected president of the New York Central lines in June 1919.

He died in New York City March 8 1924. SMITH, FRANCIS HOPKINSON (1838-10915), American author, artist and engineer (see 25.260), died at New York City April 8 1015.

SMITH, JEREMIAH, JR. (1870-

), American lawyer, was

born at Dover, N.H., Jan. 14 1870. He graduated at Harvard University (A.B., 1892) and the Harvard Law School (LL.B., 1895). In 1895 he became secretary to Mr. Justice Gray of the U.S. Supreme Court, but in 1806 commenced the practice of law in Boston. He was a captain in the Quartermaster Corps A.E.F. in France 1918. At the conclusion of hostilities he was appointed counsel to the Treasury Dept. in Europe and was associated in that capacity with the U.S. Peace Commission,

acting also as an adviser in financial matters. On the conclusion of peace he resumed practice in Boston. In April 1924 he accepted the position of commissioner-general of the League of Nations in Hungary, and took up his duties in Budapest May 1. He was successful in stabilising the currency and placing Hungarian finance on a sound basis, his report of July ro25 for the fiscal year showing a surplus, instead of the deficit anticipated in the League’s reconstruction plan. On the completion of his work, July 1926, he again resumed practice in Boston.

SMITH, THEOBALD (1859), American pathologist, was born at Albany, N.Y., July 31 1859. He was educated at Cornell (Ph.B., 1881) and at the Albany Medical College (M.D., 1883). In 1884 he was appointed director of the pathological laboratory of the bureau of animal industry, in Washington, where for 11 years he investigated infectious animal diseases. At the same time he was professor of bacteriology at Columbian, later known as George Washington University. From 1895 to 1915 he was director of the pathological laboratory of the Massachusetts State Board of Health, and after 1896 was professor of comparative pathology at Harvard. In 1915 he was appointed director of the department of animal pathology of the Rockefeller institute of medical research, at Princeton, New Jersey. His numerous scientific papers include Investigations into the Nature, Causation, and Prevention of Texas or Southern Cattle Fever (1893); The Relation between Bovine and Human Tuberculosis

SMITH

COLLEGE—SMOKH,

(1896-8); The Immunizing Effect of Neutral Toxin-antitoxin Mixtures in Diphtheria (1909); Mitk-borne Epidemics of Human Streptococct (1915); The Protective Value of Colostrum (1922); The Relution of Bovine Infectious Abortion to Malia Fever (1925).

SMITH COLLEGE (see 25.273).—Between 1910 and 1926 Smith College added to its equipment Burton Hall for biology, a new music building (Sage Hall) with auditorium, and an additional gymnasium with swimming pool. The number of dwelling houses for students increased from 16 to 45. The library in 1925 contained 121,000 volumes and the Hillyer Art Gallery had increased its endowment to $450,000. The Tryon Gallery had been built. All students now enter by examination. In 1925-6 there were 204 teachers and 2,158 students, of whom 59 were graduate students, and the endowment was $4,500,000, the total assets being over $10,500,000. The college publishes, besides its permanent bulletin, the Smith College Studies in history, modern languages and classics, and contributions of the Dept. of Biology. President Seelye was succeeded in roro by Marion LeRoy Burton (b. 1874), who was succeeded in 1917 by William Allan Neilson (b. 1869). In the World War the Smith College relief unit, the pioneer among American college women’s units overseas, worked in the Somme, France, from July 1917 until April 1920, with the exception of the period after the retreat of March 1918, until the following January. Another small group worked as a Smith unit with the Near East relief in Armenia. In 1920 a system of special honours was established, by which selected students follow out their individual interests under the direction of tutors; and in 1925 a scheme was initiated of sending students specialising in French to France to spend their junior year in study at French institutions under the guidance of a member of the Smith College staff. In the same year the college established a personnel bureau for greater individualisation in dealing with students, both socially and academically, and an institute for the co-ordination of women’s interests to study and experiment with methods of enabling women to maintain their intellectual interests, both cultural and professional, after graduation. The Department of Education conducts a school for retarded children, a progressive day school and a nursery school. (W. A. N.) SMITH-DORRIEN, SIR HORACE LOCKWOOD (1858a British general, was born May 26 1858. He joined the army in 1876, took part in the Zulu War and in the Egyptian campaign of 1882 and, attached to the Egyptian Army, served at Suakim in 1884 and on the Nile in 1885-6. He took part in the Tirah campaign of 1897-8 and showed conspicuous skill in handling troops. His marked ability as a commander in the field won him rapid and repeated promotion first in the final advance to Khartoum and later in South Africa. After being adjutantgeneral in India, he had the opportunity to show his powers as a trainer of troops, first in command of a division, then at home in command at Aldershot until 1912, when he was transferred to the Southern Command. On the death of Sir James Grierson in Aug. 1914, Sir H. SmithDorrien was appointed commander of the II. Army Corps. His troops received the brunt of the enemy’s onset at Mons, and, although his action in giving battle at Le Cateau was criticised, it was subsequently recognised that it saved the British Army from disaster. Afterwards he commanded his corps at the battle of the Marne, on the Aisne, and during the severe fighting in Flanders in Oct. and November. On the splitting-up of the Expeditionary Forces into two armies he was appointed to the command of the II. Difficulties with the commandecr-in-chief led, in April 1915, to his return to England where he was placed in charge of one of the Home Defence armies. In the following Nov. he was chosen to take charge of the operations against German East Africa, but he fell ill on the voyage out, and had to return home. From 1918-23 he was governor and commanderIn 1925 he published Memories of 40 in-chief of Gibraltar. Years Service. SMOKE AND SMOKE PREVENTION.— Industrial and domestic smoke still pollutes the air of towns. Measurements of the ex-

AND SMOKE PREVENTION

56r

tent of air pollution have been carried out on scientific lines, and estimates of the resulting economic loss have been carefully computed. There is no doubt that public opinion is now definitely aroused on the question, and the averagely intelligent citizen is alive to the fact that a polluted atmosphere is both dangerous to health and very expensive. The miners’ strike in Great Britain in 1921, which caused town air to be almost smokeless for some months, undoubtedly played a part in educating public opinion. Measurements of Air Pollution.—In 1912 a British committee for the investigation of atmospheric pollution was appointed as the result of an International smoke abatement exhibition held in London. This committee, although originally unofficial, was subsequently attached to the Air Ministry through the Meteorological Office, and issues an annual report which gives an elaborate analysis of the deposits collected from the atmosphere by means of soot gauges placed at various stations in different parts of the kingdom. Although measurements by this method are subject to error and can only be regarded as approximate at best, they yet give an indication of the magnitude of the yearly sootfall, and they also show the difference in the amount of solid matter deposited in residential, as compared with industrial, towns, and in different parts of the same town. The following table contains sample readings selected from the roth Report published in 1925:

Town

London: Golden Lane Wandsworth Common Glasgow: Richmond Park Queen’s Park Birmingham:

Central Southwestern Blackburn: Technical college (centre of town) Fever hospital (on outskirts) . Newcastle-upon-Tyne . ; Rochdale ; ; Kingston-upon-Hull Kingston-upon-Thames Southport ' i i Rothamsted (Harpenden)

Annual Total Solid Deposit ‘Tons per square mile

Period

425 229

1923-4 1923-4

400 240

1923-4 1923-4

552 159

4-yr. average 4-yr. average

636 227 882 762 403 162 128 123

1923-4 1923-4 1923-4 5-yr. average 1923-4 1923-4 1923-4 4-yr. average

It should be pointed out that only a small proportion of British towns keep records; those given above with relatively high readings are not necessarily the smokiest. Several towns with a bad reputation for air pollution have either declined or ceased to record their sootfall. Comparable figures for cities in the United States, representing for each city the average of from 8 to 16 stations, as reported by H. G. Meller, of the Mellon Institute, University of Pittsburgh, are given below. These figures are for insoluble deposit ‘only, and for average monthly (not annual) deposit. Monthly Insoluble Deposit Tons per square mile Pittsburgh Pittsburgh Pittsburgh St. Louis Cincinnati 1 Average of five months only.

96-11 170°7 82-3

556

43:8!

April to September

of Years

1923-4 IQIÓ IQI2 1916 1916

In addition to the soot gauge, which measures deposited impurities, there is a method of measuring suspended impurities by means of an automatic filter invented by Dr. J. S. Owens. The records are taken by means of a circular disk of thick filter paper, the revolution of which is controlled by a clock, and at short intervals a volume of two litres of air is filtered through a

SMOKE, AND

562

SMOKE

t-in. diameter spot on this disk, leaving behind it the suspended impurities. The little discoloured spots left round the edge of the disk are the actual records; the quantity of impurity in the air is estimated by comparison with a calibrated scale. By means of this filter the variation of impurity from hour to hour and from day to day can be ascertained. The 7th report of the advisory committee, issued in 1922, gives an interesting comparison between Sunday and week-day records in London, from which the very important conclusion was drawn that in London the domestic fire was responsible for over two-thirds of the total smoke. Loss of Sunlight—Medical discoveries as to the benefit of sunlight in the treatment of disease justify the conclusion that, in ordinary living conditions, light is necessary for the maintenance of health. From this point of view the cutting-off of the ultraviolet rays by smoke must seriously alfect the physical wellbeing of town dwellers. The diagram given below, which was prepared in the department of the medical officer of health for

PREVENTION

could be saved upon their maintenance if the air were as pure in towns as it is in rural districts. These three attempts to estimate the cost of smoke in terms of cash prove beyond doubt that the total loss for the United Kingdom, when all forms of damage have been allowed for, must amount to many millions a year, exclusive of the damage to health, which cannot be measured in money. British Legislation —A departmental committee on smoke abatement, which had been appointed in 1914 but suspended during the World War, was reconstituted in 1920 with Lord Newton as chairman. The committee issued their report in rg21, and their general conclusions were that the prevalence of smoke pollution in Great Britain was mainly due to the indiscriminate and wasteful use of raw coal for all purposes, whether industrial or domestic, and to the lax administration of the law by the responsible authorities, coupled with the inaction of the central authority. The committee’s chief recommendations as to changes in the law were as follows:—

Nov. 1924.| Dec. 1924. Jan. 1925. | Feb.1925.| Mar.1925.| Apr.1925.| May 1925. |June 1925.| July 1925. | Aug. 1925. |Sept.!925.) Oct. 1925. 8, 15.22.29) 6.13.20. 227) 3.10.47 24.31| 7 44.21.2817. 14.21 2814. tf 18.2512. 9. 16.23.30)6. 13.20.27) 4.41 18.25) 1. 8. 15.22.29) 5. 12.19. 26| 3.10.17 2431. a"

SSS

ee

eee

ao

eee

*

»

eee een

.

,

enene

e

+

eee

.

.

eset

es

Timperley =100 % Ro

Ls

|gLL il Pri “rs

Fic. 1.—Graph

showing

Manchester

daylight,

as percentage of light received in Timperley. ing average daily light for the week.

Manchester, shows the relatively small amount of light received in the centre of Manchester in the course of a year compared with Timperley in Cheshire, on the borders of the city. Loss through Smoke~An elaborate investigation into the damage done by smoke was carried out in Pittsburgh in 1912 by a committee of experts, acting under the auspices of the

University of Pittsburgh. They computed the damage for that city annually at £2,000,000. As the result of this investigation Pittsburgh embarked upon a thorough and scientific smoke abatement campaign, and succeeded in reducing the air pollution in a marked degree. Another investigation dealing with one item only of the extra cost due to smoke, namely household washing, was carried out by the Manchester air

Each individual

record represent-

Industrial Smoke.—(a) that the word ‘ black ’’ should be omitted and that smoke of any colour might be dealt with as a nuisance; (b) that there should be a general legal obligation on all manufacturers to use the best practicable means having regard to all circumstances of the case for avoiding pollution of the air by smoke, and that the same law should apply to all Government establishments and all rail and road locomotives, and to steamers on rivers, estuaries and lakes;

(c) that

the

Minister

of Health

should

be empowered

to fix

standards from time to time, and in any case in which the amount

exceeds the standard so fixed the onus of proof that the manufacturer is using the best practicable means should be on the manufacturer. Domestic Smoke.—(a) that the Minister of Health should decline to sanction any housing scheme submitted by a local authority or public utility society unless specific provision is made for smokeless methods of heating; (It is to be regretted that in view of the immense amount of house poliution advisory board, a sub-committee of the City Coun- building undertaken since 1920, this recommendation, although not cil. The inquiries were made by a trained investigator, and the requiring fresh legislation, has remained a dead letter.) (b) that the Govt. should encourage the co-ordination and extenconclusion, confirmed by a certificate from a leading firm of accountants, who stated that the figures were on a very con- sion of research into domestic heating generally. (c) that local authorities should be empowered to make by-laws servative basis, showed that the cost of household washing in reguiring the provision of smokeless heating methods in new buildManchester would be reduced by about £250,000 a year if ings other than private dwelling houses. Other proposals dealt with changes in administrative responManchester were as clean as Harrogate. Sir Frank Baines, director of H.M. Office of Works, who has under his charge 6,000 sibility.

buildings, including government offices and places of historie interest, is of the opinion that at the very least £120,000 a year

Since the Departmental committee issued its report, three smoke abatement bills, embodying some of the recommenda-

SMOKE

(IN WARFARE)—SMOOT

tions, were introduced into the British House of Commons, but up to Dec. 1925 none had been passed. In many quarters it is held that purely punitive legislation will not be sufficient to deal with the smoke nuisance. The Coal Smoke Abatement Society is seeking to insert an amending clause in any future bill for permitting joint action between local authorities, manufacturers and fuel experts (1) to make research into smoke prevention in manufacturing operations and as to the heating arrangements in large buildings, and (2) to arrange for the training of stokers in the best. methods of stoking. The steady expansion of the electrical and the gas industries has, without doubt, effected an improvement in the atmosphere of towns. According to the latest report of the Electricity Commissioners the number of units sold to consumers in the year 1922-3 was 3,762 millions (of which 2,548 millions were used for power). This was three times the number of units sold in the year 1912-3. Gas cooking in urban houses is becoming more and more common, and builders have at last ceased to install kitchen ranges in new houses as a matter of course. The number of gas cookers and grillers in use in England and Wales in the present year (1925) exceeds 4,300,000. Unfortunately it is still doubtful whether low temperature carbonisation coke, which would solve the domestic smoke problem entirely, will be available for general use in the near future. The technical difficulties have been largely overcome, but it is uncertain if the coke can be manufactured at prices that will compete with house coal. Experiments are, however, being made by the Fuel Research Board and by private firms. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—E. D. Simon and M. Fitzgerald, The Smokeless City (1922); R. J. McKay, Recent Progress in Smoke Abatement and Fuel Technology in England, Mellon {nstitute of Industrial Research, University of Pittsburgh (1922); M. Fishenden, Mouse Ieating (1925); J. B. Cohen and A. G. Ruston, Smoke: a Study of Town Air (2nd ed. 1925).

See also Report of the Departmental Committee on Smoke and Noxious Vapours Abatement (1921); the Annual Reports of the Advisory Committee on Atmospheric Pollution (Air Ministry Met. Office); Reports of the Fuel Research Board (Dept. of Industrial and Scientific Research); and the Report of the Smoke Abatement Conference (Smoke Abatement League of Great Britain) in Manchester (1924); Shaw and Owens, The Smoke Problem of Great Cities (1925). (E. D.S.; M. FL)

SMOKE: IN WARFARE.—The first historical reference to the use of smoke in war, was the miracle whereby the Israelites were protected during their march from Egypt to the Promised Land (Exodus XIV. rọ). In this old Biblical story of the Israelites lies the whole essence of the use of smoke in war—the blinding of one’s enemy. In the civil wars of the Roman Empire both

Caesar and Pompey used smoke as a weapon of attack, chiefly in landing operations. Examples from History—There appears to be little or no mention of the use of smoke for many centuries after this, but we find an instance in the r7th when on July 2 1667 the Dutch Fleet appeared off Landguard and its ships took up their positions to bombard it from all sides at once. Some of them were placed exactly to windward so that the smoke of their guns swept along the beach and so covered the landing of their troops from the sight of the mariners in the fort. Captain Silas Taylor —the keeper of the King’s store at Harwich—saw the whole attack from the Dovercourt Cliffs and the next day dispatched the following account of it to Whitehall:— It was judged that the eight Dutch ships who sent such clouds of smoke upon the fort out of the Rolling Grounds (part of the sea just south of Landguard Point) were merely for that purpose; that they landed about 2,000 men | have reason to believe from my own guess. . . . In the mean a party of 300 or 400 or more ran along the beach in the smoke that the ships from the Rolling Ground had made, up to the Landguard Fort with scaling ladders, of about 20’ long or more, hand grenadoes etc.

In the battle of Seneff in 1674 smoke was used by the French when, as a stratagem to cover their retirement, they hung up their lighted ‘‘ matches ” in the hedges. In 1770 Charles NII. of Sweden used smoke in the crossing of the Dwina in his campaign against the Saxons. On this occasion specially constructed barges carrying tar barrels were used.

563

The Waterloo campaign had a great effect on the use of smoke in war, as it was realised at this time at what an enormous disadvantage the defence were in by the use of the black powder, which wrapt them in clouds of smoke, but it was not till 1885 that the introduction of smokeless powder was brought about by the French. Domokos, in the Turko-Greek War of 1897 was the last battle fought in Europe with smoke powder, and a remarkable fact that it was not till r915—-nearly 20 years later— that a means on the battlefield was devised of projecting smoke on an enemy. An experiment in the use of attacking by throwing forward smoke candles, such as were used for testing drains, was tried at Aldershot before the South African War and was rightly condemned, as_ he whole essence of the success in the use of smoke is the element of surprise and the blinding of the defenders by the attackers which can be done by smoke projection. No mention of the use of smoke is made in the histories of the South African and Russo-Japanese Wars, though the Boers on occasions lit veldt fires to cover their withdrawal. The World War.—The first instance of the use of smoke in the World War was probably the lighting of a haystack north of the La Bassée Canal in Oct. 1914, which enabled a company of the Devonshire Regiment to be withdrawn. Shortly after this a battery of artillery in somewhat like manner made good its withdrawal. At Loos in Sept. 1915 smoke was wrongly used as a blind by lighting candles in our trenches, and consequently brought down heavy shell fire. From this battle may be dated the realisation of the necessity of the projection of smoke and its use in attack, and danger to any defence. By Nov. 1916 smoke shells were in use in some divisions in France, but it was not, however, until the battles of Arras 1917, when they were used by the oth (British) Div. that the art of accurately projecting smoke-shells, and their great value, came to be really appreciated. Many instances in 1917 and 1918 are on record when numbers of lives were saved by the invention of smoke-shell and when victories were gained with a minimum of casualties by the use of smoke. The Germans quickly copied the British and used it in their offensive of March 1918, while the Australians used it to cover their withdrawal over the Piave in May 1918. The navy used smoke with conspicuous success at Zeebrugge on St. George’s Day 1917, when fast coastal motor-boats greatly assisted the blocking operations, by blinding the enemy’s observation and shore guns. Smoke, which may be used in war by artillery, infantry, aircraft and tanks, has certain inherent disadvantages, in particular the blinding of observation, and the variability of wind— the latter is a serious difficulty—but by practice all difficulties can be overcome, and certainly the history of the War has proved that the advantages caused by the use of smoke far outweigh the disadvantages. It may be said of smoke that if properly used it will on almost every occasion in the attack, and also in the withdrawal, save many casualties. By its use the utmost is made of “ fire power,” and man power is concealed until the decisive stages. Infiltration—an art in war—is facilitated and losses are greatly reduced by the use of cover by ground and cover by smoke. The chief object in the use of smoketactics, is, as far as possible, to impose on the defenders the conditions of night, while the attackers have the conditions of day, and thereby effect surprise and reduce casualties. To summarise the use of smoke in war it may be said that it is used to obtain concealment of movement which begets surprise. (P.R.W) SMOOT, REED (1862), American politician, was born at Salt Lake City, Utah, Jan. ro 1862. He was educated at Deseret University and at the Brigham Young Academy, Provo, Utah. He amassed considerable wealth as a banker and woollen manufacturer. In 1895 he was appointed one of the presidents of the Utah State of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints (Mormon), and in 1900 was made an apostle. He was elected to the U.S. Senate from Utah in 1902. Attempts were made to prevent his entering the Senate because of his connection with the Mormon Church and on the charge that he

SMUGGLING—SMUTS

564

personally favoured polygamy and was a polygamist. He was allowed to take his seat; but the matter was referred to the Senate committee on privileges and elections for investigation. In June 1906 the committee by a vote of seven to five recommended that he be unseated; but as the personal charges against him had not been proved the Senate in Feb. 1907, by a vote of 42 to 23 refused to remove him. He was re-elected in 1908, 1914 and 1920. He took an active part against the United States becoming a member of the League of Nations. He is chairman of the Finance Committee of the Senate and a member of the World War Foreign Debt Commission. SMUGGLING: sce BOOTLEGGING AND SMUGGLING.

SMUTS,

JAN

CHRISTIAAN

(1870-

), South

African

statesman and general, was born May 24 1870 near Riebeek West, Malmesbury district, Cape Colony, the son of J. A. Smuts and Catharina de Vries. In 1886 he commenced his studies at Stellenbosch, and in 1891 went to Cambridge, where his success was unprecedented. In 1895 he was admitted to the Cape Town Bar. During the early part of his legal career he did a

considerable amount of journalistic work, in both English and Dutch. In Oct. 1895 his first political speech was delivered at Kimberley, where, as a result of the understanding between Jan Hofmeyer and Rhodes, he defended the latter’s policy. The Jameson Raid, which followed in Jan. 18096, changed the whole complexion of South African politics. Smuts ranged himself on the side of the Transvaal, and shortly afterwards joined the Bar at Johannesburg. In 1898, though two years under the legal age, he was made state attorney by President Kruger, and took part in the negotiations with the British agent at Pretoria concerning the franchise. He also accompanied Kruger to Bloemfontein, where the abortive conference with Milner took place in July 1899. In the carly stages of the Boer War, Smuts’ remarkable versatility and capacity for hard work found full vent in legal and organising activity. In the occupation of Pretoria, in 1900, he joined the Boer field forces. From the Eastern Transvaal, where his Government was hard pushed, he made his way to the West, where he had wider scope. He saw much fighting under De la Rey, and subsequently acted as commander-in-chief of the Bocr and Cape rebel commandoes in the Cape. He was besieging a mining camp in Namaqualand, when Botha sent for him to take part in the peace negotiations at Vereeniging (1902). He threw in his weight on the side of those who urged a compromise, as against the intransigent commandants. After peace, Smuts became a strong and active protagonist of Botha’s policy—loyalty to the new order, and racial conciliation. Practising as a barrister at Pretoria, he spent a good deal of time in the reconstruction of the remnants of the Boer nation and together with Botha and other leaders he met Mr. J. Chamberlain at Pretoria. The Boers, supported by part of the British population, strongly opposed several points in Milner’s policy, e.g., the importation of Chinese coolies for the gold mines, and Smuts was among those who refused Lord Milner’s offer of seats in the nominated Legislative Council. In 1904 Botha and Smuts founded the political organisation open to both races known as “ Het Volk ” and it was largely owing to its opposition that the Lyttelton constitution for the republics was never put into force. Early in 1rg06 Smuts visited London, where he worked for fully responsible government in the Transvaal and Orange Free State, which was granted in 1906. Early in 1907 elections for the Assembly were helcl. Smuts took a prominent part and was returned unopposed for Wonderboom (Pretoria). As Colonial Secretary, under Botha,

he became the driving force of the Cabinet, interesting himself particularly in education and defence. His Education Act marked a new departure in South Africa. In May 1908 Smuts openly launched out in favour of the union of the South African colonies. In Oct. of that year, the National Convention, which eventually produced the South African Act, began its labours, Smuts being one of its most valued members, both in debates and in drafting committees. On May 1910 Union was consummated. Smuts was elected member of the legislative

assembly for Pretoria West, and became Minister of the Interior, Mines and Defence.

.

In the Union Assembly Smuts continued to occupy a most prominent place, thanks to his forceful measures as well as striking speeches. In torr the South African party was founded at Bloemfontein, where Smuts foreshadowed the political diffculties ahead. Early in rọr2 he introduced his Defence Bill, which powerfully affected the future of South Africa. A little later, H. C. Hull (Minister of Finance) left the Botha Cabinet owing to differences with Sauer, a Cape Minister. Smuts thereupon surrendered the Ministry of Interior and Mines, retaining Defence and took over the Treasury. During the Hertzog crisis, at the end of 1912, he did his utmost to prevent a split, but once the fateful step had been taken, he resolutely supported Botha. In July 1913 a revolutionary strike shook the Rand to its foundations. Botha and Smuts, at great personal risk (and unescorted) saved the situation at Johannesburg, after Lord Gladstone had sanctioned the use of Imperial troops to quell disturbances. In Jan. 1914 an attempted general strike was nipped in the bud by Smuts, who in record time rushed up the commandoes but recently organised under his Defence Act. The deportation of nine strike leaders on the S.S. ‘‘ Umgeni, ” though authorised by the Cabinet, has been chielly debited to Smuts by his opponents, and at the time created a furore. A double Indemnity Bill, covering the two revolts, led to a violent and protracted parliamentary debate. The outbreak of the World War shifted the South African centre of gravity to Smuts’ office.

In Sept. 1914, when Beyers

restgned as Commandant-General in the midst of the preparations for a campaign against the Germans in Southwest Africa, Smuts assumed his functions. The rebellion of De Wet, Maritz, Beyers and others followed. This was suppressed by Botha, acting in the closest collaboration with Smuts at headquarters. The execution of the rebel commandant Joseph Fourie, contrasting as it did with the extraordinarily mild treatment meted out to his superiors, caused a great political upheaval and helped to swell Hertzog’s following. In rors, after a visit to Botha’s forces in Southwest Africa, Smuts took the leading part in the general election, which was marked by extreme bitterness. On at least one occasion, his life was in great danger at a meeting, the rancour of the Government’s opponents being directed chiefly against him. He was re-elected for Pretoria West by a narrow majority. Early in 1916 he refused the command ofiered him in East Africa by the Imperial Govt., but shortly afterwards yielded to representations. Immediately after his arrival the tide, which had been rather in favour of the Germans, turned. Although their resourceful and gallant commander, Von Lettow-Vorbeck, with a handful of die-hards, succeeded in escaping, the campaign—which had called for the utmost vigour—was virtually over when Smuts left for London via South Africa early in 1917. Work in London.—In March Smuts arrived in London to represent South Africa at the Imperial War Conference, and was sworn as a privy councillor. After the Conference, a dinner was given in recognition of his war services, by members of both Houses of Parliament. There he made his declaration on the British Commonwealth of Nations, which had become a landmark in constitutional development. Offered the command in Palestine, he declined. He accepted a seat in the War Cabinet, taking a deep interest in the flying services, and his proposals for their unification were accepted by the Cabinet. Ife was also chairman of the committee that framed the bill for an Air Ministry, and worked out the organisation for the new Force. Incidentally, he supervised London’s air defences. He suggested, and became chairman of, the War Priorities Committee, which settled priority of claims among departments concerned in the War, and allocated man-power and other resources. Occasionally he visited the Western front, where he conferred with commanders. In Dec. 1917 Smuts met Count Mensdorff at Geneva, and explored the possibility of a separate peace with Austria; but was finally convinced that it was not possible. The follow-

SMYRNA— SMYTH, ing Feb. he spent with Allenby in Palestine, working out plans for a great advance.

After the Armistice, Smuts wrote his Memorandum on the League of Nations, The League of Nations: A Practical Suggestion

(1918), which received the support of both President Wilson and Mr. Lloyd George, and in substance became the Covenant of the League. With Botha, he represented South Africa at the Peace Conference, where he was mainly concerned with the Covenant and Dominion status. At this time he undertook a mission to Vienna and Pesth, where the Communist Govt. had violated the Armistice. After the conference, he returned to South Africa. In Aug. 1919, he became Prime Minister of the Union (in succession to Botha). During this period he twice attended the Imperial Conference. In 1921 his visit was notable for the part he played in securing peace in Ireland. During the Conference of 1923 (held while the Ruhr crisis was at its worst), he advocated a fresh attempt to settle the European situation. The suggestion was generally approved, and the Dawes Commission followed. In 1920, repeated attempts to reunite the South African party and the Nationalists failed. ‘The Unionists, under Smartt, decided to dissolve their organisation and to join the South African party. The consequences of this fusion lost Smuts a certain amount of support among both English and Dutch. A general election, held on that issue, left him, however, with a working majority, and the combined party did fairly well in Parliament. In 1922, however, another workers’ revolt on the Rand (which had to be suppressed by the military and burghers,

after the exercise of considerable patience) led to a junction of forces between advanced Nationalists and the Labour element. Bye-elections went against the Government, and a formal pact was made by the two Opposition parties. In 1924, after a crucial bye-election, Gen. Smuts took the country by surprise; he dissolved Parliament, realising that the people were probably dissatisfied with him. The result, nationally considered, thoroughly bore out the wisdom of his decision, for the South African party was heavily defeated. Hertzog did not obtain a clear majority, but was able with the assistance of Labour to form a coalition Cabinet. Although Smuts himself lost Pretoria West, he was elected unopposed for Standerton, Botha’s old constituency.

As Opposition leader, he continued to pay close attention to affairs of state, while indulging to some extent his fondness for philosophy and botany. In 1925 he delivered, as president of the S.A. Association for the Advancement of Science, the opening address at the congress of that body. In 1926 he published Holism and Evolution, a philosophical treatise. (N.LE.) BIBLIOGRAPHY. —A. C. Benson, The Happy Warrier; A Sight of General Smuts at Cambridge, May 1917, etc. (1917); N. Leir, Jan Smuts (1917); W. Whittall, With Botha and Smuts in Africa (1917); J. H. V. Crowe, General Smuis Campaign in East Africa (1918).

SMYRNA (see 25.281), a town and vilayet of Turkey. At the Peace Conference in 1919 Greece put forward a claim to the Smyrna area. That area had, it was understood, been assigned by the Agreement of St. Jean de Maurienne (April 17 1917) to Italy, but owing to Russian objections that agreement had never been ratified. M. Veniselos argued on the Greek claim before the Council of Ten on Feb. 3-4 rọrọ. The final decision of the Council of Three, authorising the Grecks to occupy Smyrna, was taken apparently without the knowledge of the Italians, who had withdrawn temporarily from the conference, or of the American expert advisers to President Wilson. The occupation was in theory an Allied occupation, but was generally taken to mean acceptance of the Greek claims. Greek troops occupied Smyrna on May 15 IQIQ. | The first entry of the Greeks was marked with many atrocities against the Turkish population. Under the Treaty of Sévres, Aug. ro 1920, it was stipulated that the town of Smyrna and the Ionian hinterland were to be under Greek administration for five years. Greece was empowered to maintain military forces in the zone and to incorporate it in the Greck Customs system; but a local parliament, elected on a franchise giving representa-

E. M.

565

tion to all sections of the population, was to be established and the provisions of the minorities treaty signed between Greece and the principal Allied Powers were to apply to the Smyrna zone. After five years the local parliament might ask for definite incorporation with Greece; the Council of the League of Nations might as a preliminary require a plebiscite. In the event of incorporation, Turkish sovereignty was to cease. The Greek claim was based on ethnographical grounds. Reliable racial statistics for the area were not available, but an American computation of r914 gave the total population as 1,057,000, including 509,000 Turks, 470,000 Greeks and 78,000 others. This decision caused general dissatisfaction. Turkish forces under Mustafa Kemal and the Greeks were soon engaged in hostilities, in which at first the Grecks were successful. Mustafa Kemal, however, continued to consolidate his position in Turkey, while the fall of Veniselos (Nov. 1920) and the return of King Constantine to Greece (see GREECE) weakened the sympathies which Greece had enjoyed in Great Britain, her chief supporter among the Allied Powers. At the London Conference, Feb.— March 1921, it was proposed to place a gendarmerie controlled by the Allies in the Ionian area, and to have a Christian governor of the whole arca under the League of Nations, the arrangement to be subject to review by the League of Nations at the end of five years. Both the Greek and the Kemalist delegates to the Conference rejected these terms. The Greeks renewed their offensive but their initial successes were not sustained. The Paris Conference, Feb.-March 1922, proposed to restore the Smyrna zone to Turkey; but the negotiations broke down on other points, and the Kemalists drove back the Greek Army, which with many thousands of Greek refugees from all parts of Asia Minor embarked hurriedly and left Smyrna, which the Turks entered on Sept. 9 1922. Under the Treaty of Lausanne (July 24 1923) Smyrna and the surrounding zone reverted under full ‘Turkish sovereignty. Meanwhile, the town and district had suffered frightfully under the atrocities of both belligerents, and these sufferings culminated when, a few days after the Turkish entry into the town, fire broke out In the Armenian quarter, and Smyrna was soon in flames. When the conflagration had burnt itself out, only the wretched Turkish quarter on Mount Pagus was untouched, and more than three-fifths of the city was destroyed, including all the banks, business houses and consulates in the European quarter on the quay. The loss of hfe was impossible to compute. A town planning scheme for the rebuilding of the city met with opposition on the grounds of expense, since before the fire only 14% of the total area of Smyrna was not built over, and the new plan gave 55°%. A plan was said to have been approved in Sept. 1925. The city was then still in ruins, with the exception of the Turkish quarter. Before the World War Smyrna extended for some three miles along the gulf of the same name, for about a mile along the Gulf of Burnabat, and almost to the summit of Mount Pagus. In 1925 the flour-milling industry was growing and improving, there were two cotton spinning establishments, and the carpet-making industry was reviving. Smyrna is the second port of Turkey in importance, it has good railway connections with the interior, and trade is again improving, but is hampered by lack of facilities, and by the regulation which forbids vessels to enter or leave the gulf of Smyrna between sunset and sunrise. Eficrts have been made to develop an air service, with headquarters at Smyrna, but owing to the shortage of pilots and mechanics it has not become efficient. Turkish sources in 1924 estimated the population of the town at 98,846, a reduction of nearly two-thirds

on the population in 1914.

(O. J. R. H.)

SMYTH, ETHEL MARY (1:858}, British composer, was born in London April 23 1858, the daughter of Gen. J. H. Smyth, C.B. She studied music at Leipzig under Heinrich von Herzogenberg, whose wife was a friend of Brahms. Though encountering much opposition in her musical career, she successfully produced her first opera Fantasio at Weimar in 1898, others being given at Leipzig, Prague and Vienna. Her first opera to be produced in London was Der Wald, given at Covent Garden in 1902

SMYTH, H. W.—SOCIAL ANTHROPOLOGY

566

which was followed by The Wreckers (1900), a vividly romantic work. Her Afass in D, first performed in 1893. was revived 30 years later. The Boatswain’s Mate, a comic opera, was produced in 1916 with considerable success. Dr. Ethel Smyth took a prominent part in the militant suffragist movement, and composed The March of ihe Women (1911) the battle song of the W.S.P.U. In 1922 she was made a Dame of the British Empire. Her compositions include Fête Galante (1923) and Entente Cordiale, 1924, operas; also chamber music, choruses and songs, all characterised by energy of invention, exuberant vitality and adroitness of workmanship. In rọrọ Dame Ethel published her brilliant memoirs Impressions that Remained, followed by Streaks of Life (1921).

SMYTH,

HERBERT

WEIR

(1857-

), American

classical

scholar, was born at Wilmington, Del., Aug. 8 1857. He was educated at Swarthmore (A.B., 1876), Harvard (A.B., 1878), Leipzig and Géttingen (Ph.D., 1884). During 1883-5 Jë was instructor in Greek and Sanskrit at Williams College, d then for two years was reader in Greek at Johns Hopkins University. From 1887-1901 he was professor of Greek at Bryn Mawr. In the latter year he was appointed professor of Greek literature at Harvard. During 1899-1900 he was professor at the American Classical School at Athens. From 1889-1904 he was secretary of the American Philological Assn. and editor of its Transactions, and in 1904 was elected president. His works include The Tonic Dialect (1894); Greek Melic Poets {1900); Greek Grammar for Colleges (1920); Aeschylus, text and translation (1923). He was also author of various contributions to philological journals. He was editor of the Greek Series for Colleges and Schools (20 vol.).

SNOUCK HURGRONGJE, C.: see HURGRONJE, CIIRISTIAN S. SNOWDEN, PHILIP (1864), British Labour politician, was born on July 18 1864 at Cowling, Yorkshire. Educated at an elementary school, he read widely, and became a clerk in the

customs and excise department of the Civil Service. Joining the Independent Labour party in the year after it was founded (1893) he became one of its most effective speakers and, in 1903, and again in 1917 its chairman. His first parliamentary attempts, for Keighley and Blackburn, failed, but, in 1906, he was returned for Blackburn as Labour M.P. In the House he at once made his mark, notably on financial matters. When war broke out in 1914 he was in Australia. On his return he at once ranged himself with J. R. MacDonald and shared much of the latter’s unpopularity. Defeated in the 1918 election, he won Colne Valley for Labour in 1922, and held the seat with increased majorities in 1923 and 1924. His appointment as Chancellor of the Exchequerin Mr. MacDonald’s Cabinet was approved on all sides. In his Budget, introduced in April 1924, while limited by the commitments of his predecessor, Mr. Snowden went a long way to redress the burden of taxation on the poor by his reduction in the food duties, and by making provision, in his contingent Old Age Pensions Act, for the removal of the oppressive features of the thrift disqualification. At the same time, he stood fast to the Free Trade principles of which he had been so doughty a champion in earlier years, by repealing the McKenna duties on imported motor-cars, clocks, musical instruments, etc., and terminating the duties imposed under the 1922 Safeguarding of Industries Act. Later in the session he introduced plans of constructive work designed to relieve the prevalent unemployment. At the London Conference in July—Aug. 1924, he took charge of the discussions with the bankers which ended in the

successful flotation of the German loan in Oct. of that year. Snowden’s power, both in the Labour movement and outside, was due as much to gifts of character as of brain. As a speaker, he was equally powerful both as a private member in opposition and as a minister. Most of his life was spent in the service of Socialism; he was also a powerful advocate of the emancipation of women and of temperance. In the promotion of these causes, as in.,his work for peace and in his opposition to Communism, he was notably assisted by his wife, herself a speaker and writer of wide appeal. He was member of the Liquor Con-

trol Board during the War, and served on royal commissions on the civil service, canals and venereal disease. He is the author of various books, among them A Socialist Budget (1907); A Living Wage (1912); Socialism and Syndicalism (1913); Wages and Prices (1920); Labour and National Finance (1920);

Labour and the New World (1921).

(M. A. H.

SOAP: see OILS AND FATS. SOCIAL ANTHROPOLOGY (see 2.108c).—Investigation of many peoples by a rigorous linguistic and statistical technique has produced a mass of accurate information that may be quantitatively gauged by comparison of the first and second editions (1910 and 1922-3) of G. Buschan’s Jilustrierte Vélkerkunde. There naturally followed co-ordination from both historical and psychological points of view, and, though in reality intertwined, these are best treated under separate heads. CULTURE

HISTORY

As substitutes for the “ evolutionary ” syntheses of men like E. B. Tylor and Lewis H. Morgan, several “ diffusionist ” schemes have been elaborated. However, this label, though convenient, fails to define the essential difference, since the earlier writers also used the principle of transmission even to the extent of deriving all clan systems from one centre (Morgan). What really characterises them is the belief in historical laws. Human institutions, Tylor held, follow one another “in series substantially uniform over the globe.’’(‘) Knowing the formula of progress, the anthropologist can predict the future and reconstruct prehistory—as when Morgan infers a matrilineal stage of Hellenic society. The notion of laws of sequence is amenable to the direct test of pre-history, and stands refuted by it. While in Europe stone tools are succeeded, first by copper (bronze), and then by iron tools, the African negroes passed directly from the Stone to the Iron Age. Similarly, in Italy the Solutrean period of the Palaeolithic is lacking, and so forth.

Thus, Tylor’s “ substantial uni-

formity ’’ is not demonstrated: if laws exist, they are masked by incalculable disturbances that render them metaphysical] rather than scientifically useful concepts. Modern Diffustonisis—The *“‘diffusionist ” reconstructions, then, spurn formulae of sequence and view cultural phenomena as historical, i.e., individual events. One school, fathered by the late W. H. R. Rivers, is headed by G. Elliot Smith and W. J. Perry; a rival system outlined by F. Graebner has latterly been amplified by Father W. Schmidt. Both schemes ignore the possibility of independent duplication. Similarities are ipso facto evidence of transmission, and the proof is perfect when not merely single traits but complexes recur—megalithic monuments and a suncult, conical roofs avd a solar mythology, rectangular huts and a division into matrilineal moieties. (°) Apart from their antipathy to independent invention, the two schools differ profoundly. The British diffusionists are pan-

Egyptians,(@) an “ archaic civilisation” evolved in Egypt prior to 2600 B.c. and then spread to the four quarters of the globe, reappearing elsewhere in varying degrees of decay; the ruder cultures are not “ primitive,” but degenerate. Before contact with “ the archaic civilisation,” the Australians lacked magicoreligious beliefs and practices, and a dual organisation, ‘‘ when discovered in some outlying part of the world, would be sufficient witness of the existence of Egyptian influence(‘).”’ In contrast to this monism, Graebner and Schmidt are pluralists. To follow Schmidt(*), a primeval culture corresponded to the hunting type of life of recent Pygmies and Pygmoids. From this there branched off at different times and localities three ‘ primary ” cultures. One was based on woman’s invention of tillage, with consequent development of a matriarchal polity, female deities and a lunar mythology. Another culture evolved from the perfection of primeval hunting methods, the rise of masculine crafts, patrilineal descent—associated with totemism, male deities and a solar mythology. A third group of hunters domesticated livestock and became pastoral nomads. The subsequent course of history consists in the spread and interaction of these three Kulturkreisen. By fusion of the first two there arose

SOCIAL ANTHROPOLOGY village life, with its combination of husbandry and craftsmanship; while the impact of nomadism upon this joint product laid the foundation of the Near Oriental proto-civilisations. Solid achievement must be credited to both diffusionist schools. While the complexity of culture had been discovered before Graebner and Rivers, their insistence has made historical analysis a commonplace of anthropological research. Again, Elliot Smith’s denial of laws due to the “ psychic unity ” of mankind has exposed the impotence of that principle so long as it is impossible to explain why a constant factor does not yield uniform results. Above all, diffusionists have envisaged all culture as a connected whole. Nevertheless, fatal defects of method make acceptance of either scheme impossible. The pan-Egyptian view implies a complete passivity of all non-Egyptian peoples, yet many ingenious devices current in ruder cultures and rooted in local conditions disprove this corollary. Indeed, the irreversible flow of cultural elements from the more complex to the ruder cultures is refuted in history. The Caucasians borrowed maize

and other cultivated plants from the American aborigines, and B. Laufer’s studies show that the Chinese repeatedly profited by contact with peoples of inferior level (*). Again, the procedure of both schools in segregating a selected number of features as an historical unit is arbitrary. Thus, Graebner and Schmidt have it that totemism was originally joined with paternal descent. What, then, of the matrilineal totemic tribes in northwestern America and the Pueblos of Arizona and New Mexico? Schmidt assumes that in either case matrilineal descent was introduced by Athabascan neighbours. But since most Athabascans lack definite rules of descent, his logic is radically unsound; for by inventing auxiliary hypotheses ad hoc, it is manifestly easy to prove anything and everything. An equally vital defect lies in the vagueness of the concepts used. To say that two peoples share a sun-cult or a solar mythology is to hide possible diversity under a label of merely descriptive. utility. Proof of transmission depends on the comparison of phenomena, the sharpness of whose definition guarantecs identity. Independent Origins.—Still more unfortunate is the denial of independent origin, though this is demonstrable for the dual organisation that plays so prominent a part in both schemes. Thus, the probably once exogamous Pezoma and Pepfiima moieties of the Angami of Assam are no longer so, hence in one village all the people were marrying among themselves if of different clans; and since these numbered only two, they correspond exactly to the classical form of dual organisation(*). But in the Hopi village of Shipaulovi the same result was achieved by the extinction of one of three clans. The dual division accordingly cannot figure as the invention of one people, but is a recurring institution that may have arisen five hundred times in the course of human history—now by a reduction of clans, now by the fusion of two intermarrying groups into one tribe and again by other processes. Conver gence.—We have here a perfect example of convergence, a process which F. Boas(*) and A. A. Goldenweiser(®) have powerfully argued to establish as a reality. They have shown that in many situations confronting man the possible number of solutions is so small that any particular one has a high degree of probability and is likely to be duplicated. Independent origin is also demonstrated by linguistic phenomena, which are merely a specialised department of culture. If the dual number could develop independently in Greek and in Shoshoni (Idaho), if the use of reduplication in Takelma (Oregon) is not derived from contact with ancient Greece(*)—then, too, storics about the moon or the conquest of monsters cannot be offered as evidence of cultural connection. A sense for historical reality must, then, reject as equally dogmatic the assertion of uniform sequences and the derivation of all similarities from a single invention. Historical realism will rigidly exclude as useless for comparison any but sharply individualised features; it will trace distributions over continuous areas, wil appeal to the ascertained facts of linguistics and other

567

sciences; and, above all, will use the findings of archaeological stratigraphy as the surest point of departure and ultimate arbiter in questions of chronology. Auxiliary tests of relative antiquity are not lacking(@®). The most Important of these is the assumption that the range of distribution is proportionate to age. Though challenged and liable to correction in specific cases, the general utility of this criterion is guaranteed by supplementary checks. Thus, Kroeber argues for the antiquity of girls’ adolescence rites in California (!), not merely because of their universal distribution but from the concomitant fact of local differentiation. In general the appeal to pre-history supports the correlation of age with range: a universal trait, such as the use of fire, dates back to Mousterian times. The dog is at once the most general and most ancient of domesticated animals. The bow, at least of Azilian antiquity, has (barring Australia) a comparable range. In ancient Egypt the plough is seen as a newcomer crowding out the hoe; and the hoe remains, until recent times, the most common implement of husbandry. Since Europe remains the only major area systematically explored by stratigraphic methods, historical reconstruction must remain tentative.

Facts of Distribution—The facts of distribution themselves may suffice for chronological inferences. The sinew-backed bow, which in Egypt goes back to the second millennium B.c., is characteristic of many Asiatic peoples, and occurs in the New World only north of Mexico and west of the Missouri. It may, therefore, be interpreted as a comparatively recent acquisition from Asia that failed to establish itself beyond the far west of the United States. From the same angle, systematic comparison of North and South American ethnography is bound to yield interesting results. The absence of the tambourine from South

Amcrica indicates that it can hardly belong to the oldest “‘protoAmerican” layer of culture. On the other hand, E. Nordenskidld’s discovery of Gran Chaco games that almost exactly duplicate North American forms(!*) places these traits as definitely older, even though we are unable to give a precise definition in chronological terms. Still more remarkable are the implications of Gusinde’s and Koppers’(’) researches in Tierra del Fuego: the Yahgan at the extreme tip of the continent are found to share with the Indians of British Columbia initiation rites during which the novice is obliged to drink through a tube and to scratch his head with a special “‘ head-scratcher.”’ The specific character of these features and the arbitrariness of the association leave little doubt as to the identity of the phenomena; and it is reasonable to ascribe to them a very great antiquity. Established facts as to the history of domesticated animals and cultivated plants are rightly reckoned among the most valuable aids in the tracing of cultural connections. Thus, the cultivated banana is invariably propagated from side-shoots and has long ago become seedless; hence its range over a wide area in southern Asia and Polynesia is incontrovertible evidence of diffusion. Moreover, the cultivated banana of Africa cannot possibly have been derived from the botanically distinct wild banana of Africa, which produces no side-shoots; its importation from Asia is accordingly demonstrated (4). Apart from the historical evidence that the banana was indigenous in America, fossil banana seeds have been found in Tertiary—perhaps Oligocene— beds in Colombia. This does not necessarily prove that South America was the region of origin(#). Similarly, the humped variety of cattle found in parts of Africa has been identified with the zebu of India, while the long-horned breed can be traced with practical certainty to Egypt, if not beyond. Whenever a route of migration has thus been ascertained by objective methods, it is proper toinquire for additional traits that may have travelled along the same path. If we are sure that the zebu came from India we shall be on the lookout for other elements of culture from that source, such as cotton and the loom; while the affinity of South African with Egyptian cattle enables us to trace the history of Bantu head-rests as well. Use of Linguistics —An unquestionable linguistic relationship likewise serves as a secure starting-point for ethnographic comparison. As Tylor showed long ago, the Malagasy share

568

SOCIAL ANTHROPOLOGY

with their fellow-Malayans a type of bellows utterly distinct from any on the neighbouring mainland, hence the invention must have spread to Madagascar from a Malaysian centre. In the case of so specialised a device as this ‘“‘ piston-bellows,” mere recurrence in the same general part of the world is adequate proof of transmission; accordingly, the Nagas of Assam appear as cultural kindred of the Indonesians, and this conclusion is corroborated by other points of community, such as the equally distinctive terraced irrigation system of the Angami Nagas and the Malay-speaking Ifugao of the Philippines.('®) By concentrating upon points of unmistakable identity Miss Laura Watson Benedict('*) has succeeded in demonstrating the generically Indonesian substratum in the religion of Mindanao natives, has separated later Hindu accessions and rendered probable an infiltration of Indo-Iranian ideas. Modern methods of divination in Indonesia have been identifed with Babylonian hepatoscopy of about 2000 B.c.,('7) and R. Andree(8) follows the distribution of shoulder-blade divination from Bering Strait to northwestern Europe.

The cultural bond of western and eastern Asia, of Asia and Africa, of easternmost Siberia and Europe, is thus definitely established, and the sinew-backed bow has been cited as evidence of connection between the two hemispheres. Indeed, the joint study of the Old and the New World has already produced positive results of considerable importance. The Lapp’s tambourine is not only widely spread in both Siberia and North America but appears with curious frequency in association with the shamanistic office, a combination not easily explained except by contact of the cultures in question. Over a large part of the same territory hunters exhibit a characteristically apologetic attitude toward a slain bear, and practice similar rites of propitiation. Above all, the systematic investigation of hundreds of myths has led to some astonishing conclusions. The Koryak of Siberia, whose material life is very much like that of the Eskimo, are mythologically much more closely allied to the Indians of southern British Columbia. An ancient contact of these now widely separated populations is thus demonstrated, the connection being broken by a possibly retrograde movement of the Eskimo.(?°) In the case of one story shared by European, Siberian and American folk-lore—that of the Magic Flight—even so stouthearted a champion of independent origin as Andrew Lang admitted dispersal from a single centre. The Deluge M yth—Among the stories discussed by Jochelson (*°) the deluge myth is one of the most interesting. It is not merely a narrative of a general flood, which would be devoid of historical cogency, but contains the specific detail of animals diving for mud to be used in the rehabilitation of the earth. This characteristic episode occurs in North America from the Atlantic to the Pacific, and also among the Chukchi, Yukaghir, Buryat, Turkic and Finnic tribes. It is now possible to add two Bodo tribes of the Tibetto-Burman family—the Garos and the Kacharis.#4) Moreover, Mr. Hutton has mentioned Naga parallels to tales recorded among the Lapps, whose original home lies in or near Siberia. (?*) As corroboratory testimony from another field may be cited the religious sanction of homosexual inversion in North America, Siberia and Indonesia, and the striking resemblance between the priestly activities of the inverts in Borneo and among the Chukchi.(#) Considering the historic migration of Buddhism from India to Mongolia, a cultural bond between Siberia and southern Asia cannot be waved aside as inherently improbable. But if we admit the possibility, an alternative is supplied for the speculative attempts to interpret mythological and other coincidences between Asia or Oceania and America by contact through a direct water route. It is then possible to proceed on the orthodox principle of tracing continuously distributed traits over demonstrated paths of dissemination. Orthodox principles of comparison, then, suffice to span continental distances and to co-ordinate the ethnographic and archaeological data of the globe; and if the chronological results lack a spurious completeness, they have a compensatory solidity. In one respect historical realism enjoys a definite superiority

over the extremist schools. Diffusionism, in asserting the absolute singularity of cultural events, bars causal explanation. If, say, agriculture and pottery arose Jointly only once in the history of mankind, their association may be a chance occurrence; and their joint diffusion is due to chance contacts. On the other hand, if like features arise independently and linked with the same concomitants, a functional relationship may be demonstrable. Thus, there are tribes in Assam, California, Nebraska and South Africa(*4) who, in their kinship terminology, fail to distinguish the maternal uncle from his son; while in Arizona, Montana, California and Melanesia others class the paternal aunt with her daughter. The former peoples are patrilineal, the others matrilineal: the kindred included under one head are in both cases in the same clan. This is not a /aw for we cannot predict that a given patrilineal or matrilineal tribe will so fuse distinct generations; but we can predicate a correlation between types of fusion and rule of descent. Similarly, Tylor’s correlation between moieties and unilateral merging of lineal and collateral kin holds if, with Rivers,(*’) we substitute clans for moieties. In the statistical determination of such correlations Hes one of the most fruitful lines of future research. PSYCHOLOGICAL

PROBLEMS

A decade ago anthropology seemed to have few points of contact. It had become clear that racial differences, even if ascertainable by unequivocal tests, could not explain the history of a people’s culture, which varies too rapidly to be correlated with hereditary changes. The uncertainty of the psychological interpretations offered bred an aversion from psychology, whic: was enhanced by the desire of a new science to assert its individuality. Hence, such declarations of independence as A. M. Hocart’s “Psychology and Sociology” (8) and A. L. Kroeber’s “ The Superorganic.(?7) Rivers went a step further, maintaining that only through the study of cultures could the psychologist understand the workings of the human mind. (°) Today psychologists admit that culture co-determines the individual’s mental life;(*) while anthropologists have fallen back from their intransigeant posi-

tion.

Even Kroeber(*) finds a non-psychological treatment of

society sterile. This is not surprising; for the very phenomena formerly envisaged from a purely historical angle harbour a host of psychological questions.(*!) Why do peoples adopt alien features? Why are some traits accepted while their concomitants are spurned? Can the mere idea of, say, pottery be transmitted without instruction in the technique? Such are among the problems that beset the historian, who, consciously or unconsciously, must turn psychologist. The late Dr. Rivers furnished partial solutions: primitive peoples, he contended, would readily adopt foreign elements, even when introduced by small bodies of immigrants, provided these possessed a material culture that powerfully impressed the aborigines. Since, however, transmission is by no means regularly the result of movements of population, this theory has at best limited applicability. More damaging still is the adherence to custom by the American natives, swamped, not merely visited, as they are by possessors of a superior technology. Culture Contacts—Boas has indicated the selective character of borrowing, and suggests that people are receptive toward elements more or less prefigured in their culture. This, however, is avowedly rather a formula defining a programme of observation than a causal explanation. What is required is the careful analysis of concrete instances. Pioneer service has been rendered by P. Radin, whose “ Sketch of the Peyote Cult of the Winnebago ” (3) illustrates how a borrowed culture may be levelled to a cultural pattern of long standing. But contact may prove a creative factor. “ The introduction of new ideas,” says Boas, ‘‘ must by no means be considered as resulting purely mechanically in additions to the cultural pattern but also as an important stimulus to new inner developments.’’(#3) Thus, the fusion of diverse types of social organisation on the west coast of Canada has led to novel arrangements.

Similarly Rivers(!) shows how certain art styles originate from

SOCIAL

ANTHROPOLOGY

the mingling of two Melanesian trends. In East Africa the subjection of one people by another has repeatedly created a caste system unparalleled in the previous polity of either conqueror or vanquished. Re-valuations ensuing upon the borrowing of ceremonial traits have been illustrated by L. Spier.(*°) In the domain of technology the Chinese derived glazing from western Asia; but centuries of experimentation culminated in a creative synthesis—the invention of porcelain. (38) In the North American Plains area the introduction of the horse proved at least a potent factor in the spread of cultural features.(3’) HuMAN

INVENTION

To turn to another aspect of the subject, anthropologists must

take cognisance of the differences in outlook between participants of the lowlier and the higher cultures. If these are not to be correlated with inborn differences, how shall we appraise them? L. Lévy-Bruhl!) assumes that ruder peoples are possessed of a pre-logical mentality. R.R. Marett(*°?) and Goldenweiser,(*) however, have shown that primitive man displays in everyday life precisely the same sort of thinking as ourselves, while his irrational speculations are paralleled by equivalent phenomena in the highest civilisations. In short, there is at best a difference in degree, not in kind. Even our advanced technology establishes no basic group difference, for its psychological correlates are confined to narrow bodies of specialists. Apart from the effects of intensive specialisation, human invention does not seem to differ in principle throughout the course of history. There is certainly no inexhaustible reservoir of ideas for efiective adaptation to environment: the Fuegian shivers without manufacturing adequate dress; the Navaho fails to utilise stone material for masonry; European peasants do not automatically conceive advanced sanitary regulations. Between maximum exploitation of the environment and that minimum prerequisite to continued existence there lies a vast scale of cultural values. Mankind is certainly prone to muddle along with traditional devices, and in so far Graebner and Elliot Smith are right in challenging the assumption of an indefinite inventiveness. Nevertheless, the fact remains that most peoples are not merely passive recipients of foreign culture; everywhere we encounter adaptations that could only have originated on the spot. Snow-goggles were not invented in Egypt for export to the Arctic. In South America the poisonous manioc becomes, through an

569

The orthodox psychology of a past generation is still capable of stimulating anthropological inquiry. Quite recently Gustav Theodor Fechner’s work in experimental aesthetics has suggested measurements and detailed comparison of the decorative patterns found in Plains Indian rawhide cases. Thus, there has been secured a more exact definition of local styles and a clearer conception of the subjectively significant elements of decoration.(*) Similarly, Galton’s descriptions of colour and number associations in his Iuguiries into Human Faculty have an obvious bearing on relevant ethnographic data. ° The Value of the Individual— Of deeper import is the Galtonian theory of individual differences that so largely dominates psychology to-day. Thanks to Father Schmidt, Marett, Boas and others, the dogma that on primitive cultural levels the individual is completely submerged in the group is definitely shattered. Boas has stressed the skilled craftsman’s influence on the development of art.(#®) Radin has studied individual literary endowment through distinct versions of the same tale,(*”) and has propounded the theory that monotheistic beliefs are correlated with a definite temperament, and accordingly may be expected to occur with a certain frequency, irrespective of cultural plane.(4*) R. Thurnwald(*’) accepts the varying capacities of, say, Papuans as an established proposition; and R. 11. Lowie(®) systematically surveys individual variability as to sensory type, suggestibuity, intellect, idiosyncrasies and leadership. In short, modern anthropology accepts personality as one of its irreducible phenomena and recognises in the interaction of individuals and the social tradition they confront, combat, succumb to or domi-

nate, one of its perennial problems... These attempts to saturate ethnography with psychological points of view are as yet merely inchoate gropings toward a fuller comprehension of the subject. They are far from affording an insight into the spirit of other cultures. No wonder that those of little faith have grown restive and are blaming anthropological technique: a liberation from methodological bondage is their recipe for “‘ a proportionate rise in creative ideas.’’(*!) This hope is a delusion and a snare. There is no royal road to an alien people’s true inwardness. Only by piecemeal labour on the elements of culture and their concrete psychic correlates can we rise above the impressionist’s pseudo-synthesis, and by reliving aboriginal experience with its affective tinge attain that union of intellectual and imaginative enlightenment which must be our goal.

elaborate treatment, the staple diet. In Brazil and the Chaco BIBLIOGRAPHY.—(1) Jour. of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland, vol. 18, pp. 245-272 (1889). (2) lack of stone leads to the perfection of wooden tools. Even W. H. R. Rivers, “ History and Ethnology,” in JZistory, pp. 65-80 where foreign influence is certain, the re-working of the received G. Elliot Smith, The Evolution of Man, pp. 103, 112, 117, elements, as in the case of porcelain, may involve a creative syn- (1920); 131 (1924). (3) W. J. Perry, The Children of the Sun, p. 460 (1923). thesis. This conclusion must re-act upon our interpretation of (4) Ibid., p. 480; The Growth of Civilisation, p. 78 (1924). (4a) W. similarities: if primitive tribes have sometimes ingeniously Schmidt, Volker und Kulturen (1924). (5) ‘ Some Fundamental Ideas of Chinese Culture,” Jour. of Race Development, pp. 160-174 solved their problems, why insist that certain solutions were (1914); “ Sino-Iranica,” Field Museum, Anthrop. Series, vol. 15, beyond them simply because they had already been achieved No. 3 (1919). (6) J. Hf. Hutton, The Angamit Nagas, pp. 113 et seq. elsewhere? (1921). (7) F. Boas, The Mind of Primitive Man, pp. 185 et seg. Psycho-analysis.—Naturally the progress of psychological sci- (1911). (8) ‘‘ The Principle of Limited Possibilities in the Developence itself has reacted upon anthropological interpretation. Re- ment of Culture,” Jour. of American Folk-Lore, pp. 259-290 (1913). (9) E. Sapir, Language, p. 82 (1921). (10) E. Sapir, Time ligion is hardly intelligible without the concepts of suggestion and Perspective in Aboriginal American Culture; A Study of Method hypnotism, and with the rise of psycho-analysis came new explana(1916). (11) A. L. Kroeber, Anthropology, p. 302 (1924). (12) Intory principles. Unfortunately the ethnographic naiveté of psy- dianerleben, p. 200 (1912); Comparative Ethnographic Studies, vol. 2, cho-analysts has discredited their interpretations of culture, while pp. 112 et seq. (Göteborg, 1919). (13) W. Koppers Unter Feuerland(1924). (14) E. Werth, “ Zur Natur- und KulturgeRivers achieved little more than to paraphrase cultural phenom- Indianern schichte der Banane,” Eduard Hahn Festschrift (1919). (15) J. H. ena in the new phraseology.(“) Genuine illumination is, however, Hutton, Tke Sema Nagas, p. 52 (1921); id., in J. P. Mills, The Lhota afforded by B. Malinowski,(#) who shows that the results of re- Nagas, p. 29 (1922). (16) L. W. Bendiel, A Study of Bagobo Cerepression and conflict must vary with sociological differences, and monial, Magic and Myth (Leyden, 1916). (17) A. L. Kroeber, p. 209 (1924). (18) R. Andrees, *“ Scapulimantia,” suggests comparative analysis of patrilineal and matrilineal Anthropology, Boas Anniversary Volume, ed. B. Laufer, pp. 143-165 (1906). (19) communities. F. Boas, “ Die Resultate der Jesup-Expedition,” Verh. des XVI. To the impetus of psycho-analytic thinking must also be internationalen Amertkanisten-Kongresses (1909); W. Jochelson, The Koryak, pp. 358 ef seq. (1908). (20) W. Jochelson, tbid., p. 351. credited C. G. Seligman’s attempt to record primitive dreams— (21) A, Playfair, The Garos, pp. 82 et seq. (1909); J. H. Hutton, The an undertaking of first-rate significance in view of the part Sema Nagas, p. 380 (1921). (22) J. P. Mills, The Shota Nagas, dreams play in aboriginal life.(8) Finally, one cardinal doctrine p. 174. (23) E. H. Gomes, Seventeen Years Among the Sea Dyaks of of psycho-analysis is amply corroborated by anthropological Borneo (1911); W. Bogoras, The Chukchee (1909). (24) A. R. Radclilfe-Brown, South African Jour. of Science, p. 554 (1924). data. Decorative designs, rituals, tales that have been diffused (25) W. H. R. Rivers, Kinship and Social Organisation (1914). from one centre become secondarily linked with new symbolism, (26) Folklore, pp. 115-137 (1915). (27) American Anthropologist, cosmic or biological explanation.(“) Thus, “ rationalisation ” | Iyp. 163-213 (1917). (28) ‘ Soctology and Psychology,” The Sociomerges in Boas’ still wider principle of secondary association. : logical Review (1916). (29) F. C. Bartlett, Psychology and Primitive

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570

Culture (1923). (30) American Anthropologist, pp. 377-381 (1920). (31) R. R. Marett, Psychology and Folk-Lore (1920). (32) Jour. of Religious Psychology, pp. 1-22 (1914). (33) “ Evolution or

Syndicalist movement grew up during the period of great strike activity between torr and 1914; but far more important was the widespread influence of the new ideas on the trade union

Indians” Anthrop. Pap. Amer. Mus. Nat. [Zist., vol. 14, pp. 451-527

onwards,

Diffusion?” Amer. Anthrop., p. 341 (1924). (34) Rept. Brit. Assn. Adv, Science, p. 599 (1912). (35) “ The Sun Dance of the Plains

(1921). (36) B. Laufer, ‘‘ The Beginnings of Porcelain,” Field Mus. Anthrop. Series, vol. 15, No. 2 (1917). (37) C. Wissler, ‘‘ The Influence of the Horse in the Development of Plains Culture,” Amer. Anthrop., pp. 1-25 (1914). (38) L. Lévy-Bruhl, Les fonctions mentales dans les sociétés inférieures (1910), and La mentalité primitive (1922). (39) R. R. Marett, Psychology and Folk-Lore (1920). (40) A. A. Goldenweiser, Early Civilisation (1923). (41) ‘ Dreams and Primitive Culture,” Bull. John Ryland’s Library, vol. 4, No. 3 and 4 (1918); ‘‘ Conservatism and Plasticity,” Folk-Lore, pp. 10-27 (1921). (42) ‘‘ The Psychology of Sex and the Foundations of Kinship in Primitive Socicties,” Psyche, vol. 4, pp. 98-128 (1923); and ‘Complex and Myth in Mother-Right,” ibid., vol 5, pp. 194-216 (1925). (43)‘‘ Anthropology and Psychology: a Study of some Points

of Contact,” Jour. Royal Anthrop. Inst., Great Britain, pp. 13-46 (1924).

(44) C. Wissler, ‘“‘ Decorative Art of the Sioux Indians,”

Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. ITist., vol. 18, pp. 231-277 (1904); A. L.

Kroeber, ibid., pp. 1-229 (1902). (45) L. Spier, “ An Analysis of Plains Indian Parfeche Decoration,” Univ. of Washington Pub. in Anthropology, vol. 1, No. 3 (1925). (46) “ Representative Art of Primitive

Peoples,”

W.

H. Holmes

Anniversary

Volume,

pp.

I8

et seq. (1916). (47) “ Literary Aspects of North American Mythology,” Canada Geological Survey, Anthropological Series, No. 6 (1915). (48) P. Radin, Monotheism Among Primitive Peoples (1924). (49)

R. Thurnwald,

Psychologie des primitiven Menschen

(1922).

(50)

R. H. Lowie, Primitive Religion (1924). (51) A. A. Goldenweiser, in H. E. Barnes, The History and Prospects of the Social Sciences, p. 254

(1925).

(R. H. Lo.)

SOCIALISM (see 25.301).—Throughout the world the War of 1914-18 and its aftermath have profoundly altered the position of Socialism in national and international affairs; and its doctrines and policies, already in rapid change before the War, have been correspondingly modified in the light of post-War conditions. Above all, the Bolshevik revolution of 1917 has deeply affected every Socialist movement and party, and has caused in many countries a re-grouping of Socialist forces of which the full

effects are still impossible to predict. In the years immediately before the War, the outstanding changes in Socialist policy were due mainly to two causes—the growth of Socialism as a parliamentary force, and the rise of new ideas of industrial organisation and action. Not only in Great Britain, but also in Germany, France, Italy and other countries, the Socialist movement, either directly or through a Labour party, had become a powerful force in national politics,

and had accordingly begun to shape its policy to suit parliamentary requirements. This had led on the one hand to the rise of “‘ revisionist ” doctrines, modifying the militant Marxism of earlier days, and on the other to revolts and criticisms from the Left Wing, directed against the compromising tactics of the official Socialist parties. Thus in Great Britain the Labour party which had first become an important party after the election of 1906, was accused of allying itself with Liberalism and so betraying the Socialist cause. There were similar divisions of opinion in every developed European country. Industrial Unionism and Syndicalism.—Of more importance, however, in the years before the War, was the growth of new industrial movements and theories. During the first decade of the 20th century, prices had risen, without an equivalent rise in wages. This led to a wave of reaction against parliamentary methods, which, it was urged, could not really protect the workers’ standard of life. Indusirial unrest became widespread. ‘The theories of Industrial Unionism and Syndicalism exerted a wide influence on working-class opinion. ‘The former, arising in America, largely among the immigrant workers, proposed a mass organisation of the whole working class, without distinction of craft, sex or grade, for the revolutionary overthrow of capitalism

by direct industrial action, with or without parliamentary action

as an auxiliary. The latter, arising in France, largely under Anarchist-Communist influence, was a definite attempt to replace parliamentary by industrial methods, and to bring about revolution by mass trade union action leading to working class control of industry and the reconstruction of society on the basis

of purely working class institutions.

In Great Britain, a small

movement.

Guild Socialism, which developed rapidly from 1912 was an expression of this same

tendency,

stated in

terms better adjusted to British conditions, and aiming at a reconciliation of Socialism and Syndicalism by combining the Socialist plan of public ownership of the means of production with the Syndicalist plan of workers’ control in industry and society. Socialist Parties Split by the War-—The outbreak of the War altered the entire situation. Jt checked the movement of industrial unrest, and acutely divided the Socialist forces. In every belligerent country some Socialists supported and some opposed the participation of their countries in the, War; In Germany, France and Great Britain and in most of the smaller States the majority of the Socialist supported the War; but in each case a

powerful and growing minority opposed it. In Great Britain the Labour party supported the War, and after a time entered into Coalition Governments for its prosecution; but the Independent Labour party, largest and most influential of the Socialist bodies, took the opposite view, though it remained throughout an affiliated section of the Labour party. In Germany the Social Dem-

ocratic party broke eventually into two sections—the majority, which backed the Government, and the Independent Socialists, who refused their support. These cleavages became more pronounced as the War continued, and the growing losses and hardships steadily swelled the volume of anti-War opinion in all countries, and especially in Germany. In r917, under the strain of war, the old régime in Russia hopelessly broke down. A political revolution placed first a body of liberal reformers and then the moderate Labour groups under Kerensky in nominal power. But the attempt, in face of complete national exhaustion, to carry on the War brought on a fur-

ther revolution, by which power passed to the Bolsheviks, the Left Wing Socialist party which later adopted the name of Communist party. The Bolsheviks established a “proletarian dictatorship,” made peace with Germany at Brest-Litovsk, and set out to work among the war-weary peoples of the belligerent

countries for a world-wide Socialist revolution. Bolshevism. —The Bolshevik revolution, by which for the first time a Socialist Govt. assumed complete political and economic power in a great country, everywhere profoundly affected Socialist thought and policy. At first its influence was mainly in the direction of “ pacifism,” and it certainly helped to undermine the war morale of the German people. But when, in the autumn of ror8, the resistance of Germany at length gave way, the revolution which followed did not result in the triumph of Socialism. For a while the Socialists appeared to be the leading power in the new German Republic; but, subjected to the victorious Allies and fearing starvation by blockade, the German Socialists, still disunited, did not attempt to force their power home, and gradually, after a series of disturbances, Germany assumed the shape of a constitutional Republic in which industry

and property remained on a capitalist basis. THE

Post-War

RECONSTRUCTION

OF SOCIALIST

PARTIES

Meanwhile, the conclusion of the War had led in other countries to a great increase in the strength of the Socialist movement. Every Government had made lavish promises of reconstruction after the War, and great hopes had been aroused. A great mass of recruits from all classes flocked into the Labour and Socialist parties. Everywhere there were great industrial as well as political movements. In Great Britain, the Labour party reconstructed itself in rorg as the party of the “ workers by hand and brain,” and the trade unions showed, in 1919, great activity in presenting and pressing their demands for improved conditions. Idealism was in the air; plans of drastic social and economic reconstruction got widespread attention; and Governments went some distance towards compromise with the new forces whose development they feared. Constitutional Labourism gained the most converts; but Communism, spreading from

SOCIALISM Russia, mace its appearance in every country as an organised revolutionary movement, preaching the class war and denouncing moderate Socialism as a middle-class doctrine designed to mislead the workers and divert them from the task of revolutionary action. For two years after the War, trade prospered and wealth appeared to abound. But then came everywhere a pronounced industrial slump, causing widespread unemployment and a severe fall in both wages and profits. Plans of social reconstruction were hastily jettisoned; great strikes or lock-outs, such as the British miners’ lock-out in 1921, broke the power of the trade unions; a wave of reaction swept across the world. The European governments attempted to break the power of Communism by the ostracism and blockade of Russia, which had offended against capitalist standards by wholesale confiscation of property and repudiation of debts, as well as by propaganda in other countries; and, while the Socialists everywhere opposed these measures, the deep cleavages between Communists and orthodox Socialists in the European countries helped to undermine their influence, and added to the fundamental weakness caused by the decline in the demand for labour. From the end of 1920 to the end of 1925, to which this article extends, the slump remained in being, especially in Great Britain, and everywhere trade union membership declined and there was a fall in the working-class standard of life. This, however, did not necessarily involve a decline in the voting strength of the Socialists in parliamentary elections. Thus the British Labour party which in 1910 (Dec.) secured 370,802 votes and 42 seats in the House of Commons, and in 19r8 (on the new franchise) 2,244,045 votes and 57 seats, got 4,348,375 votes and I9I seats in 1923, and, despite adverse electional conditions, 5,551,549 votes and 151 seats in 1924. Moreover, after the 1923 election a Labour Govt. for the first time in British history assumed office, albeit as a minority administration dependent on Liberal support. Under these conditions, however, it was unable, like the Socialist governments which have held office in Sweden, Denmark and other countries, to take any important step towards a distinctively Socialist policy. ‘British Partics—The cleavage between orthodox Socialism and Communism has, for certain definite reasons, been far less pronounced in Great Britain than in most of the continental countries. The British Labour party is based directly on the trade unions, which control the overwhelming majority of votes at its conferences. The affiliated Socialist Societies, among which the only body of real importance is the Independent Labour party, with about 50,000 members, are only a tiny fraction of it, and owe their position to energy and readiness to accommodate themselves to circumstances rather than to numbers. The trade unions are not greatly interested in the theoretical disputes of Communists and Social Democrats, and realise the importance of preserving unity for their own practical work. Whereas, therefore, continental Socialist movements have been riven In twain according to the conilicting theories of their individual supporters it has been very hard for Communism to strike root in Great Britain. The Communist party, which has sought but been refused affiliation to the Labour party, has only a few thousand members; and though these conduct, through a so-called “ Minority Movement,” active propaganda inside the trade unions, they produce relatively little effect. In France, on the other hand, the majority of the pre-War Sccialist party went over to Communism, leaving the minority to re-form the Socialist party as a separate body, while in Germany, though the Social Democratic party remains the largest party in the country, the Communists have a really powerful and substantial following. Tut

INTERNATIONAL

MOVEMENT

The rival tendencies in post-War Socialism find expression in two rival Internationals—the Labour and Socialist International, dominated by the continental Right Wing parties and the British Labour party, and the Third, er Communist, International, the organisation of which centres upon the Russian Communist

party.

571 Similarly, there are two trade union

the Amsterdam

International

Federation

Internationals—

of Trade

Unions,

to

which the British and the majority of the unions in most of the continental countries belong, and the Red International of Labour Unions, which includes the Russians and the “ minority movements ” of a number of other countries. The Italian movement, almost crushed out by Fascism, and the American, still pursuing a policy of national isolation, stand outside both camps. There have been repeated attempts to promote working-class unity in both the political and the economic sphere; but the conflicts of politics and personalities have so far outweighed the tendencies making for common action, of which the chief is the growing pressure in all capitalist countries, under stress of bad trade and international competition, to lengthen again the working day reduced after the War, and to press down the workingclass standard of life. Socialism and Politics —Socialism everywhere came into effective activity as a movement of working-class revolt, at a time when the impracticabilily of securing results by parliamentary action and the frequent repression of Socialist propaganda left Socialists no alternative to the adoption of a revolutionary attitude. But gradually these early Socialist bodies won their way to toleration and, commanding a wider influence, took shape as political parties returning a substantial body of members to the various national parliaments. This change led to a marked development of evolutionary Socialist doctrines, in which the achievement of Socialism was envisaged, not catastrophically, but as a gradual transformation of the social order by legislative reforms and as the result of a progressive Socialist conquest of political power. Always there were Socialist groups which repudiated this view (the Syndicalists in France, the Socialist Labour party in America, the Bolsheviks in Russia, the Industrial Unionists in Great Britain); but up to 1914 it appeared to be definitely the growing conception of Socialist policy. It resulted in a placing of the main stress on parliamentary action and on the nationalisation of industry as the means to socialisation of the economic system. As we have seen, the earlier revolts against this doctrine were mainly industrial movements, designed to turn trade unionism into arevolutionary instrument for the conquest of power and the achievement of workers’ control in industry. But after the Russian revolution the Left Wing in the various working-class movements tended to re-cast its policy, and to think in terms, not of a general strike (Syndicalism) or a trade-union advance towards the control of Industry (Guild Socialism), but of a decisive proletarian revolution establishing the dictatorship of a disciplined Communist party. The State and Parliament, which the moderate “ Collectivist ’’ Socialists had looked upon as the instruments of social transformation, were denounced as purely capitalist institutions, to be forcibly overthrown and replaced by an exclusively proletarian State as in Russia. This doctrine, clearly enunciated in Marx’s Communist Manifesto of 1848, has been most decisively developed by Lenin, the leader of the Russian Bolsheviks

(see his Zhe State and

Revolution

and other

writings). This tendency to look to revolution, rather than to evolutionary development, as the means of establishing Socialism, has been greatly fostered by the world-wide unloosing of force during the World War, by the apparent success of the method in Russia as compared with the doubtful fortunes of moderate Socialism in Germany and elsewhere, by its employment on the capitalist side in Italyand Spain, and on both sides in Ireland, suggesting that parliamentary decisions will not be obeyed when they cut beyond a certain depth; and by the unsettled condition and uncertain economic prospects of the postWar world. For, whereas before the War it seemed as if the condition of the workers was gradually improving with the general increase in the world’s wealth, nowadays the whole economic system is in serious difficulties and the standards of labourappear to be seriously threatened in nearly every country, with only the outstanding exception of the United States. Yet it would be a profound mistake to regard post-War Socialism as a movement sharply divided into two opposing

SOCIALISM:

572

PRINCIPLES AND OUTLOOK

factions—revolutionary Communists and parliamentary Collectivists upholding a pacific and constitutional policy. This isindeed the outward form which the struggle often seems to assume. But in every country there are very large groups, far less distinctly organised, which stand at points between the two extremes. Far more important than Communism itself, except in Russia, is the iniluence on general Socialist thought and policy which not only Communism but also such doctrines as Guild Socialism have undoubtedly exercised. The ordinary trade-union or Socialist party member nowadays, even if he is no Communist, is far less inclined than he was to make constitutionalism a matter of principle, and far more inclined to resort to direct action on a broad basis for the achievement of Socialist, as well as purely immediate economic, ends. This is the result in part of Communism and the Russian revolution, but still more of war experience and changed economic conditions, especially the lessened belief in the stability of the capitalist system and the sincerity of its parliamentary constitutionalism. CHANGES

IN THE

SOCIALIST

PROGRAMMES

Again it may be said that, largely owing to Guild Socialist and Syndicalist influence, the practical Socialist programme has undergone great changes. All schools of Socialists still stand for the transference of large scale industry from private to public ownership; but mere State Socialism, or nationalisation, is no longer a satisfying conception to Socialists of any school. In greater or less degree, all now stand for some form of “ workers’ control’ in soctalised industry, and repudiate the idea that industry can be bureaucratically run on any existing civil service model. For example, the British miners, who before the War mercly demanded State ownership, now demand as well a substantial share in the control of theirindustry under public ownership. The French have their plan of “ industrial nationalisation,” and workers’ control appeared prominently in German schemes of socialisation after the War. Political Co-operation with non-Socialist Parties —It remains to be seen how these changes in doctrine will, in the long run, work out in Socialist political practice. For, while the tendency of Socialist thought and working-class opinion has been on the whole distinctly leftward ever since tor1, there are powerful forces pulling Socialist practice the other way. Especially as, in one country after another, the Socialist parties by constitutional means reach the threshold of political power and increase their parliamentary following, there are strong inducements to disarm opposition and facilitate the assumption of office by the adoption of pacific courses and by compromise or coalition with other parties. In France for example, the Socialists have for some years been in alliance with the Radical parties in a carted des gauches, while in Germany they have taken part in Coalition governments with the middle-class parties, and in Great Britain a Labour Govt. held office for nearly a year with Libcral support. These groupings have arisen in all cases out of difficult political situations; and the tendency may well be for such situations to arise even more often in the future. But there is no doubt that the Socialist parties, if under these impulsions they moved far to the “ Right ” into alliance with the “ Liberal” groups, would forfeit a substantial part of their working-class support, which would either go over to Communism, or form new political groupings of the “ Left”? on a more definitely Socialist basis and programme. Solidifying Force of Trade Unionism.—Socialism, then, in 1925, is far nearer than it was in 1911 to the tests of practical experience and responsibility. Naturally, under these conditions, difficulties are more clearly seen, and differences previously latent become more pronounced. But, especially in Great Britain, trade unionism, which is doomed to impotence unless it can transcend these differences and maintain working-class unity, acts as a great solidifying force, and prevents the pushing of quarrels to the point of a split in the political field. And it may be that, elsewhere as well, this need for unity in pursuit of common economic ends will, in the long run, re-unite the warring factions of European Socialism, and achieve a new basis of

political agreement. It would take a bold man to prophesy what the outcome will be. But the tendencies at least are clear enough, and are manifested in every country in which the movement exists at all. And the underlving basis is also clear; for, despite all its transformations and developments, Socialism remains essentially not so much a theoretical plan of social reorganisation as a class movement arising directly out of the economic divisions In society determined by the rise of capitalism and the Industrial Revolution. It is an attempt to formulate for the proletariat a policy designed to promote a more equal distribution and also a larger production of wealth, and to abolish class distinctions based on inequalities of wealth and social opportunity, or on property laws and relations which encourage the accumulation of the means of production in private hands. Its forms and its actual policies may change with the movement of events, thoughts and economic forces; but through all its changes it retains this underlying and essential character, proclaimed by Marx in the Communist Manifesto of 1848,!to which formulation the great majority of Socialists still trace the impetus of the movement as a creative social force. By no means all Socialists, especially in Great Britain, call themselves Marxists; but to this extent at any rate the movement as a whole is based firmly on Marx’s diagnosis of the social problem (see also COMMUNISM; SECOND INTERNATIONAL; THIRD INTERNATIONAL). BIBLIOGRAPHY.— General. There is no really good account of Socialism as a whole. The handiest text-books in English are W. Sombart, Socialism and the Social Movement, tr. by M. Epstein (1909); T. Kirkup, 7Zistory of Secialism, 5th ed., revised by E. A. Pease (1913); The best post-War books, S. and B. Webb, ÆA Constitution for the Socialist Commonwealth of Great Britain (1920); J: Ramsay MacDonald, Socialism, Critical and Constructive (1921);

H. N. Brailsford, Socialism for To-Day (1925). R. C. K. Ensor’s

Afodern Socialism (1910) is a useful pre-War collection of extracts from the writings of Socialists of all countries. Max Beer's History of British Socialism, 2 vol. (1919-20) is indispensable. For the growth of the movement in foreign countries, see the Labour International ITandbook (1921) and Supplement (1923). Other useful books are H.G. Wells, New Worlds for Old, rev. ed. (1914); Bertrand

Russell, Reads to Freedom (1918); G. D. H. Cole, Guild Socialism Re-stated (1920). See also N. Lenin, The State and Revolution, Eng. tr. (1919); N. [. Bucharin and E. Preobrazhensky, The A. B. C. of Communism, Eng. tr. (1922). The Communist Manifesio of K. Marx and E. Engels (1848) should be compared with the new Comniunist Manifesto of the Third International (1919) and with the British Labour Party's Labour and the New Social Order (19185). Marxism. K. Marx, Capital, Eng. tr. (1907-9), etc. Max Beer, The Life and Teaching of Karl Marx (1921); A. D. Lindsay, Karl Marx's Capital (1925). There is, of course, a large literature on Socialism in nearly every

European language.?

(G. D. F

SOCIALISM: PRINCIPLES AND OUTLOOK, (see 25.301).— Socialism, reduced to its simplest legal and practical expression, means the complete discarding of the institution of private property by transforming it into public property, and the division of the resultant public income equally and indiscriminately among the entire population. Thus it reverses the policy of Capitalism, which means establishing private or “ real ” property to the utmost physically possible extent, and then leaving dis-

tribution of income to take care of itself. The change involves a complete moral volte-face. In Socialism private property is anathema, and equal distribution of income the first consideration. In capitalism private property is cardinal, and distribution left to ensue from the play of free contract and selfish interest on that basis, no matter what anomalies it may present.

I. Socialism never arises in the earlier phases of capitalism, as, for instance, among the pioneers of civilisation In a country

where there is plenty of land available for private appropriation by the last comer. The distribution which results under such circumstances presents no wider departures from a rough equality than those made morally plausible by their association with exceptional energy and ability at the one extreme, and ' Drafted in 1847; published in 1848. 2 For the contrary case CAPITALISM the article should be consulted.

SOCIALISM: PRINCIPLES AND OUTLOOK with obvious defects of mind and character or accidental hard luck, at the other. This phase, however, does not last long under modern conditions. All the more favourable sites are soon ptivately appropriated; and the later comers (provided by immigration or the natural growth of the population), finding no eligible land to appropriate, are obliged to live by hiring it at a rent from its owners, transforming the latter into a rentier class enjoying unearned incomes which increase continually with the growth of the population until the landed class becomes a money-lending or capitalist class also, capital being the name given to spare money. The resource of hiring land and spare money is open to those only who are sufliciently educated to keep accounts and manage businesses, most of whom spring

573

always more effective and less corrupt than public management. In particular, the British attempt to depend on private industry for munitions during the War of 1914-8 nearly led to defeat; and the substitution of national factories was so sensationally successful, and the post-War resumption of private enterprise, after a brief burst of illusory prosperity, was followed by so distressing a slump, that the reversal of the relative efliciency prestige of socialism and capitalism was vigorously accelerated, leaving capitalism unpopular and on the defensive, whilst confiscation of private capital, communal enterprise, and nationalisalion of the big industries, grew steadily in popularity in and out of Parliament. This change in public opinion had already deeply penetrated

The rest have to

the middle class, because of the change for the worse in the

live by being hired as labourers and artisans at weekly or daily wages; so that a rough division of society into an upper or proprietary class, a middle or employing and managing class, and a wage proletariat is produced. In this division the proprietary class is purely parasitic, consuming without producing. As the inexorable operation of the economic law of rent makes this class richer and richer as the population increases, its demand for domestic servants and for luxuries ofall kinds creates parasitic enterprise and employment for the middle class and the proletariat, not only withdrawing masses of them from productiveindustry, but also fortifying itself politically by a great body of workers and employers who vote with the owners because they are as dependent on the owners’ unearned incomes as the owners themselves. Meanwhile the competition of employers for custom, which leads to the production of a dozen articles to satisfy the demand for one, leads to disastrous crises of feverish overproduction alternated with periods of bad trade (“ booms ”? and “ slumps”), making continuous employment of the proletariat impossible. When wages fall to a point at which saving also is impossible, the unemployed have no means of subsistence except public relief during the slumps. It is in this phase of capitalistic development, attained in Great Britain in the 1oth century, that socialism arises as a revolt against a distribution of wealth that has lost all its moral plausibility. Colossal wealth is associated with unproductiveness, and sometimes with conspicuous worthlessness of character; and lifetimes of excessive toil beginning in early childhood leave the toiler so miserably poor that the only refuge left for old age is a general workhouse, purposely made repulsive to deter proletarians from resorting to it as long as they have strength enough left for the most poorly paid job in the labour market. The inequalities become monstrous: hardworking men get four or five shillings a day (post-War rates) in full view of persons who get several thousands a day without any obligation to work at all, and even consider industrial work degrading. Such variations in income defy all attempts to relate them to variations in personal merit. Governments are forced to intervene and readjust distribution to some extent by confiscating larger and larger percentages of incomes detived from property (income tax, supertax, and estate duties) and applying the proceeds to unemployment insurance and extensions of communal services, besides protecting the proletariat against the worst extremitics of oppression by an elaborate factory code which takes the control of workshops and factories largely out of the hands of their proprietors, and makes it impossible for them to exact grossly excessive hours of labour from their employees or to neglect their health, physical safety, and moral welfare with complete selfishness. This confiscation of private property incomes for public purposes without any pretence of compensation, which is now proceeding on a scale inconceivable by Victorian ministers, has destroyed the integrity of private property and inheritance; and the success with which the confiscated capital has been applied to communal industries by the municipalities and the central Government, contrasted with the many failures and comparative costliness of capitalist industrial adventure, has shaken superstition that private commercial management is

position of the ordinary employer. He, in the roth century, was admittedly master of the industrial, and, after the Reform of 1832, of the political situation. Ife dealt directly and even domineeringly with the proprietary class, from which he hired his land and capital either directly or through agents who were his servants and not his masters. But the sums required to set on foot and develop modern industrial schemes grew until they were out of reach of ordinary employers. The collection of money to be used as capital became a special business, conducted by professional promoters and financiers. These experts, though

from the proprietary class as younger sons.

they had no direct contact with industry, became so indispensable

to it that they are now virtually the masters of the ordinary routine employers.

Meanwhile the growth of joint-stock enter-

prise was substituting the employee-manager

for the employer,

and thus converting the old independent middle class into a proletariat, and pressing it politically to the left. With every increase in the magnitude of the capital sums required for starting or extending large industrial concerns

comes the need for an increase in the ability demanded by their management; and this the financiers cannot supply: indeed they bleed industry of middle class ability by attracting it into their own profession. Matters reach a point at which industrial management by the old-fashioned tradesman must be replaced by a professionally trained and educated bureau-

cracy; and as Capitalism does not provide such a bureaucracy, the industries tend to get into difficulties as they grow by combination (amalgamation), and thus outgrow the capacity of the managers who were able to handle them as separate units. This difficulty is increased by the hereditary element in business. Anemployer may bequeath the control of an industry involving the subsistence of thousands of workers, and requiring from its chief cither great natural ability and energy or considerable

scientific and political culture, to his eldest son without being challenged to prove his son’s qualifications, whilst if he proposes to make his second son a doctor or a naval officer he is peremptorily informed by the Government that only by undergoing an elaborate and prolonged training, and obtaining official certificates of qualification, can his son be permitted to assume such responsibilities. Under these circumstances, much of the management and control of industry gets divided between routine employers who do not really understand their own businesses, and financiers, who, having never entered a factory nor descended a mine shaft, do not understand any business except the business of collecting money to be used as capital, and forcing it into industrial adventures at all hazards, the result being too often reckless and senseless over-capitalisation, leading to bankruptcies (disguised as reconstructions) which reveal the most astonishing technical ignorance and economic blindness on the part of men in high repute as directors of hyge industrial combinations, who draw large fees as the remuneration of a mystical ability which exists only in the imagination of the shareholders.

II. All this steadily saps the moral plausibility of capitalism. The loss of popular faith in it has gone much further than the gain of any widespread or intelligent faith in socialism. Consequently the end of the first quarter of the 2oth century finds the political

574

SOCIALISM:

PRINCIPLES

situation in Europe confused and threatening: all the political parties diagnosing dangerous social disease, and most of them proposing disastrous remedies. National governments, no matter what ancient party slogans they raise, find themselves controlled by financiers who follow the slot of gigantic international usuries without any public aims, and without any technical qualifications except their familiarity with a rule-ofthumb city routine quite inapplicable to public affairs, because it deals exclusively with stock exchange and banking categories of capital and credit. These, though valid in the money market when conducting exchanges of future incomes for spare ready money by the small minority of persons who have these luxuries to dealin, would vanish uncler pressure of any general political measure like—to take a perilously popular and plausible example—a levy on capital. Such a levy would produce a money market in which there were all sellers and no buyers, sending the Bank Rate up to infinity, breaking the banks, and bringing industry to a standstill by the transfer of all the cash available for wages to the national treasury. Unfortunately the parliamentary proletarian parties understand this as little as their capitalist opponents. They clamour for taxation of capital; anc the capitalists, instead of frankly admitting that capital as they reckon it is a phantom, and that the assumption that a person with an income of £35 a year represents to the state an immediately available asset of £100 ready money, though it may work well enough as between a handful of investors and spendthrifts in a stockbroker’s office, is pure fiction when applied to a whole nation, ignorantly defend their imaginary resources as if they really existed, and thus confirm the proletariat in its delusion instead of educating it. The financiers have their own ignis fatuus, whìch is that they can double the capital of the country, and thus give an immense stimulus to industrial development and production, by inflating the currency until prices rise to a point at which goods formerly marked £50 are marked £100, a measure which does nothing nationally but enable every debtor to cheat his creditor, and every insurance company and pension fund to reduce by half the provision for which it has been paid. The history of inflation in Europe since the War of ro14—8, and the resultant impoverishment of pensioners and officials with small fixed incomes, forces the middle classes to realise the appalling consequences of abandoning finance and industry direction to the unskilled, politically ignorant, unpatriotic ‘ practical business men.” Meanwhile, the nobility of capital leads to struggles for the possession of exploitable foreign territories (‘‘ places in the sun ’’) produces war on a scale which threatens not only civilisation but human existence; for the old field combats between bodies of soldiers, from which women were shielded, are now replaced by attacks from the air on the civil population, in which women and men are slaughtered indiscriminately, making replacement of the killed impossible. The emotional reaction after such wars takes the form of acute disillusion, which further accelerates the moral revolt against capitalism, without unfortunately, producing any workable conception of an alternative. The proletarians are cynically sulky, no longer believing in the disinterestedness of those who appeal to them to make additional efforts and sacrifices to repair the waste of war. The moral mainspring of the private property system is broken; and it is the confiscations of unearned income, the extensions of municipal and national communism, above all, the new sub-

sidies in aid of wages extorted from governments by threats of nationally disastrous lock-outs and strikes, which induce the proletariat to continue operating the capitalist system now that the old compulsion to work by imposing starvation as the alternative, fundamental in capitalism, has had to be discarded in its primitive ruthlessness. The worker who refuses to work can now quarter himself on public relief (which means finally on confiscated property income) to an extent formerly impossible. Democracy, or votes for everybody, does not produce constructive solutions of social problems; nor docs compulsory schooling help much. Unbounded hopes were based on each successive extension of the electoral franchise, culminating in the enfranchisement of women. These hopes have been dis- |

AND

OUTLOOK

appointed, because the voters, male and female, being politically untrained and uneducated, have (a) no grasp of constructive measures, (b) loathe taxation as such, (c) dislike being governed at all, and (d) dread and resent any extension of official interference as an encroachment on their personal liberty. Compulsory schooling, far from enlightening them, inculcates the sacredness of private property, and stigmatises a distributive state as criminal and disastrous, thereby continually renewing the old public opinion against socialism, and making impossible a national education dogmatically inculcating as first principles the iniquity of private property the paramount social importance of equality of income and the criminality of idleness. Consequently, in spite of disillusion with capitalism, and the growing menace of failing trade and falling currencies, our democratic parliamentary Oppositions, faced with the fact that the only real remedy involves increased taxation, compulsory reorganisation or frank nationalisation of the bankrupt industries, and compulsoty national service in civil as in military life for all classes, dare not confront their constituents with such proposals, knowing that on increased taxation alone they would lose their seats. To escape responsibility, they look to the suppression of parliamentary institutions by coups d'état and dictatorships, as in Italy, Spain and Russia. This despair of parliamentary institutions is a striking novelty in the present century; but it has failed to awaken the democratic electorates to the fact that, having after a long struggle gained the power to govern, they have neither the knowledge nor the will to exercise it, and are in fact using their votes to keep Government parochial when civilisation is bursting the dikes of nationality in all directions. A more effective resistance to property arises from the organisation of the proletariat in trade unions to resist the effect of increase of population in cheapening labour and increasing its duration and severity. But trade unionism is itself a phase of capitalism, inasmuch as it applies to labour as a commodity that principle of selling in the dearest market, and giving as little as possible for the price, which was formerly applied only to land, capital and merchandise. Its method is that of a civil war between labour and capital in which the decisive battles are

lock-outs and. strikes, with intervals of minor adjustment by industrial diplomacy. Trade unionism now maintains a Labour party in the British Parliament. The most popular members and leaders are socialists in theory; so that there is always a paper programme of nationalisation of industries and of banking, taxation of unearned incomes to extinction, and other incidentals of a transition to socialism; but the trade union driving force aims at nothing more than capitalism with labour taking the lion’s share, and energetically repudiates compulsory national service, which would deprive it of its power to strike. In this it is heartily seconded by the proprietary parties, which, though willing enough to make strikes illegal and proletarian labour compulsory, will not pay the price of surrendering its own power to idle. Compulsory national service being essential in socialism, it is thus deadlocked equally by organised labour and by capitalism. Itis a historic fact, recurrent enough to be called an economic law, that capitalism, which builds up great civilisations, also wrecks them if persisted in beyond a certain point. It is easy to demonstrate on paper that civilisation can be saved and immensely developed by, at the right moment, discarding capitalism and changing the private property profiteering state into the common property distributive state. But though the moment for the change has come again and again it has never been effected, because capitalism has never produced the necessary enlightenment among the masses, nor admitted to a controlling share in public affairs the order of intellect and character outside which Socialism, or indeed politics, as distinguished from mere party electioneering, is incomprehensible. Not until the two main tenets of socialism: abolition of private property (which must not be confused with personal property), and equality of income, have taken hold of the people as religious dogmas, as to which no controversy is regarded as sane, will a stable socialist state

SOCIAL be possible.

It should be observed, however, that of the two

tenets, the need for equality of income is not the more difficult to demonstrate, because no other method of distribution is or ever has been possible. Omitting the few conspicuous instances in which actual earners of money make extraordinary fortunes by exceptional personal gifts or strokes of luck, the existing differences of income among workers are not individual but corporate differences. Within the corporation no discrimination between individuals is possible; all common labourers, like all upper division civil servants, are equally paid. The argument for equalising the class incomes are that unequal distribution of purchasing power upsets the proper order of economic production, causing luxuries to be produced on an extravagant scale whilst the primitive vital needs of the people are left unsatisfied; that its effect on marriage, by limiting and corrupting sexual selection, is highly dysgenic; that it reduces religion, legislation, education and the administration of justice to absurdity as between rich and poor; and that it creates an idolatry of riches and idleness which inverts all sane social morality. Unfortunately, these are essentially public considerations. The private individual, with the odds overwhelmingly against him as a social climber, dreams even in the deepest poverty of some bequest or freak of fortune by which he may become a capitalist, and dreads that the little he has may be snatched from him by that terrible and unintelligible thing, state policy. Thus the private person’s vote is the vote of Ananias and Sapphira; and democracy becomes a more effective bar to socialism than the pliant and bewildered conservatism of the plutocracy. Under such conditions the future is unpredictable. Empires end in ruins: commonwealths have hitherto been beyond the civic capacity of mankind. But there is always the possibility that mankind will this time weather the cape on which all the old civilisations have been wrecked. It is this possiblity that gives intense interest to the present historic moment, and keeps the Socialist movement alive and militant. (G. B. S.*) SOCIAL SERVICE (see CHARITIES, 5.860).—In the modern state many social services are maintained by statutory authorities, and in Great Britain the term public social services has become a current phrase in official reports; nevertheless social service is still commonly understood as referring to voluntary work, and in this sense is employed in the present article. Public Health.—In the field of public health voluntary agencies have done and are doing much to stimulate and support the work of public health authorities by the creation of enlightened public opinion through propaganda and the organisation of health exhibitibns, demonstrations, etc. In Great Britain bodies like the National Council for Combating Venereal Disease and the National League for Health, Maternity and Child Welfare are largely responsible for the growth of public opinion which has made possible the recent expansion of statutory services (sce VENEREAL DISEASES). | In the United States voluntary bodies such as the American National Red Cross, American Public Health Assn., American Social Hygiene Assn. and National Child Health Council, National Committee for Mental Hygiene and the National Organisation for Public Health Nursing (see NURSING) are having a similar educative effect on public opinion. In connection with housing and town-planning and other public health services, pioneer work and the formation of public opinion are characteristic tasks for voluntary initiative. Much modern social legislation presupposes for its effectiveness the willing co-operation of the individual citizen, and an extension of the voluntary spirit of service can alone secure this. FEducation—The task of voluntary agencies in education is narrowed by the development of public systems of compulsory education, but an extension of adult education (q.v.) is particularly the field of voluntary effort. Not the least remarkable development of adult education in recent years is the rapid growth of a system of voluntary education in British prisons, which owes its achievement to a large band of men and women who undertake the work of teaching in their spare time. There are other fields in which a similar activity is shown.

SERVICE

575

Industry.—The growth of the industrial welfare movement is opening up new opportunities for co-operation between employers and employed in the development of better social facilities, and offers a new career for those who desire to take up social work as a profession. Systems of vocational selection for young people leaving school and schemes for their after-care, which are being evolved particularly in Great Britain and the United States, owe much to the pioneer experiments of voluntary societies, and even as they become stereotyped as state services they are likely to depend for their effectiveness on the voluntary workers associated with the public authority in their administration. Recrealion.— Provision for recreation and opportunities for a good use of leisure are being recognised as of increasing importance, in view of the movement to reduce working hours. A strong public opinion on such matters as the need for open spaces and playing fields has still to be created in many countries. The formation of the National Playing Fields Assn. in Great Britain is evidence of progress, but the United States is ahead of any other country in this matter, development there being due largely to the pioneer work of the Playground and Recreation Assn. and other voluntary associations with similar aims. The work of juvenile organisations such as the Boys Brigade, Church Lads Brigade, Boy Scouts (g.v.), Girl Guides (g¢.v.), Camp Fire Girls and of Boys’ and Girls’ Clubs is profoundly important in this connection, for they provide training in the use of leisure at a time when, the discipline of school being lately removed, it is most needful. Such bodies as the English Folk Dance Society in Great Britain and the Music School Settlements in the United States and others promoting choral singing, dramatics and the practice of arts and crafts perform social services which are of great value, for the line between education and recreation cannot be drawn clearly. TuE

TREND

OF

RECENT

DEVELOPMENTS

Unlike services provided under statute and administered under regulations, voluntary social service is essentially dynamic. It derives not from authority but from personal conviction, and while particular societies may stagnate and fail even to keep pace with the progress of knowledge, it is nevertheless generally true that progress in social provision is mainly due to voluntary effort which is the pioneer force, constantly experimenting with new methods and breaking fresh ground. The modern interest in prevention rather than cure is very noticeable, and is coupled with a new sense of “ community.” The vounger generation of those who are prepared to work for social betterment are inclined to think in terms of the community rather than of the individual; they are anxious to improve the conditions and quality of the social life in the community of which they are members; they want to work not for, but with their neighbours; they are less interested in “‘ mopping up social messes ” than in preventing them. The quickened sense of community which resulted from concentration on “ national ”’ needs during the World War has given new impetus to the movement for voluntary social service with

society rather than the individual as its objective. The attention given to ‘‘ community organisation ’’ in the United States is an

outstanding illustration of the new spirit. The 100,000 voluntary workers for the National Savings Movement in Great Britain are one example of the new forces which it is enlisting. This change of emphasis which is closely allied with current tendencies in the development of political ideals, is impressing itself on the institutions of voluntary social service. Already two distinct types of voluntary agency are clearly distinguishable, although a great many occupy a middle position. There is, first, the older type of social service typified by relief societies and orphanages, established to meet the special needs of particular individuals in distress. Secondly there is a newer type of association aiming at the corporate self-development of a membership which is united by common interests and is selective only in that sense. Eligibility for membership is not dependent on need, but on the desire to join ina common endeavour and a willingness to accept a common rule.

576

SOCIAL

Ex-service Societies Every former war produced voluntary societies to care for the needs of ex-service men in distress and the recent war is no exception: but whereas in former wars such societies have been of the older type, this time it is the ex-service men and women who have banded themselves together to help themselves. The British Legion had in Jan. 1926 a membership of approximately 1,000,000. Its work is, broadly speaking, twofold. On the one hand it raises vast sums by public appeal and other means for the relief of distress among ex-service men and women, and it provides them with a powerful advocate where their claim to public provision is in question. On the other hand the legion also aims at securing for its members the facilities for a good social life, through the organisation of clubs and institutions, provision for education, etc. Herce isa casein which (1) the old philanthropic work is carried on by a body which is organised on democratic lines and which combines with it (2) the positive task of providing social amenities for its members. Similar bodies of ex-service men are to be found in practically every other belligerent country, and all have a wider social purpose than the mere protection of self interest. Rotary Clubs and Women's Institutes.—Thcere are an increasing number of voluntary organisations, doing work of great value, which are not specifically, or at least primarily, formed for that end. The Rotary movement which is rapidly developing throughout the English-speaking world is a case in point, but an even more effective illustration is provided by the growth of post-War organisation among rural women. Startingin Canada, the Women’s Institute movement under various names has grown with remarkable pace in Great Britain since the War. It is a | anding together of women to secure the conditions for a better social life, not for themselves only, but for the whole rural community. The institutes are not only concerned with their own education, etc., but are increasingly interesting themselves in the social services of the villages. In this case the movement makes no appeal to philanthropy; in its early days its organisation was subsidised from state funds, but less has been needed each year as the movement grew and it is now (Dec. 1925) very nearly self-supporting, with a membership of some 206,000 representing every class of countrywomen. Finance.—In the past voluntary work was financed entirely from the gifts of the charitable—donations, subscriptions or endowments, and much is still financed in this way; but two other possible sources of income are now available and both are attributable to the developments which have been noted. They are (a) membership fees and money raised by the corporate efforts of members—the more completely democratic is the organisation the larger will be the proportion of total income from this source —and (6) grants-in-aid from public funds. In Great Britain and in some other countries, co-operation between public authorities and voluntary agencies is not only personal but financial. It is difficult to estimate the ultimate effect of this development. Acceptance of grant-aid must involve the acceptance of some measure at least of regulation, and freedom is the very life of voluntary enterprise—dependence on public aid may prove as damaging to the morale of an association as it is to an individual. There is great social value in the enthusiasm, faith and selfsacrifice which are expressed in the accounts of voluntary associations, where every shilling represents a voluntary contribution of someone whose interest and sympathy have been enlisted. Nevertheless provisions in social legislation for the grant-aid of voluntary work marks a growing recognition of its importance to the community and a growing sense of community responsibility. Two significant developments are (1) the adoption of what are known as “ contributory schemes of finance ”’ by the voluntary hospitals of Great Britain, and (2) the growth of systems of “‘ central financing ” in the United States. Hospital Schemes.—The hospital scheme expresses a voluntary assumption of financial responsibility for hospital finance by a large proportion of the community of potential beneficiaries and others interested in their social welfare; it involves a widespread organisation of local representative committees and is resulting in a co-ordination of hospital and allied services in dis-

SERVICE tricts where the scheme is well developed. For as soon as community responsibility 1s accepted the isolated and completely independent position of a voluntary association ceases to be allowable; co-ordination with other bodies and other services becomes an obvious necessity (see HOSPITALS). Central Financing.—In the American schemes for é “ central financing ” this need for co-ordination is fully recognised, and advocates of the system attach great importance to the cooperative programme- and budget-making which are involved. All the voluntary agencies in a town draw up their programmes and budgets for the coming year. These are then carefully coordinated by a central, representative organisation. After this has been done, one organised appeal is made for the total sum required (popularly known as the ‘ chest ’’)—the appeal being based on the whole programme of social effort for the community which is expressed in the combined programmes of the several participating agencies. It is demonstrable that in the first few years that followed the adoption of the system substantial increases were secured in (r) the amount raised and (2) the number of individual contributors. The new plan is making headway in spite of much criticism and some hostility. Clearly it may save a waste of time and valueless competition between agencies, it may result in a better understanding of a community’s needs and a wider acceptance of responsibility; but it may also tend to impair the freedom of purpose and of action of the constituent agencies. The constitution of the co-ordinating body is vitally important. Representatives of the participating agencies on one

hand and of the contributors on the other, each claim a voice in the programme-shaping; at present there is considerable variety in the local organisation of the system and the “ balance of power” varies in different cities. The trend of the movement is, however, unmistakably towards safeguarding the initiative and responsibility of the participating agencies. ‘‘ The basic motive of central financing,” say its advocates ‘‘ is not the mere establishment of a better financial method, but the promotion of a

definite community purpose.” Thus the effect of a new outlook on the older type of voluntary agency is reflected in their acceptance of public grants in aid and of the “‘ regulation ’’ which goes with these, in the organisation of a contributory membership (in the case of British hospitals) and their increased willingness to combine in co-operative organisation and to co-ordinate their work with that of other bodies. THE

COMMUNITY

SPIRIT

The movement to develop co-operation between social service agencies reflects the same growth of a community spirit. It is beginning to be recognised in the United States and in Great Britain that a council of social agencies, a council of social service, or of social welfare—the name is immaterial— is essential to effective work. Statutory authorities and voluntary agencies cover much ground but in the absence of any provision for systematic collaboration or “‘ team work” they often ignore each other’s activities and their efforts overlap or leave gaps unfilled. To secure the pooling and exchange of knowledge and concerted action a body representative of all agencies at work in a single locality is required, and it is to meet this need that these councils are being established. They are in the main consultative and advisory, but there are certain tasks which they are specially qualified to undertake on behalf of all their constituent bodies. The representative character of a council of social service ensures ready access to information in possession of all its constituent bodies, and its office is therefore a centre where reliable information is easily obtainable by every inquirer. The maintenance of a careful survey of social need and social provision is, further, a distinctive task which is best undertaken by a body qualifed by its constitution to survey the whole field. In Great Britain this movement is not confined to towns, but is expressed in the community councils which are being formed in country areas. Its extension is the task of a national council of social service (Incorporated) on which the principal government departments and voluntary organisations of a national scope are represented. In the United States the National Social Work

SOCIOLOGY Council and other important bodies are working for similar ends, and the annual meetings of the National Conference of Social Work have done much, during the past 50 years, to spread cooperation and breadth of outlook among social service workers in the States and in Canada. In this connection reference must be made to the work of an increasing number of Trusts established by private benefactors for the promotion of social welfare. With a wide vision of their opportunities such bodies as the Russell Sage Foundation in the United States and the Carnegie United Kingdom Trust in Great Britain (to mention only two) are doing much to emphasise the inter-relation of different branches of work, both by direct action and by the assistance which they give

to other voluntary bodies as agents in a carefully evolved programme. Training of Social Workers.—The standard of technical equipment required of social workers has greatly increased as social services have grown and become more elaborate and as the sense of community responsibility supersedes satisfaction with haphazard and comparatively uninformed tinkering. A demand for scientific method in social work has led to the establishment of special training schools and of special departments in connection with universities, in Great Britain, United States, Belgium, Chile, Czechoslovakia, Finland, France, Germany, Italy, Netherlands, South Africa, Sweden and Switzerland.

In these a study of the social sciences is usually combined with that of particular problems and some practical work in connection with local agencies and institutions. Allied to this demand for training is the increased attention that is being given to research and the study of social problems—a work in which several of the Trusts referred to above are playing a valuable part. International Co-operation—Not only does the number of international conferences on social questions increase year by year, but several voluntary movements now function on an international scale. The ex-service men’s organisations referred to above have their international federation—both the Y.M.C.A. and the Y.W.C.A. have an international organisation and work

in many lands. The same is true of the Red Cross societies. In this international work national prejudices are forgotten in a common desire to learn all that may help from the experience of others. A quickening of the social conscience in hitherto backward countries owes much to such international contacts. The limits of social service are not easy to define. The time is coming when the social purpose of industry and other pursuits will be more generally recognised, and clearly many of the problems with which social service is concerned cannot be solved

independently of these. It is of vital importance to any nation that the search for solutions should be resolutely pursued and in that search the voluntary spirit is the most powerful agent. If this be so the tendencies which have been noted are encouraging. (See also BLIND; Boy Scouts; CHILD WELFARE; GIRL GUIDES; HOSPITALS; MATERNITY; WHITE SLAVE TRAFFIC; etc.) (L. F. E.) BiBLIOGRAPHY.—M., E. Richmond, Social Diagnosis (Russell Sage Foundation, 1917); C. R. Attlee, The Social Worker (1920); J. J. Findlay, An Introduction to Sociology (1920); R. M. Maciver, The Elements of Social Science (1921), E. T. Devine, Social Work (1922); S. A. Queen, Social Work in the Light of History (1922); F. W. Blackmar and J. L. Gillin, Oulines of Sociology (rev. ed., 1923); J. H. Tufts, Education and Training for Social Work (Russell Sage Foundation, 1923); E. Macadam, The Equipment of the Social Worker (1925).

SOCIOLOGY (see 25.322).—No comprehensive presentment of social science having, as yet, obtained general recognition, a detached survey of the sociological field must needs follow the lines of the leading schools, and of individual writers most widely influential or significant. THE

SEVERAL

SCHOOLS

OF THOUGHT

Up to 1914 the two most representative schools were (a) of Durkheim, essentially following the tradition of Auguste Comte, who founded sociology by the publication of his Philosophie Positive during the years 1830-42; and (6) of De Tourville and Demolins, following the tradition of Frédéric Le Play, who, independently of Comte, and without reference to his work,

577 r

founded the more concrete and observational side of sociology, especially by monographic publication of his Les Ouvriers Européens, from 1855 onwards. Durkheim.—Both these schools suffered an arrest during the World War; but the organ of the Durkheim school, L'Année Sociologigue recommenced publication in 1925, and on the same plan as previously, but edited by Marcel Mauss in place of Durkheim, who died in 1917. The scheme of the Année is to publish each year a series of studies by members of the school, and also an analysis and epitome of the more important writings produced in general sociology and in each of the main specialisms within the sociological feld. The Année selects and epitomises relevant advances in economics, political philosophy, ethics, jurisprudence, criminology, social geography, anthropology, social psychology, demography, comparative religion, aesthetics, etc. This comprehensive survey and abstract makes a file of the Année an invaluable requisite of the serious student, whether of general or specialised interest. Le Play.—The organ of the Le Play school (La Science sociale) had a different purpose. While the approach of Comte was primarily logico-mathemuatical, biological, historical and interpretative, that of Le Play was from physical science and industry, with direct observation, especially through travel, first of representative working-class families, by means of family budgets, and next of their actual living communities: and especially of the fundamental nature occupations; all studied at first hand jn their environment, and in their resulting social organisation, with its characteristic ideas and ideals. Hence have been published in La Science sociale along series of social monographs, in contribution to the geographico-social study of communities as they develop from their simple origins and isolated situations towards com-

plex cultures interacting to form our historic civilisations.

This

line of treatment has been more akin to the naturalistic and descriptive attitude of Balzac and later realist French literature than to the abstractly philosophic, or the strictly anthropological, historical, or psychologic treatments of other schools, and so has elicited, as yet, too little appreciation in the run of current sociology. A third group of active sociologists in France is that associated with the Institut International de Sociologie, with its periodic congresses and its Revue internationale de sociologie, ably edited by René Worms until his death in 1926.

The two formative French schools, continuing and developing the initial impulses of their respective founders, are manifestly complementary. But owing to the sharp division in France between the traditions of the revolution and of the counter-revolution, to which the doctrines of Comte and of Le Play respectively first appealed, these have, unfortunately for the progress of science, run independent courses, with little or no inter-penetration. Except fora book by Paul Bureau (Introduction à la Méthode sociologique, Paris, 1923), no serious attempt seems as vet to have been made in France to integrate their respective methods and products. The Work of Geddes.—But a third school, initiated in Edinburgh about 1890 by Patrick Geddes has laboured continuously towards uniting and developing both these main French traditions, view-points and methods; more especially by applying the characteristic methods of each towards studying the evolution of cities and their regions. For this school it is living cities and their regions which most fully offer to the scientific student, as well as to the plain man, the directly observable aspects of civilisation. And if, along with direct observation, there is afforded, as by this synthetic school, a historic and contemporary interpretation which utilises the available specialised knowledge, then does the student of cities attain towards that complex unity of presentment which sociology demands. To this end has been developed, and largely in harmony with the Le Play school, the characteristic method now widely known as regional and civic survey; such surveys emanating from this group, with their pragmatic motto of “ vivendo discimus,” have been experimentally applied in Great Britain, France, India, Palestine, etc., towards regional improvement and in city and university design. With these

SOCIOLOGY

578

practical endeavours should also be appreciated the advances made by social workers in almost all countries, for their labours contribute, if not always immediately, yet indirectly, to the progress of social science. This survey method is being increasingly applied as the preliminary inquiry requisite for town-planning, in its later developments known as regional. It is also being adopted in schools as an introduction to social studies made by direct observation in the open air along with nature studies, or as sequels to these. But these educational and civic applications alike too often lack the systematic and synthetic character essential to a scientific handling of sociological issues.1 Importance of Interconnection —From the unified standpoint of the preceding schools the most generalised conception for the upbuilding of a science of sociology is that of the essential interconnection of all main aspects of any given community and its civilisation. Its situation in place, its actual industries anc evervday work, and its people of all classes, with their common sense and experience, their ordinary feelings of selves and family, are all intimately connected with their ideas, social and political, with their scientific interests and aesthetic preferences and even with the religion and the philosophy of their own times as well as of earlier phases. But this view of social interaction is not to be confused with the too simple ‘“ economic determination of history” sé emphasised by and since Marx; for the economic processes of each place and age are seen by the sociologist to be deeply influenced, often even determined, by preceding as well as current ideas and ideals; so that constant interaction 1s ever going on between the “‘ temporal and spiritual ” forces in every society. The actions and reactions of all these social factors in functional interplay thus produce the general and working “ consensus ”’ essential to each given community, in its characteristic phase and main level of civilisation; with its current and predominant “ representation of life” accordingly. The Social Heritage —Changes in all these aspects of a civilisation, however, arise, even from generation to generation (especially when stimulated by great events), and still more from age to age, with their correspondingly fresh phases, and with variations, both objective and subjective, each modifying the

other. Yet despite all such changes of the social consensus in its functionings and institutions and of representation of life accordingly, there is always traceable a definite continuity, even of “filiation,” with the preceding phases, however great the seceming contrast. The outcome of these complex interactions is an unmistakable social inheritance. Above and beyond biological heredity there exists therefore a characteristic social heritage (and its associated burden of evil) which, by differentiating human from animal societies, constitutes the essential subject matter of sociology. And of this heritage, cities and their regions are more than the repositories. They are essentially concerned in transmitting it from generation to generation, and in modifying, for better or worse, its volume, character and purpose. It follows that the regional and civic survey, as a means of scientific advance, must develop a technique for study, at once observational and systematic, of the social heritage, in its past, present and incipient phases.? 1For

the principles

requisite to a systematic presentation see

papers by Geddes, in Sociological Papers, vol. 1, 2, 3 and in The Sociological Review of 1925 (Le Play House Press, 65 Belgrave

Road, London). For an elementary account, prepared for social workers and studious citizens, see Introduction to Regional Survey's, by Sybella Branford and Alexander Farquharson (Le Play House Press). Later developments of the method, and many applications to theoretical studies and practical questions, will be found in The Sociological Review, the organ of the (British) Sociological Society. Amongst characteristic books of the same school, but of more general treatment, may be mentioned The Coming Polity (revised edition 1919), and our Social Inheritance (1919), both by V. Branford and P. Geddes, and Cities in Evolution (1915), by P. Geddes and Science and Sanctity (1923), by V. Branford. For the relation of sociology to biology, as viewed by this school, see Brology by P. Geddes and J. A. Thomson in the Home University Library, London. 2? For a set of formulae adjusted to this purpose see, in addition to the papers by Geddes already mentioned, Our Social Inheritance by Branford and Geddes, Part I.

The preceding outline indicates the needed and practical utilisation alike of Le Play’s teaching and Comte’s, along with that of other writers, respectively observant and interpretative, concrete or abstract. All are needed, and all require fuller coordination; and for this purpose, no doubt, revision. Thus Comte’s classification of the sciences as essentially physical, bio-

logical and social, and his famous ‘ law of the three states ”’ (as successively theological and military, metaphysical and political, positive and industrial; or, as John Stuart Mill summed them, volitional, abstractional and scientific), have been absorbed into the body of social thought more fully than is commonly realised; yet each of these master concepts demands fuller inquiry, with consequent

restatement.

So too Le I’lay’s essential formula of “ place, work and folk,” though necessary for the correlation of geographic, economic, anthropological and social inquiries, calls for elaboration. The

other basal contribution of Le Play and his continuators comes from their insistence on, and treatment of, the primary occupations. Gathering and hunting, herding and cultivating, mining, woodcraft and fishing —all these are viewed as elemental types of adaptation between man and nature, each definitely related to given environments, and together in their unity composing a rich rural matrix, from which urban civilisations have issued, and are perennially renewed, developed, arrested or degraded, according as, under more or less urbanised conditions, the characteristic traits and dispositions of the original rural types persist and undergo modifications towards progress, reversion or perversion. From this presentment of elemental social types and their interplay for good and evil, arises a ‘‘ natural history ”’ of civilisations, which goes far beyond the superficial handling of the fundamental occupations by early economists and anthropologists. Yet, mainly perhaps by lack of detailed reference and specific instance, this Le Play doctrine of social evolution and regression has, so far, failed to win recognition from the specialised investigators of current economics and anthropology. Place, Work, Folk.—The three primary social factors of place, work, folk, so insisted on by the Le Play school, correspond, term for term, with the primary biological concepts of environment, function, organism. Hence the possibility of a sociology concentrated on the social heritage and its progress, arrest or perversion, in social life, yet definitely correlated with biology and presenting the social process as not only continuous with the organic and individual life-processes, but increasingly transcending these. In all human communities, progress is thus seen to consist essentially in an orderly and rational modification and even transformation, of environment, through those kinds of work, 7.e., occupation up to its widest sense, which give expression to composite ideals at once social and individual, rural and urban. Amongst various endeavours towards such a sociology, t.e., continuous with biology but utilising as fully as may be the resources of philosophy, of psychology, history and all other relevant specialisms, that of Geddes and his fellow-workers starts from the more naturalistic and geographical approach; and that

of L. T. Hobhouse sets out from a more strictly humanistic standpoint, psychologic and philosophic. Hobhouse’s main works are Mind in Evolution (1915); Morals in Evolution (1923); and the following four books, together constituting the author’s Prin-

ciples of Sociology, viz.: Metaphysical Theory of the State (1918); The Rational Good (1921); The Elements of Social Justice (1921); and Sectal Development (1923). Specialised Approaches.—As a notable instance of the many contributions towards a general sociology, at once naturalistic and humanistic, starting from anthropology, may be especially mentioned the works of Professor Westermarck. His classic History of Human Marriage, many times revised, was followed by Origin and Development of Moral Ideas (2nd ed., 1917), and other works. Amongst other advances in England from anthropology towards sociology may be cited those of Rivers, Haddon, Marett, Myers, Peake, Fleure, Seligman, Crawford, Elliot Smith, Perry and Malinowski. A similar list could be compiled, for other countries, of anthropologists moving, deliberately or uncon-

SODA FOUNTAIN—SODERBLOM

979

sciously, towards a general sociology. And the same, in less degree, is true of psychologists, economists, historians, geographers and other specialised groups. But all these regiments of sociolo-

lishes a monthly Journal.

gists, actual or would-be, are too inclined to march independently of each other, and without guidance from the synthetic concepts and co-órdinating methods grown up in the central

are seriously handicapped by the obstacles that have impeded, or even arrested, the progress of the science during the past two

tradition of the main science.

generations. These obstacles, indicated above, need candid recog-

WORK

IN VARIOUS

COUNTRIES

United States —In contrast to the surviving indifference to sociology on the part of British universities (with the conspicuous exception of London), those of the United States have mostly established chairs, sometimes even departments. From this American source issues a copious stream of literature, mainly text books for students, but also more considerable works, both methodological and ‘of comprehensive range. Lester Ward, the American pioneer of sociology before its academic adoption, Giddings, Albion Small, E. A. Ross, Ellwood, Vincent, Cooley, Barnes and many younger writers have produced notable works. Yet American sociology suffers from inadequate relation to the twofold French beginnings of the science and to the developments which have grown up out of these historic initiatives. This lack of continuity makes difficult the correlation of the American output with the main European lines of thought and research.

Indeed, an increasing tendency has shown itself in American sociology to abandon the traditional endeavour to unify the whole body of relevant social studies, specialised and general, and to organise their essential product into an integrated doctrine in line with biology and the other “ preliminary ” sciences. This tendency, narrowing, yet in a sense progressive, has been stimulated by the remarkable advance of psychology in America, and also more or less by Le Bon and his many successors in the study of the group mind. Its main effort has been towards the psychology of groups and their interaction. In other words, American sociology has been especially concentrating on social psychology. The American Journal of Sociology, founded by Albion Small in 1895 markedly reflects this specialising tendency in its later issues. Two companion periodicals (Social Forces and The Journal of Applied Sociology) attest the abundance and vitality of American

sociology. Germany.—À notable post-war movement in sociology has arisen in Germany, where, before the World War the subject as such was hardly recognised in the universities, notwithstanding the sustained efforts of Simmel, Ratzenhofer, Barth, Tönnies and others. But an inquiry made in 1925 by Leopold von Wiese showed that in nearly every university of the German-speaking world the study of sociology was being more or less organised. Institutes and societies have been established for promoting sociological studies and research, whence emerges a growing output of periodical and other literature. In addition to the older Archiv fiir Sozialwissenschaft und Sozial politik there are now many periodicals in this field. First after the War came the Keélner Vierteljahrschrift fiir Soziologie (started in 1920 by von Wiese), which gives admirable surveys of current literature in addition to original articles. The Juhrbuch fiir Soziologie; Ethos: Vierteljahrschrift fiir Soziologie, Geschichte und Kultur-philoso phie;

and the Zeitschrift für Völkerpsychologie und Sosiologie, all began publication in 1925. There has also been a considerable output of books on sociology in Germany since the War, but these, like most teaching in German universities, appear to emanate either from some single and specialised feld or from a general philosophy of social life; and so in either case are inadequately related or in comprehensive indifference to the originative and fundamental traditions. Other Countries.—In Italy, Belgium, Spain, Holland, Switzerland and the Scandinavian countries, few signs of progress are discernible in general sociology, apart from sporadic advances of the specialisms within the sociological field. True, the Institut de Sociologie in Brussels has enlarged and improved its journal (Revue de Pinstitut de sociologie) since the War; but in Italy the Rivista italiana sociologica has ceased publication. In Czechoslovakia and Poland a definitely sociological movement, with

institutes and prospect of publications, has arisen. Also in Japan there was launched in 1925 a sociological society which pub-

The Future of Soctology—New

growths in general sociology

nition and discussion if they are to be overcome, and so make way for that ever-developing inhcritance of svstematised knowledge which, essential to the continuing growth of every scicnce, is supremely required for the complex issues of sociology. That neglect of the two originative I'rench traditions, which was so marked in Herbert Spencer's Principles of Sociology and in his

systematic Tables, has been too much continued by most later sociologists, and has become well nigh a damnosa haereditas. But a prior obstacle lies at the very foundation of the science. The failure of both Comte and Le Play adequately to organise

their respective doctrines and incorporate therein the relevant specialisms of their day, has been aggravated by the unsystematised progress of those detailed advances and by the multiplication of new minor specialisms taken up in disregard of their place in general sociology. And the few synthetic workers, who have laboured to unite and develop the two initiative French traditions into a body of doctrine incorporating the relevant special-

isms, have so far, achieved but little success in the leavening of academic institutes and official organisations. Yet, in spite of these many disabilities under which the synthetic movement labours, its progress towards unity and clearness is none the less

advancing. (See ANTHROPOLOGY; BIloLoGy; HUMAN GEOGRAPHY.) (V. B.) SODA FOUNTAIN: see FOOD SERVICF. SODDY, FREDERICK (1877), British scientist, was born at Eastbourne, Sussex, on Sept. 2 1877, and was educated at tastbourne College, the University College of Wales, Abery-

stwyth and Merton College, Oxford. From rgoo~2 he held the post of demonstrator of chemistry at the McGill University, Montreal, where he carried out research work on radioactivity with Sir E. Rutherford, and for the next two years he worked under Ramsay at University College, London, becoming in 1904 lecturer in physical chemistry and radioactivity at the university of Glasgow. Ten years later he went to Aberdeen University as professor of chemistry, but he left there in 1919 to become Lee’s professor of Inorganic and physical chemistry in the university of Oxford. He made many valuable contributions to the science of radioactivity, and will be particularly remembered for his work on the nature of isotopes, for which he was awarded the Nobel Prize for chemistry in 192r. He was elected F.R.S. in roroand was a member of many British and foreign scientific societies, being presidentof the Röntgen Society 1905-6. (See Rays.) His numerous scientific publications, chiefly on radioactivity, include Radioactivity (1904), The Interpretation of Radium (1909, revised and enlarged by a section on the “Structure of the Atom” (1920). Chemisiry of the Radioactive Elements (Part 1L., 1920; Part II., 1914); Matter and Energy (1912); Science and Life (1920); Cartesian Economics (1922), Inversion of Science (1924).

SÖDEN, HERMANN, FREIHERR VON (1852-1914), German biblical scholar (see 25.339), died in Berlin Jan. r5 rọr4. SÖDERBLOM, NATHAN (1866), Swedish ecclesiastic, was born in Tréné Jan. 15 1866 and educated at the University of Upsala. In 1894 he became chaplain to the Swedish Legation in Paris and in rgot took a theological degree at the Sorbonne for his thesis La vie future d'après le Maszdéisme. He was professor of the history of religion at the University of Upsala from 1g01-4 and also at Leipzig from ro12-4 and gained a wide reputation as one of the foremost contemporary investigators in this field and also for his studies of Persian religion and theocracy. In r914 he became Archbishop of Upsala. In the negotiations after the Lambeth Conference in 1908, which led to an official understanding between the Swedish and English churches, he took an enthusiastic part. Having extensive international relations, Söderblom worked with success for an approach to “ evangelical catholicity ” among various Christian societies, and played an important part in the preparations for

580

SOISSONS-REIMS, BATTLE

OF—SOLAR

ENERGY

the universal Christian Conference on Life and Work held at the “‘ effective temperature ”’ of the sun’s surface is about 5,740° absolute, or 5,470° Centigrade. Stockholm in Aug. 1925, in which he was one of the leaders. SOISSONS-REIMS, BATTLE OF: see GERMAN OFFENSIVE. Knowing the area of the sun’s surface (5-9 X 10” sq. cm.) SOKOLNIKOV, GREGORY YAKOVLEVICH (1888) and the output of radiation per sq. centimetre, we can calculate Russian communist and financial expert, was the son of a doctor. that the sun’s total radiation must be about 5-4 & 10? calories He studied in Moscow and at the University of Paris. He lived per minute, the equivalent in energy to the output of an engine in exile until the revolution of Feb. 1917, when he returned to of 5 X 10% horse-power. Even this colossal figure represents a Russia and entered politics and journalism. After the Nov. rather low output of energy for a star; the star V Puppis is Revolution, Sokolnikov at first worked in the Soviet finance known to be radiating at. fully 10,000 times this rate, while the department (for nationalisation of banks), but later took part in giant star BD 6° 1309 recently studied by Plaskett is probably emitting some 30,000 times as much energy as the sun. the civil war, holding the highest military commands in the From quite early times scientific curiosity has, naturally revolutionary army in Turkistan. At the end of 1921, immediately after the proclamation of the New Economic Policy, enough, been concerned as to the source of this treme dous outpouring of energy. Early speculations that the sun was mereSokolnikov was appointed to the Committee of the People’s Commissariat of Finance; at the beginning of 1922 he held the ly radiating away an unreplenished store of heat, like a red-hot cannonball suspended in space, were soon found to allot it an post of deputy people’s commissar of finance, becoming cominadequate span of life. The further conjecture that the sun’s missar soon after. heat might be maintained by a sort of combustion of its whole At this time the finances of Soviet Russia were completely mass did not meet with much better success; it was calculated disorganised. Only 10% of the Government expenditure was that if the sun’s whole mass were solid coal, and if this coal were covered by taxation, if one excepts the taxes in kind on natural burned in pure oxygen, the resulting heat would only suffice to products which formed the whole basis of the Government’s finances. The daily expenditure could practically only be maintain the sun’s radiation at its present rate for about 6,000 covered by continual issues of worthless currency. In the course years. à Mayers Hypothesis. —The first hypothesis to provide anything of four years (1922-5) the system of taxes was restored to order, the Government undertakings began to yield a profit, in the least approaching to an adequate supply of heat was that the budget was put in order, the deficit being reduced to neg- of Robert Mayer. According to his hypothesis, the energy of ligible quantities; the most important reform being the reform of the sun’s radiation was provided bv a continuous fall of meteorites the currency. This was begun at the end of 1922 and the new State andl other small bodies into the sun. A meteorite starting with a bank was given the right of issuing notes; it was completed in 1924 small velocity at the confines of the solar system and falling under the sun’s gravitational attraction would have acquired a with the reorganisation of the treasury bills and the stabilisation of the Soviet currency. In 1923-5, which period comprised the velocity of about 4oo km. a second by the time it reached the chief reforms, the financial department played the most im- sun’s surface. As the meteorite was brought to rest the energy of its motion would be transformed into heat, precisely as the portant part in the Government of Soviet Russia, and Sokolnikov enjoyed great political influence. He succeeded in col- energy of a bullet is transformed into heat when it strikes the lecting in the finance commissariat a considerable number of target. Mayer calculated that a shower of meteorites of total mass equal to that of the earth would provide heat equal to that energetic young members of the Communist party and talented radiated away by the sun in rather over 95 years. Thus the sun’s non-party specialists. At the end of 1925, when great dissenradiation could be accounted for if we were free to suppose that sions arose in the Communist party on the economic-political question, Sokolnikov went over to the opposition, joining the meteors of total mass rather less than that of our moon fell into the sun every year. group which included Zinoviev, Kamenev, etc. After the 14th The hypothesis required the sun to be continually increasing congress of the Communist party in Jan. 1926 he was removed in mass at a rate equal to about one moon per annum, so that the from the post of commissar of finance and appointed deputy present mass of the sun fixed a limit to the total amount of president of the “ Gosplan,” or state-planning commission. (L. N. Y.) radiation that could have been emitted by the sun. It was found that the infall of meteorites could not have provided SOLAR ENERGY.—The sun radiates out energy at a rate which radiation at ihe present rate for more than 18,000,000 years. varies at most only slightly from day to day or from year to year. So far as is known, the rate of radiation is approximately the There is in any case no reason for thinking that meteorites are same for all directions in space. Only a tiny fraction of this distributed in space as freely as is required by this hypothesis, radiation, less than one part in two thousand millions, falls on and indeed every reason for thinking the contrary, for, if meteoour earth, but from observations on the amount of this it is rites were distributed to the extent required, so many would possible to estimate the total output of solar energy. The solar fall on our earth as to keep its temperature at a point at which constant is defined as the quantity of radiation which would fall it would be uninhabitable (cf. GroLocy). Helmholtz’ Hypothesis—In 1853 Helmholtz propounded an per minute on an area of one square centimetre at the earth’s surface, placed so as to face directly toward the sun, if the alternative hypothesis which provided for the same total radiaearth’s atmosphere were absent, the earth being at its mean dis- tion as the hypothesis of Mayer, without its objections. Helmof the solar con- holtz supposed the sun’s radiation to be provided, not by the tance from the sun. The best determination spasmodic infall of meteorites, but by a gradual and regular stant, that of Abbot and Fowle, gives its value as 1-93 calories. infall of the sun’s mass as he contracted in consequence of his The mean distance of the earth from the sun, 92,800,000 m., radiation. The loss of energy resultant on radiation caused the sun is approximately 215 times the sun’s radius, so that the energy to shrink; as this shrinkage took place each particle of the emitted per minute by a square centimetre of the sun’s surface must be (215)?X1-93 calories, or about 89,000 calories. In sun’s mass moved to positions ever nearer to his centre; the energy set free by this gradual fall provided for more radiation, terms of energy each square centimetre of the sun’s surface more shrinkage and so on. On this hypothesis the total heat has an output of energy equal to that of an engine of 8-4 H.P. This represents a more concentrated output of radiation than radiated by the sun since his birth was equal to the total loss of can be produced in the laboratory. The output of energy from potential energy in the sun’s present configuration minus a the carbons of an electric arc is something under two horse-power certain allowance for the heat at present imprisoned in his mass. per square centimetre, so that the sun’s surface must be at a It was also equal to the heat which would have been radiated if temperature substantially higher than that of the electric arc, the sun had been formed entirely by an agglomeration of infalling meteorites. Thus the limit set to the sun’s total past radiation which is about 3,700°. The energy emitted from a perfect by this hypothesis was the same as that set by the meteoric radiator at absolute temperature T is oI‘ per sq. centimetre, where o is Stefan’s constant. On the supposition that the sun’s | theory of Mayer, namely a total past radiation equal to about surface behaves like a perfect radiator, calculation shows that T 18,000,000 years of radiation at the present rate.

SOLAR ENERGY Discovery of Radioactivity.— Until quite recently no theory of the origin of the sun’s heat allotted him a longer life than this. It is true that, in the excitement which first followed the discovery of radioactivity (g. v.), it was thought that the properties of radioactive substances permitted of an almost unlimited extension to the sun’s past age and future life, but the various conjectures then made speedily proved to be false. A gramme of radium emits heat at the rate of about 138 calories per hour or, measured as energy, at the rate of about 1,600,000 ergs a second, whereas the sun’s radiation represents an emission of only about two ergs a second from each gramme of his mass. It would at first sight appear that the supposition that even a small fraction of the sun’s mass is radium would amply account for the sun’s radiation, past, present and future. This view is fallacious on account of the fact that radium (q.v.) does not last for anything like the time throughout which thesun’s radiation must besupposed to have lasted; it is reduced to half strength, in about 1,760 years. To allot the maximum possible life to the sun we should have to suppose his whole mass to have consisted originally of pure uranium, the parent radioactive substance out of which all others are formed. Rutherford has, however, calculated that this supposition would add at most 5,000,000 years to the sun’s life, radiation being assumed to be at the present rate. Thus all the sources of energy which have so far been mentioned, acting in conjunction, could at most provide for radiation for about 23,000,000 years at the present rate of radiation. Geological Estimates of Earth—Even before Helmholtz propounded his contraction hypothesis, geologists had estimated the earth’s age in hundreds of millions of years, basing their figures on the observed rates of denudation and sedimentation. The discovery of radioactivity provided a better and simpler means of judging this age. A special kind of lead, characterised by having atomic weight 206-0, is produced by the breaking up of atoms of uranium. Now the process of breaking up is a purely

spontaneous one proceeding always at the same rate whatever the physical condition of the uranium may be. The constant rate is such that one out of every seven thousand million atoms of uranium breaks up each year. Hence in a mixture of uranium and lead a comparison of the relative amounts of the two sub-:

stances enables us to estimate the time which has elapsed since the lead first commenced to form. Using this method, geologists are convinced that certain Canadian rocks are at least 1,400 million years old, and as it is generally accepted that the earth originally formed part of the sun it follows that the sun must

be older still. (See GEOLOGY.) Astronomical Arguments.—As will be explained later, astronomical arguments indicate that the period of 1,400 million years, which geologists assign as a lower limit to the age of the earth, is at most only a tiny fraction of the age of the sun. While the geologist has been increasing his estimate of the earth’s age up to 1,400 million years or more, astronomical research has been moving in the direction of asking for at least 1,000 times this period for the sun and the stars in general. No doubt a distinction must be drawn between the age of a star and the period during which it has been emitting radiation, but the difference between the two periods is less than might at first be thought. The observed velocities of the stars give some indication as to the intensity of the gravitational field in which they move, and hence of the density of gravitating matter in the universe. It is found that the visible stars account for something like a quarter of this density, and probably for more.

Thus it is

fairly safe to state that a quarter of the whole matter in the universe, or at least in our part of the universe, is shining, and so to conclude that the period of a star’s radiation must be comparable with his total age. Further than this, modern theories of stellar evolution suppose that a star shines most brightly in his early days, then less brightly, and finally ends his days in darkness. Thus if astronomy indicates an age of millions of millions of years for our sun, we are safe in supposing that his total radiation since birth has been greater than the same number of millions of millions of years of radiation at his present rate. It is in any case abundantly clear, and with a very wide margin

581

to spare, that our sun, and consequently the other stars also, must have some source of energy beyond those already mentioned. Theory of Relativity —In 1905 Einstein propounded his theory of relativity (g¢.v.), which requires that any increase in the energy of a body is necessarily accompanied by an increase in its

mass, and vice versa. The standard illustration is provided by the changes which are observed to occur in the mass of a rapidly moving electron as its velocity varies. Under more usual conditions the change in a body’s mass is so slight as to escape detection; thus the “ Mauretania ” when at full speed increased her mass by only -oooo4 grammes. It is at once evident that if the actual matter in any body could be annihilated, an enormous amount of energy would be set free. In 1904, before the appearance of Einstein’s theory of relativity, the annihilation of matter had been suggested as a possible source of energy by J. H. Jeans, who further calculated in r9t7 that the annihilation of r% of the sun’s mass would set free sufficient energy to maintain the sun’s radiation at its present rate for 150,000 million years. This calculation is wholly independent of any conjectures or assumptions as to the mechanism by which mass is transformed into radiation. Perhaps the most plausible conjecture is that the positive and negative charges of which matter is made fall into one another and mutually annihilate one another in so doing. But, quite apart from this or any other conjectures, the theory of relativity provides the quite general theorem that the annihilation of a mass m in any way whatsoever sets free an amount of energy mC?, where C is the velocity of light; this is all that is essential to the calculation. The Life of a Star —Obviously the suggestion underlying this calculation provided a quite simple source of energy for the sun’s radiation; the only outstanding question was whether the radiation was in actual fact provided from this source or from some other still unconjectured source. According to generally accepted schemes of stellar evolution a star begins its life as a ‘“ siant ’? star—a sphere of gas of enormous size, low density and very high luminosity. Gradually it changes into a “ dwarf” of comparatively small size, high density and low luminosity. Our sun, now a fairly typical dwarf, must have passed through a giant stage in which it radiated far more energy than now, and subsequently experienced a gradual diminution in size and luminosity. It has gradually emerged that the giant stars are of greater mass than the dwarfs, and that, in general, lower luminosity is associated with smaller mass. The close correlation between luminosity and mass was investigated by Hertzsprung, by Adams and Joy, and others, the most noteworthy contribution being made by Eddington, who showed in 10924 that visible stars of a given mass all lay within a comparatively small range of luminosities, the luminosity varying with the mass according

to an assigned law. It at once became clear that if our sun had followed the normal evolutionary course, its mass in the past

must have been far greater than its present mass.

Also, since

the rate of radiation corresponding to each mass was known, it became possible to calculate the time interval between any two

assigned masses on the supposition that the energy of radiation was derived from loss of mass alone. In this way Jeans calculated in 1924 that the time since our sun was a giant star must be of the order of seven million million years. It is hardly necessary to specify exactly what precise point in the giant state is taken as the starting point in this calculation, for, on account of their very high rate of radiation of energy in the giant state, stars run through this stage of their careers with extreme rapidity. Now the various astronomical arguments to which reference has already been made agree in indicating a period of just about this magnitude as the most probable age of stars in the condition of our sun. Binary Stars.--Perhaps the most satisfactory estimates are those obtained from a study of binary stars which have broken up by fission. The two constituents of such a system commence life by describing about one another orbits of almost circular shape and of dimensions so small that the two stars are almost in contact. With advancing age both the dimensions and the

582

SOLOGUB—SOMALILAND

eccentricities of their orbits increase, and a purely dynamical calculation indicates that binaries whose constituents are in about the stage of development of our sun must have lived for millions of millions of years. An interesting check is provided by a study of the ratios of the masses of the two constituents of binary stars. The radiation from a massive star is not only absolutely greater than that from a less massive star, but is also relatively greater; the more massive a star, the more radiation it emits per unit mass. As a consequence of this, the masses of the two constituents of a binary must continually approximate to equality as the star grows older, and it is possible to calculate the rate at which this equalisation of mass should take place. Observations collected by R. G. Aitken show that the predicted approach to equality of mass actually occurs, and also make it possible to estimate the ages of binaries of various types.

this must be at most at the rate of a ten-thousandth of an erga second per gramme of its mass, since any higher rate would be inconsistent with the actual temperature of the earth’s surface. Thus the various chemical elements known on earth are probably of the non-transformable type. If so, the sun and the younger stars must be supposed to consist, in part at least, of chemical elements unknown to us on earth, which have the capacity of transforming their mass fairly rapidly into radiation. These unknown elements are probably of higher atomic weight than our terrestrial elements, although possibly our radioactive elements (uranium, radium, etc.) represent a last vestige, appearing even now only in infinitesimal quantities and destined ere long to disappear altogether. (See also RADIATION.) (J. H. JE) SOLOGUB, FEDOR, pen name of Fedor Kuzmich Teternikov

Calculations based on these data give an age of 4-5 million million years for binaries of spectral types F to G, a figure which

St. Petersburg (Leningrad), the son of a tailor. On the latter’s death, his mother became a domestic servant and the son was brought up by her employers. He studied at the Teacher’s Institute in St. Petersburg and was a schoolmaster for 25 years, retiring in 1907. In 1897 he published his first volume of poetry and also some short stories. He is considered the greatest figure of the Symbolists in prose and poetry. His best novel is The Little Demon (1907), In which he has created a universal type of evil in the central figure, the schoolmaster, Peredonov. He also wrote several plays.

is in quite good agreement with the estimate of seven million million years for our somewhat older sun, which is obtained on the hypothesis that the sun’s radiation is due entirely to annihilation of its mass. Source of Solar Energy—These and similar considerations indicate that our sun’s loss of mass in the last seven million million years is just about represented by the total radiation which it is believed to have emitted in that time. If so, there would seem to be little room for doubt that a solution has been obtained to the long-standing problem of the origin of solar energy and of stellar energy in general. The answer to the puzzle proves to be the quite simple one that the sun’s energy is derived by annihilation of the sun’s mass. The electrons and protons which form this mass constitute bottled up stores of energy; the breaking of these bottles of energy and the setting free of the imprisoned energy as radiation is at present proceeding at a rate of rather over 4,000,000 tons a second, and has been proceeding at this or a greater rate for the past seven million million years. In the same way in which it has proved possible to trace the sun’s history back into the past, we can look forward into the future and watch the sun continually decreasing in mass and Juminosity. All normal stars appear to follow a single clearly defined evolutionary sequence, and just as any normal star of greater mass than our sun provides us with a picture of what he must have been at some past time, so any normal star of mass

less than that of our sun gives a picture of some epoch of his future. To peer further and further into the future of our sun we must look at stars of smaller and smaller mass and so of ever lower luminosity. The faintest known star, Proxima Centauri, which happens to be also the nearest, has a luminosity only one twelve-thousandth of that of our sun, but there is some room for doubt whether this is a normal star, and its mass is at present unknown. Of the stars whose masses are known with fair certainty, the smallest masses must be attributed to the two components of 60 Kruger. Aitken’s determination (1925) assigns to them masses of approximately one-fourth and one-fifth of our sun, their luminosities being about a hundredth and a twohundredth of that of our sun. These stars enable us to visualise what will be the state of our sun after an interval of about a hundred million million years. Rates of Radiation —While our sun emits energy at the rate of two ergs a second per gramme of his mass, Plaskett’s star (B.D. 6°, 1309) already mentioned is radiating about 1,000 ergs a second per gramme. At the other end of the chain the fainter component of 60 Kruger radiates only a twentieth of an erg

a second per gramme.

As a general rule the farther advanced a

star is the less its radiation per gramme. This suggests that a newly born star consists largely of types of matter which transform themselves fairly rapidly into radiation; as the star ages, these easily transformable types soon get used up, so that the older stars consist solely of less transformable types. It is likely that there must finally remain a residuum of mass consisting of types of matter which either do not transform into radiation at all or at best transform themselves with extreme slowness. If the earth is at present transforming any of its mass into radiation,

(1863-

), Russian man of letters, was born Feb.17

1863 in

His other works include The Sorcery of Death (a series composed of The Created Legend, Drops of Blood, Queen Ortruda, and Smoke and Ashes). The Little Demon, The Created Legend, The Old House and other Tales have been translated into English.

SOMALILAND (see 25.378).—The country continues to be divided between Abyssinia, Great Britain, Italy and France. The frontier between the Italian and Abyssinian regions was delimitated in 1911, when, in the north, it was fixed at 48° E. instead of 47° E. as provided in the 1908 agreement. This placed

all the Ogaden tribal lands under Abyssinian authority. I. BRITISH

SOMALILAND

This district has an area of 68,000 sq. m., and a population (1921) of 346,998, including 2,205 foreigners (European Arabs and Indians.) Berbera, the capital and chief port, has, in the trading season, some 30,000 inhabitants. The policy of “ strict coast concentration ’’ adopted in rg1o in consequence of the costly and ineffective campaigns against Mohammed bin Abdullah, the “ Mad Mullah,” broke down. Efforts to restore order were inevitable; they began inauspiciously. In Aug. 1913 a camel constabulary party under R. C. Corfield was cut up, Corfield being killed. In March 1914 dervish raiders reached the coast and fired into Berbera. In May 1914 Mr. (later Sir) Geoffrey Archer became Commissioner (a title changed in rọrọ to that of Governor), and on his representations further operations were authorised. Major T. A. Cubitt inflicted severe punishment on the dervishes in Nov. to14—Feb. 1915, but the Mullah, who had retired to the border of the Mijertin country, subsequently again overran a large part of the protectorate. An end was, however, put to his activities in 1920, when by operations planned by Archer and carried out by Lt.-Col. (later Sir) Gerald Summers almost the whole dervish force was destroyed. The success of these operations was primarily and mainly due to the Royal Air Force. The dervishes, good fighting men, were demoralised by the attacks from the air. The Mullah himself escaped, fleeing into Abyssinian Somaliland, where, at the town of Imi, he died

in Jan. r921. The overthrow of the Mullah marked the deliverance of the country from 21 years of dervish oppression. In 1922 Sir Geoffrey Archer, who had brought about this deliverance, was transferred to Uganda. He was succeeded by Sir Gerald Summers, who worked hard and with satisfactory results to improve the moral and material conditions of the Somalis. Sir Gerald died in Nov. 1925, and in Jan. 1926 Mr. H. B. Kittermaster, secretary to the administration since 1921, was appointed Governor. A considerable number of sheep and goats and a smaller number of cattle are exported, but by far the most valuable export is

SOM BAR'T—SOMME, that of skins, the Somali sheep and goat skins being of very high quality. Ghee, gum and salt (the last named to Abyssinia) are other exports. Sheeting and longcloth, dates, rice and sugar are the chief imports. The growth of Japanese imports of grey sheeting, as opposed to American cloth, which had had a practical monopoly, was very noticeable in 1923 and 1924. In 1910-1 the value of imports was £267,000, of exports £247,000. In 1924 the value of seaborne trade was: imports £333,000, exports £228,000. The transit trade with Abyssinia, via Zeyla, was valued at £33,400. Revenue, mainly from customs, was but £30,ooo in 1910-1, when expenditure was £99,000. For 1924-5 revenue was {82,000 and expenditure £150,000. Deficits are met by grants from the British Exchequer. BIBLio0GRAPHY.—A.

Hamilton,

Somaliland

(1911);

A.

H.

E.

Morse, My Somali Book (1913); H. F. Prevost Battersby, Richard Corfeld of Somaliland (1914); R. E. Drake Broekman, British Somaliland (1917); Major H. Rayne, Sun, Sand and Somalis (1921); D. Jardine, The Mad Mullah of Somaliland (1923). See also the Report on Somaliland, issued annually by the Colonial Office, London. The account of the final overthrow of the Mullah is given in a supplement to the London Gazetie of Nov. I 1920.

Il. FRENCH

SOMALILAND

The value of this small, largely arid and sparsely populated colony lies in its port, Jibuti, the only French port on the Suez Canal route and the main artery of trade with Abyssinia. The railway to Addis Ababa, owned by a French company, was, after many delays, completed in 1917. Four-fifths of the trade of Jibuti is in the conveyance of goods to or from Abyssinia. It serves also as a coaling station, the coal being previously im-

ported. The chief local industries are shark and mother-ofpearl fisheries and the collection of salt from the Bahr’ Asal; since 1912 the salt exports have risen from 4,000 to some 14,000 tons a year. In 1914, when the railway was open only as far as Dire Daisa (30 m. short of Harrav), the value of exports was 43,600,000 fr. and of imports 28,700,000 francs. In 1922 exports were valued at 170,800,000 fr. and imports at 160,400,000 francs. Jibuti had (1921) 8,366 inhabitants, of whom 354 were Europeans. The population of the colony is said to be about 200,000 —apparently an overestimate—and consists of Denakil, Somali and Galla, who, on the grassland of the higher ground, rear camels, goats and black-faced sheep. In rọrọ the local budget balanced at 2,370,000 fr., in"1924 at 5,015,000 francs. The colony is administered by a governor, assisted by a nominated council composed of official and unofficial members. Apart from occasional raids by the nomads, who, away from the railway zone, are left much to their own devices, the colony has been peaceful. Lej Yasu, the deposed Emperor of Abyssinia, was in the Donakil country in 1917-8, but his efforts to raise the tribes against the French failed. BrBsLIoGRAPHY.—French Somaliland, a British Foreign Office handbook (No. 109), 1920; Capt. M. Borlée, ‘‘ La Côte française des Somalis,” Bulletin Soc. Rovale Belge Géographie (1924) and the “* Côte française des Somalis ” (Annual Reports by the French Colonial Ministry).

III. ITALIAN SOMALILAND Revised estimates give the area at some 154,000 square miles. The population is probably overestimated at 650,000. There were In 1921 664 Europeans (almost all Italians). These figures are exclusive of Trans-Juba, transferred to Italy by Great Britain in 1925 (see JUBALAND). The country is divided into Southern and Northern Italian Somaliland. In the southern division, a Crown Colony, under a civil governor since July tg1o, energy was shown in the development of the somewhat scanty natural resources of the land and in the valleys of the Webi Shebeh, and the Juba cotton and rice were cultivated. The chief exports continue, however, to be durra, sesame, ghee, gum, myrrh and hides. From Mogadishu, the capital (population, in 1923, 20,700) a railway was built to Afgoi, 18 m., as the first section of a line to the Abyssinian frontier at Lugh. By 1924 some 2,000 m. of roads had also been built. The effect of the transfer of Jubaland remained to be seen in 1926; by giving the Italians possession of Kismayu it placed at their disposal a port superior to any on the

BATTLE

OF THE

583

Benadir coast. The colony had required constant subventions from Italy; thus, in 1924, colonial revenue was but 2,857,000 lire, while expenditure totalled 24,000,000 lire. Exports were far below imports in value; the figures for 1922 were: imports 51,000,ooo lire, exports 11,000,000 lire. In part, the exports consist of

goods from Abyssinia. Northern Italian Somaliland was divided into the Sultanate of the Mijertin, whose territory included the coast facing the Gulf of Aden, the Nogal Territory (in the centre) and the Sultanate of Obbia. The economic value of these regions is not great, but they are famed for the abundance of plants which furnish frankincense and myrrh and also gum arabic. The Nogal Territory was for some years occupied by the ‘' Mad Mullah,” but he failed to agree with Mohammed Osman, the Mijertin sultan, and there were Intermittent hostilities between them from 1908 to r9o19. The overthrow of the Mullah by the British left the Somalis free to quarrel among themselves. In pursuance of the forward colonial policy adopted by the Fascist Govt., the Italians in 1925 decided to bring the sultanates under direct control. Military operations followed, and in Oct. 1925 it was announced that Sultan Ali Jusuf of Obbia had come to terms. The submission of the Mijertins was reported in April 1926. A campaign followed in the Nogal Territory, where the Somalis opposed the Italians with some stubbornness. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—Relazione sulla Somalia Italiana, issued by the Italian Colonial Office (1912); G. de Martino (sometime governor of the colony), La Somalia Nostra (1913); G. Stefanini and G. Paoli, Ricerche tdrogeologiche, botaniche ed entomologiche fatte nella Somalia ftatiana Meridionale (Florence, 1916); Italian Somaliland, a British Foreign Office handbook (No. 128), with Bibliography (1920); Luigi Amadeo (Duke of Savoy), “ La Somalia,” in La Vre d'Italia (1920); R. Cani, JZ Guibaland (Naples, 1921); M. Colucci, Principi di diretto consuetudinatro della Somalia Italiana Meridionale (1924), R. Zerbinati, “ Un Miracolo del lavors italiana in Somalia,” in La vie d'Italia (1925); “ La Occupazione della Somalia settentrionale,” in L'Italia Coloniale (Milan, 1926). (F. R. C.)

SOMBART, WERNER (1863), German economist, was born at Ermsleben in the Harz Jan. 19 1863; he studied in Pisa and Berlin, and in 1888 became secretary of the chamber of commerce in Bremen. He taught at the University of Breslau from 1890, at the Berlin commercial high school from 1906, and in 1917 was appointed professor at the University of Berlin. Sombart wrote prolifically on economic, historical and social problems. His best known work is Der Moderne Kapitalismus (1902, revised and enlarged ed. 1916). His books are stimulating and fertile in ideas, but many of his views conflict with those of

others, and have given rise to a great deal of controversy. Sombart’s published works include Soztalismus und soziale Bewegung im ro. Jahrhundert; the roth revised edition of this treatise, published in 1924, bears the title: Der proletarische Sozialismus. Wirtschaft und Mode (1902), Drie deutsche Volkswirtschaft im 19. Jahrhundert (1903, 5th ed. 1921), Das Proletariat (1906), Das Lebenswerk von Karl Marx (1909), Die Juden und das Wirtschaftsleben (1911), Luxus und Kapitalismus (1912), Die Ordnung des Wirtschafts-

lebens (1925). Sombart is the editor of Grundlagen und Kritik des Sozialismus (1919).

SOMME, BATTLE OF THE.—This engagement, an offensive on the part of the British armies, with some assistance from the French, opened on July 1 1916. Between Ham and Arras the river Somme runs first from south to north as far as Péronne and then bends sharply to the west, in which general course it continues to the sea. From Péronne a low range of hills runs somewhat to the north of west, forming the watershed between the Somme and the basins of the Scarpe and the Schelde. This ridge had fallen into German hands in Oct. 1914 in the course of the operations usually described as “the race to the sea ” and the line in this quarter, indeed on the whole front from Arras southward to the Oise, had remained substantially unaltered during 1915, the chicf change being that in July 1915 a British IH. Army had been formed which relieved the French between the Ancre and the Somme. Subsequently a IV. Army was also formed, and early in 1916 the British had relieved the French X. Army on the Arras front, making thcir line continuous from Ypres southward. .The right boundary between the British and French had varied considerably and in June 1916 was near

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Maricourt, about 3,000 yd. north of the Somme. Here the Allied line, which southward of this point ran north and south, turned sharply and following the lower slopes of the watershed already described ran west for another 7,000 yd. to make another sharp turn at Fricourt, whence it ran north for 10,000 yd. to the Ancre, which pierces the ridge between Thiepval and Beaumont Hamel, continuing definitely in a northerly direction north of that river. Reasons for the British Offensive—When the German attack on Verdun opened in Feb. 1916, neither the artillery and ammunition situation of the British nor the training of many of the more recently arrived “ New Army” divisions was such as to permit of their giving relief to their allies by taking the offensive on a big scale. Their help had consisted in the taking over of a long stretch of the French line, but as the spring turned into summer it had become evident that more than this would be necessary, for the French defence, though determined and resourcelul to a high degree, was being very severely tried and

the position was agrecd to set on although from whether such an the ammunition

frequently critical. Sir Douglas Haig therefore foot plans for an offensive on a very large scale, the purely British standpoint it was doubtful effort was not still somewhat premature, neither output nor the supply of guns being as yet equal

to starting a serious offensive at more

than one point, so that

once the point of attack had been declared the advantages of surprise and the initiative would be largely discounted. German Positions —The German positions on the frontage to be attacked, a distance of some 25 m. in all, were extremely for-

midable. Their defenders had been in undisturbed possession for over a year and a half, they had had ample time therefore to turn to advantage the natural features of the ground and to supplement them by artificial means. Woods and villages had become fortresses, two elaborate trench systems had been constructed about two to three miles apart, each containing several lines and connected up by intermediate lines or “ switches ”’ which greatly complicated the task of the attacker who should penetrate any part of the front. Deep “ dug-outs,” casy to construct in a chalk country, protected the trench garrisons against the heaviest bombardments, broad belts of barbed wire obstructed the approaches, the lines bristled with well-placed and protected machine-guns, and every point of tactical importance had been specially fortified. The advantage of the ground as regards facilities for observation lay with the Germans, although south of the Somme where the French were to attack on a frontage of nine miles, conditions were less in their favour and their defences less formidable. For an attack on such positions the most elaborate preparations were necessary, both tactical and administrative. Roads and railways had to be made, vast dumps of ammunition and stores collected and protected, gun positions selected and dug, bivouacking and encamping grounds prepared, the water supply expanded. It was not till the end of June that the offensive could be started; and it had been practically impossible to conceal from the Germans the scale and nature of the preparations or the in-

tended extent of the attack, although such precautions as were possible had beer taken,

SOMME,

BATTLE

I. THE FIRST ATTACK After a week’s preliminary bombardment of unparalleled intensity the Allied attack was delivered on the morningof July1. On the British left north of the Ancre the VIII. Corps attacked from Serre to Beaumont Hamel, but though its centre penetrated some wayinto the German linesnorth of Beaumont Hamel the flanks were checked and the central division was finally dislodged. Equal illsuccess attended the X. Corps south of the Ancre and the left of the III. Corps on its right, in their attacks on the formidable defences of Thiepval and Ovillers. However, on the right centre just north of La Boisselle and between La Boisselle and Fricourt lodgements were not only made but maintained by the right of the III. Corps and the left of the XVII. East of Fricourt, again, the three British divisions attacking in a northerly direction were all successful, Mametz and Montauban were taken and all the objectives secured, while beyond them the French astride the Somme fared brilliantly, reaching Hardecourt and Curlu north of the river, while south of it they actually penetrated to and captured six miles of the German second line. The Germans had apparently not expected a French attack

and were less well prepared on the Fricourt-Montauban front than on the line running north from Fricourt, where both their positions and their fortifications were strongest, and the substantial success achieved by the British right and by the French went some way towards compensating for failure elsewhere. Sir Douglas Haig, realising the formidable nature of the frontage astride the Ancre, concentrated his attention on exploiting the success of the right and in the course of ro days of hard fighting in which some six fresh divisions were thrown into the struggle important gains were made: Fricourt, La Boisselle and Contalmaison were reduced, several woods were cleared and the line was advanced on a front of over six miles to within reach of the enemy’s second system of defences on the southern crest of the main ridge. Second Line of Defence Assaulted.—This system, less strong than that stormed on July 1, was formidable enough and the stubborn resistance of the Germans in their front system and mtermediate lines had allowed large reserves of men and guns to be brought up and the defence to be reorganised. However, the attack on the second system, delivered at dawn on July 14, established the British on the Bazentin Ridge on a 6,000 yd. frontage, cleared the Bazentins and Longueval, penetrated into Delville Wood on the right and to High Wood in the centre and compelled the surrender of Ovillers, already isolated. But though at one time it looked as if prompt exploitation of the success might yield far-reaching results, reserves could not be thrown in quickly enough to make good and retain High Wood and before long the Germans started counter-attacking in great force and with much determination. Several weeks of hard fighting elapsed during which the British were unable to make more than very gradual progress at disproportionate cost. These weeks, the second hali of July, all Aug. and the beginning of Sept., saw desperate contests for Delville Wood at the salient angle on the British right, for High Wood in the centre, for Pozières and Mouquet Farm further to the left in the Thiepval direction. The lodgement gained on the main ridge needed to be extended, especially on the flanks, but the Germans had brought up large reserves, were employing a great weight of artillery and still enjoyed great advantages in position. The British progress was slow, especially on the right, where Ginchy, Guillemont and Falfemont Farm formed a barrier against which many attacks were shattered even after Delville Wood had been won. It was important to extend on this side to get touch with the French who were gaining ground north of the Somme: Pozières equally was a stumbling-block to the advance of the British centre and behind Pozières were all the formidable defences of which Thiepval was the centre. Division after division was thrown into the fight, fought desperately, lost heavily and apparently achieved little, though Poziéres was taken by the Australians before the end of July and other gains were made beyond its ruins. But the strain was telling heavily on the Germans: they checked the Allied progress but their resources in

OF THE

585

men, guns and ammunition were, by Ludendorff’s own admission, taxed to the utmost to do so, while they had to relinquish entirely their attacks on Verdun, the cessation of which was ordered almost immediately after the supersession as chief of the staff (Aug. 27) of Falkenhayn by Hindenburg. Il. THE SECOND

AND

THIRD

STAGES

With Sept. the Allies began to reap the fruits of their struggles. On Sept. 3 a renewed attack astride the Ancre by the V. Army, recently formed out of Rawlinson’s IV. Army and placed under Sir H. Gough, was unsuccessful, and the centre made little progress. However, the right at last mastered Guillemont and in the next few days added Falfemont Farm, Ginchy (Sept. 9), Leuze Wood and Bouleaux Wood to its gains, while the French made substantial progress north of the Somme and gained a big success south of it, taking 7,000 prisoners and storming three m. of the old German front line as far as Chaulnes. These successes removed the main obstacles to the advance of the British centre, freeing it from the menace—the Falfemont Farm—of being enfiladed from Ginchy line. The British were now well established

on the forward crest of the main ridge and could prepare to attack the villages on the northern slopes of the watershed. The third phase in the offensive was ushered in on Sept. 15, by an attack on a broad front in which ro divisions took part. The special feature of this attack was the employment

for the first

time of “ tanks,” (g.v.) the reply to the problem of the machinegun behind barbed wire. The new weapon achieved a modified success, not all that had been hoped by its designers but enough to encourage the Allies and to shake the morale of the Germans, besides yielding valuable lessons for its future development and use. On the left and centre the attack did well, Courcelette, Martinpuich, High Wood and Flers were all taken with many prisoners. On the right, however, Lesboeufs and Morval were not reached and only after sharp fighting was the line straightened by the capture of the Quadrilateral (Sept. 18.), which had

held up this wing.

This obstacle at last disposed of, a fresh

attack on Sept. 25, swept over Morval, Lesboeufs and Gueudecourt and by joining up with the French who had again secured substantial successes both north and south of the Somme, compelled the Germans to evacuate Combles (Sept. 26). Success of the V. Army.—Simultaneously with this success operations on a big scale were resumed by the V. Army on the British left and Thiepval was at last taken (Sept. 26) with the Zollern, Stuff and Schwaben redoubts behind it. This important success left the Germans with only the scantiest foothold on the main ridge and was followed by further gains by the left of the IV. Army astride the Albert-Bapaume road. Thus by the beginning of Oct. the enemy has been driven back to his last completed line of defences, which ran from Sailly-Saillisel on the right, past Le Transloy and in front of Bapaume: he was busily engaged on fresh lines further in rear but as yet these were far from ready or formidable. It really seemed therefore as if Oct. might see the Allies reaping full harvest of their earlier efforts. The rearward German defences could not be compared with those already penetrated and there had been some indications that the German morale was beginning to decline: there had been less stubbornness in the resistance encountered, less vigour in the counter-strokes. Unluckily

an exceptionally wet Oct. robbed the Allies of the spoils which seemed in their grasp. Continuous and heavy rain combined with the effects of the bombardments to make the ground a sea of mud, across which guns and transport could hardly be moved, and even lightly equipped men could only struggle slowly forward. Attacks under such conditions were terribly handicapped; that most of them failed was not remarkable, for when a trench was taken the difficulties of consolidating it were greater than ever. What was more remarkable and a great tribute to the valour and determination of the troops engaged was that some

progress was made, despite all obstacles. On the right the British established themselves on a spur running north-west between Gueudecourt and Le Transloy, in the centre Eaucourt Abbaye (Oct. 3) and Le Sars (Oct. 7) were taken, though

SOMOV—SOPWITH

586

repeated attacks on the Butte de Warlencourt were foiled by the

his father being director of the Hermitage Museum.

mud. On the left Regina Trench was taken, the western portion on Oct. 21, the eastern three weeks later, but the weather was becoming very bad and further operations were more difficult

his career he worked under Ilia Repine, the realist painter and professor of the Academy of Arts. The spirit of the 18th century attracted him strongly and he was greatly iniluenced by the masters of the “ Fétes Galantes”’ and by the modern art of Aubrey Beardsley and Charles Conder. The retrospective qualities of ,his style are well illustrated in ‘‘ Rainbows ” and ‘“‘ fireworks,” which were his favourite subjects; while his portrayals of Italian comedy in rococo environment show a sympathetic understanding of the subject. Somov was one of the founders of the group known as “ The Artistic World.” In 1919 he issued Fhe Book of the Marquise, which he illustrated with a number of characteristic drawings. His best portraits, which are drawn in coloured crayon, show remarkable delicacy of execution and masterly delineation of character and bear comparison with the work of Clouet and Ingres. Somov, who was a connoisseur of ceramics, also produced a number of groups painted on china. Sce Oscar Bie, Constantin Somoff

to carry out.

Ill. THE

LAST

OFFENSIVE

By about the middle of Nov. the British had secured almost the whole of the main ridge and had advanced quite far enough to make the German defences north of the Ancre into a pronounced salient with its apex at Beaumont Hamel. Hac Oct. 1916 been as fine as Oct. 1914 or Oct. 1918, it is probable that the Allies might not only have pierced the Le Transloy line but by advancing on a wide front to the north and northeast they might have outflanked the Beaumont Hamel position and the whole German frontage as far as Arras. The rains had prevented this, but with the Allies in possession of Thiepval it was possible when at last the weather improved a little to renew the attack on Beaumont Hamel with better chances of success. The last im-

portant operation in the Somme offensive took the shape, therefore, of an attack by seven divisions on Nev. 13, which proved most successful on the right and centre, clearing the Germans olf their last foothold between Thiepval and the Ancre and taking St. Pierre Division, Beaumont Hamel itself and Beaucourt-surAncre with 7,000 prisoners. | On the left, however, Serre again proved impregnable; but by Ludendorfi’s own admission the loss of Beaumont Hamel was a severe blow.

However, before the success could be much further

expanded the return of bad weather again put a stop to active operations, which were not resumed on any considerable scale until well after the New Year. In the two months which preceded the German retreat to the Hindenburg line (March 1917) much was achieved which the bad weather of the autumn had then rendered impracticable and these operations, which had brought the British within striking distance of the last line covering Bapaume and Péronne before the Germans anticipated an enforced evacuation by retreating, may really be regarded as the belated culmination of “ the Somme.”’ Unluckily in March 1917, the Germans had a Hindenburg line to fall back to—there would have been none in existence had Oct. 1916 been dry. Results of the Somme Buttles—The Allicd offensive on the Somme may not have yielded all the immediate results that had been hoped for. Progress had been slower, casualties infinitely heavier, gains of ground far smaller than were anticipated. Nevertheless the three main objects had been achieved: the pressure on Verdun had been relieved, the enemy’s main forces had been pinned down to the Western Front, his powers of resistance had been substantially reduced. Ludendorff himself has testified to the effect of the long struggle on the German morale and it is only necessary to compare the general strategical situation on Dec. 31 1916 with that of July 1, to sec what a change had come over the War. It had been effected in the stubborn and apparently disproportionately costly struggle for the watershed between the Ancre and the Somme, and not outside France where the Russian offensive had been checked, Rumania had collapsed, the Italians had been held up and the capture of Monastir had been a mere flash in the pan, powerless even to help Rumania. Kut was still untaken, the British had not yet reached Palestine. It was the Somme which had wrought the change, even if bad weather had prevented the immediate exploitation of the success earned between July r and Oct. 1, and even though early in 1917 changes of command and of plan were to throw away much that the campaign on the Somme had placed within reach of the Allies. For the fighting sometimes known as the second battle of the Somme, see GERMAN OFFENSIVE and VICTORY, ADVANCE TO. BispLIoGRAPHyY.—E. von Falkenhayn, General Headquarters, 1914-6, and its Critical Decisions (1919); Sir Douglas Haig, Despatches, rors-ig (1919); P. von Hindenburg, Out of My Life (1920); E. Ludendorff, My War Memories (1922). See also WORLD WAR; BiBLIOGRAPIY. (C. T. A,

SOMOV, KONSTANTIN ANDREEVICH (1869), Russian painter, was born in St. Petersburg (Leningrad), Nov. 30 1869,

Early in

(1907).

SONIC DEPTH FINDER: sce SOUND RANGING. SONNINO, SIDNEY, Baron (1847-1922), Italian statesman (see 25.416). During the debates on Giolitti’s Steamship Subsidies Bill in the spring of 1909, it was Baron Sonnino who conducted the most vigorous attacks against the Government, exposing the radical defects of the measure, and when Giolitti resigned on Dec. 2 it was Sonnino who was called upon to form a ministry, for the second time. But he did not enjoy the favour of the still Giolittian Chamber, and his Cabinet was defeated over the new shipping bill. On March 21 1910 he resigned, again after 100 days of office. He continued to take an active part in the debates in the Chamber, and was a stern but just critic of Giolittian political methods, although during the Libyan war he generally abstained from opposition for patriotic motives. In the autumn of 1914, after the death of the Marquis di San Giuliano, the Premier, Salandra, assumed the Foreign Office for a short time, but when he reconstituted his Cabinet on Nov. 5 he offered that portfolio to Sonnino, who accepted it. His conduct of the Foreign Oce was characterised by sincerity of purpose, high principles, unswerving patriotism and a wide knowledge of international politics. He had not, however, a free hand. He was still Forcign Minister, under Orlando’s premiership, during the Peace Conference, which he attended as second Italian delegate from Jan. 18 to June tọ torg. On the fall of the Orlando Cabinet (June r9 1919) Sonnino retired into private life. He died Nov. 24 1922. The irritation of the whole of Italy against the policy of the Allies towards Italy at the Peace Conference

reacted to some

extent against the nation’s representatives at Paris, and Sonnino himself came in for a large share of unpopularity also, on account of a certain caustic hardness of manner and his strong objection to compromise in any form, although the more intelligent and better informed part of public opinion realised the great difhculty of his task and the inadequate support afforded him by Orlando, as well as the value of his actual achievements. He did not stand for Parliament at the elections in Nov. 1919, but was subsequently made a senator in 1920. In spite of what was regarded as his failure to overcome the obstacles of the Peace Conference, he enjoyed the reputation of being the greatest Minister for Foreign Affairs that Italy had had since Cavour, with the possible exception of Crispi, while as a financier he ranked very high. As early as June 1922 he realised that if Italy was to be saved from catastrophe some form of coup d'état was necessary. When the Fascists seized power in Oct. following, he viewed the movement with sympathy, although he was no longer in active politics. He was also a man of wide reading and culture, and a distinguished Dante scholar and bibliophile. SOPWITH, THOMAS OCTAVE MURDOCH (1888), British airman and inventor, was educated at Cottesmore and at Seafield Engineering College. Having won the Baron de Forest Prize of {4,000 for a flight from England to the Continent in rg1to,in 1912 he founded the Sopwith Aviation Co., Ltd., at kKingston-on-Thames. During the World War this firm designed

SORABJI—SOUND and produced large numbers of aeroplanes and seaplanes for the British Government. Sopwith also became joint managing director of the H. G. Hawker Engineering Co., Ltd., KingstonHe married in In 1918 he was made a C.B.E. on-Thames. 1914 Beatrix, daughter of the 8th Baron Ruthven. SORABJI, CORNELIA (1866), Indian author and publicist, born at Nasik, was the fifth daughter of the Rev. Sorabji Kharsedji, an agent of the Church Missionary Society at Poona converted from Zoroastrianism, and of Francina Sorabji, a Hindu convert and educational pioneer. The first girl student of the Deccan College, Poona, Cornelia graduated in 1887, went to Somerville Hall, Oxford, in 1888 as a scholar, and in 1893, received the B.C.L. of Oxford. In 1904 she was appointed a legal adviser to the court of wards, Bengal, and later held the same position in Bihar and Orissa, and Assam. In these and other provinces she rendered very effective service to female landowners who suffered from the handicap of the purdah system. Miss Sorabji was awarded the Kaisar-i-Hind gold medal in 1909 and received the

bar of the first class in 1922. She was enrolled in 1921 as a vakil of the Allahabad High Court. In 1923, soon after the removal of the sex disqualification she was called to the Bar by Lincoln's Inn, and returned to India to practise in the High Court, Calcutta. Both in her writings and her speeches, she showed a remarkable gift for graphic and sympathetic depiction of widely varied types of Indian life, with full appreciation of the value of the British connection. Her best known books were Love and Life Behind the Purdah (1901) and Sun-Babies (1904), of which there was a second series in 1920. She also published Between the Twilights (1908), Indian Tales of the Great Ones (1916), the Purdahnashin (1917) and Therefore

(1924). SOROLLA Y BASTIDA, JOAQUIN (1863-1923), Spanish painter (see 25.434), was engaged for practically the whole of the decade 1910-20 on work for the Hispanic Society of America. It includes a series of portraits of Spanish writers and a “ Panorama of the Forty-nine Provinces of Spain,” consisting of 49 immense compositions, each representing views, costumes and customs of a different province. This great undertaking was completed before paralysis brought the artist’s painting to an end. Important exhibitions of his work were held at the Grafton Galleries, London, 1908; in New York, 1909; in Chicago, 1913; and he was represented by two typical works in the 1920-1 exhibition of Spanish paintings at Burlington House. He died at Madrid Aug. IO 1923. See Hispanic Society of America, Eight Essays on Joaquin Sorolla y

I. DETECTION

587 AND PERCEPTION OF DIRECTION SOUNDS IN AIR?

OF

Detection —The human ear itself is a remarkably sensitive detector of the air vibrations which constitute sound. It is still much superior in this respect to any mechanical device which has yet been produced for recording the vibrations visually. Thus the perception of feeble sounds of necessity depends upon the limitations of audibility, either indirect listening, or with the ear aided by the intervention of an electrical device such as a microphone. The audibility of a feeble sound can be very largely augmented by making use of the principle of resonance, provided that the sound itself approximates to a pure tone. This can be secured, for example, by the use of a Helmholtz resonator applied to the ear in the case of direct listening, and in addition by tuning the diaphragm receiver when microphonic listening is adopted. It has happened fortuitously that some of the chief sounds in air which it is important to be able to detect, viz.: those emitted by aircraft, does contain predominant notes, apparently due to engine exhaust, which enable the application of resonance, as above indicated, to increase largely the range of audibility. The operation of the Déppler effect, arising from the relative motion between the aircraft and the observer, prevents the possibility of the identification of the machine by means of the observed frequency, this being liable to change by as much as 20°, according to the speed and direction of flight. An inter-

esting observation which has been constantly made is that the notes of low pitch continue to be heard at ranges where those of high pitch have ceased to be audible. This is in accordance with the theoretical expectation that damping increases with frequency. The determination of the direction whence a sound arrives is theoretically possible by a variety of methods dealt with below, several of which have been tried in aircraft localisation.

(a) Binaural Listening.3—Lord Rayleigh’s experiments (Collected Papers, vol. 5, p. 347) have shown that low-pitched sounds are determined in direction by the observation of the phase difference between the vibrations arriving at the two ears. This principle has been applied in direction-finding, and the effect has been exaggerated by increasing the distance between the two points of reception. The sound is received by two equal trumpets or horns rigidly connected together and capable of rotation about axes perpendicular to the line joining them. Separate and exactly equal tubes lead from the trumpets to the two ears respectively, and the apparatus is rotated until the sound under observation appears to come from directly in front. The line joining the sound receivers is then perpendicular to the incident sound stream. An alternative method Bastida, 1909; A. de Beruete y Moret, Sorolla y Bastida, 1920. which dispenses with the necessity of rotating the apparatus is SOUND (see 25.437).—The increase in our knowledge of the to use a compensator or phase-measurer, which consists of tubes, adjustable in length, inserted between the sound receivers and the subject of acoustics (the science of sound) during recent years appropriate ears, so as to provide a path difference equal to that has been largely associated with the War conditions which pre- between the distant source of sound and the two receivers. Adjustment of the tube lengths is made until the impression received is vailed from 1914 to 1918. As a consequence of the War the that the sound is neither to the right nor to the left, and the deterdevelopment of this science has been abnormal, and research mination of direction is then a matter of simple geometry. In prachas been directed towards the rapid realisation of practical tice the compensator is graduated to give direct angular readings. acoustic devices and methods for immediate use in warfare, The practice of binaural listening has verified theoretical concluboth on land and sea. Some aspects of the investigations have sions in several important respects. It has been found that it is easicr to perceive the direction of a mixed sound, or noise, than a received continued though less urgent attention since the War, pure note. Apparently it is necessary that the wave train should with important results. A general survey of the work done shows Dai characteristics whereby the contain more or less isolated ee ate ge ee E E that the advances consist of applications of well-established a principles rather than the discovery of new phenomena. Gener2 The information contained in this section is largely drawn froma manual entitled Development of Sounds, kindly placed at the writer's ally, the observations made have proved to be in accordance disposal by the British Munitions Inventions Department. with previous theorctical investigations, mainly due to the first 3 This method of perception of direction has been largely used Lord Rayleigh.1 The work falls naturally under two headings, also in a connection which scarcely justifies treatment in a separate viz.: (1) the detection and perception of direction of sounds in section. The geophone is an instrument for direction-finding of sounds proceeding through the earth, and its particular use during air, and (2) the detection and perception of direction of sounds the War was for localising the sounds of picks, etc., used in tunnelling in water. Theoretically these two problems have much in comand land mining. It consists of two hollow boxes connected by equal mon, but practically there are important differences which make tubes to a stethoscope arranged so that the sounds proceed from the it desirable to treat them in separate sections. A special section two boxes to separate ears. The boxes are laid upon the ground a few fect apart, and moved about until the sounds of the pick appear (3) is devoted to the important advances in auditorium acoustics, to come from straight ahead. It is then known that the sound and the remaining section (4) deals briefly with miscellaneous source is on a line perpendicular to that joining the two geophone outstanding features of modern work on sound. receivers, since the sounds arrive through the earth in synchronism. By combining several pairs of geophones separated by considerable 1Lord Rayleigh’s work is contained in his Collected Papers (No. distances, the actual position of the pick can be estimated, for it 6, 1920). His contributions were numerous between 1911 and 1919, lies at the intersection of the several perpendiculars above specified. when he died.

588 phase difference can be readily appreciated.

SOUND In the regular sine

wave corresponding to a pure tone each vibration is exactly like those which immediately precede and follow it, and the ears are unable to identify corresponding displacements. It is apparently also necessary for successful binaural listening that the two portions of the incident wave which enter the two receivers should be free from subsequent distortion; in particular, that the sound receivers should be as nearly as possible non-resonant for the vibrations in question. Any amplification of the sound which depends upon resonance, therefore, such as the use of Helmholtz resonators already referred to, is incompatible with efficient direction-finding by observations of phase difference. The method is subject to many errors, chiefly those arising from the motion of the sound source, refraction due to temperature inequalities in the air, and the effect of winds. The necessary correc-

tions are tabulated for use in practice.

(b) Sound Mirrors. —Some success has been attained in directionfinding by means of concave sound reflectors, The chief limitations have arisen from the question of size, and, consequently, of portability. In optics the size of mirrors commonly in use is very great in comparison with the wave-lengths of the light; in the corresponding problem in acoustics it is almost impossible to make them so; and yet this is a necessary condition for the geometrica laws of reflection to apply with accuracy. In the largest sound mirrors—perhaps 20 ft. in diameter—the size is at most only a few wave-lengths for the aircraft sounds under investigation with the result that the image of a distant sound obtained at the focus proves to be an area much larger than that corresponding to optical calculations. There is therefore no advantage secured by making the mirror paraboloidal instead of spherical, and considerable roughness of the surface is not detrimental. The mirrors were usually made of concrete, and listening was effected either by means of a smal! horn receiver placed in the focal plane and connected by a tube to the ears, or by means of a microphone placed in a similar position. If, as was more usual, the mirror was fixed, the direction of the sound source could be found by determining the position of maximum intensity in the focal plane. It may be noted that in this method of direction-fnding amplification is obtained on account of the area of the mirror, and that further augmentation ts attainable by using resonators, to which the same objections do not apply as in binaural listen-

interaction between the propeller and the water, and partly from the vibrations of the machinery which are transmitted through the walls of the ship into the sea. They vary greatly from ship to ship, even of the same class; and, in the later stages of the War, submarines had been constructed which, when cruising submerged at certain slow speeds, emitted practically no noise at all. In many ways the detection of submarines in the sea is more dificult than that of aircraft in air. Normally, listening in air takes place at stations which are fixed; in submarine listening the stations were most frequently ships which, for tactical reasons connected with their safety, had to be constantly on the move. Their own machinery noise and the acoustic disturbances arising from their motion

through the water were very

apt to drown the noises proceeding from more distant sources. The noise of the sea, too, even in weather not at all stormy,

interfered greatly, and the range at which a submarine could be heard varied much from day to day. EurdXxadxy uer

where the gu’s are functions of the co-ordinates and where the sum is to be taken over the indices for all combinations 11, 12, ...44. The variability of the gy’s is equivalent to the existence of a gravitational field. If the gravitational field is sufficiently general it is not possible at all to find an inertial system, that is, a co-ordinate system with reference to which ds? may be expressed in the simple form given above:—

ds? = c?dt?— dx?— dy?—dz? But in this case, too, there is in the infinitesimal neighbourhood of a space-time point a local system of reference for which the last-mentioned simple form for ds holds. This state of the facts leads to a type of geometry which Riemann’s genius created more than half a century before the advent of the general theory of relativity of which Riemann divined the high importance for physics. Riemann’s Geometr y.—Riemann’s geometry of an n-dimensional space bears the same relation to Euclidean geometry of an ndimensional space as the general geometry of curved surfaces bears to the geometry of the plane. For the infinitesimal neighbourhood of a point on a curved surface there is a local coordinate system in which the distance ds between two infinitely

hear points is given by the equation ds?= dx?-+ dy? For any arbitrary (Gaussian) co-ordinate-system, however, an expression of the form ds? = gndx?+

22 100x1dx2+

goodx2?

holds in a finite region of the curved surface. If the gyu’s are given as functions of x; and x the surface is then fully determined geometrically. For from this formula we can calculate for every combination of two infinitely near points on the surface the Jength ds of the minute rod connecting them; and with the help of this formula all networks that can be constructed on the surface with these little rods can be calculated. In particular, the ‘“ curvature ” at every point of the surface can be calculated; this is the quantity that expresses to what extent and in what way the laws regulating the positions of the minute rods in the immediate vicinity of the point under consideration deviate from those of the geometry of the plane. This theory of surfaces by Gauss has been extended by Riemann to continua of any arbitrary number of dimensions and has thus paved the way for the general theory of relativity. For it was shown above that corresponding to two infinitely near space-time points there is a number ds which can be obtained by measurement with rigid measuring-rods and clocks (in the case of time-

like elements, indeed, with a clock alone). This quantity occurs in the mathematical theory in place of the length of the minute rods in three-dimensional geometry. The curves for which fds has stationary values determine the paths of material points and rays of light in the gravitational field, and the “ curvature ” of space is dependent on the matter distributed over space. Just as in Euclidean geometry the space-concept refers to the position-possibilities of rigid bodies, so in the general theory of relativity the space-time-concept refers to the behaviour of rigid bodies and clocks.

But the space-time-continuum differs from

the space-continuum in that the laws regulating the behaviour of these objects (clocks and measuring-rods) depend on where they happen to be. The continuum (or the quantities that describe it) enters explicitly into the laws of nature, and conversely these properties of the continuum are determined by physical factors. The relations that connect space and time can no longer be kept distinct from physics proper.

SPADINI—SPAIN Nothing certain is known of what the properties of the spacetime-continuum may be as a whole. Through the general theory of relativity, however, the view that the continuum is infinite in its time-like extent but finite in its space-like extent has gained in probability. |

TIME The physical time-concept answers to the time-concept of the extra-scientific mind. Now, the latter has its root in the timeorder of the experiences of the individual, and this order we must accept as something primarily given. I experience the moment “‘ now,” or, expressed more accurately, the present sense-experience (Sinnen-Hrlebnis) combined with the recollection of (earlier) sense-experiences. That is why the sense-experiences seem to form a series, namely the timeseries indicated by “earlier ” and “later.” The experienceseries is thought of as a one-dimensional continuum. Experienceseries can repeat themselves and can then be recognised. They can also be repeated inexactly, wherein some events are replaced by others without the character of the repetition becoming lost for us. In this way we form the time-concept as a onedimensional frame which can be filled in by experiences in various ways. The same series of experiences answer to the same sub-

jective time-intervals. The transition from this “ subjective ” time ({ch-Zeit) to the time-concept of pre-scientific thought is connected with the formation of the idea that there is a real external world independent of the subject. In this sense the (objective) event is made to correspond with the subjective experience. In the same sense

there is attributed to the ” subjective”? time of the experience a ‘“‘ time ’’ of the corresponding ‘“‘ objective ” event. In contrast with experiences external events and their order in time claim validity for all subjects. This process of objectification would encounter no difficulties were the time-order of the experiences corresponding to a series of external events the same for all individuals. In the case of the immediate visual perceptions of our daily lives, this correspondence is exact. That is why the idea that there is an objective time-order became established to an extraordinary extent. In working out the idea of an objective world of external events in greater detail, it was found necessary to make events and experiences depend on each other ina more complicated way. This was at first done by means of rules and modes of thought instinctively gained, in which the conception of space plays a particularly prominent part. ‘This process of refinement leads ultimately to natural science. The measurement of time is effected by means of clocks. A clock is a thing which automatically passes in succession through a (practically) equal series of events (period). The number of periods (clock-time) elapsed serves as a measure of time. The meaning of this definition is at once clear if the event occurs in the immediate vicinity of the clock in space; for all observers then observe the same clock-time simultaneously with the event (by means of the eye) independently of their position. Until the theory of relativity was propounded it was assumed that the conception of simultaneity had an absolute objective meaning also for events separated in space. This assumption was demolished by the discovery of the law of propagation of light. For if the velocity of light in empty space is to be a quantity that is independent of the choice (or, respectively, of the state of motion) of the mertial system to which it is referred, no absolute meaning can be assigned to the conception of the simultaneity of events that occur at points separated by a distance in space. Rather, a special time must be allocated to every inertial system. Ii no co-ordinate system (inertial system) is used as a basis of reference there is no sense in asserting that events at different points in space occur simultaneously. It is in consequence of this that space and time are welded together into a uniform four-dimensional continuum. See RELATIVITY. (A. E.) SPADINI, ARMANDO (1883-1925), Italian painter was born in Florence July 29 1883. He frst studied art in his native city

O11!

but was chiefly inspired by the great Venetian artists, particularly by Giorgione and Paolo Veronese. His painting entitled “ Giovani al bagno ” secured him the Pensieriato artistico nazionale, in 1910. He developed rapidly an art which was full of grace of line, sunshine and brightness of colour, and specialised in the painting of children. Two important pictures “ Figure and Bambini,” are in the National Gallery of Modern Art in Rome, “ Musica al Pincio ” is in the new Mussolini Museum also in Rome, while others are in the Florence Modern Art

Gallery, in the Luxembourg, and in the Lima Museum; but his most important paintings are in private collections in Rome. He died in Rome on March 29 1925. SPAIN (sce 25.527), a country of southwestern

Europe and a member of the League of Nations. Its area is 191,803 sq. m., and the population 21,966,000 (1925 estimate).

I. POLITICAL

HISTORY

At the close of the year 1910 Senior Canalejas resigned in order to reconstruct his Cabinet. This second Ministry, during which (Jan. 7~13) the King visited Melilla, lasted till April 3 1911, when it fell on the occasion of a debate on the Ferrer case, the army officers having resented the half-hearted attitude of Canalejas on the matter. The incident was typical of much that was to come.

The attention of Parliament was diverted towards Moroccan affairs. ‘The French were preparing their advance on Fez, and Spain was forced to an active policy, the first signs of which were received with ill-humour by the French Press. The Government, in the teeth of popular opposition, were sending troops to Morocco, and on June 9 a Spanish force landed at Larache. France was prevented from taking strong action by the Agadir incident (see Europt, History), but a certain tension prevailed between France and Spain during the summer. Anti-war meetings took place in Barcelona and Madrid, and a republican rising, plotted by the lower deck of the cruiser ‘‘ Numancia ” anchored off Tangier, though unsuccessful, startled public opinion. A campaign of strikes led to grave disorders in Bilbao, Catalonia and Valencia, notably in Cullera, where a magistrate was mobbed to death. The Government met the situation with

coolness and resolution, and towards the end of Sept. the strike fever had abated. The Moroccan operation prepared as a consequence of the disembarkation in Larache began successfully on Dec. 6, but collapsed a few days later after a gallant attempt to force the

passage of the River Kert, not without leaving behind an atmosphere of ill-feeling due to the belief, current in the Spanish Army, that the Moorish troops were provided with French arms and ammunition. Under such unfavourable conditions began the negotiations for a Franco-Spanish agreement following upon the Franco-German Treaty on Morocco. After a reshuffling of his Cabinet (March 11) Canalejas adjourned Parliament until May first. During the interval Don Melquiades Alvarez, a moderate republican, launched the Reformist party, aiming at bringing a certain important portion of republican opinion into the fold of the monarchy. The parliamentary session opened with the discussion of the bill called de Mancomunidades, ostensibly allowing “ diputaciones ” (elected provincial councils) to unite into groups for purposes of common administration, but in reality constituting a sop to Catalonia, which under the bill could set up a kind of local Parliament. With the summer a period of strikes, culminating in a grave railway strike, set in. Canalejas met it by applying Article 221 of the Recruiting Law allowing the drafting into military service of all men of military age working in industries of public importance in cases of danger or abnormal circumstances. On Oct. r4 the autumn session began with a fresh discussion of the bill de Mancomunidades, but the session was brought to a close by the murder of Canalejas on Nov. 12 1912. The Romanones Ministry.—Count Romanones replaced Canalejas, first in a somewhat temporary, then, after the FrancoSpanish Treaty on Morocco had been signed, in a more permanent capacity, having been confirmed in power by the King. This royal decision contributed to weaken the Liberal party by

612

SPAIN

strengthening the division between the Romanones and Garcia Prieto groups within it, and led to a sensational protest by Señor Maura, who expected to be called to office. Señor Alvarez, on the other hand, took the opportunity to accentuate his evolution towards the monarchy, helped by the King, who, at the moment, was seeking the advice of several prominent men known for their advanced views. Count Romanones took a good share of whatever merit there was in this policy, as well as in the success of the King’s official visit to Paris on the conclusion of the Franco-Spanish Treaty (May 6-9). He resigned on May 31, after a strong speech of opposition from Maura who restated his position of “ implacable hostility ” to a policy of co-operation with the parties of the anti-dynastic Left. The next day the King asked him to return once more, after the crisis caused by a split in the Liberal party on the question of the bill de Mancomunidades then before the Senate (June r1). Count Romanones was reinstated by the King, but this time it was generally realised that this step was simply an expedient necessitated by the coming visit of M. Poincaré to Madrid. M. Poincaré, President of the French Republic, arrived in Madrid on Oct. 7. He left Spain by way of Cartagena, where he embarked on the battleship “ Diderot,’ Spain being represented by the battleship “ España” and England by H.M.S. “ Intlexible.” Both the King and the President emphasised the fact that Cartagena had, six years earlier, witnessed the Franco-Anglo-Spanish agreement on Mediterranean policy. The latent Liberal crisis broke out as soon as M. Poincaré left Spanish soil. On Oct. 25 the Cabinet resigned, and the King,) after attempting in vain to reconcile the parties, realised that the Liberal policy which he had constantly followed since tgog was at anend. He first summoned Maura but found his views on policy so dangerous that he turned to Señor Dato (Oct. 27), a choice which initiated the disintegration of the Conservative party. The new Government granted a decree giving validity of law to the bill de Mancomunidades, dissolved the Cortes (Dec. 31 1913), and came back after a general election with a sufficient majority in both Houses. It met with considerable opposition owing to several royal decisions which were interpreted as acts of personal power in military matters. But its internal difficulties were soon to be merged into the all-absorbing preoccupation of the World War. The World War.—The international situation of Spain at the outbreak of war was defined by two sets of circumstances: official, and national or popular. The official situation was ruled by the Cartagena Agreement of 1907, confirmed by the conversations held there in 1913 between M. Poincaré and Count Romanones. These agreements and conversations stipulated that “ should new circumstances arise tending to alter the territorial status quo ” in the Mediterranean or in the European and African coasts of the Atlantic, the three powers concerned (Spain, France and England) would ‘ enter into communication ” in order to take any measures that might be necessary. The War was obviously a “circumstance” falling within the limits of the above definition. Yet Spain did not “ enter into communication ” with France and England, for the two Powers most interested in the matter, France and England, made no sign to set in motion the Cartagena Agreements. Señor Dato promptly declared for an absolute neutrality; Spain was, in fact, the only European nation which had no stake in the War. On the other hand, the nation was divided as to its feelings. The working classes, most of the intellectuals and the trading communities, were pro-Ally. The clergy, most of the army and of the bureaucracy and the “ idle rich,” were pro-German. Thus, the country was split into a reactionary or conservative pro-German wing and a democratic or “ advanced ” pro-Ally wing, and, as this division was real, and not fictitious as were the party groups, it cut across the parties. On one definite point everybody agreed. Spain was to keep out of the War. A “ committee of initiative ’’ was created for the study and coordination of efforts to deal with War problems. Parliament resumed its sittings on Oct. 30 1914 and unanimously endorsed the

foreign policy of the Government.

The country was meanwhile

getting used to abnormal conditions. Metals, raw and manufactured, clothes and boots, all kinds of foodstutfis, horses and mules, poured into France, under the “ neutral ” eye of the Government. The Government introduced and passed a bill which gave them special powers to deal with customs tariffs, railway rates, state purchases of food, shipping and expropriation of foodstuffs. The great increase in exports contributed to the rise in the value of the peseta, which gave the Government an opportunity to repatriate the public debt, by enacting that all Spanish Government stock held by foreigners which was payable in francs or sterling should become payable in pesetas in the Spanish market. Though the Cortes was closed, great political activity was displayed by all parties, stimulated by an active German propaganda, soon to be imitated by similar endeavours on the part of the Allies. But though the excitement produced by several outbursts of partisan feeling did not go very deep, the Government decided to deny all permits for meetings on neutrality and the War. A crisis was, however, precipitated on the refusal of the business community to co-operate with the Government in the launching of a loan. The main cause of the failure seems to have been a reluctance of business circles to subscribe under conditions which were not considered generous enough for the subscriber. Theresignation of the Government (June 22) was quickly followed by a reinstatement of the same Cabinet. The situation of the Treasury was by no means flourishing. At the end of the year revenue remained at 1,202,000,000 pesctas while expenses, not including Government purchases of foodstuffs, rose to 1,556,000,oco pesetas. The Government had to fall back on Treasury Bonds negotiated through the Bank of Spain. Yet the work of the couniry was in full swing under the stimulus of war orders. Thus, the shipowners announced to the Government (Aug. r915) that the premiums granted them by the Shipping Acts as a measure of protection were no longer necessary and would not be cashed. This meant that such premiums were no longer worth the sacrifice which they entailed of the shipowner’s liberty to trade as he pleased between foreign ports. Great shipping profits ensued, and torpedoings followed. On Aug. 17 the S.S. “Isidoro” of Bilbao was sunk by a German submarine. On Aug. 20 the S.S. ‘Pena Castillo” of Santander sank in obscure circumstances. Several efforts made to reunite the Liberal groups into one party again failed. Count Romanones then prepared a plan of campaign against Señor Dato’s Government on the Military Reform Bills which was ultimately successful, and the Government fell on Dec. 6. ‘he crisis ended in the formation of a united Liberal ministry. Count Romanones took the premiership, and in order to counterbalance the effect of his well-known pro-Ally views, assigned the Foreign Office to Señor Villanueva, a notorious pro-German. ` In a sense, the inclusion of Señor Urzáiz, the Finance Minister, who, though a Liberal, was a party unto himself, and of Admiral Miranda, a Conservative, initiated the period of mixed ministries, which was about to open as a logical consequence of the gradual weakening of the old parties, and in its turn tended to accelerate the process of their disintegration. Urzáiz came into conflict with his chief, and was dismissed before he had time to resign (Feb. 25). His successor, Señor Alba, with a bill on war profits, aroused the

opposition of all the minorities except the socialist.

But the

Cortes was closed, a general railway strike having suddenly upset all Government plans on July 13. The strike was over one week later, and the autumn session dragged on till Dec. 19. The Government reappeared before the House on Jan. 19, but in the

meantime Count Romanones had resigned and accepted office again with the same ministry. This crisis was probably devised by the Prime Minister as a means to recover from the King the moral authority which some thought he had lost at the hands of the pro-German Press, which accused him of drawing great profits as a business man from his foreign policy as a Prime Minister. Count Romanones wore his neutrality with a difference, and, though the inheritor of Señor Dato’s policy, he did little to

SPAIN conceal his pro-Ally views. By September, 1016, Spain had lost more than 30,000 tons of shipping by torpedoing, and more than 50,000 in circumstances which were, to say the least, obscure. The shipping interests asked for Government help. A period of Government activity set in. On Jan. 31 Germany sent in a note establishing an “‘ absolute blockade ” of the Allied coasts. Count Romanones was committed to a policy which implied a firm answer to such a note. He gave it in the note of Feb. 6. But the Prime Minister realised that this firmness meant nothing unless backed with the will to fight if necessary and that public opinion would not follow him so far. He resolved to leave the Government there and then, at the top of the wave of his own policy. Committees of Defence.—Other considerations of home policy were perhaps not altogether without effect on his decision, notably, the first signs of a military conflict, which was fundamentally to alter Spanish politics for years to come. When on April 19 Count Romanones resigned, he took the easiest path. His fall, however, cost him the leadership of his party. The new Ministry, under the premiership of Señor Garcia Prieto, was frankly neutralist, and Germany, rightly interpreting the position, felt freer to intensify her submarine campaign. But the Government

had to concentrate on the situation created by the so-called committees of defence. Towards the middle of 1916, a system of infantry committees of defence appeared, which soon evinced a tendency to interfere with the Government in such a manner that, towards the end of the vear, Count Romanones, then in office, insisted on their dissolution. General Aguilera, the War Secretary in Garcia Prieto’s administration, ordered the leaders to be arrested. But meanwhile, probably owing to royal hints, a less disciplinarian line of action was taken, and the arrested men were released. It was known later that an ultimatum had been placed in the hands of General Marina, Captain General of Barcelona, with a time-limit of 12 hours (June 1). Not unnaturally the Government resigned. Dato, called to office, capitulated before the Juntas, and accepted their regulations in full. This victory of a movement which, in its essence, was revolutionary, had an immense effect on immediate events as well as on the political evolution of the country. The revolutionary ferment was stimulated. Political manifestos asking for a renovation in government and constitution followed each other (Socialists June 12, Catalanists June 16, Left-Coalition June 16). All but three of the deputies and senators for Catalonia met on July 5 at Barcelona, and passed a resolution asking for an immediate meeting of the Cortes, and declaring that, should the Government refuse to comply with this request, a meeting of all the deputies and senators composing the Cortes would be called at Barcelona on July 19. The Government allowed it to be known that should the Assembly meet it would be considered as rebellious and treated as such. The Assembly met, 13 senators and 55 deputies attending, including all the Socialist, Republican and Reformist members of the Cortes, voted resolutions asking for a reform of the constitution, and set up three commissions to prepare reports on re-

forms to be submitted to a second meeting to take place later. At one moment it looked as if these 68 men would take the lead of the revolutionary spirit which the bold action of the army officers had stirred in the country. But the mass of the Assembly was too dull, and no real leader manifested himself. Thus two attempts, one military, one middle-class, both directed against the evils of the old régime, failed through lack of co-ordination and mutual understanding. A third attempt, and a third failure, was still to come. On Aug. to the railwaymen of the Northern Railway went on strike. On the 13th, a general strike, clearly revolutionary, was suddenly launched in the whole country. The country was declared in a state of war, and the military crushed the rebellion with a ruthless hand. By Aug. r9 the situation was wellin hand. The net result was to prove that the only real force in the country was the army committee system. On Aug. ro, the Council of Ministers passed a special credit for

military expenses. The committee, conscious of their strength, asserted themselves in the field of civil politics. The scandal

613

became public on the Government lifting the censorship. The committees attempted to deliver a message into the hands of the King. Dato had to resign on a “ perfectly constitutional ” hint by the King. In point of fact he was expelled by the army committees.

The crisis was long and laborious, and tn the midst

of it, the Parliamentary Assembly met in Madrid (Oct. 30) in its second session. The Cabinet was at last formed by Garcia Prieto. It was a Coalition ministry composed of Maurists, Liberals, and Catalanists, in which, in order to give satisfaction to the new demand for an impartial general election, a nonpolitical judge was given the post of Home Secretary. Señor La Cierva, who took the War Office, was the real head of the Cabinet. His policy consisted of ingratiating himself with the committees of defence, so as to become their leader and representative. Juntas were soon formed by the civil servants of nearly all Government departments, and on Jan. 12 1918, on the occasion of a difference between the Postmaster-General and his subordinates, an agitation began which was ultimately to cause the downfall of the Government. On Feb. 21 the telegraph officials went on strike—by meticulously carrying out official regulations. On Feb. 24 the general election took place under these abnormal conditions. For the first time a Coalition Government presided over an election, and great hopes were entertained as to the re-

sult. The new Chamber, however, was but an average of the preceding ones, different only in that no party in it had a clear majority. La Cierva began then to act as the self-appointed leader of the committees. After provoking two partial crises, he committed the Government to a policy as firm towards the civil Juntas as it was weak with the military ones. On Feb. 17 the postal services declared a strike. La Cierva’s efforts to cope with this by means of military improvisations ended in utter failure and the Government fell, March 18. All possible combinations were tried and failed, until on March 21 at midnight, at a meeting of ex-prime ministers called by the King in his study, after, it is said, having threatened his abdication, King Alfonso succeeded in forming a “ ministry of all the talents.” This Government had agreed on a conerete programme: reform of the standing rules of the Cortes, amnesty, military reforms, budget. The Government carried them all but the fourth, Alba having left the Cabinet on their refusal to pass his education plans (Oct. 8), which ultimately brought the Cabinet to its end on Nov. 6. The new Government, presided over by Garcia Prieto, had to be formed amid the sensation caused by the arrival in Madrid of the news of the Kaiser’s tlight. The world

being full of the idea that the triumph of the Allies meant that of democracy, the Government published an “ advanced ” manifesto, but the ministry fell on Dec. 3 1918, and Count Romanones formed a stop-gap Cabinet so as to pass the budget and leave the King free for a change of policy. The first important act of Count Romanones was his visit to President Wilson, then in Paris. It is to the credit of the successive Governments which ruled Spain during this period that they succeeded in steering clear of all obstacles, home and foreign, overburdened as they were with home problems and foreign advice not always disinterested. On June 29 1917, a German submarine “ UC52 ” arrived in Cadiz for repairs. Dato allowed its arrival and departure within 24 hours, and thereupon had a royal decree signed forbidding submarine navigation in Spanish waters. The next incident of the kind was the escape of the “ U53,” which had been interned in Cadiz under the above roval decree. On the initiative of the Romanones administration a treaty had been negotiated in London between the Marqués de Cortina and the English Government. This agreement was signed on Dec. 6. Its importance lay in the fact that it legalised in the eves of the pro-Germans all trade with England, which reccived food and ore in exchange for coal. Torpedoings continued all the same, and the Spanish Government decided to apply to Germany the claim of ton for ton. Germany had agreed to the ton-for-ton indemnity when the end of the War came. The Spanish merchant marine had lost 65 ships representing 140,000 tons. From the material point of view, the neutral attitude adopted by Spain contributed to

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accelerate the progress which was observable in her economic development in the pre-War years. This period of exceptional activity comprises two coincident movements. One is a somewhat artificial “inflation ’ of Spanish industries, due to the demand of the Allies. The other one is the continuation of a development already noticeable before the War. ‘Thus certain industries, really national, such as that of clive oil, succeeded at last in establishing themselves in foreign markets. Troubles tn Barcelona.—Count Romanones did not precisely tind in Paris in 191¢ the diplomatic triumph which he had expected, but neither did he return wholly disappointed. He found the country astir with a mixture of two political currents, one a demecratic, constitutional agitation, born of the Allied victory, another one a revolutionary agitation which could be traced to the unwholesome effect of the Juntas’ promunctamicnitos. The main cfiect of these two movements was felt in Barcelona and was represented by Catalanist propaganda, a military undercurrent of opposition to it, and lastly syndicalist agitation which made the two former forget their mutual enmity and unite against it. A violent conflict arose between the military and th civil authorities of Barcelona on the occasion of a strike, and when the strike had been settled by the latter, the Government suddenly resigned. It was known afterwards that this resignation was due to the military having expelled the civil authorities from the town. Maura took ofice on April 15, asked for a decree dissolving the Cortes, and to the consternation of all partics, obtained it. This amounted almost to a coup d'état on the part of the King. After a general election held under a strict censorship, under the protest of all the Left parties (including the Monarchical Liberals), and with the use of electioneering methods which had been long forgotten in Spain, Maura failed to bring to the new Cortes more than about onc-eighth of its total membership under his banner. His Government fell under a discussion of his electioneering methods (July 20), and Señor Sanchez de Toca (Dato being ill) formed a Conservative Cabinet, which had to deal with a grave situation in Barcelona, where syndicalist trouble was again brewing. But a new outburst of the Juntas forced the Government to resign, and Señor Allendesalazar (a follower of Maura) took ofice with a Coalition Cabinet. The change of policy which the change of Cabinet implied aggravated the conflict. Murders continued. A mutiny organised by syndicalist soldiers took place in a barracks in Saragossa. Disorders broke out in Valencia and Santander. Another militarist outburst ended the life of the Cabinet, which, having passed the budget, left office on March 4 1920. The King called Dato to power. But the general election at the end of 1920 showed that the mainspring of the old system—.c., the docility of the electorate to any kind of government—could no longer be counted upon. Dato failed to obtain a working majority, his supporters numbering 177 members out of 405. All his efforts were accordingly bent towards thereconciliation of the several factions within the Conservative party. While engaged in this task he was assassinated by anarchists on March 8 1921.

hand and on the other towards different varicties of social revoltionaries such as syndicalists, anarchists and even professional agitators without any particular political or philosophic bias; secondly, the Catalan homerulers, gradually evolving from autonomy to separatism; finally the movement of what might be called military syndicalism embodied in the famous juntas de defensa, to the intervention of which in active politics many of

the political crises of the period have been due. The death of Dato (March § 1921) was to reveal the interplay of these forces. The Conservative party found itself suddenly deprived of its chief. The King called on Maura, who made it clear from the outset that he would constitute a national coalition or no Government at all and, finding no support in the Liberal party, had to withdraw from the field. A purely Conservative Government took ofice under the leadership of Allendesalazar. during whose j}administration some of the symptoms of the crisis through which the very constitution of the country was soon to pass, began to appear on the political horizon. Thus in a famous speech delivered on the occasion of a banquet in Córdoba, May 23 1921, the King referred to the working of the Spanish Parhament in terms of scathing criticism. The Mella Withdrawal.—The greatest event of the vear was the military disaster which the Spanish troops met in Morocco in Julv ro21. It entailed the following immediate effects: the withdrawal of the Spanish troops from all the zone previously occupled by the commanding-ofiicer in Melilla; the death of the commanding-olficer in Melilla, General Silvestre, a brilliant cavalry officer, who committed suicide at the beginning of the precipitate withdrawal of the Spanish troops effected in most painful conditions at heavy cost of men and material; and finally considerable moral effects both in Spain and in the Rif—in Spain because from that moment onwards the Moroccan problem became the very centre of national politics; in the Rif because the collapse of the Spanish troops in Anoual raised the prestige of Abdel-Krim. The country was suddenly brought to compare these results with the cost of the army which, after the reorganisation effected in 1918, rose to a figure of about 700,000,000 pesetas yearly.

disintegration of the system of rotation of the two political parties, which, as arranged by Cánovas and Sagasta at the death of Alfonso XII (Pacto del Pardo), had stood the monarchy in good stead as a substitute for a real constitutional practice on the lines of the English Monarchy. The lack of an objective policy, or even of objective principles, which had all along been a cause of weakness in the two political parties of the Restoration and the Regency, became more and more apparent as death, whether by natural or by criminal means, thinned out the ranks of the leaders and delivered the parties to the intrigues of understudies and second-rate politicians. While the old system deteriorated day by day owing to its own internal weakness, the forces which attacked it from the outside gradually gained strength.

The emotion due to these events swept away the inadequate Government of Allendesalazar. A stronger Conservative Government was constituted under Maura who was enabled, by a public opinion strongly roused by the situation in Morocco, to send to the rescue of the troops there an army of 140,000 men. But at the same time an energetic demand for an inquiry which would ruthlessly bring out the responsibilities for the disaster made itself heard. As a set-off against this current of civilian opinion, the juntas de defensa began a campaign of threats and accusations against Parliament, which they considered responsible for the general disorganisation leading to the Moroccan crisis. The gradual revelation of the magnitude of the defeat; the growing number of details published concerning the disorganisation of the auxiliary services in the Moroccan Army, and particularly those of health and commissariat; the inopportune proposals of the War Minister, La Cierva, who, in Nov. 1921, before any adequate inquiry as to the responsibility for the disaster had been decided upon, submitted to Parliament a bill for military rewards; the warm and public welcome given by the King and his Government to General Berenguer, who was commander-in-chief of the military forces in Morocco at the time of the Anual disaster, before any authoritative pronouncement had been made as to the extent of his responsibility in the matter; these and other factors of a similar kind so strengthened the demand for an inquiry that the Government decided to appoint General Picasso as an official investigator to report to the Government on the operations and the responsibility for them. General Picasso carried out his task with a high sense of duty and impartiality, and his report was received by all parties alike as a fine example of patriotic courage. But this display of energy on the part of the Government in-

These forces were of three different kinds: first, the antidynastic elements, once heaped together under the common name of Republicans, now moving towards Socialism on the one

Cabinet sought a clumsy solution of this problem by a so-called “ disbandment ”? of the juntas and their replacement by juntas

Decay of the Party System.—This

murder

accelerated

the

creased the opposition of the military juntas de defensa.

The

SPAIN informativas publicly and legally recognised and placed, at least in theory, under the authority of the War Minister. This solution satisfied nobody. Parliamentary opinion did not fail to see its purely superficial character, while the officers themselves, though in no way deprived of their organised power, resented the humiliation imposed on them by the new measures. ‘The Maura Cabinet resigned on a conflict with them in Jan. 1922, and though it continued in office by express wish of the King, had finally to disappear in the month of March of the same year, leaving office to another Conservative Cabinet under the leadership of Sefior Sanchez Guerra. The Juntas.—The new Prime Minister was known to be an energetic man, strongly opposed to any undue interference of the military in political matters, but he took office at a time when Parliament was exceedingly weak.

This fact was not without

influence in the movement towards a federation of all the groups into which the Liberal party had split up since the death of Sagasta. In April 1922, these Liberal groups came to an agreement, not only among themselves, but also with the small but influential Reformist group, headed by Alvarez. Meanwhile, the

juntas de defensa of the infantry officers, authorised by the previous War Minister, met in an assembly which adopted a number of resolutions, two of which may be given here as an indication of their general attitude: (1) Every infantry officer to be bouns| to affiliate to the jisfus, or otherwise to be prosecuted before a tribunal of his brother officers; (2) No promotion to be authorised in the army save by seniority. It became more and more apparent that in the juntas, the army officers had set up a form of military syndicalism which, owing to the material strength that it wielded, was a state within the State. The parliamentary debates on Morocco became more and more searching on the publication of the figures relating to the expenses during the fiscal year 1921-2 amounting to 519,681,839 pesetas as against 173,190,000 In 1920-1. Simultaneously with this revelation, the news of a considerable defalcation

in the offices of the commissariat in Larache was made public, while Parliament had at the same time to deal with a deficit in the budget amounting to 1,101 millions. All these facts contributed to give substance to the demand for bringing home political responsibility which up to the moment had met with the obstacles imposed by the traditional co-operation and comradeship prevailing between the two main political parties since the Pact of el Pardo. The report that had been prepared by Picasso was submitted to a parliamentary commission on which all the Parties were represented. The long-drawn debates of this commission led to three different draft reports, and this lack of unanimity increased ‘the difficulties in which Sanchez Guerra’s Cabinet was at the time entangled. The Prime Minister had courageously applied to the situation which he found on taking

office methods borrowed from the policy of his Liberal opponents. Thus he restored the constitutional guarantees which had been in suspense for over two years and he recalled from the civil governorship of Barcelona General Martinez Anido who had established a certain amount of order in that unhappy city but by methods which had aroused considerable criticism. Sánchez Guerra was also responsible for a decree dissolving the military juntas, and prohibiting officers of the army from entering any association whatsoever connected with their profession. The parliamentary debates on the three reports submitted by the commission on responsibility gradually warmed the political temperature of the Congress of Deputies to such a pitch that men of a conservative turn of mind like Señores Maura and Cambó rose to indict the political system in general and (in the case of Cambó) the Cabinet in office in July 1921. Public opinion outside followed with intense interest the proceedings of Parliament. The more popular part of the campaign was led by the Ateneo de Madrid, an intellectual club which has always played an important part in the literary, artistic and political leadership of the country. But the debate in Parliament degenerated towards its close into a political fight of such violence that the government collapsed and Parliament was dissolved.

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Liberals and AMforocco—The Liberal coalition which had been created in April of the same year then took office (Dec. 1022); in its official declaration to Parliament the new government made it clear that it would uphold the parliamentary procedure adopted in regard to the conduct of the Moroccan campaign. Popular fecling did not lag behind and promptly backed this attitude of the new government. A popular procession organised by the Ateneo de Madrid showed the enormous hold that this question had obtained on the people. Senor Lerroux, a well-known Republican leader, in a speech delivered in Seville, in Jan. 1923, went even so far as toinvolve the King in part of the responsibility for the disaster and a Conservalive paper La Accion, published in Feb. of the same year a sensational article in which it advised the King to give up all idea of abdication, an intention which, according to this trewspaper, the King had more than once expressed in private conversation. La Accion took this opportunity of pointing an accusing finger at certain politicians in order to screen the King, and thus the estrangement between the King and the political circle of collaborators who had stood him in good stead from the beginning of his political life, and even from the beginning af his life (for King Alfonso was born a King), began to show itscli in the Press. The new government had to face a crisis on their proposal for the amendment of Article rr of the Constitution deeling with the toleration accorded to other religions than that of the Roman Catholic Church. The clergy protested, and the government, having withdrawn the proposal, the Minister of Finance, Señor Pedregal, who represented the Reformist group in the Cabinet, left the Ministry, though the Reformist group, realising that the Liberal party had in any case an uphill road before ihem, continued to give their active help to the admunistration. The elections held in April 1923, led to a Liberal-Reformist majority, but its sensational feature was the success of five out of œght Socialist candidates in securing election in the capital, attributed by the Socialist party to the strong line which they had taken against the war in Morocco and in favour of a searching inquiry. After the opening of Parliament the high court for the war and the navy (Tribunal Supreno de Guerra y ALarina) demanded from the Senate authority to prosecute General Berenguer, exhigh commissioner and commander-in-chief in Morocco, who, as a senator, could not be prosecuted until the Senate withdrew from him his parliamentary immunity. Generals began to appear in the forefront of politics, foreshadowing what was to come, A notorious personal incident, involving General Aguilera, Iresident of the Supreme Military Court, Sánchez Guerra and another ex-Prime Minister and ex-president of the Senate, Señor Sinchez ‘Toca, was the herald of the coming political storm. The difficulties arising out of this phase of the Moroccan question, were considerably increased by other events in the sume field. During the summer of 1923 the Liberal Govt. had endeavoured to strengthen civilian and to reduce military action in Morocco. From 1909, when military action was started on a large scale, until 1923, Morocco had consumed more than 2,500,000,000 pesetas and the yearly figures showed a definite tendency to increase; thus the average yearly expense had been from 1909 tO 1913 75,000,000, from 1914 to 1918 146,000,000 and from 1919 to 1923 358,000,000 pesetas. The outlook was therefore black for Spanish finance, particularly as the budget for the year 1922-3 showed a net deficit of 920,000,000 and a total of actual expenses estimated at 3,373,000,000. The increase in military and naval expenditure for the period 1915 to 1922-3 had been 167%, while the net revenue of the State had only increased about 100%. | The burden which the Moroccan question imposed on the Treasury was aggravated by other problems which the nation was unable to put aside. The railways were face to face with a severe crisis due to a variety of reasons, industrial and financial. A system of recoverable advances to the companies established in 1920 had resulted in the shifting of part of the financial burden of the railways from the private companies to the State. In three years the Treasury had handed over 173,000,000 to the

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companies. Moreover, in April 1920, confronted by a dangerous conflict between the owners and the men, the government had consented to meet any additional expense caused by increases in the wages of all railway servants. Asa result of this decree of April 1920, the Treasury had to disburse from the said date until Sept. 13 1923, a sum of 328,000,000 pesetas. The economic situation had somewhat improved since 1920-1, when the tension between owners and men was at its highest, particularly in Catalonia, where professional agitators victimised both owners and men to such an extent that in the year 1921 there were in Catalonia alone 145 attempts on human life causing go deaths. In Sept., 1923, the debates of the parliamentary commission on the disaster of 1921 were drawing to a close and the commission was ready to draft its findings and submit them to Parliament. Several well-known politicians were stated to be deeply involved either for lack of foresight or because they had allowed too much freedom to the military or—and this was perhaps the most dangcrous element in the situation—because they had accorded too much unconstitutional initiative to the King. Other difficulties, no less grave, were raised owing to the ill-feeling with which the army received any parliamentary or civilian criticism of its action in Morocco. While the nation was anxiously wondering what was going to be the next development of this long-drawn conflict, a dramatic stroke brought

suddenly to an end the system under which the country had lived since 1875. Primo de Rivera—The captain-general of Catalonia, Don Miguel Primo de Rivera (Marqués de Estella) rebelled against the government, threatening its members with jail, and seized power first and office afterwards. Don Miguel Primo de Rivera had already once or twice appeared in the limelight owing to declarations on such questions as the giving up of Morocco, on which he held, from the first, courageous if unorthodox views, and on the interchange of Gibraltar and Ceuta. This last expression of opinion had caused his removal from the position of military governor of Cadiz which he then occupied. At the time oi the coup d'état General Primo de Rivera was captain-general of Catalonia, his headquarters being in Barcelona, where he wielded considerable political influence. There is no doubt that he utilised his office as the jumping-ground for his bold adventure, for his first steps were certainly taken in agreement with, if not with the full concurrence and help of, the conservative homerulers of Catalonian politics. In the early morning of the 13th, the government published the news that the captain-general of Catalonia had risen in arms against the government, that the government would not leave its post and that the King, who at the moment was in San Sebastian, would arrive in Madrid the same day. The military authorities of Bilbao and Saragossa, it was reported unofficially, had sided with the rebels and in Madrid a council of military commanders of the Madrid garrison were acting for Primo de Rivera. The captain-gencral of Madrid, General Mufioz Cobos, maintained a cautious, though dubious attitude. A manifesto

published the same day by Primo de Rivera declared that it was indispensable to liberate the country “‘ from the professional politicians, the men who, for one reason or another, are responsible for the period of misfortune and corruption which began in 1898 and threatens to bring Spain to a tragic and dishonourable end.” The general added that ‘‘ the wide net of greedy politics

has caught in its meshes and imprisoned the royal will itself.” He announced the constitution of a military directorate in Madrid which was to find for the problem of Morocco a “ quick, dignified and sensible ” solution and was to bring home responsibility “ promptly and justly’ by the formation at an early date of “ tribunals of recognised moral authority.”” He brought accusations of a grave character against the Foreign Secretary, Don Santiago Alba, who had taken a strong stand against military action in Morocco, and announced that Alba would be prosecuted immediately, as well as the Prime Minister himself, Marqués de Alhucemas, for the support he had given to his Foreign Secretary. Immediately after the King’s arrival (delayed 24 hours) the

Prime Minister called on His Majesty and proposed strong action against the military rebels, but the King asked for time for reflection and the government resigned. Two hours later a deputation of generals was received at the Palace and, as a result of this visit, the King requested Primo de Rivera, still in Barcelona, to take oflice, while accepting the authority of the military directorate which had been previously constituted by him. Upon his arrival in Madrid on Sept. 15, Primo de Rivera proceeded to transform the military directorate both in its personnel and in its constitution. The first directorate was confined

to the military commanders in Madrid; the one founded by the General represented all the branches and all the garrisons of the army: it contained a brigadier-general from each military district belonging each to a different branch of the service and a representative of the navy, in the person of Admiral Marqués de Magaz, a member of the permanent advisory commission on military, naval and air questions of the League of Nations. From a constitutional and administrative point of view, the directorate struck an original note. The only Minister was Primo de Rivera himself. As a whole, the directorate was the equivalent of the Council of Ministers, but the directors were not Cabinet Ministers. The various ministerial departments were entrusted to the care of under-secretaries, but final decisions

were always taken by the directorate as a whole, after a special report had been received from one of the directors, not necessarily always the same for the same depart ment. The under-secretaries in charge were in some cases genuine permanent officials, in other cases minor political or semi-political figures eager for advancement. The Home Office was entrusted to General Martinez Anido. Public opinion received the change in absolute silence, save for a protest from the Socialist party. The other political parties remained silent, except the followers of Maura who, without the approval of their chief, declared in favour of the new administration because “f the Crown had accepted it and the unmistakable majority of the country was behind it.” The Directerate’s Policy—Meanwhile the directorate began to assert itself. It declared the country in a state of war. The Press was put under astrict censorship and all public demonstrations of a political character were forbidden. A government manifesto was addressed to the working-classes foreshadowing, if necessary, the enforcement of compulsory laws in order to fix the hours of work and rate of wages. All provincial governors were dismissed and their authority handed over to the military. The municipalities, which were considered by the new administration as nests of political corruption which the directorate had come to destroy, were the object of systematic scrutiny. No fewer than 115, municipalities were thus closely inspected by the military, who failed however to bring forth proof of any substantial local corruption. Nevertheless, the directorate replaced most of the municipalities of the country by a new personnel chosen amongst local people who happened to be trusted by the military delegates, and appointed officers to take supreme control over local politics and administration. Military men were also appointed to a considerable number of high public offices. In order to forestall possible trouble in the lower ranks of the army, a substantial rise in pay was granted to non-commissioned officers. A heavy budget for public works, amounting 10 54,000,000 pesetas, was set aside for Morocco. On Nov. 13, two months after the coup d'état, Count Romanones and Don Melquiades Alvarez, the presidents respectively of the Senate and of the Congress of Deputies, called on the King in order to remind him that the Crown was under a personal constitutional obligation to call the Cortes together within three months of their dissolution. The two presidents drew the attention of the King to the fact that this article of the constitution had always been scrupulously respected during the 47 years it had been in force. ‘The King referred the matter to the directorate, and an official note from the Government was published to the effect that these two statesmen who were deprived of their posts and privileges were the representatives of a decaying parliamentary system and their visit an ingenious move in favour of a political régime which had passed away.

SPAIN The King and his Premier went on an official visit to the Court of Italy in Nov. 1923. Three sets of facts must be recorded in connection with this visit. First, the public and private expressions of approval from the King and from Primo de Rivera for the success and methods of Fascismo. Thus the King declared to General Italo Balbo: “ I admire Fascismo. You are happy here in being so near the end of your labours. We are just beginning.” Then the political activity of the King and his Premier in regard to the Vatican. The King read a sensational speech in the presence of the Pope which met with considerable criticism, not onlv in Vatican circles but also in Spain and South America. Spain was offered to His Holiness in the event of a new crusade being necessary. The answer of the Pope was a discreet, broad-minded pronouncement. Finally, it was widely believed that as a result of this visit a definite political programme of international co-operation between the two Mediterranean peninsulas was being prepared, a view belied by subsequent events. The next important step in the foreign policy of the directorate was the signature of the Tangier Convention in Dec. 1923. This Convention, which was severely criticised in the country, excluded Tangier from the Spanish Zone, establishing for it an international régime. Public opinion in Spain on the other hand had alwavs considered that the alternatives for Spain in Morocco were either giving up the whole adventure or else remaining in Morocco with Tangier as the basis for action. In spite of the strict censorship, the hostility of public opinion became clear and the directorate took great pains-to explain away the awkward fact that, although the country was at the moment governed by a strong dictatorship, its strength could not reach beyond the frontiers and indeed seemed in the international sphere to be weaker than the old system which it had replaced. HTome Affairs.—In home politics the government continued to repress all hostile expression of opinion. The agitation for an inquiry into the Moroccan campaign remained active and had for its centre the Ateneo de Madrid. The directorate, after having vainly attempted to obtain from the Ateneo its consent to a curtailment of its liberty of speech, closed the club—the first time since its creation in the second half of the roth century. Don Miguel de Unamuno (9.2.), the famous author and professor of Salamanca University, whose strong stand against the directorate, expressed in indignant and sometimes offensive articles in the Press of South America had greatly incensed the directorate, was exiled to the Canarv Islands. : Though the activities of the government were mainly concentrated on Morocco it did not, however, neglect internal matters. Thus in March 1924, the council of national economy was created in order to co-ordinate the activities of numerous economic organisations working under several departments. The council of national economy was divided into six sections: tariffs, valuation of goods for tariff purposes, statistics, commercial information, defence of production, treaties of commerce. The directorate freed itself from any legal restrictions in the matter of accountancy and financial administration and its decrees had the full force of law. It found a treasury heavily burdened with military and Moroccan expenditure and a budget with a regular deficit. In April 1924, it floated an internal loan of 700,000,000 pesetas of four-vear-term bonds at 5%% and 1°% sinking-fund, in order to meet the Treasury Bonds issued by them in Oct. 1923. This loan was covered nearly eight times over. Further in 1923 the directorate organised a national railway council in order to regulate and co-ordinate the administration of the railway companics, the State and the companies sharing in the administration and the State participating in the financial liabilities and assets of the companies. As a result of this step the government launched a railwav loan (Oct. 1925) to the amount of 300,000,000 pesctas at 5% free from tax. This loan had but a moderate success in contrast with the success of the loan of Treasury Bonds made in Nov. 1924, mainly owing to the fact that the economic crisis through which the country was passing, due among other reasons to excessive protection and continual deficits, had become graver.

617

Elated by the success of the loan floated in Nov. 1924, the directorate then began to consider the possibility of perpetuating their régime by the creation of a political party outside the framework of the old ones which they christened the “ Patriotic Union Party,” while refusing to other political organisations the right to address public meetings. In the old City of Medina del Campo representatives of many civilian municipalities met the president of the directorate and asked him for tariff protection and agricultural credits. A similar movement aiming very much at the same ends, was active in Andalusia, supported largely by the great land-owners anxious to obtain some betterment of the financial and economic conditions of agriculture, but oblivious of what is perhaps the most important factor in the agricultural situation of Spain, namely the conditions under which land is held by the small land-owner and cultivated by the labourer. New Phase in Morocco—The problem of Morocco, however, soon monopolised the attention of the president. The expenses continued to increase. The Budget of 1923-4 had to face a deficit of 576,000,000 pesetas, compared with a deficit of g20,000,ooo in the budget of 1922-3, and of 1,101,000,0c00 for 1921-2. The decrease in the deficit in 1923-4 was not due toa reduction in expenses, but to a considerable increase in receipts due to the rise in the assessment of the tax on wfilidades (a kind of tax on incomes) and to a better assessment of local and urban taxable property. As for the year 1924-5, while financial papers estimate the deficit at 1,000,000,000, the directorate declares that it does not go bevond 600,000,coo. There is no doubt, however, that the figures show a considerable and continuous increase in the military and Moroccan expenses of the country. General Primo de Rivera tackled the problem of Morocco with characteristic courage. In the summer of 19024 he decided to carry out what had always been his plan, namely, a considerable withdrawal and a curtailment of military liabilities. Two obstacles lay across his path. The first was that in taking this decision he was but following in the wake of the Foreign Secretary whom he had violently expelled from power, since the policy of an agreement with the Rifan leaders and of withdrawal from the more inaccessible parts of the Spanish zone, as well as the transformation of a military occupation into a civil administration, had all along been advocated by Alba. The second obstacle was that the Spanish Army in Morocco did not consider that it had sufficiently avenged the disaster of Anual and would not hear of any proposals for withdrawal. In the face of these two obstacles, Primo de Rivera resolved to carry out his policy and he deserves all credit for having succeeded first, in Imposing his views on the Spanish Army in the field at the risk, not only of his popularity, but even sometimes of his life, and also for having most skilfully conducted a difficult military retreat covering all the zone between Tetuan and Xauen. Later events, however, obliged General Primo de Rivera considerably to modify his policy in Morocco. in the summer of 1925 a sudden attack launched by Abdel-Krim against the French forces in the French Protectorate, led to the combined action of the two countries interested in Morocco. The French Govt. sent to Spain M. Malvy, who negotiated with General Primo de Rivera an agreement for military and political co-operation which led to the recovery of the French territory lost during the first onslaught of the Rifian troops, and to the occupation of Abdel-Krim’s headquarters, aftera brilliant landing in Alhucemas Bay by the Spanish troops. (For later developments see Morocco.) From the political point of view, this episode in the Moroccan War may be considered as one of the many instances of Spanish co-operation in international politics with France and England. Since the War the foreign policy of the Spanish Govt. has followed the lines of this co-operation. The first neutral State to join the League of Nations, Spain has occupied since an elective seat in the Council and, partly owing to its neutrality in “urope, and partly owing to the ability of its representative in the Council, Señor Quiñones de León, has often played in the League the rôle of “‘ honest broker ” in questions in which there was a difference of opinion between the Great Powers. This was

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SPAIN

so in the question of Upper Silesia, in the case known as the “ Corfu case,’’ and in others of smaller importance. Municipal Reform.—WDuring to25 the directorate embarked on a thorough-going reorganisation of the provincial and munici-

pal administration of the country. The government promulgated two decrees. The first deals with municipal reform and aims at establishing a system of municipal autonomy, delegating to municipalities the right to levy certain rates, thus enabling them to set up their municipal treasurics; and establishing female and proportional suffrage in municipal stations. A similar decre has been promulgated concerning provincial administration, the most important effect of which was the abolition of the Afancomunidad, a kind of Catalonian local parlament. In its Catalonian policy the directorate soon reverse ihe pro-home rule crientation which had inspired the first utterances of Primo de Rivera.

The Conservative home-rule elements of Catalonia, in supporting the first steps of Primo de Rivera, had unloubiedly hoped that

the president of the directorate would

facilitate a pelicy of

devolution. He, however, found considerable opposition to such a course amongst the muitary forces which surrounded him for, gradually, the sympathies of the directorate towards the Catalouian autonomist movement disappeared and made way for a rézime which was described in Catalonia itself as one of systematic persecution, The country owes to (he directorate a fuller measure of internal

peace than it had esjoved under the old sysfera, and this fact certainly helps to facilitate its task. Nevertheless the nultary government, though with the best intentions, is inflicting on the country grave harm in depriving it for such a long time of the normal channels for the expression of public opinion. With the Press gagged, and political leaders of the country deprive:! of their right to address the public, public opinion cannot exist, let alone express liself. Rumours are astir all over the country, as is always the case when news is controlled by oficial means. Local risings such as that of Vera in 1924 which, though a purcly local affray between civil guards end obscure men, ended in the execution of three misguided individuals, and widely spread military conspiracies such as that discovered in Nov. 1025, which led to the imprisonment of several generals in Madrid ancl of a few professors in Barcelona, revealed an unhealthy state of atairs. Though the president of the directorate cften deseribes the system for which he is responsible as the first phase in a new

order of things, it would be more accurate perhaps to describe it as the last phase ef the okl order. Nor is this observation in any way weakened by the choice of his collaborators in the recent transformation of the directorale into. a Ministry or Cabinet. On Dec. 3, Primo de Rivera parted from his military team and formed a Ministry of which, apart from himself and the Ministers of War and Marine, a fourth soldier was a member in the person of Mariinez Anido, who became Home Secretary and vice-president of the council. The other Members of the Cabinet were for the most part young and unknown Men drawn from the extreme right of the old party system. Primo de Rivera, in becoming president of the council,

made it perfectly clear that he meant to retain full powers as dictator, and he emphasised, in particular, that the Press should remain under the same system of strict censorship. During 1926 the censorship, both of the press and of persons, was vigorously used, especially in Catalonia, one eminent professor being exiled. It seems obvious that the country must pass through more dangerous waters before coming to calm seas again. But, one of the hopeful signs is the calmness and apparent indifferences with which Spain is accepting its present trials, for it shows that the nation, after a long period of agitation, has at last come to realise that political progress is a matter of silent and daily work rather than of dramatic action and violent enterprise. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—El Afio Politico, published yearly by Fernando

Soldevilla; Count Romanones, E? Ejercito y la Politica (1921); F. de Leon y Castillo, Mis Tiempos (1921); Count Romanones, Las Responsibilidades del Antiguo Regimen (1924); Francisco Cambó, En Torno del Fascismo Italiano (1925); G. Maura Gamazo, Historia Critica del Reinado de Don Alfonso XIH. (1925). (S. DE NI.)

Il. EDUCATION From the beginning of the 20th century there has been marked educational activity in all parts of Spain. A large number of

students and teachers are sent abroad to study every year, and they constitute a reserve [rom whom teachers and research workers are being recruited. With the help of the “ Committee for the Extension of Scientific Study and Research ” (an autonomous but official body), departments for the study of mathematics, biology, physics, chemistry, betany, philosophy, philology, history, archaeology, palacontology and law are betng founded. The same commitice was responsible for the founding of the Tnstttiie-Escuelt in tot7——-an establishment for secondary education which, attended by hundreds of girls, is rapidly transforming old educational methods, particularly as it exercises considerable influence over other secondary education centres. Primary education is also Improving in respect of the numbers, salaries and training of teachers. The number of teachers in 19017 28,2023 in 1924, 30,1803; and in 1925, 31,180. 4vas fl 26,253; in 1920, literacy is decreasing, but only slowly, owing to the lack of femme! in uflicient schools and the number of poor families who are comThe Ee cled to send their children of school age out to work. statistics for illiteracy, which ts of course most marked in the ural centres, are as follows:—in 1887, 68-01%a;in rgco, 63-78 %3 Ia soa o a IN TO86; Raa : Che Suntade pensiones paralngcnicros v Obreros gives assistance for lechnical and professional training and sends the most suilable engineers and the most intelligent and industrious workmen, including those who are engeged in agriculture and its subsidiary industries, to the best industrial centres for purposes of study and training. The rı existing universities have, according to the Inst complete census, that of 1923, 25,690 students, recording a steady incrense since rgti-s, when the numbcr was 20,497. ‘The normal schools for male teachers, numbering 42, have passed through a critical period owing to the poor pay of the teachers, but since the increase In their commencing salaries—3,ooo pesetas and residence—in 1923, the number of entries has in~ creased, exceeding 5,700 in 1022, and 7,000 in 1925. The 48 normal schools for women teachers had 12,100 pupils in 1922, and over t4,000 in 192s. All these schools are recruited from all classes of the community, and a considerable number of the pupils come from good upper-middie-class families. Secondary education also has its ditliculties, and as the 60 existing tustifutos or state secondary schools are unable to provide for more than 22 to 35% of the scholars available (54,602 in the last census), many have to take their educational courses in private schools. The 27 schools of art and industry, which teach some 40,000 pupils, are unable to absorb the large number of applicants from the working classes. There are 23 commercial schools, two schools for the training of industrial engineers and one each for the following:—mines, fores(s, roads, canals and ports, and agriculture. It is interesting to note that there is a revival in the study of the old Spanish industrial arts—ironwork, artistic textiles, leatherwork, embroiderics, lace, carpets, ceramics, etc. a

HI. ECONOMIC IWISTORY Population.—According to the census of 1910 the population of Spain was 10,995,686. By 1920 it had grown to 27,389,812, and according to an estimate of 1925 it was 21,966,000. The principal centres of population are:-— Inhabitants Inhabitants Madrid

750,896

Barcelona

Valencia Malaga

251,258 150,554

Murcia

141,175

seville Saragossa .

Granada

.

.

710,335

70922 141,350

103,308

These are the only cities whose population exceeds 100,000. The population of the large towns is increasing, and whereas in 1900 to roio the provincial capitals accounted for 16% of the total population of the peninsula, in 1920 this percentage had increased to 18:8 and it was calculated that in 1925 it would have approximated to 20%. The population is most dense in the province of Biscay, with 189 inhabitants per sq. kilometre; Barcelona, 175; Guipuzcoa, 137; Madrid, £33, and Pontevedra,

SPAIN 121. It must be remembered, however, that it is Barcelona and Madrid that are responsible for the density of the population in two of these provinces, and that in the same way Biscay contains Bilbao and Guipuzcoa contains San Sebastian. Pontevedra is the province with the greatest actual density of population per kilometre, followed by La Corufia, while those with the lowest density are Soria with 14, Guadalajara, Cuenca and ITuesca with 76, Albaccte with 19 and Caceris with 20. The average birth-rate for the period 1918-22 was 29-2 per 1,000 inhabitants, and the mortality 24-4—a high rate which ts leading to a demand for hygienic reform among the more enlightened sections of the community. Agriculture ~The abnormal profits made during the War led to an extension of the arcas under cultivation, some of them unsuitable, and also to the uneconomic exploitation of forests, with the following three results: (a) the extensive purchase and use of agricultural machinery; (b) the introduction of better methods of cultivation; (ce) hygienic improvements on the farms, and the provision of water for irrigation purposes. Much benefit is expected when the following irrigation works are completed:— (1) The central canal of Aragon, with its smaller offshoots, which, with the Ebro, will water 300,000 hectares of Upper Aragon. (2) The irrigation works of Alicante and Murcia, now almost completed, which are turning the steppes of those provinces into orchards.

(3) The series of reservoirs and canals, some of them completed, like that at Jerez and others under construction, which will irrigate

100,600 hectares in the fertile valley of Guadalquivir.

(4) The works already begun for making the Guadalquivir naviganie up to Córdoba, the construction of weirs to regulate the course of the river and reservoirs from the springs feeding the Guadalquivir which will provide electrical powcr and also heip navigation. The works under (1) and (3) are State; (2) and (4) are private enterprises,

In Old Castile and in the “ Reino ” de León the experimental farms of Palencia, Valladolid and Zamora are introducing new arable methods, and there is noticeable progress in all paris, though in the north and noriheast, with their smal! holdings and lack of credits, the advance is not so rapid. The average production of wheat was:— In IQIO-4 . In 1915-9. In I9lọ=24 .

! :

; i :

; i ;

; i ;

: 34,119,556 metric quintals . 38,001,869 metric quintals

- 35,437,831 metric quintals

an increase that has made Spain self-supporting in cereals apart frora bad harvest years like those of 1922 and 1924.

Spain has now attained first place in the world production of olive oil, with marked cifects on its trade balance. The average production of oil in metric quintals was:—

1905-9

.

1,961,985

1915-9

-

3,105,313

Iglo-4 : 2,132,960 1920-4 ; 3,034,751 The olive cultivation areas were: 1914, 1,453,000 hectares; 1917 over 1,504,273 hectares; 1924 over 1,624,233 hectares.

Andalusian alone produces two-thirds of Spain’s output of an averace of 300,000 metric tons per annum, which is more than 435% of the world’s production.

The valuable wine trade suifered from the same crisis which affected both France and Italy, but production is increasing, the average figures (incomplete) being: for 1915-9, 20,072,703 heetolitres; for 1920-4, 23,882,000 hectolitres. The production of bect sugar is increasing, and in the valley of the Guadalquivir is very profitable, owing to the high sugar content. This success reacts on the industry throughout Spain, because of the cheapness of the arid land on which beet cultivation was first started. The average value of agricultural products was estimated at 3,824,304,425 pesetas for 1903-07, at 7,07 5,623,025

in 1916 and at 9,291,476,000 in 1923. Commnerce.—The character of Spain’s foreign trade changed during the War, for the balance hitherto always unfavourable save at exceptional periods, as for example, when the French vines were attacked by phylloxera, became favourable. Average imports in pesetas I9IO-4 1915-9 1920-4

.

.

1,8638,446,602 I, 10,230,020 2,573:522,339

Average exports in pesctas 1010-4 1915-9 Ig20-4

. .

.

1,002,129,014 1,203,546,180 1,306,689, 864

619

It must be remembered, however, that the imports for 1915-9

include the large remittances of gold which the bank of Spain amassed during the War. The commercial Jandslide from which the country suffered after the War can be gauged from the fact that whereas in rorg the balance of exports over imports rose to 235,000,0c0 pesetas, the imports in 1920 exceeded exports by 420,000,000 and in 1924 by 1,199,000,000. Spain met this unfavourable balance by invistie imports such as the freights earned by her mercantile marine, and by the large remittances sent by its emigrants in America, to the value of over 200,000,000 of pesetas for the northwest region alone. This lifter source

of revenue is continually increasing owing to the growing custom of the emigrants of leaving their families in Spain for the first few years, and also owing to the increasing economic importance cl definitely Spanish centres in certain countries such as Cuba, Mexico and Argentina. ‘The following figures (pesetas) are for the last year available, r924:— Livestock . Raw materials Manufactured Foodstuffs .

; . . ; articles ; ;

i : . ;

Goki in bullion and coin Silver in bullion and coin

T@tabs

a-

a

ed

Imports ; À

:

.

.

Pesetas 14.603,260 955,841,063 T,497,559,893 476,632,218

.

: :

, :

2,146,090 123,389

oe

ee

; . ;

,

.

.

oc

2,947,155, 804

Pesetas 3,639,220 350,405,003 401,245,505 . 992,234,957 i ; 2,442 i : ; : 262,380 ; i 4 . 1,747,550,177 a/ of the total Thus, agriculture alone supplied in foodstuffs 56°% Livestock , Raw materials . Manufactured articles . Feedstuffs. ; : ; Geld in bullion and coin. Silver in buliion and cota Total . ; : ;

Fixports . ; . 3 ; : ;

; ; i i i ; š

:

.

exports, whereas manufactures contributed only 22%. Of the imports in 1924 Great Britain contributed 17-16%, the United States 16-55, France 13-74, Germany 5-90 and Argentina

4-70. Of the exports, Great Britain absorbed 21-80%, France 1979, the United States 10-01, Cuba 6-03, Argentina 5-71 and Germany 5°66, Spain has had considerable tariff difficulties with other countries. An Anglo-Spanish commercial treaty was ratified in April 1924, and remains in force for three years from the date of ratification. Industry—Since the War Spain has tended to become selfsupporting, and there is a general tendency to substitute goods of Spanish origin for forcign imports. Many industries however have been passing through periods of severe depression due to some extent to the poor purchasing power of the middie and working classes. The textile industries of Catalonia more particuInriy have been suffering from an inadequate home demand and alse from a reduction in exports, leading to a strong demand for protection. The equipment of this industry is not sufficiently up-to-date, as only a small proportion of the spindles in use are of recent construction. Moreover Spanish textiles are not concentrated in large concerns, but divided among small firms. The War, however, gave the textile industry a period of prosperity hitherto unknown. ‘Taking the 1913 index as 100, the following table shows imports and exports:— I9I4) 1915]oes 1916] 1917.Moret 1918, haa 1919! 1920 Cotton textiles: Imports . : Exports . Í ‘Woollen textiles: Imports Exports

92°2/150-4 IIE-5|107: 93-5316-85 246-9/25867:7 93 |102:7| 66183-9583 -5|411-1]342-

In the years 1922-4, cotton manufactured goods were exported to the value of 54, 56 and 54 millions of pesetas, and woollen to the value of 33, 37 and 43. The sugar industry continues to grow, the average annual production of sugar for the period ror 5-9 being 121,789 and in 1920-4, 174,213 metric tons. The iron and steel indusiry benefits from the high tariff, and has been erecling more factories, but the latest statistics, those for 1922,

SPANISH

620

LITERATURE

do not include the new plant installed in the northeast and in Biscay, and make no mention of the extensions rendered possible in Biscay and Barcelona by the construction of new locomotives for the railways, or of the huge electrical plant erected in Cérdoba. Mining.—The output of minerals in 1923 was 1,900,000 tons in excess of that in 1922. The following are the values for 1922 and 1923:— |

Minerals Metals

1922

1923

Pesetas

Pesetas

290,391,411 | 389,370,340 460,708,518 | 730,021,550

751,099,929 IT, 119,391,890 This apparent increase of 368,000,000 ought to be reduced to 140,000,000, owing to the inclusion in the 1923 figures of certain items which did not appear in those for 1922. The production of coal represents 50°> of the total mineral production of the country, but the coal industry whose output, including lignite, was 1,600,000 tons more than that in 1922, began to experience difficulties in 1924, owing to a variety of causes, such as the resumption of imports which tended to close the poor pits exploited during the War, the gradual re-adaptation of industry to peace conditions, and the general causes which depressed the industry throughout the world. Consequently some mines were closed down, there was a decrease in employment, followed by an increase of production per head of labour employed. Thus in 1920, when the highest price per ton was reached, namely 7o pesetas, the production of Asturias—the district accounting for 50°% of the national production—was 2,900,000 tons for 39,000 miners; and in 1924 the production was 3,900,000 tons for 30,000 miners, while the price per ton fell from 7o pesetas in 1920 to 27 in 1924. National production, which was 4,200,000 tons in 1914, rose to 6,200,000 In 1924, but does not meet the national consumption, which is increasing, for, whereas in 1920 it was 5,800,000 tons, in 1924 It rose to 7,600,000, the difference being mainly imported from England. Apart from coal, the principal minerals are pyrites, zinc, iron ore, copper and lead. Communications.—The network of main roads maintained by the State, which at the beginning of the War totalled 51,634 km., rose in 1919 to 58,022, and at the end of 1925 exceeded 60,000. The railway lines according to the 1923 statistics covered 15,300 km., excluding the construction of the double line which is well on its way. The average annual number of passengers carried from

I9I5-9

was

72,045,742,

rising in 1920-4 to 103,583,881

and the tonnage of goods carried, which was for 1915-9 34,34 5,773, rose in 1920-4 to 35,262,932 (figures incomplete), despite the rise in tariffs and the industrial crisis of 1920-1. Revenue per kilometre has risen from 27,602 pesetas to $1,828 and expenditure from 14,850 to 37,550. The outstanding feature of railway administration in 1925 was the Railway Statute passed by the Military Directorate which provides for the participation of the State in the financing and management of the railways. In connection with the first issue of railway bonds by the State in Oct. 1925, the Government was able to vote 300,000,000 pesetas for improvements in the transport service, which is still inadequate for the industrial necessities of the country. _ Shipping.—Spanish shipping is still in a backward state, the percentage of ships over 20 years old being 52-27, compared with 21°72 %, the average calculated for the rest of the world. Consequently, though the Spanish merchant marine is absorbing the coastal trade, in the ocean-going trade there is an increase in the number of vessels under foreign flags which enter and leave Spanish ports with cargoes of Spanish imports and even with a considerable portion of the exports. The result is that the ship-

ping interests are insisting more and more on protection. Sailing Ships Number |

i914

1925

-

-l

237

5534

Steamships

Tonnage

Number

32,974

633

95.775

687

|

Tonnage

747,022

1,141,529

Banking.—The Bank of Spain which in 1913 held 472,000,000 gold pesetas, held in 1920 over 2,448,000,000 and at the beginning of 1925 2,558,000,000, representing a reserve of over 58° of the 4,352,000,000 pesetas in note circulation at the same date. The guarantee credits which in 1915 were 166,000,000 rose to 1,830,000,000 at the beginning of 1925, and the current credit accounts rose from 689,000,000 to 1,209,000,000. The dividends since 1900 have never fallen below 19°, and were 44°) in 1921, and despite the rise in the shares, they continued to pay 28% in 1922 and 1923. The fall in the prestige of Spanish private banks, due to more than one failure, and the large number of bankruptcies since 1922, have compelled the directorate to take steps for exercising closer supervision over private banks. Savings bank returns show an increase from 525,372,000 pesetas in 1915 to 756,000,000 in 1918, 1,456,000,000 in 1922 and, it Is calculated, OVET 2,000,000,000 in 1925. Towards the close of 1923, and up to the end of March 1924, the peseta gradually weakened, but in April there was a sharp recovery, due to government measures to regulate speculation in exchanges, which was followed, however, by a gradual depression. The peseta, whose par of exchange in sterling is 25-224, fluctuates from about 33-50 to about 34-50, and in view of the strong position of the Bank of Spain and the improvement in the trade and budget deficits, it is difficult to explain its de-

preciation. (F. DE LOS R.) SPANISH LITERATURE (see 25.578).— The dominant feature of Spanish contemporary literature in 1910~26 may be found ina more conscious realisation of the creative element of the race by its critical clement and, therefore, in a tendency towards the fusion of both these elements into a complete whole. With the death of Galdos, the sceptre of Spanish literature passes to Miguel de Unamuno, who represents the modern version of the Spanish mystic writer. His main concern is the relation of man to creation. It is the subject of his masterpiece Del Sentimiento Trégico de la Vida (1913), a book of passionate meditation (of which an excellent translation exists in English, The Tragic Sense of Life, 1921), and as an attitude of mind it dominates his criticism; En torno al Casticismo (1902), Ensayes (1916), La Agonia del Cristianismo (1026); his novels: Niebla (1914), Abel Sánchez (1917), Tres Novelas Ejemplares y un Prólogo (1020) and his play: Fedra. In these works Uhamuno appears as the apostle of an ideal of life more closely connected with spiritual Easternism than with the intellectual and social tenets of the West. He thus fulfils in Spain much the same function as Dostoievsky did in Russia, for Spain like Russia is a transition between East and West. He aims at intensity rather than extension. His style is not unlike the stvle of Carlyle in that it is written with the whole being of the man, body and soul. If, in order to complete the parallel with Russia, a Spanish western type of mind had to be opposed to Unamuno, as Turgeniev could be opposed to Dostoievsky, a younger man, José Ortega y Gasset, might be selected for this purpose. Ortega y Gasset is a refined humanist, strongly influenced by German contemporary Neo-Kantian schools of thought. His main work is in the field of criticism and psychology—Medifuctones del Quijote (1911), El Espectador (1917). In more recent books he has endeavoured to draw philosophical and psychological conclusions from current events; for instance, in the field of politics

with his España Invertebrada (1922) and in that of philosophy and science with Æ? Tema de nuestro tiempo (1923), a masterly commentary on the new vistas opened out to thought by the discoveries of Einstein. In this same school may be included José Martínez Ruíz (b.1876), better known under his literary name of Azorín, whose art has all the finish and exquisiteness, all the smallness also, of miniature painting. He has had the rarer merit of applying these gifts to the interpretation of national scenes and places, as in his Castilla (1920); Los Pucblos (1905); La Ruta de Don Quijote (1903), and has thus contributed in no small measure to the movement for national self-knowledge which is noticeable in contemporary Spain. Fiction.—In fiction, though belonging to an older generation, Vicente Blasco Ibáñez must be mentioned. His war novel

SPECTROSCOPY Los Cuatro Jinetes del Apocalipsis (1916, Eng. trans. 1918) has made him famous with the English-speaking public. Older novels (and better ones) have been translated, suchas La Barraca (1809); The Cabin (1919); Sangre y Arena (1908) and The Afatador (1918). Blasco Ibafiez represents an art which is Spanish only in its subject but not in its spirit, manner or style. Of a vounger gencration, Pio Baroja (b. 1872) is perhaps the most widely read. A Basque, with all the acuity of mind of his race and not alittle of its rustic independence and antagonism to civilisation, Baroja writes abundantly and carelessly with more spirit than art. His best work is perhaps /dzlios Vascos, in which he has rendered the quaint charm of his own country. Many of his works have been translated into English by American publishers. To this generation belongs also Ricardo Leén, who writes in a more consciously traditional vein and pays considerable attention to matters of style. His main work is Casta de Hidalgos (1908). Concha Espina, a brilliant woman novelist, has distinguished herself by novels of psychological insight and easy style, such as El Metal de los Muertos (1920). Ramón Pérez de Ayala (b. 1881) is perhaps the best novelist of the younger generation. A critic of great talent and a poet, he has written several novels, the best of which are Novelus Poemédticas de la Vida Española (1916) (translated into English under the title of Prometheus) and Belarmine y A polonto (1921). He is a typical exponent of the fusion of the traditional Spanish spirit with the conscious knowledge of its resources referred to above, as characteristic of contemporary literature in Spain. The same may hbe said of Gabriel Miró, whose delicate sensibility and deep knowledge of the language make him one of the most richly endowed authorsof contemporary Spain. Among his works are El Humo Dormido (1920); El Libro de Sigitensa (1921); Figuras de la Pasión del Señor (1916) (this last translated into English 1924). Of recent years several authors have cultivated the utopian and satirical variety of novel-writing. ‘To this kind belong El Archipiélago Maravilloso (1923) by Luis Araquistain, and La Girafa Sagrada by S. de Madariaga (originally written in English and published 1925). Among newcomers in novelwriting Claudio de la Torre and Felix Urabayen, Æ? Barrio Afaldite (1925) must be singled out. Drama.—Jacinto Benavente still dominated the Spanish theatre during this period. His most famous play, Los Intereses Creados (1907), is not representative, for it illustrates but one phase of the talent of this many-sided author. A more powerful tragedy, La Noche del Sébado (1903), is of the same period. In more recent times he has given an intense drama of life in La Malquerida (1913). There is, however, a type of play in which Benavente must yield the prize to the brothers Alvarez Quintero (Serafin, b. 1871; Joaquin, b. 1873). As authors of Comedias de Costumbres these two writers, who always work together, are unsurpassed. The list of their comedies is long, and includes Las de Cain and Puebla de las Mujeres (1912). Other playwrights of note are Linares Rivas (b. 1866), remarkable for his skill in the handling of dialogue; Martinez Sierra, a name which stands for the collaboration of Don Gregorio Martinez Sierra (b. 1881) and his wife, resulting in a happy blend of dramatic skill and delicate psychology; and Pinillos (Parmeno) (18751923), a vigorous painter of social conflicts. The poetical theatre still lives in Spain, maintained by Valle-Inclin (b. 1870), Marquina Cata and Ardavin. In recent years a writer of unusual power, Jacinto Grau, has conquered the foreign stage, particularly with his Æ? Conde Alarcos (1917), EL Hijo Pródigo (1918).

But drama

and comedy

are only one, and that not

the most important, aspect of the Spanish theatre. Still more typical of the nation is what is modestly known in Spain as Género chico (small genre), a type of theatrical production consisting in plays generally short and accompanied by music and ranging from variety pieces akin to operettas to little masterpieces of musical drama. Its best-known exponents are the brothers Quintero and Carlos Arniches (b. Alicante, 1866). Poctry.—The two main influences acting on Spanish poetry towards the close of the roth century, że., national tradition and the example of foreign poetry, particularly that of the symbolist

62I

school of France, which reaches Spain through South-American poets, such as Rubén Darío, are still at work. Though the first is the more vigorous and conscious, the second widens so as to include all influences: D’Annunzio, Maeterlinck, Tagore. More typically national are Unamuno, Rosario de Sonetos Liricos (r911), El Cristo de Velásquez (1920); Antonio Machado (b. 1875), whose pessimistic serenity is in keeping with the landscape of central Spain (Soledades, Campos de Castilla) and Salvador de

Madariaga (b. 1886), whose Romances de Ciego (1922) re-state in a new form the old Spanish theme of Jorge Manrique. Other poets produce under more complex influences. Thus Manuel Machado (b. 1874), whose main inspiration is popular and southern has, nevertheless, written excellent verse in which the influence of French elegant sensibility is discernible; Juan Ramón Jiménez (b. 1881), remarkable rather for exquisite sensitiveness than for power (Arias Tristes and Elegias, 190810), is led by his melancholy moods towards fluid rhythms which,

though more settled, are reminiscent of Maeterlinck and, through him, of Rossetti. Ramón del Valle-Inclán (1870), perhaps the most skilful musician among modern Spanish poets, has given in La Marquesa Rosalinda (1913) an admirable example of the adaptability of the Spanish language to the most exquisite and complicated rhythms. Ramón Pérez de Ayala in his three volumes, La Paz del Sendero (1916); El Sendero Innumerable (1916); and El Sendero Andante (1921), effects a happy wedding of thought with harmonious poetry in a work not wholly uninfluenced by Francis Jammes, D’Annunzio and Walt Whitman. Among the rising generation may be mentioned Pedro Salinas, Jorge Guillén, Garcia Loria and Rafael Alberti. AMiscellaneous.—In the field of erudition and literary history the task of Menéndez y Pelayo is continued by Don Ramén Menéndez Pidal, whose works on the poem “Mio Cid” (1911, 1913, etc.) and on the Spanish Chronicles have thrown much light on the origin of Spanish epic poetry. Francisco Rodríguez Marín (b. 1855), editor of Don Quijote, a specialist of Spanish folk lore, has succeeded the Master as head of the National Library. Father Asin has won world-wide fame by his illuminating work on the Arabic origins of Dante. Of the younger generation Federico de Onis (b. 1885) has edited Fray Luis de León (1914) and Américo Castro (b. 1885) has worked on Lope de Vega (1910). Journalism, always a great art in Spain, where the newspaper is infinitely more read than the book, is cultivated by all writers and everyone of the names mentioned above might be quoted here again. Mention must be made, however, of two eminent contemporary writers whose work is almost exclusively journalistic: Ramiro de Maeztu (b. 1874), a versatile mind whose educating influence on the Spanish reading public has been incalculable; and Luis Araquistain, a powerful dialectician and a master of the polemic style. BrpitoGRApiy.—César Barja, Literatura Española, Libros vy Autores Modernos (1924); E. L. Gómez de Baquero, Æl Renacimiento de la Novela Española en el Siglo XIX. (1924); Miguel de Unamuno, En Torno al Casticismo (1902); W. Starkie, Jacinto Benavente (1924); S. de Madariaga, The Genius of Spain (1923). (S. be M.)

SPECTROSCOPY (sce 25.619).—As developed since 1910 the science of spectroscopy has for one of its chief purposes the analysis of spectra, and the deduction therefrom of the structure of the atoms and molecules which generate the spectra. The progress which has been made in this connection has depended upon improved determinations of the wave-lengths of spectral lines, the further investigation of the varying spectrum of the same substance when excited to luminosity in different ways, the more complete analysis of certain spectra into regular series systems and, finally, on theoretical investigations. In another direction, important advances have been made in the interpretation of the spectra of the various classes of celestial bodies, which may be regarded physically as experiments on large masses of matter at various high temperatures. Standards of Wave-length.—fxtensive interferometer determinations of wave-leneths in the arc spectrum of iron, based upor

6438-4696

“ international’

angstréms for the red cadmium

line,

SPECTROSCOPY

622 have

been

made

by K. Burns!

and others, which

provide

the

necessary standards for the general determination of wav e-lengths by interpolation. It has been found, however, that the wave- lengths of many lines differ considerably in different parts of the arc, so that special

precautions

are

necessary

in order

to

obtain

spectra in agreement with the tabulated Ta

comparison

_ Probably tthe

most accurate set of standards are those given by C. E. St. John and H. D. Babcock, who used a small central zone of a “ Pfund ” iron arc operated between 110 anc 250 volts with five amperes or less, at a leneth of 12 millimetres. This list contains 1,026 lines, from 43370 to 46750, and for most of them the wave-lengths are believed to be accurate to O-ooL‘angstrém.

Flame, Arc and Spark Spectra.—The range of spectroscopic research has been almost indefinitely extended by the discovery that the same substance vields different P when stimulated

in different wavs. Such differences are of littleiimportance from the point of view of chemical analysis, but they have become of great significance to the physicist, and have also greatly aided in the interpretation of the spectra of celestial bodies. The three typical methods of producing luminosity for the ob-

servation of the spectra of met allic elements or their salts are the flame, the electric are and the clectric spark, As a gener al rule, the three scurees exhibit inportant differences. In the flame > the lines are comparatively few in number; in the are the flame lines remain pronuncnt, but many more Hines, inciuiding some which are as strong as the

flame lines, make

their appearance.

In the spark,

there is a tenidlency for many af the ty pical arc lines to disappear, whilst oth er lines may be matn intenssified, an: 1 entirely new lines may aiso be present, The import; ant class ef Jines which are intes aed or which only appear under the violent action of the condensed spark, were deste: ratedenhanced fines by Sir Norman Leckver, and thisname hasbeen generally oe Vhe clifferent classes of Fines are thus commenly known as flame, arc end spark (or enhanced) lines, eee to their relative ES na in these three sources. This

classaification, however, is in some respects imperfect, and more definite des ignations are now based upon the theoretical considerations to w hich reference will be raade later.

A detailed tenmperature.

classification of the lines of many clements has beer, based upon experiments with the electric furnace by King.” Sinlar y rariations have also heen oDercryved.in the spectra of

DARCOS 3

when supmitted to tke action of discharges of varying inten: sity, ail the different classes of lines are sometingos distinguished by analogy

as arc and spark lines, although wi 10 few exce ptions tthe are is not actually employed. The actual spertrim Cive i by a gas A upon its pressure as well as upon the inte: bity of th c discharge þy which it is made luminous. Gencrally speaking, the o the pressure of the gas the onr wiil be the strength of the discharge

required to produce the“ spark

” lines.

One important airn of spectroscenic research has been to search for an explaination of these phonomenn, for it cannot be doubted that the causes of the variations in the spectra are intimately connected with atemic structure. In this connection it will be instructive to refer first to the spectra oF known compounds. There are many compounds which can . excited to luminosity without total decomposition,’ and it has been found that each compound gives a characteristic aa by which it can he identified as such. These spectra invaHao ©consist ofRw, bands, and different sets of bands characterise, for example, the caxides, chlorides and fluorides of the alkaline earth elements. It is sufficiently obvious that if a compound be stimulated so strongly that it becomes dissociated, the spectrum wiilehange from one consisting of bands representative of the compound to one containing the lires of the constituent elements. It is nol only compounds, however, that show changes of this charactor. Experiments on nitrogen, for instance, show a range of spectra from one consisting wholly of bands to one in which lines occur alone. Even hydrogen has twe spectra: (.) the highly complex, so-called secondary spectrum, which doubtless represents a banded spectrum of rather coarse structure and (b) the familiar line spectrum, constituting the Balmer series. Similar results have been obtained for many other elements, and from analogy tLick Obs. Bull., No. 247 (1913); Zett. f. Wiss. Phet., vol. 12, 209. 2 Astrophys. Jour., vol. 53, 260 (1921).

Trans. Int. Astron. U HION,

vol. I and 2 (1922 and 1925). 3 Several papers in the Astropnys. Jour. 1 Stimulation by “ active nitrogen,” according to the methods of R. J. Strutt (now Lord Ray leigh) is particularly effective for the spectra of many compounds.—Proc. Roy. Soc., vol. 86, 105 (1912). 5 An excellent photographic map of this spectrum has been given by T. R. Merton, Proc. Roy. Soc., A, vol. 96, 382 (1920).

with the spectra of compounds the natural conclusion is that the band spectra of the elements arise from molecules, while the line spectra are produced by the atoms which are set free when the molecules are dissociated. If this be a true view, the change in the structure of the atom, or in its mode vibration, which accompanics the successive modifications of the line spectrum becomes a question of paramount interest. Lockyer® did not hesitate to believe that while the are lines cf an clement were to be attributed! to ordinary atoms, the enhanced lines could only be preduced by the splitting-up of the atoms themselv es, and he called these simpler forms of matter the proto-clements. Proto-calcium, for instance, denoted calcium which had been broken up into sub-atoms by the application of a sufficient stimulus. A somewhat similar, but more probable, explanation has been based upon an application of the quantum theory by Bohr to Rutherford’s nucleus theory of the atom. ‘This theory is founded largciy on the analysis of spectra into regular series. (See ATOM.) Range of Observations —Fér the complete determination of the nee of spectra it is necessary to extend the observations far bevond the limits of the visible spo ‘ctrum. Conspicuous success In the direct photography of the w infra-red spectrum has been achieved by Meegers and others, |xy the use of ordinary plates stained with dicwaain.® By this me ‘thod excellent photographs ct the are spec tra of a large number of eleme nts,extending to AroO,000, have been ob-

tained with a concave grating, and the positions of the lines have been measured with a high degree of accuracy. Por the pressat, the extreme infra-red can only be ins reatigated by thermal effects, involvi; i

the use of the thermonpile,: bolometer or radio-miccomieter,

as dn the researches of Paschen, Lehmann and Randall. pectroscopic

oe ‘vations

in the

direction

af the itest

E ane the limit about A18550 set by the absorption of quartz, and beyond about Arzoo set by the absorption ef air, which were first made by Victor Se! MUTA, lage hecii trcati Gxt nded by the use of copeave gratings in vacuum spectrographs “by Lyman and others. R.A, Midtkan* and his colleagues have observed lines as far as ARGA. Several improvements In technique were necessary to this success. It wasachieved, in the first place, by using gratings spectally adapted for the purpose; ssecondly, by working in an csscntiatie per fect vacuum, through the use of powcr ul pumps; and finally, SICe no ordinary spark could pass ina vacunm, by the use of a specially strong sparking apparatus which was capable of forcing a discharge across a very smal Il space between the electrodes. Spectroscopie data thus cover a very wide range, and offer many i! teresting problems to ae.investigator, Their solution depends on his ability to make a true aka sis of spec tra, and to deduce therefrom the corresponding atomic or molecular conditions.

Analysis of Spectra—Great progress has been made in the investigation of the regularities in spectra. In these inquiries the position of a spectral line is most conveniently represented by its “ wave-number ” (v); ie., the number ol waves per centimetre in tacuo. In practice it is obtained by dividing 10° (th the number of Aangstrém units ina centimetre) e the wave-lengina Y corrected to a vacuum. Fhe simplest sneetrumis thatof hydrogen,

which may be accurately represented by the simple formut.:— i {i

s=R( =WE

at

Git

ere ansi are integers and R is the “ Rydberg constant,” havhi vg the value 109,678-3.9 H gn = 1 andan takes successive inte,ral values 2, 3, ... the formula represents a series of lines in the

Z

extreme ultra-violet which has been called the “ Lyman sue a With #a=2, m=3, 4.. there results the “ Balmer series, extending through the Jk spectrum to the near ui aai E

Other series Which appear in the infra-red, including the “ Paschen series,” are similarly represented by putting w=, 4. and soon, R. W. Wood! has extended the Balmer series to i= 22 by experiments with long vacuum tubes, while 34 members of this series have been recorded in the spectrum of the sun’s chromosphere during total eclipses. In each series, it should be noted, the lines leconic closer Ohe and diminish in intensity as they approach the definite limit indicated by the first term of the formula. Theoretically, the number of lines in a series is infinite, but it often happens that only a few of the earher members are observed, and no serics has been traced to its limit. 6 Sir J. N. Lockyer, 7 Scientific Papers, (1918) and subsequent 8 Phys. Rer., vol. 23

Inorganic Evolution (1900). Bureau of Stundards, Washington, papers. (1924).

IW LE, Curtis, Prec. Roy. Soc., A, 96, 147 (1920). 10 Proc. Roy. Soe., A, 97, 455 (1920).

No.

312

SPECTROSCOPY There is only one other known spectrum which has the same simplicity as that of hydrogen—namely, the enhanced spectrum of helium. This includes the series first found by Pickering in the star ¢ Puppis, and the line » 4686 and others calculated by Rydberg, by whom both series were attributed to hydrogen. These lines were produced in the laboratory by A. Fowler,! and additional lines of the Pickering series, first indicated by Bohr’s theory, were afterwards observed by E. G. Evans? and by Paschen.? It was, in fact, the theoretical work of Bohr which first suggested that the lines in question originated in helium and not in hydrogen. The enhanced series of helium can he represented by a formula similar to that for hydrogen, with the difference that the series constant has rather more than four times the value for hydrogen, namely 4109723. When #=3, and #2 =4, 5... we obtain the series having A4686 for its first number. The complete Pickering series is given by putting m=4, m=5,6 ... , and aseries in the extreme ultraviolet observed by Lyman is siven when m.=2.

Tt should be noted

that alternate lines of the Pickering serias are nearly coincident with the Balmer series of hydregen.

The spectra which are next in order of simplicity are the arc spectra of the alkali metals, lithium, sodium, potassium, rubidium and caesium. fn each of these there are severe! sorics superposed, and all the lines are doublets. Fo the alkaline carth metals, beryllium, magnesium, calcium, strontium and barium, there are two systems of series, one consisting of singlets and the other of triplets. As in the spectrum of hydrogen, the lines of each series converge to 2 definite limit and may be represented by such a formula as that of Hicks, namely p=A—R

| +--+ a

oO

>

ad

where A, x, a are constants calculated from the observed lincs and m takes successive integral values. A is the Emit of the series, and R the Rydberg constant. The constituent series are of different types, having names and symbolical representations as fcllows:— Principal series == IS — INP

Sharp series = 21)— S Dilluse series 2p— ind Fundamental series= 31— nef F G series, = 4f — rag

the lines are single. In a doublet system, s has one value and all the rest two values. The principal series thus consists of doublets, 1s —ntp, and Is—imp, diminishing in separation towards the limit; the of equidistant

pairs Ip: —a:s,

Ify — Ms.

Che diffuse

doublet series does not consist of double-dowblets, as might have been expected, but of groups of three, one possible component being ruled out by a principle of sclection to be mentioned later. In a triplet system, all but the s terms have three values, and certain sntercombinations with the associated singlet system also occur.

Origin of Specira.—The theory of N. Bohr* offers a very satisfactory explanation of the spectra of hydrogen and enhanced helium, and gives a physical meaning to the spectroscopic terms in general which has proved very fruitful in suggesting new directions of research. According to this theory, the atom of 1 Monthly Notices R.A.S., vol. 62, 63 (1913); Phil. Trans., A, vol. 214 (1914). 2 Phil. Mag., vol. 29, 284 (1915). 3 Annalen d. Physa vol. 50 (1916). 4 Phil. Mag., vol. 26, pp. 1-25; 476-502; 857-875 (1913); vol. 27,

pp. 506-524 (1913); vol. 29, pp. 332-335 (915).

y

+

ralue than it has for hydrogen.

In each case the first term denotes the limit of the series, while the second represents a sequence of ferns, in which wm has successive integral values. A group of such series constitules a sysiem, and there may be two or more systems in the same specsinglet and | triplet triplet systems systems ofof the the alkaline earths. trum, as the the singlet alkaline earth It will be observed that in a given system the limit of a series is a term of one of the other series, and that a line is always represented as the difference of two terms. As first Indicated by Ritz in his “ Combination Principle,” other series may exist, such as 2s—imp, 3p—uid, etc. In a singlet system, each of the terms has but one value, and all

series

an clement consists of a positively charged nucleus with an appropriate system of electrons in orbital motion around it, such that the total negative charge of the electrons is equal to the positive charge of the nucleus. Nearly the whole of the mass of the atom is concentrated in the nucleus, which is very small in comparison with the distances separating it from the electrons. When an electron is removed from its normal position by the application of an external stimulus, it may traverse temporarily one or another of certain orbits determined by quantum considerations and is said to be “excited.” In each of these orbits it has a certain amount of energy, and there is no radiation so long as the electron revolves in such an orbit. When the electron returns to its normal position it comes to an orbit in which, for equilibrium, it must possess less energy than it had in the temporary orbit. The diterence of erergy, which is proportional to the difference of the corresponding terms, is emitted as a homogeneous radiation, and gives rise to a definite spectral line, while, if the electron occupies successively different orbits on its return, several lines will be produced in succession. The actual spectrum at any moment is the summation of the different lines yieklod by atoms in different states. Phe differences between the are and enhanced spectra reccive a simple explanation on the Bohr theory. The lines of an are spectrum are supposed to be generated by the disturbance of a sincle outer clectron and its subsequent interaction with the nucleus and remaining electrons. When two electrors are removed from their normal positions, ancl one remains at a great distance, the return of the second ciectron generates an entirely differant snectrum consisting of the enhanced Hines. An atem which has lost an clectron is said to be “ienised 7’: if it has lost two electrons it is doubly juntsed, and so on. Assuming the hydrogen atom to consist of a nucleus and a single electron, the energies of the possible orbits cean be calculated, and are found to be proportional to the observed terms Rým. Helium, the next lightest element to hydrogen, has two electrons, and the mathematical problem of determining their motion has not yet been solved. If one of the electrons is rethat the nucleus has a double positive charge and four times the mass. The resulting enhanced terms are therefore calcwable. They again have the form Réi, but R has now a much larger

etc.

sharp

'623

`

by the ex pressian:

ere =-= ch

It is represented in both cases

PEAL ==

m-HM

where em and: EM

are Te-

spectively the charge and mass of the electron and nucleus, Å Planck’s constant ard c is the velocity of Light. In the ease of hydrogen E =e, and] v hen the experimental values of the varicus quantities are substituted in the formula, the series constant is reproduced with remarkable accuracy. The second factor increases with Af, so that it wil be slightly greater for helium than for hydrogen. Also, the doubie nuclear charge makes the first factor in the expression four times as great for enhanced helium as it is for hydrogen. These theoretical requirements have been completely verified by experiment. Fowler, calculating R for hydrogen and enhanced helium from the observed lines, used the theoretical expressions to calculate the value of Mimic.,

the ratio of the masses of the hydrogen atom and the clectron— and obtained a result in very close agreement with that arrived at by direct measurement. Moreover, he has shown® that in the more complicated spectra of the alkaline earths the enhanced line terms are also represented by formulae in which R has four times its value for arc spectra. More recently, F. Paschen has identifed 4 R series and o R series in singly ionised and doubly ionised aluminium respectively,® while Fowler has traced series of silicon for which the series constant has the successive values R, 4R, oR and 16 R.? For convenience of reference these spectra are designated Si 5 Phil. Trans., A, 214, p. 254 (1914).

6 Annalen d. Phys., vol. 71, p. 142, and p. 537 (1923). FT Pii. Trans., A, vol. 225, p. 1 (1925).

624'

SPECTROSCOPY

I, Si IT, Si III, Si IV, and similarly for other elements. These results for elements at successive stages of ionisation give further strong support to Bohr’s theory by their verification of the changing value of the series constant as electrons are detached from the atom one by one. Further developments of the theory, taking into account the variation of the mass of the electron with velocity required by the theory of relativity, have indicated that the lines of the hydrogen and enhanced helium series are complex, and under high resolution should appear to consist of several components. This has been verified by Paschen,! who found results for helium in remarkable agreement with the predictions of Sommerfeld. The intensities of the several compone also are in the ratio calculated by Sommerfeld by a special y pothesis. Resonance and Tonising Potentials.—-Strong support for the Bohr theory is also given by experiments in which atoms are bombarded by electrons of regulated speed. If an electron of charge e is made to fall through a potential difference V, it acquires a quantity of energy eV, expressed in appropriate units. If such an_ clectron bombards a neutral atom, it is found that no change takes place until I’ reaches a certain value, when there is a sudden radiation of energy corresponding to a particular line—usually a strong flame line —in the spectrum of the bombarded atom. According to Bohr’s theory, the energy in this radiation is equal to kv, and experiments with several elements show that this critical value of Vis determined by the relation eV —hy. This means that the energy of bombardment has been just sufficient to remove the outermost electron in the atom from its normal orbit to the next permissible orbit, and, on its return, the electron restores the energy in the form of monochromatic radiation of the appropriate frequency. If V is expressed in volts, the wave-number of the emitted line is numerically equal to VX 8102. The value of V when emission first takes place is known as the “ resonance ” or “ radiation '’ potential. Further, by increasing V, it is possible to remove an electron from the atom altogether. If the energy el’ in this case is equated to Av, the resulting value of » is found to be equal to the largest term in the spectrum. This term would correspond to the innermost orbit of the electron, and the result indicates that the energy which must be applied to remove an electron from the atom is just equal to the energy possessed by the electron when revolving in its normal position. The potential required to remove an electron from the atom is known as the “ 1onisation potential.” It has been determined experimentally for a number of elements, and has been found to be in complete agreement with the orbital energy as calculated from the largest term in the spectrum. The Bohr theory thus presents a simple picture of the processes taking place in expcriments of this type. Zeeman and Stark Effects —The resolution of spectral lines under the influence of intense magnetic fields—usually known as the Zeeman effect—has been extensively studied for a large number of elements. Somewhat similar effects, but much greater in magnitude, produced by an electric field, have been brought to light by Stark and examined in considerable detail by a number of workers. J. W. Nicholson and T. R. Merton? have shown that the Stark effect may operate to an appreciable extent in an ordinary vacuum-tube discharge, causing a broadening of the lines. Both the Zeeman and Stark effects have been treated on the basis of the Bohr theory with success. A comprehensive set of rules for the calculation of the Zeeman effect for any combination has been given by Landé.’

The More Complex Specira.—The spectra of the higher groups of elements are much more complicated than those of the earlier groups, and few series of the same simple types have been identied. An advance of great importance, however, was made in Professor Fowler’s laboratory by M. A. Catalan‘ in the identification of complicated groups of lines in the spectrum of manganese and other elements which could only be accounted for on the supposition that spectroscopic terms may have a greater multiplicity than that represented by triplets. The groups of lines in question, showing internal regularities, were named multiplets, but it may be noted that the pd and df combinations in a triplet system,-each consisting of six lines, are also entitled to the same designation. With this beginning, the analysis of complex spectra has proceeded vigorously, and the structure of even so compl cated a spectrum as that of iron has been elucidated. Thus, quartet, quintet, sextet and still higher systems of spectroscopic terms are now recognised. Theoretical work based on quantum considerations has also progressed rapidly, and it is now possible to state quite briefly ! Annalen d. Phys., vol. 50, pp. 901-940 (1916). 2 Phil. Trans., A, vol. 216, p. 459 (1916). 3 Zeit. f. Phys., vol. 15, p. 192 (1923). + Phil. Trans., A, vol. 223, p. 127 (1922).

the rules which have been deduced from the analysis of spectra. Following Sommerfeld and A. Landé,’ a spectroscopic term in general may be represented by mz;, where n is the “ principal ” quantum number (related to m of the previous formulae), & is the “ rotational ” or “ azimuthal ” quantum number, j a characteristic “ inner ” quantum number, and r represents the maximum multiplicity in the system to which the term belongs. It is convenient in practice to replace ną by ms, mp, etc., as used previously, it being understood that k=1, 2, 3, .. . for terms of s, p, d .. . types respectively. The various components of a multiple term are then distinguished by using the relevant values of 7 as subscripts, which differ in this respect from the subscripts adopted until quite recently. When necessary to avoid ambiguity as to the system of terms under consideration, the multiplicity is indicated by an index figure on the upper left side of the term symbol. Thus 3%. indicates the term 3p of a triplet system which has the inner quantum number 2, it being understood that all » terms have k=2. The characteristics of the first six groups of terms are shown in the appended table. k=1

So

singlet

f sı

doublet

r=I

k=2

r=2

P;

k =3 k =4

Pi pe I)

de c; fs fy

F,

k=1

Sı

k=2 k=3

triplet

So

r=3

Pu Pr ps d d d;

k=4

fo fs fu

S. quintet r=

fo fs f4 fs

S;

k = 3

r =6

Pz Ps Pa

dy chi cls d; d fi

fə f;

sextet

4

Pi Ps Ps

k=4

r=4

Pi Pe Ps di dy ds dy

k=1 k=2

quartet

j

f; f;

dı da ds ly d;

|

fy

The combinations which ordinarily occur within tem are those for which & changes by one unit; and the $ terms, for example, combine with s and f. The combinations are further restricted by

fy

f; fa

f;

fs

the same sysie., Ak= =i, d but not with the condition

that Aj= +1 or o, with the exclusion of the transition o to 0; thus, in a triplet pd combination the nine lines which are arith-

metically possible are reduced to six, namely, pods, pode, pods, pide, pidi and podi. When two or more systems occur in the same spectrum, the & andj? rules are still applicable, and intercombinations are restricted to those for which A:= +2. Thus, in the alkaline earths there are both singlet and triplet systems, but in the combination of 'Sp with *f, the application of the j rule shows that the only possible line will be 1So—#f1. As an illustration of one of the simpler multiplets, the following quintet pd group in the arc spectrum of iron may be quoted, the positions of the spectral lines being indicated by their wave-numbers, and the relative intensities by figures in brackets following the wave-nuimbers:— do

dı

də

36431 (10) 90 3652 1(20) 184 36705015) 36269(20)

d3

184 36453( 30) 288 36741 (40) 36063

da

pı pe

288 36351(25) 416 36767(60) ps

Anomalous Terms.— The terms of ordinary types which have so far been considered are regarded as originating in the transitions of a single electron between different virtual orbits. It has been found, however, that in many spectra there are other terms resembling these in regard to their inner quantum numbers and Zeeman elfects, but differing from them

in following

the combination

rule Ak =o;

these are distinguished by writing them in the form s’, p’, d’, etc., and are called “ primed terms.” A whole series of p’ terms has been found in the alkaline earth spectra by H. N. Russell and F. A. Saunders® who have shown that the limit of the series is greater than that of any of the regular series. In other words, in some of the combinations pp’ the atom radiates a greater amount of energy than that due to the largest jump which a single electron can make. The adopted explanation is that two of the outer electrons are displaced, and that the changes of energy of both are united in the emission of a single quantum. 5 Zeit. f. Phys., vol. 15, p. 191 (1923). 6 -lstrophys. Jour., vol. 61, p. 38 (1925).

SPECTRUM Other anomalous terms are similar in their combining properties to terms of regular types from which they differ only in the fact that they have no place in the Rydberg series. These are distinguished by doubly accented letters, as p”, d”, etc.

Spectra and the Periodic Table.—Attention is being drawn more and more to the relation of spectra to the periodic table of the elements. It has long been known that, when doublets or triplets occur in the spectra, the wave-number separations of

their components (which are constant in the sharp and diffuse series) are approximately proportional to the squares of the atomic weights of the elements producing the spectra—so long as those elements belong to the same family sub-group. The Zeeman effect also is generally the same for lines of corresponding series in the spectra of clements belonging to the same group. But perhaps the most comprehensive connection of spectra with the periodic table is established by the “‘ alternation law ” and by the “ displacement law ” of Kossel and Sommerfeld. The spectra of a large number of elements have now been successfully analysed, and it has been found that there is an alternation of even and odd multiplicities in successive columns of the periodic table. This has been most completely verified for the fourth period of the elements, for which the following details have been given by W. F. Meggers:—t

625

ments of the electrons within the molecule. H a change occurs in one or more of these, the total energy will be changed and, exactly as in line spectra, the difference will be radiated as a single quantum

The complexity of a band spectrum is thus due to the great variety of possible states of the molecules by which it is emitted (see Sommerfeld, op. ct., chap. VIL).

The Solar Spectrum. —A striking feature of continued work on the solar spectrum is the identiftcation of a large number of faint lines with lines composing the bands of certain compounds, in addition to the band lines of carbon and cyanogen previously recognised by Rowland and Lockyer. The peculiarities of the region about the G group of Fraunhofer have been shown by H. F. Newall* to be due to the absorption of the well-known hydrocarbon band A 4315, and the group P has been found by A. Fowler and C.L.L. Gregory’ to include the strong ultra-violet band of ammonia having its maximum near A 3360. In addition, the band of luminous water vapour beginning at A 3064 has been found by Fowler® to be present in the solar spectrum. A large number of previously unknown solar lines have thus been accounted for, and it is not improbable that the thousands of

faint lines which remain unidentified may eventually be traced

to other band spectra. Stellar Spectroscopy——Our detailed knowledge of the spectra of the stars has been greatly advanced by the use of the large telescopes which have been erected, and considerable progress Column Jrfo | it} tv | ov [vi |Vin [vine has also been made in the interpretation of the stellar lines Element K-19 Ua-20|S8e-21|Ti-22] ¥-23 |(t-2.4| Mn-25 |Fe-26|Co-27)Ni-28 through experiments in the laboratory. In particular, the use of Systems I I p: stronger discharges than had previously been employed has led 2 2 2 2 to the discovery of new lines of several elements, which have 3 3 3 3 3 been identified with lines occurring in the hotter stars. Certain 4 + | 5 5 5 S | lines of the Wolf-Rayet stars, for example, have thus been 6 traced to carbon by T. R. Merton,” and others to oxygen by T 7 A. Fowler and J. Brooksbank.* The general outcome of the experi| 8 | mental reproduction of stellar lines is to support the view that The numbers following the chemical symbols are the atomic the order in which the different classes of stars had been arranged is a true temperature sequence. This order, previously indinumbers of the elements, and those below represent the multiplicities of the systems of terms which have been found to comcated by Secchi and Vogel, is now generally expressed by the bine in the production of the actual spectra. Elements in the classification introduced at Harvard by E. C. Pickering, in which the most important classes, passing from the white to same column of the table have similar multiplicities. the redder stars, are designated by the letters B, A, F, G, K, M.” The displacement law states that, when an element is ionised, the enhanced series take on the same type of complexity as the On passing from the relatively cool M stars to the hot B stars, it is necessary, in accordance with the work of Lockver, to arc series produced by the element to the left (ż¿.e., in the preceding column) in the periodic table. ‘his has been verified for employ a gradually increasing stimulus in order to excite the a considerable number of elements and is probably true for all. spectra which appear at successive stages of the stellar sequence. The theory of thermal ionisation has been further developed The same rule applies also to the spectrum of an element at successively higher stages of ionisation. As a result Mg II, Al IIL by R. H. Fowler and E. A. Milne’ with important results. and Si IV, for example, all yield spectra of the same type as BIBLIOGRAPHY.—To the works mentioned in the earlier article, the that of Na I, only one valence electron being left in each case; following should be added: J. M. Eder and E. Valenta, Atas typischer Spektren (1911); J. Stark, Die Atomionen chemischer these spectra only differ in the displacement of corresponding lines to shorter wave-lengths and in the wider separation of Elemente und ihre Kanalstrahlenspecitra (1913); P. Zeeman, Researches in Magneto-Optics (1913); T. Lyman, The Spectroscopy of corresponding pairs as the degree of ionisation is greater. Conthe Extreme Ultra-Violet (1914); P. D. Foote and F. L. Mohler, tinued observations of this kind may be expected to contribute The Origin of Spectra (1922); À. Fowler, Series in Line Spectra (1922); W. M. Hicks, The Analysis of Spectra (1922); H. Holst and Il. A. largely to our knowledge of the structure of atoms. Kramers, The :ltom and the Bohr Theory of Its Structure (1923); A. Suggestion as to the arrangement of electronic orbits in a Sommerfeld, Atomic Structure and Spectral Lines (1923); E. Back large number of elements, based upon spectroscopic data, have and A. Landé, Zeemaneffekt und Multiplettsiruktur der Spektrallinien been made by N. Bohr, and important modifications of Bohr’s (1925); Miss C. H. Payne, Stellar Atmospheres, Harvard Observatory

scheme have been proposed by E. C. Stoner.’ Band Spectra.—A typical band consists of a large number of faint lines, which become especially crowded towards the “ head,” where the intensity appears greatest. Groups of such bands frequently occur, partially overlapping, and there may be several groups in the same spectrum, so that a band spectrum may include thousands of component lines. In each band ıt is usually possible to pick out a number of regular sequences of lines, each of which may be approximately represented by a Deslandres' formula v=A+Bm+Cne, where A, B, C are constants calculated from the lines and m is the

number of a line counted from a suitable starting point. The heads of the bands may be represented by a formula of the same type. The theory of band spectra, on quantum principles, has lately been greatly advanced. It is supposed that in a molecule the total energy is the summation of the energics due to rotation of the molecule as a whole, to vibrations of the atomic nuclei and to move.

1 Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci., Washington, Jan. (1925).

2 Ann. d. Phys., vol. 71, 260 (1923). 3 Phil. Mag., vol. 48, 719 (1924).

Monographs,

No.

I (1925).

(A. F.)

SPECTRUM.—The word spectrum was used by Newton in 1672 to Indicate the elongated array of coloured lights, which appears when a beam of sunlight is passed through a triangular 4 5 6 * 8 °

Monthly Notices, R.A.S., vol. 76, 640 (1916). Phil, Trans., A, vol. 218, 351 (1917). Proc. Roy. Soc., A, vol. 94, 472 (1918). Proc. Roy. Sec., A, vol. 91, 498 (1915). Monthly Wol., R.A.S., vol. 77, 511 (1917). The work of H. N. Russell, in general agreement with that ol Lockyer, renders it probable that the true sequence is from M to B with increasing temperature, and thence from B to M with decreasing temperature, the density increasing throughout. Stars of rising temperature, on account of their great volume, have been called “giants,” those of falling temperature ‘ dwarfs.” Differences between the spectra of giants and dwarfs of the same spectral class have been found by Adams (see Monthly Notices R.A.S., vol. 81,

P. 334) (1921).

0 Proc, Phys. Soc. Lond., vol. 36 (Feb. 1924).

SPECTRUM

626

glass prism and, after refraction and dispersion, is received on a distant white screen. The name is firmly established for the orderly array of coloured lines, each corresponding to a single component, seen when a sample of light to be analysed has passed through a very narrow slit of a suitable spectroscope. “ Spectrum,” is used in an extended sense to cover the whole rarge of rays studied by methods capable of detecting not only visible rays but also ultrared and ultra-violet rays, wireless waves, X-rays and -rays (see Rays). Ultra-violeé Rays-——The existence of ultra-violet rays was discovered in 1801 by Ritter, who found that silver chloride was blackened by rays more refrangible than the utmost limits of the visible rays of the spectrum. The ultra-violet rays were examined in detail by Stokes in 1852 by the use of fluorescent substances to which attention had been called by Sir John Herschel in 1845 in researches on what he termed the “ epipolic dispersion of light ” by solutions of quinine. Stokes found that quartz prisms and lenses were far more transparent 1o ultraviolet light than glass, and that they revealed the existence of an invisible region extending as far beyond that previously known as the latter extends beyond the visible spectrum, and

exhibiting a continuation of the Fraunhofer lines.

He obtained

evidence that the limit of the solar spectrum in the more refrangible direction had been reached; for the arrangement which revealed by means of fluorescence the existence of what were evidently rays of higher refrangibility coming from electric sparks failed to show anything of the kind when applied to the solar spectrum. Measurement of Wavelengths —On the undulatory theory of light, wavelengths can be assigned to rays of every degree of refrangibility by the use of diffraction gratings. A grating is a plate of glass or of speculum metal worked plane (or concave) and highly polished, and on it fine straight parallel lines er ruled very close together at very regular minute intervals. Thomas Young in 1802 describes the use of a grating ruled on glass with 500 lines to the inch; and, In his developments of the undulatory theory and of the principle of interference, he deduced rough values of the average wavelengths of the various colours. Modern gratings are ruled with 10,000 to 20,000 lines to the inch. They serve admirably for optical work of high precision. But when we have to deal with very short wavelengths such as have been discovered in the last 30 years, a spacing of lines comparable in closeness with the spacing of atoms in solid substances is required. Angstrém Unit.—Wavelengths are measured in terms of a unit known as an Angstrém unit (A.U.) or tenth-metre. Such

a unit is ———-————-th ofa metre = —m = —cm. The vis10,000,000 ,006 I0 10 ible parts of the spectrum extend from about 3,900 A.U. to 7,600 A.U., nearly an octave in the musical sense of the word. In terms of these units, Stokes would seem to have seen lines as far as 1,900 A.U. in the spectra of electric sparks between terminals of metallic lead. With fluorite prisms and lenses (in

rarefied hydrogen to avoid the absorption due to air) Schumann photographed

spectra

extending

to 1,000

A.U.;

Lyman

has

reached 600 A.U.; and Millikan has penetrated as far as 200 Angstrém units. : Ultra-red Rays.—Rays of invisible heat were discovered by William Herschel in 1801 in the ultra-red region.! Langley in 1886 traced, by the use of the bolometer, rays of radiant heat as jar as wavelength 182,000 A.U. and Rubens penetrated as far as 610,000 Angstrém units. Thus our knowledge of the spectrum extends from 200 to 610,000 A.U., of which only the region between 3,900 and 7,600 A.U. is visible to the eye as light. (See Rays.) Maxwell’s Theory.—In 1861-5 Maxwell developed, out of the physical conceptions of Faraday, his dynamical theory of the electromagnetic field. He gave reasons for believing that any change in the electrification of a conductor or in the magneti1This region is very frequently called the infra-red region, and its s rays the inira-red rays (see Rays).

sation of a body is accompanied by the propagation of corresponding disturbances through the surrounding medium. His equations showed that the rate of propagation should be expressed by the same number which expresses the number of electrostatic units in one electromagnetic unit. The comparison of available measures of these electrical quantities gave a number corresponding with the velocity of light. Maxwell adds:— At the outset of this paper, the dynamical theory of the electro-

magnetic field borrowed

from the undulatory theory of light the

use of its luminiferous medium. It now restores the medium after having tested its power of transmitting undulations and the character of those undulations, and certifies that the vibrations are

transverse and that the velocity ts that of light. What then is light according to the electromagnetic theory? It consists of alternate and opposite rapidly recurring transverse magnetic disturbances accompanied with electric displacements, the direction of the electric displacement being at right angles to the magnetic disturbance, and

both at right angles to the direction of the ray.

Ledge and Heriz—in 1887-8 Oliver Lodge and Hertz were, each unknown to the other, running a neck-to-neck race, to crown Maxwell’s achievement by devising experimental methods of producing and detecting electro-magnetic waves of very high frequency—about 100,000,000 per sec.—very high In comparison with those in common use In ordinary electrical experiments, but very low in comparison with those attained in Langley’s examination of the ultra-red parts of the prismatic spectrum. Hertz succeeded in measuring, within the walls of his laboratory, the wavelengths of the periodic disturbances emitted by the spark-discharge of an electric condenser. And from these pioneering experiments the whole system of wireless

telegraphy (g.2.) has been evolved by the inventive genius of many workers. The wavelengths of Hertzian or wireless waves range from a few hundred metres to long waves of about five km. and more. A -rays (g.v.).-—The N-rays discovered by Röntgen In 1895 are now known to be identical in nature with light but to be of exceedingly small wavelengths. A. Laue in ro12 made a fundamental discovery when he passed X-rays through crystals and found evidence which at one and the same time disclosed the orderly atomic structure of such bodies and the undulatory nature of X-rays. W. L. Bragg in 1913 discovered that X-rays could be reflected by the cleavage planes of crystals at nearly glancing incidence; and he and his father Sir W. H. Bragg devised the X-ray spectrometer, by means of which they measured the wavelengths of specially selected X-rays and studied the structure of crystals. Their methods were applicable both to the electrical detection of the rays and to photographic records of the “ spectral lines ” of such characteristic rays of the elements as were discovered by Barkla in 1904. The tactical array of the atoms in a crystal serves the same sort of purpose as the systematic spacing of lines on an optical grating and wavelengths as smal] as 1 A.U. were measured (see CRYSTALLOGRAPHY). Mosely in 1913 discovered that in the high frequency spectra of the clements a wonderful progressive increase of wavelengths of homologous lines was disclosed by the elements when arranged in order of atomic weight (see AromiIc WFicuTs); and theoretical considerations led him in 1914 to prove by measurement of photographic records that (1) every element from aluminium to gold is characterised by an integer which determines its X-ray spectrum, and (2) this integer N, the ‘ atomic number ” of the element is identified with the number of positive units of electricity contained in the atomic nucleus (see ISOTOPES). He thus corroborated the conceptions of Rutherford (1911) and of van den Broek (1913) of the nature of this constituent of an atom, and, besides establishing a fundamental principle in atomic physics, provided measures of wavelengths in the extremest regions of the ultra-violet spectrum. X-rays used in physics and medicine range from about o-or A.U. to 12 Angstrém units. The highly penetrating rays are of short wavelength; the “ softness ” of rays increases with the wavelength. The y-rays emitted by radioactive substances are highly penetrating rays and have wavelengths less than 1-5 Angstrém units. The recent observations of Millikan in 1925 on

SPEE—SPERRY a very highly penetrating radiation point to the existence of X-rays of wave-lengths even smaller than those of y-rays. Thus our knowledge of the spectrum of electromagnetic radiations may be said to extend over a range of more than 7o octaves, or from wavelengths from o-o01

A.U. to 10,000 km.;

and within this range the visible rays occupy hardly an octave; the British Broadcasting Company utilise rays ranging over about 2 octaves; and only about 5 octaves in the whole range have escaped actual detection (see WIRELESS). See E. C. C. Baly, Spectroscopy (1924). (H. F. N.) SPEE, MAXIMILIAN, Count von (1861-1014), German sailor, was born in Copenhagen June 22 1861. He entered the German navy in 1878 and from 1887 to 1888 was Ilafenkommandant (commander of the port) in German Cameroon. In 1908 he was made chief of staff of the German North Sea command,

and at the end of 1912 took over the Far Eastern Squadron. On Nov. 1 1914 he was engaged by Admiral Cradock off Coronel,

on the Chilean Coast, and succeeded in defeating the British squadron. On Dec. 8 19014, however, he was attacked by Admiral Sturdee’s cruiser squadron. The Germans were heavily defeated in the battle that taok place. This is usually known as the battle of the Falkland Islands, and in it Spee himself went down with his flagship, the “ Scharnhorst.” (See CORONEL; FALKLAND ISLANDS).

SPEED INDICATOR.—Instruments used for meastiring either linear or angular speed are classed under the general heading of speed indicators. Those used for indicating linear speed are used most extensively on motor vehicles and are known specifically as speedometers, while instruments based on the same working principles but used to measure angular speed are known as tachometers. Tachometers are always graduated in revolutions per minute, while speedometers are graduated in miles (or kilometres) per hour. The speedometer is driven from one of the road wheels or from the transmission tail shaft of the vehicle through a flexible shaft and a gear mechanism, and as its indications depend solely upon the speed at which its own shaft revolves, account must be taken in calibrating it, of the diameter of the road wheel from which it is driven and of the gear ratio between this wheel and the speedometer shaft. Inversely, if the scale is fixed, the gear ratio must be varied to suit the wheel diameter. Odometers.—Speedometers used on automobiles carry, In addition to the actual speedometer mechanism, a so-called odometer, which indicates the distance covered by the car. This instrument comprises a number of dial wheels with numerals imprinted on their circumference, which show through a window in the face plate. The dial wheels do not move continuously but periodically, in steps of one-tenth revolution. Usually there are two sets of such dial wheels, one set showing the total mileage covered by the car since the instrument was installed, the other the mileage covered on a single trip, the dials of the latter being returnable to the zero position at the end of each trip by means of a reset device. An odometer, therefore, may be regarded as an integrator of linear motion; a corresponding instrument for integrating angular motion is known as a revolution counter and is much used on large, low-speed engines, In mechanical tests, and for many other purposes. | _ Main Principles—There are three general principles on which the operation of speed indicators may be based, of which that of centrifugal force has been employed longest. With this, a pair of weights is carried on a revolving shaft, in such a manner that they may move out from the axis of the shaft under the influence of centrifugal force, while being forced toward the axis of the shaft by a spring, the motion taking place around fixed pivots. The centrifugal force on the weights increases with the speed, and the faster the shaft revolves, the farther the weights will move out from the axis of rotation. An indicating hand connected mechanically to the centrifugal weights may be made to

indicate the speed of rotation of the shaft, or the speed of motion of a vehicle to one of whose road wheels the shaft is connected. The second principle very extensively used is that of magnetic

drag.

A cup of sheet aluminium is mounted on a spindle and

627

held in the “ zero” position by a spiral spring. A permanent magnet whose lines of force pass through the wall of the cup is rotated inside th® latter at a speed proportional to that to be measured. The rotation of the magnet induces currents in the aluminium cup and the reaction between these currents and the magnetism of the magnet produces a drag on the cup, which causes it to turn around its axis against the torsion of the spring, in proportion to the speed of the magnet. A scale printed on the outside of the cup shows through an opening in the face of the instrument, and the scale reading in line with a mark on the face indicates the speed. The third principle made use of is based on the fact that speed is the quotient of distance by time. Instruments based on this principle comprise an odometer and a clockwork, measuring distance and time respectively, and they effect the operation of division mechanically. (P. M. H.) SPENDER, JOHN ALFRED (1862), British journalist, was born at Bath, the son of a doctor, and educated at Bath College, and at Balliol College, Oxford, under Jowett. Acopting the career of a journalist, he was editor of The Eastern Morning News from 1886 to 1890, after which he came to London and was on the staff of The Pall Mall Gazette. When the Westminster Guzelte was established in 1893, he became an assistant editor and from 1896 to 1922 was its editor, leaving just after it became a morning paper. As editor of the Westminster Mr. Spender won general respect, not only as a brilliant writer but as the possessor of an exceptionally fair and balanced mind. He won, too, a high place in the councils of the Liberal party, and his services to the state included membership of the royal commission. on divorce, and of the Milner Mission to Egypt. A slight volume, The Comments of Bagshot (1914), reveals Mr. Spender at his best. He has also written The Indian Scene (1912); The Foundations of British ‘Policy (1917); and The Life of Sir. H. Campbelli- Bannerman (1923). Hls brother, Harold, also known as a Liberal journalist, and the author of a number of books- of travel and politics, died April 15 1926. SPENGLER, OSWALD (188œ ), German philosopher, was born at Blankenburg in the Harz May 29 1880. He studied mathematics and natural history at various German universities, and at the same time interested himself deeply in history and art. This early and rare combination of scientific knowledge with interest in the humanities is the foundation of the peculiar character of Spengler’s work, in which unexpected parallels between scientific truths of physics and mathematics and the artistic and other cultural achievements of an epoch of history are made clear. Spengler’s thesis for his doctor’s degree dealt with “The Metaphysical Idea of the Philosophy of Heraclitus ” (Halle, 1904). From 1907 to rg1z he taught mathematics and physics at a school in Hamburg. In 1911 he conceived the main theme of his work. Abandoning teaching, he completed in 1914 the first version of Der Untergang des Abendlandes, which remained unpublished until 1918. A revised and much enlarged edition was completed in 1922. An authorised translation of the first volume into English (Te Decline of the West), by Charles Francis Atkinson, was published in 1926. The work has had great popularity and iniluence. — | Other works of Spengler, chiefly concerned with contemporary

political problems are: Preussentum und Sositlismus (1920); Pesstmismus (1921); Politische Pflichten der deutschen Jugend (1924); Neubau des deuischen Reiches (1924). See M. Schroeter, Der Streid win Spengler, etc. (1922).

SPERRY, ELMER AMBROSE (1860), American inventor, was born at Cortland, N.Y., Oct. 12 1860. His education was received at Cortland normal school, 1876-9, and Cornell University, 1879-80. He founded the Sperry Electric Co., Chicago, in 1880, engaging in the manufacture of arc lamps, dynamos and other electrical appliances, and also the Sperry Electric Co., Cleveland, O., manufacturers of electric cars. This last-named company was sold to the General Electric Co., New York City, in 1894. He perfected one of the first arc lamps, and invented aeroplane and ship stabilisers, the highest intensity searchlight (1,500 million candle power), and many special devices for the U.S. Navy. His most important invention was the gyro-compass

SPIELHAGEN—SPINAL MENINGITIS

628

(patented in 1918), designed to obviate magnetic disturbances incident particularly to armoured ships and submarines. He further devised the gyro-pilot, a device for th®automatic steering of a ship. In 1910 he became president of the Sperry Gyroscope Co., Brooklyn, N.Y., a company formed to manufacture his inventions. In rọ15 he became a member of the Naval Consulting Board and chairman of its mines, torpedoes and aeronautics

committees.

In 1883 he erected the highest electric beacon in the

world on Lake Michigan (350 feet).

SPIELHAGEN, FRIEDRICH VON (1829-1911), German novelist (see 25.667), died at Charlottenburg, Berlin, Feb. 25 r911. SPINAL MENINGITIS (see 18.130).—The term meningitis signifies merely an inflammation of the membranes (meninges) surrounding the brain and spinal cord. An equivalent term is

cerebro-spinal meningitis.

As the inflammation is usually in-

cited by microbes and attended by fever it is also called cerebrospinal fever. The meninges, as is the case also with the corresponding membranes of the chest (pleura), heart (pericardium) and abdomen (peritoneum), are subject to infection with quite a wide variety of bacteria—cocci and bacilli. According to the microbic incitant, the infection is termed tubercular, pneumococcal, streptococcal, staphylococcal, influenzal (B. pfeifferi), typhoid, etc., meningitis. The precise diagnosis of one or another of these varieties is accomplished by means of the bacteriological examination of fluid (cerebro-spinal) withdrawn by means of the device known

as lumbar puncture.

The above-mentioned

class

of bacterial infections of the meninges tends to arise exceptionally or sporadically; as a rule it accompanies the corresponding bacterial infection affecting other parts of the body, the lungs, middle ear, tonsils, etc. Epidemic Form.—In sharp contrast with the sporadic varieties of meningitis is the epidemic form, incited by a particular microorganism, the diplococcus discovered by Weichselbaum in 1887, now called meningococcus, of which many epidemic outbreaks have been recorded in medical literature. The meningococcus possesses biological characteristics which serve readily to distinguish it from other members of the large class of cocci; and it appears not as a single, sharply defined species, but rather as a group in which the composing strains, while showing many properties in general, are yet distinguishable by means of physiological differences, as of power to ferment carbohydrates, reaction to specific agglutinating agents, etc. As with other such disease-producing or pathogenic bacterial groups, e.g., pneumococci, certain strains or types of meningococci have greater virulence for man than have others. The more virulent strains show greater fixity of biological properties than the more fluctuant, less virulent ones. During epidemics of meningitis the types of enhanced pathogenicity have the wider distribution; while in interepidemic periods the weaker, less defined strains are more frequently encountered. A very wide epidemic, so-called pandemic, of meningitis prevailed during the first two decades of the present century. It embraced Europe, America, Asia, Africa and many islands of the seas. This pandemic was characterised by high mortality and by those multiple clinical features which have been noted in previous severe epidemics of the disease. A part only of the cases, usually not a large part, was attended by the visible haemorrhages in the skin and mucous membranes to which the name of spotted fever was applied in earlier times. Usually the

very severe and rapidly fatal so-called fulminating cases fell into this category. The fatality of the epidemic outbreaks, whether in Europe, in America or in more distant countries, in the years between 1904 and igro did not vary greatly. In the United States the percentage figures were from 75 to go; in Great Britain 70 to 80; in Germany 60 to 70; in France, Italy and Belgium 75 to 80; in Palestine 80; in Greece 60; in the Transvaal 75. In other words, the pandemic seems to have been little affected by locality or race. As in all previous epidemics closely observed, the mortality was influenced by the age period of the attacked; the very young and the very old rarely survived attack. On the

other hand, children over five and adults up to 30 years of age have the best chance of recovery. Serum Treatment.—The outlook for recovery has been greatly modified by the discovery and use of the antimeningococcic serum, or as it is now called merely antimeningitis serum. In view of the advance of bacteriology and serum therapy, it was natural and inevitable that with the reappearance in force about 1904 of epidemic meningitis, efforts should be made to produce a curative serum. These attempts were carried out simultaneously in Germany by Jochmann and Wassermann, and in America by Flexner. The former failed perhaps because the manner of use was wrong: the serum was injected chiefly subcutaneously. The latter succeeded, because the injections were made repeatedly directly into the inflamed meninges by means of lumbar puncture. Flexner’s method was based on an experimental study in which the meninges of monkeys were infected with the meningococcus, and the treatment was apphed by lumbar puncture. The serum-treated monkeys survived, while the untreated and those treated by subcutaneous injections of the serum succumbed. This result is in harmony with what is known of the anatomical-physiological conditions affecting the passage of chemical substances from the blood into the cerebro-spinal fluid. Such passage, even when the membranes are inflamed, takes place to a very small extent or not at all. In order, therefore, to bring the curative serum into relation with the seat of disease, it became necessary to circumvent the protective mechanism of the

choroid plexus, which structure determines the quality of the cerebro-spinal fluid. This could readily be done by making direct injections through the lumbar puncture needle. Results of Serum Treatment.——The consensus of competent opinion is that given a potent antimeningitis serum, which carries the immunity principles of the chief strains of virulent meningococci—a _ so-called polyvalent serum—its proper employment is capable of greatly modifying the course of the meningitic disease, of reducing the mortality, and of preventing crippling consequences. The results of the serum treatment are affected by such considerations as age of the patient, period of

the disease at which the treatment is begun, the manner in which the repeated injections are carried out and also of course by the original severity of the cases themselves. Little has been accomplished in mitigating the effects of the fulminant disease, since often the interval between onset and termination is only 24 to 48 hours.

A number of tabulations have been published showing the effects of the serum according to age groups, days of first injection, etc. The largest compilation is that of Flexner, dealing with about 1,300 cases in which the mortality among those treated in the first three days of illness was 18-1, the second three days 27-2 and after the seventh day 36-5%>. The total mortality among these cases was 30:8%, as compared with 75 to 80% among corresponding non-serum-treated cases. Netter’s figures for the corresponding three periods are 7-14, 11-1 and 23°5°%; and Dopter’s 8, 20, 14-4 and 24-1%. Flexner’s figures are compiled from the reports of physicians at many places, of whom not a few had had only slight experience with the serum, while Netter’s and Doptcr’s are based on personal experiences largely with a more uniform material and method. Similarly, the influence of age on the results of the treatment 1s shown as follows: According to Flexner, under one year 50°, one to 20 years 75°, over 20 years 60% recovered; according to Netter, under one year 40°, one to 20 years 79°% recovered; and according to Dopter, under one year 53°, one to 20 years 78%, and over 20 years 76° recovered. These are impressive figures when compared with those of earlier epidemics, and especially with corresponding and even simultaneous cases of the same epidemics in which the antimeningitis serum was not employed. It is desirable to ascertain whether the favourable action of the serum can be related to any other striking results of its use. In this way the mere numerical or statistical evidence may come to be supported. Fortunately, certain important objective effects are produced. Perhaps the most immediately impressive

SPITSBERGEN is the modified character of the clinical course of the disease itself. Briefly stated, this relates to the essential disappearance of the chronic cases slowly moving through weeks and months to a fatal issue, attended by hydrocephalus, extreme emaciation and other sequels. Either the cases fail to respond and terminate quickly, or in a few days the real infection is over and the patient convalescent. The growth and multiplication of the meningococcus within the cerebro-spinal fluid are quickly arrested. Probably it is this action of the serum which controls the disease. Next, epidemic meningitis is a disease from which when recovery occurs spontaneously it tends to take place slowly, gradually, or by “ lysis ”; under the influence of the serum, sudden terminaation by “f crisis ” frequently takes place. Finally, the severe consequences, as of hydrocephalus, impairment of vision and mentality, paralysis and joint affections, are diminished. The one severe complication which has not been influenced is deafness, which occurs in a varying, usually small percentage of the cases, and usually very early in the disease.

Mode of Infection.—The mode of infection in epidemic meningitis may be regarded as established. The meningococcus gains access to the interior of the body by way of the mucous membrane of the nose and throat. The incidence of meningitis bears relationship to the proportion of nasopharyngeal carriers of the meningococcus. When the cases are few in any community or group of persons the carrier rate is low. When the carrier rate rises the cases tend to increase in number. During sharp outbreaks, among an exposed personnel, the carrier rate may reach 20%; ordinarily it is 2 to 3°% or less. Probably the meningococcus passes from the nasal mucous membrane into the blood, with which it is carried to the meninges. Whether the microbe ever passes along the direct lymphatic channels stretching from the nasal membrane to the meninges may be doubted. Instances are known in which meningococci were present in the blood some time before signs of meningitis appeared. The intravenous injection of the antimeningitis serum has been successful in removing the microbe from the blood and of curing the general or blood infection. No meningitis followed. It is because of the occurrence of meningococci

in the blood stream that early intravenous injection of the serum is recommended by certain authorities as a regular part of its intraspinal use in the treatment of epidemic meningitis. To be of value, the intravenous injection should be carried out very early in the disease, and it should not be substituted for the direct injection into the inflamed meninges. As a rule, a number of intraspinal serum injections on successive days is required to control the infection.

The successful employment of the antimeningococcus serum has led to efforts being made to control other microbic varieties of meningitis in a similar manner, but thus far without notable success. Probably the meningococcus, as compared with the more hardy pneumococcus, streptococcus and Pfeiffer bacillus, is a fragile organism easily subject to injury by direct action of the antiserum. Certainly it tends to be taken up by the white blood cells (leucocytes) present as the result of inflammation. It is this striking intracellular feature which led Weichselbaum, the discoverer, to invent for it the cumbrous name of Diplococcus intracellularis meningitidis, now rarely employed. Moreover, with so many of the class of microbes other than the meningococcus, the meningitis is a complication of some other severe infection, as a pneumonia, a peritonitis or other severe affection, so that its amelioration offers fewer possibilities of successful issue than when, as in epidemic meningitis, the chief if not the sole disease is confined to one place. Even with the antimeningitis serum, the natural curative powers of the body come into play, when the recovery of one and not of another individual occurs and there are relatively comparable conditions of infection. Hence, the more seriously embarrassed the body is with multiple sources of microbic poisoning, the less able are these inherent powers to assert themselves, even when assisted by artificially produced healing agents. BIBLIoGRAPHY.—S. Flexner, Jour. Exper. Med., 1907, ix., 142, 168; S, Flexner and J. W. Jobling, Jour, Exper. Med., 1908, x., 141; 5.

629

Flexner, Jour. Exper. Med., 1913, xvii. 553; A. Netter, Congrès Assoc. Franç. de Pediatrie (1910); C. Dopter, Congrès Français de Médecine, Bordeaux (1923). (S. F.) SPITSBERGEN,

the

and Novaya Zemlya

Arctic

archipelago

(see 25.708), is now

between

Greenland

officially known

as

Svalbard, though the individual islands retain their former names. According to the most recent surveys, the highest peak in the archipelago is believed to be Mount Newton, 5,445 ft., in the eastern part known as New Friesland. Several other peaks in the same and near ranges are over 5,000 feet. Mount Eidsvoll, in King James Land, is 4,770 ft. and Mount Monaco,

on Prince Charles Foreland, is 3,543 feet. Geology.—Considerable exploration has not greatly modified the main conception of the geological structure, but it is now realised that the Caledonian folds of Scotland and Scandinavia pass through Prince Charles Foreland and western Spitsbergen and are probably continued in the north of Greenland. The old rocks of the west, generally described as the Hekla Hook series, seem to be of Ordovician age to which may also be ascribed most of the so-called Archacan rocks of the northwest. There are no permo-carboniferous rocks in King James Land and the strips of rocks on the northeast side of Prince Charles Foreland and the opposite shores of the mainland, formerly attributed to that age, are now known to be tertiary. Certain of the coal measures in Advent Bay prove to be of cretaceous and not tertiary age and these cretaceous beds ptobably appear also befow the tertiary beds in Lowe Sound. An extinct volcano and several hot springs with a temperature of 75° to 82° F. were discovered in Bock Bay, off Wood Bay in r910. The volcano seems to date from a later period than any other volcanic manifestation found in Spitsbergen. Research has proved that dislocation has played a great part in determining the main features of the fjord system, especially in Ice Fjord where the course of the Fjord has been decided by great faults. Climate.—From the meteorological data now available, including eight years’ records from Green Harbour, the following means may be given:

Cape Thordsen—Jan.+-0-3° F., July 39-9° F.; Green Harbour—Feb. —8-3°, July 39:7°; Axel I, (Lowe Sound) —Feb. —7-2°, July 40°3°; S.E. of Edge I.,—Feb.-+-0-3°, Aug. 37:4; Bear I.—Feb.+10-4°, Aug. 40-1". The mean annual precipitation at Green Harbour is 11-6 in.; Prince Charles Foreland has more and the interior of Spitsbergen less.

ExplorationRecent exploration in Spitsbergen has been devoted mainly to geological work, largely with economic ends in view, and detailed cartographical survey. The principal survey work has been done by Norwegians working in small parties every summer since 1906, assisted by grants from the Norwegian State. These parties have been successively com-

manded by G. Isachsen, A. Staxrud and A. Hoel, and have mapped in detail the western side of the mainland from the north coast to the South Cape. The work is expedited by the use of photogrammetric methods to assist triangulation. The detailed survey of Prince Charles Foreland was completed by W. S. Bruce and assistants, who also mapped the area between Klaas Billen and Sassen Bays. Swedish surveyors mapped the land round Lowe Sound and Braganza Bay. The Prince of Monaco showed continued interest in Spitsbergen exploration by giving assistance to several explorers, including the Swiss, H. Stoll, who in TA 3 crossed the unknown country between Lowe Sound and Agardh Bay. W. Filchner in 1910 surveyed the glaciated region between Temple Bay and Mohn Bay. Another German expedition under Lt. Schroeder-Stranz in 1912 came to grief on the north coast, with some loss of life, and accomplished nothing. In 1920 J. M. Wordie scaled several of the highest peaks on the west coast, including Mounts Monaco, Rudmose and Barents. In 1923 and 1924 the Oxford expeditions under G. Binney carried out some surveys on the coasts of NorthEast land and crossed the island. Hydrographic surveys have been carried out by G. Isachsen and others on the west coast and in Green Harbour, by W. S. Bruce in Foreland Sound, Klaas Billen and Sassen Bays and Stor Fjord, and by the Norwegian naval survey in Ice Fjord and on the southwest coast. Swedish Govt. surveyors have been at work in Lowe Sound, Oceanographical work has been done in Spitsbergen waters by Dr. F. Nansen. King’s Bay was used by R. Amundsen in 1925 in his unsuccessful attempt to fly to the Pole and again in 1926. The Norwegian Govt. has maintained a wireless telegraph station and meteorological observatory in Green Harbour since 1911. A German meteorological station was founded in Ebeltoft Haven, Cross Bay, in 1910 as the outcome of a visit by Prince Henry of Prussia and Count Zeppelin, when experiments with dirigible balloons were conducted. This station was abandoned in Sept. 1914. From 1920-6 Norway maintained a meteorological and geophysical station for aerological and geo-

SPITTA— SPRINGFIELD

630

magnetic research at Quade Hook, King’s Bay. In Aug. 192I a Norwegian Church was consecrated at Longyear City. There are Norwegian post-offices at the chief mines.

Mining.—The development of the coal-ficli!s has proceeded rapidly, greatly stimulated during the War by the scarcity and high price of coal in Scandinavia. The coal-mine in Longyear Valley, Advent Bay, which has been under American ownership since 1905, was sold in 1916 to Norwegians, Several other Norwegian mines have started, notably in King’s Bay and Hjorth Haven in Advent Bay and on Bear Island. Swedish mines were opened in Lowe Sound (Braganza Bay) in1o17. There are Dutch mines in Green Harbour. British enterprise, hampered by war conditions, revived in rọrọ in the coal bearing areas in Klaas Billen Bay, Temple Bay and Coles Bay. By 1920 practically all the coal-bearing areas were annexed by one or other company. In 1925 seven mines were exporting coal. The total amount of coal exported in 1924 was 440,000 tons, nearly all of which went to Norwegian ports, including some to Narvik for the Swedish railways. A few thousand tons went to Arch-

angel. The coal exported so far is of Tertiary and Cretaccous age and proves to be good steam coal. Bituminous coal of Carbomniferous age will soon be available for export. Mining continues throughout the year but the export season at present is from late May to September. The largest mining camp is Longyear City in Advent Bay, housing some soo men in summer and 400 In

winter. No other minerals besides coal are as yet exploited commercially, but large deposits of iron ore (36% iron) and gypsum are known, as well as smaller deposits of zine and asbestos. Signs of oil have been reported. Whaling was revived in Spitsbergen waters in rg0s but after a few years was abandoned. Winter fur-hunting is pursued by a few Norwegians. Political History.—The question of political control had been discussed since about 1870, mainly by Norway, Sweden and Russia, without any solution being found. Spitsbergen therefore occupied the curious position of being /erra nullius. In 1907, however, Norway again opened negotiations for an international conference to decide the question of sovereignty, and one was held at Oslo (Christiania) in July-Aug. toro, followed by another in rot2, without definite result. In July ror4 a conference which included also representatives of Britain, France, Belgium, the United States, Holland and Germany tried to devise a form of administration consistent with the country remaining a terra nullius, but the outbreak of the World War put an end to the discussions. In roro the Supreme Council conferred on Norway, the sovereignty of Spitsbergen, including Bear I., and all islands between 10° and 35° E., and between 74° and 81° North. The signatories of the treaty were Great Britain and the British Dominions, France, Italy, the United States, Japan, Holland, Denmark, Norway and Sweden. Ratifications were delayed and Norwegian sovereignty did not become effective until Aug. 1925. Russia has now adhered to the Treaty. The rights and territories of nationals other than those of Norway are safeguarded, and Norway is not allowed to show preferential treatment to Norwegian mining companies or to levy taxes except for expenditure on the administration. Disputed claims to estates are to be decided by a neutral commission presided over by a Dane. The islands are never to be used for warlike purposes. Svalbard is the new name for all islands in the Norwegian sphere in the Arctic but the names of individual islands are unchanged. Svalbard is deemed a part of the Kingdom of Norway. pF , BIBLIOGRAPHY.—The literature is in the main scattered in periodical publications, specially useful are Fmer (Stockholm) Widenskapsselskapets skrifter (Oslo), Naturen (Bergen), Scottish Geographical Magazine and Albert [., Prince of Monaco’s Résultats des campagnes scientifiques, vol. 40, 41 and 45 (1889, etc.). Two modern works are R. N. Rudmose Brown, Spitsbergen: its exploration, hunting and mineral riches (1919) and F. Nansen, Exferd til Spitsbergen (1920); or Spitsbergen (Leipzig, 1921). G. Isachsen, “Fra Ishavet” in Det Norske Geografiske Selskabs Aarbok (1916-9) gives much information about Norwegian hunters. H. M. Cadell, “‘ Coal Mining in Spitsbergen, ‘‘ Trans, Inst. Min. Eng., vol. 60 (1920) and A. Hoel, ‘ The Coal Deposits and Coal Mining of Svalbard’ (Oslo, 1925) describe

the coal-bearing areas.

F. C. Wieder,

The Dutch Discovery and

Mapping of Spitsbergen 1596-1829 (Amsterdam, 1919) has many reproductions of early maps. The meteorological observations at Green Harbour are published annually in Jahrbuch des Norwegtschen Meteorologischen Instituts (Oslo). A. Miethe and H. Hergesell, Afrit Zeppelin nach Spitsbergen (1911) is noteworthy for the excellence of its illustrations, including colour plates. G. Binney, Heth Seaplane and Sledge in the Arctic (1925) describes the work of the Oxford expeditions. Some of the results of the Norwegian surveys are collected in Expedition Isachsen au Spitsberg roog-10 Résultats scientifigues (Oslo, 1916). The geomorphology of Spitsbergen is explained by G. de Geer * On the physiographical evolution of Spitsbergen “Geog. Annaler, vol. 1 (Stockholm, 1919). Spitzbergenflandbuch (Berlin, 1916) gives full sailing directions. The Spitsbergen Treaty is published in Treaty Series No. 18, Cmd. 2092

(1924).

(R. N. R. B.)

SPITTA, FRIEDRICH (1852-1924), German theologian (see 25.711), died at Gottingen June 7 1924. In roto he published Das Johannes-Evangeltum Als Quelle der Geschichte Jesu. SPITTELER, CARL (1845-1024), Swiss poet and novelist, known by his pen name of Felix Tandem, was born in Liestal, Switzerland, on April 24 1845. Ife was educated at the Basle Gymnase and studied theology at the universities of Zurich and Heidelberg. From 1871 to 1879 he acted as a tutor in Russia; from 1879 to 1880, he was a teacher at the Girls’ High School, Berne, andafterwardsat Neuenstadt. In 1885 he became editor of the Grengpost, Basle, and in 1890-2 was fiction editor of the Neue Zitvicher Zeitung. In 1892 he settled down as an independent

author at Lucerne. In 1919 he won the Nobel Prize for literature and the Prize of Honour of the Swiss Schiller Foundation. He died at Berne Dec.

29 1924.

His chief works are: Prometheus and Epimetheus (1881), an epic; Fxtraniundana, a poem (1883); Fuage, a romance (1906); Schimetierlinge, poems; Frredit, der Koldert, a tale; Gusta, a tale; Balladen; Conrad der Leutnant, a tale; Lachende Wahreiten, essays; Olympischer Frühling, an epic (190073) ; Glockenl ieder, poems; Dire Müdchenfreunde; Meine frühesten, Erlebnisse (1914); Rede uber Göltfried Keiler, etc.

SPOKANE,

Wash., U.S.A. (see 25.713), had a population in

1020 of 104,437 (of whom 17,096 were foreign born) and had grown by 1925 to about 125,000 within the city limits (local estimate). After the World War there was a lively period of activity in all kinds of construction

(public, commercial,

indus-

trial and domestic buildings) amounting to an aggregate value of $16,460,480 for the years torg—24. ‘Phe assessed value of taxable property in 1924 was $86,540,024. Industrial development progressed until there were (1924) 364 establishments in or near the city, with an output for the vear valued at $125,000,000, Meat and other food products, limber and lumber products, flour, machinery and paper were among the leading commodities

produced. The wholesale and jobbing business for the same vear was estimated at $197,538,000. By 1025 there were seven hydro-electric plants on the Spokane river, within 30 m. of the city, which had an installed capacity of 185,400 H.P., supplying current in Spokane for the street railways, street lamps and domestic and industrial use. The commission form of government was adopted in rorr. In 1917 a comprehensive park system was laid out. By 10925 there were 2,200 ac. in public parks (the highest per capita provision in the country), including a mountain 5,808 {t. high, 35 m. away, owned by the city. Spokane had the lowest percentage of illiteracy and the highest percentage of school attendance among the cities of 100,c00 and over IN 1920. | SPRAYING: see ENTOMOLOGY, ECONOMIC.

SPRINGFIELD, Mass., U.S.A. (see 25.739), Increased in population 45:8% in the decade beginning 1910, reaching 129,614 in 1920, of whom 31,461 were foreign born, and reaching 142,224 in 1925 (State census). The numerous and diversified manufactures within the city had an output valued at $31,773,000 In 1909; $98,333,000 in 1919; and, after only a slight decrease during the post-War depression, $104,568,038 in 1923. In the industrial district, within five m. of the ‘ municipal group,” there were 543 plants in 1924 making 478 different products. In 1916 the Eastern States Exposition (agricultural and industrial) was established, with permanent grounds of 172 ac., in West Springfield; by 1924 plant and equipment were valued at $2,000,000 and included a coliseum with an unobstructed arena roo by

SPRING-RICE—SQUIRE 200 ft. and seating capacity for 5,600 persons. A new Union station was built in rọrọ. The Hampden County Memorial Bridge (concrete) across the Connecticut river, built in commemoration of the patriotic service of the county’s citizens, was dedicated in 1922. Zoning ordinances were adopted in 1922-3-4. SPRING-RICE, SIR CECIL ARTHUR (1859-10918), British diplomatist, was born in London Feb. 27 1859, the second son of the Hon. Charles Spring-Rice (1819-1870), and grandson of the rst Baron Monteagle. Educated at Eton and Balliol College, Oxford, he entered the Foreign Office in 1882, becoming private secretary to Lord Granville in 1884 and précis writer to Lord Rosebery in 1885. He went to Washington as third secretary in 1886, and in 1895 proceeded to Berlin. In 1898 he became secretary at Tehran, and in roor British commissioner on the Caisse de la Dette in Cairo. In 1903 he went to St. Petersburg (Leningrad), first as secretary and later as councillor of embassy, remaining in Russia till the end of ro05. In 1906 he was sent to Persia as minister, having lately been created K.C.M.G. In 1908 he was created G.C.V.O. and went to Sweden as minister, and in 1912 was appointed ambassador to the United States. He died at Ottawa on his way home to England, Feb. 14 1918. See Sir V. Chirol, Cecil Spring-Rice: In Memoriam (1919). SPRUE.—Sprue (see 25.742) (Dutch Spruw) is fairly distributed in tropical and subtropical regions, and it is impossible to afirm positively that cases do not arise in temperate climates. Syn ptoms.—The symptoms usually begin with dyspepsia and irregularity of bowel action. In a fully declared case the chief signs are the passage of large, bulky, frothy, pale porridge-like, fermenting stools, especially in the early part‘ot the day, much flatulence and acidity, with a sore, tender, ulcerated mouth,a red, smooth and tender tongue, often with exquisitely painful ulcers on the fraenum and at the sides where the tongue comes into contact with the back teeth. Loss of flesh is very rapid amounting perhaps to 4o lb. in two months. Cramps of the fingers and of the feet and calves identical with those of tetany, are common in severe cases and death occurs either from emaciation, exhaustion and intercurrent disease or, more usually, from intense anaemia, with signs resembling in some respects, but not in all, those of pernicious anaemia (g.v.), or rarely from perforation of the intestinal ulcer, since the alimentary tract may show ulcers similar to those present in the mouth. Causation.—An early and persistent symptom is intestinal disturbance, due, it may be, to the growth and products (toxins) of streptococci isolated from the stools and mouth lesions cr to fungoid organisms, monilia or as a sequela of dysentery, though many suffer from dysentery who never develop sprue, and many spruc patients have never had dysentery. It has been ascribed to food deficiency or avitaminosis, but sprue attacks mostly the European in good circumstances, not the native, underfed and living in unhygienic surroundings. Recent investigations tend to regard sprue as due to disturbance of the parathyroid glands which are closely associated with the thyroid and seem to have a two-fold function, (1) to exert an anti-toxic action, especially against intestinal poisons and (2) to regulate the metabolism of calcium. In sprue the primary mischief appears to be the production of intestinal toxins, a condition very common in tropical and subtropical regions, and arising from one or more causes as noted above. The parathyroids perform their detoxicating function until exhausted and no longer able to cope with the poisons elaborated. Determination of the calcium content of the blood at this time yields definite indications of upset of calcium metabolism. In normal blood plasma calcium exists in two forms, the ionic, or free, and the coagulative, or combined, and present in the proportions of 6 ionic to 4-5 of combined. When the blood coagulates, the calcium of the serum of normal subjects is all in the ionic form. In sprue, either the conversion of the combine to the ionic form does not take place, or a recombination occurs so that, though the total calcium content is about normal, the ionic is found to be reduced. This indicates that the tissues fail to use the calcium absorbed from the alimentary canal in the

absence of the parathyroid hormone.

In other conditions which

631

may be confused with sprue—such as pancreatic affections, the so-called coeliac disease of children, post-dysenteric diarrhoeas, ankylostomiasis, filariasis, to name but a few—this peculiar behaviour of the calcium does not obtain. The test, therefore, known as Vines’s test, after its deviser, is of inestimable value in diagnosis and, since the proportion of ionic to total calcium increases with progress under treatment, affords a reliable indication when carried out at intervals. The chief points on which the calcium parathyroid-deficiency theory is based are (1) the fatty diarrhoea, loss of weight, cramps, oedema and tetany as symptomatic of faulty calcium metabolism, (2) the low proportion of ionic calcium in untreated sprue, (3) the increase of ionic calcium as the condition improves and its fall if a relapse occurs, (4) the improvement when calcium is administered alone, which is quicker and more stable when combined with parathy roid. Treatment.—The treatment is rest in bed for a fortnight on a diet restricted to milk (increasing from 4 to 74 pints daily) which itself contains much calcium and, to ensure an abundance of this element, calcium lactate may be given in cachets (gr. 15 thrice daily) and, to regulate its distribution and support the failing glands, extract of parathyroid (gr. 1/1oth twice daily). The parathyroid must be free from all admixtures with thyroid (most preparations contain some of the latter) for these two appear to be antagonistic and if any of the latter be present, the symptoms become aggravated and palpitation and other indications of thyroid excess are superadded. With a pure preparation, however, the sprue symptoms improve within a fortnight, the ionic calcium increases to about 8 mgm. %, the stools are reduced to one a day and the soreness of the mouth disappears. Gradual additions to the diet can then be permitted and the patient allowed up for an increasing time each day. At the end of four weeks in favourable cases, the calcium lactate can be dropped and the parathyroid reduced to half doses. By this time or within another week or so, the blood serum will show a normal calcium content, but the parathyroid extract should not be left off entirely for another three to four weeks in order to stabilise the condition before all support is removed. Should any symptoms of recurrence appear, a return for a few days to a simpler diet and to the parathyroid extract will restore health. Many patients treated on these lines have returned to their duties abroad, many others, unable to come home, have been treated in the tropics and have recovered. A few years ago the appearance

of sprue

meant

immediate

return

to a temperate

climate, prohibition of future residence in the tropics and the ruin of a hopeful career abroad. (H. H. Sc.) SQUASH RACQUETS (see 22.783} has developed remarkably since 1910. Formerly it was played chiefly at public and private schools, while courts were to be found at a few clubs and private houses. Shortly before the War the game began to increase in popularity and afterwards its spread has been rapid, both in Great Britain and America, while there are now a certain number of courts on the continent of Europe. The standard dimensions for courts are different in the British Isles and the United States and there are also some variations in the rules of the game as practised in the two countries. This, however, has not prevented the players meeting in matches. In 1924 a British team visited Canada and the United States and an American team came to England in 1925. A number of individual and team competitions are now held annually, among them being an amateur championship and a ladies’ amateur championship. One advantage of squash racquets is that courts lend themselves readily to artificial lighting and the conditions for play are as good at night as during the day time. SQUIRE, JOHN COLLINGS (1884), British man of letters, was born at Plymouth April 2 1884 and educated at Blundell’s School, Tiverton, and St. John’s College, Cambridge. He then engaged in publishing and journalism, working for a time in the Press Gallery of the House of Commons. He became literary editor of The New Statesman in 1913, and was its acting editor in 1917-8. His early poems were issued as Poems and Baudelaire Flowers (1909), after which came some clever parodies, Steps to

STAFF, MILITARY

632

Parnassus (1913) and Tricks of the Trade (1917). Further poems included The Lily of Malud (1917), The Birds (1919), The Moon (1920), and American Poems (1923). In rgr9 Squire founded The London Mercury, a monthly journal of literature and the arts, soon a distinctive stronghold in contemporary English criticism. He was also responsible for several volumes of reprinted essays and reviews (some originally under the pseudonym of “ Solomon Eagle '’), a number of anthologies of verse, and a book of short stories, The Grud Street Nights Entertainments (1924).

See ENGLISH LITERATURE. STAFF, MILITARY (sce 25.752).—One result of the unqualified success which Prussian arms achieved in the wars of 1866 and 1870-1 was that the general staff principle, which had so largely contributed to give victory to the hosts controlled by von Moltke in those contests, was adopted by almost every military power during the last quarter of the roth century. Thus in the different staff organisations as they were constituted in peace-time, work in connection with devising plans for offensive operations and for ensuring territorial defence, duties dealing with the collection of military information, the superintendence of the education of officers, the conduct of manoeuvres and the training of troops, were kept as far as possible distinct from administration— adjutantur, as the Germans call it. General Staff System.—Only two of the more important nations—the United Kingdom and the United States—adhered to previously existing systems, under which preparation for war was relegated to the background in staff duties. Then came the South

African

War

of 1899-1902.

The difliculties and disap-

pointments encountered by British military forces in that protracted struggle, coupled with the unsatisfactory working of the staff in the field (especially in its higher grades) during the progress of the operations, made plain the need of reform, and in 1904, the Government set up a “ War Office Reconstitution Committee ” charged with the duty of reorganising the central administration of the army. By far the most important of its proposals was that a General Staff Department, which was to constitute the foremost branch of the professional side of the War Office, should be created. The recommendations of the committee were accepted by the Government, and so it came about that a British general staff was established 10o years before the outbreak of the World War. During those ten years remarkable progress was made, and when the nation was confronted by the tremendous emergency of Aug. ro14 it had at its disposition a body of well-trained general staff officers, sufficient for the comparatively small army that was available to take the field at the opening of hostilities, although totally insufficient to meet the requirements of the vast forces which had to be improvised after war had broken out. The Government of the United States was still later than that of the United Kingdom in establishing a general staff of the kind that Scharnhorst had thought of a century before. This was only set on foot in r911, six years before the entry of the Republic into the great conflict which was to upset so many preconceived ideas on the subject of conducting war, but which was to prove—even more conclusively than had the FrancoGerman War and the Japanese triumphs of 1904—-5——how imperative it is under modern conditions for a state which embarks upon a serious struggle to have an eflicient and suitably organised military staff at its command. Modern Functions of the Staff—Vhe remarkable progress in modern science has tended toimpose new duties and new branches upon military staffs, for instance, the utilisation and control of railway communications, of electric communications, of mechanical traction. The appearance of the tank on the battlefield increased staff work. Finally, the establishment of air power introduced a factor of incalculable importance as affecting the control of the belligerent armies. One most important duty which devolves upon the general staff in a State compelled by its geographical position and by

political and international problems to maintain fighting forces both by sea and byland is the establishment and maintenance of intimate relations with the naval authorities. Attention had

fortunately been paid to this question in the United Kingdom during the period that intervened between the creation of the British general staff and the outbreak of the World War, and to this is to be attributed the secrecy and the smoothness with which the British Expeditionary Force was transported across the Channel to France during the fortnight succeeding the declaration of war in 1914. General staffs on the Continent did not, on the other hand, prove to be equally well-informed as to maritime conditions; this was made apparent during discussions such as often took place between military authorities representing the different Allies, concerning the policy which ought to be pursued in the Near East and other problems in which sea-power was necessarily involved. When a country elects to make of its air service a department of State distinct from the army, as has happened in the United Kingdom, it necessarily falls to the lot ot the military general staff to maintain those intimate relations with the air staff by which alone co-operation can be secured in time of war. Staff and Government.— War,” said Clausewitz, “is only a continuation of State policy by other means,” and elsewhere that “none of the principal plans which are required for a war can be made without an insight into the political relations.” It was a recognition of this truth on the part of her Government that led to the triumphs of Prussia first over Austria in 1866 and then over France in 1870. The history of the short-lived German Empire indicates that in later years there was a tendency for the general staff to attempt to direct, and even partially to succeed in directing the policy of the Government. But the passages quoted above from the great Prussian military writer do not inculcate anything of that kind. What they do inculcate is that there should be at all times an intimate understanding between what has been called the “ brain of the army ” and the civilian executive at the head of the State. It is on the central directing branch of iie general stafi, i.e., on the General Staff Department at the War Office in the case of the United Kingdom, as it was on the “ Great General staff ” of the days of von Moltke and the German Empire, that devolves the duty of maintaining relations with the Government and of advising it regarding the military aspect of problems created by the international situation. That central directing branch of the general staff is entitled to expect that the Government shall keep it fully az courant with the political conditions of the day. The merits of the doctrine preached by Clausewitz seem to be self-evident, but leaders of opinion in the United Kingdom were slow to realise its Importance. There existed an almost unaccountable inability te perceive the dangers to which a State unprepared for emergencies is exposed. The bitter experiences of the South African War were required to awaken British statesmen to a realisation of their responsibilities. The Committee of Imperial Defence.—The lessons of that contest were to some extent learnt, and there was set up the Committee of Imperial Defence, in which professional opinion was given a voice. But although the more prominent members of the Government

were included in it, the committee

itself was

merely a consultative body, and no executive action involving expenditure could follow on one of its decisions without the obtaining of at least nominal Cabinet sanction. Moreover, it did not necessarily follow that the view of the general staff would be accepted by the committee even on academical questions. An interesting example of the working of the system is provided by the story of the Dardanelles. When hostilities arise some instrument a good deal more effective than a consultative committee is needed to control conduct of the War, and, from Aug. 1914 to the date of the Armistice, the operations were, in the case of the United Kingdom, for the first two and a half years of the struggle under supreme charge of various forms of war council directly representative of the Cabinet and given a free hand by that body. They were later under supreme charge of the specially established War Cabinet. The general staff was practically always represented at the meetings of the war councils and of the War Cabinet, but purely in an

advisory position without voting power.

As a matter of fact its

STAFF, opinion was occasionally ignored in questions of considerable importance. This was no doubt partly due to some want of confidence in its judgment felt in Government circles owing to the slow progress made towards victory, and partly due to the personality and the temperament of certain members of the Government itself. It has been said that a gencral staff must “ think politically.” If this maxim is merely to be taken as a meaning that a general staff should appreciate political habits of thought, watch political tendencies and keep itself acquainted with the political aspects of every question influencing military action alike in peace and in war, its truth is indisputable. But one of the most important duties falling to the lot of a general staff, especially in times of emergency, will often be to strive to prevent mere policy from adversely influencing the conduct of operations of war. History provides some striking examples of political considerations gravely prejudicing the prospects of armies in the field. MacMahon’s fatal march to Sedan was a case in point. The retention of Gen. Penn Symons’ advanced force at Glencoe in the opening days of the Natal campaign of 1899 furnishes another Instance.

The Administrative Staff—Neither in the United Kingdom nor In any other military state does the staff of an army consist of a general staff alone. There must always be its “ administrative’ side. In peace-time, the administrative staff of an army is in a sense the more important of the two. The army has to be recruited and fed and clothed and equipped, andits discipline has to be maintained. The British plan subordinates the administrative staff to the general staff less than is the common practice. This is perhaps due to the nature of British campaigns of the 1874-1902 era, campaigns fought in regions often destitute of communications and always poor in resources. Almost everything hinged on supply and transport In these contests. Losses in action were as a rule trifling as compared to losses from disease. For one thought that the commander or his chief advisers gave to the enemy,

ten thoughts

were

given

to communications.

There was little difficulty in beating the enemy if only supplies could be got up to permit a fight. But, to whatever cause it may be attributable, the fact remains that the chief of the general staff of a British army nowadays is merely in the position of primus inter pares relatively to the adjutant-general and the quartermaster-general—and it is the same at the War Office. Tn almost all other armies, on the other hand, including that of the United States, the chief of the general staff is definitely chief of the staff. British and Other Systems Compared.—lf the existing British staff organisation comes to be compared with those where the chief of the general staff is also chief of the staff, it will be found that there is something to be said on both sides. That part of the British system under which a command or a district is in peace-time supplied with a superior officer in charge of administration, to whom wide responsibilities are allowed and who is generally in practice senior to the principal gencral staff officer, permits the general in command to devote nearly the whole of his attention to preparing his troops for war. But that arrangement would be unworkable in the field. There the progress of operations is so dependent on the work of the administrative staff that the commander cannot transfer his authority in connection with the latter to somebody else—as Is recognised in the British staff organisation in time of war by the heads of the adjutant-general and the quartermaster-general staffs, as well as the inspector of communications, then dealing direct with the

commander. Although peace represents the normal state of affairs, armies none the less exist for purposes of war, and in time of war the case for the British system is not so strong. In face of the enemy, operations—planning them, deciding whether the plan is feasible, and taking the necessary steps for their execution—are of paramount importance, but cannot be said actually to govern administration, for unless the army’s establishments are maintained and unless it has its food, its ammunition, etc., it cannot carry out the operations. It is for

NAVAL

633

the administrative staff to say whether the plan is feasible from the point of view of supply, transport, depdts, hospital service, and so forth. It is, however, for the general staff to weigh the

administrative as against the strategical aspects of the case and then lay the whole subject before the commander for a final decision. The British Field Service Regulations clearly admit by implication that the chief of the general staff is the superior of the adjutant-general, thé quartermaster-general and the chief of communications, without their being actually under him. That, under conditions such as develop on active service, is apt to prove a somewhat clumsy arrangement and to give rise to friction.

It is neither one thing nor the other.

Granted that the “ chief of the staff’ system means centralisation, granted that it demands from the chief of the general staff a somewhat closer acquaintance with purely administrative questions than would be necessary if the heads of the chief branches of the administrative staff were virtually his equals, even granted that under it less of his time will be available for the consideration of the strategical and tactical situation than would otherwise be the case, the system does seem a more satisfactory arrangement for purposes of operations in the field than that which found favour in the British Army after the setting up of the Army Council. (C. E. C.) STAFF, NAVAL.—Modern war involves the task of coordinating a multitude of subordinate commands, an array of specialised departments and a number of highly technical services towards a single end. The Command must not lose

itself in the maze of detail. It must be free to survey any part of the whole, to formulate important decisions and supply a strong impetus of direction. The task of co-ordinating all these activities and of preparing a clear picture of the situation is performed through the instrumentality of a staff. The principles of German staff organisation are well known,

A clear line is drawn between “operations” and *“ maintenance, ”’ that is, between the task of using the instrument and the task of maintaining it in an efficient state. This is the first principle. The second is that the business of war must be performed by officers specially trained, drawn from the services they control, acquainted at first hand with their needs and seeing things through their eyes. This is the essence of Scharnhorst’s and Moltke’s system, one of the monumental achicvements of the 19th century. It did not, however, commend itself to the navy. The naval officer had been brought up to delight in detail. The old type of flag oficer felt quite competent to conduct with one or two assistants all the business of war and was jealous of the idea of training young officers to assist him. He could point, too, to an Intelligence Division in existence since 1885 and to a War College for senior officers, both of which had done a large array of good work. It was only in 1912, after the Agadir crisis, that Mr. Winston Churchill was able to lay the foundations of a naval staff and to institute a course of staff training, but the navy had not suffered

in the South African War and there was no weight of strong service opinion behind him, such as assisted Lord Haldane at the War Office. Under a First Lord’s memorandum of Jan. 1912 a chief of the war staff was appointed with three divisions of the war staff (operations, intelligence and mobilisation), and a staff college was started for ihe training of staff ofhicers. The memorandum was a brilliant one, but the Admiralty system was too strong for it. The chief of the war staff had no scat on the Admiralty Board, his function was purely advisory and he could not speak with any degree of authority. The space of two

years was all too short to supply a sufficiency of trained staff officers, and the outbreak of war found the navy 10 years behind the army in this respect. When war broke out the machinery of the staff more or less collapsed, and its work was performed by a small group of flag officers known as the “ war staff group, ’’ working more or less independently of each other, a system which made it difficult for the divisions of the staff to get information. No one was quite certain what the flag officers did or even where they did it. The conduct of the Dardanelles campaign revealed the

634

STAGE

AND STAGE

deficiencies of this system and made it clear that there was no real machinery for the investigation of big strategical questions. Two years passed, and the menace of the submarine led to the inauguration of a better system on the army model. In May 1917 the office of Chiet of the Nava! Staff! was attached to that of First Sea Lord; and by the appointment of a deputy chief and assistant chief of the staff to the board, the staff was

given direct representation on the board and any course of action could quickly be given Board authority. New divisions manned by officers drawn from the fleet and in close touch with its work were added to the staff. An anti-submarine division was organised to control the campaign against the submarine, A plans division drew up plans for the mining of the Bight, Dover barrage and Gin conjunction with Adml. Sims and his

staff) the great

northern

barrage.

A maritime

movements

division took the whole regulation of convoys into its hands, and the section dealing with wireless directionals and wireless

intelligence was at last placed under the Director of Naval Intelligence and opened to the staff. The Naval Staff grafted on to the Admiralty in war time in order to meet an urgent need, differs in some respects from the Imperial General Staff which grew up in peace-time at the War Office under Lord Haldane as an integral part ef army administration, Thus in the General Staff, the Chief of the General Staff and the Director of Staff Duties exercise a much larger measure of control over the whole field of training than is to

be found at the Admiralty, where questions of education secm to cet lost in an array of departments, for the division of training which Mr. Churchill contemplated in ror never fully materialised. The quesiion of the relationsaip of the Chief of the Naval Staff to “ Chiefs of Supply ” (the Third and Fourth Sea Lords), corresponding to the Chief of the Imperial General Staf a nd the Quartermaster-General, is less acute, for ihe Tirst Sea Lord has always exercised a high traditional authority in these spheres, Difficulties between the Chief of the Naval Stall and the Second Sea Lord as Chief of Personnel (corresponding to the

Chief of the Imperial General Staff and the Adjntant-General) on questions of training could be largely av tded Hs the Secord Sea Lord's office was reorganised on modern lines. Outside the

Admiralty, the Chief of the Naval Stat has relations to maimtain with the political executive and the other Government departments, more particularly with the army andetrservice. The irst is best maintained through the Committee of Lmipertal Defence and he Cabinet secretariat, the latter through Daison and regular staff conferences. War on sea is one thing and war on land is another, and fusion of naval and military staffs would merely mean confusion. Their orbits cross in hirding operations and bombardments, and here both services can work together on uniform and well recognised lines. Finally, no system can ris higher than the men who operateit. It is the men init who bring success to a stafi system and mould it as circumstances re-

(A.C. Ð.) quire. (See WorrLD WAR: BIBLIOGRAPHY.) —The task involved in co-ordinating a multitude United States. of subordinate commands and specialised technical departments is well illustrated in the organisation of the Dept. of the Navy of the United States. The department is presided over by the Secretary of the Navy, who is a member of the President’s Cabinet. Under the Secretary of the Navy there is an Assistant Secretary of the Navy who performs such duties as may be prescribed by the Secretary, his chief duty being departmental adIn 10926 an additional Assistant ministration of navy yards. Secretary of the Navy was provided for by law, to aid the SecreUnder the tary of the Navy in fostering naval aeronautics. Secretary of the Navy the two broad functions of eperations and maintenance are handled by naval officers of the active list. The chief of naval operations is appointed by the President and confirmed by the Senate for four years, with the rank and title of admiral. Under the Secretary he is charged with the

operations of the fleet and with the preparation and readiness of plans for its use in war. To carry on the specialised work which may broadly be termed maintenance, there are under the Secre1 The old name War Staff was changed to Naval Staff.

PRODUCTION

tary of the Navy eight bureaux, each headed by an officer with the rank of rear admiral. The names of the bureaux are indicative of their functions, ‘They are: The Bureau of Navigation, in charge of all naval personnel, the Hydrographic Office and the Naval Observatory; the Bureau of Ordnance; the Bureau of Construction and Repair; the Bureau of Engineering; the Bureau of Yards and Docks; the Bureau of Supplies and Accounts; the Bureau of Medicine and Surgery; and the Bureau of Acronautics. In additron to the office of the chief of naval operations and the various bureaux, there are three other important offices under the Secretary of the Navy. These are the General Board, the oftice of the major general commandant of the marine corps and the ofice of the judge advocate general of the navy. Every chief of bureau or head of an office furnishes such information and data as may be called for by the chicf of naval operations. Lhe chicf of naval operations, to carry out so large a task as the operation of the fleet and its preparation and readiness for war, has under him a considerable organisation. Each of the divisions of his office is headed by a rear admiral or a captain. The divisions are organized to carry out the functions of war plans, feet training, intelligence, inspection of ships, ship mevements, communication, the military administration of raval districts and the co-ordination of personnel and material readiness. With this organisation the chief of naval operations is able to prepare and maintain readiness plans for the use cf the feet in War, issue regulations for the training of the fleet in peace and co-ordinate the werk of the bureaus in such a way as to mect the natertal and personnel requirements of the Peet and place it in readiness for war. To advise the Secretary of War and the Secre-

tary of the Navy in matters wherein co-ordination and ca-cneration are required between the army and navy regarding national defence, there is a Joint Army and Navy Board, whose personnel

is drawn from the general staff of the army and trom (he eihce

of the chicf of naval operations.

The word “ staff?’ iseli is

not used in the United States Navy.

STAGE AND STAGE PRODUCTION

Cho Ved)

(sec 26.732).—During the

period r9ro-26, many plays on the European and American stages were produced according to the principles and theories of the naturalistic theatre, the forraal theatre, synthesism, expressionism and constructionism, these movements in theatrical art being the most recent developments of stage theories. But the majority of modern theatres remain untouched by these movements, and, in these, plays cannot in any wav be said to be “ produced.” The acters play their paris, each for himself, and in the manner he finds most etfective for himself, without consideration for, or even understanding of cithcr the total form of the play or the dramatic ensemble. The real pro-

ducer, the “ régisseur ” or “ metteur en scène ™” im such theatres is unknown. His place is taken by the leading actor or by someone whose business it is so to arrange matters on the stage that the learling actors may be continually in the limclight. As neans of interpreting and expressing the play, the scenic surroundings

in these theatres are entirely meaningless. Nearly all the operatic, and a large proportion of dramatic theatres (for example, the Comédie Francaise in Paris) must be included in this category. The waves of the stormy theatrical ocean beat upon them, but are not strong enough to move them from the spot where

they have quictly rested for more than 70 years. Tire

NATURALISTIC

THEATRE

In Germany, interesting naturalistic productions—especially of Hauptmann’s plays—were given by Otto Brahm, mostly at the Lessing Vheatre in Berlin, from r904 to 1912. The influence of Brahm is very noticeable in the work of one of the best-known producers of our time, Max Reinhardt. In America, examples of this type are to be found among the productions of David Belasco. In France the naturalistic theatre founded by André Antoine has had no followers worthy of mention, and, practically speaking, has ceased to exist. In Russia, on the other hand, stage naturalism reached its greatest perfection through the work of the Moscow Art Theatre (now known in Soviet Russia as the Moscow Academical Art Theatre) founded by C. 5.

M rr aaae a aaar aa aiii eR

PLATE

From B. Svetlov’s ‘Contemporary

Ballet’’

SCENE

FOR THE

BALLET, «*THE

FIRE-BIRD”’

Decoration by A. Golovin, from the aquarelle by René Lelong

STAGE

AND STAGE

The Moscow Stanislavsky and V. T. Nemirovich-Danchenko. Art Theatre began by folowing the principles of the productions at the Meininger Theatre established in 1874 by Duke George II. of Meiningen, and carried on until 1890. As at the Meininger, the Moscow artists fought against routine and stale tradition. They took from the Meininger the sets invented by the

Duke George to give the full illusion of real living rooms, with

ceilings, constructed three-dimensional details, natural lighting and perspective of other rooms. They used alee the so-called “ horizon ?” (panorama), introduced for the first time on the stage by the Meininger, the three-dimensional trees placed in the middle of the stage, the natural effects of singing birds, thunder, rain, crickets behind the stove, wind blowing the curtains, and so forth. The production of crowd scenes, neglected before the Meininger, also became a very important feature of the Moscow Art Theatre.

Some of the producers of the Stanislavsky Theatre trained their actors in the same way as did Kroneg, prescribing the exact intonations and emphases, gesturcs, movements and facial expressions. Ior the mise en scène they adopted Kroneg’s method of dividing the stage into numbered squares like a chessboard, and moving the actors from ore square to another. Later, while working upon the proc tuction of Chekhov’s Scagull, Stantslavsky discovered that it is not enough for an actor to simulate nature by putting on a naturalistic make-up and using characteristic intonations, gestures, tricks and changes of voice. An actor has to “ live ” his part, i.e., to “ feel ” it really. To do this, he has to discover bencath the lines and stage directions the feclinges that prompt those lines and directions—and because,

according to Stanislavsky, an actor, or human being, “ cannot naturally feel and express things he had not experienced in his own He,” he has to remember ard repeat on the stage the emotions Cape enc in kis own life. The SStesistavsk y Systent-—On that principle is based the Stanislavsky “system of acting,” at one time famous in Russia. The system “Tedhis theatre from the outward naturalism, toward a kind of inward naturalism, which led not merely to a complete neglect of the form of the]play, but even to its destruction. For acting is not a repetition ol ihe feelings experienced by an actor in his personal lite, but the creation and expression of complicated feelings and though ts prompted by the style and form of the play. Stanislavsky’s method was important for the gereral development of theatrical art, because it forced the producers and actors to forsake the outward naturalism and its tricks, and to give more value to the inner content of the plays and parts.

But it

brought the Moscow Art Theatre and its followers baek to the 18th century, at which period theatrical scholars were of opinion that an actor on the stage “can only repeat emotions he has experionced in his own life,” and that “ the love-scenes are much better played by such actors as are really in love.” The Moscow Art Theatre, when dealing with naturalistic plays, gave, from every point ‘of view, accomplished and beautiful productions. Among these were some of the Chekhov plays, Gorky’s Night Lodgings and Alexis Tolstoy’s Tsar Fedor, But when the preducers attempted poctic or symbolic drama —Shakespeare or Pushkin, Byron or Coro = UY inevitably failed. Plays by these authors were dragged down from their heights, and drowned in naturalistic details or pyschological ex-

periments.

The language was ruined, its power and beauty being

sacrificed to was delivered and 1924 the of its earlier Dostoievsky, that theatre,

naturalistic principles. A play written in verse as prose, because “ verse is unnatural.” In 1923 Moscow Art Theatre went to America with scme productions of Chekhov, Gorky, Tolstoy and and in 1925-6 were seen the new experiments of with Aristophanes’ Lysisfrafa, and two musical

plays, Otfenbach’s Pericolla and Carmenecita and the Soldicr, an adaptation of Bizet’s Carmen, All these plays were produced

by W. Nemirovich-Danchenko on the lines of the formal method of production mixed with the constructive method. Neither method, however, is in any way typical of the work of the Moscow Art Theatre.

PRODUCTION

635

THE FORMAL THEATRE The so-called “ Formal Theatre ” came into being as a protest against naturalism on the stage, at the very end of the roth century. The “ Formalists ” held that the naturalistic theatre was not art, but a soulless attempt to photograph life, and that its actors were monkeys, endeavouring to imitate on the stage,

characters, with their little habits and tricks, which they had observed in real life. The ‘‘ formalists ” sought first of all to simplify the stage settings. For example, instead of reproducing life-like rooms, giving exact copies of nature, or restoring historical surroundings with fidelity to details of time and place, they recommended “ formal ” scenery providing for the actor only suitable backgrounds or necessary surroundings for his acting. The Leading Formalists—Some of the formalists, notably a few of the new Russian producers, being inspired by the paintings of the later impressionists and primitivists, and by the work of the modern Russian and French painters, advocated the use of painted ba ckgrounds, “ panneaux décoratifs,” only. Others, such as Adolphe Appi vin Switzerland, Gordon Craig in England and Georg Fuchs in Germany, were against the use of flat painted settings, and recommended threc-dimerstonal scenery. Appia and Craig went as far as to declare the painterartist not only unnecessary, but a positive hindrance inasrnuch as he was concerned only to make a picture and cared nothing for the placing of the actor. They thought that the building of the scenery ought to be in the hands of the producer himself. Georg Fuchs. advocated the use of “stylised ? seitings and costumes, instead of the faithinlly reproduced historical settings, costumes and life-like appearances. Py “ stylised ” he meant that the sellings and costumes should show not local details, or details of any particulir historical epoch, but should be desisned to previde a general idea of the play. Gordon Craig advocated abstract estan and scenic surroundings, high screens resembling the towers of Ravenna, steps, platforms and other devices.

T he Russian producers of the new school, suchas Fvreinoy and Meyerhold, and o them, S. Marmontov, director of the Moscow Private Cpera House, discarde:l elie old-fashioned scene-painter and had their scenery designed by regular artists. With them begins the “‘ picturesque ” formal theatrical movement, which brought into fame the names of theatrical decorators such as Vroubcl, Konstantin Korovin, Leo Bakst, Nicolas

sapounoy, Alexandr Benois and Golovin. famous Russian

The director of the

Ballet, Serge Diaghilev, has always been one of

the promoters of this movement, and thanks to him, such eminent French painters as Derain, Picasso, Matisse, Georges Bracque, Marie Laurencin, have core into fame as the atrical decorators. The Swedish Ballet of Rolf de Mari, following rather unsuccessfully the road indicated by Diaghilev, has shown us scenery by Picabia, Fujita and other modern a ters, In their notions of mise en scène and acting, too, nearly all the producers of the formalist school were influenced by Appla, Craig and Fuchs. From the formal stage, the“natural’ speaking of lines, the “ natural ” movements and groupings, were banished, the symbolic and abstract costume plays being preferred. The Russian producer, Meyerhold, went as far as to advocate for the plays of Maeterlinck a kind of monotone voice without inflection, sounding “like drops falling into a deep well.” As a reaction against the life-like movement which was the ideal of the naturalistic producers (the “ crowd-work ” of the Meininger and their followers), the formalists, under the influence of Macterlinck, were enthusiastically in favour of “ static ” acting. Those who adopted the “ picturesque,” two-dimensional scenery dressed, grouped and posed the actors so that they should be in perfect keeping with the painted backgrounds, and even in some cases give the illusion of having been painted on the scenery. The actor being reduced to the position of a mere accessory, his art was climinated. Some of the theorists had already come to the conclusion that the living three-dimensional actor, in front of the two-dimensional painted backcloth, was an anomaly in the picture, and should be replaced by a two-dimensional marionette.

EE a a a

636

STAGE

AND

STAGE

The inventors of the three-dimensional ‘ formal ’”’ scenery gave much more scope to the actor. They invented that kind of sicenery in order to free the actor from the limitations of naturalistic settings, and give him a prominent position on the stage. Appia recommended constructions composed of straight lines, as being more in harmony with the three-dimensional actor, and as giving the necessary value to the curved character of the human body. Gordon Craig followed that idea, but Appia, in his scenic designs, although they were formal and stylised, still remained a naturalist. His formal, castle-shaped edifices were built of stone, and his forests, although formally related to the later futuristic scenery, remained real forests. Craig simplified his buildings to abstract three-dimensional screens of one colour, and in his settings will be found rows of steps, and square platforms indoors and outdoors by which means everything is symbolised. Elements of nature are absent, excepting perhaps in the suggestion of the sky. Ideas of Fuchs.—At Munich in 1908 Georg Fuchs in a theatre {Miinchener Kiinstlertheater) built in accordance with his new ideas, used scenery designed by Erler and other well-known German painters. It was simplified, constructed three-dimensional scenery, but it was not abstract. It was painted, and gave the impression of reality. For instance, the cathedral scene in Faust

was represented by a massive and lofty church column; the whole stage around the column faded into darkness, and in the background the altar was suggested simply by lights. In a pastorale, he had a real “‘ bosquet ”’ made of real leaves, with arches, against a pale blue background. Fuchs, hke all the formalists, attached great importance to lighting, and in his Munich theatre he arranged a quite new system. There one had for the first time a stage without footlights and battens, but with special arrangements of diffused light resembling the light of nature. His “‘ formal’ stage was according to the old idea of Goethe—very shallow and divided into three parts, each one complete step higher than the other. The lowest of these was a narrow permanent proscenium enclosed between two movable flats with doors (called ‘ towers ”’) and covered by a ceiling that could be raised or lowered. This arrangement was afterwards imitated by Max Reinhardt in his Faust and other productions in Berlin. The acting ideas of Fuchs were on broad ‘stylised’ lines. The groupings were sculptural and picturesque, and instead of “‘ crowd ”’ scenes ingenious suggestions of masses of people were employed. Reinhardt and Granville Barker.—These features of the Fuchs stage are to be found in the productions of the latest schools such as the “ expressionists ” and the “ constructionists,” and in some of the productions of Reinhardt. In dealing with this famous German producer, it must be said that his Fame rests more upon his versatility and his big sense of theatrical business than upon his originality. He started his career as an actor at the Municipal Theatre of Salzburg, and then came to Berlin, where he was with Brahm. When he opened his own theatres in Berlin, he produced plays in a variety of manners, always attaching great importance to good acting.

His work was obvi-

ously influenced by Brahm, the Moscow Art Theatre, Gordon Craig, Fuchs and others of the later period. In rọrọ he opened his Grosse Schauspielhaus in Berlin, a theatre of “ masses.” Before beginning the performances there, he staged a Greek play (Oedipus Tyrannus) in the circus, bringing the action into the midst of the audience, and in a sense making the audience take part in the performance. It is clear that he found that idea in the writings of some theatrical theorists of the beginning of the z2oth century. Among those, one of the most important was the Russian philosopher Viacheslav Ivanof, an authority on Greek literature and the Greek theatre, who advocated the theatre of masses, and the participation of the spectators in the theatrical show, which, according to him, ought to be given in the arena. Later, Fermin Gémier, in Paris, followed Reinhardt’s example by producing plays in a circus. In England, Granville Barker worked on nearly the same lines as Reinhardt; but whereas Reinhardt only changed the style of his productions for the sake of variety, Granville Barker

PRODUCTION

varied the style to accord with the inner meaning of the particular play. Moreover, although he had not such power as Reinhardt in dealing with actors and extracting from them their finest possibilities, he showed much greater artistic taste in selecting his material, and did not work for “stunts ” as Reinhardt did in many cases. THE

SYNTHETIC

THEATRE

It is in Russia that the genesis of the theatrical theory of ‘‘ synthesism ” is to be found, from which developed later “ expressionism ’’ and ‘‘ constructionism.” ‘That theory originated partly as a result of some stage productions carried out by Komisarjevsky in a new way, in opposition to the methods of the “ formal ”’ theatre and partly as an experiment for the purpose of finding a more perfect form of theatrical show. It was intended that this show should, by uniting all the stage arts, produce the most powerful and complete impression on the audience. The “ formalists ” as the “ naturalists,” using the same methods of production for all plays, placed the actors and the plays in a condition of dependence upon the laws of nature in the one case, or upon their theories of uniformity in the other. Komisarjevsky, on the contrary, holds that the plays of each author should be produced and acted in a different form, each form to be expressive of the inner contents, rhythm and style of the play produced. Production is an expression of the understanding of the play

by the producer, and the ensemble of the actors. The form chosen for that expression need be neither life-like nor formally unlife-like, but it must be synthetically expressive; that is to say, the elements of the scenic surroundings must be selected and put forward in such a way as to create the atmosphere desired by the producer and without distracting the spectator’s mind

with

unnecessary

factors,

whether

life-like,

stylised

or

cubistic. On the other hand all the theatrical arts should be included in a synthesis, just as in an orchestra the different instruments are united for expression of the whole. From these considerations there was evolved the conception of the synthetic play for a synthetic theatre, in which the movements, words, music and the colours and lines of the scenic surroundings would be united. The general idea, of course, is the same as that which was expressed long ago by Richard Wagner. Wagner, however, subordinated everything to his musical score,

to the polyphony of his instrumental and vocal ensemble, and drowned the play and the actors in the orchestra. In acting, scenery, lighting, etc., and even in his treatment of his fantastic stories and characters, Wagner was a pure naturalist, and moreover a stagey naturalist. A school of acting on synthesist lines was opened in Moscow by Th. Komisarjevsky, who adapted and produced operas by Mozart, Rossini, Offenbach and Wagner, and plays by Shakespeare, Beaumarchais, Molière and other leading dramatists. In 1922 Komisarjevsky produced on the same lines Claudel’s The Tidings brought to Mary for the Theatre Guild of New York, the only “ art theatre ” at the present time in the Enghish-speaking world. The Provincetown Playhouse in the same city follows, under the leadership of Robert E. Jones (painter and producer) and kK. Macgowan, the path opened in America by the Theatre Guild. The Guild, which started in a small place in Washington square, now has its own playhouse in the West End of New York, equipped with the newest European and American technical improvements. Without being extreme or daring, this theatre showed to New York examples of nearly all the European schools of production. In dealing with the forward movement of the productions in the United States, one cannot omit mention of amateur socicties in the provinces, which are much more advanced than the Broadway commercial enterprises. In France, the methods of “ formal ”’ production were used by Jacques Coppeau, who even built in his own playhouse (Vieux Colombier) a permanent architectural stage; by Dulain, Louis Jouvet and George Pitoëf. The latter in some of his productions followed the ideas of the expressionists and constructionists. In Belgium Delacre, and in Italy Pirandello follow the paths opened by the producers of the new schools.

STAHLBERG—STAMBOLISKY THe EXPRESSIONIST THEATRE In Germany the “ expressionist ’’ school came into existence. They destroyed reality, decomposing it to create out of its elements new forms which were intended to be symbolically expressive of their understanding of life. Some of the expressionists might be called “ cubists,” as they treat their productions in the same way as cubist painters treat their painting; others are developing the ideas of the ‘‘ formalists ’’ and “ synthesists.”’ The most important expressionist is Jessner, who, in r9r9, when he was appointed director of the Berlin State Theatres, began his expressionistic productions. Of these, Wilhelm Tell, Richard the Third, Don Carlos and Marquis von Keith (by Wedekind) were extremely interesting. In the matter of acting, although Jessner is the director of the Schauspielschule, the expressionists have brought nothing new to the stage; they have followed the traditions of Brahm and Reinhardt. THE

CONSTRUCTIONIST

THEATRE

The “ constructionists ’’ came into being in Russia in the last years of the Revolution. Like the expressionists they have made no new departure in acting, except to bring circus clowning upon the theatrical stage. They have exaggerated the movements of the actors to such an extent that, in their productions, the play itself (which as a rule is always adapted to suit the scenic constructions and the elaborate movements of actors) disappears in a kind of “ perpetuum mobile” of the actors. Instead of the painted or constructed scene, the constructionists used naked platforms, steps, ladders, etc., building the action up, instead of having it on the floor level. The most important constructionists are Tairov and Meyerhold. The former at times uses painted, constructive scenery, and advocates ‘f clowning” and perpetual movement of actors on the stage. The latter, in his last productions, left out the “ clowning”3 and exaggerated movement; he leaves the stage quite bare, using only necessary and undisguised rostrums, tracks and steps, sometimes adding insignificant pieces of scenery, or posters dealing with political propaganda, parts of machines, etc., underlining with all these accessories the idea that the production is done in a republic of workmen and peasants. The first constructionist productions were seen in Moscow in 1921. The most important of them are: Crommelynck’s Le Cocu Magnifique (producer—Meyerhold in 1921), Chesterton’s The Man Who Was Thursday (Tairov in 1923), The Storm by Ostrovsky (Tairov in 1924), Forest by Ostrovsky and The Luke of Ljull (both produced by Meyerhold). ~ Constructionism during the last years was accepted in Russia as a kind of national style, and the other producers, even in the very old-fashioned state theatres, have produced some plays and operas in that way. Meyerhold, being a very experienced and imaginative producer, sometimes obtains very powerful effects, but all his work is nowadays carried on in the very narrow channel of political propaganda. The theatre in Russia of the last few years represents the latest phase in the development of stage-craft. It must be confessed that it is a very

poor one, and only leads us back to where we started. followers of naturalism copied life as it is, smallest and artistically unnecessary details, lack romance and a certain poetry in their structionists substitute scafiolds for natural and showed on these scaffolds actors in new

The old

down to all the but they did not work. The conlife surroundings, naturalistic plays

produced in accordance with the old naturalistic methods, or no methods at all. Brs_rocrariy.+—A, Appia, Die Afusrk u. die Inscenierung (1899); V. Meyerhold, On the Theatre (1908); Gordon Craig, The Art of the Theatre (1911); Georg Fuchs, Die Revolution des Theaters (1914); N. Evreinov, The Theatre of the Soul (1915); Gordon

Craig, On the

clrt of the Theatre (1924); Books and Theatres (1925); T. Komisarjevsky, The Theory of Stanislavsky (1919); F. Gernier, Le Theatre (1923.) (T. K.*)

STÅHLBERG, KAARLO JUHO (1865-

),Finnish politician,

was born on Jan. 28 1865. At the beginning of his public career, he held alternately university and administrative posts until he became a member of the diet in 1904 and of the Finnish Govt.

637

in roo5. He resigned in t907 and in the following year was appointed a professor of administrative law. At the outbreak of the World War, the Government was [Finnish in name only, being composed entirely of Russian officials. Ståhlberg was then president of the Diet and he had to act as the chief public representative of Finnish opinion. He withstood the increasingly oppressive tendencies of the Imperial Russian Govt. with unwavering firmness. After the Russian revo lution of 1917 Finland became an independent Republic, and in the summer of 1919 Stahlberg was elected to the presidency as the candidate of the Progressive and Socialist parties. The country was still split up by sharp internal dissensions, and the new President had from the very beginning to fight the unconcealed hostility and distrust of the conservative parties. He pursued, nevertheless, a conciliatory and mitigating policy with the object of extinguishing the class hatred and casting oblivion over the past. The many beneficial etfects of this policy became gradually obvious, and when the time of the next presidential election approached, Stahlberg could register the personal triumph that the country almost unanimously desired him to accept re-election. He refused, however, and retired on the expiration of his presidency. STALIN, JOSEPH (1879), Russian politican, whose real name is Dzhugashvili, was the son of a Georgian peasant, and was born in the Tiflis district and educated in a seminary from which he was expelled in 1898 for revolutionary opinions. From 1898 till tor7 he was engaged in revolutionary propaganda, interrupted by frequent arrests, imprisonments and banishments.

escaped five times from exile.

He

In 1917 he edited the Bolshevik

newspaper Pravda. Always a close supporter of Lenin, and for a very long time a member of the central committee, he became

after Lenin’s death the most influential member of the Communist party and general secretary of the central committee of the Communist party. In the civil war he took an active part in the defence of Tsaritsin, which town was subsequently, in his honour, renamed Stalinsk. STAMBOLISKY, ALEXANDER (1879-1923), Bulgarian statesman, was born at Slavovitsa, in Southern Bulgaria, Sept. 1 1879, the son of a peasant landowner. After studying at the village school and later in the neighbouring town, he attended the agricultural college of Halle in Germany. On returning to Bulgaria, aged 18, he took up journalism, and in 1902 became editor of the organ of the newly-formed Agrarian League. His articles

brought him fame and six years later he was elected to the Ssobranye, where he made steady progress, soon becoming leader of the Agrarian party. Ile now began to organise the peasant masses, who form 80% of the total population of Bulgaria, into agricultural associations. In torr, when the Grand Sobranye met at Tyrnovo to amend the Constitution, his first conflict with King Ferdinand occurred. After the treaty of Bucharest (1913) Stambolisky and the Agrarians were unmerciful in their criticisms of Ferdinand’s policy, though deterred from extreme measures by the fear of external complications. Stambolisky’s opposition to Ferdinand came to a head in 1915 during the negotiations that preceded Bulgaria’s entry into the World War. The story of the alienation of official Bulgaria by the blunders of Russian and Western diplomacy remains to be written; but the Bulgarian peasants were “ proRussian by race and pro-British in sympathy.” Stambolisky, their representative, backed the Entente in spite of the King’s anger, pressure from the Government and the growing influence of the Central Powers. Summoned before the King, Stambolisky threatened him with personal violence if he should fight against the Allies, reminding him that he had a crown to lose. Ferdinand warned Stambolisky to take care of his awn head, and ordered his immediate arrest. After being tried by court-martial he was condemned to penal servitude for life. In Sept. 1918, when the resistance of the Bulgarian troops began to slacken, Ferdinand released Stambolisky, who left for the Macedonian front. He returned at the head of the insurrectionary troops and their arrival at Sofia resulted in Ferdinand’s abdication and flight. A partisan of the new ruler, King

STAM P—STAMP

638

Boris, Stambolisky became a member of the Cabinet in Jan. t91g and Prime Minister in Oct.; as head of the Government he went to Paris and signed the Treaty of Neuilly in the same

year. On his return in Dec. he was faced by a railway strike which he settled successfully. In Feb. 1920 he dissolved the Sobranye, and the following month was returned to power at the head of a homogeneous Agrarian majority. From 1920 to 1923, the Azrarians under Stambolisky ruled Bulgaria with a rod of iron. They were not only intolerant of all opposition, but even unjust In their treatment of political opponents. Surrounded by ill-advised colleagues, Stambolisky had neither the strength nor ihe time to exercise control over the firebrands. But though a dictator at home, he was a peace-maker abroad,

and through his influence post-War Bulgaria won the estecm ol the Allies. He inspired great confidence, not only at the Peace Conference, but at Genoa, Geneva and Lausanne. Te mace persistent efforts to improve relations between Buigaria and Yugoslavia,

and showed

real statesmanship in concluding the

Nisk agreement (1922) with that country. Tle carried out the terms of the peace treaty loyally, and gave full satisfaction to the Allied Military Commissioners in regard to disarmament. With the help of Dimitri Stanciolf, the Bulgarian Minister in London, he secured a reduction of Bulgarian reparations from £90,000,000 to £22,500,000. The overthrow of the Government by a military faction on Jun? 9 1923 was caused by Stambolisky’s misguided paltcy at home. The change of rézime took place in one night, the Agrarian Ministers being arrested in their own homes. Stambolisky, pursued by an armed detachment to his native village of Slavovitsa, escaped and fled across the mountains, hoping to reach the frventier. After being followed by seliuers for three days, he was eventually surrounded and shot on June r2. A formidable personality, attractive In many ways, and made of finer

clay

than

the average

Balkan

statesman,

Stambolsky

has been called a modern Rienzi. Tall and broad, his demeanour was

fierce and his movements

ungainly; his roush-hewn face

was crowned by 2 mass of black hair; he impressed evervore with his strenzth and sincerity. A true patriot but a man of great

simplicity, he had only the use of primitive tools. Stambolisky published several books, including slalhortiy, Anarchy and Democracy; and What a Politician ought to be. (N. Mu.*) STAMP, SiR JOSIAH CHARLES (1SSo}, British economist, was

born

in London June

2r 1880.

He was educated

at the University of London, where he took the degree oi B.Sc., with first class honours, in ror1z, becoming Cobden Prizeman in to12, D.Sc. in 1916, and Ilutchinson research medallizt m 1916. He entere] the civil service (inland revenue department) in 1896, and became assistant secretary to the board in roi6. In roro he resigned from the service to join Nobel Industries Lid., of which he was a director and secretary until he accepted the new post of president of the executive of the London, Midland and Scottish Railway in to2s. We was Nesmarch lecturer on statistics, University of London, 1919-20, and served the Royal Statistical Society as honorary secretary and editor. Sir Josiah Stamp was knighted in 1920 for “ valuable service to the Government in financial matters.” As one of the most distinguished economists of his time, he was appointed a member of the committees of experts of the Reparation Commission in Paris and Berlin. He played an imporiant part in the London Conference of 1924. He was also a member of the Northern Ireland finance arbitration committee in 1923-4 and a member of the Committee on taxation and national debt in 1924, in

which year he was created G.B.E. RATIONS.)

(See CAPITAL LEVY; REPA-

Sir Josiah’s chief publications are British Incomes and Property; The Application of Official Statistics to Economic Problems (1910, ard ed. 1922); Wealth and Income of the Chief Powers (1919); Phe Fundamental Principles of Taxation in the Light of Modern Developmenis (1921, 2nd ed. 1923); Wealth and Taxable Capacity (1922, and ed. 1923); Joint Report on Double Taxation, League of Nations (1923); Studies in Current Problems in Government and Finance (1924): Business Statistics and Financial Statements (1924), jointly with C. Hewetson Nelson; and the British edition of Rignano's Social Significance of Death Duties (1925).

COLLECTING STAMP COLLECTING (sec PHILATELY, 21.374).—New postage stamps have been issued in great variety in modern times, and the number of standard varieties sted in a simple catalogue has more than doubled since 1906, being 44,000 as against 20,000. The annual output tends to grow rather than diminish, though the abnormal figure of 15,000 new stamps between 1916 and 1925 was in part duc to warupneavals and post-War reconstruction. The effect on the more detailed catalogues used by philatelists js still more marked, and it is estimated that upwards of 160,000 varieties are listed in the leading British (Gibbons) and American (Scott) catalogues, while in Germany a start was made in 1923 with an encyclopacdic catalogue (Kodl-Briefmarken- Handbuch, ed. Werbert Munk) in which the first 1,056 pages reach only to “ De.” This vast increase has embarrassed publishers of printed albums of the comprehensive kind formerly popular, and it has obliged collectors to set broad or narrow limits on the scope cf their collections. General collecting is still extensively pursued but few attempt to collect the stamps of tke whole work], selecting instead a geographical cr political group, e.g., Great Britain and her Dominions, the United States and her possessions, ete. Still more collectors have carried their Emitatuions further, and specialise in the stamps of individual countries. Intensive special study has reached a stare where at the London Inicraational Stamp Exhibition (1923) many exnibits dealt with single issues, and even single stamps.

Except the Tapling Collection in the British Museum,

the

great general collections of the pest, including those of Ferrari, Phibrick, Worthington, Breitfuss, have all been dispersed; the philatelic magnates of to-day possess series of specialised collections, often covering a wide range of countries, but not compiled on the comprehensive lines cf the great pioncers; some set a period to their collections, thus climinating the proific issues of recent times; 1890 may be taken as the close of the most intersting epoch of stamp issues for the connoisseur, but the close of the roth century, coinciding with the end of the reign of Queen Victoria, is a convenient period (184e-rg0t) chosen by many collectors. There is also a modern school collecting stamps of the 20th century. Specialised Collecting —The Royal Philatelic Society (London), under the guidance of the 26th Far! of Crawford until bis death in Tan. rorg, led the modern trend to historical and technical study. of stamps in specialised fields. The philatelist of io-day traces the economie origins of the issuc of stamps, the artistic sources of their designs, and the most exact and minute letails of their manufacture. The articles “ Postage Stamps in l * on Gibbons Stamp Weeckiy and Gibbons Moathly Journal (1gr0o~4), revised in kook form in 1016, provider a basis fer technical research into the formation and use of dics, plates, stoncs, etc., the details of paner, watermark and devices to ensure security from forgery or the illicit re-use of stamps. The effect of this specialism on the market has been remarkable. While rare stamps remain rare, their values have increased ‘largely owing to the number of wealthy patrons who regard rare stamps as a good and protected investment. Comparatively common stamps, especially of the early issues prior to the intro-

duction of perforation, have risen in value owing to the quantities which the specialist requires in order to pursue his technical studies. The original rd. black (Great Britain) stamp of 1840 is not rare; twopence would buy a good copy at the beginning of this century, and they were abundant on the market for some years later. Intensive study of this one stamp has led to the identification of 240 units from cach of the 11 plates, some in two distinct states, used for printing the stamps; the collector,

secking to reconstruct the plates of the penny black, needs not fewer than 2,880 different specimens, to find which he would search through many times that number. There are other features of the study of this stamp, with its curious and interesting

postmarks, which cause the specialist to drain the market of it and similar classes. Although common, anordinary used copy of the rd. black is worth 5s. (1926), but a copy identified as coming from plate 11 is worth about £5. Similar conditions have elevated the prices of nearly all “ first issues’ and early imperfo-

STANCIOFF—STANDARDISA TION rate stamps, notably the beautiful carly stamps of the United States. The Ferrari Sale —The last great general collection to be dispersed, that of Philippe la Rénotiére von Ferrari, who died at Lausanne in 1917, was sequestrated by the French Govt. and sold by auction 1922-5. Its owner had bequeathed it to the Berlin Postal Museum, which already houses a collection of great historical interest and value. In 14 sales, covering 39 days,

the portions sold at the Hétel Drouot, Paris, realised 26,482,064 francs, or £402,965, calculated at the rate of exchange prevailing at the different periods of the sales. This did not represent the entire store of Ferrari’s stamp treasures. Among the notable prices recorded at these sales were: the unigue t cent British Guiana, 1856, £7,343; pair of 2 cent British Guiana, 1850, £5,250; Hawatian Islands, 2 cents, 1851, £3,900; Mauritius, 1847, 2d. £2,338, 1d. £2,090; Baden, 9 kreuzer on green paper (error) £1,516; France, 1849, 15 cents, tête-bêche, pair £8373; 1 franc (Verveiie) ife-béche in a block of four, £2,706.

Some of the httle known United States postmaster’s stamps also recorded high prices, e.g., Boscawen, 1846, 5 cent, £2,625; Lockport, 1846, 5 cent, £1,875. The price paid for the r cent British Guiana, 1856 (£7,343) is the highest price ever paid for a single stamp; the prices quoted for the 1rd. and ed. Mauritius have been exceeded at other sales, and one original envelope, bearing the two denominations used together to prepay a 3d. postage rate, was sold in 1922 for £11,000. War Time Developments —During the World War, philately, instead of declining as many thought it would, became enormously more ponular; those who suspended their collecting soon found the strain of War conditions called for a mental relaxation, and returned to their stamps. Others, especially those brought into contact with the historic circumstances of the issue of stamps in the War zones and captured colonies, took up collecting with eagerness. Outstanding events of the War were marked for collectors by stamp issues of great interest, like the British and other War issues for Samoa, New Britain, Baghdad, Bushire and Togo. On the enemy side stamps were issued by the German and Austrian armies as they pushed through Belgium, France, Russia, Italy and the Balkans, and the public interest in these issues attracted numbers of new collectors, many of whom have maintained their enthusiasm, and some passed on to the advanced pliiatelic stage. The period following the collapse of Austria and the Armistice was not less interesting or prolific. New stamps brought records of the independence of Finland, Poland and the Baltic states of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania, the much divided Empires of Austria and Turkey, the incidents of the plebiscites, and the mandated territories, and even the League of Nations had a set of Swiss stamps overprinted in 1922. Acrophilute/y—Another phase of the pursuit which has attracted large numbers of new collectors is aerophilately, or, as some wish to call it, “ aerophilosemy,’’—the gathering together of air-post stamps, in which particular regard is paid to envelopes

(“ covers ’’) which have been carried on air mails. Scarce stamps on envelopes or cards carried on historic flights like the transatlantic flights by Mr. Hawker (April 1919) and Sir J. Alcock (June t9t9) command high prices. Elaborate catalogues have been published in Britain, France and Germany for the guidance of collectors in this branch of the pursuit. Forgery remains a menace to the collector, but the advance of scientific knowledge of the old stamps places experts in a strong position with regard to the classic issues. The modern excess of surcharged or overprinted stamps, many of which were of a provisional and short-lived character, and consequently scarce, are the chicf temptations to the counterfeiter where the overprints can be fairly closely imitated by modern photo-mechanical processes on the basis of genuine stamps. The expert committee of the Royal Philatelic Society decided in 1925 to discontinue undertaking to pass opinions on stamps issued subsequent to 1gr3.

.

Organisation.—Dhilatelic organisations are to be found in most countries. The Royal Philatelic Society celebrated its

639

jubilee (1919) by a scheme for acquiring a permanent home, possession of which was obtained in 1925. The Junior Philatelic Society, founded 1899, inaugurated a widespread movement which has extended throughout the Dominions and foreign countries, assisting the beginner and medium collector; it has organised the international philatelic exhibitions in London 1012 and 1923. Between 7o and 8o societies in Britain and the colonies are alhliated in the Philatelic Congress of Great Britain, which meets annually. America has its similar institutions headed by the Collectors’ Club (New York) and flourishing societies in citics from Boston to San Francisco; in addition there is the American Philatelic Society, a national body holding an annual convention, and the Association for Stamp Exhibitions, Inc., which organised the international exhibitions in New York 1013 and 1920. Governments now take a new regard for the requirements of stamp collectors. The “ Philatelic Agency ” was started by the

United States as a department of its post office at Washington (1921) to supply current and such stamps of older kinds as may be available to collectors and dealers at face value; similar agencies were set up in Canada at Ottawa (1923) and at Balboa Iicights, Canal Zone (1924). Some countries still produce stamp issues more frequently than is necessary for their postal requirements, looking to the revenue obtained from the sales, without postal service, to collectors. In many cases, commemorative issues of stamps are now issued on notable occasions in lieu of the ancient custom of stricing of special coins, and in the main such issues adil to the fascinating varicty of historical and other sub-

jects brought pictorially into association with stamp-ccllecting. Bip_LroGRAPLY.—The bibliography of philately is very extensive. hh. D. Bacon, Catelegue of the Philatelic Library of the Earl of Crawford, K.T., published by the Philatelic Literature Society in 1911, with supplement in preparation (1926) lists all separate works known to 1903 and periodicals to 1906; tkis, the most complete library extant is in the British Museum, bequeathed by the late earl. Short selected bibliographies will be found ia F. J. Melville, Chats on Postage Stamps (19rt) and The Complete Philatelist (1924). The Philatelic Indes (1925), issued by the Philatelic Congress of Great Britain, 1s a tentative index to the contents of the principal British stamp journals. Sce also S.C. Johnson, The Stamp Collector (1920); James E. Handshaw, Looking Backward (1923); The Complete Standard Catulogue of the Postage Stumps of the World, C. H. McKceel, ed.

in 3 parts, St. Louis, (1894-5) and The Standard Postage Stamp Catalogue issued by Scott Stamp and Coin Co., Ltd., N.Y. (1923).

ET MY

STANCIOFF, DIMITRI (1864), Bulgarian diplematist, was born at Sistov, Bulgaria, in May 1864, and studied at the Theresianum College, Vienna. In 1887 he entered the Foreign Oliice, Sofia, and was a member of the delegation entrusted with electing a ruler for Bulgaria. After the choice had fallen on Prince Ferdinand of Coburg, Stancioff became head of the new King’s political Cabinet. Afterwards he was successively appointed Bulgarian representative at Bucharest, Vienna and St. Petersburg where he received the title of Minister Plenipotentiary and remained ro years, succeeding in re-establishing friendly relations between Russia and Bulgaria. He became Minister of Foreign Affairs in 1906 and was for a time Prime Minister after the murder of Petkoff. In 1908 he resigned and became Minister in Paris where he remained until rots when he was sent to Rome. During the World War, against which he had vainly protested, he organised Red Cross and Ambulance work. After the Armistice, he was again called to the Foreign Oftice to resume relations with the Allies. He was a member of the Bulgarian Delegation to the Paris Peace Conference, and in 1920 was

appointed Bulgaria’s representative to the Court of St. James. Stanciof{f was Bulgaria’s chief delegate to the first international Peace Conference at The Hague in 1899 and was a permanent member of the International Court of Arbitration at The Hague. After the World War he attended the Genoa, Hague and Lausanne Conferences. In 1889, he married the Countess Anna de Grenaud, lady-in-waiting to the princess Clementine of Orleans, the mother of the ex-King Ferdinand. STANDARDISATION may be defined as the art or process of securing or observing conformity to any measure whether of extent, quantity, quality or value, which has been established

640

STANDARDISATION

by law, general usage or consent. These established measures are called standards. Examples are standard weights and measures (usually fixed by law); standard screw threads in the mechanical held; standard voltages in the electrical feld; standard commercial forms, such as cheques, notes, contracts, in-

voices, etc., in business practice; standard track gauge in steam railway construction, and standard specifications for steel and other structural materials. Standards usually represent the final conclusions obtained through extensive experimentation and research and serve as a basis for comparison of one product with another, or of actual performance with ideal or desired performance. Standardisation has long been recognised as the foundation of mass production, and has been extensively applied in industries where volume output is the main purpose. Motor Car Manufacture—In toto the Society of Automotive Engineers in New York appointed a committee to set up standards which would simplify motor car manufacturing. This committee succeeded in establishing many standards for the automotive industry, and its work proved of great importance in the rapid growth of motor car production in America. S.A.E. standards include specifications as to sizes and dimensions of

hubs, piping, gauges, hose couplings, care and operation of boilers, superheaters, engine-room auxiliaries. The adopting of these standards and their incorporation in vessels now building, or to be built, is expected appreciably to reduce the cost of designing, construction, operation and maintenance. Mutual Standards in Industry.—The trend toward standardisation in various industries led to the consideration of mutual or common standards, t.e., those which might be usefully applied in two or more industries. Groups which hitherto had acted more or less independently of one another in standardisation realised the need for co-operative action and for a centralising agency or clearing-house to co-ordinate and correlate their work. Consequently, the American Engineering Standards Committee was formed in Oct. 1918. In 1925 this organisation had 24 member bodies representing 35 national organisations. The main committee had approved, to Jan. 31 1925, 68 standards of a national character; 12 more were then awaiting approval, and 79 morc projects were under way. Trade, technical or governmental bodies co-operating through representatives on special or sectional committees numbered 352, and there were 1,371 individuals on sectional committees. : o

ollows:—

covered

possible their wide distribution. Impetus During the War—Up to the time the United States

cars and locomotives, ships, big guns, shells and innumerable other essential products in enormous quantities. The impetus given to standardisation by war-time conditions has led to a rapid acceleration in the adoption of standards. ‘There is scarcely a single American industry, operating on a large scale, that does not apply standardisation to its products, its processes, its plant equipment, its tools, jigs, dies, fixtures, even to its purchases of the materials used directly or indirectly in the fabrication of its products.

Machine Tools and Shipbuilding.—In 1921 the National Machine

Tool Builders Association appointed a committee to co-operate with the American Society of Mechanical Engineers in establishing standards for various parts or features of machine tools. Consideration is being given to T-slots, spindle ends, angle blocks, tool holders, length of ways, bolts and nuts, and so on. Further study is being directed to the establishment of standard names for components now given a wide variety of names. It is being demonstrated that such standardisation is of great convenience to the manufacturer who uses many machine tools, in enabling him to interchange parts, reduce time lost by breakdowns, and thus expedite his own production. In 1922 the American Marine Standards Committee was formed to promote the simplification and standardisation of practice in the building, operation and maintenance of ships and in the allied industries. This committee is composed of representatives of American shipbuilders, owners, operators, managers, as well as of engineering societies and Government departments. Among the components of ship construction for which the committee is developing standards are air ports, fixed lights, bitts, cleats, chocks, hawse pipes, marine

hardware, life-boat fittings and equipment, fire buckets, propeller

are

A

:

p-

Ap-

Mechanical Electrical . Automotive

.

Transportation

.

Shipbuilding Ferrous metallurgy

.

Total aroced Non-ferrous metallurgy

32

26 17 4

9 I

a die

as

Projects

Civil engineering and building trades

divided

Group

Total proved

entered the World War (April 1917) standardisation had been

applied more extensively in the American motor car industry than in any other field of manufactured commodities. The great demand for munitions, rifles, machine guns, railway cars, ships and the thousands of other materials of modern warfare required the production of all these on a far greater scale than ever before attempted. It became necessary to divide the huge orders among many factories, and arrangements were made for one to furnish one part, another factory another, and so on. These units were then sent to centralising depéts for assembling and final delivery to the point of use or consumption. It was imperative that parts from several sources should be assembled with a minimum of labour. Consequently, standard gauges were made and distributed to the various shops for them to use in checking the accuracy of the parts made by them. It thus became possible to build motor-trucks, tractors, railway

programme

Projects

Group

machined parts and fittings used in motor car construction, also to the materials of their composition, and to the tests by which the performance, durability and strength of such parts are determined. The widespread use of, or adherence to, these standards has made possible economies in designing, producing, operating and maintaining motor cars. These economies have helped to reduce the price to the consumer, and thus to make

by the A.E.S.C.

16

Chemical

10 | Textile. 5 Mining . I Wood .

6 | Pulp and paper o

z

.

.

Miscellaneous

I4

6

12

9

i

2 16 5

.

II

Total

I I 2

I

159

o

4 68

The American Engineering Standards Committee co-operates with the

Federal

Specifications

Board,

an

organisation

representing

Government Departments, in the preparation of specifications relating to Government purchases of matcrials and supplies. It also co-

operates with the standards committees of other nations in the pro-

motion of international standards applying to manufactured goods. A further development in international standardisation occurred in the organisation of the Pan-American Standardisation Conference at Lima,

Peru, in Dec.

1924.

The

general idea for this conferenc

originated with the Latin-American countries.

Government .tctton.—Nation-wide interest in standardisation has been greatly quickened by the activities of the U.S. Department of Commerce. In 1921 the Secretary of Commerce, Her-

bert Hoover, established the Division of Simplified Practice to assist commercial

organisations,

chiefly trade associations,

in

the reduction of the variety in sizes and dimensions of the products in which their members were offering those products to the trade. It has been previously determined by a committee of eminent industrial engineers that the preventable waste in American industry was unduly high, and that much of this waste of material, labour, time and human energy came from the unwarranted fabrication of many non-essential varieties in the same class or type of goods. As an example, manufacturers of paving bricks were making 66 different types and styles of these

articles. They found that 70% of their business came from 11 of the 66 varietics. They decided to eliminate the odd 55 and concentrate production, sale and use thereafter on the 11 staple varieties. This was done in Nov. 1921. In March 10922, the variety was cut to 7; a year later to 6; in March 1924 to 5; and in March 1925 to 4. This was accomplished through the mutual adoption by manufacturers, distributors and consumers of the reduced line of types and sizes as the basis of future business. The Department of Commerce acted solely as an intermediary in bringing about this result. The action was initiated, sponsored and carried through to completion by the industry. Simplification.—This process of curtailing variety is called simplification to distinguish it from standardisation. The former is a commercial policy or procedure; the latter a technical

process, often involving scientifc research and investigation. Obviously, there is a relation between simplification and standardisation in that simplification, or the elimination of superfluous and unnecessary varieties in a common product, expedites

STANFORD—STAR-CONTRA or facilitates standardisation.

The varieties retained as the

simphifhed line become the accepted standards of the industry, and may remain as “ standards” until more adequate and acceptable standards are derived through scientific methods. Simplification is being applied in scores of industries with marked results. It is reducing inventories and idle investments, decreasing manufacturing and sclling costs and likewise stimulating turnover, sales and volume production. Examples of simplification effected are given in the following tables :— TABLE

| ucts

i

i

;

Files and rasps Woven wire fencing

Woven wire fencing packages

TE

;

;

Range boilers . ; : Hot water storage tanks Steel barrels and drums .

or vari- | Elimi-

|N&mber}

eties in | nated use

[Retained

125

IOI

1,351 552

855 483

2,072

1,934

130 120 66

II7 106 42

Forged tools Plough bolts Steel reinforcing bars Sheet steel

665 1,500 . 40 ; 1,819 Steel lockers 65 Tacks and nails (sizes) 428 Shovels, spades and scoops | 4,460 Hospital beds, Lengths 33 = Widths . 34 % Ieights . 44 Beds, metal ; 78 Bed springs ' ; . z

314 660 29 1,556 48 247 4,076 a0 x4 34 76 76

TABLE , Commodity

II,

oo varieties

Number ae

66 37 38 44 36

62 36 Sy 43 17

T

nate

| Stone, clay, glass, and

| mineral products | Vitrified paving brick. | Face brick (smooth) ; Face brick (rough) Common brick . ’ ' Hollow building tile ;

| Roofing slate . .. | Blackboard slates Concrete building units . Sand, lime brick . . ' Hotel chinaware |Hospital chinaware . Dining car chinaware Milk bottles . 3 Asphalt (grades) . Asbestos (paper) . Asbestos mill board Grinding wheels Wood, paper, ete. Box board s Milk-bottle caps Tissue paper: ' Roll tissue. : Shoe tissue.

! Grocers’ paper bags Wood beds

. ; i :

98 251 115 I4 700

50 226 QI II 540

Per cent

Reduction

|

77 84 84 82 go 43 50 64

i :

i

244 29

184 28

60 I

7 97

so

x

13 21

10 15

3 6

77 72

4

95

8

1,580] 74

4,700

25

BIBLIOGRAPHY. Management Handbook, Ronald Press Co. (New York, 1924); Waste 1n Industry, McGraw-Jlill Book Co., Inc. (New York, 1921); Year Book for 1925, American Engineering Standards Committee (New York); Simplified Practice, What It Is and What it

Offers, U.S. Dept. of Commerce (Nov. 1924).

STAR-CONTRA PROPELLER.—The most efficient screw propeller is still far from perfect, owing to the fact that its action on the water is not wholly confined to thrust work in an axial

direction, but is accompanied by a certain amount

of power

lost in giving the jet of water a rotary motion. The rotary or tangential force represents wasted energy, and the device about to be described has been evolved with a view of utilising that 24 81 496 63 force in useful thrust work. 69 86 Construction.—TYhe star is fitted in the propeller aperture, either on the fore or on the after side of the propeller proper, as 138 94 circumstances allow. It consists of a solid casting secured firmly 14 go I4 88 to the rudder post or ship’s stern frame. If the device is fitted 24 64 on the after side of the main propeller it is provided with two 351 47 blades or fins projecting each side and of special shape. If on 840 44 the forward side of the propeller proper, the star may consist of II 73 263 86 two fins rigidly secured to the ship’s structure and which may 17 74 or may not be fitted with outboard or side blades. |} IBI 58 Principle and .Action.—A ship’s propeller causes the propeller 384 2 stream to move in two directions. The axial movement is that I 97 I 97 which drives the ship; the tangential movement, that which ` I gs | causes the propeller stream to twist, is loss of power. The Con2 97 2 OF | tra propeller has been designed to eliminate this loss, and the results certainly show an increase of efficiency and economy. The water leaving the main propeller blades does so in a direction more or less perpendicular to the blade, but, when a star is provided behind the main propeller, the water flowing between Number | Percent its blades has its direction of flow changed until it is flowing Retained | Reduction astern in the line of the ship’s course. If, however, the device is fitted forward of the main propeller, the water flowing through its blades has its direction changed before it reaches the main | 4 | 94 propeller. The star blades are so curved that just suflicient 1 97 change of direction is given to prepare for and to counteract the I o8 rotary motion ordinarily given to the water by the main proI 98 peller. Since the one change of direction is just neutralised by 19 47 48 SI the other, the water is thrown off the main propeller blades in 25 90 a direct parallel to the course of the ship. 24 8o ddvuntages of the Star-Contra Propeller. —When fitted with 3 79

160 700 537 113 700 587 113 49 40 9 88 79 9 I4 6 8 10 5 5 715,200 | 459,400 | 255,800

6,280|

See Stanislavsky,

My Life in Art (Eng. trans. 1924).

Tron, steel, and their prod-

Metal lath

641

Moscow. His father was a rich mill owner and his grandmother a French actress; he studied at the imperial school of dramatic art and in 1888 began work as an actor and producer in the Society of Art and Literature and after ro years of training founded in 1898 together with the playwright V. N. Danchenko the Moscow Art Theatre. His productions were extremely varied, ranging from the historical Czar Fedor to the extreme naturalism of Chekhov’splays. He wasalso an actor of great force and subtlety, taking the leading parts in Chekhov’s and Gorky’s plays. Stanislavsky revolutionised the art of producing and is the acknowledged father of the modern Russian theatre.

I.

Number of sizes | Number],

Commodity

)

PROPELLER

(R. M. H.*)

STANFORD, SIR CHARLES VILLIERS (1852-1924), British musical composer (see 25.773), died in London March 29 1924. STANISLAVSKY, stage name of Constantine Sergeevich Alexeev (1863), Russian theatrical producer, was born in

side blades the device is a distinct protection for the main pro-

peller, against other craft, floating or partially submerged objects, and when manoeuvring near dock walls. This particularly applies when working amongst floating ice. A vessel fitted with this device will develop the same speed, but will absorb from 74-10% less power, with consequent saving in bunkers and bunker space, and increase of deadweight cargo capacity. Manoeuvring is distinctly improved, as the increased solidity of the water after leaving the propeller areca improves the efficiency of the rudder. The rudder bias is also largely reduced, consequently there is a saving in wear and tear on rudder gear, steering engine, chains, etc. The stcering of the ship is improved; and in types having side blades the pitching and rolling is much less. As is well known the reduction of rolling and pitching in rough seas means an increase of speed. The vibration is reduced to a considerable extent as the water is less broken. Even with the most eficient propeller there still remains a considerable percentage of loss through slip, cavitation and other causes, which involves either reduced speed, or unnecessarily large oil or coal consumption. The device is suitable for every type of vessel, from oceangoing liners to small coasters and tugs, and even launches, either with single, twin, triple or quadruple screws driven by reciprocating, turbine, internal combustion. or electrical drive. As

642

STARK—STATISTICS AND GRAPHS

regards wooden vessels, the star is equally suitable. Pilot-boats, fishing and sailing craft with auxiliary machinery, should find the device of considerable assistance, as pitching and rolling can be considerably reduced by its installation. Finally, it must be borne in mind that after the initial cost there are no maintenance charges. See Walter Pollock, ‘‘ A suggested Method of Increasing the efficiency of the Screw Propeller,” Trans. hist. Naval Architects, vol. 67, 1925. (Read at Spring Meeting, April 1925). (F. J. D.)

STARK, JOHANNES (1874), German physicist, was born April 15 1874 at Schichenhof in Bavaria and studied at the University of Munich. In rgoo he became an assistant at the University of Géttingen. He went as professor in 1907 to the Technische Hochschule at Aix-la-Chapelle, in 1917 to Greifswald and in 1920 to Würzburg. Stark devoted himsell principally to the study of the modern theory of radiation and the atomic theory. He discovered the Doppler effect in parallel rays, for which the Vienna Academy awarded him the Baumgartner Prize. Later he discovered the Stark effect, named after him, and in 1919 was awarded the Nobel Prize for Physics. He wrote numerous essays on physical problems, including the Prinsipien der Atomdynamik in 3 parts (to1o-5); frischen Ouanten, Die elektrische Strahlung, and Die

Die elekelektrisitat

in Gasen (1902). He was the founder of the Jahrbuch der Radioaktivitüt und Elektronik (1904). STARS: see ASTRONOMY. STATISTICS AND GRAPHS (sce 25.806 }.—Two classes of

problems are presented in the examination and interpretation of groups of statistical data. The first is to determine the relation to one another of two series of quantities, the measurements of

which have been recorded. The second is concerned with the comparison of the relations of different pairs of series. A simple illustration of the first is the quantity of rain falling at a given

observing station during a determined interval of time.

If the

amounts of the rainfall be set out for each week in a year, the

table showing these amounts

will indicate the fluctuations in

rainfall with the seasons. Similar tables for other years, when compared with the first and with one another, will show that there is no precise uniformity in the recurrence of wet and dry periods, but if the records for each week in the year are averaged over a series of years, the contrasts between the wetter and drier seasons of the year will become clearer than in the record for a single year. Correspond-

ing records for different places will serve to compare the relative

wetness of their climates more accurately than can be done by a

simple comparison of the annual rainfall.

Observations for the

same locality for different periods of time may show changes either in the amount of the annual rainfall or in its distribution through the year. As an illustration of a series of observations in which time is not one of the primary elements, variations with which are the subject of record, we may have a serics of measurements of the heights and weights of men between determined limits of age. The average weight of all those whose height is within one-eighth of an inch of, say, 5 ft. 6 in. may be determined, and similarly for heights of 5 ft. 53 in., 5 ft. 6} in., and each quarter inch less or more. A table setting out these

results will summarise the relation of weight to height among the persons measured. The study of the variation in magnitude of one of two observed quantities as the other changes naturally leads to the comparison of such variations determined for different phenomena. Thus, the comparison of the seasonal variation of rainfall or of temperature, and the seasonal variation of the death-rate, either in general or that consequent on a particular disease or group of diseases, suggests the question whether the variations of the two phenomena are similar, and similar in a degree which justifies the conclusion that there is a causal connection between them. Corresponding problems arise from comparisons between the tables showing the relations to one another of other pairs of observed quantities. A large part of the work of recent years in the application of mathematical methods to statistics has been concerned with

devising appropriate methods of measuring and testing the degree of association between different series of variable quantities. Among the simpler tests of the closeness of association is the co-efficient of correlation. For the theory of correlation reference must be made to standard works on statistics. It will be sufficient here to indicate generally the mode of calculation of the co-efficient in the case of two variables. Taking two serics of values for two quantities examined, Xi,

X2,

Mayeeececcrccevccersecweascessecncarevassesassses Xn

Viy

Y2}

V3jereresrreserrevorasvesonsrannenaserosevenseree Yo

the x’s and y’s being measured in terms of units suitable to their nature, and denoting Xvi FHX2Ve+ Naya + +xn¥n by = (xy) xt Hx

+x

t

+x?

by =

(x?)

ytty Hy + +ya by 3 (y’) the value of r, the co-efficient of correlation between the x’s and y’s, is given by r= (xy) VÈ» (x°). © (y?). The values of r may range between +r and —1, these extreme values corresponding to a linear relation between each x and the corresponding y of the form axtby+c=o. For intermediate values of r such a

lincar relation does not connect the corresponding values of x and y. Looking at the mattér graphically, if x=f,; (u) and y=f. (vy), the variations of xand y asu and v are given different values and may be represented in the usual way by tracing lines, of one of which the ordinates and abscissae have the series of values given to u and x, and of the other those of v and y. By a suitable choice of scales, the values of x corresponding to values a, 2a, 3a... for u may be made to fall vertically over or under those of y, which correspond to values b, 2b, 3b. . . for v. If the variations of x and y are associated, this graphic presentation of them may render the association visible. Such comparisons of the series of corresponding values of two quantities appear sometimes more convincing than the value of the co-efficient of correlation between them. Value of Graphs —The graphic method of presenting statistical data has advantages over the tabular statement of the same data, though it is necessary to remember that the facts represented cannot be more exactly represented by a diagram than by the data from which the diagram is constructed. The diagram may, indeed, on account of the limitations ordin-

arily governing the size of the sheets on which it is drawn and the accuracy of the draughtsman, fall short in accuracy of the statistical tables which it represents. The graphical presentation of such tables has, however, the important advantage that

it presents lengthy series of data in a form in which the majority of users of them find it easier to grasp their sequence and their relations than when presented in tabular shape. Thus such a fact, or series of facts, as the variation of the rate of mortality with age appears as a mass of detail very difficult to grasp as a whole when presented in a table of figures; while many find a diagram, in which the rates are shown by the variations in the height of a line above a defined level, shown by a straight line crossing the page horizontally, not at all difficult to appreciate. As a series of observations may thus be represented and grasped with ease, two or more series may be compared with corresponding facility. For useful and effective comparisons attention needs to be paid to the scales on which the different series of numbers are represented. An illustration is given by the late Professor A. Marshall, in the jubilee volume of the Royal Statistical Society,’ in comparisons of the quantities of tea and sugar consumed per head of the population of the United Kingdom ina series of years. When both quantities are represented in pounds, the growing use of sugar is clearly manifest, while the consumption of tea appears to have varied little. When the unit of measurement of tea is taken as an ounce, however, the fact that the relative expansion of tea consumed per head was comparable with that of sugar is made clear. Fig. 1 is constructed from data for the 50 years preceding the War similar to those used by Marshall. i Loc. cit., p. 257 (fig. 2).

STATISTICS

AND

GRAPHS

643

which show the deviations from the trends manifest variations having marked features of resemblance for different curves. The marriage rate and the value of foreign trade per head for the United Kingdom furnish an example where the deviations from nine-year averages appear much more clearly similar in their fluctuations than the single-year figures. Vig. 2 shows the deviations for each year 1859-10909 from the averages of the nine-year periods 1855-63 to 1905-13, the marriage rates being those of Great Britain and the foreign trade being represented by the sum of the retained imports and the exports of domestic produce, Further, the comparison of such deviations suggests that, whatever the causes which underlie the apparent similarity of the variability, they do not produce their effect simultaneously

1864

1870

1875

1880

1885

1890

I895

1990

1905

i919

on the two phenomena measured. The maxima and minima of the marriage rate, when examined more closely, occur some months later than those of trade.! The association can be tested by the calculation of co-efficients of correlation for diferent intervals between the points on one curve and the corresponding points on the other; thus the interval for which the co-efficient has highest value may be determined with some precision.

193

Year

Fic. 1.—Graph showing consumption per head of tea and sugar in the United Kingdom in cach vear 1864-1913. (Quantities in stock at the end of cach year are not taken into account.) When, of two (or more) curves compared, one represents quantities which increase from left to right of the diagram, though at varying rates, while another skows fluctuations about

a line which is, on the whole, horizontal or falling, a correspondence between the two curves may not be easily recognised, even if it be real and close. To bring out the association if may be necessary to adopt a procedure which separates the general trend of the line and the deviations of individual points on the line from that trend. One such method is to calculate the averages of the ordinates of several consecutive points. The line which shows the position of such a series of averages, and the line which shows the deviation of any point from the average of the series to which it corresponds——say, the series which extends equally the right and left of the selected point—may show movements well worthy of separate attention. It may appcar, for example, that even if the lines showing the general trends are far from similar in their variations, the lines

In examining two relations, such as those represented above by x=f; (u)inand y=f, (v), the nature of the phenomena may be rendered clearer In some cases by the adoption of apprepriate transformations before bringing together the various data to be compared. Thus, if p=Fi (x) and q= F; (u), the relation x= f, (u) may be represented by a relation between p and q, say,

p= F (q). Similarly, if r= F, (y) and s= F: (v), the relation y= fe (v), expressed as a relation between r and s, may become r= F (s). We can thus obtain, for comparison, graphs*of the variations of pand r as q and s vary, and, if the transformations have been suitably chosen with reference to the data to be examined, the new series may reveal relations not clearly manifest from the examination of those from which they were derived. It is not, however, necessary to devote much space to such means of analyzing results in special cases, the general principle underlying them being sufficiently obvious. As shown in the article PROBABILITY (22.376) the measurements of many phenomena, physical or social, are found to be 1R. H. Hooker, * Correlation of the Marriage Rate with Trade,” cf. Journal of the Royal Statistical Society (Sept. 1901).

20r

£head per

1000 Marriages living per

1860

1865

1870

1875 -

1880

Year

1885

1890

1835

1900

1905

1909

Fic, 2.—Deviations from nine-year averages. Upper graph: Value of foreign trade (net imports and British exports) of the United Kingdom per head of population. Lower graph: Marriage rate in Great Britain 1859-1909 (averages of 1855-63 to 1905-13).

644

STEAD—STEAM

distributed about their average in close accordance with the theoretic distribution of events dependent on pure chance, subject to the qualification that, in social phenomena, the normal evenly balanced

distribution of events on either side of their

mean is frequently replaced by a distribution leaning more or less markedly to one side or the other. In the actual process of taking observations of a series of phenomena, we may fail to secure measurements of that representative character possessed by the mean of a large number of observations repeated under conditions as nearly as possible identical in all respects. Most commonly we have to be satisfied with a single observation or a limited series of observations. If we could obtain the true means as the values of the x’s and y’s whose fluctuations it is proposed to compare, we might either find that a marked resemblance of the two curves would replace a vague similarity, or that an apparent similarity would be replaced by a definite independence. Further, the actual statistics obtained to represent a series of observations may be either a random or a biased selection from the varied possible measurements. It is a serious weakness of many social statistics that the data available are commonly based on a limited series of observations of the consequences resulting from the operation of specified forces, and that limited series is too often affected by conditions which prejudice the representative character of the statistics. If this defect be serious, it may be of doubtful advantage to apply to such data those methods of analysis which might be wholly appropriate to data derived from the repetition of carefully controlled observations of physical or mechanical phenomena. As shown in a paper by Mr. Udny Yule, there may arise, from random sampling of possible data, series which appear to show, between phenomena wholly unrelated, a comparatively high degree of correlation as measured in the usual manner.! The improvement of the data available for statistical analysis is thus of an importance not Jess than that of the improvement of the methods of analysis and comparison of the data obtained. Considerable advances have been made in this direction in recent years. In comparing two sets, one distant, one recent, of statistical data it is necessary to guard against conclusions which may be invalidated by the inferior reliability, for the particular purpose in hand, of the older data. One great advantage of much of the later statistical material is that the conditions of its preparation, conditions which permit of a judgment as to its reliability or its applicability in particular arguments, are more usually set out with care than was formerly the practice. In many cases it has been necessary to commence astatistical series with imperfect data, the improvement of the data being only

possible as the value of data of that character became recognised. UTILITY

IN COMMERCE

AND

INDUSTRY

The value of statistics for business purposes has been appreciated to an increasing degree, and thus an increasing flow of statistical data, which yet leaves much to be desired, has become available for the study of commercial, industrial and other social

problems. The movements of prices in Great Britain as reflected in index numbers, for example, are made the subject of regular compilations, not only by The Economist and The Statist, but by The Times and The Financial Times. While the three first of these adhere to the formally more simple method of averaging the items by the addition and division of their sum by the num-

ber of items, the last, like the index of the Board of Trade, which has a wider range of sources of data than any of the others, makes use of the geometric means of the items, as was done in the index by Jevons for the period 1782-1869 (cf. W. Stanley Jevons, Investigations in Currency and Finance, ed. 2, pp. 112-50).

In the United States an even greater variety of compilations of general price indices is available than in England, while in both countries there are a number of compilations limited to the prices of specified groups of commodities. The use of index num-

bers of prices has extended, since the War, to a much wider 1 Jour. Roy. Stat. Soc. (Jan. 1926), Presidential address by G, Udny Yule, “Why do we sometimes get nonsense correlations between time-series?”

ENGINE

range of countries than formerly, partly under the influence of the statistical work of the League of Nations.? In the analysis of statistics related to the variations of business activity and prosperity, it appears to have been established that the ebb and flow of different phases of that activity are not simultaneous but follow one another with more or less regularity. Considerable attention is being devoted to the selection of data which may represent most satisfactorily the fluctuations in these different features of the ebb and flow of business, with a view to the establishment of a species of economic meteorology. Work of International Organisations.—Graphical presentations of the variations of such trade indicators are regularly prepared and circulated by, among others, the organisations known as the Harvard Economic Service® in the United States, and the London and Cambridge Economic Service in Great Britain, the former having the longer record of work, and in

France, Italy and Germany the carrying out of a similar programme has been taken in hand.

The work of the International

Statistical Institute in promoting comparability between the official statistics of different countries was interrupted after the meeting held at Vienna in 1913, except in so far as the establishment of a permanent office at The Hague, finally approved at that meeting, led to the collection of certain statistical material from many countries for publication under the auspices of the Institute in the bulletin of the new office. By the time that serious activities of that office had become possible, the new organisation for international co-operation, the League of Nations, was becoming active in the field of sta-

tistics. The League and the Institute have worked in co-operation through a preparatory committee jointly appointed by the two organisations to survey various portions of the field of commercial and industrial statistics. The reports prepared by this joint committee have furnished a large part of the material presented for discussion at the first meeting of the Institute held after the War, namely, that at Brussels in 1923, and also at the meeting of 1925 at Rome. The regular series of biennial meetings of the Institute is now definitely re-established, and the vacancies in its membership which occurred in the ten years of

suspended activity are in large measure filled. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—G. Udny Yule, An Introduction to the Theory of Statistics, Part II. and the references there given; Arthur L. Bowley,

Elements of Statistics, Part I1., section VI.

(A. W.F.)

STEAD, WILLIAM THOMAS (1849-1912), British journalist (see 25.817), was drowned on the “ Titanic”? April 15 1912.

STEAM ENGINE (see 25.818).—The article in Vol. 25 traces the history of the steam engine along its two lines of development, as a reciprocating engine and as a turbine—the engine of Watt and the engine of Parsons: it also includes a sketch of the thermodynamic theory which governs both. The turbine form of steam engine long since established itself as a successful rival to the reciprocating or piston and cylinder form, especially in two great fie!ds—marine propulsion and the generation of electrical power for distribution from central stations. Much the most important steam turbine has been of the compound reaction type, originated by Sir Charles Parsons and developed by him into a prime mover of great power and high efficiency. In Parsons’ turbine the principle was for the first time practically applied of dividing the whole heat-drop, from boiler to condenser, into a large number of successive stages. At each stage the steam acquires a moderate velocity by undergoing a small fall of pressure in a row of converging passages oT nozzles, and gives up the momentum so acquired to blades mounted on a revolving drum or “ rotor.” In Parsons’ turbine, as is explained in Vol. 25 (p. 845), rows of moving blades on the rotor alternate with precisely similar rows of fixed blades projecting inwards from the case or cylinder in which it is enclosed; they are so shaped that the steam suffers 2See Memorandum on Currency and Central Banks, 1013-24, issued by the League of Nations, 3 These organisations issue to their subscribers the publications containing the data and charts referred to. 4 Insttint International de Statistique. Bulletin, Tomes 1924 and 1926.

STEAM substantially equal drops of pressure in both, and acquires equal amounts of relative velocity. Later the principle of using many compounded stages was successfully applied to the impulse type of turbine by Rateau and others, producing a machine which also has successive groups of fixed nozzles alternating with rows of moving blades, but the action on the moving blades is in general one of pure impulse: in the moving blade passages there is no drop of pressure, consequently there is no gain of relative velocity and no reaction in the sense in which that word is used when one speaks of a Parsons’ turbine.

Electric Power Stattons.—In recent years the compound impulse turbine has been brought, in the hands of various makers, to a high degree of efficiency, though not exceeding that of Parsons’ reaction turbine. Both types are now in very extensive use, especially in electrical power stations where great numbers of powerful turbines are installed. Many of these develop individually as much as 30,000 kw., and some 50,000 kw., or even more. For such service the turbine is as a rule directly coupled to an alternating-current dynamo. A common speed is 3,000 r.p.m. in turbines of moderate output, or 1,500 in the larger sizes. In turbines of 20,000 kw. or over, it is usual to divide the expansion between two or more separate cylinders, to avoid the use of an unduly long enclosed rotor, and to escape difficulties that might arise from too wide a range of temperature in different parts of the rotor and the enclosing casc. Often the two cylinders are arranged in tandem with their rotor shafts in one straight line, mechanically coupled to rotate as one shaft. In some recent instances the high-pressure cylinder is of the impulse type and the low-pressure cylinder of the reaction type. For central station use, the steam turbine has entirely displaced the reciprocating engine, and has achieved an economy of fuel of which that engine is quite incapable. Apart from its higher efficiency, its relatively small bulk, in relation to the power developed, and the convenience with which it is handled in running give it a marked advantage. Marine Enginecring.—In its original application to ship propulsion, the turbine was directly coupled to the propeller shaft, but this arrangement had a serious drawhack. To work efficiently, a screw propeller must run at a speed much lower than that which is suitable to the shaft of a turbine. In fast ships the

discrepancy is of course less than in slow ships: this consideration practically restricted the early marine use of the turbine to ocean liners, war ships and other fast vessels. Even in them there had to be a compromise: the propeller was designed to make an abnormally large number of turns per min. at some sacrifice of propulsive efficiency, and the turbine had to be designed for an abnormally low speed on the part of the shaft. The low speed of revolution, even with great enlargement of the rotor drums and multiplication of the number of blade rings, seriously hampered its thermodynamic efficiency. Notwithstanding this handicap, the advantage of the turbine in marine use was so conspicuous that in the 10 years from 1906 to 19016 direct coupled marine turbines to an aggregate of 14,000,000 H{.P. were supplied by Parsons and his licensees for the propulsion of ships, taking the place of triple or quadruple expansion engines of the reciprocating class. Improved Designs.—Meanwhile, however, Parsons had made a new departure which was to render the direct-coupled marine turbine obsolete. Realising that the turbine should be freed from the limitation of speed which is imposed by the propeller, he set himself to improve methods of gear-cutting so that the large powers involved in marine propulsion might be successfully transmitted through a reducing gear, which would allow the turbine shaft to run much faster than the propeller shaft. He demonstrated the practicability and the great advantage of such gearing by a large scale experiment on the steamer ‘ Vespasian ” in roro. There gearing was interposed between the turbine and the propeller, a pair of pinions five in. in diameter on the turbine shafts driving a wheel ọọ% in. in diameter on the propeller shaft through helically cut teeth on which jets of oil were continuously sprayed. The gear showed itself to be durable as well as efficient, absorbing only about 2% of the transmitted

ENGINE

645

power. Geared marine turbines soon made a rapid advance; they are now employed to the exclusion of direct coupled marine turbines In all modern designs. Up to the end of 1925 they have been supplied to the extent of over 16,000,000 horsepower. In many turbine driven ships, including all the vessels of the British Navy, single reduction gears are used, with a speed ratio which may be as high as 20, but recent practice in the mercantile marine prefers double reduction gearing in which a total speed ratio of 4o or so is reached in two steps through the use of short intermediate gear shafts. In a recent design of a doublegeared marine turbine of 5,c00 H.P., to drive a single screw propeller, steam is supplied at a pressure of 500 |b. persq. in., superheated to 700° Fahrenheit. This is expanded successively tn three cylinders of the turbine (high, intermediate and low pressure), the shafts of which run respectively at 5,000, 3,000 and 1,700 revolutions per min., and carry pinions that gear with two short

second-motion shafts driving a central propeller shaft at 90 revolutions. With such an installation the consumption of steam is probably less than 8 Ib. per H.P. per hour, and the propulsive effect for each Ib. of coal, in normal working, is about doubled in comparison with what was usual a few years ago. The successful application of gearing has opened up for the steam turbine many additional fields of usefulness, as a prime mover in factories, rolling-mills, paper works and so forth, where the shafting or machine to be driven is required to run at a speed much lower than would be suitable for the turbine shaft. It is unnecessary to describe here in any detail the forms taken by steam turbines, or state the principles which govern the design of their blading, in order to secure that the hydraulic efficlency at each stage shall be high, and that as large a fraction as is possible of the adiabatic heat-drop shall be converted into useful work (sce TURBINES). Thermodynamic Eficiency-~The adiabatic heat-drop is a matter of primary importance in determining the limit of performance of any steam engine, whether of the reciprocating or the turbine class. It is measured by the change in the total heat function (see 25.825) which the steam would undergo if it expanded adiabatically from the condition as to pressure and temperature at which it is supplied to the final condition of pressure in the condenser. This represents the greatest amount of work which is theoretically obtainable, per lb. of operative steam, under ideally favourable conditions, in a steam engine of any type, so long as the engine follows the ‘‘ Rankine cycle ” (see 25.827). Under the conditions of actual practice the effective work may amount to about three-fourths of this quantity. For the convenience of designers, tables of the adiabatic heatdrop between various stated conditions of supply and exhaust have been calculated and published, on the basis of Callendar’s Tables of the Properties of Steam. F Any improvement in the thermodynamic efficiency of a steam engine may proceed on three more or less distinct lines:— (1) By making the actual process of expansion confor1a more closely to the adiabatic ideal, thereby obtaining a larger fraction of the heat-drop in the form of useful work. This fraction is called the “ efficiency ratio.” (2) By increasing the range of temperature through which the engine works, which may be done either: (a) by raising the pressure and temperature of the supply; or (8) by lowering the pressure (and consequently also the temperature) in the condenser. (3) By departing from the Rankine Cycle and making the operation of the engine approach more nearly to the Carnot Cycle, which represents the extreme limit of efficiency in the possible relation of work done to heat supplied, when every part of the thermodynamic cycle, including the return of the working fluid to the boiler, is carried out in a strictly reversible manner,

All these lines of development are found in recent practice. They have led to features, some of which call for particular notice, that are characteristic of present tendencies in design. Blade Design.—The heat-drop is more fully utilised in turbines by better blade design, by avoidance of leakage past the blades, by using blade speeds which are generally higher and are more favourably related to the speed at which the steam issues from the nozzles; also by providing large areas for the passage of steam

through the last rows of the blading and for its discharge to the

STEAM

646

condenser, so that the last stages in the expansion may be utilised, and that the great volume to which the steam has then expanded may be passed without too high a leaving velocity. Superheating.—Another factor which makes for an efficient use of the heat-drop is super-heating. It is now an ordinary feature of turbine practice to superheat the steam to a temperature approaching 700° F.: an important effect of this is to reduce frictional losses, and so improve the efhciency ratio by keeping the steam dry throughout a large part of the expansion. This advantage can be still more completely secured when reheating is resorted to, which means that the steam is removed after expanding to an intermediate stage, and is passed through pipes which reheat it to a high temperature. It is then returned to the engine to complete its expansion. By this means the steam can be kept dry throughout the whole or nearly the whole of its action. Reheating in this sense is used in the most efficient modern power stations. On the large scale, and as a feature of steam turbine practice, it is novel, but it was used some 25 years ago by W. Schmidt in compound reciprocating engines, where the practicability and the advantage of high superheat were for the first time clearly demonstrated (sce 25.829). Schmidt's method was to reheat the partially expanded steam by bringing it into thermal contact with the highly superbeated high-pressure supply in a receiver between the two cylinders. The plan adopted in power stations is to take the steam back to the boiler house for direct reheating by the furnace gases. It must be recognised

that this involves losses by radiation and otherwise which may go far to reduce the net advantage. Boiler Pressure. —A high degree of initial superheat has the further merit that it raises the average temperature at which heat is taken in, and so increases the effective thermodynamic range. An advantage of like kind, but greater in amount, can be secured by substantially raising the boiler pressure, and this is a conspicuous feature of modern practice. In recently erected power stations pressures of 500 or 600 lb. per sq. in. are not uncommon, and experiments with pressures of 1,200 and even 1,500 Ib. are in progress. Even with the highest pressures that are practicable the temperature of the steam may advantageously be raised by initial superheating up to the highest level which the materials will safely stand Condenser Design.—At the other end of the process, the pressure in the condenser is limited by the vapour pressure of the available cooling water. A very close approach to this limit ts secured in practice, in the large surface condensers which form part of power-station plants, by the methods which are now used for the extraction of air and residual vapour. The gaseous contents of the condenser are usually removed by a combination of two steam-jet ejectors, working in series, which entrain it and discharge it against atmospheric pressure, through an expanding nozzle in which it gains pressure by losing velocity. The liquid condensate is removed by a separate pump, often of the centrifugal type. By this combination a much better vacuum is readily maintained than was practicable in the days of the old-fashioned air-pump, which removed the condensate and the air and vapour together. The condenser pressure is reduced to one inch or even three-quarters of an inch of mercury. To keep a good vacuum is specially important in turbine plants, for the turbine can make full use of the very last stages of expansion, and the large volume which the steam has makes even a small fall of pressure contribute substantially to the total quantity of work that is done. Feed Water Improvements.—The Rankine cycle (see 25.827) is thermodynamically less efficient than the completely rever-

sible cycle of Carnot,

because

it includes

an irreversible

transfer of heat to the feed-water in raising it from the temperature of the condenser to that of the boiler. This irreversibie feature can be more or less completely eliminated by a device which has recently become usual in turbine plants which aim at high thermal economy. Steam is “ bled” from the tur-

bine at several points, at a series of intermediate temperatures, and is used to heat the feed-water step by step in a corresponding series of feed-heaters, through which it passes on its way from the condenser to the boiler. If the number of such steps were

ENGINE indefinitely increased the process of feed-heating would become completely reversible; by providing even three or four steps a good approximation to reversibility is reached. The arrangement is known as regenerative or cascade feed-heating or feedheating by bleeding. | If the steam were not superheated, and the feed-heating were made reversible, the cycle (with an infinitely large number of steps in the feed-heating process) would become that of Carnot, for all the heat which the working substance receives would then be taken in at the upper limit of temperature, and all the heat it rejects would be rejected at the lower limit, the cycle being completed by two reversible processes, namely adiabatic expansion from the upper to the lower limit on one side, and regenerative return from the lower to the upper limit on the other. Superheating involves, in practice, a departure from this

cycle, by raising the temperature of the steam to a higher level than that at which the chief part of its heat has been received. A limit of temperature beyond which superheating cannot be catried is imposed by considerations relating to the strength and endurance of the materials of which engines are built. With such superheats as are common, cast steel has to be used in the earlicr stages of the expansion, cast iron having been found to undergo a progressive growth or change of form when brought into repeated contact with steam at any temperature near the top of the range. The limit of superheating at present recognised

as practicable is about 750° F., or 400° Centigrade.

Although

superheating prevents the cycle of operations from conforming strictly to that of Carnot, it raises the etlhciency, partly by increasing the average temperature range, but mainly, as was explained above, by keeping the steam dry. Modern Exam pics —In illustration of these features of modern practice, reference may be made to the steam turbine plant of the North Tees Power Station, planned by Messrs. Merz & McClellan, where there is reheating of the steam during its expansion, and also regenerative heating of the feed-water. The boiler pressure is 475 Ib. per sq. in. and the steam is initially superheated to a stop-valve temperature of 650° F. It expands in the high-pressure turbine to 65 lb. and is then returned to the boiler house where it is reheated to 500° F., before expanding in the low-pressure turbine to a pressure of 0-39 lb. (vacuum 29} inches). Although this reheating involves the taking in of supplementary heat at a temperature on the whole lower than that at which the main supply of heat is received, it materially improves the action by preventing the steam from becoming wet in the low-pressure turbine. The condensate, on its way back to the boiler, picks up what heat is available from steam drains and gland leakage, and also passes through three cascade feed-heaters to which steam is bled from three suitable points in the turbine, with the effect that its temperature is raised 300° Fahrenheit. A more recent example, of greater size and still higher thermodynamic efficiency, is afforded by a turbine of 50,000 kw. normal output, supplied by Sir Charles Parsons’ firm in 1925 to the Crawford Avenue Power Station, Chicago. This plant has three cylinders through which the steam passes in series, each with its own alternator. Steam is generated at 600 lb. per sq. in., and reaches the stop-valve with a gauge pressure of 550 pounds. It expands in the first or high-pressure cylinder of the turbine through 36 stages down to a pressure of roo lb., and is then passed through a reheater, returning to the intermediate cylinder at 700° Fahrenheit. There it expands through 23 stages toa gauge pressure of about 2 lb.; it then passes to the low-pressure cylinder where it expands through five more stages (making 64 in all) and is finally discharged to a condenser in which-the vacuum is maintained at 29] in. (barometer 30 inches). The low-pressure cylinder is set coaxially with the intermediate-pressure cylinder, and the steam passes from one to the other through a large conical connecting passage with the least possible disturbance of the flow, in order that its carry-over energy of motion may be conserved. The low-pressure cylinder exhausts through very short direct passages of great sectional area into a pair of twin condensers with vertical tubes, one on either side of the shaft, providing

647

STEED—STEFANSSON together a condensing surface of 56,000 sq. feet. Steam is bled from the turbine at three places for regenerative heating of the condensate on its way back to the boiler: the water is thereby heated in three steps to 315° Fahrenheit. Heat from the flue gases is used to give a further stage of feed-heating, and also to warm the air-supply to the furnaces. The shafts of the highpressure and intermediate-pressure turbines run at 1,800 revolutions per minute, that of the low-pressure turbine at 720. The highest blade-tip velocity is 760 ft. per second. With this plant about 33%% of the heat supplied to the steam, or fully 27% of the energy of the fuel, should be converted into electrical energy. Parsons estimates that by raising the pressure of supply to 1,500

lb. per sq. in. the latter figure would be increased to 30°2%.! The Reciprocating Engine -—The growth and improvement oi the steam turbine and the wide extension of its use, have formed the outstanding feature of the period now under review. With respect to the reciprocating engine regarded separately there is little that need be said. It has shared in the advantages that have come from the general use of superheating, and in some degree from the use of higher pressure. Though displaced by the steam turbine where great amounts of power are concerned, it continues to find much application in moderate as well as small sizes, both on land and as a marine engine. Many vertical triple and quadruple expansion engines, working at pressures of 200 lb. or thereabouts, continue to be fitted on board ship, especially when the speed of the vessel is subject to variation, or the possibilities of local repair have to be particularly considered. For locomotion on railways the reciprocating engine holds undisturbed possession of the field. Attempts have been made to apply the turbine to this use, but they have not gone beyond the stage of experiment (see RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION; LOCOMOTIVE DESIGN). Compound locomotives, extensively used on the continent of Europe, are less generally favoured on English railways, though they have the support, based on experience, of more than one prominent locomotive engineer. Superhcating in locomotives is now a standard practice: to effect it the method initiated by schmidt is employed: a certain proportion of the tubes which convey the hot gases through the boiler from the fire-box to the smoke-box are given a comparatively large diameter (4 or 5 in.) and within each of these a long superheater tube is inserted which is bent back on itself three times; its ends are brought out side by side, and are connected to two headers on the steam supply. By means of the headers these superheater tubes are connected in parallel, so that together they form part of the channel which the steam must traverse on its way from the steam space of the boiler to the cylinders. Mainly with the object of giving the locomotive more power, three or four cylinders are frequently used instead of two cylinders. With two cylinders the cranks are placed at right angles and the driving effort is subject to wide fluctuations durtng the revolution of the driving wheels. With three cylinders, set at 120° apart, a much more uniform effort is obtained, and incidentally the variations of vertical force on the rails, due to imperfect dynamical balance of the revolving parts, are greatly reduced. Recent investigations by a special Research Committee on the stresses produced on railway bridges by moving loads have shown that in long bridges these variations of vertical force are the main factor in setting the bridge vibrating and thereby causing the moving load to produce augmented stresses in the members. This consideration may be expected to emphasise the preference, already felt on other grounds, for the three-cylinder type.

The increased use of superheating in engines of all sorts has done much to reduce what is a serious defect of reciprocating engines in general—the thermodynamic waste that occurs through transfers of heat between the working fluid and the metal of the cylinder (see 25.828). Superheating makes the transfer of heat comparatively difficult by keeping the steam more nearly dry. The waste arises largely from the fact that in an engine 1 Parsons on Steam Turbines, Trans. of the First World Power Conference (1924), vol. 2, p. 1477.

of any usual design the same surfaces are brought alternately into contact with hot and comparatively cold steam. To obviate this in some degree an interesting type has been introduced called the “ Uniflow ” engine, which completely separates the admission from the exhaust. The exhaust ports are at the middle of a long cylinder and the admission ports are at both ends, the engine being double-acting. There is no separate exhaust valve; the piston itself causes the release of steam by uncovering the central ports as it approaches the end of its stroke. The piston is nearly half as long as the cylinder and only a little shorter than the stroke. The effect is that the cylinder ends, containing as they do steam chests of live steam, are both kept hot with very little fluctuation of temperature, while the middle region remains continuously at a comparatively low temperature since it comes into contact only with steam that is at or near release. The admission is controlled by drop valves; the clearance spaces are very small; the cut off is carly, and a high ratio of expansion is achieved in a single cylinder. Engines of the “ Uniflow ” type are now extensively used for such purposes as driving factories, and tests show that, for their size, they have a remarkably good thermal efficiency, especially when the steam has a fairly large amount of superheat. There is still enough exchange of heat between the working substance and the metal to make superheating highly advantageous. Bin_ioGRAPiy.-——J. A. Ewing, The Steam Engine (1914); J. Perry, The Steam Engine (1920); D. A. Low, Heat Engines (1923).

(J. A. E.) STEED, HENRY WICKHAM (1871), British journalist, was born Oct. 10 1871 at Long Melford, Suffolk. He studied economics, philosophy and history at Jena, Berlin and Paris universities, and in 1896 joined the staff of The Times as acting correspondent in Berlin, and was appointed correspondent in Rome in 1897. Transferred thence to Vienna in 1902 as correspondent for Austria-Hungary, he remained there until 1913 when he returned to London, and was appointed foreign editor of The Times, in Jan. 1914. In 1913 he published The Habsburg Monarchy, in which the internal condition of Austria- Hungary was critically examined and the possibility of a European war discussed. During the World War Mr. Steed, was mainly responsible for the foreign policy of The Times and, in 1918, was chosen to frame the policy of Lord Northcliffe’s Department for Propaganda in Enemy Countries. In this capacity he was sent on an oficial mission to the Italian front where he was authorised by the Allied Govts. to promise independence to the subject Habsburg peoples. He helped also to arrange, in April 1918, the Rome Congress of the oppressed Austro-Hungarian races. In Feb. 1919 he was appointed editor of The Tames in succession to Mr. Geoffrey Dawson, and held this post until Nov. 1922. After relinquishing the editorship of The Times Mr. Steed published Through Thirty Years, in which he related his experiences of European politics between 1892 and 1922. In 1923 he acquired the control of The Revicw of Reviews, of which he became editor. STEEL:

sce IRON AND STEEL}; RUSTLESS STEEL.

STEFÁNSSON,

VILHJÁLMUR

(1879-

), arctic explorer,

was born Nov. 3 1879 at Arnes, Manitoba, of Icelandic parents. He graduated from the University of Iowa and studied for a while at Harvard university. After two archaeological voyages to Iceland in 1904 and 1905 he turned to arctic research. In 1906-7 he was a member of the Mikkelsen ethnological expedition to the Eskimo tribes of the mouth of Mackenzie river and Northern Alaska, and in rg08-12 he went on another expedition to the arctic regions north of Canada, where he discovered several unknown Eskimo tribes. In 1913 he was made commander of the Canadian arctic expedition undertaken under the auspices of the Canadian Government. During the six years 1912-8 he explored vast regions north of Canada and Alaska, wandering for months on moving ice, accompanied by two or three companions. He discovered a new land north of Prince Patrick Island in rors, and in 1916 another new land, west of Axel Heiberg Island. In 1918 he explored the Beaufort Sea, disproving the existence of the so-called Keenan Land. Stefansson laid

STEIN— STEYN

648

great stress on the economic value of the arctic regions, chiefly as meat supplying countries, and by his advice reindeer were suc-

cessfully introduced in some of the arctic regions where they were not found before. After his return he received the thanks of the Canadian privy council and was awarded the founder’s medal of the Royal Geographical Society. His principal publications are: My Life with the Eskimo (1913); Anthropological Report (1914); The Friendly clrctie (1921); The Northward Course of Empire (1922); MTunters of the Great North (1922); Kak the Eskimo (1924); The Adventure of Wrangel Island (1926).

STEIN, SIR MARC AUREL (1862), British archaeologist, was born at Budapest Nov. 26 1862. Educated at Budapest and Dresden and at the Universities of Vienna and Tübingen, he went to England for further study and then to India, where he became principal of the Oriental College, Lahore, and registrar of the Punjab University in 1888. Ife was appointed in 1899 to the Indian Education Service, and for the next two years carried out archaeological explorations for the Indian Govt. in Chinese Turkistan. In 1906-8 he made further explorations (see 27.425) in central Asia and western China, receiving the gold medal of the Royal Geographical Society. From roro hẹ was superintendent of the Indian Archaeological Survey, and in t9t3-6 carried out explorations in Persia and central Asia, described by him in The Geographical Journal (1916). He was created K.C.I.E. in 1912. In 1926 he continued his explorations on the Northwest Frontier and has identified the site of Aornus (sce 1.548) thus correcting Abbott’s view. His other publications include Chronicle of Kings of Kashmir (1900); Ancient Khotan (1907) and Ruins of Desert Cathay (1912). STEINER, RUDOLF (1861—1925), German philosopher, was born Feb. 27 1861 at Kraljevic, Austria, the son of a small railway employee. From 1890 to 1897 he worked in Weimar at the “ Goethe-Schiller Archive,” editing Goethe’s works on natural history. In ro02 the German section of the theosophic association was founded and Steiner was called upon to become its spirit-

ual leader. As such he developed for some years an astonishing

activity as regards lectures and writings, but then became opposed to theosophy altogether, and was therefore excluded from

the theosophical centre under English leadership. Steiner now developed his own teaching in a series of wrilings. He called this “ anthroposophy,” i.e., wisdom of humanity: mankind is regarded

as the centre of all perceptions of this “ spiritual science,” and an attempt is made to deduce the nature of the world from the nature of humanity. In 1913 the Anthroposophical society was formed to further spiritual research on Steiner’s principles. In order to try his educational and political views in practice, Steiner founded the Waldorf School, near Stuttgart, and the “ free high school

for spiritual science ” known as the “ Goetheanum ” at Dornach near Basle, which was burnt a few years later. All Steincr’s poso phischer— works are published by the Philosophisch—anthro Verlag, Berlin, and by Der kommende Tug, Stuttgart. He died at Dornach May 30 1925. His chief works include: Goethe, als Vater einer neuen Aesthetik

(1888), Eng. ed. in preparation; Die Philosophie der Freiheit (1894), Enz. trans.

ed. II. Collinson,

The Philosophy

of Freedom

(1916);

Friedrich Nietzsche (1895); Goethes Weltanschauung (1897); Theosophie (1904), Eng. trans. by E. D. S., Theosophy (1910); JTaeckel, die Weltratsel und die Theosophie (1905), Eng. trans. Haeckel, The Riddles of the Universe; and Theosophy in T)hree Essays on flaecket

and Karma (1914); Wie erlangt man Erkenntnisse der höhern Welten (1909); Eng. ed. trans. Clifford Bax, 2 vol., The Way of Initiation and Initiation and its Results (1909-10); Die Aufgabe der Geisteswtssenschaft und deren Bau in Dornach (1916); Eng. ed. trans. A. M.

Wilson,

The

Mission of Spiritual Science and of its Building at

Dornach, Switzerland (1917); Die Kernpunkte der Sozialen Frage (1919); Eng. ed. The Threefold State—The True Aspect of the Social Question (1920); In_Ausfuhrung der Dreigliederung des Sosialen Organismus (1920), Eng. trans. in The Threefold Commonwealth, vol. I, No. 5, 6 (1921), complete Eng. ed. in preparation. BinLioGRAPHY.—E. Boldt, Von Luther kis Steiner (1921); Eng. trans. (1923); F. Rittelmeyer, Von Lebenswerk R. Steiners (1921);

G. Kaufmann, Fruits of Anthroposophy an Introduction to the Work of Dr. R. Steiner (1922).

STEINMETZ, CHARLES PROTEUS (1865-1923), American inventor, was born at Breslau, Germany, April 9 1865. He was

educated at Breslau, Zürich and Berlin, specialising in mathematics, electrical engineering and chemistry. Becoming an active socialist, he had to leave Germany and went to the United States in 1889, beginning work in Osterheid and Eickemeyer’s factory, Yonkers, N.Y., where his knowledge brought him speedy promotion. In 1893 he became consulting engincer of the General Electric Co., Schenectady, and from 1902 was professor of electro-physics at Union University there. He served as president of the city council and of the board of education of Schenectady. Ile was one of the greatest scholars and scientists in the electrical field and on the mathematics related thereto, and his researches did much to further the progress of applied industrial chemistry. True to his socialistic view of life, he refused to accept remuneration for his services, other than his bare living expenses. He died at Schenectady, N.Y., Oct. 26 1923. Ile

was

the author

of Theory and

Calculation of Alternating-

Current Phenomena (1897); Theory and Calculation of Transient Electric Phenontena and Oscillations (1909); Radiation, Light and Illumination (1909); Engineering Mathematics (1910); Electric Discharges, Wares and Impulses (1911), America and the New KFpoch (1916); Theory and Calculation of Electric Circuits (1917); Theory and Calculation of Electrical Apparatus (1917).

STEVENS, JOHN F. (1853), American civil engineer and railroad official, was born at West Gardiner, Me., April 25 1853. Fe was assistant engineer of the city of Minneapolis in 1874-6, afterwards engaging in railroad ‘engineering with the Sabine Pass and North-Western, Denver and Rio Grande, Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul and Canadian Pacific Railway companies. In 1889 he became connected with the Great Northern Railroad, in 1895 becoming chief engineer,.and in 1902 was made its general manager. In 1903 he was chief engincer with the Chicago, Rock Island and Pacific Railroad, and in ro04 became second vice-president. ITe was appointed chief engineer of the Panama Canal in roo05, at the time when its construction policy was being determined, and the success of the enterprise owed much to his ability. For a short time in 1907 he was chairman of the Isthmian Canal Commission. He became vice-president of the New York, New Haven and Hartford Railroad in 1907, and in 1909 was president of the Spokane, Portland and Seattle, the Oregon Trunk and Allied railroads. He was head of the American Railway Commission to Russia, 1917-8, and president of the Inter-Allied ‘Technical Board supervising the Siberian railways, 1919-23. . STEVENSON, ADLAI EWING (1835-1914), American political leader (see 25.907), died at Chicago June 13 1914. STEWART, JULIUS L. (1855-1919), American painter (see 25.914), died in Paris Jan. 4 1919. j, New Zealand poliSTEWART, WILLIAM DOWNIE (1878tician and publicist, was born at Dunedin July 29 1878, his father

being a member of the Legislative Council. He was educated at

the Otago Boys’ High School and Otago University, taking his degree in 1900. He travelled through China and Siberia during the Russo-Japanese War, and on his return practised law in Dunedin, at the same time entering politics as the unsuccessful candidate for Dunedin South in the election of 1906. Ie was elected a member of the council of Otago University and of the Dunedin city council, was mayor in 1913-4, and in the latter year was clected to Parliament as member for Dunedin West. A period of War service with the Otago Regiment in 1916-7 interrupted his political career, but he was re-elected in 1919 and in 1922 joined the Massey Ministry as Minister for Industries and Commerce. On the death of Mr. Massey he was regarded as a strong candidate for Premier, but his absence and ill-health were against him and Mr. Coates was chosen. Mr. Stewart, Minister for Customs and Emigration under Mr. Massey, became Minister for Finance, and later attorney-general. He is joint author (with Professor Le Rossignol) of State Socialism in New Zealand. STEYN, MARTINUS THEUNIS (1857-1016), Dutch South African politician (see 25.915), retired in 1910 and died at his farm near Bloemfontein Nov. 28 1916.

STIEGLITZ—STOCK EXCHANGE STIEGLITZ, ALFRED (1864— - ), American photographer, was born at Hoboken, N.J., Jan. t 1864. He was educated at the College of the City of New York (1879-81), at the Berlin Polytechnic, Germany (1882-8), where he made a study of photo‘chemistry and photography, and at the University of Berlin (1888-90), where he studied chemistry. In 1890, on his return to New York City, he engaged in photoengraving and colour printing. He became editor of The American Amateur Photographer in 1892. He founded Camera Noles in 1897, and was editor till 1903, in which year he became publisher and editor of Camera Work. In troos he founded and became director of “ 201,” a public laboratory for research in aesthetics of life. He wrote Picturesque Bits of New York and Other Stories (1897), and contributed numerous articles on photographic and artistic

subjects to magazines and technical journals. STINNES, HUGO (1870-1924), German industrialist, was born in Mülheim Feb. 12 1870. Educated as a mining engineer, in 1890 he entered his grandfather’s firm but two years later established a business of his own,

with a capital of 50,co0 marks.

The business expanded steadily and came to include, besides dealing in coal, the ownership of coal mines, barges, river steamers and sea-going vessels. Stinnes organised an international business in coal, including the importation of coal from England. He built up a fleet of steamers trading in the North Sea, the Baltic, the Mediterranean and the Black Sea. He also established iron and steel factories. During the World War he commanded a large share of the industrial work required by the German authorities and rapidly increased his shipping interests. His connection with the Government Ied to his acquisition of political influence anc in 1920 he entered the Reichstag as a

member of the Deutsche Volkspartei, the new electionecring name of the former National Liberal party. About the same time he began to buy up newspapers, whose democratic opinions were quickly modified in accordance with his own. In 1921 he was reported to be contemplating the formation of a super-trust to control the whole of German industry. He died in Berlin April 10 1924. After his death the business, conducted by his son, rapidly shrank. In June 1925 a conference of bankers was called to investigate the financial affairs of the trust; and bit by bit the great organisation was liquidated and sold. In Oct. 1925 a new company was registered at Hamburg under the title of Hugo Stinnes Coal Trade and Shipping Co., Ltd., the Stinnes family retaining 40% of the shares.

STOCK

EXCHANGE

(sce 25.930)—Two

features of impor-

tance marked the history of the stock exchanges in the few years preceding the World War. One was the rise in the rate of interest that set in after the South African War, which caused a steady and persistent decline in the values of fixed interestbearing securities. The other was the boom in rubber and oil shares due to the invention of the internal combustion engine. The rubber boom began in 1909 and lasted for three years. The price of rubber rose to over 12s. per lb., and the wisdom of the old coffee and tea planters in the East Indies and Malay States in planting rubber introduced by seed from Brazil was amply confirmed. A large number of new companies were formed, many with shares of 2s. each, which became especially popular with small speculators and investors. Huge profits were made by the pioneer companies, and the shares of two of them, the Pataling and the Selangor, rose to premiums of more than 3,000%. The inevitable over-production of rubber brought about a reaction, and before the War came the price of rubber had fallen to a normal level, which, however, left the best producers with a comfortable margin of profit and the less efficient with a fierce struggle for existence. The oil boom fol-

lowed shortly after the rubber boom, and, though the market was narrower than that for rubber shares, it persisted for a much longer period. The price of oil rose steadily, reaching its highest point shortly after the outbreak of war. This was due partly to the increased use of motor vehicles (g.v.) and the conversion of ships’ engines from coal to oil, and partly to the fact that the refining and distribution of oil was in the hands chiefly of two or three organisations with world-wide connections and

649

associations. The oil boom lasted about ro years, but it did not provide quite the same opportunities as rubber for the company promoter, although oil companies’ dividends remained for years on a high level.

I. EFFECTS OF THE WORLD WAR For some time before the outbreak of the World War markets were depressed. Early in July 1914 rumours of war began to alfect the Continental bourses. On July 13 the Vienna market was demoralised by fear of hostilities, and its alarm was promptly reflected on the Berlin Bourse, Germany being Austria-Hungary’s chief lender, and holding government and municipal loans of the Habsburg Empire estimated at over £200,000,000. On Monday July 27, the day before the declaration of war by Austria, the panic in Vienna was such that the bourse was ordered to be closed for three days. As it proved it was closed indefinitely. The Brussels market followed the lead of Vienna, ceasing business on July 27, and the Paris coulisse, or outside unoflicial market, suspended operations on the same day. On Wednesday July 29 all account dealings in Berlin were suspended, transactions being confined to cash bargains. The Amsterdam and St. Petersburg bourses were entirely closed that day, while on Thursday July 30 all markets suspended business except London, Berlin, Paris (official market) and New York. London.—London was not seriously perturbed until July 24, when the terms of the Austrian ultimatum to Serbia became known. On Thursday July 30 the stock exchange, which for days had been inundated with selling orders from the Continent, owing to the continental bourses virtually ceasing to function, was opened for the last time in that memorable year. During the first two hours no attempt was made to do business, and the next morning (July 31) the committee for general purposes decided not to reopen the House until further notice, and it remained closed until Jan. 4 1915. Business, however, was not entirely suspended. A certain amount of dealing took place on a strictly cash basis, in spite of oflicial discouragement, and on Sept. 14 the committee had to take notice of these transactions. They fixed minimum prices for trustee stocks, based on the quotations ruling on July 30, with the object of preventing disastrous depreciation, and when in Oct. the New York Stock Exchange made minimum prices for American shares, these values were adopted by the London Stock Exchange. The maintenance of the minimum prices was insisted upon by the banks, which were vitally interested as large holders of trustee investments, and also because they had undertaken to continue their loans against securities without asking for additional margin. On Nov. 19 1914 the stock exchange committee passed a special set of rules to govern the arrangement of the uncompleted mid-Aug. account. Bulls of stock carried over on July 27 (the date of the previous settlement) were required to put up a 5% margin on high-class securities and 10% on others, and pay interest fortnightly, or, alternatively, pay a higher rate of interest in lieu of margin. The taker-in was obliged to continue to take in at July 27 prices until after the War, but in the event of prices of the carried-over stocks rising to the level of July 27 1914 they had either to be paid for and taken up by the buyer or sold for his account. About £90,000,000 had been borrowed against securities, and it was not until the moratorium, first declared on Aug. 4, came to an end on Nov. 4 rot4 that it was possible to carry through the mid-Aug. settlement. The affairs of a small number of members were in this operation wound up under the liquidation rule, but the amount of stock carried over under the special regulations was smaller than had been expected. The arrangement for carrying over stocks and shares worked well, thanks largely to the Americans’ demand for their own securities, and the open position on the London Stock Exchange, which in Aug. ror4 was about £90,000,ooo, was reduced by the end of 1915 to about £20,000,000. On Dec. 23 1ror4 the stock exchange committee decided to reopen the House on Jan. 4 1915, special conditions being promulgated for the conduct of business. The minimum price

STOCK

650

EXCHANGE

list was extended to include interbourse securities. Minimum prices were gradually abolished, however, as liquidation ceased and prices settled down

to a new

level of investment

valucs.

On July 3 1916 the last of the London minimum prices were removed. The special arrangements compelled all dealings to be made on a cash basis. Naturally, the elimination of speculation reduced the volume of business, which was further restricted by a rule prohibiting dealings in stock that had not been in physical possession in the United Kingdom since Sept. 1014, and by the temporary existence of minimum prices, which virtually stopped business in the securities affected. But as

these rules were relaxed business increased.

On the day of

reopening the number of bargains was less than 1,000. Gradually it expanded, but the daily average in rors was nearer 2,000 than 3,000. Every bargain had to be recorded, an innovation that was left in force for some time after the War, and then

unfortunately dropped. The course of prices in 1915 and the subsequent war years was generally downward. The market for American securities, however, was strong and active, and in 1915 showed a substantial advance. Wartime prosperity in the United States caused a great demand for American securities held in Europe, and European holders were encouraged to sell by the appreciation of the dollar in terms of sterling and francs. In the second half of rors the British Govt. bought large quantities of American securities held in the United Kingdom, and sold them in order to provide itself with the means for making payments for munitions, etc. About £150,000,0c0 of American

securities held by British investors were sold back to the United States In r915. Towards the end of 1to15 the Government ceased operations in the market, and invited holders cither to sell or lend to it approved American and other foreign securities. The terms of purchase were approximately the parit y of New York price, and for a loan a bonus of 3°% per annum in addition to the interest or dividend was paid; plus a premium of 23% in the event of the Government’s deciding to exercise its right to sell the stock lent to it. In 1917 there was a check to the depreciation of fixed interestbearing securities which had gone on ever since the South African War, while, owing to inflation of the currency and the activity of business to which war orders and war expenditure had given rise, a strong upward movement in industrial securities occurred. The following table, compiled from figures published by The Bankers’ Magazine, shows the course of investment values at different rates on the London stock exchange since the calculations were first made. Market value

of 387 repreDate

Jan. 1907 . July 20 1914! Nov. 1918? Dec. 1919. Dec. 1920 . 2? Month of Armistice. 1 Pre-War.

sentative securities

“£3;843,000,000 3,371,000, 000 2,822,000,000

2,635,000,000 2,320, 000, ooo

These values relate to 387 representative securities down to Dec. 1920. The general depreciation was due to the exceptional inflation rendered necessary by the War, which reduced the value of money and therefore of those securities interest on which was fixed. Taking the values of 108 fixed interest-bearing securities, we find that the total market valuation on July 20 1914 was £1,989,000,000 and at the end of roro, £1,378,906,000— a net depreciation of about 30%. The prosperity of industrial companies, especially those engaged in war work or in supplying foodstufis, enabled them to pay high dividends, and in many cases to distribute bonus shares as well. The value of 279 speculative securities, 7.e., securities the dividends on which fluctuate according to profits, was £1,382,000,000 on July 20 1914; and at the end of 1919 £1,235,578,000, a net depreciation of 9°%% on the period. Pave —The Paris bourse was reopened on Dec. 7 r914, and thereafter there was a steady rise in prices. After r5 months

of war the first French war loan was raised. As a necessary preliminary the settlement of the end—July 1914, which had been suspended, was begun on Sept. 30 1915 and carried through without much difficulty. The Bank of France gave credit freely for the purpose, lending the parquet or oflicial market about 150,000,000 and the coulisse or kerb market, 35,000,000 francs. Five % was charged from July ro14 to Sept. 1915 on all unsettled bargains, holders had to pay their differences in full or pay

10°) of them, and 10% at each subsequent monthly settlement, until the 100°% was wiped off. Six %interest was charged on unpaid dieto hc ek: All new business 8 restricted to cash, account dealings being confined to clearing up accounts which existed before Aug. 1 1914. Little of interest occurred during the remainder of the war period, except that industria] shares were strong while Government securities were steady, dealings in the latter being subject to strict regulations. - Berlin—For years before the War the Berlin bourse had frequent attacks of nervousness. Sept. 4 I91rr was panicky owing to alarms in foreign politics. Early in rgr2 the Government commissary of the bourse issued a public warning against excessive speculation. During the year rumours of war caused heavy selling from time to time, and on Oct. 1 the Balkan mobilisation caused a panic in which settlement stocks lost on an average 20 puints in one day. Altogether, the total loss of market values in 1912 amounted to £150,000,000. On the outbreak of war, the German Govt. imposed more stringent conditions upon the stock exchange than those imposed by any other government. The open market for stocks and shares was abolished, and the publication of prices was strictly forbidden. Cautious efforts, however, were made towards the end of 1915, and with some success, to liquidate bourse transactions which had remained in suspense. Much speculation took place in 1916, and this was given as a reason for continuing the veto on the publication of prices. But for purposes of taxation assessments lists of prices were issued at the end of that year for the first time since July 1914. These showed many big rises in industrial securities owing to the enormous profits made by German companies. All German war loans were, however, listed by special instruction at the price of issue. Prices continued to rise in 1917 until America entered the War, when a reaction occurred. At the end of 1917 lists of prices were again drawn up for taxation purposes, but publication of prices was still prohibited. Between Sept. and Dec. 1918 the quotations of German securities on the German markets fell so heavily that German financial writers estimated the decrease in capital value at about 50%. Then began the collapse of Germany’s credit in foreign markets. Amsterdam.—The Amsterdam stock exchange was not reopened until Feb. 9 1915. In that year foreign stocks were very weak, owing to persistent selling from Germany. The year 1916, however, witnessed a larger volume of business and remarkable fluctuation in prices. At the close of it many shares showed enormous gains. Home industrial concerns which made huge profits as the result of the elimination of German competition made the largest advances. The Dutch Indian plantation companies made very large profits, especially those producing sugar. Royal Dutch shares were introduced for the first time on the American market in 1916. Russian stocks fell precipitately in the last months of 1917 on the stoppage of interest

payments and the Bolshevik Government’s decree repudiating the national debt. This meant a serious disaster to Dutch investors, for they were reckoned to own between 1,500 million and 2,000 million florins of Russian Govt. municipal and railway bonds. In 1918 the tendency of the market was irregular and sometimes weak owing to the German collapse, but large new issues of capital were made by commercial and industrial concerns. In Vienna and Budapest extravagant speculation sent prices up to extraordinary figures on the enormous paper profits made by practically all businesses. A heavy fall followed the military

collapse of 1918. In Switzerland the Basel and Zurich bourses suspended operations towards the end of July 1g14, but the

STOCK

EXCHANGE

Geneva and Lausanne bourses remained open during August. On Jan. 7 tg15 the Basel stock exchange resumed the publication of its daily price list, but it was not until June 26 rors that transactions were extended to the full pre-War list. The Zurich bourse restarted official business on May 15 1o16. New York.—The New York Stock Exchange was called upon to stand the first shock of Austria’s declaration of war on July 28, and on that day, for the first time that year, transactions exceeded 1,000,000 shares. The Toronto and Montreal markets were closed that day after being open for business for a short time. On July 30 violent breaks in prices occurred on the New York Stock Exchange and the next day the committee decided to follow the lead of London, and to close the Exchange. It tentatively reopened its doors again on Nov. 28 ro14 for trading in bonds only. As the experience was encouraging, it was decided to reopen the House for regular trading on Dec. 13. Minimum prices had been fixed by the committee on Oct. 13, and trading in unlisted securities was resumed on the following day. The minimum prices were revised from time to time, and abolished on March 31 1915, a rise in quotations rendering minima no longer necessary. Then followed the most remarkable era in the history of this exchange. The year rors established a fresh record for feverish

activity and wild fluctuations. Million-share days, sensational advances and equally sensational declines, were common occurrences. Participation by the outside public had seldom, if ever, been witnessed on the same scale before. Under clique and pool manipulation prices were whirled upwards with amazing rapidity. Even more remarkable was 1916. Activity was intense, and prices rose to exceptional heights, the public buying with great confidence the shares of companies believed to be making big profits out of war orders. Every dollar security offered from Europe was eagerly purchased; it was estimated that the United States absorbed about 1,700 million dollars American railroad securities in payment for munitions. In 1917, the year of America’s entry into the War, there was a heavy reaction, which particularly affected railroad shares and bonds, the former decreasing in value by 2,000 million dollars and the latter by 1,000 million dollars. This was attributed to a heavy increase in cost of railroad operation with no compensating advance in railroad charges. Heavy liquidation in the autumn of ror7 carried prices of the best investment stocks down to a level lower than that touched in the financial panic of 1907. Heavy taxation for war purposes frightened capital for a time, but in 1918 opinion had settled down to the exigencies of war finance and there was a recovery on the Stock Exchange. Il. MARKET

CONDITIONS

AFTER

THE

WAR

Revival of Speculative Business-——The years 1919 and 1920 witnessed on the London Stock Exchange marked activity in speculative securities and a persistent neglect of fixed interestbearing securities, especially Government stocks. In the summer of 1919 various wartime restrictions were removed from the London Stock Exchange, including the embargo on exports of capital, thus enabling foreign-held securities to be sold on the London market. Oil shares rose to extravagant heights, and Rand gold shares had a boom on the high premium in sterling which they received for their gold. Rand mines shares were introduced on the New York market towards the close of 1g109, this being the first time that South African gold shares were listed in Wall street. Diamond companies enjoyed a wonderful period of prosperity. Record dividends were paid by all kinds of companies, and share quotations reached unprecedented figures. Lhe Great Slump.—In 1920 nomination for membership of the London Stock Exchange rose in price to £650, but by the end of the year it was almost unsalable. The first signs of war impoverishment appeared in the spring. The demand for goods and services suddenly failed; a crisis developed, starting in Japan, and the foreign exchanges showed a general collapse in terms of the American gold dollar. The fall in commodities forced traders to realise securities. The pressure for money and general nervousness depressed British Govt. stocks down to a level at which they

651

gave a return of over 6% per annum. The decline in stock exchange values as measured by 387 representative securities was the heaviest ever recorded in one year, the loss being £315,600,ooo. Commercial and industrial securities declined by 409%, British and Indian funds by 11:9% and Foreign Govt. bonds by 18-8%. Iron and steel shares fell by 33-7%; and South African mining shares by 39:-2%. So severe were the losses that for the next two years investors avoided speculative shares, and bought mainly gilt-edged stocks, which had a rise of about 25% in 1921 and 1922. The issue of foreign Government loans in London, suspended on the outbreak of war, was resumed in 1o2r. The trade slump in America in 1920 was heralded by a decline in the stock market. Stocks reached their peak in Nov. rọrọ, when they touched a figure only fractionally below the highest

point of the war period—t1o1-s51, which marked the culmination of the famous war brides boom of 1916. Nov. 1920 was a month of devastation and almost of panic. The Astalist’s index number fell to 66. In rg21 the Wall street market made a recovery, but the tendency was very erratic. As in England, fixed interestbearing stocks found favour. On the London Stock Exchange British Govt. securities rose 12°. A feature in this year was the collapse of Grand Trunk stocks on the decision of a majority of the arbitration court that for the purposes of the sale to the Canadian Govt. the preference and ordinary stocks were valucless. Mr. Taft, the dissenting arbitrator, held that they were worth at least $48,000,000. But the Canadian Govt. accepted the award of the majority, with the result that Canadian credit among English investors was seriously prejudiced. Continental bourses had an irregular experience. The Swiss markets were depressed, and towards the end of the year showed signs of panic. Germany, on the other hand, had a buoyant market owing to inflation. Improving Conditions —The year 1922 witnessed a gencral recovery in prices on the London stock exchange, thanks partly to cheap money due to the depression in trade. Confidence in home railway stocks, which had fallen to a low level, revived on the amalgamation of the railways into four groups. A revolutionary strike on the Rand ended in a fashion that restored sound conditions for the gold-mining industry. On the Continent the outstanding events were a further rise in German mark sccurities, and a panic in Switzerland on a capital levy project, which, however, was defeated. In New York the stock market advanced about 40% by mid-Oct., when a Near East war cloud caused a sharp reaction. The following year (1923) was a less buoyant period in London than 1922, movements on balance being small. By this time continuous Inflation in France had depressed French Govt. credit down to a 74% basis, but industrial securities were firm on active trade produced by monetary inflation. Prices of German industrials reached fantastic figures in worthless marks. In Wall Street. in 1923 there was much liquidation. The year 1924 brought active and strong markets to the London Stock Exchange, and at times business reached the dimensions of a boom. A boom in tea shares was an outstanding event. In Paris the public held aloof from the bourse, and all forms of securities developed extreme weakness, this being due to the disturbance of public confidence caused by continuous budget deficits and depreciation of the franc. The abandonment of the old mark involved a complete revaluation of securities on the German bourses. After the elections in Nov. 1924, the New York Stock Exchange jumped into a veritable Loom. In 18 trading

days listed stocks alone showed a market appreciation equal to the whole amount of Britain’s debt to the United States. The course of values on the London Stock Exchange from Dec. 1921 to Dec. 1925 is shown in the subjoined -table:— Market value of 387 repDate Decs T921Dec. Dec. Dec. Dec.

1922 1923 1924 1925

. . . .

resentative

i

oe

ae

a

.

:

.

4

securities

(Bankers’ Magazine) . £5,393,000,000 .

6,105,000,000 6,257,000,000 6,518,000,000 6,465,000,000

652

STOCKHOLM

in puts, calls or other optional contracts. Members are not, as in London, divided into brokers and dealers, Inasmuch as a stock exchange member can exercise either function, except where the same transaction is concerned. Other distinctive features of the New York Exchange are as follows: (1) Applicants for listings must provide carefully engraved certificates designed to prevent forgeries, registry of transfers to avoid over-issuance, and sufficient preliminary distribution to avoid violent price fluctuations. The requirements also cause the applicant to publish essential facts regarding capital structure and balance sheet items, and to agree to make public future earning statements, dividend notices and like matters. (2) The comprehensive ticker system makes it possible to report all sales of stocks and bonds in multiples of 100 shares almost instantaneously throughout the United States. (3) Member firms, some of which maintain numerous branch offices, have elaborate private wire systems. (4) Contracts are settled the next full business day through the operation of the Stock Clearing Corporation, a subsidiary. (5) The business of the exchange is rigidly supervised by a governing committee of 40 members, and by sub-committees which take charge of such routine features as the arbitration of disputes, admissions to membership, requirements for listing new securilies and the business conduct of members. (6) The exchange keeps in touch with the financial condition of member firms through a questionnaire system which is compulsory for all member firms which, as brokers, handle margin transactions for the public. (7) The governing committee of the exchange, as the liquidation of the Stinnes trusts), owing to the scarcity of trustee for its members, holds all the stock of the exchange’s several subsidiary corporations, among which, in addition to the money. (C. J. M.) Stock Clearing Corporation, are the New York Stock Exchange Ill. THE NEW YORK STOCK EXCHANGE Building Co., which holds a title to and administers the Stock History —The New York Stock Exchange is international in Exchange building, and the Quotation Co., which supervises the collection and distribution of price quotations made on the exscope in that it affords a markct place for securities from all parts of the world. The stock exchanges in the smaller cities of the change floor. The latest available list of stock exchanges in the United United States-are more provincial in character, dealings being States, totalling 27, includes, in addition to the New York Stock confined mainly to local securities. Springing from an association Exchange, New York Curb Market, New York Consolidated of stockbrokers started in 1792, which operated in the streets and Stock Exchange, Boston Stock Exchange, Boston Curb Market; from neighbouring coffee-houses, the New York Stock Exchange and one each in Providence, Hartford, Philadelphia, Baltimore, was organised in 1817. The board met in various places, including the old Merchants’ Exchange at Wall and William streets, Washington, D. C., Richmond, Pittsburgh, Wheeling, Cincinnati, Louisville, Columbus, Cleveland, Detroit, Indianapolis, Chicago, but did not take permanent form until 1842, when it was established in the new Merchants’ Exchange, now head office of the St. Louis, New Orleans, Colorado Springs, Salt Lake City, National City Bank of New York. It was the country’s largest Spokane, Los Angeles and San Francisco. The stock exchanges local exchange, but did not become a national market until 1875, of thesmaller cities are organised and conducted on similar lines to the New York Stock Exchange. (C. E. ML) when the adoption of the telephone, telegraph and stock ticker STOCKHOLM (see 25.934), the capital of Sweden and its indusand the development of New York as the nation’s financial metrial and intellectual centre, with a population of 420,812 in tropolis brought securities from all parts of the country. About 1923, is the chief port for imports, though second to Göteborg the same date the merger with it of two rival organisations in exports, and has a large number of industrial establishments. brought the new association’s membership up to 1,060. In 1879 The 80,000 sq. metres of the free port were increased by 191,300 4onew memberships were created, and the total has since remained sq. metres in 1925, and additional warehouses built; the new fixed at 1,100. The Exchange now occupies an imposing building dock, to be finished in 1926, will take the largest vessels calling of its own covering approximately 32,000 sq. {t. of ground space at Stockholm. Now that ships can reach the Malar side of the bordering on Broad, Wall and New streets. harbour by passing through the Sédertiilje canal, further harFor many years, the business on the exchange floor has been confined to bonds and stocks as well as “ rights ”’ to subscribe to bour works are projected on Lake Malar, and a quay is to be built to accommodate the vessels up to 3,500 tons using the the latter. In the autumn of 1925, issues “‘ listed ” on the New Hammarby channel, completed in 1925. Over 50% of the tonYork Stock Exchange had a total market value of approximately nage using the port is Swedish. $54,500 million. More than $35,000 million of this amount was The work of rebuilding the railway station was begun In 1924, represented in 1,158 bond issues and more than $29,000 million the goods station being replaced by another to the north of the in 1,000 stock issues. The bulk of these issues were bonds and city, and ils site used for extending the passenger station. The stocks of American business enterprises; but, through the recent development of interest in foreign investments, the listings in line to Göteborg was in process of electrification in the same year. A stadium in Swedish mediaeval style, which will seat Jan. 1926 included 112 foreign bond issues, whose market value 15,000, was opened for the Olympic Games in ror2. The new law considerably exceeds 2,000 million dollars. The daily turnover courts were finished in r915, and the huge municipal buildings, in shares has risen with the growth of the country in wealth and of brick with a tower at the southeast corner, in 1922. The industry; on several occasions more than 3,000,000 shares have Engelbrekt church, standing on a hill and approached by been sold on the New York Stock Exchange in a single day. Since this does not include sales of less than roo shares the actual daily flights of steps, was finished in 1914, and the Riddarholm church, the burial place of the Swedish kings, has been restored and total has probably exceeded four million. mediaeval paintings brought to light. A statue of Jenny Lind, the Distinctive Features.—YVhe New York Stock Exchange differs from the exchange in London in not permitting on its floor trading singer, was unvelled in 1924.

These values relate as before to 387 securities, but include some of the big war loans. Since Dec. 1923 the figures relate to 365 securities, the amalgamation of the railways having resulted in a diminution in the number of securities. On the London Stock Exchange 1925 was a good year, the outstanding feature being a boom in rubber shares on a rise in the price of the commodity. Share values on an average were doubled during the year. Fixed interest-bearing securities fell about 34%, but commercial and industrial securities, which rose 9°4% in 1924, advanced a further 4-3°% in 1925. Home railway stocks were heavily depressed by a falling-off in traffics. High yielding European reconstruction securities were strongly supported, and Brazilian securities got back into favour once more. In New York there never was a year in which a bull movement lasted so long or rose so high. It really began on Oct. 29 1923, when the average price of 50 representative securities forming The Annalist’s index number stood at 77-15, which was the lowest of that year. By Nov. 1925 the index number had risen to 136-63. The period of greatest activity and spectacular rises was after the Noy. elections of 1924. On the Continent the Paris bourse was much affected by the depreciation of the franc, the flight from which was continuous and growing all the time. French Govt. and all fixed interest-bearing stocks declined, but industrial securities rose on the large profits made in active trade at constantly rising prices. In Italy industrial securities had a boom for a short time and then declined heavily, for reasons which appeared to be connected with stringency of money. The Berlin bourse presented no feature of great interest (apart from

STOCKPORT—STRAITS STOCKPORT, England (see 25.937).—The area of the borough has been increased by the inclusion of Heaton Moor, Heaton Chapel and Heaton Mersey in 1912, and Heaton Norris in 1913, and the boundary now touches that of Manchester at Levonshulme. The population in 1921 was 123,300, and the area of the borough 7,063 acres. There are 214 ac. of parks and recreation grounds, including the Woodbank Memorial Park of 95 ac., added to Vernon Park in 1921, and the South Reddish recreation ground of 7 ac. (1922); the Great Moor recreation ground was being laid out in 1926. Waterworks opened at Kinder in 1912 include a huge reservoir covering 44 ac., and supply an area of 80 square miles. Sewage disposal works were in course of construction in 1926. New buildings include those for the grammar school at Mile End (1916); the central library in Wellington Road (1913); and St. Mark’s church (1921). An art gallery was presented to Heywood in 1912, and the foundation stone of a

War memorial hall laid in 1923. STOKE-ON-TRENT, England (see 25.951).—The single borough which unites under this name the six “‘ potteries ”? towns of Staffordshire had an area of 20,759 ac. and a population of 240,440 in 1921. Since 1918 three members have been returned to Parliament for the divisions of Stoke, Hanley and Burslem. The unions of Stoke, Wolstanton and Burslem were amalgamated in 1922 and there is one parish conterminuous with the borough. In 1925 Stoke was created a city, and the corporation consists of 28 aldermen and 84 councillors. The administrative services have been gradually centralised; the offices for police and education are at Hanley, but the remainder at Stoke. The town hall was enlarged in rgto~2, and the county court offices have been separated from it. A cenotaph was erected in 1920 opposite

King’s Hall, which is part of the town hall. A central school of science and technology was opened in ror4, and the foundation stone of a large extension was laid by King George V. in 1925, when he proclaimed the city status of the borough. STOLYPIN, PETER ARCADIEVICH (1863-1911), Russian statesman, was born at Baden-Baden in 1863, the son of Adml. Stolypin by his wife, a princess of the house of Gorchakov. He was educated at the University of St. Petersburg, and in 1884 entered the Government service. In 1902 he was appointed Governor of Grodno, and in 1903 was transferred to Saratov, where he became known as a firm administrator. In 1906 he was recalled to take up the position of Minister of Internal Affairs, and in July of the same year succeeded Goremykin as Minister President (see Russa). His firm and repressive policy toward all kinds of sedition caused him to be regarded as a deadly enemy by the revolutionary party, and many attempts upon his life _were made. In Aug. 1906 a bomb was exploded at his summer residence, which seriously injured one of his daughters, but all efforts to kill him proved vain until r911, when he was shot in a theatre at Kiev on Sept. 14, before the eyes of the Imperial family,

by a Jew named

Mordka

Bogrov.

The Minister died of his

wounds Sept. 18 1911. STOMACH: sce ALIMENTARY SYSTEM. STONE, MARCUS (1840-1921), British painter (see 25.957), died in London March 24 1921. STONE, MELVILLE ELIJAH (1848), American journalist, was born at Hudson, HI., Aug. 22 1848. In 1860 his father was made pastor of a Methodist church in Chicago, and it was there that he got his schooling. In 1864 he began work as a newspaper reporter, but he became proprietor in 1869 of an ironfoundry and machine shop. In the great Chicago fire of 1871 this was destroyed, and Stone then engaged in the administrative work of municipal relief and reconstruction. In 1872 he became one of the editors of the Chicago Republican (subsequently InterOcean), and later of the Post and Mail, becoming for several

years a political correspondent at Washington. At the end of 1875, having returned to Chicago, Stone, with a colleague, started the evening Daily News (see 19.571), and two years later Victor F. Lawson became a partner. The venture was very prosperous. He and Lawson bought out the Post and Mail, andin 1881 they established the Morning News (later Record and Record-Herald). In 1888 he retired, taking a prolonged holi-

SETTLEMENTS

653

day in Europe. Returning to Chicago in 1891, he and others founded the Globe National Bank, of which he became president. In 1893 he accepted the position of general manager of the Associated Press. At that time the Associated Press was still struggling (see 19.547) with its competitor, the United Press, but its enterprise now received a new stimulus, and by 1897, under Stone’s management, and as subsequently reorganised in rgor, its service knew no rival. He held this position until April 1921, when he retired. During that period of 28 years the budget of the Associated Press had grown from $500,000 to $6,000,000, and it had come to furnish more than half the news printed in American papers. See his autobiography, Fifty Yearsa Journalist (1921).

STORY, JULIAN (1857-1919), American artist (see 25.970), died at Philadelphia, Pa., Feb. 24 t919. STRACHEY, GILES LYTTON (1880 y, British writer, son of Sir Richard Strachey, the Indian Administrator, was born March 1 1880, and educated at Trinity College, Cambridge. He was an occasional contributor to the monthly and quarterly reviews, and published a short but illuminating book on Landmarks in French Litcrature (1912). He achieved wider renown by Eminent Victorians (1918), vivid, polished and unusually caustic portraits of Cardinal Manning, Florence Nightingale, Dr. Arnold and General Gordon. In Queen Wictoria (1921) Strachey’s biographical power and his ironic style showed

themselves broadened and mellowed, the result being a most successful blend of sympathy and detachment in depicting the Queen, her family and her epoch. The two books set up a fresh standard for modern English biography which a good many contemporary writers were quick to acknowledge. A collection of essays, Books and Characters, appeared in 1922, and his “ Leslie Stephen ” lecture on Pope in 1925. STRACHEY, JOHN ST. LOE (1860), British journalist, was born at Sutton Court, Somerset, Feb. 9 1860, the second son of Sir Edward Strachey, 3rd Bart., and Mary Isabella, daughter of John Addington Symonds. He was educated at Balliol College, Oxford, graduating with a first class in modern history, and was subsequently called to the bar; but he adopted journalism as his profession. In 1886 he became assistant editor of The Spectator, and after the death of R. H. Hutton and the retirement of Meredith Townsend (1897) he became proprietor of the paper, which under his editorship not only maintained but increased the high reputation it had gained (sce 19.562) for sober political criticism and well-informed appreciation of art and literature, so that he exercised great influence upon English opinion. St. Loe Strachey also edited (1896-7) The Cornhill Magazine. He was specially interested in problems of rural housing, pauperism and local government generally. In 1925 he relinquished his editorship of The Spectator, but did not cease to contribute to its columns. See ENGLISH-SPEAKING PEOPLES, RELATIONS OF THE. Amongst his publications arce: The Manufacture of Paupers (1907); The Problems and Perils of Socialism (1908); The Practical Wisdom of the Bible (1908); A New Way of Lrfe (1909).

STRAITS SETTLEMENTS (sce 25.980).—The population according to the census of 1921 was as follows: Singapore (with Labuan, Christmas Island and the Cocos-Keeling Islands), 425,912; Penang, Province Wellesley and the Dindings, 304,335; Malacca, 153,552; total, 883,769. The population was estimated at 950,932 in 1924. Both birth-rate and death-rate were highest among the Malays. The total death-rate, 27-42 per 1,000 in 1924, was the lowest recorded; the death-rate per 1,000 among Europeans was 7-82. Malaria remains a prolific, though diminishing, cause of death; as for beri-beri, the deaths were reduced from 2,056 (with a total population of 705,405) in rọr1, to 1,299 in 1921, and groin 1924, owing probably, in part, to a better understanding of dictary requirements. Chinese immigrants reached maximum numbers in 1911 (269,854); in 1924 there were 151,430, and they excced emigrants by 87,749. About 70% were men. An increase of immigration in recent years is due partly to improvement in commerce, especially the tin trade, but partly also to the disturbed conditions in southern China; the number of Chinese women and children arriving in 1924 was the highest recorded, and their coming commonly implies intention to settle

654

STRANG— STRASBOURG

permanently. Immigrant Indians arrived at Penang to an average yearly number of 54,000 in 1921-4; the numbers, again, fluctuate with the conditions of trade (sce MALAY STATES, FEDERATED). In many respects the colony actually benefited from the World War; there was, for instance, an increase in the gross value of trade from £63,600,000 in 1914 to £148,200,000 in 1917. The Chinese community was on the whole prosperous, and while the increased cost of living and the high rate of exchange with China bore hardly upon the poorer classes, the increase of wages in great measure counterbalanced these disadvantages. The Chinese freely supported patriotic and charitable funds, and after some demur, before its purpose was fully understood, recognised without further difficulty the War tax ordinance of 1917. The War, however, produced its problems for the community. It was necessary to establish a censorship of Chinese newspapers, and in June rorg an anti-Japanese boycott resulted in rioting in Singapore and Penang, while a Chinese patriotic league and an anarchical body, the so-called Truth Society, gave some trouble. Preventive action, however, was taken by the Chinese protectorate and the police, and by 1925 the activities of secret societies generally had been markedly curbed. Tin and Rubber-—The export trade of the colony depends primarily upon tin and rubber. The British Malay territories produce nearly half the world’s yield of tin ore (the Federated Malay States yielding the bulk), and more than half the smelted tin. Smelting is carried on mainly at Pulau Brani, near Singapore, and at Butterworth (Penang), ore being imported not only from the Federated Malay States but also from the Dutch islands (Banka, etc.). Tin was more early developed than rubber, mainly, in the first instance, by Chinese enterprise. The production of rubber was not large before 1909-10, when world production received powerful stimulus. The reaction from prosperity which began to affect world commerce after 1920 struck hard upon the tin and rubber trades of the colony (including that of the Federated Malay States). The assistance of the Government was necessary for both. Tin was purchased by the Government at agreed prices, and the stock for which there was no immediate market was brought into the so-called Bandoeng pool, formed in co-operation with the Govt. of Netherlands India on behalf of the mining industry of Banka and other Dutch islands; the stock thus retained was disposed of by 1924-5 as prices revived. The output of rubber was restricted by legislation in concert with the Govt. of Ceylon, on the basis of the Stevenson scheme, stock being released as justified by current prices. These arrangements aided the return of prosperity to the colony; moreover, in the case of the rubber industry occasion was afforded to rest the plantations, and in particular to restrict the tapping of young trees. Problem of Food Production.—The principal economic problem with which the colony has had to cope was not connected with the War. The remarkable extension of rubber planting about rooọ-ro led tg the neglect of fruit cultivation and other forms of native agriculture, and this tendency persisted. The people ceased in great measure to cultivate their own food crops and raise their own live stock, and became dependent on imported foodstuffs. In rgr7 rice was imported from Rangoon, Siam and French Indo-China; wheat ilour from Australia and India; cold storage foodstuffs from Australia and other foodstuils from China. Difficulties connected with shortage of supplies and shipping made it necessary to set up food control in 1917. An inquiry was instituted into measures for increasing home produce of rice and other foods, and ‘ cultivation clauses”? were inserted into leases of newly alienated lands. In 1918 the United States restricted imports of rubber, with a consequent reaction upon the Straits Settlements industry. This could not, however, immediately affect food cultivation, and in that year shortage in India, floods in Siam, and the demand for imported rice in Java and Japan caused serious conditions in the Straits Settlements. Siam prohibited export of rice in July 1919: the Straits Settlements controller took entire charge of import and wholesale dealing and a food production’ department was established

which fostered home planting, and in spite of many difficulties it was found possible, early in rozo, to ensure supplies for several months. The Governments of the Straits Settlements, Netherlands, India and Ceylon agreed in roro to purchase through a single agent to avoid competition. Trade and Finance.—TVraders generally have been encouraged to develop a wider range of products. Exports of rice, fish, areca nuts, sago, copra, pepper and preserved pineapples showed an increase in 1924 over those of 1923. In 1925 the fisheries department was undertaking research, with a shore institution and a ship, into the posstbilities of extending the fish trade, canning such products as anchovies, etc. The value of exports, which fell to £56,138,000 in 1921, rose to £89,430,000 In 1924; and that of imports from £65,791,000 to £98,915,000 In the same years respectively. The figures for 1921 were little more than half those for r920; but they are not strictly comparable, because a new system was introduced in 1921 whereby each territory of British Malaya (including the Federated Malay States) makes returns which are consolidated for the whole, whereas previously there was some measure of duplication. The revenue of the colony amounted to $28,639,161, and the expenditure to $26,706,316 in 1924. The value of the dollar is fixed at 2s. 4d. The cost of living for Europeans is high, for there is a tendency for the dollar more nearly to equal the shilling in purchasing power. Fducation.—The centenary of the modern foundation of Singapore by Sir Stamford Raftles was the occasion for local celebrations in Feb. roro, and by way of commemoration it was decided to found a Rafiles College for higher education. Evidence of the general enthusiasm for this scheme was given by the prompt provision of subscriptions which ensured its success and enabled plans to be laid forthwith. The Straits Settlements Govt. promised a donation of $1,000,000; the same Government and those of Johore and Kelantan guaranteed annuities in perpetuity amounting to $63,000, and by the Governments of the Federated Malay States and Kedah, and from various private sources, annuities for a term of years, amounting to $655,000, were promised. Designs for the new buildings were adopted in 1924, and the erection of science and administrative blocks, a hostel and stalf quarters was authorised. There have been other signs of a demand for a more active education policy, this being especially desirable as a counter-measure against undesirable propaganda. The Rockefeller Foundation in 1924 granted an endowment of $350,000 for chairs of bacteriology and biochemistry in King Edward VII. College of Medicine at Singapore, the Government undertaking to bring the provision for

these chairs up to the level of others in the college. Bistiocrarny.—R.

St. J. Braddell, The Law of the Straits Settle-

ments (Singapore, 1915); R. O. Winstedt, Malayan Memories (1916); P. C. Coote, The Malay States (1923); R. J. Wilkinson, -1 Jstory of the Peninsula Aflalays (1923); R. O. Winstedt, Malaya. Phe Straits Settlements and the Federated and Unfederated Malay States (1923); H. M. Tomlinson, Tidemarks (1924); C. Wells, Six Years in the Malay Jungle (1925). (O. J. R. H.)

STRANG, WILLIAM (1859-1921), British painterand etcher (see 23.982), died at Bournemouth April 12 1921, having been elected

an R.A. a month before that date (sce Catalogue of Wiliam Strang’s Etched Work, 1882-1912 (1912). | STRASBOURG (sce 25.084) was acquired by France under th treaty of Versailles, and is now the chief town of the department of Bas-Rhin and the principal eastern port of France. The population was 166,767 in rg21. A commission was appointed to bridge over the administrative and legislative difficulties of the transference from Germany to France. The Hôtel des Deux Ponts, in the same street, was the German headquarters during

the World War. Kehl, a town with a population of 8,800, on the German bank of the Rhine, was constituted one with the port of Strasbourg for purposes of exploitation for a period of seven years from rọrọ. Extensive improvement schemes were approved in 1924, including the creation of a large port above Strasbourg, connecting with the older harbour by canal, and a

petroleum harbour below the town.

Work was begun on the

STRATEGY more Important parts of the scheme at once; the port entrance has been altered, and several new quays have been built. No development has taken place in connection with the proposal to build a canal to link up Strasbourg and Basle. The university was reopened as a French institution in 1922. STRATEGY (see 25.986c).— Whilst peace is largely an economic and political struggle between men whose purpose is to gain physical and individual security, war is largely a physical struggle between nations in which the acquisition or maintenance of economic and political security is the aim. In peace man uses his physical force to conquer Nature; in war he uses it to conquer his own kind. In the one case the conflict is mainly a material one, in the other it is largely ethical, as it is directed against

opinion sustained by force and not against matter merely endowed with energy. Relationship of Peace and War.—in peace the ethical rights of nations are maintained by force actual or potential according to the political system in vogue; for even in the most democratic nations the power of the majority expressed in the legislative, police and military forces of the nation is the foundation and guardian of the national will. In peace as in war the final arbiter of Jaw and order is military force. The means differ in degree though the end is the same. The end is the maintenance of internal existence, in the one case through prevention of interna disruption, and in the other through the prevention of external pressure. It is for this reason that William James, when discussing ‘‘ The Moral Equivalent of War,’ was of opinion that:

“Every

up-to-date

dictionary should say that ‘peace’ and

‘war’ mean the same thing, now iz posse, now in actu. It may even reasonably be said that the intensely sharp competitive preparation for war by the nation is the real war, permanent, unceasing; and that battles are only a sort of public verification of mastery gained during the ‘ peace’ intervals.” And Clausewitz—*‘ that war is nothing but a continuation of political intercourse, with a mixture of other means.” And again: “ We see, therefore, that war is not merely a political act, but also a real political instrument, a continuation of political commerce, a

carrying out of the same by other means . . . for the political view is the object, war is the means, and the means must always include the object in our conception. .. . State policy is the womb in which war is developed, in which its outlines lie hidden in a rudimentary state, like the qualities of living creatures in their germs.” If in peace force is essential to the maintenance of tranquillity, prosperity and the security of the social order: in war (the causes of which may always be traced to some discontent in the existing state of peacefulness), the true political object is to create a better condition of peace than that which existed before its outbreak. This condition is in nature three-fold—in order that the war may have proved itself economical, then must the peace which follows it be more contented, prosperous and secure than the one the war destroyed. In great civilised nations this destruction of the conditions of peacefulness—rather than of the material power of the enemy or of the enemy himself, is accomplished by military pressure and resistance as exerted by the instrument of war, which may be an army, a navy or an air force, or all three combined. To animate this instrument the will of the majority of the nation must support the war; for in democratic countries it is this will, as expressed by the government, which makes war, accepts defeat or insists on victory. Further, to maintain the fighting forces which express the national! will through physical action, the economic strength of the nation must be sufiicient to provide them with all material needs, and never more so than to-day when the rapid mechanicalisation of the means of waging war is bringing all three services into intimate relationship with civil industry, and through civil industry with each other. The co-ordination of all these means—the will, economic strength and fighting force of the nation—toward the attainment of the political object of the war may be termed grand strategy, or the major movements and higher leadership which control, direct and influence the war.

655

Grand Strategists of History-—There is nothing novel in this conception, for as a foundation of military action the co-ordination of political direction and military control are as old as organised warfare itself. But whilst duting the earlier history of war co-ordination was less complex since armies were more independent and self-supporting, in modern wars its Importance has become more and more manifest until its establishment on a scientific footing may be considered one of the most important of military problems. For co-ordination to exist, united control of all the forces expended in war as well as liberty of action in their expenditure are essentials. In democratic nations the first

should be the prerogative of government, and the second of military command. In the World War of s914-8 a lack of strategical direction, especially on the side of the Allied Powers, was manifested on its outbreak, and was never overcome; for though towards the end of the War Marshal Foch was appointed generalissimo of the land forces of the Allies, no true political unity of control was created or could have been created in the circumstances. Failing the establishment of a despotism, which is almost unthinkable among allied democratic powers, this weakness in political control must always constitute the Achilles heel of nations temporarily confeilerated to resist the military pressure of a common enemy. In this War we find the Allied grand strategy far more rudimentary than that of Alexander the Great. He, as tyrant of the Grecian States, combined in his own person complete political control and unity of command. The grand strategy which he developed stands as a model for all times. He saw that the states and cities of Greece could only be controlled by outward pressure, and that this pressure could only be gained through the conquest of the Persian Empire. His method was logical and scientific. First, he established tranquillity at home, without which his overseas expedition would have had no secure base from which to operate. Secondly, he gained command of the sea, and through this command control of the economic resources of Egypt, which were vital to the prosperity of Greece. Thirdly, he gained command of the land, and by ascending the throne of the Great King was able to control not only the military resources of Persia but also its immense wealth. Lastly, he attempted to bound his vast empire by unattackable frontiers so that it would be secured against invasion. His crucial idea was the establishment of a more contented, prosperous and secure peace. In the World War of 1914-8 we see no such grand strategy, because unity of political control was non-existent, and failing this unity true liberty of military action was impossible. Throughout the entire history of war the most successful of the great captains, such men as Alexander, Caesar, Gustavus, Frederick and Napoleon, have been despots or autocrats, not because despotism and autocracy are in themselves military virtues, but because they permit of the closest political control of the strategy of a war. To-day the difficulties incumbent in grand strategical control are increasing, for whilst in the past military power mainly depended on man-power, which enabled all armies to establish a similar organisation and tactics, industry and industrial wealth are replacing population as the foundation of military strength. This amongst allied powers will frequently mean a divergence in military organisation, a variation of tactics, and consequently an increasing difficulty in control and combined action.

Problems of Grand Strategy —Though that the establishment

secure state of a war, it accepted; in The reason

of a more

there can be no doubt

contented,

prosperous

and

of peacefulness is the true grand strategical object by no means follows that this has generally been fact few wars have led to so desirable a conclusion. for this is twofold. First, no nation has hitherto

possessed the grand strategical machinery necessary to co-ordinate political thought and military action, consequently warfare has assumed an almost entirely military aspect. Secondly, the causes of war have never been scientifically analysed, and have been obscured and hidden beneath the political pretexts and excuses justifying its outbreak.

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STRATEGY

As these justifications are seldom rational or true, a great war has normally been declared when through political obscurantism the mind of a nation is in an irrational mood. The nation is stirred up to fury, and the soldier, stimulated by this national emotion accentuated by the dangers which surround him, seeks a solution to the war in a victory of destruction. He attempts to impose on his enemy not so much his will as his physical force, and the result in the World War of 1914-8 was that the victors suffered but little less than the vanquished. This system of “ Absolute Warfare,” much lauded by Clausewitz, and founded on the ideal of absolute government, has toned the whole course of warfare since his day. The solitary exception was the campaign of 1866, in which Moltke’s object was not to destroy Austria, but to gain her over as an eventual ally. As long as this barbarous system of grand strategy endures great wars will be concluded by vindictive peace treaties out of which further great wars will evolve. No modification or reduction of armaments can ameliorate this system, for its betterment must be sought in a change in the political brain—in the theory of war,

and not in its tools. Granted a political organisation which can co-ordinate, control and direct the forces of war, the next problem in grand strategy is the co-ordination, control and direction of the means. Hitherto military means have been mainly considered, but during the World War it became apparent that economic and ethical action played as important a part. To compel an enemy to accept defeat his national will must be broken. The traditional method has been to destroy the enemy’s armed forces—the shield which protects this will. Though during the World War this method was universally adopted, as the War proceeded, the economic attack by blockade, bunker control and unrestricted submarine warfare, and the ethical attack by insidious propaganda became formidable instruments in undermining the national morale of the belligerents. In the case of Germany and her allies these means led to their defeat as much as did military pressure, because they directly attacked the national will to win. The co-ordination, control and direction of the fighting forces themselves is the next problem, and here grand strategy merges into grand tactics, and policy into plan. In the case of Great Britain there was no grand tactical control during the World War, because no organisation existed which could co-ordinate naval and military force or action. The result of this was that directly power of movement ceased on the Western Front, command of the sea at once suggested, as it had done during the Napoleonic wars, a change of the theatre without reference to

the grand tactical objective, which remained the defeat of Germany. This lack of grand tactical co-ordination undoubtedly prolonged the War for many months. Once given a political organ which can formulate policy, and a military brain which can produce a co-ordinated plan in which the fighting forces are considered as one force, the next problem is the execution of the plan. This demands expenditure of force, and here grand strategy and grand tactics merge into strategy and tactics as these are generally understood. Expenditure of Military Force-—Expenditure of military force

is an art, and like all other arts it is based on science. The science of war is the science of human conflict in all its forms, whether the battle is a fight between two men or two or more nations.

Without this science warfare must largely remain in an alchemical state, and be governed by chance and not by law. If force has to be expended in war, then the side which can best economise its force is the side which is more likely to win. Economy of force is, therefore, the governing law of war. Granted this law the next question is to decide on the nature of force; and as an army is but a number of men, the forces of war are to he sought in man himself. Human force is threefold in nature, it is mental, moral and physical, and no one of these forces can be expended without influencing the remaining two. Economy in the expenditure of these constitutes the central problem of strategy and tactics. The expenditure of force presupposes pressure and resistance, and these two govern the direction force eventually takes. In

war each side must have an object which provisionally fixes the direction of military operations. To maintain this direction pressure and resistance must be exerted. These two factors if correctly employed lead to an economical distribution of force from which concentration of force may be developed. Thus are obtained three principles of war, namely, the principles of the direction, distribution and concentration of force, and these should control the formulation of all plans of war. These three principles are, consequently, closely related to the mental sphere of force—to the thoughts in the head of the general-in-chief out of which he evolves his plan. Before this plan can be transformed into physical action, that is executed by the men themselves, the troops must not only be willing but determined to carry it out. To do so their morale must balance their fear, consequently their determination to act must be supported by moral endurance. Further, to economise this endurance, they should aim at surprising the enemy, that is demoralising him. In the moral sphere of war we thus obtain three principles closely related to the former ones. They may be called the principles of the determination, endurance and demoralisation of force. It isin this moral sphere that the decisive battle is waged. To attack the enemy’s determination to win, physical action must be brought into play. Men must move, and movement depends on how far offensive action can be protected. Thus are obtained three physical principles of war, namely, those of mobility, security and the disorganisation of force (offensive action). Nine principles of war, therefore, govern the expenditure of force. Three are related to pressure, three to resistance and three to the control of their resultant—the direction of the operation, the determination of all ranks to attain the object in view, and movement towards the objective itself. These nine principles, which are expressions of the law of economy of force, form the foundations of the science of war, without which the art of war is solely determined by individual predilection or chance. This science is expressed as an art through the instrument of war, the military organisation at the command of the general-in-chief, who, to act rightly, expends its force by applying the principles of war according to the ever-changing conditions which surround him. These conditions can either assist or resist him, and by a correct, that is, an economical application of principles to conditions, he abstracts the highest assistance from all the forces which surround his army. For him to do so with true economy it is necessary that the organisation of his army should be suitable to the nature of the operation in hand. This suitability consists in power to develop protected offensive action in the shortest possible time and at the highest possible speed. From these considerations we see that not only are strategy and tactics complementary halves of the art of war, but that the geometric strategical ideas so favoured in former days, such as interior and exterior lines, lines of operation, concentric and eccentric attacks, etc. ete., are but details of the art of war, which should be as “ fluid” as any other art, and is so when it is based on a full understanding of the science of war instead of on a personal improvisation. All that is necessary to prove the close inter-dependence of strategy and tactics is to turn to the history of war and examine its course. History of Tactics —The tactics of the Roman legion were based on the strategical mobility which their magnificent roads allowed. This mobility could only be maintained as long as troops were concentrated in large bodies. Once defensive tactics led to an over-distribution of force, through the establishment of a cordon system along the frontiers, the Gothic horse rapidly overruns the Empire, and after the battle of Adrianople (378) an infantry decline sets in. Thence onwards, except in mountainous and swampy countries, infantry degenerate into camp followers. As the Roman roads fall into disrepair the use of cavalry becomes general; further, all nomadic warriors are horsemen. Influence of the Horse-—The influence of the horse on tactics is profound, and through tactical change strategy and organisa{ion are modified, and the first post-classical cycle of war is

STRATFORD-ON-AVON— STRESEMANN entered. The superior carrying power of the horse at once suggests the general use of armour from which to develop the offensive power of the soldier. The armoured horseman changes the whole organisation of war. Armies grow smaller since armour is expensive; casualties amongst armoured horsemen grow less and less, and the strength of a nation depends more on its ability to produce armour than on its man-power. Two defects are, however, never overcome, the first is the armouring of the horse, the second the difficulty of an armoured man using missile weapons when mounted. Strategy, save as stratagems, disappears; the tactical shock becoming the sole purpose of battle. This condition of war lasts for 1,000 years, when the long bow and pike attack the unarmoured parts of the horse, and gunpowder attacks armour itself. ‘The result is the reappearance of infantry. By the date of the battle of Agincourt (1415) the mobility of the armoured horseman is reduced to zero. The second tactical cycle is now entered. Protection by armour is by degrees replaced by protection through fire power, from which the shock of the pike-men is developed. As the musket, and later on the bayonet, are comparatively cheap weapons, armies grow in size, numbers of men rather than skill become the aim of the military organiser; roads grow in importance to maintain these masses, and casualties increase as fire power is developed; ultimately we enter the period of absolute warfare. The introduction of railways and steam power generally is followed by an enormous increase in the size of armies and in the perfection of weapons and equipment. Hordes of men are poured on to the battlefield, their control is difficult, their supply even more so, and, as fire power increases, the protective power of firearms is supplemented by the trench, and strategy vanishes through a general inability to move. By the year rors the zero point of movement through rifle and gun power is reached. As the second cycle was introduced by the discovery of gunpowder, the third is introduced by the discovery of petrol. The first tactical cycle, based on armour, was protective in nature; the second, based on gunpowder, was offensive; and the third which has now begun is based on petrol, and its predominant quality will be mobility. In the World War the transition became apparent when a solution to static warfare was sought in prolonged artillery bombardments. The railways could amass thousands of tons of shells at the railheads, but from these points forward hurdreds of lorries had to be used to move them. The shell failed to solve the problem of mobility, since in destroying the enemy’s defences it simultaneously destroyed the surface of the ground, rendering it unfit for wheeled traffic. Eventually the tank solves the problem, as it can dispense with roads and move across country. This power, the ability of developing offensive action from protected cross-country movement coupled

with the power of aircraft to attack an army in rear without engaging its front definitely ushers in the third tactical cycle which must profoundly influence strategy. The Passing of Linear Warfare-—From the days of the Romans to present times the network upon which strategy was woven has been the road systems existing at any specific date. Armies advanced and retired along roads, their power of manoeuvre being largely limited by their number and condition. From road columns they deployed into battle lines, and in classical times linc met line in a hand to hand struggle. After the introduction of firearms, a space, or no-man’s-land, was developed between the contending forces, possessing in the days of Fred-

erick the Great a depth of some 5o paces. This space profoundly influenced tactics, for the side which could make the better fighting use of it generally won. To take advantage of this area weapons were improved, and accuracy, range and volume of fire increased, until in the World War its depth extended over I,o00 paces. Gas as a weapon was then introduced to obliterate whatever human resistance existed in or on the other side of this space, and eventually tanks were built to cross it and pass threugh the hostile battle-front and attack the enemy’s rear organisation and services. Aircraft could do likewise by passing over in place of, through or round the enemy’s line. The line had, in fact, reached its zenith, and

657

was no longer an economical formation, since it could not guarantee the protection of the area in rear of it. The influence of these tactical changes must pronouncedly modify strategy, as lincar warfare will be replaced by area warfare, the strategy of which being to a large extent independent of roads and railways will become two and three dimensional. These changes in the art of war face all civilised armies to-day, and it is for this reason that a science of war is necessary, so that the past history of war may be methodically analysed, and future tactical, administrative and strategical tendencies predicted. Without such a science, supported by sound political control, strategy must remain, as it has in the past, either the perquisite of genius or the plavthing of chance. See WAR. (J.F.C. F.) STRATFORD-ON-AVON, England (see 25.998), had a population of 9,392 in r92r and an area of 4,013 acres. A summer season of the Shakespeare festivals, which have been under the control of Mr. Bridges Adams since Sir Frank Benson’s resignation in 1919, has been held since roro. Nash’s house was adapted for public use in 1912. In March 1926 the Shakespeare Memorial Theatre was destroyed by fire; but the library and museum, in adjacent buildings, were saved. A water supply scheme, by gravitation from a reservoir at Snitterfield, was completed in 1923. STRATHCONA AND MOUNT ROYAL, DONALD ALEXANDER SMITH, 1Sr BARON (1820-1914), Canadian statesman (see 25.1000), died in London Jan. 21 1914. His barony passed by special remainder to his daughter Margaret Charlotte, wife of Robert Jared Bliss Howard of Montreal (d. 1921). STRAUSS, RICHARD (1864), German composer (see 25.1003). His opera, Ariadne auf Naxos (1912), was produced at His Majesty’s Theatre, London, by Thomas Beecham in May 1913 and the same year Der Rosenkavalier, first produced at Dresden in rọr0o, was performed at Covent Garden with great success, eight performances being given; In point of fact, this proved to be Strauss’s most popular opera. His other works include Festliches Praeludium, for orchestra (1913), and Josephs Legende (1914). In addition to the works enumerated, mention should be made of Eine Alpensinfonie, (1915, op. 64); and the three-act opera, Die Frau ohne Schatten, libretto by Hugo von Hofmannsthal (1916, op. 65). In the winter of 1920-1 Strauss visited South America, where he officiated at Buenos Aires as opera conductor, subsequently returning to Vienna.

STRAVINSKY, IGOR FEDOROVICH (1882), Russian composer, was born at Oranienbaum, near Leningrad, on June 5 (old style) 1882. He began to study composition privately under Rimsky-Korsakov in 1902 and four years later produced his first work, a symphony. This was followed in 1908 by a Fantastic Scherzo, the Dirge in Memory of Rimsky-Korsakov and the orchestral tone-picture, Fireworks. Much of his subsequent music was composed for Serge Diaghilev’s Russian ballet, and includes THe Fire Bird (toto), Petroushka (1912), and The Rite of Spring (r913}. Stravinsky’s music aroused a great deal of controversy, chiefly owing to a peculiar originality of structure which impressed his audience by the sense of surprising novelty which it conveyed. Among his later works are Renard (1015), L’ Histoire du Soldat (1917), the symphony for wind instruments to the memory of Claude Debussy (1920), Afatra (1921) and Les Noces Villa geotses (1923). STREET: see ROAD CONSTRUCTION. STREET TRAFFIC: see TRAFFIC PROBLEMS. STRESEMANN, GUSTAV (1878), German statesman, was born in Berlin May 1o 1878 and studied political economy in Berlin and Leipzig. After completing his studies he went on the management of an industrial association, and in 1903 became

secretary to the Besirksvereins des Bundes der Industricllen (District Association of the League of Industrials) in Dresden. He soon succeeded in organising the Sächsischen Landesverband des Bundes der Industriellen (Saxon Provincial Union of the League of Industrials) out of the different district organisations. ‘Thanks to his far-reaching organising activity Stresemann secured a prominent position for these associations in the economic and political life of Saxony. The Union in 1925

658

STREUVELS—STRIKES

numbered about 7,000 industrial undertakings with some 600,000 workmen. Stresemann’s excellent organising successes brought him more and more influence in the headquarters of the Union of Industrials in Berlin. Provincial unions were founded on the Saxon model in Württemberg, Silesia and Thüringia, Stresemann playing a prominent part. In the further course of his activity in the field of political economy, he was founder and first president of the German-Canadian and the GermanAustrian-Hungarian Economic Association (Wirtschaftsverband) and vice-president of the German-Bulgarian League in Berlin. He was also prominent in the organisation of the German Fleet League (Flottenverein). In ror3 Stresemann and Ballin, the general manager of the Hamburg-America line, founded the German-American Economic Association, which was destined to be expanded into a German

world commercial association, a plan prevented by the outbreak of the World War. In 1907 Stresemann had been elected to the Reichstag as member of the National Liberal party, where he often spoke for his party on questions of public economy and foreign policy, and enjoyed increasing respect. He soon became a member of the central executive of the party, and Bassermann, recognising his great talent as an organiser and speaker, trained him, so to speak, as his successor. During the War Stresemann pursued a vigourous Nationalist policy, and was one of those who brought about Bethmann Hollweg’s fall. After the collapse he founded the German People’s party (Deutsche Volkspartei) , becoming its president, having been, after Bassermann’s death, president of the National Liberal party. . The German People’s party, led by Stresemann, played a decisive part in Germany’s internal policy after the War. It was opposed to the Weimar Constitution; on principle it remained long in opposition to the Governments of the Left.

When the Ruhr conflict reached its climax, Stresemann published a series of articles which attracted much attention, urging a radical change in German policy; after the fall of Cuno’s Cabinet, in Germany’s darkest hour, he became Chancellor of the Reich with a Ministry of the so-called “ great coalition,” including all parties from the Social Democrats to the German People’s party. As Chancellor, he wound up the Ruhr conflict. After a bare two months the Social Democrats abandoned him because he had had to take strong mcasures in the name of the Reich against the manifestations of Bolshevism in Saxony and Thuringia. He formed, however, a second Cabinet, which lasted till the end of Nov. 1923. In Marx’s Cabinet, which followed his own, Stresemann became Foreign Minister. His was the guiding influence on the foreign policy of this cabinet. He was largely instrumental in bringing about the acceptance of the Dawes plan by Germany

After Marx’s and the Conference of London in Aug. 1924. resignation he refused to form a new Cabinet, and used his influence to get the German Nationalist party included in the He felt the valuable economic forces of this Government. great party should not be condemned to eternal fruitless opposition. He himself remained Foreign Minister in Luther’s first and second Cabinets. During the long governmental crisis he sent the famous Feb. memorandum of 1925 to the Entente, which laid the Throughout 1925 this foundations of the Pact of Locarno. policy initiated by Stresemann was the focus of interest, not mercly of Germany, but of the whole world. The conference of Locarno brought success. On Dec. 1. 1925 the Pact of Locarno was solemnly signed in London. A man with many bitter enemies as well as sincere admirers, it must be agreed that Stresemann carried out a consistent policy without regard to party hostility. He can thus claim the merit for having freed the Ruhr district and the first Rhineland zone from foreign military occupation, for having laid the

political foundations for the stabilisation of the currency and for having brought about less strained political relations between Germany and the outer world. One of the best speakers in Germany, he also possesses great political ability and practical

AND

LOCKOUTS

common sense. He wrote on the Pact of Locarno for this Fncyclopedia. (I. KLE.) STREUVELS, STYN (1871), pen name of Frank Lateur, Flemish writer, was the nephew of the priest-poet Guido Gertelle. For a long time he worked as a pastry cook at Avelghem in Flanders and then settled down at Ingoyghen, close by, in order to devote himself entirely to literature. Essentially a man of the soil, he nevertheless possessed a delicate artistic sensibility and acquired considerable literary culture. He is the most popular contemporary writer in Flanders and enjoys a great reputation throughout Holland, although he frequently introduces the Western Flemish dialect into his writings. Many of his novels have been translated into German. His descriptions of the countryside, no less realistic than poctical, are presented with enormous vigour and pungency in a style which seems to echo the rhythms of nature herself. De Vlaschaard (1007) is considered his best work. STRIKES AND LOCKOUTS (see 25.1024).— The period under review has been characterised in all industrialised countries by an endemic condition of industrial warfare. Despite all the machinery of conciliation and the immense amount of both voluntary and legislative effort to secure the peaceful and equitable settlement of disputes between employers and workers, the organic development of the economic system is. continually being interrupted by trials of strength which bring widespread distress both to those directly involved and to the rest of the community. The following article is confined to a statistical statement and description of the principal strikes and lockouts which have occurred between 1907 and 1924. For a discussion of the broader questions involved see INDUSTRIAL RELATIONS and TRADE UNIONS.

I. GREAT

BRITAIN

AND

NORTHERN

IRELAND

The following table brings together the gencral totals for the strikes and lockouts which have occurred in each year under review in Great Britain and Northern Ireland.! Aggregate duration in

y

ear

Number of | Total numworking disputes ber of days of all beginning | workpeople | disputes in in year involved progress during the year

1907 1908 1909 IgIO IQII

585 389 422 521 872

146,000 293,000 297,000 514,000 952,000

2,150,000 10,790,000 2,690,000 9,870,000 10,160,000

IQ9I2

834 1,459

1,462,000

40,890,000

I9I3

664,000

9,800,000

IQI4

1915

972

672

447,000

9,880,000

1916 1917 1918 1919 1920 1921 1922 1923

532 730 1,165 1,352 1,607 763 57 628 709

276,000 872,000 I, 116,000 2,591,000 1,932,000 1,801,000 552,000 405,000 612,000

2,450,000 5,650,000 5,880,000 34,970,000 26,570,000 85,870,000 19,850,000 10,670,000 8,320,000

448,000

2,950,000

The great majority of the disputes were relatively unimportant; roughly 90% of all the disputes involved less than 1,000 workpeople, and only about 2% involved more than 5,000. 1 The exclusion of the area now forming the Irish Free State does not materially affect the figures except in 1913, when a “ gencral strike ’’ occurred at Dublin, z.¢., a strike aimed at dislocating the whole of the trades of a city or territory—the only instance before the Gencral Strike of 1926 of such a strike on a considerable scale in the British Isles. The strike (which was unsuccessful) involved about 20,000 workpeople, and included, at the time of its maximum extension, tramwaymen and other transport workers, and the employees of flour-millers, coach-builders, biscuit-manufacturers, coal-merchants, steamship companies, master builders and several other trades, including even farmers in County Dublin.

STRIKES AND These latter disputes, however, though so few in number, accounted for five-sixths of the time lost by all the disputes, and it is mainly these large disputes which account for the variations between the figures lor the different years in the last column of the table. | The low totals for the War years ro14-8 contrast with the high figures for the three years immediately after the War, viz.: I9Ig~2r. Since then the amount of industrial disturbance due to disputes has diminished very substantially. The loss of time through disputes, in all but five of the years included in the table amounted to the equivalent of less than one day in the year, if spread over the entire working population; that is to say, to less than the effect of a single public holiday, an almost insignificant loss by comparison (for example) with the loss through sickness or through involuntary unemployment. The statistics relating to the causes or objects of disputes show that wages questions account for about two-thirds of the total number of strikes and lockouts. In years of good or improving trade, such disputes largely arise out of demands for advances in wages; and it is worth

noting,

in this connection,

that no important

disputes

arising out of resistance to a reduction in wages occurred’ between 1908 and the end of 1920. Disputes arising out of questions of hours of labour were unusually frequent in 1919, when the movement towards shorter hours was at its height: ro% of all the disputes of that year were due to questions of hours. In other years the proportion averages less than 3°, of the total number. Disputes arising on questions of particular classes or persons (e.g., demarcation disputes, strikes for the removal of an unpopular foreman or for the reinstatement of a dismissed fellow-worker) account for about 15%;

and other disputes (largely concerned with questions of trade union principle) for a similar proportion of the total. Of all the disputes, about 25° ended definitely in favour of the workpcople, about 30% in favour of the employers, and about 45 % were compromised. Even this large figure, however, docs not fully

represent

the predominance

of compromised

settlements,

because

the tendency to settlement by compromise is greatest in the case of the larger disputes; hence of all the workpeople directly involved in strikes and lockouts about 65 % resumed work after a compromised result, while about 20% resumed after a settlement definitely in their favour and about 15° sustained defeat. The great majority of the disputes—between two-thirds and threequarters of the total—were settled by direct negotiation between the parties or their representatives, and one-half of the remainder by conciliation or by arbitration. Other methods by which strikes and lockouts have been terminated in recent years have included unconditional surrender of the workpeople, the closing of works and the replacement of workpeople. During the War years a number of disputes were terminated by administrative decisions of the Government. One of the greatest disputes, viz.: that in the coalMining industry in 1912, was settled by the enactment of the Coal Mines (Minimum Wage) Act. Particulars of industrial disputes in Great Britain will be found in the official Abstract of Labour Statistics and in the monthly Ministry of Labour Gazette; the issue of the Labour Gazette for July 1925, contains a review of the disputes of the 15 years 1910-24, and that for Jan. of each year, which contains a review of the disputes of the previous year.

Principal Disputes in the United Kingdom.—lt has already been pointed out that a very small minority of the disputes account for by far the greater number of workpeople involved and of days lost; two or three big disputes, indeed, commonly account for an altogether disproportionate share of the days lost in any year. The most remarkable example of this occurred in 1921, as will be seen from the following figures:— Workpeople | Man-days involved lost One coal-mining dispute One cotton dispute . 761 other disputes Total

.

.

1,150,000 375,000 276,000

72,000,000 6,750,000 7,120,000

1,801,000

85,870,000

On the other hand, in some years there were no disputes of outstanding importance; the years 1907 and rgo9 are examples, though it will be observed that both these years had more industrial disturbance, so far as mere number of disputes goes, than the intervening year, 1908. Brief comments are appended on some important disputes. The cotton strike of 1908 is memorable as having been, with two

other disputes of the same year, the last important dispute, for the

LOCKOUTS

659

long space of 12 years, arising out of resistance to a reduction in wages in that trade. The seamen’s and transport workers’ strike in 1911 began with the seamen striking in support of a demand for a conciliation board. Dock labourers and other transport workers joined in the strike, partly in sympathy with the seamen and partly in support of their own demands for improved conditions. There was a good deal of dissatisfaction with the working of the agreements reached in settlement of these disputes, and further strikes occurred in the following year, particularly on the Thames and Medway. The railwaymen in Igrr struck for an improvement in the Railway Concitation Board scheme, which had been sect up in 1907. The cotton dispute of 1911-2 began with strikes of weavers in Lancashire against the employment of non-unionists, to which the employers replied by a general lockout. The coal strike of 1912 arose out of a demand by the Miners’ Federation for the payment of an individual district minimum wage for all underground workers in mines, irrespective of the question whether the men’s working places were abnormal or not. The dispute was settled by the passing of the Coal Mines (Minimum Wage) Act 1912, which provided for the setting up of joint district boards to determine the minimum rates of wages of underground workers in coal-mines. The World War, as will be seen, by no means put an end to strikes; but most of them were small, and were speedily brought to an end. Hence the aggregate duration was brought down to a very low point in 1915 and 1916. There were, however, several unauthorisechstrikes in the engineering and munition trades in 1917, which caused great concern at the time, though only one was of very serious importance as measured by aggregate duration. It was in these disputes that “shop stewards ”’ (sometimes acting in defiance of their own tradeunion executives) first came prominently into public notice.

_ There were many industrial disputes in 1918, but the great major-

ity involved small numbers and were of short duration. In 1919 and 1920, on the other hand, there were many serious disputes. A great railway strike occurred in Sept. and Oct. 1919, the National Union

of Railwaymen being dissatisfied with the new standard rates proposed for certain grades. There was also a prolonged ironmoulders’ strike, which

lasted for four months, and seriously dislocated the

engineering industry. In the same year there was a great strike in the cotton trade, both the spinning and the weaving branches being affected. The operatives asked for a reduction in hours and an advance of 30°5 on list prices. The advance was granted, and the hours reduced to 48 per week (instead of 463, as asked). The principal dispute of 1920 and again of I92I was a national strike in the coal-mining industry (see COAL). The cotton dispute of 1921 arase out of a demand of the employers for a reduction of 95°4 on the standard lists of wages (equivalent to about 30°, on the rates then actually being paid). This was reduced to 80° during the subsequent negotiations. The dispute was finally settled by the operatives accepting a reduction of 70% (60% at once, and another 10°% after six months). The engineering dispute of 1922 arose out of the rejection by the members of the Amalgamated

Engineering Union, on a ballot vote,

of a provisional agreement on overtime and the exercise of managerial functions which had been reached between the executive of the Union and the Engineering and the National Employers’ Federations in Nov. 1921. The members of the Union were, therefore, locked out on March 11; and members of other unions employed in federated enginecring shops were also locked out on the following May 2. On May 17 the employers put forward new proposals, embodying the principle of prior consultation with the workpeople when a proposed change involved the displacement of one class of workpeople by another. These terms were eventually accepted by all the unions concerned, and work was resumed at various dates in June. The shipbuilding dispute of the same year arose out of a proposed reduction of wages; a modified reduction was accepted after a stoppage of six weeks. The shipbuilding dispute of 1923 was confined to the United Society

of Boilermakers

and

[ron

and

Stecl

Shipbuilders,

which

refused to accept an agreement with the Shipbuilding Employers’ Federation relating to overtime and night-shift working, which had been signed by the other shipyard unions. The lockout was settled, alter a stoppage of nearly seven months, by the federation agreeing to reconsider, in consultation with the Boilermakers’ Society, five points which were alleged to need correction or adjustment in their application to the members of the socicty.

THE GENERAL STRIKE OF 1926 The great coal dispute of 1921 was terminated (see Coar) by the signing of an agreement between the miners and the mine-

owners, providing for the automatic regulation of wages from one period to another on the basis of the ascertained costs of production, proceeds, ete., in an earlier period. In Jan. 1924 the Miners’ Federation gave three months’ notice to the Mining Association to terminate the agreement of ro21. In June 1924, after prolonged negotiations, a new agreement was made, which

660

STRIKES

AND

was, in the main, much more favourable to the men than the agreement of ro21, though it contained some provisions intended to benefit the owners. Unfortunately, not long after the new agreement came into force the industry entered upon a period of very severe depression; and the agreement, therefore, with its improved terms to the miners, proved extremely onerous to the owners. On June 30 1925 the owners gave the miners one month’s notice to terminate the agreement; and on the following day they communicated to the miners thcir proposals for a new agreement, which were rejected by a delegate conference of the Miners’ Federation. On July 30 the Prime Minister offered financial assistance to the industry until April 30 1926, to allow time for a full investigation to be made; and on the following day (the day when the owners’ notices to the men would otherwise have expired) the terms were accepted, and arrangements were made for work to be continued. The total cost of the subvention, from the beginning of Aug. 1925 to the end of April 1926, was £ 24,000,000.

The Samuel Re port-—On Sept. 5 1925 a royal commission was appointed, under the chairmanship of Sir Herbert Samucl, “ to enquire into and report upon the economic position of the coal industry and the conditions affecting it, and to make any recommendation for the improvement thereof.” The royal commission issued its report on March 6 1926, suggesting a number of measures that might be taken for the improvement of the industry, but also expressing the opinion that an immediate reduction of working costs, by means of a revision downwards of the minimum percentage addition to standard rates of wages, was essential, as a temporary measure, to save the industry. They considered it essential’ that, though national wage agreements should continue, there should nevertheless be, as hitherto, considerable variation in the rates of wages in the several dis-

tricts, and laid it down that, ‘‘ before any sacrifices are asked from those engaged in the industry, it shall be definitely agreed between them that all practicable means for improving its organisation and increasing its efficiency should be adopted.” The report was accepted by the Government in its entirety, but only subject to acceptance by the other two parties. The owners issued a statement expressing general agreement with the report; but they at first desired to initiate negotiations with the miners on district lines. Later, under pressure from the Government, they withdrew from this position; but the best terms which they were able to offer represented a severe reduction of wages in most districts; and, owing to the delay already mentioned, these terms were not presented to the miners, nationally, until the owners’ notices were on the point of expiring. The miners were strongly averse to any reduction of wages or any increase of hours; they also wanted assurances that were not forthcoming as to the measures of reorganisation mentioned in the paragraph quoted textually above. No settlement was found possible; and the owners’ notices, which they had issued in anticipation of the termination of the subsidy period on April 30, took effect on that date. A General Strike Called.—Mcanwhile, the general council of the Trades Union Congress, who had already come to the assistance of the miners in July 1925—the Miners’ Federation had ‘placed their case unreservedly in the hands of the general council”? at that time—again intervened; and prolonged negotiations followed. On May 1 1926, with a view to assisting the miners, the general council issued instructions calling out on strike the railway and transport workers, the printing and paper trade unions, some branches of the metal and engincering and of the building trade workers, and some other classes; and it was intimated that other classes of workers would be called out later, if necessary. This was the first example of a general strike in Great Britain, though there had been a strike of this kind in Dublin in 1913, involving about 20,000 workpeople. The stoppage on the railways and at the docks, of tramway

and omnibus services, and of printing, was at first nearly com-

plete; though there was some recovery as the strike went on.

Volunteers, and men who had refused to come out or had gone

LOCKOUTS back to work, maintained or restored a skeleton service on the railways and omnibus routes, and on some of the provincial tramways; some work was also done by volunteers at the docks. Apart from this, the Government were able to introduce an emergency service of motor transport, sufhicient to censure a supply of necessary foodstuffs; and many thousands of volunteers offered themselves for work in all sorts of capacities, and as special constables. Strict orders were issued by the Trade Unions to their members to refrain from provocation, and cases of scrious disorder or violence were rare. The success of these measures, together with a judgment given by Mr. Justice Astbury declaring the general strike to be illegal and not covered by the protection of the Trade Disputes Act, and pronouncements in the House of Commons to the same effect, no doubt hastened the termination of the strike. The gencral council had also been in touch with Sir Herbert Samuel, who had been acting, unoflicially, as a mediator, and had agreed with him on a formula which, it was hoped, would enable negotiations to be resumed. In this hope the general council informed the Prime

Minister on May 12 that they had decided to call off the strike unconditionally. Sir Herbert Samucl’s formula was not, however, accepted by the miners; nor was it adopted by the Government,

who, on the termination of the general strike, immediately resumed negotiations with the miners. Some difficulties arose in connection

with the resumption of work after the general strike. The most important source of dis-

location, at least on the railways, arose from the fact that, partly owing to the lack of coal traffic and the necessity of economising coal, a great reduction in the railway services was In any case inevitable, and it was, therefore, impossible to re-employ immediately all those who had gone on strike. On May 14, however, the railway companies came to an agreement with the three railway trade unions, on the basis of undertaking to take back the men as work could be found for them; the trade unions also acknowledged that they had been guilty of a “ wrongful act ”’ in bringing their members out on strike without the usual notice. Similar agreements were made with the other trade unions. The strike of the miners, however, still continued.

Il. FOREIGN COUNTRIES A brief account is given below of strikes and lockouts in the years after the War in the principal European countries, other than Great Britain, from the oflicial statistics available at the beginning of 1926:— | Belgium.—The average annual number of labour disputes in the post-War years (1920-4) in Belgium was 261, directly affecting an average of 145,105 workers. Particulars are not available as to the number of working days lost. There were no features of particular interest in connection with the disputes; 1920 was the year most affected (517 disputes directly affecting 296,192 workers). France.—The latest figures available for France are for 1922. For the four post-War years the figures are as follows:— oe :

Number of | Aggregate

Number of | workpeople | duration in disputes

directly

working

affected

days

I9I9

2,053

1,206,175

(6,128,638

1922

711

307,056

3,385,902

1920! 192I

1,924 576

1,487,996 | 24,563,527 453,564 8,092,388

1 Figures for 1920 and subsequent years include Alsace-Lorraine. A noticeable feature in France has been the tendency to strike among employees of public bodies. Germany.— During the post-War years (1919-23) the average annual number of disputes in Germany was 3,762, which directly affected 1,657,469 workers and involved a loss of 23,158,100 working days on the average. The years tg19, 1921 and 1922 were the most serious. It should be noted that political motives

were the cause of many German strikes in those years, e.g., the Kapp Putsch and the occupation of the Ruhr.

STRIKES AND The Netherlands —The average annual number of strikes in the post-War years (1919-24) in the Netherlands was 380, which directly affected 50,567 workpeople and involved a loss of 1,687,983 working days on the average. In the year 1923 a dispute occurred in the textile industry, which affected 22,200 workpeople and caused the loss of 3,119,100 working days. The last figure is greater than the total loss in any other of the six years in all industries. Scandinavian Countrics —Widespread disputes in the spring of the year, when most collective agreements terminate, are a marked feature in the Scandinavian countries: in Denmark, for

example, in the spring of 1925 an almost general dispute (strikes and lockouts) directly affected 95,000 workpeople and involved a loss of 4,021,900 working days. The average annual number of strikes, workers affected and days lost in these countries in the post-War ycars was as fol-

lows:—

| Number of | Aggregate

Country

Number of | workpeople | duration in

and years

disputes

Denmark, 1919-24 . Norway, 1921-4. Sweden, I9I9~24

164 58

directly affected

working days

27,748 61,168 78,724

892,609 2,405,946 4,114,706

LOCKOUTS

Dept.; Megling og voldgift Tariffavtaler og arbeidskonflikter (1924), issucd by Norwegian Central Statistical Bureau; Arbetstistillelser och Kollektivavtal ar 1024, issued by Swedish Dept. for Social Affairs; Anuario Estadistico de España (1923-4). British Dominions: Labour Gazette (Feb. 1925); Labour Report (1924), issued by Commonwealth of Australia Bureau of Census and Statistics; Official Yearbook of the Union of South Africa (1910 24).

(J. 1l

IV. THE UNITED STATES The distinction, for statistical purposes, between a strike and a lockout is often difficult to make and therefore, when figures for several years are presented, strikes and lockouts are grouped as “industrial disputes.” Table I. sets forth the number of strikes and lockouts and the number of workers involved, during

the period 1914-24. TABLE I. Number of Industrial Disputes and Number of Employees Affected 1914-24 Year

Disputes

1914

i916.

.

:

;

2,151 2,665

1,239,989 4,160,348

1920

2,226

1,463,054

1922

865

1,608,321

1917

a

1918, Igig_,

1923 1924

: ;

; :

Labour Review, passim; Studies and Reports, Series A, nos. 5,7 and 10 (International Labour Office, Geneva, 1920); Report on Conciliation

and Arbitration, 1920 (H. C. 185 of 1921); Report of the Ministry of Labour for the Years 1923 and 1924, passtm (cmd, 2481 of 1925); Reports of Courts of Inquiry under the Industrial Courts Act (1919). Europe: Annuaire Statistique de la Belgique (1920-1 and 1922); Revue du Travail, passim; Statistique des Grèves (1915-8, 1919, 1920 and 1921-2), issued by the French Ministry of Labour and Health; Statistisches Jahrbuch für das Deutsche Reich (1924 5); \Werkstakingen en Mitsinitingen gedurende het jaar (1923), issued by Dutch Central Statistical Bureau; idem (1924); Statistiske KEfierreininger (July 24 1925) and Statistisk Aarbog (1924), issued by the Danish Statistical P ai a es ee eetee a

1 Jt is not stated whether this is the number of workers directly

affected, or the number directly and indirectly affected.

2,325

1,785

1,132 872

1,227,254

1,099,247

744,948 654,453

Compiled from the Bureau of Labour Statistics, Monthly Labour Review,

The distribution of these disputes among the several more important industries of the United States is illustrated by Table 1f.:— TABLE II. Number of Disputes in the More Important Industries 1olj-24 Number of Disputes

DOMINIONS

Labour Statistics of the United Kingdom, cd. 7733 (19135); Twenty-sixth Report on Strikes and Lockouts of the United Kingdom, cd. 7658 (1914); The Ministry of Labour Gazette, passim; The International

59

1,599,917

A great lockout (Feb. 14 to May 27 1924) in Norway affected

Australia.—-The average annual number of disputes in the post-War years (1919-24) in Australia was 477, which directly and indirectly affected 137,226 workpeople, and caused a loss of 2,010,036 working days on an average. The year rotg alone accounted for rather more than half the total number of working days lost (6,308,226 out of 12,060,216). South Africa.—The average annual number of disputes in the post-War years (1919-23) was 30, which covered 33,680' workers and involved a loss of 565,832 working days on an average. The year 1923 was distinguished by having only two strikes affecting 50 workers and involving the loss of 740 working days. Bintiocrapuy.—Great Britain: The Seventeenth Abstract of

1,500

2,667

39,476 workpeople and involved a loss of 2,962,263 working days. Compulsory arbitration was in force in Norway from 1916-21, when the Act was allowed to lapse. It was renewed in 1922 for a year, but an attempt to renew it in 1923 failed. In Sweden the peak year of the period was 1920, when 486 disputes occurred directly affecting 139,039 workpeople and causing a loss of 8,942,543 working days. Spain.—The average annual number of disputes in the postWar years (1919-23) in Spain was 380, which directly affected 149,371 workers and involved the loss of 3,952,986 working days on an average.

Canada.—The average annual number of disputes in the post-War years (1919-24) was 163, which directly or indirectly affected 52,580 workpeople and involved a loss of 1,716,577 working days on an average. The year 1919 alone accounted for more than one-third of the total number of working days lost.

Employces [nvolved

1,204

I9I§

1921

Ill. BRITISH

661

Industry

Building Clothing Furniture . : Fron and Steel . Leather Lumber. Metal Trades Mining j

Paper Mfg. Printing. Shipbuilding Meat Packing

i . .

Stone

š

3

275/2311394|468]4341473 5211583] 113/206) 267

78/139)227|495|436]322(330/240/215/357|223 18} 20) 50] 43] 26} 35] 26] 17) 4 12| 34 14} 30] 72) 56) 74] 76} 25) 25) 10) 10} 7

..|.. | 34| 19| 16| 27| 32| 26) 40l r4! 441299) 76| 46| 38| 25| 129)321/54 7/515 441/580/452(194} 51] 67/416/449/208/176]/183] 95) 1.. | 54 4| 40| 47| 39| 42| 20) 7] 27| 41] 40] 71 83/506) Z1/106|140]109} 45| 20 be 70) 38] 42] 74] 42) 30) n is 61! 26| 14) 13! 29| 34| . | 54 84/261) 247/212/273/21 1114) . t.. te. | 63) 47] 50] 58) 38} Ig} 52| 18]228]343/227/191)241| 371

Textile Tobacco . i Transportation Compiled from the Bureau of Labour Statistics, Monthly Labour Review.

17| 17| 5 To) Ig) 6 8&2|111| 57 49/159]177 12| 16) 6 56] 19) 12 4] 6| 1 6] ri] 14 6I| 15! 15 115/134) 79 12| 16| 12 67

During 1910 the most important strikes occurred in the bituminous coal-mining industry and in the New York and Chicago clothing industries. On April 1, 300,000 miners went on strike to support wage demands. In most districts the operators soon eranted the wage increases but 45,000 men remained out until September. The Columbus street railway employees struck in April, May and July because of discharges of union members. In ror2 the textile strike at Lawrence, Massachusetts, snd the anthracite coal strike were most important. he Lawrence strike lasted o weeks, affected 12 mills and involved 23,000 workers. A state law limiting the hours of work for women and children to 54 a week taused a reduction in wages against which the workers had struck. Asa result of this strike 30,000 employees received wage increases of from 5° to 20°% and increased pay for overtime. The unskilled workers received the largest increases. The

662

STRINDBERG—STSHERBATSKY

anthracite coal strike began March 31 1912, and lasted seven weeks. Some 170,000 workers went out. The strike resulted in wage increases, abolition of the sliding scale and establishment of a grievance committee. Astrike in Paint Creek and Cabin Creek, W.Va., from April ror2 to July 1913 was marked by the loss of 13 lives. Its violence attracted much attention and the U.S. Senate ordered an investigation. In 1013, 25,000 workers in the silk factories of Paterson, N.J., struck for shorter hours and increased wages. The strike failed. In September, the employees of the Colorado Fuel and Iron Co. struck for recognition of the United Mine Workers’ Union, increased wages and observation of state mining laws. Both sides committed violence. John D. Rockefeller, Jr. at first declined to intervene. State troops were brought in and killed a number of strikers and members of their families. President Wilson then sent 2,000 Federal troops to restore peace. His proposal for settlement was accepted by the miners but rejected by the operators. After an investigation by the U.S. Commission on Industrial Relations, John D. Rockefeller, Jr., visited Colorado and instituted a system of employee representation; the workers were granted the basic eight-hour day and a check-weighman, but the union was not recognized. In 1gts there were 102 strikes and six lockouts of machinists between July and October. In nearly every case the basic eight-

hour day was gained. The coal strike in that year involved 350,000 men. When the United States entered the World War in 1917 the American Federation of Labour discouraged strikes in the essential industries. A number did occur, however, and these were mediated by Government committees. On the whole the War period was one of industrial truce. During the War the greatest number of disputes occurred in the metal trades, building, clothing, textile, transportation and mining industries. In 1917 a very violent disturbance occurred in the mines at Jerome and Bisbee, Arizona. In July of that year 1,200 Bisbee strikers were loaded on cattle cars by armed citizens and transported across the desert to Columbus, New Mexico. Here they were taken over by soldiers and fed on army rations for three months, after which they scattered. When the War was over the war labour adjustment boards were dissolved and workers, who had been prevented from striking by the promise of peaceful settlement, felt that the government and employers had broken faith. Some 176,000 employees struck in the clothing trades, 150,c00 in the textile industry, 100,000 marine workers ani 100,c00 shipyard workers. The employers launched the “‘ American Plan” of open shop and industrial unrest grew apace. In Sept. rọrọ the steel strike began as a result of the united action of 24 international unions. Some 365,000 men left their jobs but gradually they went back to work. By Jan. 1920 the remaining 100,000 men still out were sent back to work and the strike ended. In Seattle a general sympathetic strike with the shipyard workers, involving 60,000 people, was called and lasted from Feb. 6 torr. The strike failed. In Aug. 1910, although forbidden by their national officers, 250,000 railway shopmen went on strike because of the delay of the Wage Adjustment Board to reach a decision on the demands of the men for increased pay. After six days the strike was called off and the men returned to work. At the request of President Wilson the demand for a wage increase was postponed to give the Government an opportunity to reduce the cost of living. In Nov. rg19, 435,000 bituminous coal-miners struck for wage increases of 60%, the six-hour day and the five-day week in order to distribute work throughout the year. Aninjunction was issued to prevent the use of union funds for; strike benefits. In March 1920 an agreement was reached

providing for a 27°4 increase in wages.

In Sept. roro, 903% of

the Boston policemen struck for the right to organise and afhhate with the American Federation of Labour. Their places were filled with other men. The coal strike of 1922 began on April 1, involving 600,000 men and effecting a complete tie-up of the central competitive (bituminous) field and of the anthracite industry. The operators

wanted the creation of a permanent arbitration board, and the union wanted

the creation of a Government

fact-finding com-

mission and the continuation of collective bargaining. This, rather than wages, came to be the real issue in the anthracite strike. An agreement was reached on Sept. 2, providing for the continuation of existing wages and recommendation to Congress that a coal commission be appointed. The bituminous operators wanted district agreements, the union wanted a national agreement. The union demands included also continuation of existing wages, the six-hour day and five-day week. An agreement was reached Aug. 15, providing for cessation of the strike, and appoint-

ment of a joint committee to negotiate a wage scale to go into effect April 1 1923. The strike of the railway shopmen began July 1, involving 500,coo men and constituted the most complete tie-up of that branch of the railway industry that the United States has ever seen. The shopmen struck primarily against the road’s practice of contracting out work to non-railway shops and against the basic wage of $800 a year established by the Railroad Labour Board. On Sept. 13 the unions and s0 railways signed an agreement which 126 roads signed by Oct. 27. The most important strike in 1923 was that of 155,000 anthracite coul-miners in September for the check-off of union dues and a 20% increase in wages. The strike was settled after three weeks on a compromise basis, the miners securing a 10% wage increase. In May, 50,000 New York City clothing workers struck for a 10% wage increase. The strike lasted two weeks, embraced 2,000 shops and was won by the workers. The most important strike of 1924 was in the ladies’ garment industry. On July 8, 50,000 workers led by the International Ladies’ Garment Workers Union struck for an increase in wages, a 40-hour weck and unemployment insurance. The strike lasted 13 days and was a success. Industrial disputes were in general less numerous and less severe in 1925 than in any preceding year except the very quiet year of 1922. During the first half of 1925 some 720 strikes and

lockouts involving 199,500 people took place. During the third quarter of the year 363 disputes occurred. The principal disputes were in the clothing, textile, building and coal-mining industries. The most important strike was that of 148,000 anthracite coal-miners which began Sept. 1, in a demand fora 10% wage increase, the check-off of union dues, two-year contract and complete union recognition. The strike lasted 170 days and covered the entire commercial anthracite area. An agreement ratified Feb. 17 1926 continued the terms of the previous con-

tract, and set up a board of conciliation and other arbitration machines. The agreement is to be in force until Aug. 31 1930. New York dressmakers, numbering 30,000, struck on March ro in 2,000 shops to enforce a provision in the joint agreement. The strike was novel in that the strikers reported at their places of work each morning and sat at their machines for six days without working. The strike was a success. (Sce INSURANCE, SOCIAL.)

STRINDBERG,

AUGUST

(1849-1912),

(J. R. Co.)

Swedish author (see

25.1038), died at Stockholm May 14 1912. His plays have been translated into English by E. and W. Oland (1912-3) and H. B. Samuel (191-4). See A. Henderson, Exropean Dramatists: August Strindberg (1914); C. D. Marcus, Strindbergs Dramatik (1918); C. L. Schleich, rinnerungen an Strindberg (1917).

STRZYGOWSKI,

JOSEF

(1862-

_—s—+),_ Austrian scholar, was

born at Bial, near Bielitz, March 7 1862. In 1892 he became a professor at Graz, and in 1909 was appointed professor of art at the University of Vienna. He wrote numerous works on art, dealing especially with Oriental influences on Western art (see BYZANTINE ArT, 4.907; ROMAN ART, 23.475). His works include: Byzantische Denkmäler, 1-3 (1891-3): Hellen-

astische und Koptische Kunst in Alexandria (1902); Koptische Kunst (1903); Die bildende Kunst der Gegenwart (1907); Orsprung der Christlichen Kirchenkunst (1920, Swedish and English trans.); Ed. Early North European Church Art and Wood Architecture (1925).

STSHERBATSKY,

FEDOR

IPPOLITOVICH

(1867-

), Rus-

sian orientalist, was born at St. Petersburg (Leningrad) Sept.

STURDEE—SUBMARINE 19 (old style) 1867 of a family of old nobility.

He was educated

at Tsarskoye Selo, and studied philology at the St. Petersburg University, specialising in Sanscrit under Prof. I. P. Minajev. He graduated in 1889 and studied three years abroad, first at Vienna under Prof. G. Bühler, then in Bonn, under Prof. H. Jacobi. In roo4 he became professor of Indian literature at the St. Petersburg university, and in 1916 was elected member of the Prussian Academy of Sciences. The years roro-1 were spent in British India for scientific research. His knowledge of Tibetan languages and of Buddhism enabled him to enter into friendly relations with the leading Buddhist priests. He was invited to meet the Dalai-Lhama, with whom he had several interviews without any interpreter. His thorough understanding of Buddhism makes his work, The Theory of Knowledge and Logic according to the Later Buddhists (1899), a most valuable book (German translation, 1924). He has published many Sanscrit MSS. in the Bibliotheca Buddica of the Academy of Sciences. In 1923 the Royal Asiatic Society published his work, The Central Conception of Buddhism, and in 1926 was published The Conception of Nirvana.

STURDEE, SIR FREDERICK CHARLES DOVETON (1850-

1925), British sailor, was born at Charlton, Kent, June 9 1850, and entered the navy in 1871. He was promoted lieutenant (1880), commander (1893), captain (1899), rear-admiral (1908), vice-admiral (1913), admiral (1917) and admiral of the fleet (1921). He saw service in Egypt (1882) and in Samoa (1899), when he was in command of the Anglo-American force. He was assistant director of naval intelligence to the Admiralty (1900-2) and chief of staf, Mediterranean Fleet (1905-7) and Channel Fleet (1907). In rgro he became rear-admiral of the first battle squadron, and commanded the 2nd cruiser squadron (1912-3). During the World War Sturdee was made chief of the war staff in Nov. 1914. As commander-in-chief in the

South Atlantic and Pacific, he led the squadron which won the battle of the Falkland Is. Dec. 8 1914, and he was in command of the 4th battle squadron when it took part in the battle of Jutland. He was created K.C.B. in 1913, K.C.M.G. in t016, and a baronetcy

was conferred on him in 1916, with the title

“of the Falkland Is.” From rtọr8-2r he was commander-inchief at the Nore. He died May 7 r925. STURDZA, DEMETRIUS (1833-1914), Rumanian statesman (see 25.1051), died at Bucharest Oct. 21 1914.

STÜRGKH, CARL, Count (1859-1916), Austrian politician, was born at Graz Oct. 30 1859, of an ancient noble Styrian family, and in 1881 he became an official of the Statthalterei at Graz, and

later of the ministry of education. He left the state service in 1891, when he was elected as a representative of the loyal landholding interest to the Reichsrat. He attached himself to the Left of the German party, and came forward as a keen opponent of universal suffrage. He was from Feb. 10 1909 to Nov. 3 1911 minister of education, and a zealous advocate of the humanistic education traditional in the gymnasia. On Nov. 3 he became Prime Minister. Stiirgkh was one of the committee of five ministers who decided on the dispatch of the ultimatum to Serbia and the declaration of war, which brought on the World War. He was killed on Oct. 24 1916 by a shot fired by the Social Democrat Freidrich Adler, a son of the Social Democrat leader, Viktor Adler, as a protest against Stiirgkh’s government without parliament (see AUSTRIAN EMPIRE). STURSA, JAN (1880-10923), Czech sculptor, was born at Nové Mésto in Moravia. In 1899 he entered the Academy of Fine Arts at Prague as a pupil of Myslbek. His early works manifest the influence of the symbolic literature of that period, but by 3905-7 he had already attained an individual expression in such works as “ Puberty ” (1905), ‘‘ The Melancholy Girl” (1906) and “ Primavera” (1907). A journey to Italy in 1907 was the opening of a new epoch in his creative work. He was captivated first and foremost by the warm magic of femininity which is manifested in “ Eve ”’ (1908, State Gallery, Munich), “ Hetaira ” (1909), ©“Messalina ” and the monumental representation of the dancer “ Sulamith Rahu” (1911), now in the

gallery at Venice.

At the same time he interpreted the oppo-

663

site feminine type, the intellectuality of which is incorporated in the monument to Hana Kvapilova (1912), the famous Czech actress. During the same period Stursa produced the group of Statuary for the pylons of the Hlavka Bridge at Prague. In 1916 he was appointed professor at the Academy of Fine Arts in Prague, and it was in this period of his artistic maturity that he created the ‘‘ Wounded Man.” He also produced a number of portrait busts, the most noteworthy of which is that of President Masaryk. The leader of the modern school of Czech sculpture, he died in 1923. STURZO, LUIGI (1870), Italian priest and political organiser. Born at Caltagirone, Sicily, on Nov. 26 1870, he entered the priesthood at an early age, but soon took to politics and showed from the first a marked ability in creating diocesan committees, co-operation unions, etc., and guiding the masses in the direction of Christian democracy. He was practically unknown outside his native province, until on the outbreak of the War, he came to Rome as secretary of the Azione cattolica. After the Armistice he was chosen political secretary of the Partito Popolare italiano, founded early in roro. There had been a political Catholic movement in Italy even before the War, but it was due to the organising genius of Don Sturzo that the Partito Popolare made such rapid progress in so short a time. The general tendency of the party was Christian Socialist, and Don Sturzo advocated social reforms of a radical nature, espectally in agriculture, as the majority of the party’s adherents were peasants; unlike the Socialists, he demanded the expropriation of the land with compensation for the landlords, collaboration of capital and labour in industry and a patriotic foreign policy. But an extremist wing, led by Sig. Migholi, soon arose, and Don Sturzo, although mildly critical of its Bolshevik methods, never definitely disowned it. At the elections of Nov. rgtq,

thanks

to the proportional

system

introduced by Nitti, the

Partito Popolare secured 101 seats, and subsequently, by holding the balance between the various parties, became a dominant force in Italian politics. When Sig. Bonomi was trying to form a Cabinet after the fall of Giolitti in Feb. 1922, it was Don Sturzo who dictated its composition to him and became his éminence grise after it was constituted. In the early days of Fascism Don Sturzo did not oppose it, although there were frequent affrays between the black-shirted squadre and the Migliolini. After the march on Rome he allowed several Popolari to enter the Cabinet, but his half-hearted support of the Mussolini Govt. resulted in their withdrawal, and Don Sturzo and his party definitely joined the opposition. A section of the party, having remained faithful to Sig. Mussolini, broke away from the Partito Popolare and constituted the Centro nazionale cattolico. Don Sturzo’s activities had, however, brought him into disfavour with the Vatican, which, after issuing a general admonition to priests not to mix themselves up with party politics, hinted that he would be well advised to leave Italy. He consequently went to England and France. In 1925 he published Pensiero antifascista. LVN SUBMARINE.—The first practical submarine was constructed by David Bushnell in 1775, and his ideas were revived some 25 years later by R. Fulton, who constructed a boat called the “ Nautilus,” driven by means of a hand-worked screw and fitted with a copper vessel containing compressed air to give a reserve supply for breathing. This air enabled the boat to remain under the water for about four hours. The vessel actually descended

on trial to a depth of 25 ft. and placed a torpedo underneath a ship. THE

SUBMARINE

BEFORE

THE

WORLD

WAR

American Civil War.—The first vessels to take part in actual warfare were of a type known as the Davids, built by the Confederates during the American Civil War. These were small iron boats propelled by hand from four to seven knots and armed with a spar torpedo bearing about 50 to 70 lb. of powder. One of these, manned by nine men, attacked the Federal warship “ Housatonic ” and sank her, but was herself sunk by the wave thrown up by the explosion. About 1860, the submarine boat

664

SUBMARINE

began to slowly develop from the crude form propelled by manual labour to a power-propelled vessel, which could be considered a factor in naval warfare. In 1863 the ‘ Plongeur,” 146 ft. Jong, 12 ft. in diameter, and propelled by an r8-H.P. compressed air engine, was built in France. The “Holland”? Type-—A very important type was constructed in 1877 by Mr. Holland, which was propelled by a petrol engine. For the purpose of diving, water was admitted into internal ballast tanks until the boat had a small positive buoyancy, immersion being maintained by the use of horizontal rudders. The importance of this type is due to the fact that the first submarines for the British Navy were based on Mr. Holland’s ideas. The following are a few of some of the other types of submarines built by the various naval powers round about this period. Russian Bouts——In 1881, M. Goubet constructed several submarines for the Russian Govt., 16} ft. long, of oval section, 5} ft. by 31 ft. amidships, tapering to a point at each end. The boat was manned by two persons only, and all valves and other mechanism were brought within reach of the two operators in order that no movement which might upset the trim of the boat was necessary. The power for driving the screw propeller was obtained from an electric motor driven by accumulators, and submersion was effected by admitting water into ballast tanks, this water being expelled by a pump when the boat was required to be brought to the surface again. Construction in U.S,A.—In 1887 the United States of America invited designs for submarines, and after careful consideration of all those submitted the Holland design was accepted and formed the basis of the designs for the “ Plunger,” the “ Holland ” and the six vessels of the “ Adder ” Class. lhe latter were single screw boats, 63 ft. long, 104 tons surface displacement and were driven on the surface by petrol engines, giving a speed of about 8} knots. When submerged, an electric motor supplied from accumulators was used, giving a speed of seven knots.

They were armed with one bow torpedo tube and carried five torpedoes, and, as in the original Holland design, they were submerged by admitting water into internal ballast tanks and then dived by the aid of horizontal rudders. Another interesting type was the ‘‘ Narval”’ design by M. Laubeuf and constructed in 1899. She was 112 ft. Jong, 12 ft. 4 in. beam, displaced 104 tons, and had a surface speed of 11 knots and eight knots submerged. The machinery was a triple expansion steam engine, obtaining steam from a water tube boiler burning petroleum. This formed the motive power for - surface propulsion and also the power for driving the dynamo for recharging the accumulators, which furnished the power in the submerged condition. The vessel had a double hull and was

Holland type was made than in the “ A,” “Band “C ” classes, main ballast tanks being introduced on the outside of the main circular pressure hull. The hull shape was modified by the adoption of twin screws driven by vertical four-cycle Diesel engines instead of the single screw driven by horizontal petrol engines in the previous boats, the disposition of the twin bow torpedo tubes vertically instead of horizontally, and the provision of a stern torpedo tube. These departures from the previous type were made with the objects of increasing the endurance of the boats at sea and of eliminating the risks attending the use of petrol. The external tanks enabled the reserve of buoyancy to be increased, thus rendering the boats less liable to founder suddenly in case of collision or similar accident, and making them more habitable at sea. A r2-pdr., on a mounting which was housed inside the superstructure and operated by compressed air so as to pass rapidly from the firing to the housing position, was installed in ‘ D4” and was the first instance of the mounting of artillery on a submarine. Up to this time the British submarines only had torpedo tubes forward and aft, but a demand arose in the fleet for broadside tubes, and to meet this demand the “ E ” class was designed for the rọro~r programme. The provision of the two broadside tubes in the “ E” class was the chief cause of the difference in dimensions between this class and the “ D's,” but of course this increased size had its natural concomitant in increased power, speed, habitability and endurance. In the first “ E’s,” one bow tube only was fitted, owing to reports against these tubes having been received, but in the later “ E’s ” of the 1911-2 programme the two bow tubes were again fitted. This class also was the first to have the main hull sub-divided by transverse bulkheads, thus increasing the safety of the boats in case of accident, and also increasing the strength of the hull against external pressure. These vessels proved themselves a very suitable and reliable type in many ways.

Two of them, A.E.1 and A.E.2, proceeded

under their own power to Australia and took up duties with the Australian navy. One of them had over 30,000 m. to her credit before it was necessary to ret the propelling machinery. As seagoing boats they were a distinct step in advance of previous classes. The extensive superstructure, combined with the navigating bridge built over the conning tower, made them easy to navigate in even the roughest weather. This advantage is the more appreciated when it is understood that only in the finest weather could a “B” or “°C” class boat cruise on the surface with open hatches. The overall length of the “ E’s ” was 181 ft., beam 22 [t. 7 in. over the side tanks, and the displacement when submerged was 780 tons. The torpedoes carried were 18 In. in diameter, and a spare torpedo was carried for each tube, making

submerged by admitting water into the space between the inner

eight torpedoes in all for the original “ E’s” and 1o for the

and outer hulls, control in the horizontal and vertical direc-

later boats. A r2-pdr. gun was also carried. The endurance at a cruising speed of to knots was 2,650 naut. m.on 4s tons of oil. A surface speed of 15 knots was obtained, the power being provided by two Vickers heavy oil engines, each of Soo brake horsepower. The motors for use when submerged each developed 420 b.h.p., giving a speed of 10 knots. The power for the motors was provided by two separate batteries, each of 112 cells. Air storage was provided by 57 bottles stowed about the ship, the bottles being charged by high pressure air comptessors. ‘To equip these boats for more effective scouting and patrol work a wireless installation was fitted, the aerial being carried on folding masts. In addition, a set of under-water signalling gear was fitted. Two periscopes were carried, one being a simple single power instrument, the other being arranged for use with varying powers and also for use as a ‘‘ sky searcher ” for detecting aircraft. Another type of submarine with a complete double hull was developed by Messrs. Vickers, and four of these boats were ordered and called the “ V ”’ class. These were 147 ft. 6 in. over all, beam of outer hull 16 ft. 3 in., and submerged displacement 460 tons. The speeds were 13 knots on the surface and 83 knots when submerged, the armament consisting of two 18-in. bow tubes. The “ G ” class followed upon the Vickers design and was

tions being effected by rudders fitted forward and aft. Great Britain.—In 1900 five “ Holland’ type boats were ordered for the British Navy, which were practically identical with the boats of the American “‘ Adder ” class previously mentioned, After experience with thesc, 13 boats of an improved design were laid down in 1902 and known as the ‘A ”’ class, followed by rr boats of the “ B ” class, completed between 1905 and 1906, and then 38 of the “ C” class, completed between 1g06-to. All these boats were armed with two torpedo tubes, and all except the A.r3 were driven by petrol engines on the surface and electric motors when submerged. The A.13 was fitted with heavy oil engines for surface propulsion. In 1907, the first of a larger and improved type, known as the

“ D” class, was laid down, particulars of which were as follows: length 162 ft., breadth 2o ft. 6 in., draft 11 ft., surface displace-

ment 500 tons, submerged displacement 620 tons; horsepower on the surface 1,200 H.P., submerged soo; speeds 145 to 15 knots on the surface and nine to ro knots when submerged. This “ D ” class immediately preceded a somewhat similar type of vessel, which formed a very large proportion of the number of subma-

rines in the British War flotillas. In these vessels a more radical departure from the parent

SUBMARINES

PLATE

ye se.

=e

sdi

Tk

.

ring Pes

al “rr

TYPES OF MODERN SUBMARINES Fic. 1. H.M. Submarine L. 16. (Great Britain). Fic. 2. H.M. Submarine M. 3. (Great Britain). Fic. 3. H.M. Submarine X. 1. (Great Britain), Fic. 4. Fleet Submarine V, 1. (United States). (Figs. 1, 2 and 3. Photographs by Abrahams & Sons, Devonport.

Fig. 4. Courtesy of U.S. Navy Dept.)

SUBMARINE of increased dimensions and displacement, being 187 ft. long, 22 ft. 8 in. beam and a submerged displacement of 970 tons. The “ G’s ” dimensions followed the single hull “ E ” class very closely but with increased displacement, consequent on the provision of the double hull. Their full surface speed was 14-15 knots, obtained by twin heavy oil engines, each of 800 brake horsepower. Submerged, the speed was 10 knots with 2 motors each of 420 brake horsepower. The armament was two bow and two broadside 18-in. torpedo tubes and one stern

21-in.

tube, with, in addition, two guns mounted on the superstructure, one being a disappearing 3-in. ‘' Q.F.” type and the other a

2-pdr. “ H.A.” THE

SUBMARINE

DURING

THE

WAR

World War Construction and Types.—In the early months of the World War a large number of “ E ” boats were ordered, in addition to some to the design of the Electric Boat Co. of America. The first batch of these latter, known as the “ H ” class, were built at Messrs. Vickers’ Canadian establishment at Montreal, and later, more were built by Messrs. Vickers at their home works to a slightly modified design to enable them to carry a heavier armament. These were 171 ft. 9 in. long, 15 ft. 9 in. beam, and of 510 tons submerged displacement. The speeds were 13 knots on the surface and 10 submerged. The chief feature in this class was the very powerful torpedo armament

carried in relation to their size, four 21-in. torpedo tubes being arranged in the bows and six torpedoes carried. Another interesting type of submarine was the “ J ” class, the first of which were ordered at the beginning of tg15. These were the fastest internal combustion engined boats in the world, since they obtained a speed on the surface of over 19 knots. They were of the double hull type, 275 ft. long, 23 ft. beam and 14 ft. draught, displacing on the surface 1,210 tons, and when submerged 1,820 tons. Tor surface propulsion three sets of oil engines were fitted, giving 3,600 S.H.P. The horsepower for submerged propulsion was 1,350. Four bow and two broadside tubes were fitted for firing 18-in. torpedoes, and in addition one 3-in. or 4-In. H.A. gun was mounted. As the submarine requirements during the World War of the main fleet increased, it became necessary to have a type which, whilst still retaining the ordinary functions of the submarine, could yet maintain station with the fleet when cruising. This involved a higher speed on the surface than the “ J ” class, and the necessary requirements were embodied in the design of the “K” class. These vessels had a submerged displacement of 2,560 tons and a surface displacement of 1,880 tons. They are 338 ft. long overall with a beam of 26 ft. 6 inches. The double hull principle is embodied in a modified form, the ends of the boat, which might be damaged without endangering its immediate safety, having only a single hull at the sides. The speed was 24 knots, the power being obtained from twin sets of geared steam turbines developing a S.H.P. of 10,500, the steam _ being obtained from two Yarrow boilers. The funnels were arranged to hinge down when preparing to dive, and water-tight hatches covered the funnel openings as the latter hinged back. The turbine machinery was supplemented by an 800 B.H.P. heavy oil engine, coupled up to a dynamo. This arrangement enabled the turbines to be reserved for higher speeds only, whilst the dynamo, in addition to charging the batteries, supplied the main motors with power for cruising at economical speeds. Submerged, the speed of these vessels was nine knots. The turbines are installed in a separate compartment, watertight bulkheads being provided at the forward and aft ends of the compartment, with two doors in the former, one for access to the boiler room and one to the main passageway to the fore part of the vessel, and one in the latter for access to the motor room. The boiler room contained, in addition to the boilers, feed and oil pumps, heaters and filters, and forced draft fans, the latter driven by impulse steam turbines. The hinged funnels are lowered and the opening closed simultaneously by means of an electric or hydraulic motor and similar covers for the boiler room air vents are also hydraulically operated.

665

Additional protection for the navigating officer and quartermaster was provided in the form of a deck house built over and around the ordinary conning tower. The periscope fittings were the longest fitted up to that time, being 30 ft. from eve-piece to head-piece. Another important accessory was the long-distance wireless installation, the aerials being carried on telescopic masts, enabling the commanding officer to keep in touch with his base when operating a very great distance from it. A telemotor system was installed for raising the periscopes and telescopic masts, and also for working the ballast tank vent valves, and the introduc-

tion of this hydraulic power for such operations made such large submarines a practical proposition. The armament of this class was four bow and four broadside 18-in. tubes, with a spare torpedo for each tube, and in addition three guns, two 4-In. and one 3-in., for high angle work. ‘These vessels were self-contained units of the fleet and did not rely on a parent ship as in the case of the ‘‘ E ” and other classes. Further Developments —As the War progressed it became necessary to add more submarines to the fleet, and the first of the “ L”? class, the design of which was based on the very successful “ E's,” was ordered towards the end of 1917. These combined the best qualities of the previous boats with an increased speed over that of the “FE.” class. (See Plate, fig. 1.) The circular single hull was used with the side ballast tanks as in the “ E ” class, and in the first design for these boats the stern was wedge shaped, as in the “ E ” and “ H ” boats, but a second design had an improved duck stern, like the “J” and “K” classes. The length extreme is 231 ft., the beam near the side tanks 23 ft. 6 in., and the total submerged displacement 1,070 tons, with a surface displacement of 890 tons; 12-cylinder oil engines, developing a total B.H.P. of 2,400, gave, with twinscrews, a speed of 173 knots on the surface, and the submerged speed, with a total B.II.P. of 1,600, was 103 knots. The torpedo equipment in this class consisted of four 18-in. or 21-in. tubes in the bow and two 18-in. in the broadside room, with a spare torpedo for each tube. A 4-in. gun was mounted on the superstructure just forward of the bridge and conning tower. A novel feature was the night periscope fitted, which enabled the crew to keep a more effective watch at night. The “ Af”? Type—Another outstanding type of boat was the “ M” class, which were really submarine monitors built to carry a t2-in. gun. They were of the double hulled type, 2096 ft. long, 24 Ít. 6 in. beam, and with a draught of 15 ft. 9 in. had a displacement on the surface of 1,600 tons, becoming 1,950 tons when submerged. The speeds were 16 knots and 9} knots on the surface and submerged respectively, the horsepower of the machinery being as in the “ L” class boats. In addition to the 12-in. gun a 3-in. Hf. A. gun was carried, and the torpedo armament consisted of four 18-in. bow tubes. Only three of these boats were completed, the last being delivered from Messrs. Armstrong’s, the builders, in Oct. 1920. (Sce Plate, fig. 2.) The “ R” Class.—The “ R”’ class, ordered late in 1917, were small vessels of single hull type, as the original Holland boats, built as a “submarine destroyer of submarines ”’ or “ contresubmarine type.” ‘Their outstanding feature was that, unlike all other submarines in the world, they were faster below the water than on the surface. The speed submerged was 15 knots with 1,200 H.P., and that on the surface was 9$ knots with 240 H.P., the armament consisting of six 18-in. bow tubes. These boats were intended to submerge and chase the German U boats and use theif six bow tubes by salvo in order to destroy them. Only two of these vessels were in the service in 1926. AMfinelayers.—Another type developed under the stress of

World War requirements was the minclaying submarine, and several of the “E” and “L” classes were equipped for this service. The mines were loaded into vertical tubes, which passed through the external tanks, and mechanical gear was fitted for locking the mines in position and releasing them when required. Performances.—The K26, a boat built to an improved “ K ” design, completed in 1923, undertook a world voyage in 1924.

She left Portsmouth on Jan. 2 1924 for Gibraltar and Malta, arriving on Jan. 14. After the fitting of special ventilating

666

SUBMARINE TABLE

British aoe France .

Cani pleted

Launched}

IQIO IQIO

IQII IQII

ft 162 166

1909

1909

I99

I.

Breadth

Draught

Disp a Spced Horsepower men Surf. | Sub. | Surf. | Sub. | Surf. | Sub.

in O 6

{t 20 16

in 6 4

ft II 10

in o 5

tons | tons | kts. | kts 500 | 620 | 143 | ro 402 | 496 | 12 8

IO

18

6

13

7

Length

570 | 797 | 15

Armament

|1,200 | 550 | 3 18-in. T.T. 700 | 440 | 1 18-in. T.T., 18-in. in external frames. I IX- in. Tr;

IO 6©| 1,700

18-in. in pe

Germany : Italy l . Japan United States

I91O IQII IQII I9IO

I9IO IQII IQII 1910

180 148 I34 140

O o IO o

18 13 13 L4

6 9 8 O

II 9

O 400 | 9 | 249 | 280 | 278 |

550 295 3I4 340

| | | |

I3 13 13 13

nal frames.

9 1000 | 83 | 600 | 8 600 | 9 600 |

600 | 4 17-7-in. T.T. 400 |2 18-in. T.T. 400 | 2 18-in. T.T. 400 | 4 18-in. T. T.

arrangements, she continued her passage through the Red Sea and Length 350 ft., beam 29 ft., 10 in., draught 17 ft., surface displacethence 3 to Colombo and Singapore, at which places she arrived | MEnt 2,525 tons, ‘submerged displacement 3,600 tons. The cost of ae : ; this vessel, excluding the armament, is estimated at about {950,000.

respectively on April 29 and May 14. Leaving Singapore on The original British Holland boats particulars were as follows: June to, she arrived in England at Portsmouth on Aug. 26. | Length 63 ft., beam 113 ft., surface displacement 104 tons, sub-

At the time of this cruise the K26 was the largest and heaviest | merged displacement 120 tons.

submarine in service in any navy. Since then, however, further France.—In the early stages of the submarine, France disdevelopments have been made in large submarine design, the | played greater originality, due to the fact that in that country X7 holding pride of place as the largest submarine in the | there was a strong school of thought which even then conworld in 1926, her dimensions bcing as follows:— sidered that the vessel would drive surface war vessels from the TABLE

:

HorsepoweFr

Speed | Surf. | Sub. | Surf. | Sub. tons | tons | kts

Surf.

Armament

kts

ft

ft

;

230

203

13%

800 |

940 | 163

8

2,400

1,180 | 2 bow T.T.'s, 2 stern T.T.’s, I 4-I-in. gun,

;

235

2175

12}

828 | 1,018 | 153

8

2,400

1,160 | 4 bow T.T.’s, 2 stern T.T.’s, 2 ie guns,

a_n]

UA Cruiser or UK type Class U135

Class U139

Bo

os

Class Ur42

;

;

a)

||

ee ee

eee

2753

25

143

I,I90 | 1,560 | 16

3023

293

153, | 1,950]

320

315

177s | 2,160 | 2,760 | 18

iI)Oo

7

I 3:5-in. Ta

| | ee

YO,

Class UBI1-17

Class UB18~47

.

.

Class UB48-136

.

92

10}

10

143]

7-4 | main 3,500, | 1,760 | 4 bow T.T.’s, 2 stern AUX. 450 T.T.’s, 2.55:9- in. guns] main 6,000, | 2,600 | 4 bow T. P? s, 2 stern]

8

63

i

1185

14i

I2}

275|

304

;

1814

194

I2

521

657 | 133

a

|=r

53

9

Pe

46

I 3°5-in. gun.

2,500 | 15-8]

128|

SO uaesssssssutsututuussuiÂĂ

main 3,500, | 1,940 | 4 bow T.T.’s, 2 stern] aux, 900 T.T.’s, 1 §-9-in. gun,

aux. 550

UB or Coastal Type

Crew

Sub.

ft

Ordinary U Type Class U86 . : Class UI6I

Displacemee

Length | Breadth | Draught -|

Type and Class

II.

.. 83

T.T.’s, 2 5-9-in, guns.

60

120 | 2 ay T.T.’s

(17-7-|

14

inch

5.8

282

280

|2 bow T.T.’s (19-7-| in,), I mach. gun, I 2-in. or 3°5-1n. gun.

23

a5

1,100

760 | 4 bow T.T.’s, I stern] T.F. (19-7-in.) 1 mach. gun, I 3-5-in. or 4'1-in. gun.

34

|

ma |

| er

a

ef

UC or Small Minelayer

Type

Class UCI-15 Class UC16-79

. .

. i

ITI} 170

10$ 17 4'5

I0 I2

170| 417

185 3 509 | II-I2|

5 7

90 500-600

138 | 12 mines, I mach. gun| 460 | 18 mines, 2 bow T.T.’s,|

600-650

mach. and I 3:5-in. gun. 600 į 14 mines, 2 amid. T.|

I

Class UCgo-120

:

184

18%

12

496 |

575

|11-12|

6)

stern

T.T.,

16 28

1

32

[.’s, 1 stern T.T., 1

mach. and I 4:-I-in. gun. WE or Large Minelayer [ype

Class U7I1-80

Class U117-126

:

.

;

;

186

195

26775 | 24

15;'5

132

762

846 | 106]

I,I70|1,515 | 142

8

Aa

800-900

2,400

A

800 | 36 mines, I for’dand 1} aft T.T. in superstructure, I mach. and E 3:5-in. gun.

1,150 | 42 mines, 4 bow T.T.’s, I mach., I 59 or 2 4-1-in. guns.

Deutschland Type

.

214

29%

15

1,525 | 1,885 | 10

53

800

800 | 2 bow T.T.’s, 2 5-9-in. guns,

32

SUBMARINE TABLE Launched | Length

Breadth

HI.

Displacement

Draught

Armament

Sub. —_

Great Britain

:

1923

350

o | 29

1,480 | 1,750

Bldg.

1,360

(1924-5) | 256 .

Surf. a

|

Sa

18

6 | 21

6 | 15

o | 1,130 | 1,415 | 16

Bldg.

216

6& | 16

Oo | II

6

Bldg.

282

2.)

Ba

7 | I4

I | 1,300 | 1,600 | 18

Bldg.

223

o | 18

8 | 13

9

ing re

| Sub.

oO —

|

J

ane

o | 2,780 | 3,600

Bldg.

France

Italy

10 | 17

Horsepower

Speed

590

758

5

ang he

950

cy

Reported as 6 T.T.’s and 4 4-in. guns. A

e

10

a alee and I 3:9-

10

I4

9!

10

17}

„000 | 1,800

10

6 T.T.'s (21-in.) and I 4:7-in. gun, 6 T.T.’s (21-in.) and I 4-in. gun. 6 T.T.’s. 6 T.T.’s. ne

Japan

Bldg. 1923 1923

2

M

United States

1924

34I

6 | 27

G | 15

6

164 | 2,520

21

10

6,500

1923

240

Oo | 21

5,200

9 {| 13

6

990 | 1,230

Tj

II

1,800 | 1,500

6 T.T.’s (21-in.), I 5in. and I 3-in. A.A.

!

increase in displacement and horsepower of

machinery, and this normal process of evolution continued until the beginning of the World War in 1914. Germany.—The next most important naval Power during the World War was Germany, who made her supreme effort on the sea with the submarine. There were at least séven distinct types laid down during the War period by the Germans, each type being divided into various classes. he modifications to the parent type producing these classes were brought about by War

experience.

guns, |5 T.T.’s (21-in.) and I 4-10. gun.

For further information see BATTLESHIP; NAVY, ete. seas. In roto, the “ Gifford,” the last of the famous “f Pluviose ”’ type of submersible, was launched, the “ Pluviose ” having been launched in 1907. There were in all 34 boats of this class built, the earlier vessels being steam propelled and the later by Diesel engines. This type was designed by M. Laubeuf and was of particular interest, since the original German U-boats were copied from the Laubeuf design and clearly showed their parentage even in their latest stage of development. The development reached as regards vessels launched or completed about this time is shown in Table I. Irom this stage onwards the development of the vessels of all nations followed similar lines to that of the British boats already described, the desire for heavier armaments, greater endurance and improved seagoing powers leading to larger dimensions with

the concomitant

gun.

10a T.’s and 1 3:9-

in. gun. 1,250 | 1,000 | 7 T.T.’s and 1 3-9-in. ee

9

1,500 | 2,000 | 20 1,050 | 1,500 rS 1,000 a

ee

The types were as follows:—

1. The ordinary U-boat, 2. the UA cruiser or UK type,3. the UB or coastal type, 4. the U C or small minelayer type, 5. a UE or ete minclayer type, 6. the UF or Flanders coast defence type, and, the converted Deutschland type.

The particulars of these various types and the subdivision into classes are shown in Table LI.

Of the UF or Flanders coast defence tvpe about 80 were ordered, but none were ever completed, and it is possible that the bottling up of Zeebruge and other ports by the British navy rendered the boats useless for their intended purpose and caused their construction to be stopped. They were generally similar in design to the medium UB type shown in the preceding table. The boats of the Deutschland type are of especial interest, since they were originally designed as submarine mercantile vessels. Further details of these German submarines are given in a paper read by Mr. A. W. Johns before the Institution of Naval Architects, London, in March 1920, and of the profile and sectional views of types of U-boats (see figs. ra and tb) are reproduced by permission from that paper. Washingt arines was considered, together with that of other war vessels, by the Washington Conference in 1922, and it was proposed on behalf of Great Britain that submarines should be abolished by all

nations. Lord Lee, the then First Lord of the Admiralty, contended that the submarine could not be regarded as a defensive weapon because the War had shown it was unable to disturb large groups of naval units, it was impotent against a big naval attack, could not stop the transport of large masses of troops and, finally, was suitable only as a weapon of offence against merchantmen. Almost all the other Powers, however, were in favour of the retention of the submarine and the proposal was consequently not adopted. After the Conference, therefore, it was only natural that the nations should turn again to the consideration of submarine construction, and the trend of design (see Plate, fig. 4) is shown

by Table ILL. of the vessels launched or laid down since 1923,

Main Motor Room

|| #4 Hh

Aux. Engine Room

Quick Diving Tank >

Í

eA i

f

ng

l

= =T Grricers’ Quarters

-

;

' Battery

Fic. 1.—Profile and part-sectional views of U-boats:

Anti RollingTank

Psat ge ,

a. Ur22 (UE, large mine-layer).

a en

b. U 139 (UA or cruiser type).

SUBMARINE

668

BrstrioGRAPHY.—G. Blanchon, Les sous-marins et la guerre actuelle (1915); F. Schulze, Unsere Unterseeboote (1915); E. Lassen, Handels

U-boat Deutschland fahrt nach America (1916); P. Koenig, The Voyage of the Deutschland (1917); W. E. Dommett, Submarine Vessels Including Mines, Torpedoes, ete. (1918); S. Lake, The Submarine in War and Peace; Its Developments and Its Possibilities (1918); F. Hochstetter, Rätsel der U-boats wirkung (1918); R. H. S. Bacon, The Dover Patrol (1919); A. Gayer, Die Deutschen U-boote in threr Kriegführung (1920); C. W. D. Fife, Submarine Warfare of To-day (1920); J. S. Corbett, Naval Operations, vol. 1-3 (1921, ete.); E. H. W. Tennyson D’Eyncourt, Notes on Sonte Proposals for Protecting Merchant Ships Against Submarines (1921); W. B. Parsons, Robert Fulton and the Submarine (1922); A. M. Laubeuf and H. Stroh, Sous-marins,

torpilles et mines (1923); F. T. Cable, The Birth and Development of the American Submarine (1924). (E. T. D'E.)

SUBMARINE

CAMPAIGNS.—The

submarine

was

a new

weapon of as yet unknown capabilities in Aug. 1914 when the World War broke out. The British had some 56 submarines of varying ages, the 18 newest boats of the D and E classes being grouped in the 7th Flotilla and based on Harwich. In charge

of the whole submarine service was Commodore Roger Keyes who also took an active part in their operations. The 7th Flotilla was used throughout the War mainly in keeping a more or less continuous watch on the mouths of the German rivers and in other places where German warships might be expected. The A and B classes were fit only for coast defence. The C class which could keep the sea for a few days guarded the Forth, the Thames and the Straits of Dover. Germany, in Aug. 1914, had 28 submarines of which the first batch, Ur to Ur8, had an unsatisfactory type of engine and could be relied on only for short voyages or for guard duties near home. Uio to U28 were able to make longer journeys, but to what extent was as yet unknown elther to Germany or to England. I. THE OPENING PHASE

Both belligerents, at the outset, had the same ideas as to the method of employment of a submarine in War; it was to be used for attacking warships. It carried no guns since it could not use them without coming. to the surface to fire; and its only armament consisted of torpedoes to be discharged when the boat was submerged. Campaign of tor4.—It was expected by the German Naval Authorities that, on the declaration of War, the British Navy would immediately appear in Heligoland Bight to make an attack in force; the submarines were therefore sent to defence stations to meet the impending attack. When, after two days, no British ships appeared, the German command determined to attempt to locate them and 10 U-boats proceeded to the North Sea on Aug. 6, sweeping in line abreast. This was the first time so many submarines had acted as a squadron, and much was hoped from the operation; but only 8 boats came back, and they had little to report. One boat, Urs, had seen some of our cruisers, only to be cut in half by the “ Birmingham.” Of the fate of the other lost boat, Ur3, nothing definite is known. The reconnaissance had proved too costly; a squadronal attack by submarines was not repeated, and thenceforth the U-boats operated singly. Further attempts were made throughout Aug. to find the British main flect; when these also failed, the German command definitely decided to abandon submarine operations against the Grand Fleet, and use the boats in attacking smaller men-of-war than capital ships. The first submarine success of the War was achieved by Hersing, who in Uar on Sept. 5 sank the light cruiser “ Pathfinder ” off St. Abbs Elead. A week later Horton in Eo sank the light cruiser “ Hela” jn Heligoland Bight, with the result that the High Sea Fleet abandoned the Bight as an exercising ground. The most resounding event of the campaign of 1914 was the sinking of the “ Aboukir,” ‘ Hogue ” and ‘ Cressy ” with over 1,200 men on Sept. 22 by Weddigen in Uo. Though the feat was an easy one, for the ships conveniently stopped to lower boats and waited to be torpedoed, its effect was to raise the submarine in the estimation of both belligerents from a difficult and dangerous toy to a formidable weapon. Imaginative lookouts saw submarines everywhere and after a credible report that periscopes had been

CAMPAIGNS seen in Scapa Flow, the Grand Fleet withdrew from there on Oct. 16 till the Flow could be made secure by submarine-proof net-booms. In actual fact, no U-boat had yet been near Scapa. It was in southern waters, in an attempt to hamper the transport of our troops to France, that the German effort had been directed. An attack on the Dover patrol on Sept. 27 decided the Admiralty to prevent entrance into the Straits of Dover by a minefield. This was laid early on Oct. 3, the public announcement of its limits being made to the press the evening before. Possibly the Germans regarded the minefield as existing only on paper; their submarines continued to enter the Channel by the Straits. U2o

left on Oct. to to attack the large convoy of Canadian troops expected at Southampton. She was sighted and hunted by the Dover Patrol, and returned to Germany by the northabout route, being thus the first submarine to circumnavigate the British Isles. Ury, returning from a cruise, stopped the British merchant ship *“ Glitra ” off Stavanger and sank her. This was the first merchant ship to be sunk by a submarine. Before the year ended Wegener in U27 sank a seaplane carrier off the Belgian coast and Forstmann in Ur2 penetrated into the Downs and torpedoed the guardship “ Niger ” in the middle of all the shipping congregated there. Of our own submarines E3 was torpedoed by Wegener off the Ems; the other E-boats had had little success though Horton succeeded in sinking a German destroyer on Oct. 6. A bold attempt was made by 5 U-boats to locate the Grand Fleet; one of them on Oct. 24 entered Scapa Flow, once more the Grand Fleet base, but at the time the battle fleet happened to be out exercising. One of these 5 U-boats, U18, was hunted by small craft till she crashed on to the Orkney rocks and sank. Once more the submarines returned without precise information of our capital ships, and the stream of transports passing to France became as before the chief objective. Schneider in U24 torpedoed a crowded steamer off Cape Gris Nez, assuming that the passengers were soldiers, but they were Belgian refugees, women and children, and the crime gave a shock to the civilised world. Hersing in U21 destroyed two vessels bound for Havre, though neither was carrying any goods consigned to military authorities. The leisurely nature of his proceedings in stopping the vessels gave plausibility to the current idea that a merchant ship with hidden guns would have a good chance of destroying a submarine; and on Nov. 26 the Admiralty gave orders for onc to be so fitted, the railway steamer “ Victoria,” which left for her first trip three days later. She was the first of the long and honourable line of the so-called “ Q ”

ships. Hersing’s operations off Havre led to the institution of two from fast New

measures which rendered the troops for France more safe; that time on they were allowed to cross only at night in ships and these were always escorted by destroyers. On Year’s Day the old battleship “ Formidable ” was sunk

by Schneider. This first campaign extended to the end of Jan. rors. At the end of that month Hersing appeared off Barrowin-Furness, fired a few shots at an airship shed after having been

watched for half an hour by the battery commander, and then proceeded to Liverpool Bar where he sank by bombs three small steamers. Schwieger in U20 proceeded to the Channel with orders to sink without warning large vessels steering for French ports; he carried out these instructions so thoroughly that three ships approaching Havre diswppeared, one, the “ Onole,” with no survivor. Schwieger became later one of the most notorious exponents of ruthlcss submarining. So far the campaign had been against normal objects of warfare—warships, transports, military works. But its results were insufMcient to warrant the supposition that by submarines and minor weapons could Germany ever succeed in reducing the British Navy to an equality with her own. After considerable debate and hesitation she decided to use her submarines against a new objective.

il. THE ATTACK ON COMMERCE Submarine Blockade Declared.—Early in Jan. Admiral von Pohl, Chief of the German Naval Staff, proposed that submarines

SUBMARINE should be used as the agents in a commerce blockade of the

CAMPAIGNS

669

urged the favourable situation of Zeebrugge as a base for submarine operations in the Channel, but had to be content with occasional visits of U-boats, until the special types of small UBand UC-boats should be ready. One objection was that Zeebrugge was specially liable to air attack; U14, ready to start for attack on the transports, was damaged by aeroplane bombs and on Feb. 14 returned to Germany for repairs. Feb. 4 by a wider statement that after Feb. 18 enemy vessels Submarines continued to pass Dover Strait and sink vessels in near the British Isles or in the English Channel would be dethe Channel and on the west coast. On March 4 the net and stroyed, and that neutral ships ran grave risks of being treated destroyer patrols succeeded in sinking U8, whose crew surrenin the same way, since British ships frequently wore neutral dered. The Admiralty refused to accept as lawful the German ensigns as a ruse. Scandinavian vessels were advised to go round method of sinking ships without warning and detained these men for trial, a measure that produced such violent reprisals in Gerthe Shetlands. Anti-submarine Measures, Feb. 1915.—Great Britain used the - many that they were eventually treated as ordinary prisoners of fortnight’s respite in preparations to meet the attack. To dewar. Wedcdigen in Uzg after sinking 6 vessels, one a defensively armed ship, was himself rammed on March 14 by the battleship stroy the German submarines in their own bases was realised as “ Dreadnought ” and drowned with all his crew. Four days impossible without large armies, and these the military authoriearlier Ur2 was rammed by the destroyer “ Ariel’ and surties preferred to use on other fields. Beyond the laying of mines rendered. A third loss at this time caused special uneasiness in in German waters, anti-submarine war was therefore limited to defensive measures. Fifty coasting vessels were provided each Germany. U37, a new boat, operating in the Channel, disappeared without a trace. Other boats had reported nets, mines with a gun aft. There were already a number of trawlers armed and various obstructions in the Straits; and it seemed too danand working as auxiliaries to the east coast destroyer patrol; gcrous to allow the scanty force of U-boats to run unnecessary this “ auxiliary patrol’ was now increased to over 500 vessels risks. On April ro, although the Army Command was pressing and distributed round the coast to operate from various bases. for more intensive attack on the transports of the B.E.F., High Trawlers and destroyers in many cases were already fitted to Sea Fleet submarines were ordered to make their passage to and tow an explosive charge with which to attack a submerged subfrom the Channel only by the north of Scotland. Thus the Dover marine; but what was felt to be the most hopeful weapon was net had proved effective; but by the irony of fate, it was on that the “indicator ” net, of 6-ft. mesh in large detachable sections very date that Admiral Hood hauled down his flag at Dover to each trailing a buoy which should flame at night. These nets be superseded by Admiral Bacon. Henceforward U-boats found were shot from drifters, each of which could manage a mile of it so difficult to approach the transports route that they ceased them. Arrangements were made for indicator net lines to be to enter deep into the Channel. maintained in various places, particularly in the North Channel The U B-boats —Attack in that area was left to the little between Ireland and Scotland, across the southern exit of the UB-boats. The first 18 of this class built specially to work from Irish Sea, and, most urgent of all, across the Straits of Dover. Flanders, had a surface speed of only 63 knots and had as their So important was this last that Rear-Admiral Hood, commandarmament at first merely two torpedoes and a few rifles. Such ing at Dover, was instructed that the barring of the Straits vessels could manifestly opcrate only by torpedoing ships withwas his principal duty. 3 out revealing themselves. The first completed was UB1o, but the Campaign in Home Waters, 1915.--To carry out the ambitious first success fell to UB4 which on April 10 torpedoed the Belgian project of stopping the imports of Great Britain, Germany had relief ship “ Harpalyce.” On the 14th the Dutch “ Katwyk ” only 18 submarines capable of long voyages, the highest numwas torpedoed without warning by one of these UB-boats near bered boat being U35. But over 160 of various types were buildthe North Hinder light vessel. Although nets were moored off ing or on order. The first boat to proceed for the new campaign the Belgian coast and the patrols were numerous and active, was U16 (Hansen), which left Germany on Feb. 9 for the Chanthese feeble little UB boats fought the tide rips and navigated nel with orders that up to Feb. 15 only ships about to enter amongst the sand banks of the east coast sinking ships and raidFrench ports were to be destroyed without warning; after that ing the fishing fleets. On June 21, UB6 passed through the Dover he should sink any vessel which might seem to be Bnitish, rebarrage and reconnoitred Boulogne. Thenceforward the Dover gardiess of the ensign she wore. On the way to Dover Strait, patrol could not keep them out. Hansen gave chase to the steamer “ Laertes” (Capt. W. H. The UC-hoats —¥ landers was also a base for submarine minePropert), who, though his vessel was unarmed, refused to surlayers, known as the UC class, which instead of torpedo tubes render in spite of machine-gun fire, and eventually tired out his carried mine tubes containing mines. The UC-boats, no faster pursuer. In the Channel, Hansen torpedoed a British collier than the UB’s and totally unarmed, were intended only as secret without warning, sank a French collier by bombs after surrender, minelayers. Their method was to creep at night to some light and returning on the roth torpedoed without showing himself vessel or buoy and lay their mines close to it. The first to reach the Norwegian tanker “ Belridge,”’ the first neutral to feel the Flanders was UC31 which on May 2ọ started for her maiden sting of Germany’s new campaign. His place on the transport cruise to mine the South Goodwin. She fouled an indicator net route to France was to be taken by U6, but that boat was rammed and was chased till she unknowingly entered a British minefield. off Beachy Head by the steamer “‘ Thordis ” (Capt. J. W. Bell), Escaping the double peril of net and mine she proceeded to her and had to return for repairs. objective, and laid her field. On her second trip she was caught in During the first week of the campaign, Feb. 18 to 25, U30 another net, from which, however, she disentangled herself withsank two vessels off Liverpool and U8 torpedoed without warnout provoking a hunt. The mines laid by the UC-boats being ing 5 off Beachy Head. Observing that such landmarks as this always on the thickly frequented East and South coast routes were places where shipping naturally converged the Admiralty claimed many victims, regardless of nationality. An account of now insisted that ships should avoid all prominent headlands the Admiralty’s method of dealing with the UC mines belongs and keep in mid-channel; and in the hope of rendering Dover more to Mine-sweeping (q.v.). impassable obtained on March 1 Treasury sanction for the Attack in the Western Approaches.—After April 10 U-boats building of a fixed boom of nets from Folkestone to Gris Nez. operated only in the North Sea and in the Western Approaches. This proved a formidable and indeed hopeless undertaking; and In the North Sea the attack was chiefly on shipping of the Scanthroughout this campaign the destroyer patrols and the drifting dinavian Powers, especially early in May when three of the latest nets were the only obstacles to the passage of submarines. submarines sank between them half a dozen Danish, Norwegian The Base at Zeebrugge —U8 had come from Zeebrugge. As and Swedish steamers, besides fishing vessels. Germany’s plan soon as the Germans captured the Belgian coast they estabwas to keep three U-boats at work in the Western Approaches, lished a Naval Corps there under an Admiral. He repeatedly British Isles. At first the Kaiser refused to sanction the measure, but he consented after the fight on the Dogger Bank on Jan. 24 had demonstrated the danger of operations by large ships. On Feb. 2 appeared a note warning neutral shipping to avoid the Channel, where German submarines would attack vessels bound for France, regardless of the flag carned. This was followed on

7O

SUBMARINE CAMPAIGNS

a scheme which employed 9 boats, 3 working, 3 on passage, 3 resting. Only the best boats could reach Southern Ireland, where

they found easy prey in the open waters between Ireland and Ushant. It was no part of the German intention to exempt passenger vessels from attack; in their announcement of Feb. 4 such had been specifically mentioned as liable to danger, and several large liners were sunk. The liner “‘ Falaba ” was torpedoed, after five minutes warning, by U28, 57 passengers being drowned; and on May 7 Schwieger in U2o torpedoed the “ Lusitania ” without any warning and drowned 1,198 men, women and children. The chorus of praise which in Germany greeted this masterpiece of the submarine war had soon to be modulated into a minor key, for among the murdered were citizens of the United States, whose President now protested against Germany’s methods. Two American steamers, the “ Gulfight ” and “ Nebraskan ” were torpedoed without warning in May; but as they both reached port, the irritation roused in the United States by their cases was swamped by the rising tide of anger over the “ Lusitania.” So powerful was the feeling that the German political authorities gave way, and on June 5 issued orders that large passenger ships were to be spared unless they made deliberate attempts to injure submarines, a reservation that was to have important consequences. On Aug. r9 Schneider met the White Star liner “ Arabic ” and assuming that she intended to ram him torpedoed her without warning with the loss of 44 lives. American indignation flamed up anew. To placate it orders went out on Aug. 30 that no liners were to be sunk without due regard to the safety of passengers. This was followed on Sept. 20 by the total suspension of submarine warfare on the west coast and in the Channel, in effect, the conclusion of the first submarine campaign in Home Waters. In the course of its progress the decoy ship idea had been developed in three forms—a small tramp steamer with conccaled armament, a trawler apparently fishing but really towing a submarine and a sailing smack with a hidden gun. None of these types of vessel was worth a torpedo, and the hope was that the enemy would come close either to fire guns or to send a party on board with bombs. The first success fell to the ‘‘ Prince Charles ”’ (Lt. Mark-Wardlaw), outwardly a slovenly collier, which on July 24 destroyed U36 west of the Orkneys. On the day the “ Arabic ” was torpedoed, another decoy ship, the “ Baralong,”’ sank U27;a month later she sank Uyr. By the towed submarine decoy U4o was torpedoed on June 23 and U23 on July 20. The armed sailing smack “ Inverlyon ’’ (Gunner E. M. Jehan, R.N.) sank UB4 on Aug. 15. The first submarine campaign against merchant ships resulted in the loss of 166 British steamers and 168 British fishing vessels, the latter a class which by the Hague Convention should have been spared. France, Russia and Belgium had lost 34 ships between them. But the attack was not only on belligerents; it was directed against all the nations of the world. Of the neutrals, Norway, having the largest mercantile marine, had suffered most; 51 Norwegian ships had been sunk by submarines alone. Sweden and Denmark each lost 15, Holland and Spain 2 each. Several of these neutral vessels were torpedoed by UB-boats at night without warning. These losses are exclusive of ships which struck mines; Holland had suffered specially by these. Spring Campaign of r916.—During the winter the naval authorities in Germany managed to wring from the political heads permission to torpedo defensively armed vessels without warning, though passenger ships were still to be spared; and in Feb. 1916 the attack began again, many more submarines both of the U and UB classes being now ready. As before, the Southwest approach was its main theatre. In the former campaign U-boats had quickly taken advantage of the Admiralty’s orders that ships were to keep away from land and thus incidentally away from protection, since the auxiliary patrol was not then effective more than 40 m. from shore. But now, a new principle was adopted. As soon as a submarine was known to be present in a certain area, all outbound shipping which would pass that area was held in port until it was thought the enemy had gone away, and incoming

vessels were directed by wireless to hug the shore where the patrols were thickest. In the southern part of the North Sea the UB-boats secured some neutral victims, notably the large Dutch liner “ Tubantia,” torpedoed without warning on March 16. They also torpedoed at night several vessels at anchor off British and Trench ports. Particularly was this the case with Havre, where store ships had frequently to wait for hours before they could be admitted to the congested harbour. As a deterrent to submarine action there the Admiralty sent over a detachment of drifters, whose nets, now studded with mines, succeeded in accounting for UB26 on April 5. A fortnight earlier the Qship “ Farnborough’? (Comm. Gordon Campbell) destroyed U68, off the southwest corner of Ireland. On March 24 Pustkuchen in UB2g torpedoed the French packet “ Sussex,” crowded with passengers for Dieppe. After the “ Lusitania” correspondence, Germany had promised President Wilson not to molest passenger ships of any nationality and not to torpedo without warning any unarmed vessel. The promise had been disregarded from the beginning; indeed,

the first vessel attacked in this second campaign, the ‘‘ Arbonne,” had been torpedoed without warning and without survivor by UB2

on Feb. 21; but

“Sussex”

incident.

the President

first took notice

of the

Thoroughly roused, he sent what

was

practically an ultimatum demanding the immediate abandonment of Germany’s “present methods of submarine warfare against passenger and freight-carrying vessels.” The German Govt. surrendered and at the end of April stopped this second campaign.

Between the beginning of Feb. and the end of this spring campaign submarines destroyed 58 British mercantile and fishing vessels and 18 Norwegians; France lost 3 steamers, and several other nations one or two apiece. Autumn Campaign of 1916.—Throughout the summer of 1916 the U-boats with Adml. Scheer were employed with the fleet, and merchant ships in Home Waters were left alone. In July, however, the Flanders submarines made a serious raid on North Sea fishing vessels, sinking 47 between July 4 and Aug. 6, among them the little “ Mary Ann ” of 5 tons, the smallest vessel sunk by a submarine. The UB-boats sank a few other vessels, including the “ Calypso,” torpedoed without warning on July to, with a loss of 30 lives. In Sept. began a continuous attack on the vessels carrying munitions to Russia; between Sept. 20 and Oct. 16 a total of 13 Norwegian, 4 Russian and 3 British ships were sunk in the Arctic Ocean. In response, four Q-ships and 3 British submarines were sent to operate on the Murman coast but achieved no success, though two German submarines were destroyed by Russian patrols. In the summer of 1916 the political situation of the Allics was,

perhaps, at its lowest ebb throughout the War. Germany’s prompt surrender to President Wilson’s ultimatum at the end of April diminished the tension across the Atlantic, whereas the Allied blockade was now so effective that it drew from the United States a strong protest. Encouraged, doubtless, by this reversal of the situation Germany decided to renew submarine warfare on commerce, theoretically in accordance with prize law. The attack was at first mainly against Scandinavian shipping by which iron ore amongst other things was brought across the North Sea and coal carried to France and Italy. In Sept. and Oct. Norway lost 5°% of her mercantile marine. In the English Channel the UB-boats, now armed with guns of some size, and in the western approaches the large U-boats, did much damage; as a rule they took care to give some warning except in the case of defensively armed vessels, though the destruction of 3 vessels without warning at the end of Oct. caused the drowning of 85 non-combatant seamen. The rate of sinking increased so much that Adml. Jellicoe took the unusual step of writing direct to the Prime Minister drawing his attention to the fact that the loss of shipping alone might soon cause the Allies to conclude peace. As a result of the conference which followed he was appointed First

Sea Lord to carry into effect the various proposals he made for dealing with submarines. By that time the tension between the United States and Germany had been increased by the appearance

SUBMARINE of Us3, Lt.-Comm. Rose, off Nantucket on Oct. 7. There within sight of land Lt.-Comm. Rose sank 5 ships, 3 British, 1 Dutch and t Norwegian. His voyage out and back occupied 42 days. No other commerce-destroying submarine visited America in 1916; perhaps the emotions stirred by Rose were not quite what was intended. In face of the severe attack on their ships, Norwegian owners were Inclined to keep the remainder in port; and since British munition works and the continuance of the War by France depended on the cargoes they carried, the position was serious. Attempts were made to maintain a patrolled lane across the North Sea, but between Sept. 1916 and Jan. 1917 inclusive, 170 Norwegian, 29 Swedish and 5o Danish ships were destroyed by German submarines, as against 86 British sunk in Home Waters in the same period. One of the problems to be solved was to find some efficient method of damaging a submarine when it was submerged. The explosive charge towed by a patrol vessel soon proved to be nearly useless, since it could easily be avoided; and experiments were made with bombs which could be dropped or thrown overboard. By the middle of ro16 had been evolved the “ depth charge,” a large bomb which exploded at either 40 or 80 ft. below the surface, according as set. Depth charges were heavy things and had to be heaved over on to the submarine; they could, therefore, be used only at very close quarters. Much was hoped from them; but it was soon apparent that unless the bomb exploded within 30 ft. or so of the submarine, it did not damage it sufficiently to bring the boat to the surface cither on account of the dislocation of its machinery or to allow the crew to escape. It was not till the following year that the depth charge, fired from a sort of howitzer, became a really formidable weapon in the hands of the antisubmarine forces, which in the autumn campaign had mainly to rely on the ram, the towed charge, the net, the mine and the gun. These effected the destruction of only three or four U-boats between Sept. 1915 and Jan. 1917. At the end of Nov. 1916 a success fell to the Q-ship “‘ Penshurst ” under Comm., F. H. Grenfell, R.N., which gives an excellent illustration of the work of a decoy ship. The “ Penshurst ” had been cruising for a year and never met a submarine till Nov. 29 1916, when she was fired on by one near the Lizard. The circumstances of light and range were unfavourable to the “ Penshurst ’’ and she had to reveal her armament without making sure of her quarry, which submerged and escaped. Realising that the character of his ship was now revealed, and that no submarine would approach him on the surface, Grenfell returned to harbour. In the course of the night he had his ship painted in a different way and altered the appearance of her masts, so that when the “ Penshurst ” sailed next morning the submarine commander would never suspect her of being the vessel which had opened fire on him from hidden guns. Before long, the “‘ Penshurst ” took in a wireless signal reporting a submarine had been sighted near Guernsey. Grenfell steered in that direction and soon sighted the enemy. But just then a seaplane ilew over and dropped a bomb near the submarine, making it submerge. The “ Penshurst ” carried depth charges as well as guns and Grenfell was about to make arrangements for dropping these when the submarine came to the surface and began to shell the “ Penshurst.” This was Grenfell’s opportunity. He stopped his ship; sent away in boats all his crew but the gunners; and when the submarine approached to finish off the apparently abandoned ‘“ Penshurst ” he sank her instead with his concealed guns. Thus UBro met her end. Six weeks later, Grenfell in the “ Penshurst ” destroyed UB37, after having silently endured a gunfire which killed some of his gun’s crew and wrecked his depth-charge dropping gear. The Mediterranean to Jan. 1917.—In the Mediterranean, as in the North Sea, submarine operations were at first limited to military objectives, though they soon degenerated into commerce warfare. Austria had a dozen or more submarines which she used against warships, the first to suffer being the French “ Léon Gambetta,” flagship of the Adriatic patrol, sunk on April 27 1915, With the loss of 570 lives. In June the British light

CAMPAIGNS

671

cruiser ‘ Dublin ” was torpedoed but did not sink. When Italy joined the Allies on May 23 the Italian Navy supplied targets for Austrian submarines and before the end of July two Italian surface men-of-war and an Italian submarine had been sunk by the Austrian U-boats. The result was that the heavy ships of the Italian Navy became almost entirely retained in port. A more important object for submarine attack was provided by the British and French squadrons operating in 191g for the capture of the Gallipoli peninsula. At the end of April one of the most efficient German submarine commanders, Hersing in U2r, left Germany for Constantinople, a journey of unprecedented length. Arrangements were made to supply him with oil halfway; but when he met his supply steamer he found that she had brought the wrong kind of oil and he decided to go on without it. He gave up the idea of making Constantinople and proceeded instead to Cattaro in the Adriatic, reaching it on May 13 with only half a ton of oil left. A week later he received orders to attack the ships bombarding at the Dardanelles. Before the end of May 1015 he sank the battleships ‘ Triumph ” and “ Majestic ” and entered Constantinople, having dealt the distrusted Dardanelles enterprise a wound from which it never recovered. Germany also sent by train UB- and UC-boats in sections to be erected at Pola; by the autumn U33, U34, U35, U38 and U39, the latest and best U-boats, had arrived at Cattaro, bringing up the German submarine force in the Mediterranean to 5 large U-boats, 4 UB-boats and 4UC-boats. Three of the last class worked from Constantinople, the remainder from the Adriatic against merchant vessels. In Nov. Arnauld de la Perri¢re was appointed to U35 and, in spite of his French name, proved himself one of the most redoubtable German champions in the war against merchant vessels. In the Mediterranean the conditions were greatly in favour of the U-boat; the clear air and smooth seas gave the man at the periscope a better chance than his colleague in home waters, peering through the mists and storms of the North Sea and Atlantic; moreover, the immense distance between Gibraltar and Malta, and between Malta and Suez, preclucled the possibility of efficient patrol at any but a few points. All the submarine commander had to do was to go out on to the steamer track and pick off the ships one by one as they came up to him. If they were armed he could torpedo them without revealing himself; if unarmed they could be shelled into surrender. The only dangers he could not avoid were the very rare meetings with Q-ships and the passage of the net barrage maintained after Sept. 1g15 by British drifters across the Otranto Straits in the hope of stopping approach to the submarine bases in Austrian waters. The protest of President Wilson had no effect in the Mediterranean and the sinking of merchant vessels continued without those interruptions which cut the Hlome Waters campaign into such welldefined sections. When the President was promised that submarines would operate in accordance with their own prize law a month or two elasped before there was any resumption in the Mediterranean of the practice of torpedoing at sight. But in Nov. 1915 the ‘‘ Californian,” ‘ Treneglos,” ‘‘ Orange Prince ” and “‘ Hallamshire’”’; in Dec. rots the “ Persia” and “ Clan MacFarlane’’; and in Jan. 1916 the “ Glengyle”’ were all torpedoed without warning. All were large ships, the “ Persia ” being a P. & O. liner full of passengers; the loss of life in her case Was 334. For a few months in the autumn of 1915, when it seemed possible that the Turks would attack Egypt, the German submarines were employed in conveying war material to the restless tribes to the westward of the Egyptian border. On one of these trips Uz5 sank the patrolling British armed merchant cruiser “Tara,” whose crew were driven by Senussi into the interior, where they subsisted on snails and such meagre provisions as their captors consented to dole out until they were rescued by the Duke of Westminster’s armoured cars. After the evacuation of Gallipoli peninsula, the German submarines confined themselves to attack on merchant ships. In the 18 months from Hersing’s arrival to the end of Jan. 1917, a total of 200 British, 189 Italian

and 52 French ships were destroyed in the Mediterranean.

672

SUBMARINE

During this period seven Austrian submarines had been destroyed, three by Italian men-of-war, one caught in the Otranto barrage, three others by unknown circumstances. Several of the German UB- and UC-boats were lost from various causes; but

none were destroyed by British or Allied warships. The Q-ship “ Margit ” had a chance of opening fire on a submarine in Jan. 1916, but did not succeed in sinking it. On the whole, the Mediterranean was a safer field of operation for submarines than home waters. Operations of British Submarines in the Baltic—British submarines had no such easy work as the German U-boats. Germany sent no troops abroad, and her imports reached her from contiguous countries by land or in short passages across the Baltic. In that sea several British submarines operated. The first was Er (Lt.-Comm. N. F. Lawrence) which passed through the Sound into the Baltic on Oct. 17 1914. She fired two torpedoes at, but missed, a German cruiser near the entrance to Niel Bay and seriously disturbed what had been thought the security of that sea.

Eo (Lt.-Comm. Max Horton) arrived in the Baltic two days later. After a few days in harbour the two E-boats commenced operations against the German feet and though they did not succeed in sinking any ships, the knowledge of their presence brought to an end the safety with which German forces had exercised in the Western Baltic. The ice of the Baltic winter soon kept the British submarines in harbour to wait for the spring. In May Max Horton torpedoed a German cruiser; In June, a destroyer and collier and in July an old cruiser. The Germans by then were making a strenuous effort to capture Riga. To assist in the defence the Admiralty despatched E8 and Er3 in August. The latter, through a breakdown of her compass ran ashore in Danish territory on Aug. 19, and was allowed by the Danes 24 hours to endeavour to refloat. Before this interval elapsed two German destroyers appeared and opened fire on her and on the seamen swimming from her towards the Danish shore, causing the death of 15 of them. This outrage on

humanity and Danish sovereignty was possibly the outcome of German irritation at the interference with their plans due to the activity of our submarines; on that same day Er torpedoed the battle-cruiser ‘‘ Moltke ” off the Gulf of Riga and sent her back to port for repairs. Two days later the Germans abandoned their attack on Riga. In the autumn our submarines were used chietly in stopping the passage of iron ore from Sweden to Germany. Between Oct. 11 and 23 they sank 14 large German steamers loaded with ore and so effective were their operations that 37 other steamers ready to sail were held up in Swedish ports till a system of convey could be organised. In Nov. the old cruiser

“ Prinz Adalbert ” was sunk by E8 and in Dec. a light cruiser and a torpedo-boat were destroyed. During that autumn and winter some 20 German steamers aggregating 45,000 tons were sunk or seriously damaged by our submarines, producing a sort of paralysis in the transport of iron ore to Germany. By July 1916 there were 8 British submarines in the Baltic, 4 of the E class and 4 of the C class; Commander Cromie of E1g took command of this Baltic flotilla, which was put under the direct orders of the Russian Commander-in-Chief. Throughout 1916 and 1917 the boats were used by him in an interminable serics of reconnaissances; they had no opportunity of interfering with the iron-ore trafiic and little chance of attacking warships, since the essence of reconnaissance is that the presence of the watcher should be unsuspected. The outbreak of the revolution in Russia still further limited their activities. In Nov. 1917 C32 was so badly damaged in an encounter with German patrols that it was decided to destroy her and send the crew home. Finally, on April 3 1918, news having been received that the Germans were advancing on the submarine base at Helsingfors, the whole flotilla went out to sea through the ice and was blown up by its officers. ‘hus perished Ex, 8, 9 and 19 and C26, 27 and 35. Comm. Cromie never returned to England; he was killed by Bolsheviks on the steps of the British Embassy. British Submarines at the Dardanelles —The operations at the Dardanelles gave opportunities for some remarkable exploits by the British submarines attached to the Eastern Mediterranean

CAMPAIGNS Squadron. Their ability to interfere with Turkish transport to the Gallipoli peninsula was fully realised; but the passage of the Dardanelles at first seemed impracticable. The Straits are 27 m. long and for 34 of these miles they are only 1 m. wide; there, in the Narrows, it was known that anti-submarine nets, booms and minefields had been placed; but the nets and booms, it was thought, might be passed by specially fitted submarines. Lt. N. D. Holbrook, in Brr, was the first to try. He successfully negotiated the passage of the mincficids and on Dec. ri 1914 torpedoed a Turkish cruiser, the “ Messudiech.”’ On the return journey his compass became unserviceable, and to the already great enough hazards of the mines and the pursuit was added the difficulty of navigating an unfamiliar channel without a compass. Surviving all these perils he returned and was awarded the Victoria Cross. No further attempt was made till the spring of rots. In April, Ers (Lt.-Comm. T. S. Brodie) opened the campaign, but unfortunately grounded some ro m. up the Straits and was Jost. Strenuous efforts were made by other submarines, destroyers and even battleships to destroy the hull of Ers so that the Turks could not use her; but the activity of the defence foiled them all. It was left to one of a pair of picket boats which crept up the Straits on a pitch black night to find and

torpedo the wreck of Er5. The ill-luck of Lt.-Comm. Brodie did not deter his colleagues, British and French, from following. Er4 (Lt.-Comm. E. C. Boyle) sank three Turkish ships, including a transport with 6,000 troops aboard; but AE2, a submarine of the Australian Navy, was sunk by gunfire on April 30. In May the French submarine

“ Joule ” struck a mine and was lost in her first attempt at the passage. Err (Lt.-Comm. M. E. Nasmith) returning from a successful voyage found a mine sitting on his bows, but was able to get rid of it by clever manoeuvring. He had penetrated as far as Constantinople itself, where he torpedoed and sank a Turkish gunboat. Near Rodosto he sank several transports and store ships, his nearness to shore in one case being such that he was forced to retire by a party of horsemen. He returned to Con--

stantinople and torpedoed the man-of-war “ Stambul,” in the Golden Horn itself. It was the first time that an enemy had appeared in that harbour since it had become Turkish; and his exploit had the effect of stopping for the time all sea communication between Constantinople and Gallipoli. Er2 (Lt.-Comm. K. M. Bruce), E7 (Li.-Comm. A. D. Cochranc}, E2 (Comm. David Stocks), Ezo (Lt.-Comm. C. H. Warren) and Hr (Lt. Wilfred Pirie) also made the difficult and dangerous passage with more or less striking results. E12 on one occasion encountered and sank a decoy which carried a masked gun. Amongst other exploits Lt.-Comm. Cochrane attacked the

railway line and blocked it for a time. Erg and Err were up the Straits together at the end of July and sank between them some 30 ships bound for Gallipoli. Every possible obstacle was put in their way by the Turks, who had erected a powerful barrage at Nagara. The French submarine “‘ Mariotte ’’ fouled a mine, and while trying to free herself was shelled into surrender (July 26). Bruce in Er2 cruised in the Sca of Marmora from Sept. 16 to Oct. 25, 40 days, during which he sank 34 ships and did much damage to magazines and railways ashore. On the way back the bows of his boat carried away part of the Nagara obstruction and E12 was dragged down to a depth of 245 ft. before she could gain control. The entanglement, whatever it was, was scraped off her by a chain boom alittle lower down the Straits and though she broke surface in her plungings and came under fire from guns and torpedoes, she managed to reach Helles in safety. In Nov. Err and Ezo and the French submarine “ Turquoise ” went up the Dardanelles to continue the disturbance to

Turkish communications. Only one of them returned. The “ Turquoise ” ran aground and was captured intact. A paper found by the Turks in her revealed a rendezvous, and by despatching

a submarine to that spot they were able to torpedo E20. Nasmith in Eri cruised for 47 days in Turkish waters; before returning he destroyed or rendered useless 11 steamers and 35 sailing vessels, in face of all the barrages, patrols and batteries set up to prevent him and in spite of the fact that shipping for safcty’s sake had

SUBMARINE been kept in harbour as much as possible. When the Gallipoli peninsula was abandoned at the end of 1915 the necessity for running the risk of penctrating the Dardanelles no longer existed and the operations of British submarines came to an end; but the record of their work will always remain an inspiring chapter in the history of the British Navy. Analysis of the Autumn Campaign—During the autumn campaign of 1916, German submarines in Home Waters had been acting under some sort of restrictions as regards sparing passenger ships and refraining from torpedoing vessels without warning. These restrictions were not in accordance with Admiral Scheer’s ideas; his view was that the submarine as a weapon could best achieve results by surprise; and to him it seemed unreasonable to expect submarine commanders to expose themselves to the great risks known to exist if they came to the surface and warned vessels before sinking them. Most large merchant ships were now armed for defence, and some had even sunk attacking submarines; and, moreover, there was always the possibility that a tramp steamer, harmless to the outward eye, might really be a Q-ship, to attack which was death. Only reluctantly had Scheer allowed his High Sea Fleet submarines to participate in the autumn campaign, and he expected little good from it. The results exceeded anticipation; indeed, Oct. 1916 proved the worst month of the three campaigns of 1915 and 1916. In that month submarines destroyed 148,000 gross tons of British shipping and 124 foreign ships of 164,000 tons—a total of over 300,000 tons for all the nations of the world. The progress of the campaign in Dec. 1916 and Jan. 1917 can be seen in the following table:— Destroyed by Submarines Dec. 1916 British Allies . Norwegian

: : .

Danish Other Neutrals

: : $ .

;

Jan. 1917

Ships

Gross tons

Gross tons

39 58

110,160 66,690 43,537

111,974 58,253 55,487

16,113 39,900

17,15! 42,142

Totals

An interesting feature in the campaign is that the shipping of

the neutral nations suffered more severely than British; in Dec. 7o neutral ships to 39 British and in Jan. 66 neutral to 51 British, of which 16 were small fishing craft. Norway, in particular, lost nearly as many vessels as England. Such favourable results of the

submarine attack on merchant vessels, restricted as it was, strengthened the arguments of that party in Germany who were convinced that, if all restrictions were removed, submarines could double their rate of destruction and would, in any case,

bring to a standstill the Norwegian traffic to England. Their arguments gained the day and it was decided to carry on the submarine attack as in 1915 without restrictions. The step would probably compel the United States to break off relations; but the submarine party were confident that before America’s military forces could affect the issue of the War, it would be over, with England vanquished. So certain did this seem that Germany put forward a proposal of peace, but as it was couched in terms such as a victor uses to the vanquished, it was rejected. Then, on Feb, 1 1917, was re-introduced the original method of unrestricted warfare. Areas enclosing the British Isles and France, the Mediterranean and, later, the Portuguese Atlantic Islands and the area round Archangel, were declared war zones; vessels of any nationality or character found in the war zones would be destroyed, and though no special efforts would be made to kill the crews, consideration for the safety of their lives would

not be allowed to hinder the submarines in their work. Tif. THE FINAL STRUGGLE Second “ Unrestricted ” Campaign, Feb. rọr7 to Nov. T918.— To carry on the unrestricted campaign Germany had rrr seagoing submarines of the U, UB and UC classes. Though the UCboats were still primarily minelayers whose operations are treated elsewhere (see MINELAYING), they now carried guns and

CAMPAIGNS

673

a few torpedoes and could therefore wage war on merchant vessels in the same way as the other classes of boats. Attached to the Iligh Sea Fleet there were 29 submarines active and 20 under repair, the figures for the other stations being: landers 31 and 2; Baltic o and 2; Adriatic 7 and 17; Constantinople 2 and 1; a total of 69 at work and 42 under repair. The declaration of unrestricted warfare, which meant that neutral vessels would again be sunk without warning, had a serious effect on the departure of ships from Scandinavian countries. This had been foreseen by the British Admiralty and. was countered by the detention of each Scandinavian ship already in British ports until it was known that a corresponding vessel had sailed for England. Even with the reduction of traffic at sea resulting from the natural reluctance of non-belligerents to take the risk of entering the war zones the losses were :— February

March

April

Ships | Gross tons; Ships | Gross tons) Ships | Gross tons British | 114 Allies Neutral!

77 60

260,000 77,000 132,000

287,000 115,000 122,000

522,000 145,000 185,000

260

469,000

524,000

852,000

The rate of increase in losses was such that it seemed that the submarines would win the War for Germany. They were being completed faster than they were being destroyed so that their number increased from rrr on Feb. ro to 127 on April ro. It was clear that the existing methods of fighting them were insufficient. Though all the forms of defence—detaining ships in harbour when a submarine was known to be about, causing ships to hug the shore, sending Q-ships on the traffic routes, arming more and more merchant ships, patrolling the avenues of approach—and all the weapons of attack, such as depth charges and hydrophones, were made more and more efficient they could not stay the tide of devastation. On April 19, the worst day for England of that worst month, rz British merchantmen and 8 fishing vessels were sunk by submarines; and it has been stated that one out of every four vessels that left Great Britain in that month never returned. There were few successes during these first three months of the unrestricted campaign to hearten the defence; 2 UB-boats from Zeebrugge stranded on the Dutch coast, one UC-boat was blown up by mines off Sunderland, two British submarines torpedoed German boats, a destroyer “ depthcharged ” UC39, and Captain Gordon Campbell in the Q-ship “ Farnborough ” got U8s after an action which so nearly meant the loss of his ship and her gallant crew that he sent by wireless to Admiral Bayly at Queenstown the famous signal “ Qs5 slowly sinking respectfully wishes you Good-bye.” It is satisfactory to know that she did not sink and that Captain Gordon Campbell survived to be the hero of a service manned by heroes. One episode of these terrible three months remained unique; the British submarine Eso, proceeding under water, rammed a German boat also submerged, bringing into the realm of fact one of Jules Verne’s most lurid fancies. Though she struck the German craft three separate blows, it escaped to tell the tale of one more

peril for the U-boat. Escorted Convoys.—Nevertheless, the submarine was winning. Unless some new and effective device could be put into action the surrender of the Allies was in sight. But the device was on the point of adoption. Scandinavian vessels refused to sail without escort and since it was impossible to escort each singly, they were gathered into convoys guarded by such armed vessels as could be spared. The principle of escorting a convoy had been in force for some months with the trade between Holland and England, and with the continuous export of coal to France, which being carried in slow vessels could be accompanied by armed trawlers; but the difficulties in escorting an ocean convoy had been considered too great for the means at our disposal. When at last the method was tried, these dilcultics were found to have

been over-estimated, and gradually the gathering of merchant vessels into escorted convoys became general. Special schools were established to train the masters of ships in the complicated

674

SUBMARINE

manoeuvres of zigzagging in squadrons and a large organisation came into being to collect each convoy and its escort. Between March and Aug. 8,000 colliers crossed the Channel to France in groups under some sort of escort and only 14 of them were lost. ln proportion as the convoy system became universal so did losses diminish. In May submarines sank 303 vessels of all nationalities totalling 550,000 tons; by Nov. the totals had fallen to 116 and 259,000 tons. Of 6,000 vessels convoyed between Norway and the Humber the loss by submarine action was 1°. One reason for this marked diminution was that now the U-boat had to run into danger to secure any prey. Before the introduction of convoy the submarine, by eluding the patrols, could deal with ships at leisure; but now she could not approach the bait without running the chance of being hooked. An ingenious system of dazzle painting was introduced and a convoy appeared in a periscope as a shapeless mass of stripes and blurs continually altering as the ships zigzagged; the escorting destroyers and trawlers forced a watching submarine to keep its distance, and its best chance was to catch a straggler. But this again was not infrequently a Q-ship, masquerading as a lame duck to invite attack. As the losses in shipping diminished the rate of destruction of submarines increased; In April, May and June of 1917 12 boats; in the next three months 20; and in the last quarter of 1917, 24 boats. To Comm. Maurice Blackwood in the Q-ship ** Stonecrop ”’ fell a special prize in Sept. when by admirable coolness and cunning he entrapped and sank U88. The “ Stonecrop ”? was sunk next day by another submarine; but in U88, which disappeared with all hands, was the notorious Schwieger,

who two years before had sunk the “ Lusitania ” and forced the

United States to consider the possibility of joining the Allies. The United States declared war in April 1917 and before the end of the year had sent 37 destroyers to assist in convoy work. One of these destroyers, the “‘ Fanning ” while on convoy duty in Nov. 1917 dropped a depth charge on Us58 and forced her to

surrender. This was the only submarine known to have been destroyed by the United States forces. Even with the addition of the United States destroyers it was not possrble to escort every vessel, and on some routes merchant ships had still to fight for themselves. A curious fate overtook U28 in September. She met a vessel making for Archangel with ammunition; she first torpedoed it and then came close to sink it by gunfire. Her second shot burst among the ammunition, and the terrific explosion which resulted wrecked the submarine. U28 disappeared forever, leaving her men struggling in the water. Another Archangel steamer, armed for defence, fought a

duel with a submarine till dusk without a decision. The submarine followed, intending to torpedo the ship in the darkness. She crept up on the quarter and fired two torpedoes; but the wary skipper, hearing an unusual noise, put his helm hard over and saw the white track of the torpedoes pass along his ship’s side.

Half an hour later he observed a luminous patch ahead

of him and stecring for it had the satisfaction of ramming his pursuer and ending her career. The submarine was U4g; the

CAMPAIGNS been countered. The number of submarines in commission reached its maximum of 140 in Oct. and then slowly diminished. They failed to impede either the transport of British troops to France or of American troops to Europe. Only one transport of the latter, the “ Tuscania,” was torpedoed, and in her case the loss of life was 44. Although four of the best U-boats were sent across the Atlantic specially to attack troop transports, and they destroyed 60 ships between them, not one contained troops. Moreover, one of the submarines, Urs56, was lost in the great minefield laid across the North Sea. Throughout the War the British had made efforts to mine the exits from submarine bases and the entrance to the English Channel. They were ineffectual, owing mainly to the defects of the British mine. The advent of America into the War gave us access to her factories; and a newly designed mine, produced in Immense quantities, made it possible to close Heligoland Bight from time to time and to make the Straits of Dover absolutely impassable. A similar barrage was established across Otranto Straits; and sinkings in the Mediterranean, where they had been specially heavy, began to diminish,

By the end of the summer of 1918 it was obvious to the German authorities that the submarine campaign could not be a success; and when the land operations also failed, the Flanders bases were evacuated, and the submarines there were blown up—all except one, UB116, whose commander, Lieutenant Emsmann, made one last effort. He reached the entrance to Scapa Flow on Oct. 28, but

the search-light picked him up and his boat was sunk in the very gates of his enemies. The Armistice terms included the surrender of all German submarines. One hundred and thirty-eight still remained and these came in to Harwich. One hundred and ninety-two had been destroyed and seven interned. In addition, + Austrian submarines had been destroyed. An analysis of the methods of attack shows that the destroyers and patrol vessels with their guns, depth charges and rams accounted for 64 boats; mines and mine nets destroyed 43; British submarines torpedoed 18; Q-ships sank 11. The cause of loss of 19 is unknown; the remainder met their end from various weapons. In view of certain controversies, it 1s of interest to record that no * Dreadnought ” was sunk by a submarine, while U29 was rammed and sunk by H.M.S. “ Dreadnought ” herself. Of the submarine commanders, Arnauld de la Lerriére is credited in Germany with having destroyed 400,000 tons of shipping in r0 voyages; Forstmann in U39 with 380,000 in 16 voyages; and Max Valentiner with 300,000 in 17 voyages. These were all in the Mediterranean where conditions were specially favourable. A more dangerous career was that of Steinbrinck who in 24 voyages is claimed to have sunk 210,000 tons. He was operating from Flanders in UB- and UC-boats and had to overcome every ob-

stacle that ingenuity could devise and, moreover, had to navigate among the tide-rips and shoals of the Channel and the east coast of England in boats of feeble engine power. Perhaps the most indefensible outrage perpetrated by the submarine commanders

UB7r1. The Attack Defeated.—As 1917 progressed it became increas-

was the torpedoing by Patrig in U86 of the hospital ship “ Llandovery Castle’ on June 27 1918. The vessel was unmistakably a hospital ship marked with all the signs which should secure international immunity; she was 116 m. from land; but he sank her, and drowned 14 nurses and 226 other persons, only one boatload being saved. Conclusion.—\low near did the submarine campaign approach its object of reducing seagoing tonnage below the irreducible limit necessary for the needs of the Allies? One cause of the ferocity with which it was waged was the hope of terrorising merchant seamen into refusal to sail. This hope was from the first vain. The experiences of seamen whose ships had been sunk, instead of frightening them, stirred up rather their fighting spirit. When Admiral Jellicoe visited the Crystal Palace in 1918 he found there a number of merchant seamen at gun drill. Most of them had had their ships torpedoed under them. One, a steward, had suffered thus four times; he was learning to shoot so that he might sink a submarine with his own hand. As regards the destruction of tonnage trading with the Allies, so long as it

ingly clear that the submarine attack on merchant vessels had

exceeded by as much as 600,000 tons a month all replacement by

steamer, the “ British Transport.”

Every type of vessel contributed to swell the number of lost submarines. In April 1918, Motor Launch No. 413, a vessel of a type built specially to deal with submarines, was on patrol in the Western Mediterranean, with her hydrophone out listening for the sound of a submarine’s propeller. One was heard; and in the dim light of dawn, it could be seen rapidly approaching till it passed across the bows of M413. Sceing the motor launch it submerged, but ML413 followed the wake and continuing along it and in the same direction till she was 150 ft. ahead of it she

dropped four depth charges. The humming of the submarine’s propeller instantly ceased. At daylight pieces of wood were seen floating, one a large fragment of varnished mahogany with steel hinges, undoubtedly part of a door from the interior of the submarine. The depth charges had been well aimed; they had torn the submarine to pieces. Later it was proved that this was

SUCHOW—SUDAN, ANGLO-EGYPTIAN building, the campaign would most probably have brought the War to a close with Germany as victor. The figure of 600,000 tons net loss was perhaps exceeded in some of the months of the first half of 1917; thenceforward it fell, tillin the summer of 1918 the rate of output of new shipping far exceeded the rate of destruction. The submarine campaign against merchant shipping was a bold experiment carried out, after some hesitations, with ruthless thoroughness. It failed. It strewed around the British Isles a rampart of broken hulls and the bones of gallant men. Its record is mostly the sordid story of armed men against the defenceless; but everywhere in the gloom shine out deeds that will stir the hearts of men so long as they admire courage dauntless and sustained. TABLE I. Ships and Tonnage Sunk by Submarines, 1917-8 ~A=Number of British and Allied merchant ships and fishing vessels sunk by submarines. B = Number of neutral merchant ships sunk by submarines. C= Total gross tonnage in thousands of tons. D = Number of German submarines sunk. IQI7

A Jan Feb Mar April May June July

Aug

Sept Oct

B

Cc

96 65 I7I 66 204 85 277 | 118 192 89 2II 81 171 56

293 468 511 840 551 633 495

149|

490

33

137 134

Nov

Ig18

18 I9

95]

21

316 429

260

D 2 4 4 2 6 4 6

4

10 8

9

7

A

B

C

D

112 104 147 96 108 77 83

19 I9 25 I2 18 22 24

299 316 332 262 29I 241 260

9 4 5 6 17 3 6

84

30

272

6

65 4I

ces

181 107

9

9 19

;

i

ie

4

Totals | 1,960

TABLE II. British, Allied and Neutral Vessels Sunk by Submarines

British merchant vessels British fishing vessels Allied merchant vessels.

231 168 76

288 134 344

1,052 200 708

Neutral merchant vessels

93

332

679

568

1,098

| 2,639

Totals

.

months) 527 76 314 186 1,103

Grand total, 5,408 ships; 11,189,000 gross tons. IQI4-5

German

submarines

stroyed

.

ti

1916

I9I7

(10

de;

| 1918

months) 24

25

66

Grand total, 203 ships. BrBpLioGRAPHY.—Admiralty Return of Merchant Shipping (Losses) H. C. 199 (Aug. I919); C. E. Fayle, Seaborne Trade (1920-4); A. Gayer, Die deutschen U-Boote (1920); Viscount Jellicoe, The Crisis of the Naval

War

Fleet in the World

(1920); Admiral War

Scheer,

Germany's

(1920); Sir J. S. Corbett,

High Sea

Naval Operations

(1921); A. S. Hurd, The Merchant Navy (1921, etc.); A. Laurens,

Introduction &1 Etude de la Guerre Sousmarine (1921); E. K. Chatter-

ton, Q-Ships and Their Story (1922); and the German Official History,

Der Krieg zur See tQI4-IQIS (1924).

(O. Tu.)

SUCHOW, China (see 26.7), with a population of about ¥90,000; is a manufacturing centre. Since the opening of the port some industrial establishments have been started on European lines. In rorr the colleges of Shanghai and Suchow were united, and are established as Suchow University ona large campus; negotiations were in progress in 1924 for the cooperation of the university and other institutions of eastern China in the management of legal and medical schools. in terms of cases.

malignant disease.

(C.H.M.*)

Surgery of the Breast.—-Cancer of the breast still takes its yearly toll of thousands. Statistics indicate that in cases where the axillary lymphatics are not as yet involved, prospects of cure are far more favourable. As said elsewhere, periodic physical examination, annually at least, is our best means of protection. In doubtful cases of tumour of the breast, the surgeon removes a small section of the growth for rapid microscopical examination (by the so-called frozen-section method) and receives a report within a few minutes. Local excision or radical amputation is accordingly carried out depending on whether the growth has proved benign or malignant. Small benign tumours of the breast may be removed without cosmetic deformity, either through an incision within the vermillion border of the mammilla (the pigmented area surrounding the nipple) or through a curved incision corresponding to the lower fold of the breast. Surgery of the Thorax.—Réntgen-ray diagnosis of disease in this region has made great advances during the last 15 years. While nearly all the conditions about to be cited could be clinically recognised In earlier times, the additional knowledge furnished by the Réntgen ray is of such great value that it js practically indispensable. Lack of space forbids detailed discussion; however, among the more important conditions are: lesions (fractures, chronic inflammations or tumours) of ribs, spinal column, breastbone (sternum) or collar bone (clavicle); pneumonia, lung abscess, bronchiectasis, empyema (recent or old), tuberculosis, tumours, either originating in the lung or secondary to cancer elsewhere (for example, secondary to sarcoma of a bone or carcinoma of the breast), paralysis of the diaphragm, hernia of the diaphragm permitting partial escape of abdominal viscera into the thoracic cavity, enlargement of the heart, effusion in the pericardial sac, aneurism of the aortic arch, stricture and diverticulum of the esophagus, tumour of the mediastinum and, lastly, foreign bodies lodged in gullet or air passages by accidental swallowing or inhalation or introduced into the thorax as the result of external violence following shooting, stabbing, explosions and so forth. Safeguards in Operations Upon the Opened Chest.—The thorax may be considered a bellows containing two collapsible bags, the lungs, between which lies a flexible partition, the mediastinum. H a sizable opening be made in one wall of this bellows, the exposed lung collapses, the to-and-fro action (respiration) goes on, but the amount of air drawn in and blown out of the remaining lung is greatly diminished, because on inspiration the mediastinum is drawn over toward the uninjured lung, and on expiration it is pushed over toward the opened side of the chest. To afford an adequate exchange of air a slightly increased pressure of air or diluted oxygen in the upper respiratory tract (mouth and nose)

692

SURGERY

prevents entire collapse of the lung and provides adequate aeration. (See also discussion of differential pressure under Anaesthesia above.) In emergencies, in the absence of differential pressure apparatus, this mediastinal flutter may be controlled by grasping and steadying the lung of the opened side; this prevents excursions of the mediastinum and permits air to be drawn into the lung of the opposite side. (For many years Australian surgeons have employed this measure when removing echinococcus cysts of the lungs, and more recently in the World War the French also used the same procedure when operating for removal of forcign bodies such as bullets and shell fragments.) Tight closure of the chest wall at the end of the operation is all that is requisite. Compression pneumothorax may follow a smart compression not quite severe enough to crush the chest. Rupture of lung or bronchial tissue permits valvular escape of air into the pleural cavity with each respiration. As air accumulates, it not only

compresses the lung on the affected side but also displaces the heart and mediastinum towards the opposite side and this interferes with the function of the other lung as well. Permanent suction applied by an aspirating needle thrust into the pleural cavity will control this condition (the blood-clots, sealing tears in lung tissue, are found to be especially tenacious). Sometimes rupture of bronchi from the same cause (compression of the thorax) results in escape of air into the mediastinal tissues instead of the pleural cavity, and by continued accumulation produces subcutaneous pufling of the neck and face. In a case of this sort a wound may be established in the episternal notch and a glass suction-cup arranged to connect it with a vacuum pump (Tiegel).

In a few hours the condition subsides. Empyema of the pleural cavity is a common sequel of pneumonia. Experience with large numbers of cases of empyema among the United States soldiers in the winter of 1917-8, during the great influenza epidemic, established a rule that while cloudy fluid should be removed by aspiration as often as necessary, actual operation should be deferred until pus has become thick and creamy. Nothing has been lost by such temporisation. The increased mortality from premature surgical drainage of accumulations of infected pleural iluid conclusively demonstrated this point. For the technique of open and closed drainage, various suction methods, sterilisation of the infected pleural cavity by Dakin’s and other antiseptic solutions, and the use of “ blowing bottles ’? to encourage expansion of the lung, the reader is referred to articles on empyema in the surgical literature. Most empyema cavities gradually close as the lung expands, finally reaching the chest wall. In some, however, this expansion does not take place and a persistent cavity lined with granula-

tions remains. The surgical obliteration of such cavities! constitutes a problem in itself. Decortication of thickened pleura covering partly collapsed lung (to permit it to expand) is rarely feasible, because dense adhesions with underlying lung tissue obliterate any plane of cleavage. Consequently mobilisation of the rigid chest wall is the method of choice. Removal (resection) of ribs from that part of the chest wall directly overlying the persistent cavity permits the soft tissues remaining to be brought into easy coaptation with the underlying lung. For details of operative procedure the reader is referred to textbooks and monographs on thoracic surgery. Lung Abscess—Ilf medical and bronchoscopic treatment have not been successful, surgical drainage is effected (usually under local anaesthesia)? through an opening in the chest wall, by resection of a sufficient number of ribs (in part) to provide proper space for necessary manipulation. If pleural adhesions, that is, adhesions of lung to chest wall are present, the operation proceeds, the abscess is located by a long aspirating needle (upon withdrawal of pus), then, the needle left in place as a guide, the 1 Rigid-walled granulating cavities will not heal. One or another of their sides must be mobilised so that coaptation of lining granulations is obtained. The same principle applies in the treatment of chronic osteomyelitis with persistent sinuses. 2 This is safer than general anaesthesia which may permit pus from the abscess to enter uninfected regions of the lung instead of being coughed out as usual by the conscious patient.,

vascular lung tissue is slowly divided with a cautery and the opening is deepened until the abscess is entered. A large drainage tube is then inserted. If no adhesions are present (between lung and chest wall) and drainage of the abscess is not imperative, which is rarely the case, it is safer to wait for several days until adhesions artificially produced by the surgeon are firm, after which drainage of the abscess may be established as just described. For other features of surgery of the lung and such methods of inducing collapse as extrapleural thoracoplasty, phrenicotomy and artificial pneumothorax. Operations on the Esophagus The intratheracic esophagus lies in front of the vertebral column between the lungs and alongside of the aorta. For years, cancer of this structure was considered inoperable. In the light of present experience it can be stated that it is technically feasible to remove the growth, provided it is in an operable stage, but most patients come to the operating table too late: the cancer is found to have broken through the esophageal wall and to have involved adjacent vital structures so that its complete removal is impossible. Generally the patient has disregarded his difficulty in swallowing for months and only sought surgical relief when facing actual starvation. Thus, through ignorance, precious time has been lost when the growth might have been found removable. Improved results may confidently be expected in the cure of this otherwise fatal malady. Its palliative treatment consists in establishing a gastric fistula (gastrostomy) through which the patient is fed by tube, as is customary In cases of benign strictures of the esophagus. Surgery of the Abdomen.—To no region of the body do the introductory statements regarding advances in surgery apply more pertinently than to the abdominal cavity. Intra-abdominal diseases which formerly masqueraded under a number of different names are now recognised to be one and the same thing. In X-ray investigation of the alimentary tract, suspensions of barium sulphate are administered by mouth in the form of opaque meals which fill the stomach, outlining this organ and then, as time goes on, pass into the small and finally into the large intestine. The large intestine, however, may be more clearly depicted by means of a barium enema, and this method is preferable when chronic intestinal obstruction is suspected; the duid barium meal taken by mouth loses much of its water as it collects above a point of narrowing, and so is converted into a putty-like mass which may block a narrow opening, thus suddenly changing a chronic into an acute intestinal obstruction. The Graham method of depicting the gallbladder depends upon the functional ability of this organ to concentrate bile. The sodium salt of phenoltetraiodophthalein administered by mouth is excreted in the bile and concentrated in the gallbladder. Aberrations from the normal picture, when considered with the history and clinical findings, in many instances permit the accurate diagnosis of cases in which it was previously impossible. In the urinary tract, solutions of sodium iodide enable one to see the outlines of the bladder, ureters and pelves of the kidneys (see Urorocy). Free gas

in the peritoneal cavity occurring in the course of disease or following injury, indicates that an opening is present somewhere in | the walls of stomach or intestines. For example, in cases of acute perforation of a gastric or duodenal ulcer, réntgenograms taken with the patient upright will show a thin crescentic layer of gas beneath the diaphragm and above the liver. Such a finding may also occur after non-penetrating injury of the abdomen with rupture of intestine.? It is a difficult matter at times to decide whether or not to operate in the presence of these abdominal contusions, and such an X-ray finding is of the utmost value. On the other hand, if an exploratory operation be decided upon, under conditions where the réntgenogram is not available, when the peritoneum is exposed, the wound is filled with sterile water so that when the peritoneum is nicked, the escape of gas may be seen immediately. 3 Such a complication is most undesirable because operations for rclicf of acute intestinal obstruction are always associated with higher mortality and graver complications than those for chronic obstruction. * Air anywhere within the body is absorbed within a few hours.

SURGERY In all cases in which the abdominal cavity is opened surgically for relief of non-suppurative disease, it is customary for the surgeon to introduce his hand into other regions than that immediately concerned. This procedure requires but a few moments and is of the utmost value in determining the presence or absence of other intra-abdominal lesions. Naturally in the presence of acute or chronic suppuration, manual exploration of other regions is unwise for fear of spreading infection. Hernia.—The abdominal wall may be considered to have three layers: (a) a smooth, glistening, internal lining of no intrinsic strength, the peritoneum; (b) a musculo-aponeurotic wall of great strength which has points of potential weakness (in the groins and in the region of the umbilicus, for example); and (c) the overlying elastic skin. A bulging of the distensible peritoneum through such an unduly weak opening in the strong musculo-aponeurotic wall, permits the protrusion of a peritoneal sac containing structures normally lying in the abdomen such as omentum and intestines. The potential danger of a hernia is the possibility of strangulation of its contents by the inelastic ring at the neck of the sac. Operation for the repair of a hernia consists in exposure of the parts, opening of the sac, replacement of the sac’s contents within the abdominal cavity, closure of the sac at its neck, amputation of its now redundant portion and, last but not least, closure of the opening in the musculo-aponeurotic layer. The principle of overlapping tissue layers of the musculourotic wall, like buttoning a double-breasted coat, is generally accepted at present. In large hernias especially those occurring in scars from previous laparotomy, the use of fascia lata from the outer side of the thigh, either as strips for suture material, when the opening can

be closed without undue tension) or in sheets (when the edges of the hernial ring cannot be readily approximated), is gaining general adoption. The reader is cautioned not to consider the subject of hernia as covered by the above elementary remarks, and particularly not to draw conclusions from any single case until he has familiarised himself with all contributory and complicating factors of this field by a study of the technical literature. (J. C. A. G.) Surgery of the Stomach and Duodenum (see also APPENDICITIS).— Each year the surgical treatment of diseases of the stomach and duodenum shows, in some respects, definite progress. Much of the recent advance in the efficient management of gastric and duodenal disorders has been due to: (a) increasing ability to detect existing disease process; (b) better interpretation of the significance of the clinical findings; (c) better judgment in deciding on the management of the complicated cases; (d) quick recognition and control of serious complications, particularly gastrointestinal stasis, and (e) increasing experience in the operative treatment of surgical lesions.

The diagnosis of benign lesions of the stomach and duodenum can be correctly made by a proper correlation of clinical and röntgenologic findings in about 96 % of cases, and of gastric carcinoma in about 98%. The indications for operation in cases of uncomplicated chronic or recurring duodenal ulcer are positive when the symptoms cannot be relieved or controlled by medical means. In cases of gastric ulcer, operation is always indicated unless adequate contraindications exist, and in gastric carcinoma, exploration is advisable if the disease is not obviously irremovable or incurable. There are various methods of treating ulcers because lesions of the duodenum unquestionably heal spontaneously under various forms of medical regimen; others continue into a chronic state which can only be relieved by surgical measures. The most commonly performed operation is gastro-entcrostomy. This procedure insures a permanent cure in between 80 and 90% of the cases, and such a high percentage of cures accounts for such frequent recourse to this operation. There is, however, a certain percentage of failures, so that other types of operation have been devised. The more important of these are operations at the outlet of the stomach which remove the ulcer and part of the pyloric muscle, and provide for adequate drainage of the stomach. Recently the removal of part of the stomach has been advocated

693

to prevent recurrence of ulceration. This operation has gained very little popularity because of its radical character, and because the general principle of removing a considerable part of the stomach for a lesion which is not in the stomach does not seem reasonable. In chronic gastric ulcer prolonged medical treatment is justified only when surgical treatment is absolutely contraindicated by the age or the condition of the patient. As a temporary expedient, however, medical treatment may be not only justifiable but of marked value in improving the general condition when the surgical risk has been aggravated by repeated hemorrhages, extensive subacute local inflammatory changes, or toxemia from gastric retention. The danger of malignant degeneration of gastric ulcer should not be minimised, and it becomes imperative, therefore, to make a real effort to remove the lesion.

This can

be done either by local excision or by partial gastrectomy; and of the various procedures in common use excision of the ulcer combined with gastro-enterostomy and resection of a considerable portion of the stomach are the most widely advocated. The results of this form of treatment arc excellent. The successful treatment of gastric carcinoma depends on early diagnosis because of the insidious onset of the disease. Those which develop at the pyloric end of the stomach are most suitable for removal. They give the best prospects of cure and, fortunately, cause symptoms carly. In almost half of the cases in which operation is advisable the growth can be removed and a prospect of cure assured. In over 50% of the cases in which the growth is removed and in which the disease is confined to the stomach there is an assurance of at least a three-year cure. In the treatment of acute perforation of duodenal or gastric ulcers the patient’s life may be almost certainly saved if operation is carried out in the first few hours after perforation has occurred. Closure of the perforation is the only procedure necessary to save the patient’s hfe; but if his condition warrants it at the time, other procedures may be combined with it to protect him against ulceration in the future. Operations on the stomach are also carried out for benign tumours, occasionally for foreign bodies (usually swallowed by insane persons), and occasionally for the curious hair-ball tumours which form in the stomachs of persons

who are in the habit of biting and swallowing hair. (D.C.B.*) Surgery of the Colon.—The colon is an important part of the intestinal tract,and yet any part orall of it may be sacrificed without serious consequences and without interfering greatly with the comfort of the patient. When it is removed its physiologic functions are compensated for to a certain degree. The many lesions affecting the colon may be grouped according to the nature of the condition, and for convenience of study as follows: (a) congenital deformities, such as extreme dilation of the colon resulting in Hirschsprung’s disease or giant colon, and bands or kinks, which may have resulted from abnormal development; (b) inflammatory lesions (ulcerative colitis, tuberculosis, diverticulitis and actinomycosis); (c) benign tumours, either polypi, which occur singly or more often as multiple small tumours and sometimes as a diffuse polyposis, or, occasionally, adenoma of the lower colon, both seeming to have a tendency to develop into malignant tumours, and (d) malignant tumours, largely cancers. Cancer of the colon is common, and in the early stages can be removed satisfactorily. Of the different tumours which may occur malignant tumours hold first place in importance because they are by far the most common tumours of the colon; operation affords the only prospect of cure, and surgical treatment is frequently diflicult. The symptoms are usually manifested sufficiently early and are usually those of obstruction and of anaemia. The anaemia resulting from cancer in the cecum and ascending colon is frequently very marked, and may be so severe as to give rise to an opinion that the disease is incurable. Various methods have been devised for carrying out more extensive operations on the colon for malignant disease with the maximum of safety. Most of these are based on carrying out the operation in several stages. The prospects of cure in cancer of the colon are higher than in cancer in many other situations. About 50° of the cases of cancer of the

694

SURGERY

colon are found in the cecum and ascending portion, about 10% in the hepatic flexure, about 8% in the splenic tlexure, about 13 % in the descending colon, and about 20%% in the transverse colon. Other diseases of the colon occasionally require operative treatment when they interfere seriously with its function, or resist medical treatment. The operation may consist of the removal of any part or all of the colon. | Surgery of the Rectum and Anus.—The skin about the anus is subject to lesions, more painful than serious, varying from slight cracks to fissures. Sometimes cleanliness and hot applications will cure them, but the ulcerated forms require excision. Fistula (fistula-in-ano) usually commences with inflammation of one of the crypts that surround the anus. The infection is trapped by the swelling and burrows along the side of the anal canal. An abscess may form in the loose tissue and may rupture Into the rectum further up or externally on the skin near the anus. Tuberculosis is not nearly so common a cause as was supposed. The fistula must be opened, curetted and packed so that it heals from within outward. Usually this procedure cannot be carried out until the external sphincter has been cut.

Hemorrhoids may be cither external or internal, or both. The external ones are covered by skin, the internal by mucous membrane. They are best treated by excision and ligature. The cautery is used for destroying internal hemorrhoids, but the painful after-effects make its use undesirable for external hemorrhoids. In certain cases injections of medicaments directly into the hemorrhoids are effective. Stricture results from injury, such as burning or unskilful operations, from infection, syphilis, tuberculosis and from new growths, especially cancer. Incision and gradual dilatation may cure, or the constricted zone may have to be resected and the ends anastomosed. Of all cancers in the colon, most ocevr in the rectum. Early diagnosis and prompt excision afford the only chance of cure. The operation is often performed in two stages. The signs of cancer of the rectum are similar to those of hemorrhoids, and in many cases of cancer the patient has undergone an operation for this apparently innocent manifestation of a serious disease. It is becoming a routine to examine the rectum and sigmoid with a proctoscope in all cases

of hemorrhoids.

(W.J.M.)

Surgery of the Liver and Bile Passages—Symptoms of gallstones are often mistaken for those of gastric ulcer. Commonly, stones first form in the gallbladder and their presence is characterised by attacks of pain and vomiting without fever. A stone in any hollow organ of the body predisposes to subsequent infection, and gallstones follow this rule. As time goes on, stones are also found in the common duct (a much more serious condition), and jaundice is frequently observed following attacks of pain. There is a definite association between disease of the bile passages and acute hemorrhagic pancreatitis. The diagnostic value of the Graham test in pathologic conditions of the gallbladder has been outlined above in discussing X-ray diagnosis oí intraabdominal lesions. Cholecystectomy, that is, removal of the gallbladder, is the operation of choice when not accompanied by too much risk. Cholecystostomy, or opening and drainage of the gallbladder, affords temporary relief. It is an excellent measure under local anaesthesia for desperately sick patients who, however, generally require a secondary cholecystectomy for permanent cure. Conditions requiring operation on the common duct are of far more serious import than those on the gallbladder, generally speaking. The deep jaundice which so often accompanies obstruction of the common duct may lead to postoperative cholemic oozing, a most scrious complication. Transfusion and the administration of calcium salts often but not invariably control this hemorrhagic condition which if unchecked results fatally. Stones may exist in the gallbladder and common duct without causing symptoms and the remarks made above apply only in the majority of instances. Surgery of the Spleen.—The spleen is a very vascular organ. Its removal (splenectomy) for control of hemorrhage as the result of traumatic or spontaneous rupture, is an old, recognised procedure. Splenectomy is of benefit in the early stage of Banti’s disease and in certain cases of hemolytic jaundice. In pernicious

anemia it is of little value as the remissions following splenectomy are but little longer than those after transfusion. Of recent years a form of purpura has been recognised in which the blood platelet count is low and fragility of the red blood cells is markedly increased. Spontaneous oozing of blood from all mucous membranes as well as typical subcutaneous hemorrhages whose blue colour first gave the condition its name, are accompanied by rapidly progressing anemia which soon leads to death. The almost instantaneous cessation of oozing immediately following splenectomy (occurring even before closure of the abdominal wound) is one of the most dramatic events in modern surgery. Tranfusion

before and afterwards is employed to sustain hfe and not to control the disease. Gynecologic Surgery Refinements in operative technique have kept pace with those in other branches of surgery. Acute inflammations of the pelvis are conservatively treated. Indeed in many cases, pelvic inflammation may enjoy complete symptomatic recovery following sufficiently prolonged rest in bed and appropriate local measures.

In the acute stage, if abscesses form

they are drained, but otherwise nothing more radical is done. Operative removal of carcinoma of the uterine body gives excellent results. Regarding treatment of carcinoma of the cervix, a fur more deadly form of the disease, there are two schools of thought at the present writing. One still favours operative treatment, while the other maintains that radiotherapy (by radium or the X-ray in massive doses) gives equally good late results. Regarding carcinoma of the cervix in stages beyond the possibility of operative intervention, there can be no question that radium is the means now universally adopted. The foul discharge dries up and the local tumour disappears and, although permanent cure is rare, the patient’s existence is made infinitely more tolerable. Exposure of the ovaries to X-rays stops menstruation, and is often used in controlling excessive uterine bleeding. The Rubin test for determining patency of the uterine body

and Fallopian tubes in cases of sterility is a recent innovation. When this test was introduced, air was injected through the cervic uteri and its presence or absence within the peritoneal cavity determined by the X-ray. Later experience showed that with a manometer to gauge the amount of air pressure employed, equally accurate determination could be made and X-ray control could be dispensed with. The use of foreign proteins in the treatment of pelvic inflammation is still in the experimental stage. Surgery of the Extremities —In the treatment of fractures (see ORTILOPAEDIC SURGERY) the time-honoured plaster cast still has its place. However, maintenance of proper alignment of fractures by suspension and traction has come into deserved repute, notably in fractures of the humerus close to the shoulder joint, and in the revived Hodgen’s method for fractures of the femur. Skeletal traction, a further refinement, consists in metallic appliances (such as Steinmann pens, sharp-pointed tongs like ice-tongs, or Finochietto stirrups) which are attached to the bones at some suitable point below the site of fracture. By this means shortenings may be overcome which could not possibly be corrected by traction upon moleskin adhesive strips applied to the skin. These methods limit indications for open reduction! to those cases with interposition of soft parts between the fragments (see also Fractures). Disuse stiffens joints and tendon sheaths. Consequently the manifold physiotherapeutic measures ? which encourage active motion within the limits of pain, have their distinct use in promoting and accelerating return of function (see also ORTHOPAEDIC SURGERY). Amputation of the lower extremity, if possible, is so devised as to furnish stumps capable of bearing weight directly on their ends instead of on the bony prominences of the joint next above the site of amputation (see descriptions of the Hirsch-Bunge method in surgical literature). Early active mobilisation after 1 An operation for exposing displaced fragments, correcting their alignment and retaining correction by suture, metal bands, vanadium steel plates held in place by self-tapping screws of the same material, and so forth (see also FRACTURES). 2 Warmth by baking whirlpool baths, diathermy (see ELECTROTHERAPEUTICS) and, natural or artificial heliotherapy, and so forth.

SURINAM—SURVEYING operations on joints (for example, after operations for removal of the

internal

semilunar

cartilage

of the kneejoint}

gives

excellent immediate functional results and is being more and more widely practised. The Willems treatment of acute joint suppurations, if instituted early, preserves function and constitutes a notable advance. In former times, the most that could be hoped for was a stiff joint after weeks and even months of precarious convalescence. With the Willems method, generous longitudinal openings are made on either side of the affected joint, but no drainage tubing, gauze or other material is introduced into the joint cavity; there is no irrigation, but simply active motion every two hours which permits the free escape of purulent secretions and preserves function. As time goes on, the secretions gradually lose their purulent character and finally become clear, and the wounds close of themselves leaving a free healed joint. The method is of no avail when infection has spread beyond the lining synovial membrane and has involved the soft tissues of the joint outside. Infections of the hand and fingers comprise an important and relatively neglected field of surgery. The different forms of infection should be recognised early, the proper and least disabling drainage incisions should be made, and voluntary motion should be begun at the earliest suitable moment, long before the drainage wounds themselves have begun to close. In no region does the retention of pus more rapidly destroy essential structures than in the hand and fingers. In conclusion the reader is again reminded that a cursory review of surgery is all the limitations of this article permit, and that almost no justifiable conclusions regarding any single surgical incident in the reader’s experience can be drawn by him from the contents of this article, because of innumerable, relative, qualifying surgical factors which may exist, unknown to the lay mind. The mutual dissatisfaction of lawyer and medical expert so often seen in the courtroom furnishes an excellent example of this. It requires years to train a surgeon, and one cannot condense all the knowledge so acquired into a few minutes’ exposition of the subject. See also HEART AND LUNG, SURGERY OF; ORTHOPAEDIC SURGERY. (J. C.A.G.) SURINAM: see GUIANA, DUTCH. SURVEYING (sec 26.142).—As a result of the stationary character of the World War on the Western Front, surveying generally acquired a greatly increased importance from a military point of view, and the introduction of air photography (see AERIAL SURVEY) has given the surveyor a new and powerful method for use in official circumstances. In exploratory surveying the conditions have been simplified by the introduction of wireless telegraphy, for the determination of longitude, which is now little more difficult than taking a latitude. In the more regular branches of the subject the principal matter demanding attention is the development of accurate methods of levelling, particularly of precise or geodetic levelling.

I. SURVEYING IN WAR TIME Topographical surveys have long been well known adjuncts to military operations. All other classes of land surveying, 7. e., geodetic triangulation, levelling and large scale surveying, now take their part in modern scientific warfare. The Trigonometrical Control—The extent of the Western

squares, the sides of which can be divided decimally by eye. The artillery often desire co-ordinates of the same accuracy as the surveyor—. e., on the scale of nature. The system adopted should, therefore, be based upon the co-ordinates used by the surveyor, with an easy form of abbreviation to be used by all arms to define map positions. Accuracy of bearing from any one position must be maintained together with as near an approach to linear accuracy as possible, whilst the system must allow of extension over the whole arca of operations. An orthomorphic projection was therefore desirable, and for the conduct of surveys constantly in progress it was equally important. Computations must be cut down to the minimum.

local surveys called for. Five separate and distinct triangulations already covered this area before the outbreak of war, and

many of the stations of the triangulations had been destroyed or built over before the war and many were destroyed during its progress. Numbers of new stations had, therefore, to be established. This patched and reconstructed triangulation stood then as a basis for all the military surveys of the Western Front. Provision of Maps.—A map of accuracy and adequate scale was required so that administrative arrangements, lines of fire and trench systems could be shown upon it. Such a map did not exist except in the Belgian area, and elsewhere had to be made. The earlier British war surveys were made upon the plane-

This can be done by

working on a projection in which the position on the ground and the position on the map can be calculated in one process without sensible error. Surveys for Artillery Purposes.—Other things being equal, that artillery will dominate its adversary which has the quickest and most accurate knowledge of hostile battery positions and which can open most quickly an accurate and unexpected fire upon them. The accurate survey of the relative positions of gun and target is essential. The positions of British heavy batteries were, therefore, fixed

with a theodolite, each battery was supplied with a chart or “ artillery board ” on which the map was pasted down, in sections, upon a zinc or three-ply wood surface, and special “ bearing pickets’ were inserted in numbers in the battery zone. The bearings from these pickets to surrounding objects, suitable as reference objects, were tabulated and distributed. The positions of hostile batteries were also surveyed with as much dispatch and accuracy as possible by one or other, or both, of the following methods:— (a) Intersection of three or more rays observed upon the flash of discharge, the reflection in the sky of this flash, or, upon the smoke puff from the muzzle, an operation, commonly known as flash spotting, which, independent of the map, gave very good results but depended for success upon good visibility. (b) Sound-ranging (g. v.)—a method which is naturally unaffected

by bad visibility, but is put out of action by a moderate wind blowing from base to gun and is interfered with by any high wind. As in the case of flash spotting, a good telephone connection to the artillery headquarters is essential.

II. SURVEYING BY AIR-PHOTOGRAPHY Optical Principles—Provided that the optical axis of the camera is vertical at the moment of exposure, the resulting photograph of a flat level area will be an accurate plan at a scale determined by the equation.

473

Front made it necessary to provide a homogeneous and complete

system of triangulation upon which to base the maps and the

695

table, on a scale of 1/20,000, and were completed up to the British trench lines. By means of air-photography, and the manuscript sheets of the cadastral communal surveys, reliable maps, of territory in British occupation and of all that portion of northeastern France occupied by the German armies were eventually compiled. The trench zone was mapped on a scale of t/to,oc0, and forward and back areas at 1/20,000. In all 6,000 sq. m. were surveyed. For the use of large scale maps in trench warfare it must be possible to read off, at sight, the co-ordinates of any desired point from a “ grid ” or network of lines printed on the map. For ease and accuracy of reference the “ grid ” should be in

where f is the focal length, h is the height of the camera above the ground at the moment of exposure, s is the representative

fraction of the scale.

Such photographs will be called vertical

photographs. Asa rule, however, the photograph is not exactly vertical, but the axis is tilted at an angle to the vertical. The photograph then becomes aninclined perspective view (sce fig. 1.) If the direction and magnitude of the tilt of the axis were recorded at the moment of exposure it is obvious that the photograph could be projected optically or photographically on to the plane of the map, although it would remain unfixed in

position and orientation. If the direction and magnitude of tilt are unknown, then the projection on to the required plane, or

SURVEYING

696

“ rectification, ’’ is secured by comparing the relative positions of four surveyed points on the ground and on the photograph, which is then also fixed in position and orientation. Two matters of importance are that (1) straight lines upon a plane remain straight lines upon any perspective view of that plane; (2) at any point, on any incline perspective view, the scale is not the same in directions parallel to and perpendicular to the axis of tilt. Construction of the A{ap.—In order to explain how a map is built up, wholly or partly, from air-photographs it is advisable to take some illustrative cases. The simplest case is that in which it is desired to produce a map of an area in which a sutficient trigonometrical control already exists and of which there is available a complete collection of cadastral plans, which are, however, much out of date. Ground features are low and gently undulating, extreme difference of altitudes being two or three hundred feet only. In such a case topography can be brought up to date from air-photographs taken with the axis as nearly vertical as possible, and fitted upon the cadastral framework by one or other of the methods described below. When this is complete the map is contoured in the field, names are added and the topography examined for omissions or mistakes. The most difficult case arises when the area to be mapped is rugged and mountainous, and the inhabitants hostile: the positions and

In broken and hilly country differences of altitude must be taken into account. The use of each photograph is thus limited to the measurement of horizontal and vertical angles and to fixing the positions of new points by intersections from two or more photographs. Where this principle is employed oblique photographs are preferred as covering larger area and allowing greater refinement in the measurement of vertical angles. Where the area to be mapped contains a sufficiently close control the filling in of topographical detail is more easily done from vertical than from oblique photographs, providing that the area in question is not markedly hilly. The scale on which photographs are taken may be larger or smaller than that of the map, but it must be sufficiently large to allow of clear identification of detail. The area to be mapped is photographed from a prearranged height in strips allowing for an overlap in all directions. Much depends upon the training of the pilot in maintaining

his height and his overlap.

It is usual to arrange for a mechani-

u

w

Negative

(which shows ground reversed}

d

Fic. 2.—Diagram illustrating the graphic method of transferring detail from photo to map.

Fic. 1.—Diagram

showing how

inclined perspective view.

an

air-photograph

becomes

an

heights of a few peaks in it, visible from accessible ground, have been fixed trigonometrically, but no reliable map exists. As a preliminary measure, oblique photographs are taken in

the air from a variety of points of view. The positions of the camera in space are calculated, and from measurements on each photograph a number of rays are drawn to noteworthy points in the valleys and on the hills. Positions and heights are thus determined for a subsidiary control. With the axis vertical a series of photographs of valleys and of watersheds are taken, pasted together and fitted to the control. When the map has been thus built up, form-lines are added from the oblique photographs, based upon the fixed heights. In most air-photo surveys difficulties will be intermediate between the foregoing two cases, Applications of Atr-photography.—In any particular survey air-photographs may

be used, then, for any or all of the fol-

lowing processes, viz.: (1) Air-photo control, (2) Air-photo topography, (3) Air-photo contouring. In taking vertical photographs for air-photo control in fairly flat country, exposures are so regulated as to ensure a substantial overlap, generally amounting to 50°% at least. Each successive photograph may therefore be fitted to its predecessor, and lines or traverses of photographs may be mounted and sealed between fixed points. Any two or more traverses of different and independent lines may be made to intersect over some topographical object, the position of which may be determined as the simple or weighted mean of the individual positions from each traverse. Traverses may also be made to converge and end upon some prearranged and hitherto unfixed object. This method has given fairly accurate results in flat country on the scale of 1/40,000, and is dependent upon the ability of the pilot to maintain an even keel and a constant height. | Bo:

cal control of exposures regulated according to the ground speed of the aeroplane. Detail Plotting —The plotting of detail from air photographs would be simple if the axis of the camera could be maintained in a vertical position. It would then be necessary only to bring the photograph to the scale of the map. No means of ensuring this verticality has, as yet, been evolved. It often becomes necessary, therefore, to fit photographs individually upon the

control points. This can be done graphically or optically by the camera lucida, or by the enlarging camera. (1). The graphic method depends upon the principle that as straight lines on one plane remain straight lines on any perspective of that plane the position of a point which lies upon the intersection of two linescommon to the ground and to the photograph may be readily determined. Within narrow limits the proportional compass set to the difference of scale between map and photograph at this point may be used to fix additional points. It is more accurate, however, to maintain the straight line principle and to cover the map and photograph with a “ grid ” of corresponding lines, as in fig. 2. The photograph is mounted on a sheet of paper; a, b, c, d, and A, B, C, D are four points the positions of which are known and are also identifiable on the photograph. Subsidiary common points at oO are established by drawing the diagonals, and four subsidiary quadrilaterals may then be formed by drawing lines through oO from vV and wW—the intersections of the prolonged sides of the quadrilaterals. The same principle may be applied to any polygons formed by joining up any number of points (more than four) which are fixed on the ground and are identifiable on the photograph. Detail to any extent desired may be sketched in by eye. A useful method of plotting, known as the four-point method, is as follows (fig. 3): Since the cross ratios of four points which lie upon a straight line are the same upon any perspective view of that line, we can readily plot the positions of a fifth point (S) if we know the positions of four points A, B, C, D.

SURVEYING Let A, B, C, D, be four known points on the photograph and a, b, c, d their positions on the map, and let S be a point on the photograph, the position of which on the map is to be found. Join AB, AC, AS and AD, ab, ac and ad. Lay a piece of paper with a straight edge, in any position cutting the lines AB in B’, AC in C’ AS in S in AD in D’ and mark these cutting pointson the paper. Now lay the paper strip on the map and fit it upon the lines ab, ac and ad, so that B’, C’ and D’ lie upon these lines. Mark on the map the position of a point s’ opposite the mark S’ on the paper strip. Join as’. Then s, the position of point S, upon the map, lies upon the line as’. Repeat this proceeding from B, C or D, and another line bs’, cs’ or ds’, will be secured, the intersection of which with as’ will define the position of s. (2) The camera lucida (see 5.104) has been used extensively for plotting. (3) Graphic and optical methods are tedious and lengthy compared with a photographic rectification, The ordinary enlarging camera can be made to answer the purpose with little modification. A coincidence can be obtained between the four control points on the map and on the

photograph, and a “ rectified ” print may be obtained.

Ground Photographic Surveying—Assuming that a photograph is a true perspective view, that the plate was vertical when exposed, and that the horizon line and focal length of the lens are known, it is clearly possible to determine the horizontal and vertical angles, from-the point where the camera was set up, to all objects represented in the photograph, the horizontal angles

697

distance for seeing, we shall clearly get a very much magnified stereoscopic effect, as compared with what is obtainable with the unaided eyes. In the diaphragm of each eyepiece let there be a similar movable mark, or line on glass. On looking through the eyepieces the marks in question will appear as a single mark floating in space, and by vertical and horizontal adjustments this mark can be made to appear to touch any given object in the picture. We have, thus, a means of measuring small parallaxes and vertical angles, and these can be read off graduated micrometer heads.

A sterco-comparator as above described gives angles from the centre of the plate, distances and vertical angles; but the reading is laborious and the map has to be constructed point by point. In r907 and ror1 Lieutenant von Orel, of Vienna, devised a stereo-

autograph which permitted the automatic drawing of detail and contours. The latest machine of the class is the stercocartograph of Mr. Henry Wild, made at Heerbrugg, in Switzerland, in 1925. It promises well, but all these machines are very expensive. Generally with stereo-photography we are not limited to a country with marked features, as is the case with normal phototopography. Provided that the view is clear, gently undulating, or flat, country can be as well surveyed and contoured as a mountainous region. The method has some obvious applications, but it is difficult in forest-clad country or In towns and its value largely depends upon good view points. The old photographic

surveying has asits chief field of usefulness a well-marked moun-

Fic. 3.—Four-point method of plotting.

being measured from some known represented object. If two such photographs are taken from two points of known lengths at known distance apart, we have the means of determining the

distance and height of all points shown on both photographs. It will, therefore, be necessary, in planning a ground photographic survey, to arrange for a triangulation to fix the relative positions at which the camera will be set up, and the first stage in the office work will consist in the plotting of the triangulation. A camera station need not, however, be a trigonometrical point, provided that its trigonometrical position can be measured from the photograph. To use the photograph for plotting the detail from each camera station A draw, at its correct angle, the central line of view. Along this line draw Ax, equal to the focal length of the lens; through x draw a line at right angles to Ax and plot from x the projections of the distant points, as measured on the horizon-line of the photograph. The intersection of rays from A to the points so obtained, with rays to the same objects from other stations, will give their position. A supplementary order of triangulation is usually added

during the course of the field work, both to fix camera positions and to add a few bearings and vertical angles from which the

photographic data may be checked. The office work takes two or three times as long as the field work and consists in plotting positions, calculating heights and drawing contours from the data measured on the developed plates. Stereo-photo Surveving—The most recent development of photographic surveying consists in the employment of the stereoscopic principle. In stereo-photo surveying two stations can be occupied on the same hill-top and their distance apart need only be some 50 to 300 feet. In the simplest case let two vertical photographic plates be exposed from two points, say 100 ft. apart; let the plates be in

the same plane and their centres on the same level. Then if these

plates are put into a stereoscope provided with a system of lenses and prisms such that the eyepieces are brought to a convenient

tainous region. The new is not so limited but its role has not yet been fully determined. Sterco-photo surveying, sometimes called sterco-photo grammetry, is to be seriously reckoned with in the future. Companies have been formed for the exploitation of this method in France, Germany, Spain and elsewhere. It is not only possible to make maps in this way, but also to construct plans and sections of existing buildings, and very successful results of this kind have been obtained, especially in Germany. A good account of the progress of the system will be found in “ La Estereafotagrametria in 1924’ by J. Ms: Torroja, Madrid. There is a large literature on the subject.

MI. LEVELLING Since rg1o much progress has been made in the development of a sound system of levelling, especially with regard to precise, or geodetic levelling, which provides the framework on which all national levels depend. The now defunct International Geodetic Association laid down some wise rules on the subject. The admirable treatise of M. Ch. Lallemand, Nivellement de haute Précision marked a great advance on previous text-books; and the modern geodetic levelling instruments produced in France,

the U.S.A. and Switzerland have greatly increased the accuracy of observation. The introduction, by the Ordnance Survey of the United Kingdom, of a specially devised kind of permanent bench-mark did away with a weak element in the old levelling, the instability of the ground marks. New Instrumenis——The prismatic astrolabe of Claude and Driencourt furnishes an instrument by which the observed local time and latitude can be determined by observations to at least three stars, using a constant altitude of about 60°. This method has been successfully employed in the Sudan and elsewhere. An attachment to an ordinary theodolite serving the same purpose,

has been devised by Mr. E. A. Reeves, and has proved satisfactory. This does away with the necessity of taking out a special instrument. A very ingenious direct-reading tacheometer has been brought out by Mr. H. H. Veffcott by which the computations required with ordinary tacheometers are avoided. Sec ARCHAEOLOGY; GEODESY; GEOGRAPHY. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—Close and Winterbotham, Text Book of Topographical and Geographical Surveying (H.M. Stationery Office, London, 1925); A. R. Hinks, Waps and Survey (Cambridge University Press, 1923), Report of Air Survey Committee (H.M. Stationery Office, London, 1923); B. M. Jones and J. C. Griffiths, Aerial Surveying by Rapid Methods (Cambridge University Press, 1925); E. Deville, Photographic Surveying (Ottawa, 1895); Royal Geographical

698

SURVEYING

Society, Hintsto Travellers, vol. t.; Bell and Knox-Shaw, A Handbook of the Prismatic Astrolabe (Government

Press, Cairo, 1919), (C. F. CL.)

IV. NAUTICAL SURVEYING Naval hydrographic surveying has since the cessation of the World War steadily progressed in adopting the latest methods

wire has been laid.

The dial registers 1,000 rev. for a mile of

6,080 ft., consequently when plotting in sea miles a second correction, for latitude, is necessary. This method of determining distance is specially useful when surveying out of sight

of land, and is used in combination with astronomical observa-

tions and moored beacons. Fixing Positions of Ships, Buoys, eic., by Subagueous Soundranging.—This new method of accurately fixing the positions of buoys, etc., is carried out by dropping an explosive charge at the position it is required to fix. The sound of the explosion travels through the water to a number of hydrophones suitably placed, and the positions of which are accurately known. The ` differences between the times at which the shock reaches the {nstruments.—Theodolites in current use (1926) are 4 in., various hydrophones are recorded photographically by a gal5 in. and 6 inches. The majority of these are micrometer vanometer on shore, to which the instruments are connected by theodolites read to 10 seconds. The use of the thcodolite for cables. From these observations it is possible to calculate a position line for each pair of hydrophones. Three or four such astronomical and tacheometer work is now universal. Sextants for observing, with stand and artificial horizon, however, are lines from hydrophones suitably placed will give a cut, which is still supplied, and improvements in this instrument such as an the position of the explosion. As in ail surveying problems, the endless tangent screw and electric light for night work, have accurate fixing of a point from two others depends on the length of the base, that is, the distance between two known points, so been adopted. More portable folding stands with slow-motion screws for movement of the sextant in azimuth and altitude are does the accurate fixing by sound through the water depend on also supplied, and in addition amalgamated troughs, consisting the hydrophones, or groups of hydrophones being such a distance apart, commensurate with the distance at which it is of gold-covered plates on which a thin film of mercury is floated, required to fix the buoy, ete. have superseded the old artificial horizon consisting of a mercury Chronomciers.—Surveying ships are now supplied with from bath; the new pattern is far less sensitive to earth tremors caused by surf, traffic, etc. It is, however, recognised that this 8 to 12 chronometers of the box type (pocket chronometers being used outside the chronometer room) selected Instruments instrument for work on shore is now superseded by other more which have successfully passed most exhaustive tests at the precise and compact instruments. For astronomical work on The astrolabe a prisme, a very precise instrument, is one of Royal Observatory, Greenwich. these. It is used for finding position and enables altitudes of shore, the portable ‘‘ Lindqvist chronograph ” is employed. In any stars at the altitude of 45° or 60° to be observed. The latest this instrument, a chronometer fitted with special contact form of astrolabe enables observations of stars to be casily and pieces automatically sends an electric current every two seconds through an electro-magnetic coil, and thus, by suitable mechanaccurately made as follows with the 60° instrument—one step of 73’ on either side of 60°, that is 3 observations of ism records every alternate second as a perforation on a paper 59°523’ 60° 60°073’ can be taken of one star. With the 45° tape, which is kept moving at a uniform rate by means of instrument—four steps of 5! on either side of 45°, that is rt clockwork. The closing of a switch by the observer operates a observations of 44°40’ 44°45’ 44°50" 44°55’ 45° 45°05" 45°10 45°15" second coil, which records the instant of observation in a similar 45°20’ can be taken of one star. The great advantage of this manner by making an additional perforation in the tape. Wireless telegraphy for accurate time and obtaining meridian instrument is that with one setting up of the instrument and distances has been adopted. Amongst minor improvements in without a number of necessary readjustments as in a theodolite surveying appliances may be mentioned the standardisation of both time and latitude can be determined, provided of course that the best and latest method of obtaining error of the time the markings of leadlines, Improved buoys for beacon work, light filters for fitting to the eyepieces of sextant and theodolite used (7.e., wireless time signals) is adopted. When it is found necessary to measure bases the hydrographic surveyor uses the telescopes. In 1926 electrical lighting arrangements to sextants and theosoo ft. steel measuring tape and is provided with the Kew The arcless sextant which standardisation certificate. In surveying abroad where no dolites had greatly improved. local triangulation exists, the accurate measurement of a base enables angles to be taken and read off (on a drum) without the is recognised as a most important step, second only to a satis- necessity of removing the eye from the telescope; wireless telegraphy outfits for use of detached parties and the gyro factory base extension. Tacheometers and tacheometer staves marked according to compass (sce G¥YROSCOPES), were all in use. For the measurethe Admiralty pattern are used for measuring distances up to ment of velocity of tidal streams and current the Ekman current meter was generally in use. over 2,000 Ít. where extreme accuracy is not necessary. OneIn calculating triangulations considerable time is saved in metre base range-finders are useful in measuring short bases for plans of harbours, etc., when time or circumstances do not permit correcting for false station by use of the station corrector of a more accurate method. Of the various forms of heliostat the diagram, by which the correction can be obtained very quickly to any accuracy required (generally about 5 sec. of arc) Galton sun signal has proved a most excellent instrument and fitted to theodolites it allows of the sun’s rays being quickly and and the tedious trigorometrical calculation avoided. The slide rule has come far more into prominence for small rough calculaaccurately directed to and kept on the station desired, whether tions. As the result of modern inventions, special charts for the latter is visible or not. 7 | Taut wire measuring gear is now fitted in all British surveying the use of submarines and for other purposes in addition to the ordinary navigational chart have been produced. Charts for ships. This method of measuring distances at sea in comparasubmarines indicate graphically the nature of the sea bottom, tively shallow depths had proved most successful and was adopted after having been extensively used in connection with so as to indicate where vessels can rest with safety. The introduction of wireless direction-finding stations as an mine-laying during the War. The ship preserves a steady aid to navigation has necessitated the production of charts course and at a constant speed over the distance to be measured drawn on the gnomonic projection, by the use of which positions and at the same time runs out a thin piano wire from a drum which carries many miles of the wire. It is laid taut by means of can be more accurately determined. Additional charts are also required for testing range-finders and compass adjusting. a special brake device, the amount of wire out being registered ona dial. A correction (always subtractive) must be made for Physical charts indicate the direction of prevailing winds and errors. This varies from 1,000 to 3,000 ft. in a distance of 100 m., ocean surface currents at different periods of the year, localities and is governed by the contours of the sea bed upon which the | and time where ice may be fallen in with, and the direction and and instruments which have become available to the surveyor both on shore and afloat. Itis not generally recognised, although it is a fact, that the hydrographic surveyor has to combine the work of the land surveyor with his own—in fact like the marine he is a “ soldier and sailor too.”’ The World War resulted in various scientific inventions which benefited the surveyors and of which they have and are taking full advantage.

SURVIVAL—SWAZILAND force of the stream and drift currents of the oceans. Considerable gain in accuracy and prevention of distortion has been obtained by printing charts by lithography, although the original charts are generally speaking engraved on copper. No more marked advance has been made in hydrographic surveying than in that most important work of all, viz.: ship and boat sounding, and reference should be made to the article on that subject (see ‘ SOUNDING). (See John Ball and H. Knox Shaw, A Handbook of the Prismatic Astrolabe, Egyptian Govt., Cairo Government Press (1919); C. F. Close, Text Book of Topographical Surveying (1925). (H. P. Do.) SURVIVAL: see PSYCHICAL RESEARCH. SUTTNER, BERTHA, Baroness von (1843-1914), Austrian writer (see 26.171), died at Vienna June 21 1914. See H. v. der Mandere, Bertha Suttner (1909). SVABINSKY, MAX (1873), Czech painter, was born at Kroměříž in Moravia. He studied at the academy of fine arts in Prague, where he eventually became a professor; and in Paris, Germany, Holland and Belgium. His first works were made to suit the poetical and symbolic mood prevalent at the time, but he soon turned his attention to realistic subjects, from which he derived the sources of an art intoxicated with the manifestations of life and nature. There is hardly any branch of painting which Švabinský did not practice with success. Of his large-sized canvases, special reference should be made to “ The Sun Bath ” (1908), “ Summer ” (1909), and “The Family in the Mountains,” which provide typical examples of the vivid manner in which the artist seizes upon colour and form. As a portrait painter and etcher, Švabinský was remarkably active, his subjects including such prominent representatives of Czech public life as Mánes, Smetana and President Masaryk, while by his portrait of Maeterlinck he gained much appreciation abroad. Among his numerous other works should be mentioned the cycle of woodcuts entitled “ The Sonata of Paradise ” (1918-20). SVEHLA, ANTONÍN (1873), Czech statesman, was born at Hostivař, near Prague. From his youth he devoted himself to the movement for the emancipation of the Czech agricultural classes, rendering considerable services in founding and developing the Czech Agrarian party, of which in 1909 he became chairman, and which from 1908 he represented in the Provincial Diet of Bohemia. During the World War he plaved a most important part in Czech political life, bringing about the unity of all classes of the population and maintaining an undivided national front at the period of the greatest persecution. Contact with Professor Masaryk and those who worked with him abroad on behalf of Czechoslovak independence enabled him to complete the preparations for the final coup against Austria on Oct. 28 1918, when in his capacity as vice-president of the Prague National Committee, together with Dr. Soukup and J. Stříbrný, he took over the Government of the Czechoslovak State on behalf of the Czechoslovak National Council, which in the summer of 1918 had been recognised as the Czechoslovak Provisional Government. He became a member of the first National Assembly and was Minister for the Interior until Oct. 1922, when he undertook the formation of a new Czechoslovak coalition Govt. which he reconstituted after the Oct. 1925 elections. During his period of premiership he displayed admirable political and diplomatic abilities, notably by his skilful handling of the differences between the political parties. SVENDSEN, JOHANN SEVERIN (1840-1911), Norwegian composer (sce 26.175), died at Copenhagen June 14 1911. SWAN, SIR JOSEPH WILSON (1828-1914), British physicist (see 26.179), died at Warlingham, Surrey, May 28 ror4. SWANSEA, WALES (see 26.181), the most important port of shipment in Great Britain for tin plates, patent fuel, etc., and the chief centre of the anthracite, spelter and copper trades, had a population of 157,554 in 1921, and an area of 21,600 acres. Oystermouth and a large part of the Swansea rural district were included in the borough in 1918. There are many manufactures, especially those concerned with metal working. A new dry dock was opened in 1924 in the harbour, which has 281 ac. of deep

699

water in the docks, and over 6 m. of quays. Among the newer buildings are the Glynn Vivian art gallery in Alexandra road (1915); the large Dockers’ Hall in High street (1913); the Y.M.C.A. centre in St. Helen’s road (1913) and the chamber of commerce buildings (1915). In 1920 the technical college was made a constituent college of the University of Wales. Singleton House, with a park of 300 ac., presented to the municipality, is occupied by the college, pending the completion of new buildings in the park, of which the foundation stone was laid in 1920. Since the World War Swansea has become a centre for the distribution of oil, and extensive facilities for its storage and refining have been provided, tanks, refineries, pipe lines, etc. having been erected. | SWAZILAND,

a

British

protectorate

in South

Africa

(see

26.184). The population in 1921 was 133,563, of whom 2,203 were whites. The native population had increased by 5:3425 since 1911. The state of chaos into which Swaziland had fallen owing to the indiscriminate grant of concessions was ended by r914. Out of a total area of 4,275,000 ac., 1,635,000 ac. became Swazi reserves; in addition the Swazis bought 77,000 acres. A law suit arising out of these concessions led to a decision being given by the judicial committee of the Privy Council, in April 1926, that the crown had acquired sovereign rights in the disposal of the land of the protectorate—a right which the Swazis had challenged. The Swazis own large herds of cattle and grow maize and other crops. Some 7,000 to 8,000 Swazis find employment in the Rand gold mines. The whites are mainly farmers. Gold mining has been practically abandoned. The maximum output was 14,781 OZ. iN [91 I-2;in 1924 theoutput was 3760unces. Thecoal deposits have not been worked. Tin (cassiterite) is found on the western border; the export varies from 200 to 4oo tons a year; the total value of tin produced in 191§-24 was £510,000. From 1921 onward cotton growing was developed; in 1924 the value of cotton exported was over £10,000. The chief exports are slaughter oxen and tin. Revenue and expenditure balance closely. Revenue rose from £49,000 in rg11~2 to £89,000 in 1924-5, and expenditure in the same period from £45,000 to £87,000. The administration is under the charge of a resident commissioner, with headquarters at Mbabane, a small, picturesquely situated hill village (altitude 4,000 ft.) overlooking the middle veld. The paramount chief and other chiefs exercise jurisdiction in all civil cases in which natives only are concerned. Labotsibeni, otherwise Naba Tsibeni, the ‘‘ queen regent,” a wellknown figure in Swazi history, acted for many years as paramount chief, first after the death of her husband Mbandini in 1889, and later after the death of her son, Bhunu; her grandson, Sobhuza II., was installed as paramount chief in 1921. Labotsibeni died in Dec. 1925. Education is mainly in the hands of missionaries; Sobhuza was educated at a Government school at Labotsibeni’s kraal, and afterwards at the missionary establishment at Lovedale. Like many other Swazis he adopted European clothing. Mr. de S. M. G. Honey, who had served in Swaziland since 1004, became in rọ17 resident commissioner, and still held that office in 1926. In 1921 he set up an elected European advisory council to deal with purely European affairs. The development of Swaziland, favourably situated midway between Delagoa Bay and the principal markets of the Transvaal, and itself potentially a very rich country, was greatly retarded by the lack of railways and good roads, for the building of which funds were not forthcoming. A railway built by the Portuguese from Delagoa Bay stopped at a dead end at the Swazi border. Continued through Swaziland, it would afford the shortest route to the Rand. Swaziland being under direct British administration, the South African Govt. gave no facilities for the building of the railway. Its construction was regarded as dependent upon Swaziland joining the Union. When the question of incorporation was raised definitely in 1924, it appeared that the white settlers were not willing to become part of the Transvaal province, but that if Swaziland were incorporated in the Union, it should be as a separate entity. The chief event in the Protec-

torate in 1925 was the visit of the Prince of Wales.

SWEDEN

700

See Official Year Book of the Union of South Africa (Pretoria, 1925), the annual Report on the Protectorate issued by the Colonial Office,

London, and The Times, April 16 1926, SATENA H, v. Miller avy Council Judgment). (F. R. C.)

SWEDEN (see 26.188), a kingdom of northern Europe and a member of the League of Nations. Its area is 173,105 sq. m. and the population (1924) 6,036,118.

I.

POLITICAL

HISTORY

On the death of King Oscar, Dec. 8 1907, his son became King of Sweden with the title Gustav V. After the dissolution of the union with Norway, sweeping reforms were introduced by the Liberal Ministry under Karl Staaff (r905-6) and the Conservative Ministry under Lindman (1906-11). The main problems were the extension of the political and municipal franchise and the adjustment of national defence. The franchise was reformed (1907-9), and the first elections for the Second Chamber under the new conditions took place in Sept. 1911. In 1905, the electorate numbered 402,000; in 1911, 1,066,000. The result of the election favoured the Left wing, and Karl Staaff formed his second Liberal Ministry, which in 1913, with the help of the other political parties, passed a law for national pensions insurance. The international unrest necessitated a complete overhauling of the national defence. The Staaff Ministry instituted a thorough investigation, and intended introducing a Government measure during the 1914 Riksdag. At that time public opinion was much exercised over the mili-

tary activities of Russia in Finland, which it was thought constituted a menace to Sweden. Staaff outlined his policy at the end of 1913 in a public speech, from which it appeared that the main question—the increase of the training period for the infantry Chamber in the autumn of 1914; the other items, however, were to be submitted to the 1914 Riksdag. These delays aroused much public feeling and in Feb. 1914, 30,000 peasants assembled in Stockholm to request the King that the whole question of national defence should be handled simultaneously. The

King’s answer was favourable, and this led to a conflict between himself and the Liberal Ministry, which resigned. The King commanded the landshövding Herr Hjalmar Hammarskjöld (q.v.) to form a new ministry. Herr Karl A. Wallenberg became Minister of Foreign Affairs. The Second Chamber was dissolved and the Riksdag reassembled after the election of May 1 1914. The supporters of the new Government won some seats but had no majority in the Second Chamber. In the First Chamber, however, they had a friendly majority. National Defence-—Before the question of national defence could be handled the World War broke out. With the help of the Liberal party, the problem was solved by increasing the

training period for recruits (in the infantry to 340 days followed by the usual annual training courses; for the other arms the increases were in some cases rather less, in others rather more).

The system of maritime fortifications was strengthened and large grants were made for the fleet and for the provision of war materials. To meet the extraordinary expenditure a war tax was levied on all incomes above a certain amount. It was widely, but quite erroneously, believed that Sweden had entered into a treaty with Germany. Sweden immediately issued a declaration of complete neutrality, which she maintained strictly. Military patrols were stationed at all the more important points of communication and at certain points along the coast. The fleet endeavoured to prevent any military operations within Swedish territorial waters. Breaches of neutrality occurred, however, entailing complaints and sometimes apologies and compensation.

The Difficulty of Neutrality.—The difficulties of western trade over the North Sea increased. Many Swedish vessels were destroyed, with great loss of life, by German submarines and by mines laid by both belligerent groups. As the blockade against Germany was intensified, an increasing amount of Swedish goods were detained in England. The black lists of the belligerents,

trade

espionage

and

the attempt to force extensive

undertakings from importers in neutral countries induced the Swedish Govt. to put a proposal for a War Trade Law before the 1916 Riksdag, under which no undertakings with belligerent Powers could be made without the sanction of the oficial Swedish authority (Trade Commission). If this officially recognised undertaking were broken the culprit was severely punished. Special arrangements were made with the belligerent countries regarding compensation for permission to transport ` goods. Britain desired to transport over Sweden goods necessary to Russia, and Sweden granted a transport licence in return for permission from Britain to import certain foodstuffs from the west. In Jan. 1915 the Government forbade the transport over Sweden of arms and other war material. Pourparlers between the Swedish and British governments with the object of improving trade communications between the two countries led to no result. Disputes arose over the British postal censorship and the closing by Sweden of a channel in Oresund. These difficulties brought the three Scandinavian countries into closer touch. In Dec. 1914, King Gustav invited the kings of Norway and Denmark to a conference in Malmö which inaugurated a period of greater friendship between the three countries. Special War Legislation. —M any legal and administrative innovations were made. In 1914 a moratorium for debts was introduced, but was soon abolished. Special laws empowered the Government to fix a maximum price for food and other necessities and if necessary to commandeer them. The Government also exercised a certain control over the merchant service. A War Insurance Commission was set up to give state-aided insurance against loss at sea, a Food Commission to take over the import of grain, etc., an Industry Commission to report on industry and later to ration raw materials, etc., an Unemployment Commission, and a Trade Commission to carry out the war trade laws. In Nov. rors the first maximum prices were fixed (for grain). A bad fodder harvest and the difficulty of

importing maize and other foodstuffs necessitated a great slaughter and export of cattle. The War caused a lull in internal party strife during ro15, but in the following year lively discussions took place as to how Sweden could best maintain her policy of neutrality. Some circles sympathised with Britain, others with Germany, but most desired neutrality. A little group of “ activists ” urged intervention on the side of Germany, but all political parties held aloof from them. Pressure of the Blockade.—On July 7 1916 Britain and France ceased to apply the regulations of the Declaration of London regarding neutral trade. The difficulties already attending neutral trade were now multiplied. The German U-boat warfare was intensified; the closed areas in the North Sea and the blockade of the Central Powers by the Allies created a situation little in accord with the pre-war regulations concerning international law. The Premier, Herr Hammarskjéld, championed the preservation of international rights in the name of the Swedish Government. Hemet with small success, even although the three Scandinavian kingdoms combined in the protest. During the War 280 Swedish merchant vessels were sunk, chiefly by German submarines, but also by mines and from other causes. The English ports were crowded with confiscated goods. After the Russian revolution in 1917, Britain no longer needed to transport goods over Sweden to Russia, so this means of exchange fell away.

Negotiations

with

Britain

for import

licences

led in the

spring of 1917 to a temporary agreement whereby Sweden was guaranteed certain imports (including grain) in return for the release from the Baltic of a number of imprisoned vessels belonging to the Entente. The tonnage question played an important réle in Entente policy, and Swedish vessels were requisitioned or were only allowed to sail in Swedish interests on condition that they were replaced by other vessels when required. Finally a commercial agreement was concluded in the spring of 1918, which enabled Sweden to import large consignments of goods in return for handing over merchant vessels up to 400,000 tons dead weight; a certain proportion of the Swedish iron ore

export; longer credit for goods purchased in Sweden, and stricter

SWEDEN regulations regarding exports to Germany. The increasing difficulties of navigation in the North Sea and the insignificant export from Britain to Sweden, led to an expansion of trade with Germany. Before the War Sweden obtained 91% of her coal from England but during 1916-7 only 27-26%. The remainder was almost entirely supplied by Germany. The dislocation of trade thus largely influenced Sweden’s policy, as in all her undertakings and agreements with the Entente Powers she had to reserve a considerable amount of commodities for exchange with Germany. Import difficulties necessitated still more stringent state measures. In Oct. 1916 sugar was rationed. In 1917 bread cards were introduced together with State control of the whole grain trade. Before the War an average of 183 kilogrammes of wheat and rye were consumed per head. The harvest of 1917-8 produced only 84.4 kilogrammes per head. Finally, potatoes and many other commodities were rationed. There was a great shortage of meat

and bacon, and milk was reserved for children and in-

valids. The price of food rose rapidly and large sums of money were set aside to provide the poorer classes with goods at cheap rates. As the import of coal decreased, special arrangements were made for procuring wood from the forests. All kinds of raw materials, especially lubricants, were scarce. The Hammarskjild Ministry was formed against the wishes of the Liberals and the Social Democrats, and these parties commanded a majority in the Second Chamber of the Riksdag. Changes of Government.—The Government only remained in power so long thanks to its firm neutral policy. Criticism of its trade policy increased, however, and in spite of a huge vote of confidence from 750,000 people, it was unable to co-operate further with the parties of the Left and resigned at the end of March 1917. A new Conservative Ministry carried on up to the new elections to the Second Chamber in the autumn. Herr Karl Swartz, a manufacturer, was Prime Minister and Adml. Arvid Lindman, a former Prime Minister, was Minister of Foreign Affairs. The food shortage caused considerable unrest and led to a demand for a constitutional reform of a democratic nature. At the autumn elections the Conservatives suffered several losses and Herr Swartz resigned. In view of the abnormal conditions, the King endeavoured to bring about a coalition government of all parties, but he was

not successful

and

the Liberal leader,

Prof. Nils Edén, formed a Ministry. He himself became Prime Minister and Lord Justice Johannes Hellnier, Minister of Foreign Affairs. The Ministry included five other Liberals and

four Social

Democrats.

Among

them

were

Herr

Hjalmar

Branting as. Minister of Finance, and Baron E. Palmstierna, afterwards Swedish minister to London, as Minister of Marine. Branting soon resigned on account of illness. The main items in the programme of the new ministry were a great constitutional reform and a trade agreement with the Allies (see above). The Government motion on the question of constitutional reform was thrown out by the First Chamber during the 1918 Riksdag; but a law was passed instituting great educational and Poor Law reforms. Finland and the Aaland Is.—In Jan. 1918, Sweden recognised Finland as an independent State. The Civil War in Finland created a critical situation. There was a demand for military support of the lawful Finnish Govt.; yet Sweden feared she might be drawn into the War if she assisted the Finns against the Russians and appeared to side with the Germans, to whom the Finnish Govt. had appealed for assistance. The Government acted with a circumspection which was rather resented by the Finnish middle classes. When the conflict was transferred to Aaland and its inhabitants voted for adherence to Sweden, Sweden sent a warship to the islands, and a small body of troops to maintain peace. These were, however, recalled when the Germans made the islands their centre for sending assistance to the ‘‘ Whites ” in Finland (see AALAND ISLANDS). Swedish Relief Work in belligerent Countries —The Swedish Red Cross was active in the adjacent belligerent countries, and Prince Carl, a brother of the King, took a prominent part in the work. Swedish delegates inspected the prison camps of Russia,

701

Germany and Austria and distributed numerous gifts to the prisoners from their respective countries. Arrangements were made for the exchange of invalided prisoners and their transport over Sweden. After the War large numbers of German and Austrian children spent some time in Sweden renewing their health and strength, and Swedish help was given to the impoverished countries. When the great famine broke out in Russia a Swedish relief expedition was sent to Samara. The sum total of relief given by Sweden to the various countries amounted to 36,500,000 kroner.

Internal Conditions after the War—The

repercussions of the

revolution in Central Europe reached Sweden. The Riksdag was sitting when the War ended and in order to keep in power, the Government hastened to put forward a programme embodying a far-reaching constitutional reform, which was carried, thanks to the close co-operation of the government parties. The graduated scale at the communal elections was abolished and equal and universal suffrage introduced. As the First Chamber is based on the communal vote, it became automatically more democratic. Women received full political franchise. The Social Democratic party consequently acquired a relative but not an absolute majority in each Chamber. Dissensions among the middle-class parties—the Conservative, Liberal and the new Bondeférbund (F'armers’ League)—further increased the power of the Social Democrats; but lacking an absolute majority, they were obliged to act rather asa Radical middle-class party. The Edén Ministry remained in office until March 1920. The liquidation of war-time restrictions and the work of reform continued.

je ay

,

hae

oa wt

EST

GE ey

BANA E ii

G

fi

ie x

Aner

as

"

he

SSO SEATS :

4

wee Bere i TB

AEAT A.

Bes Pi

Eata

Be A é RN

ae

Ei

Fic. 1. British Mark

= Ni

*3 Vt

I. Tank, with gun dismounted. Fic. 2. Allied Tank (known by British as N lark VIII., and by Americans as the Liberty Tank). Fic, 3. British Medium C Tank.

PLATE II.

i A N KS

Fic. 4. Vickers Light Tank (Mark II.).

Fic. 5. French Renault Tank.

TANKS much felt in former battles. The attack was in the nature of an assault in the old form of siege warfare. The result was a complete success in which the tanks only played a small part, though in a few individual cases they rendered valuable help. The

ground was completely pulverised by the preliminary bombardment but very few tanks became ditched, mainly owing to the fact that there had been no rain for many weeks and that there had been time to make a close reconnaissance of the ground and pick out the best lines of advance for the tanks. After this attack the arm was renamed as the Tank Corps. Failure at VYpres—On July 31 the third battle of Ypres was launched. As the preliminary bombardment had been so successful at Messines it was decided again to use a long preliminary bombardment lasting 10 days. The danger of thus rendering the ground impassable to tanks, especially if it rained, was explained by those responsible for the action of tanks, but it was considered that the value of the bombardment more than balanced the possible loss of the use of tanks; this did not prove to be the case as the Germans adopted a defence distributed in depth which did much to discount the value of the bombard-

ment. Unfortunately it rained on the first day of the battle and although the tanks rendered much assistance in individual cases during the early stages of the attack, the ground soon became quite impassable to tanks, and later it became impassable to infantry as well. Success at Cambrai-—Although the failure of the tanks at the third battle of Ypres was through no fault of the officers and men and those who commanded them, it led to much discussion as to whether tanks should be retained at all. The Germans formed the opinion that the tank was practically useless, and many British officers held the same view. Fortunately this view was not unanimous and on Noy. 20 permission was obtained to

launch an attack at Cambrai, in which the tanks were to be used in the way in which their originators had intended that they should be used. This was the turning point in the history of the Tank Corps. The action as fought was in almost every detail the execution of the plan put forward officially for the employment of the tanks by Col. Swinton in Feb. 1916, seven months before the first tank action. The attack was to be a complete surprise and no preliminary bombardment was to be used. Three brigades of tanks (nine battalions) were to take part with a total of 378 Mark IV. tanks and 98 administrative machines (see CAMBRAI).

The attack was launched at 6:20 A.M. in a slight fog, Maj.Gen. Elles leading the attack in a vanguard tank with the centre division. The operation was a complete success; the enemy were taken absolutely by surprise and most of the infantry bolted or surrendered. Within 12 hrs. the infantry had advanced 12,000 yd. on a front of 13,000 with only 4,000 casualties. A similar

penetration at Ypres had taken three months, with enormous loss of life and morale. The preliminary bombardment which had cost some {22,000,000 at Ypres was dispensed with and a further advantage was gained in that the roads had not been torn up with shell fire and were available for use almost at once. And this had been achieved by the Tank Corps using great mechanical power, but numbering only 4,000 of all ranks. As regards tank design three main lessons were learnt from the battle of Cambrai. First of all the tanks required to be handier, and controlled by one man, without the assistance of

any gearsmen, and to meet this requirement the Mark V. tank was produced. This design had been suggested but not accepted almost a year previously. Outwardly the tank had the same appearance as Marks I. to IV., but the engine and transmission were much improved. The engine developed more power and the steering was effected by using epicyclic gears on the transmission to each track; this was the best tank produced during the War. Then the difficulty of crossing the wide trenches of the Hindenburg line had been considerable, and a certain number of special long tanks were ordered for this purpose. These were made from Mark V. tanks by adding a section in the centre to obtain the required length, and were known as Mark V.* tanks. Later an improved type was made with a more powerful engine

known as the Mark V.**

725 The third lesson was the necessity at

times for a much more mobile tank for use beyond the main trench systems. These tanks would not need to cross wide trenches and hence they could be shorter and lighter and more mobile. One type, known as the whippet, had already been constructed experimentally. These lighter tanks became known as “medium ” tanks, and the whippet was named the Medium Mark A. German Offensive of March r918.—The Tank Corps was now expanded to five brigades of 13 battalions with 320 Mark IV. machines and 50 Medium A. machines. During the winter of 1917-8 all units were training and being equipped with new tanks. No further offensive operations were in view and there ensued a period of preparation for the expected German attack in the spring of 1918. To assist in repelling such an attack the Tank Corps was distributed in detachments on a front of some 60 miles. The attack was launched on March 21 and the Germans advanced rapidly. The tanks took part in many improvised attacks in attempting to stem the German advance. Some of these met with fair success and caused heavy casualties but the tanks were too few and too dispersed to make their real weight felt. It was during this retreat that the Mediuin A. tanks were first engaged in action and they met with considerable success, their additional mobility being of great assistance in this type of warfare. The attack fought itself to a standstill within a month, immobility being caused more by the difficulties of transport than by the resistance offered by the Allies. The supply of ammunition and food to the advanced German

troops, espe-

cially where the lines of supply crossed the old battlefields, became exceedingly difficult, and it was at this stage that the necessity for some form of cross-country transport to enable an army to pursue across the devastated country left behind by the opposing force, began to be realised. The Tank Corps had already foreseen its own requirements by the provision of supply tanks and sledges drawn by tanks, and later by moving signal-

ling equipment in special signal tanks.

A small number of gun

carrier tanks had also been constructed at an earlier date for the transport of the heavier guns and ammunition, though these had not been found very satisfactory mechanically. At a later date large numbers of tractors were ordered for every type of transport work, with the idea that at any rate a portion of the army could be made mobile and independent of made roads for its line of supply, but none of these were received before the date of the armistice. In the meantime a reaction had set in as regards the estimated value of fighting tanks. The critics asserted that the battle of Cambrai could never be repeated and pointed to the lack of decisive results achieved by the tanks during the German advance. The proposed expansion of the Tank Corps was post-

poned and the existence of the corps seriously threatened. Fortunately the Mark V. tanks were now arriving at the rate of about 60 machines per week, and on July 4 one brigade of tanks equipped with these machines carried out a surprise attack on

the Germans at Hamel in conjunction with the Australians. The attack was a complete success. The extra handiness and mobility of this machine enabled it to be used very effectively against machine-guns, many of which were crushed and rolled into the ground. The Triumph of the Tank.—The great French victory of Soissons on July 18 1918 marked the turning point of the War; the victory was largely due to the use of French tanks employed in much the same way as the British had used their tanks at Cambrai. This was followed by the opening of the British strategic offensive on Aug. 8 with the battle of Amiens. In this attack the tank tactics were those of Cambrai modified by recent experience and adapted to the improved machines available. The attack was carried out by three army corps, a cavalry corps and ir tank battalions; nine battalions were equipped with Mark V. tanks and the remainder with Medium A. tanks. For the first time since tanks had been used for an offensive it was possible to keep some in reserve and 42 tanks were kept in hand.

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726

The attack was a complete success, the greatest penetration of the tanks being 73 miles. The tanks continued in action till Aug. II. From that date until the Armistice tanks took part in every main attack and in no case, where tanks were properly employed in conjunction with the other arms, did the attack fail. During this period the tanks co-operated in the battles of Bapaume, Epehy, Cambrai, St. Quentin, the Selle and Mauberge. Tanks came to be looked upon as essential to the success of any attack, and in his final dispatch the commander-in-chief stated that the successful attacks which won great victories at Amiens and afterwards would have been impossible without tanks. The Germans also confessed that it was the tanks that had caused the downfall of their armies in the feld. An expansion of the Tank Corps to 34 battalions had been sanctioned if the War continued into 1919, and the Ministry of Munitions in England had hoped to produce a total of 6,000 machines in 1919.

Ill. FRENCH AND AMERICAN TANKS Independent Invention by the French.—The French were faced with the same difficulty as the British in the early stages of the War, and their attacks were held up by machine-guns and barbed wire although they were often well supported by artillery using high-explosive shells. It was Col. (later Gen.) J. B. E. Estienne of the artillery who first perceived the necessity for some mechanical machine which could cross the trenches and barbed wire in the face of machine-gun fire, and when this officer saw the Holt caterpillar tractors at work behind the British front for hauling guns, it occurred to him that the solution might be found in an armoured caterpillar machine. On Dec. 1 1915 Col. Estienne put forward his idea officially to the French commander-inchief and asked for an interview. Thus the ideas which had been thought out by the British originators in 1914 were reinvented separately and independently by the French in 1915. As the result of Col. Estienne’s interview, 400 tanks were asked for and the design was to be prepared jointly between Col. Estienne and M. Brille of the Schneider Works. Later a further order for another 400 machines was placed with the St. Chamond Works. In June 1916 French Headquarters received information from British G.H.Q. as to what was being done in England. Col. Estienne visited England and saw the Mark I. tanks in training. He expressed the view that the two countries should collaborate as regards the production of tanks and that as the British had progressed with the design of a large heavy machine, the French might specialise with a light machine for more mobile warfare. Colonel Estienne was specially insistent in the view that neither country should forestall the other in the use of tanks, but that they should co-operate and launch a great offensive in which both British and French tanks might obtain full value from surprise. French Light and Medium Tanks.—The first light tank was produced by the Renault firm in Nov. but the production of these small machines did not receive official support. The French classified their tanks or “ chars d'assaut,” as they were called, in three categories, and this classification was generally accepted. The light tanks were under to tons in weight and were to be transported over long distances in lorries. The medium tanks (St. Chamond and Schneider) weighed between to and 30 tons and could be transported by rail on ordinary trucks. The heavy tanks, of which the British Mark I. formed the only example at the time, were machines weighing over 30 tons and required special railway trucks for transport. A training centre was now formed at Marly-le-Roi and later an additional centre was started at Champlieu. On Sept. 30, the artillerie d’assaut, which was the counterpart to the British Tank Corps, was formed under the command of Colonel Estienne. The French medium tanks now began to arrive. The Schneider tank was six metres in length and driven by a 6o H.P. engine. It was armed with a short 75 mm. gun and two machine-

guns. The St. Chamond tank was somewhat larger and heavier, being 8 metres in length and driven by an 80 H.P. engine through

a petrol-electric transmission. The armament was one 75 mm. gun and four machine-guns. Both machines differed radically from the British tank in that the track was not carried round the machine but consisted of the ordinary short type used on tractors. This resulted in the machines having very limited climbing power out of shell holes or craters. The artillerie d’assaut was organised in “ groupes ”; each “groupe ” had four batteries of four tanks cach. The light Renault tank was used as a “ command ” tank and one was allotted to each “ groupe.” The delivery of both types of tank was very slow and instead of 800 tanks being reacly for the spring offensive in to17 only 250 had been received. The result was that only ro “ groupes ” were able to take part in Gen. Nivelle’s offensive. The French high command. had grave doubts whether to make use of so small a number of tanks, but eventually decided to do so. The olfensive was unsuccessful and although the tanks did good work in isolated cases, the result was disappointing. The employment of tanks in this manner was a repetition of the mistakes made by the British. The attack was not launched as a surprise and the tanks were dispersed and used in small detachments. The tanks showed certain faults but mainly mechanical troubles that were already known. The main fault was lack of climbing

power owing to the body projecting beyond the front end of the tracks. Success of the Renault Type—Between this date and the end of the year 1917, the French tanks were again used on several occasions with similar results. On Oct. 23, five “ groupes ” took part in the battle of La Malmaison and met with much success

though the battle was not launched as a surprise and was preceded by an artillery bombardment. During this period much discussion took place and designs were prepared for improved medium tanks and for heavy tanks. Finally in Dec. 1917 it was decided to concentrate on the Renault light type; this was the machine that Col. Estienne had asked for in 1916. Some of these tanks were already on order but production had been very slow. In Jan. 1918 it was decided to increase the orders to a total of 4,000 light tanks, of which 1,000 were to be ready by the end of March. The Renault tank was a small machine weighing 63 tons. The length was four metres and in addition there was a short skid tail in rear to assist in trench crossing. It was driven by a 35 H.P. engine. ‘There were two types, one being armed with a 37 mm. gun and the other with one machine-gun. The crew consisted only of two men, one driver and one gunner. The French had hoped to use their tanks in mass in a great offensive in the spring or summer of 1918, but the German advance on March 21 upset all these plans. Instead the tanks were used piecemeal and in local counter-attacks to stem the German advance. In May and June tanks were used on occasions and the Renault tank made its first appearance in battle on the east of the Forest of Retz. During this time the Artillerie d'assaut was reorganising and rearming. On July 18, the battle of Soissons took place and the French tanks came into their own. It was in many ways a repetition of the battle of Cambrai but as the warfare had been of a semi-mobile nature for some months, the wide trenches of static warfare were non-existent. This suited the Renault tanks. The attack was launched as a surprise using a total of 120 medium tanks and 7oo Renault tanks. The attack was a complete success and definitely established the value of the tank in the French Army. From that date until the Armistice, the French tanks—mainly Renault tanks—took part in practically every attack and contributed largely to the success of the final French offensive. American Tanks—The Americans were quick to grasp the great possibilities of tank action on the Western Front and this form of mechanical warfare appealed to their national characteristics. Officers were sent to study the employment of tanks and questions relating to their construction and design. As a result the Americans decided to adopt the British heavy type of tank and the French light type known as the Renault tank. In Dec. 1917 an allied commission was formed and it was decided to construct a tank known as the Allied tank; this was a heavy tank similar to the latest British type and was to be the Mark

TANKS VIII. tank for the British Army. It was designed to use the Liberty aero engine and was known in America as the Liberty tank. A factory was erected at Neuvy Pailleux which was eventually to be capable of constructing and assembling these tanks at the rate of 1,200 a month and the first 600 were to be used for equipping the first American tank units. A large constructional programme was also started in America to produce both this type and the French Renault tank. The first tanks of this type were not constructed until just after the end of the War, but several American tank units cquipped with British and

727

machine-gun but the most secure method is still the employment of some form of gun on a vehicle which can travel cross-country, and this in effect becomes a tank, though it may be a tank specially designed as a tank destroyer. Experimental Patterns.—With the exception of the Germans, who are prohibited by the Peace Treaty from doing so, all great nations now employ tanks as part of their military force. The French have retained the Renault tank as the main armament of their tank corps and although they have carried out much experimental work with heavier tanks, no models have been con-

sidered sufficiently advanced to standardise and construct in any large numbers. The Americans have also constructed many expcrimental patterns but have retained the Mark VIII. or Allied tank as the heavy tank with which their tank units are equipped and the Renault as the light tank. The British, as the originators of the tank, have made great efforts to maintain their lead. Some months before the conclusion of the World War, when preparations were being considered for a great offensive in 1919, the specification was drawn up for a tank which was to be a great advance on the existing patterns. It was to have a speed of 20 m.p.h. and be capable of iloating and propelling itself across water. Enough petrol was to be carried to travel 200 m. cross country and the tank was to they met with little success. On the other hand the Germans made continual attempts to be long enough to cross a trench r2 ft. wide. This tank was to be used for attacking the enemy communications and headintroduce some form of anti-tank defence, but as the British quarters while the more conventional tanks were attacking the tanks met with comparatively small success in the early stages, main armies in front. The first experimental model was actually these measures were only developed half-heartedly. The first completed just after the Armistice. The tank used a system of step was the introduction of armour-piercing bullets which was spring suspension on a cable and hydraulic power for control. countered by the use of thicker armour on the Mark IV. tank, Next the Germans turned their attention to the employment of Although the machine attained a speed of 28 m.p.h. and swam field guns specially allocated for anti-tank defence and often successfully across a narrow river on several occasions, it proved dug in or concealed in the forward areas. ‘The employment of to be unreliable owing to the many new devices which it confeld guns in this way seriously depleted the power of the Gertained and which required further development. The next step man artillery for ather purposes, but they were meeting with that was tried was to produce a machine with an improved form considerable success until the introduction of the Mark V. tank, of steering. Up till then tanks had been steered by locking one which, with its increasing mobility was able to reduce very track and skidding round to the desired direction. This method largely the value of this field gun defence. of steering absorbs a large amount of power and brings large and In addition the Germans often employed obstacles such as unnecessary strains on the track and transmission. The device pits and barricades or mines. The former required a large amount now tried was to produce a track with lateral flexibility so that of material and labour in construction, and could usually only it could be laid in a curve and enable a tank to take ordinary be made in isolated places or in defiles, and did not seriously curves in the same way as any other vehicle. The problem howtrouble the allied tanks. The latter were a source of danger to ever was found to present many mechanical difficulties and, friend and foe, and required much time and material before a although much work has been done, no satisfactory solution has continuous line of minefield could be constructed. Although yet been found as far as tank construction is concerned. tanks were blown up in isolated cases by German mines the The Vickers Light Tank.—In the meantime the British Tank danger was never serious. The Allies made preparations to meet Corps which was reduced to four battalions after the War, was enemy tank attacks with field gun fire and in some cases by the armed with the Mark V. tank and the Medium C. The Medium use of male tanks kept in hand for this purpose. The latter is B. replaced the Medium A. at the end of the War, but very few the most certain method of secure defence against tanks but of this model were made and the units were equipped with an was never adopted by the Germans. In 1918 the Germans improved type in the Medium C. This machine had a maximum evolved a heavy anti-tank rifle which was capable of penetrating speed of 12 m.p.h. and a radius of action of 7o m. and would the armour plates of the tanks, but the ritle had a heavy recoil have been a very useful tank in France. But by 1920-1 these and was difficult to handle and did not prove successful as an machines were becoming worn out, and, although much knowlanti-tank measure. edge had been gained, the experimental machines aiming at far After the success of the Allies at the battles of Soissons and higher achievements, and which have already been referred to, Amiens in July and Aug. 1918 the Germans were awakened to were not yet in a satisfactory state for production. A tank was the great danger in which they stood from tank attacks. They therefore designed which was constructed on conventional lines then constructed a heavy machine-gun firing a 13 mm. bullet and aimed at obtaining a high degree of mobility, if necessary at and capable of penetrating 30 mm. of armour. The gun was the expense of trench spanning capacity. The machine was known as the Tuf, and great efforts were made to construct it known as the Vickers light tank. It is 18 ft. in length and weighs rapidly and secretly, but none were ready till after the Armistice. ro tons and is armed with one 3 pdr. gun and two machine-guns. The Allies knew of the construction of these guns and realised It can attain a speed of 20 m.p.h. and travel 150 m. on the petrol the value which they would possess for frontal defence. They that it carries. Owing to its short length the tank has poor hoped however that the increased mobility of at any rate a obstacle-crossing capacity, but in other respects it has proved proportion of the tanks in 1919 would enable them to penetrate very satisfactory. . and attack the enemy in the rear or along his communication The Future of the Tank.—Since the War there has been much and thus discount to a large degree the increased defensive discussion on the subject of mechanical warfare, initiated mainly power of the Germans against a frontal attack by tanks. by books and essays written by Col. J. F. C. Fuller! who acted as General Staff Officer to the Tank Corps in France. The great IV. PROGRESS SINCE THE WORLD WAR 1 These include Tanks in the Great War, The Reformation of War Since the War progress has followed similar lines. Some and the Gold Medal prize essay for 1919 in the Jour. of the R.U.S.1., nations have adopted a special anti-tank gun and others a heavy May 1920.

French tanks took part in the latter phases of the War and met with marked success. If the War had continued the American tanks would have come in with an overwhelming effect in 1919. Anti-Tank Defence —The Germans never made any attempt to construct tanks in large numbers, partly due to the restricted manufacturing power possessed by Germany compared with the Allies, and partly due to the comparative failure of the British tanks at Ypres in 1917. A rather clumsy type of heavy tank known as the A.Y.V. was constructed in small numbers. These and a number of captured machines were formed into units and used in small numbers in a few isolated cases during 1918, but owing to the way in which they were employed and handled

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TANNENBERG, BATTLE OF

saving in man power that can be effected by using mechanical power instead of men and horses for transport purposes is now fully realised. Reference has already been made to the necessity of using tractors to render an army capable of cross country movement independently of roads and much has already been done in mechanicalising the transport of artillery in the British service. A detailed consideration of this subject is, however, beyond the scope of an article on tanks. Moré recently attempts have been made to produce a force composed of infantry, tanks and artillery, the whole force being capable of moving roo m. in 24 hours by means of mechanical power. Such a force would have a value in war far beyond its numerical strength in men. Preliminary trials of this nature have already been carried out on manoeuvres in England but the whole subject is at present in its infancy. More recently experiments have been carried out in England with very small tanks with a crew of either one or two men only.

The one man tank! is constructed from the type of engine and transmission in normal commercial use and the tank is therefore both cheap and easy to obtain in large numbers for war. ‘The control is so arranged that one man can fire the machine-gun at the same time that he is driving the tank. Tactically the object of employing such small tanks is twofold. In the first place they are required for scouting and reconnaissance duties. A commander who uses ordinary tanks for such purposes risks losing his tanks on minor enterprises before the main battle takes place; on the other hand infantry are slow in performing these duties and cavalry are often too vulnerable. The small cheap tank possesses none of these disadvantages. The second object is to obtain increased safety against anti-tank fire by the use of dispersion. As many as 20 of these small machines can be provided for the cost of one large tank, and by the use of large numbers it should be possible to advance in the face of anti-tank fire where a small number of large machines would fall an easy prey. These small tanks are capable of traversing any ordinary country at an average speed of 10 m.p.h. and can cross a trench about 4 ft. 6 in. wide. If warfare continues to be a serious possibility between great nations in the future, the development of great tank armies is certain. Heavily armoured tanks carrying large calibre guns will be the main arm in the battle, and these will be assisted by larger numbers of small tanks for reconnaissance and protective purposes. In addition there will be the administrative tanks or tractors for communications, engineer work and supply purposes.

Owing to the vastness of her territory and to the comparatively undeveloped state of her railways, Russia’s rate of concentration was considerably slower than that of France, so much so that there was a danger of the latter being crushed before the attack on Germany in the East could commence to exert its effect. Unfortunately, under the pressure of French insistence, the good will and optimism of Russia’s military leaders exceeded practical possibilities and the outbreak of war found her military plans in some disorder. Austria was regarded by the mass of the Russian people as the main enemy, for it was she who had attempted to dragoon the Southern Slavs, and the Russian General Staff found themselves unable to alter their main advance to one against Germany. All their initial operations in East Prussia were in fact hasty improvisations. Geographically, East Prussia points forward into the heart of Slavdom and constituted a diflicult problem of defence for Germany. True to her policy of concentration of force at the decisive point, she had decided to advance against France with her main forces whilst maintaining only a minimum of strength in the East. Not wishing to abandon national territory without a blow, she had decided to concentrate this minimum strength in East Prussia, despite the dangers involved in such action. Germany’s strength in the East was to consist of 11 divisions, six first-line and five second-line, with but a single cavalry division. Taking the East Prussian front as it appeared to the Russians, we can divide it militarily as follows:— (a) Königsberg Area.—A more or less fortified area extending over the Königsberg peninsula, of a depth of 19 m. from north to south. In the centre lay the obsolete fortress, strong against anything but heavy artillery. The area could be reinforced by sea through the canal from Pillau. It formed a strong flanking position from which to attack any force attempting to pass it to the south.

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Sce D. G. Browne, The Tank in Action (1920); E. G. Beck, Tank Construction, etc. (1921). (G. le Q. M.)

TANNENBERG, BATTLE OF.—No portion of the earth’s surface has been more fought over than East Prussia. It was in

1410, on the field of Tannenberg, that the Teutonic knights were utterly routed by their enemies the Poles and Lithuanians, and German victory of 500 years later was in some degree the reversal of this defeat.

I. THE GENERAL SITUATION IN AUGUST 1914 The Tannenperg

of 1914 was the greatest victory achieved

by any of the combatants at the commencement of the World War, and its strategic and moral effect upon the succeeding years of the struggle were far-reaching. France and Russia had been joined by military convention since 1892 and their Chiefs of Staff had made careful arrangements

for concerted action.

In case of war with Central Powers it had been agreed that Germany was the main enemy and that the principal military effort must be made against her. She was to be attacked in East and West as nearly simultaneously as possible, so that she might not be in a position to reap the advantage of her central situation. Her preparedness and offensive military spirit made it tolerably certain that she would attack France first, leaving her ally Austria to hold Russia in check, until troops from the West could be made ready to crush Russia in her turn also. 1 The inventor of this new machine which, if its promise matures, may be epoch making, is Major Martel.—(Ed. £.B.)

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(b) Insterburg Gap.—A gap of 43 m. of open country, down which ran the main Insterburg-Allenstein railway. The River Angerapp running north and south blocks this gap. It formed an excellent line of defence with the right flank resting against the impassable Lake Mauer. ^ (c) Masurian Lokes.—A line of continuous lakes from Angerburg to the Russian frontier at Johannisburg, a distance of 50 miles. The narrow gaps between the lakes could be held with few troops, and the whole line presented an almost impregnable front behind which the Germans could operate to either flank. (d) Johannisburg—Dziatdowo (Soldau) Front.—A distance of 5 m. running east and west. On the Russian side the country had been left a desert as a defence against Germany

TANNENBERG, BATTLE OF Il. THE RUSSIAN PLAN OF INVASION ‘The Russian plan for the invasion of East Prussia was to advance with two armies north and south of the line of lakes, with the object of enveloping the German forces supposedly concentrating behind this line. The northern army under Rennenkampf was to advance first, towards the Insterburg gap, with the object of drawing the Germans as far to the east as possible. The southern army under Samsonov was to advance to the line Rastenburg-Allenstein, with the object of striking the rear of the Germans opposing Rennenkampf. Rennenkampf’s army crossed the frontier on Aug. 17 with a strength of 6% divisions and 53 cavalry divisions. On the zoth an action was fought with the German VIII. Army at Gumbinnen. Von Prittwitz, the German commander in the East, had concentrated his main strength to meet Rennenkampf, six divisions and a cavalry division, whilst leaving some two divisions to face Samsonov’s army, which was concentrating on the River Narew but was not considered to be ready to advance. Rennenkampf had moved off without a great portion of his transport and found himself forced to halt on the 2oth. Prittwitz advanced to attack him. There were serious miscalculations in the German movements, with the result that the action was indecisive, both sides suffering heavy losses. That evening the news arrived that Samsonov had not only started to advance, but that two of his corps were already close to the frontier and that he had at least five corps with him. The German commander abandoned all hope of defeating Rennenkampf on the 21st and ordered a withdrawal to the Vistula. He and his Chief of Staff were at once superseded. Hindenburg Takes Command.—The new commander, Hindenburg, had not yet been employed in the War. His Chief of Staff, Ludendorff, reached

Supreme

Headquarters at Coblenz on the

22nd and the situation in the East was explained to him. He immediately ordered the troops retreating in front of Rennenkampf to halt at once and to prevent him from pursuing, and issued instructions for a concentration against Samsonov. General Hindenburg joined Ludendorfi’s train at Hanover and took over the command in this arca at Marienburg on the afternoon of the 23rd. Luckily for the new command, Hoffmann, the chief of the operations section under Prittwitz, had already carried out many steps facilitating the concentration desired by Ludendorff, and the situation, though alarming, had not grown worse since the supersession of Prittwitz. Samsonov’s right was indeed well over the frontier near Ortelsburg and his left between Neidenburg and Działdowo (Soldau) but the Russian advance appeared to be slowing up. The German XX. Corps had taken up a position north of Neidenburg and was awaiting attack. The leading units

of the I. Corps were detraining south of Deutsch Eylau and were moving up on the right of the XX. Corps. The 3rd Res. division had detrained at Allenstein and was moving up on the left of the XX. Corps. A Landwehr division and units from the Vistula garrison troops were also coming up. Thus, a strength of about six or seven divisions had been collected to oppose ro

divisions and three Cavalry divisions of Samsonov’s army. No decisive results could be expected from such strength, and decisive operations were the Germans’ only hope. The most important feature of the situation, however, was that Rennenkampf had made no forward move since Gumbinnen and had lost all touch with the enemy in front of him. Ludendorff therefore conceived the idea of withdrawing all the troops from Rennenkampf’s front, with the exception of the cavalry division, and of directing them against the right flank of Samsonov’s army. Another four divisions thus obtained would give him an actual superiority over Samsonov and the direction of their attack might indeed be decisive.

Ill. AN ACCOUNT

OF THE BATTLE

Samsonoy, who in peace time was the Governor-General of Turkistan, had arrived from sick-leave in the Caucasus on Aug. 12. He had seen neither his subordinate generals nor his staff before, and his immediate superior Jilinsky, the commander

729

of the northwestern front, was urging him forward to cross the frontier on the 19th. The origina] concentration areas of his army behind the Bobr and the Narew had been considered to be too far to the east and a general move of all corps to the west wasin progress. By the zoth, the right wing (VI. and XIII. Corps) had reached the frontier, with the 4th Cav. Div. well behind on the right. The left wing (XV. and I. Corps) was just short of the frontier, with the 6th and r5th Cav. Divs. covering it. Of the XXIII. Corps, one division was two days’ march behind the left wing and the other had not yet detrained at Warsaw. The troops had been marching for a week across the desert area north of Ostroteka, over execrable roads in very hot weather. Much of ihe transport had been left behind, the men were tired and unfed and numbers had been much reduced by sickness. No contact had been gained with the enemy and the army was already more than 24 hours late in crossing the frontier. Reports from Rennenkampf of his victory at Gumbinnen and, during his advance westwards on the 24th and 2sth, of the signs of a hurried retreat on the part of the Germans, brought further urgings from Jilinsky to Samsonov to hurry. Samsonov obeyed to the best of his ability, and by the morning of the 26th his position was as follows :-— His centre of two corps (XIII. and XV.) was advancing northwest and was close on the line Allenstein-Hohenstein. On his

tight was one corps (VI.) and the 4th Cav. Div. at Rothfliess, at two days’ march from the centre. On his left was a corps (I.) and the 6th and 15th Cav. Divs. near Koschlau, at one day’s march from his centre. The XXIII. Corps troops which were up were moving into the gap between the centre and the left. His forces were thus much dispersed.

Reconnaissance had been bad and he had little information as to the enemy’s dispositions. He seems to have thought that the Germans flying in front of Rennenkampt had already crossed his front in their march to the Vistula and that he was too late to cut them off. He had deviated from his instructions to advance with his left on Allenstein and now had practically the whole of his force to the west of that town. He had no knowledge of the whereabouts of Rennenkampf’s army and did not realise that he was increasing the space between the two Russian armies and thereby facilitating the German operations. His supply system had broken down utterly and his men were half-famished and worn out with the fatigue of excessive marching. The signal service had also broken down and orders had been sent out to corps by wireless. The Russian signals were casily read by the Germans, who thus had absolutely accurate information as to their opponent’s dispositions and intentions. Germans Attack Samsonov.—The new German Command had galvanised the dispirited VIII. Army from the first and hope of success ran high. The attacks on Samsonov’s two flanks were to be launched simultaneously on the 26th. On the right, the German I. Corps, strengthened by the Vistula garrisons, attacked only half-heartedly. Von Francois, the commander of the I. Corps, was short of some of his heavy artillery and he contented himself with driving in some of the Russian outposts. On the 27th, however, he launched his attack in earnest. At dawn a hurricane bombardment was opened on the Russian I. Corps’ positions on either side of Uzdowo. The famished Russians did not wait for the infantry attack but broke and ran. By r0 P.M. that night there was nothing left of the Russian left wing except a small rear-guard just north of Działdowo; and that too had disappeared before the next morning. The rear of the Russian centre was now completely exposed and Francois directed his march on Neidenburg. Opposition there was none, and by the night of the 28th his leading troops had reached Muschaken, eight miles east of Neidenburg. By the night of the 29th the whole length of the road from Neidenburg to Willenberg was held by a line of entrenched pickets. The Russian retreat to the south was completely blocked. During the 30th Francois was attacked at Neidenburg by fresh Russian troops coming up from Mława and actually lost the town for a time. He held stoutly on to the line of his pickets, however, and

on the 31st Neidenburg was reoccupied.

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TAOISM

On the left, the German XVII. and I. Res. Corps, having turned

their backs on Rennenkampf and marched due south, had arrived within striking distance of the Russian right at Rothflicss on the night of the 25th. Their attack on the morning of the 26th came as a complete surprise. The Russian VI. Corps withdrew in confusion, losing 6,000 men and 16 guns. By the night

of the 27th the Russian right was 32 m. to the south of Rothfliess and in a state of hopeless demoralisation. The rear of the Russian centre was now XVII. Corps continued Corps moved in closer fighting in the Russian

exposed on its other flank. The German its march to the south, whilst the I. Res. towards Allenstein. The story of the centre is not so inglorious as that on the

two flanks. In accordance with Samsonov’s plan the centre (XIII. and XV. Corps) continued their advance on the 26th towards the line Allenstein-Hohenstein. The XIII. Corps encountered no opposition, but the XV. had to fight its way steadily forward. For the 27th, the advance was to be continued.

Second German Blow. —Ludendorff, with his accurate information of the events on either flank, now decided that the

German centre had retired enough. The reinforced NX. Corps was therefore ordered to attack on the 27th. The battle which ensued between the Russian XV. Corps and the German XX.

Corps was particularly fierce, the Russians holding their own and even advancing a little on their left. The Russian XIII, Corps rendered no help to its neighbour. On the 28th the Germans renewed their attacks and this time the hardly-tried Russian XV. Corps commenced to break. The XIII. Corps, moving down to assist, found itself assailed in rear by troops arriving from Allenstein and for the second time brought no help. When night fell the two Russian Corps were on a line from Gricslienen to Waplitz and in close touch with the Germans. Hoping to escape from pursuit, they commenced to withdraw during the night. The withdrawal soon became a rout, and a mass of troops and transport, both unfed and unwatered, became inextricably mixed in the depths of the Forest of Griinfliess. Determined attempts were made during the 29th to break through to the south of Muschaken and to the north at Kaltenborn, but the German ring held fast. Only some 2,000 men etfected their escape. The greater portion of these two corps surrendered to the German parties, clearing the forest during the zoth and 31st. The End of Samsonov—Samsonov himself had moved up to Neidenburg on the 27th in order better to control the battle. He was greeted with the news of the disaster to both his flanks and met streams of stragglers coming into the town. He decided to go to the headquarters of the XV. Corps and take personal charge, and left Neidenburg on the morning of the 28th with a small staff, all mounted on horses. At once he became mixed in the mass of transport in the forest and could exercise no effective command. He then decided to ride to the south, but during the night of the 28-29th he became exhausted after having walked for some distance. He drew aside in the darkness and his staff heard a single shot. A careful search brought no result and the staff continued their way, certain that their unfortunate commander had taken his own life in his despair at the turn which events had taken. Results of the Batile—The practical result of the fighting from Aug. 26-30 was the total annihilation of two Russian corps and the reduction of three other corps to half their strength in numbers. The whole Russian II. Army was so demoralised and was so deficient in essential material, such as artillery and transport, that it was no longer of any fighting value. The Germans claimed 125,000 prisoners and 500 guns. It is certain that their booty was very great, for 60 train loads of captured material left Puchallowen after the battle and the captured horses were driven in herds to improvised camps at Neidenburg. Although greatly inferior in the whole Eastern theatre, the Germans had yet managed to concentrate a superiority on the field of battle. The Russians had 132 battalions, 96 squadrons and 620 guns, including 12 heavy, whilst the Germans had 155 battalions, 48 squadrons and 818 guns, including 128 heavy.

BIBLtoGRAPHY.—W,

von Stephani, Mit Hindenburg bei Tannen-

berg (1919); H. von François, Marneschlacht und Tannenberg (1920); P. von Hindenburg, Out of my Life (1920); E. Ludendorff, Ay War Afemories (1922); J. Daniloff, Russland im Weltkrieg, 1914-5 (1925).

(See also WORLD WAR: BIBLIOGRAPHY.)

-

(W. E. L)

TAOISM (see 26.402).—The term Taoism has two meanings: (1) the philosophical system attributed to Lao Tze (b.604 B.C.)

and Chuang Tza (b.330 B.c.); (2) the popular religion of the Chinese. Taoism as a Philosophical System—The term Tao originally meant the revolution or the way of the heavens about the earth. This movement of the heavens was regarded as the cause of the

phenomena on earth. The Tao was located about the celestial pole which was considered to be the seat of power because all revolves about it. In the course of time this concrete expression became abstract, and the Tao was viewed as the universal cosmic energy behind the visible order of nature. This cosmic energy (sce CONFUCIANISM) regarded as being is impersonal, omnipresent and eternal; viewed as becoming it works spontaneously, orderly, unselfishly and continuously for the highest good of all beings. The Tao produced the yiz and the yang, the negative and the positive principles of nature. These by their interaction brought forth heaven and earth. Heavenandearth gave birth to all beings. The human order is the product of the eternal energy. Philosophic Aspect.—~Taoism has usually been regarded as a mystic religion, but it was also an economic and political philosophy. It advocated frugality, simplicity and the joys of the peasant life in contact with the soil. Tt opposed the educational programme of the Confucianists, and advocated the theory that

the people should be kept in innocence (not in ignorance),

The

Taoist philosophy is responsible for that remarkable trait of the Chinese, namely, their contentment in situations which

offer a minimum of comfort, and their prizing of culture above possession. Political Aspect.—In politics Taoism opposed a highly centralised government and favoured the maximum autonomy for the

people.

Lao Tze and his successors promoted the small village

state which enjoyed full autonomy and lived in harmony with its neighbours. All forms of bondage and legal restraints were

opposed. Non-resistance was exalted and militarism was condemned. The ethics of Confucianism met with the strongest opposition on the part of the Taoists. Such virtues as love, justice, reverence, wisdom and sincerity were regarded as the first steps de-

parting from the harmony of the simple life in the Tao, and

producing the distracting contraries which marred the purity of life. The Taoists were mystics, but they were practical mystics, who hoped to realise the best social order through a harmonious relationship with the Tao. Their ideal was “ this worldly.” Their mysticism had three stages: (1) the purgation, casting out selfishness and self-seeking; (2) union with the Tao, by which the individual lost his individuality with the distraction of the contraries; (3) power, which enabled the individual merged with the Tao to escape the limitations of time and space. Taoism as a Religion.—Taoism as a religion is inherent in Taoism as a philosophy. The early mystics practised breathing and abstaining from food, and sought longevity and a future life in the Taoist paradise. The religious aspect did not become prominent, however, until the Han dynasty (206 B.C.-221 A.D.), when the Taoists occupied themselves in compounding the elixir of life and in making journeys to the Isles of the Immortals. They also developed several sects which practised exorcism and fortune-telling and exercised considerable political power. The rise of Taoism as a church is attributed to Chang Taoling (b.34 A.D), who developed a high degree of magic power which he transmitted to his heirs, together with the political prestige which reputation for such power brought. These took part in a successful rebellion in the latter part of the 2nd century,

and established a state in Szechwan based on Taoist principles.

The descendants of Chang Tao-ling were recognised by the Government and in 1016 were givena fief at Lung Hu Shan in Kiangsi.

TARDIEU— TARIFFS Their function consisted of a general oversight of the Taoist priests and monks and the rule over the world of the gods. The system developed a hierarchy among the gods which corresponded to that of the Govt. of China. At the head was Yü Huang Shangti, the Pearly Emperor, who presided over an elaborate pantheon. Buddhist Influence——Through contact with Buddhism in the first six centuries of our era the Taoists appropriated the Buddhist world view, adopted the monastic system and imitated the Buddhist pantheon. Lao Tze was deified and was associated with Pan Ku and Yii Huang Shaneti in the Taoist Trinity patterned after the Three Jewels of Buddhism. Present day Taoism is a conglomeration of animism, polytheism and magic.

731

trial protection, endeavouring to assist home agricultural production. The institution of imperial preference by Canada (1897) soon to be followed by similar measures on the part of other selfgoverning colonies and by Chamberlain’s advocacy of reciprocity by England, unloosed a potent force toward protectionism. Not since the repeal of the Corn Laws had conditions appeared so favourable for a change in the free-trade policy of England.

The Ger i c mentioned, the first after rogoo to effect a general amendment of its tariff was Germany. The agrarian interests, especially the largescale producers of cereals, felt that their advantage had been sacrificed to that of the manufacturers and merchants in the commercial treaties negotiated by Count Caprivi in 1891-4. The new tariff of 1902 provided for equal protection of manuBIBLIOGRAPHY. — H. A. Giles, Chuang Tsu (London, 1889); James Legge, The Texts of Taoism, pts. I. and H. (SBE XXXIX. and XL.) factures and agricultural commodities, but on the whole support (Oxford, 1891); Paul Carus, Lao-Tse's, Tao Teh-King (Chicago, 1898); to the latter was the more conspicuous feature. Especially sigSpurgeon Medhurst, Tao Teh Ching (C hicago, 1903); R. K. Douglas, nificant in this regard were the minimum tariff rates for certain Confucianism and Taoism (1906); Parker, Studies in Chinese agricultural products U.e., rates below which the Government Religion (1910); D. T. Suzuki, A ‘Brief History of Early Chinese Philosophy (1914); H. Doré, Researches into Chinese Superstitions, might not make reductions in its negotiation of treaties), and vol. 1,7; Hu Shih, Development of the Logical Method in Ancient the fact that the products thus particularly protected were rye, China (1922); A. Forke, The World Conception of the Chinese (1925), wheat, spelt, malting, barley and oats—the articles in which and “Taoism ” in Encyclo pacdia of Religion and Ethics, eean ) the large-scale producers were peculiarly interested. Industrial a TIS was enhanced in the law, however, and a much greater TARDIEU, ANDRE PIERRE GABRIEL AMEDEE (1876_—i+), protection differentiation of rates was introduced. Objections had been French politician and writer, was born in Paris Sept. 22 1876. raised to the whole system of “ general ” and “ conventional ” Educated at the Ecole Normale Supéricure, he became chef de tariffs on the ground that concessions in the latter often affected cabinet of Waldeck-Rousseau in 1899 and retained the post until a wide variety of articles, since the individual items in the tariffs 1902; between that year and rọr4 he taught at the Ecole des often covered broad classes of goods. As many as 1,446 items Sciences Politiques and the Ecole Supéricure de la Guerre, and were separately enumerated in this Act, whereas the older law also acted as foreign news editor on Le Temps. From 1914-24, had specified only 387 items. It was thus possible to limit the as deputy of the Chamber, he fulfilled the functions of French scope of concessions. special commissioner in the United States (1917-8), of French The French Tariff.—The resented height and the greater plenipotentiary at the Peace Conference (1918-9), and Minister specialisation of the German tariff formed one basis for agitation of the Liberated Regions (1919-20). As captain of Chasseurs in France in favour of a modification of the tariff law of that between 1914 and 1916, he was wounded and three times mentioned country. Further, it was held that for bargaining purposes the in despatches. At the Peace Conference (1919) he was largely spread between the French minimum and the gencral or maxiconcerned with the proposals for the political and territorial mum tariff schedules—25 to 40% ad valorem in typical cases-— clauses. He presided over the Committce of Five entrusted with Should be increased. Finally, the French tariff had remained the work of drafting the Allied Reply to the German Observasubstantially unchanged since 1892, and in the interim new tions on the drait terms of the Peace Treaty. Tardicu also industries and new branches of old industries had arisen for presided over the Alsace-Lorraine Committee, the Committce which protection was believed advantageous. of the Saar and that of the execution of the Treaty. In roroa new Act was passed which increased appreciably the Tardicu’s political attitude was characterised by his inflexible protectionist character of the French tariff law. The rates of the attachment to the policy of Clemenceau, with whom he was assomaximum tariff were generally raised, new items were added to ciated in the closest collaboration for war and for peace. Three the law and numerous old minimum rates were increased or times in succession, between 1919 and 1924, he refused to enter differentiated in a greater degree than before. Higher duties on the Government, in order to maintain his independent defence of special types of steel, on iron and steel products, especially tools this policy. As director of the Echo National, the daily paper and certain machinery, and on boots and shoes were typical and founded by Clemenceau and himself, he waged a fierce war, in important alterations in the new Act. In marked contrast to the foreign affairs, against the successive revisions of the Treaty of earlier German Act, the Act of roio was chiefly a vehicle for Versailles; and in internal affairs, against the acts which paved expanded protection to French manufacturers. the way for the victory of the carted des gauches. The United States Tariff—The United States tariff of 1909, Tardieu was the author of the following historical works: Quesamending that established in 1897, failed appreciably to change

tions Diplomatiques (1905); France and the Alliances (1908); La conférence d'Algésiras (1909); Le Prince de Bulow (1909); Fürst v. Bulow (1910); La France et les alliances (1910); Le mystére d’Agadir (1912); Notes sur les Etats- Unis (1917); L’ Amérique en armes (1919); La Paix (1921); Le Slesvig et la Paix (1925).

TARDIVEAU, RENÉ: see BOYLESVE, RENÉ. TARIFFS (see 26.422).—The history of commercial tariffs during the first quarter of the 2oth century divides itself into three periods: the years prior to the World War, those covered by the conflict itself, and the years of readjustment that followed.

I. THE

PRE-WAR

AND

WAR

PERIODS

The early years of the 2oth century had found France, Germany and the United States definitely committed to protection, while in England the free-trade policy, though still dominant, was bcginning to be seriously criticised. In the first three countries, the tariff schedules were already distinctly protectionist in character, the United States leading the way among these threc in the application of high tariff rates for the encouragement of domestic manufactures, and France and Germany, in addition to indus-

the situation. It made certain reductions in duties, such as the rates on hides, wool tops and various iron and steel products; but, except in the case of hides, the reductions were in most cases more nominal than real. The lower rates were substantially as protective as the higher ones had been. Furthermore, the Act included various increases in duties, e.g., on silk fabrics, certain forms of cutlery, hosiery and the like. The net result was to leave the general height of the tariff at much the same level as had previously ruled. The revision of 1909 in the end proved a political blunder as far as the Republican party in power was concerned. In the next presidential election (1912), the Democrats gained control of both the executive and legislative branches of the Government for the first time since 1892-4. Immediately the Democratic leaders began the revision of the tariff law. Most raw materials, including the most-favoured raw wool, were placed upon the free list; the complicated specific and compound schedules that had grown up in the Republican tariffs were largely scrapped; and the effective protection upon semi-manu-

factured and wholly manufactured articles was markedly de-

TARIFFS

732

creased. The new Act had not been in operation a year when the World War broke out, and under the stress of that conflict the course of production and trade began to change rapidly and decisively. Not only was there no adequate test of the lower rates, but the conditions ultimately reached were so dissimilar to pre-War conditions that hopes of permanently lower tariff rates built upon the latter were rendered illusory. THe War PERIOD With the outbreak of the World War came a break in the tariff experience of most important countries, especially those belligerent. Not only was the whole structure of conventional arrangements destroyed, but in the tariff legislation of the War years exigency replaced rational policy as the guiding motive. In part such legislation was dictated by desire for increased revenue. Examples are the increase in the Canadian tariff in 1915, the Australian advance in 1917 and the additions to pre-existing rates in England,

ous restrictions were maintained for several years. In England the change was rapid. The spring of 1919 found War-time restrictions still hampering British trade in 260 classes of goods, but Sept. of that same year saw the last of these restrictions wiped away. France moved in the same direction in the summer of 191g, but for a period in 1920 felt it necessary to reimpose control with respect to 4175 articles. Germany and other countries, on the other hand, made progress more slowly, and the first seven years after the Armistice were marked by the frequent reintroduction of restrictions in various commodities. By 1926 interference with international trade by governmental systems of specific-commodity control had been largely eliminated.

Britain in 1915 enacted the so-called

The re-establishment of a new network of commercial treaties (g.v.), especially with a general use of the unconditional M.F.N. clause, proved a more arduous undertaking. For a time after the peace it seemed possible that no re-establishment along these lines would be effected. To the pre-War scepticism as to the general advantage of such engagements were added the uncertainties of economic conditions in the post-War period, some remnant of conviction among the Allied nations that the Central Powers should be treated for an indefinite time in a hostile manner, and the constraint placed upon independent action by Germany by the provisions of the Versailles Treaty. Yet, despite these handicaps, the project of renewing relations upon somewhat the same grounds as erstwhile had prevailed was initiated and slowly gained ground, first between Allied states, then between “ enemyy ” states, between an Allied or “enemy ” state and a neutral, or among the new nations created by the treaties of peace. While the process of “ de-control,” and the re-establishment of conventional tariffs and treatment upon the basis of the M.F.N. clause, modified interference in international commerce, the characteristic feature of the reconstruction period remained the trend toward increased protectionism. The movement was broader and seemed more profound than anything which preceding decades knew.

i]. THE PERIOD OF RECONSTRUCTION The direct and indirect effects of the World War, including those flowing from the War-time tariffs and War-sprung “ controls,” were of such magnitude that at the conclusion of peace a commercial and industrial situation largely novel confronted the nations of the world. The pre-War balance between industry and agriculture within nations had frequently been upset; old industries had been stimulated to expand and new industries had been born during the War’s upheaval; while the prolonged

Great Britain —Colonial preference appeared for the first time in the British tariff system when in 1919 a reduction of a sixth was granted on dutiable goods (one-third off the McKenna rates above mentioned) which were the product or manufacture of British colonies; and in 1925 the preference on certain commodities, especially sugar, tobacco and dried fruits, was increased. In 1922 the Safeguarding of Industries Act was passed, levying duties of 333°% upon a number of “ key ” articles such as optical glass, scientific instruments, hosiery latch-needles, metallic tungsten and synthetic chemicals. Attempt at further advance along such lines was temporarily blocked when in 1923 the Conservatives appealed to the country and lost. However, after a short interval of Labour Government, during which repeal of the McKenna duties and a reduction of colonial preference were carried through, the Conservatives were again brought into power. The McKenna duties were re-established, additional Empire preferences approved and arrangements provided

France and Germany. Many alterations, however, in tariff arrangements, especially in Europe, were made for the control of commerce in the interest of the most effective prosécution of the War. In Germany, rates were lowered or abolished to facilitate the import of essential commodities. In France the executive was authorised (1916) to increase import duties upon any or all goods, and even to prohibit wholly the importation of articles in the interests of the

country.

Similarly, Great

McKenna duties: tmposts of 333 % upon a number of luxury articles -—pleasure cars, motor-cycles, watches and clocks, musical instruments and cinematograph films. These duties were partly devised for fiscal purposes, but in part also for economy in tonnage. Ultimately, as the War dragged on and the strain upon national resources increased, import duties were found to be inadequate for the commercial control desired, and nations resorted to direct governmental supervision of the export and import of essential materials and foodstuffs. Licensing systems, supplementing governmental control of shipping and governmental bulk purchases, were adopted. The consumption of luxuries was thereby curtailed, cargo space in national and neutral ships conserved and the upward movement in the price of essential commodities somewhat restrained. Thus the declaration of peace found commerce trammelled by a multitude of restrictions and regulations.

rupture of pre-War commercial connections and the disturbed conditions of currency and exchange made it extremely difficult to gauge the strength of post-War basic forces. Moreover, the War revealed many weaknesses in the organisation of industrial nations. England and Germany were hard pressed for food; most belligerents were forced to seek substitutes for essential raw materials; and at times even the lack of certain manufactured articles was annoying or really embarrassing. The last was especially truc im cases where whole industries were throttled by scarcity of quantitatively minor clements: needles for knitting machines, dyestuffs for the textile manufacturers, gauges or chemical glassware for many sorts of work. National acquisition of such ‘‘ key ” industries seemed desirable. Finally, the peace treaties brought into being a group of new nations, largely constituted out of portions of pre-existing nations. Upon separation, both the older nations and the newer areas—e. g., Austria-Hungary, Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia

found themselves with unbalanced economic interests. The old markets for their surplus products were now on foreign soil. Furthermore, since many of the new nations were fired with an intense nationalistic sentiment, they were inclined to adopt measures to secure increased self-sufficiency. Similar ideas dominated the economic policy of countries whose power had increased, such as Australia, Italy and Turkey, or of countries which had gained more self-government, such as Ireland and India. Removal of Control—The first difficulty in the way of reconstruction—the licensing systems and other arbitrary methods of commercial control—was the easiest to surmount, although vari-

whereby the necds of individual industries (except the production of foodstuffs) could be given separate consideration with a view to tariff protection. (See SAFEGUARDING OF INDUSTRY.) | The United States —Little was heard of tariff change in the United States for a year or two after the War. Then the conjunction of the severe crisis of 1920 with the return of the Republican party to control led to a renewal of tariff legislation. The crisis bore with somewhat exceptional severity upon the agricultural areas of the West, and for the first time in American tariff experience there appeared a broad group of agricultural interests asking for protection. At the same time industrial interests asked for a revision of the tariff, emphasising the increased competition of Germany and Japan, the need of protection for the industries initiated or expanded by the abnormal War-time conditions of commerce and manufacture, and the necessity of special defence against countries with depreciated paper-money currencies. First the farmers were partially satisfied by an “ Emergency ”’ tariff law (1921), which carried enhanced duties for a half-dozen important agricultural commodity classes. Then in the Tariff Act of 1922 protection was carried out more broadly than ever before—not unaffected by the circumstance of legislative “ log-rolling.” Agriculture secured duties higher than had ever been enacted; the “ war babies,” such as toys, tungsten and dyestuffs, secured specially high rates; and

TARKINGTON—TAUSSIG manufacturing industries generally obtained something approaching the level of duties carried in the Payne-Aldrich Act of 1909, though with some

exceptions.

A few of these exceptions, e.g.,

cotton yarns and certain steel products, were reductions from the 1909 rates, although usually these reductions were more nominal than real; while the increases included some duties, such as those on cutlery and laces. The rate upon laces, 90%, was the highest simple ad valorem rate ever enacted for purely protective purposes. France.—France established in 1919 a system of “‘co-eflicients,”

multiples by which the pre-War specific duties should be multiplied. In this way depreciation of the paper franc could be kept from weakening the protective wall. Then, two years later, a new maximum tariff was introduced, increasing the spread between minimum and maximum schedules. Whereas the difference had previously not been in excess of 100%, it became in

some cases as much as 300%.

Other countries followed the lead

of France in the adoption of the co-efficient system: Belgium,

Italy, Czechoslovakia, Poland and Turkey. Germany delayed the enactment of any general tariff law until 1925, when an Act was passed which placed the general level of the German tariff above that of the pre-War tariffs. Certain manufactures received increased support in the new duties, but especially notable was the restoration of the system of protective duties upon agricultural commodities approximately to the pre-War standard. Industrial protection spread in less developed nations. Indeed, in one way or another, such protection coloured the post-War tariff enactments of Ireland, India, South Africa, New Zealand, Australia, Hungary, Lithuania, Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia and Poland. In fact, scarcely a country of the world escaped the in-

fluence of the prevailing spirit. The course of tariff history in the early years of post-War reconstruction manifested a trend in some respects more pronouncedly toward high and widespread protection than had been exhibited before the War. With the extension of the movement to the newer countries, and with the possibility of the downfall of free trade in its oldest home, the policy of Hamilton, List, Carey and Wagner seemed to carry everything before it. BIBLIOGRAPIly.—A. Arnaune, Le Commerce Extérieur et les Tarifs de Douane (1911); P. Ashley, Modern Tarif History, 3rd. ed. (1920); To Gregory, Tariffs: a Study in Method (1921); Sir G. Peel, The Tarif Reformers (1913); F. W. Taussig, Tarif History of the United States, 7th ed. (1923), and Some Aspects of the Tarif Question (1915); United States Tariff Commission, Reciprecity and Commercial Treaties (1919), and Colonial Tariff Policies (1922). (A. H. C.)

TARKINGTON, NEWTON BOOTH (1860), American author, was born in Indianapolis, Ind., July 29 18609. After studying at Phillips Academy, Exeter, Mass., he entered Purdue University, Lafayette, Ind., but later transferred to Princeton where he graduated in 1893. He was elected to the Indiana House of Representatives for the term 1902-3. His first story, The Gentleman from Indiana, was published in 1899, having appeared as a serial in AfcClure’s Magazine. In 1900 his reputation was established by Monsieur Beaucaire, which he dramatised (with E. G. Sutherland) in 1901. In rọrọ he was awarded the Pulitzer Prize for his novel, The Magnificent Ambersons (1918). His other stories include The Two Vanrevels (1902); Cherry (1903); The Conquest of Canaan (1905); Guest of Quesnay (1908); Beauty and the Jacobin: an Interlude of the French Revolution (1912); Penrod (1914); Penrod and Sam (1916); Ramsey ALilholland (1919); Alice Adams (1921); Fascinating Stranger and Other Stories (1923); Weimen (1925). His plays include Cameo Kirby (1907); Your Humble Servant (1908); Mister Antonio (1916); The Country Cousin (1917), with Julian Street; The Gibson Upright and Up From Nowhere (1919),

both with Harry Leon Wilson; Clarence (1919); Seventeen (1925).

TASMANIA (see 26.438), a state of the Australian Commonwealth. The island of Tasmania, the smallest of the Australian States, has an area of 26,215 sq. miles. Its population in 1925 was 211,906, an increase of 20,695 since 1911. Hobart (population 56,507) is the capital and chief port. Launceston (population 28,o00) is the principal town in the north. Overseas mail steamers do not call at Tasmania, but there are regular shipping services with Melbourne and Sydney. The states

733

returns six Senators and five members of the House of Repre-

sentatives to the Federal Parliament. The Legislative Council has 18 members and the House of Assembly 30. Since the War political power has fluctuated between the Nationalists and Country party on the one hand and Labour on the other. The state owns and controls a hydroelectric undertaking, a shipping service and an insurance office Production and Industyy.—Tasmania reproduces many of the natural features of England, and its climatic conditions closely resemble those of western Europe. Drought is unknown, and the fruits, flowers and vegetables of the temperate zone are successfully grown. In .1924, 34,076 ac. were under cultivation as orchards and fruit gardens, of which 25,681 ac. were devoted to the production of apples. Oats, beans, peas and potatoes are other crops and hops are grown. Minerals to the value of £1,154,397 were produced in Tasmania

in 1923. In that year copper was the principal product, with tin, lead, limestone, flux and silver following in the order named. Tasmania is the largest producer of “ free’ osmiridium in the world: in 1920, 2,009 oz., valued at £77,114, were produced. The development of secondary industries during the post-War period was due, to a large extent, to the utilisation of the Great Lake waters to develop electric power. In 1924 the state hydroelectric department had available from this scheme 63,000 H.P., capable of development to 500,000 H.P. Foremost among the industries is that of the Electrolytic Zinc Co. of Australasia. Messrs. Cadbury, Fry and Pascall established a joint factory at Hobart in 1922, and several woollen manufacturers from Great Britain have established factories at Launceston (see AUSTRALIA). TATA, SIR DORABJI JAMSETJI (1859), Indian capitalist, was born at Bombay on Aug. 27 18509, being the elder son of the famous Parsee industrial pioneer, Jamset}i Nasarwanji Tata (see 26.448). Upon leaving Cambridge, he entered his father’s business and pursued his father’s great conceptions until they culminated in striking advances in Indian industrial development and also in the establishment in r905, by means of generous endowment, of the Indian institute of scientific research at Bangalore. He was actively assisted by his brother Sir Ratan Tata (c871-1918) and after many disappointments he secured by the end of tort the establishment of iron and steel manufactures ona large scale with Indian capital and under Indian control. From the jungle of a remote Bengal district there sprung the town of Jamshedpur, so named (like the adjacent Tatanagar) after the originator of the project. A population of over 80,000 is there engaged in steel manufacture and many subsidiary industries. Sir Dorabji, who was knighted at the beginning of roto, showed pertinacity in carrying to realisation a succession of schemes for harnessing the heavy monsoon rainfall of the Western Ghats to provide the hydroelectric energy which has vastly increased the productive capacity and transformed the industrial conditions of the city and neighbourhood of Bombay. Altogether the Tata concerns support 250,000 wage earners and their dependents, and represent a capital commitment (almost entirely Indian), estimated at £50,000,000. Suffering from the reactions of the speculative boom of the post-Armistice period, and from severe external compctition, the parent steel company sought and was the first Indian industrial concern to receive, by legislative enactment in 1924, the discriminating protection recommended as a suitable policy for India by the Fiscal Commission of ro21-2. Sir Dorabji’s cousin, Sharpuji Saklatvala, was the first Communist to be elected to the British House of Commons, being returned for Batterseain 1922 and again in 1924. TAUSSIG, FRANK WILLIAM (1859}, American economist (see 26.456), was during 1917-9 chairman of the U.S. Tariff Commission. In March 1919, he was called to Paris to advise in the adjustment of commercial treaties, and in Nov., attended the second industrial conference in Washington for promoting peace between capital and labour. He was a strong supporter of the Covenant of the League of Nations. Taussig wrote, Principles of Economics (1911; 3rd ed., 1921); Some Phases of the Tariff Question (1915); Investors and MoneyMakers (1915); and Free Trade, the Tariff, and Reetprocity (1919).

TAXATION

134

TAXATION (see 26-458).—In a post-War discussion of the fundamental principles of taxation Mr. Andrew W. Mellon, Secretary of the Treasury of the United States, said that a sound tax policy should (1) produce sufficient revenue for the Government; (2) lessen as far as possible the burden on those least able to bear it; and (3) remove influences which retard the development of business and industry. In substance that programme is merely another method of stating the canons of taxation laid down by Adam Smith—equality or ability, certainty, convenience and economy. One authority has suggested that these in turn resolve themselves into one grand principle of economy. In this connection, however, economy is a highly technical term, and-not the mere reduction of expenditure which is the misleading feature of much of our popular debate. Views oF Tax AUTHORITIES

Mr. Mellon also argued that a tax system should be designed not for one or two years, or from the standpoint of any given class; it should apply to a long period, and with a view to its effect on the prosperity of the country asa whole. While his appeal was addressed mainly to the American public grappling with what he considered the high income-tax following the World War, and was certainly influenced by the unmistakable tendency in the United States to make ever larger investment in the remarkable volume of tax-exempt securities, the message was regarded as one equally appropriate in Great Britain, certainly in the conditions which had followed the European conilict. In any review of

British taxation in the period since roro the practical revolution in finance after ror4 must be the dominating feature; but however great the spectacular changes fundamental principles remain. Mr. Mellon’s contribution was necessarily general. It was perhaps too strongly an appeal from the bosom of large-scale business, with the almost exclusive suggestion that taxation had only to be reduced to make the desert blossom as the rose. In his Newmarch lectures for 1919 Sir Josiah Stamp went very much nearer to realities. Concentrating on the four points that taxation is to-day a dominating feature of daily life, that there is much greater complexity in modern economic conditions, that there is now a growing field of State activity, and that above all there is the financial legacy of the World War, he proceeded to a three-fold analysis from the standpoint of the taxpayer, of the Govt. acting for the community in its State organisation, and of the community asa producing or economic society. Such a method would enable us to understand the principles and the trend of taxation at any time. But it is specially valuable in an effort to understand the period r9r0o—-26. For that period is in many respects a vivid illustration of the truth of his statement that most taxes in practice represent the best practical compromise in the three standpoints that can be arranged in the particular circumstances of the time. THE PRINCIPLE

OF ABILITY TO PAY

The largely increased burden of taxation in Great Britain that followed the Boer War and to a greater extent the European conflict suggested fresh analysis of theprincipleof ability to pay. It has not in practice done more than modify to a small extent the methods previously in force. The benefit principle (or the payment of taxation in proportion to benefit derived from public service of one kind and another) appealed to many who were influenced by new doctrines affecting the recognition of personal and public sacrifice in post-War conditions. Natural but impracticable was Sir Josiah Stamp’s summary of the principle; and events confirm the impression that even in times of great financial upheaval the principle must be regarded from the standpoint of what is practicable. Recourse to the principle of ability to pay is inevitable; but ability must be measured by something more than the mere possession of monetary resources. That test should be supplemented by reference to the consumption of certain commodities which, if not among the strict necessaries of life, have been regarded by Marshall and other leading economists as among the conventional necessaries or minor comforts. Broadly speaking the period rg10-26 has witnessed a desire to

relieve necessaries, and to-day the proportion of revenue raised from indirect as compared with direct taxation is 36-64, as against the pre-War tendency to raise revenue as far as possible on the basis of 50-50. No particular reason or merit attached to that apparent equality. Indirect taxation is not so strictly rela-

ted to ability to pay; but, assuming for the moment inability to pass on to consumers more than a limited part of direct taxation, indirect taxes are defended on the ground that they reach

the masses for a reasonable contribution which can be collected by direct taxation only with very great difficulty, who under a much more comprehensive scheme of income tax than anyone is prepared to propose would in any event have been liable for little | or no direct taxation, and who prefer to pay in the price of the commodity in the belief (however unsound economically) that the indirect impost is not so heavy a burden. Advocates of the “ free breakfast table ” are still alive, and reasonably active. They cannot, however, ignore the appalling load the State has to carry, and their effort now is not so much to get rid of indirect taxation altogether as to see that it falls on commodities hich can always be regarded as quasi-luxurious or definitely luxurious in character. Personal Taxation.—In the same period there has also been definite consolidation of the movement away from real or specific taxes (that is, on property or annual valuation) to personal taxes, described by most writers as the transition from objective to subjective. The objective is still powerful in local rating, by no means a negligible aspect of present-day taxation. In the country as a whole the movement to “ sensitive subjective taxation ” is undeniable. These principles were abundantly illustrated in the proceedings before the Royal Commission on the Income Tax in rọrọ, in its report of the following year, and in many of the parliamentary discussions on the application of tax-concessions which it recommended. Early approaches to personal taxation broke down. Proper taxation on income is impossible in a community not reasonably advanced in people and government. The evidence tendered to the Royal Commission, together with much of the recent analysis of British economic organisation, shows that the foundations for personal or subjective taxation are now broad and secure. The administrative and other machinery is ample. Although in many respects Great Britain lags behind the United States and certain other countries, her statistical measurement of social and industrial conditions has made progress. In industry the elimination of small-scale production and inefficient bookkeeping, and the appearance of public company, combine and trust—-all involving some progress in the publicity which Mr. Sidney Webb among others has urged as desirable—have made it easier to ascertain the precise allocation to individuals. And the movement tends to be further consolidated by administrative practice like deduction of tax at the source, that is, before the dividend reaches the taxpayer at all, giving the State on the one hand its revenue at an earlier moment, and with greater security, and on the other awakening the interest of the taxpayer in the gencral system at all events in claiming the refund of something less than deduction at the maximum scale, which is for him the effective rate. But in spite of all the developments of recent years there is still no country in the world in which the system of taxation is strictly true to first or fundamental principles. In Great Britain, as elsewhere, there are many of the accidents of commercial and

political conditions. There are innumerable curious historical survivals. One by one, like inhabited house duty, they tend to disappear. All that can be said with firm accuracy is that, everything considered, the tendency since roro has been towards a certain

simplification in the midst of a ouite definite hardening in favour of personal or subjective tax. Methods of Assessment.—Turning now to the strictly Individual standpoint of the British taxpayer, the facts are plain and even simple. The method of regarding income by the year remains subject to the modification of quarterly assessment for weekly wage-carners. That is one concession to the shorter period. There is fresh insistence on the rule that tax should follow closely the

period of computation.

The Royal Commission on the Income

TAXATION Tax recognised that deduction at the source, covering a large part of the aggregate income yearly brought under review, formed a great safeguard for the revenue; but it also recommended that in the wide sphere of business profits, commonly known as schedule D, the three years’ average should be abolished. Undeniably the year of assessment is the ideal basis; as a matter of practical politics the commission proposed the preceding year, and that recommendation was embodied in the Finance Bill of 1926.

No

real inroad has been made on the principle of annual value in this country. America emphasises capital value; only to a very limited extent is that found in the British system. Nor is there definite tendency to bring within the scope of income tax the profits of occasional transactions in stocks, shares or other classes of property.

Only when such transactions become so regular as

to amount to settled business do they take their place in the taxable material of the time. For large numbers of individual taxpayers there has been more controversy regarding the suggestion that the dividend resulting from co-operative trading should be taxed. That the gain derived from mutual trading should be regarded as a profit in the ordinary commercial sense has been hotly disputed. Most Governments have come to the conclusion that, whatever the economic merits of the dispute, any attempt so to tax the dividends of nearly 5,000,000 of the community is not worth the candle, mainly because the great majority would be entitled to refund as not coming within the present range of income-tax after family and other allowances have been conceded, and partly because the cooperative movement has but to lower the prices of its commodities to eliminate any distribution at all in dividend form and therefore to take away the taxable material. Comparisons of municipal trading with ordinary private trading profits have been erroneous; most of them have suggested that income tax enters

into costs, a contention which is still generally regarded as unsound. Progressive taxation on income (that Is, increasing in rate as the income increases) is now universal; practice in the period under review has been all in the direction of entrenching it more firmly than ever in the British system. McCulloch took the odd view that taxpayers should be left in the same relative position in which they had been found! Not even the strongest opponent of direct taxation would to-day offer that argument on a public platform. Most of the economists have reminded us that progression rests on the diminishing utility of money or wealth to its possessor; and to that basic principle there is no real challenge in the argument that wants satisfied by early increments to income are of more importance than wants satisfied by late increments, an argument advanced apparently by way of modification. But for present-day purposes the practical justification of progression is usually its place in the campaign for social improvement. Professor Marshall spoke of the State using its powers for prompting such economic and social adjustments as will make for the well-being of the people at large. Much has been made of the doctrine of least aggregate sacrifice. Perhaps the only check has been the economic effect of excessive taxation on capital accretion, and the danger that that may in turn react upon the people in their employment and industrial progress. At certain levels taxation may amount to confiscation; and it is sometimes contended that the doubts entertained by some of the opponents of graduation last century have been justified. The reply is probably complete. There is first the general desire to reduce taxation; secondly, a mass of concessions covering business and family hfe; and thirdly, especially since 1915, growing recognitionofthe fact that at best taxation is onlyalimited and sometimes even a dangerous instrument for the readjustment of social conditions. On the last point the emphasis now laid on all manner of schemes for the alteration of ownership, in the sense of diffusion, cannot escape observation. And it is also recognised that thereis an everlasting conflict of principle in the measurement of taxable ability by income and the economic and social importance of not discouraging (under any system of industrial ownership) the accumulation of capital. Reference has been made to the taxation of special ability to

pay.

735

Since rgto this problem has been represented in efforts to

impose duties on the increment value of land. The common argument is that that increment, especially in large centres, is not due to the work or sacrifice of the owner, but almost entirely to the enterprise and growth of the surrounding community; that in effect the value is publicly created, and should be in the main publicly appropriated; and that the case for such appropriation is all the stronger when such steps will promote or hasten schemes of civic betterment and force land into remunerative use. More cautious minds have tried to plead that the increment may be in many cases the “ accumulation of compound interest on a site that waited a long time before ripening into full salability.”? Here the analysis need not be pressed, for even if such an element is admitted it is true that there is much increment which is clearly the property of the community. The period in question witnessed a complicated attempt in Great Britain to secure a considerable proportion of this increment for the people, but the attempt, now abandoned, perhaps owed its lack of success mainly to failure to apply the system effectively to the remarkable complexity of the laws affecting real property. During the World War that form of taxation was in difficulty and there was much keener interest in the discussion of corporation profits tax, taxation of war wealth, excess profits duty and capital levy, all of which represented efforts to secure for the community (partly as an immediate contribution to revenue and in the case of the capital levy for the specific reduction of war debt) some portion of the windfall or special gain which war conditions had brought to certain sections of the people. To a Select Committee of the House of Commons the Inland Revenue authorities stated that a tax on war wealth was administratively practicable. The Labour movement in particular pleaded for a levy on capital. Both proposals were rejected by successive Govts.; but excess profits duty and corporation profits tax were applied. . ‘The former tax took a basic or standard year in the profits of the business brought within the duty; above that standard percentages of the war profits were taken in taxation; but in Finance Acts following the War firms were allowed the set-off of subsequent loss, with the result that the net yield to the Exchequer must in the long run be comparatively small. Corporation profits tax was a tax on the undistributed profits of certain companies. It has been abolished. It would, however, be wrong to suggest that these facts are due entirely to the difficulty of introducing any form of taxation on windfall or special ability to pay in Great Britain. They were powerful in doctrine and revenue during the War; but like many other special devices they could not survive industrial depression. In other words, British economic conditions were not favourable to their obtaining a permanent place in our fiscal system. Meanwhile there were constant references to the taxation of special ability abroad, notable in the public imposts on cash prizes in Australian lotteries; and eventually, in 1926, the Chancellor of the Exchequer announced a 5% duty on betting turnover in Great Britain, not, however, so much on the basis of windfall or special ability to pay as on the suggestion that betting was a luxury which anyone could give up at will and was, in the special circumstances of the time, appropriate tuxable material. INDIRECT TAXATION

Side by side with the tendencies described there has been unwearying analysis of indirect taxation. In taxation on expenditure it is recognised that no duty on commodities can be properly progressive; that if articles in common use are taken, as they must be to give security to the revenue, the system is generally regressive; and that countrics which have extensive tariffs are generally rich in illustration of the manner in which the burden varies inversely to ability to pay. But, as has been already suggested, in-

direct taxation cannot in debate stand by itself. If that were possible there would be no economic defence. For all practical purposes to-day and this has been specially emphasised in the remarkable revenue conditions since 1910o—it must be regarded as a preferably minor part of a wider general scheme of taxation,

TAXATION

736

always to be carefully scrutinised, and calculated to reach an area which cannot be effectively tapped by direct taxation. This has suggested the selection of a wide list of commodity taxes which attack the non-functional element in spending (or the clement not strictly necessary to the discharge of duty by the individual affected) in a manner which income tax could not attempt.

But

from the sphere of income tax, where regard is had to the family as a unit for fiscal purposes, there is some encouragement of this doctrine in the indirect area. A tax on turnover (see TURNOVER Tax) is large-scale application of taxation to expenditure, but while it is taken as the basis for the British betting duty proposals it is not elsewhere practical politics. Few taxes are so thoroughly unfair in their incidence, and few lend themselves so readily to evasion, so that the fundamental arguments against the device are at all times powerful. Broadly speaking, therefore, in indirect taxation there had been a movement away from the 50% allocation of burden in raising total revenue in Great Britain; concessions have been given on the strict necessaries oi life; indirect taxation has been centred on minor comforts and on luxuries; and under the Govt. which took office in 1924 there has been substantial recourse to the nonfunctional surplus in spending. Concluding this summary from the standpoint of the individual it may be said that there has been little or no taxation of capital as such. In certain wasting assets, such as leaseholds, there is in practice some mixture of taxation of income and of capital; but this tendency, limited as it is, should be corrected when the British Parliament adopts the programme for the treatment of wasting assets which was recommended by the Royal Commission on the Income Tax in 1919. SOME GENERAL PRINCIPLES

Since in Great Britain the movement towards personal or subjective taxation is pronounced, the review must be devoted very largely to that aspect. The standpoint of the state and of the community is, however, of importance. Sir Josiah Stamp has summarised the questions which confront the community in asking whether the proposed tax is economical, workable, specially open to evasion or dishonesty, likely to dry up the source and prove abortive to the revenue, raise political difficulties and create unrest or raise international problems and provoke conflict with other taxing jurisdictions. Since 1911, but more especially in the international issues raised after the World War in interminable debt adjustment, these questions have occupied a large place in domestic fiscal legislation. Domestic imposts and the problems raised by fiscal relationships with other countries are, of course, very closely related. The whole range of discussion is in fact raised in the simplest issues. Of late the community has had to consider carefully the incidence of taxation. Will a tax of certain weight on tea diminish consumption and encourage the use of substitutes? Will a turnover tax play into the hands of larger firms which control the various stages of production and distribution, to the disadvantage of their smaller competitors? Is there a case to-day for the special taxation of certain industries? Or will such taxation in practice cause a fall in the value of their stocks such as will amount to capitalisation of the tax? The consideration of such questions has helped Great Britain to preserve reasonable balance of direct and indirect taxation, with a tendency to reduce the latter; to avoid the dangers of turnover taxation; and, in the main, to avoid differential taxation, For it is clear that the last is in reality a form of confiscation for present owners, just as differential exemption or privilege tends to be a bonus to present owners. But there is still much differential privilege, as in the concessions to agriculture and the method of assessing the profits of farmers, now on the basis of the annual valuation of their holdings. Recognising the danger of this underlying doctrine the Royal Commission on the Income Tax unanimously recommended that farmers should be brought under schedule D for taxation on actual profit like other trading classes of the community. So far that recommendation has not been adopted. Still, it is a definite statement of sound economic practice in the feld of differen-

tial treatment, even if it must be admitted that the Finance Acts of recent years in Great Britain contain many minor concessions which, taken together, come dangerously near to substantial attack on the principle. Certain old taxes like some of the land taxes are, so to speak, no taxes, since they have been capitalised. Of the economic effect of the death duties, which are admittedly a tax on capital, the reasoned conclusion appears to be that at worst “ a new capital form has been prevented from coming into being,” that much depends on what the Govt. does with the money, that if the use is remunerative the net effect on national capital is nil, and that the real problem is not so much any immediate adverse effect of the death duties as the dynamic aspect (from the standpoint of accumulation) over a series of years. Practice since rg1o has again entrenched such duties; economically the argument that they should be specifically allocated for debt reduction is both creditable and sound, since they are of the nature of capital levy; but on the other hand the British Exchequer has gencrally supported the growing objection to anything of the nature of an assigned revenue, an attitude strikingly illustrated in the proposals affecting the Road Fund in the Finance Bill of 1926. The ulterior objects of taxation vary; most of the critics regar d them as allowable, subject to the condition that they are always secondary. In so far as they attempt the redistribution of wealth, for example, they should be limited by the doctrine of fair progression. Inso far as import dulies—a growing phase of the British fiscal system since rgro—are imposed the argument is that they should not reduce the aggregate volume of trade; but in that connection the ulterior object is much more debatable. In the period under review there has been no substantial modification of Britain’s system of free imports. The War and post-War programme has been first of all an effort to safeguard, by uniform duty, certain industrics believed to be vital in time of emergency; and secondly, again as a rule, by uniform duty of 333 %, to givea form of protection to home producers against imported commodities enjoying the export advantage of depreciated exchange, pro-

duced under conditions abroad calculated to give unfair advantage to the country of origin, or reaching Great Britain in such quantities as to amount to “ dumping ” in the sense of being retained within these islands in competitive sale with British goods. Finally, post-War financial conditions have revived discussion of many of the intricacies of the limits of taxable capacity. It is one of the abiding problems of taxation, but the large budgets of recent times, the difficulties of the repayment of Govt. debt, and the question as to how far Germany could be made to pay for the War (including the searching analysis which preceded the introduction of the Dawes scheme) have led to much wider discussion. It has proved remarkably hard to arrive at the relative capacity of different countries to bear taxation, but the ultimate test has been what is left to the inhabitants together with what they derive from outside their own borders. The manner in which wealth

is distributed is a material factor, and there is always the duty of observing a close relationship in consumption and production levels. In Great Britain much has been made in debate of “ pre-

War standards,” a basis which is often irrelevant and misleading in the changed conditions which confront national finance.

But

broadly there is now much better recognition of the fact that the limit of taxable capacity is not absolute or fixed. The essential considerations are that much depends on the uses to which the revenue is put; great importance must be attached to the spirit of the people who are bearing the taxation, and the manner in which they regard it; the way in which the (axil ion is raised may of it-

self largely influence the position; and effective use can be made of the truth that great advantage is to be derived from the employment of resources for the reduction of debt, especially external debt. These principles underlay the determination of the British Govt. in 1922 to fund, under arrangement with the United States of America, what was by far the largest part of their pest-War external indebtedness. To a country depending largely on overseas trade, and therefore committed to a long view of the exchange problem, such a course was inevitable. But it had to be supported

TAYLOR—TEA by drastic taxation at home, and by the rigorous balancing of budgets, together with reasonable provision for debt redemption, all of which were linked up with the preparation for return to the gold standard and the re-establishment of London as the financial centre of the world. To that end the system of taxation, especially since the conclusion of the World

War, has made

re-

markable contribution. (See also CAPITAL Levy, Excess PROFirs, INcomE Tax, TURNOVER TAX and the sections on finance in the articles GREAT BRITAIN; ITALY; UNITED STATES, etc.) BIBLIOGRAPHY.—Sir J. Stamp, British Incomes and Property (1896); Fundamental Principles of Taxation (1921); Wealth and Taxable Capacity (1922); G. F. Shirras, Science of Public Finance (1924). See also Parliamentary Debates, passim; Finance Acts (1910-26); Report from the Select Committee on Luxury Duty, PaperNo. rot (1918); Report from the Select Committee on Increase of Wealth (War), Paper No. 102 (1920); Report of the Royal Commission on the Income Tax, 1919, Cmd. 615 (1920). (W. GRA.)

TAYLOR, FREDERICK WINSLOW (1856-1015) American engineer, was born March 20 1856, at Germantown, Pennsylvania. Prevented by impaired eyesight from entering Harvard University, for which he had prepared, he in 1874 began an apprenticeship as pattern-maker and machinist in a small Philadelphia shop. In 1878 he entered the employ of the Midvale Steel Co. as yard labourer, but was promoted rapidly to timekeeper, gang boss, assistant foreman, foreman, assistant engineer and chief engineer (informally in 1884, formally in 1887). In the meantime, his eyesight having been restored, he earned by night study the M.E. degree from Stevens Institute. In 1898 he was employed by the Bethlehem Steel Co., and after toor he devoted his entire time to forwarding by educational means the principles of scientific management (see article). As early as 1880 or 1881, while gang boss, controversy with workers had led him to realise the necessity of accurate measurement of what constituted a dav’s work on any operation. This in turn led to a series of careful experiments resulting in important achievements in two fields; in mechanical engineering, the discovery with Maunsel White of a new method of tempering tool steel permitting metal-cutting operations at high speed (1898); and in the field of management, perfection of that system of shop management which came later to be known as

scientific management.

He died March 21 1915, at Philadelphia.

Taylor’s publications include Notes on Belting (1893); The Adjustment of Wages to Efficiency; A Piece Rate System (1896); On the Art of Cutting Metals (1906); Shop Management (1911); The Principles of Scientific Management (1911); and with S. E. Thompson, A Treatise on Concrete, Plain and Reinforced, 3rd ed. (1916). See F. B. Copley, Frederick W. Taylor, 2 vol. (1923).

TEA (sce 26.476).—In 1925 the International Institute of Agriculture at Rome estimated the world production of tea at between 1,750 and 2,oco0 million pounds. The area under tea in India was in 1924 computed at 716,300 ac. of which 83°%% was in Assam, Darjeeling and Jalpaiguri. Of the 375,000,000 lb. produced in 1924, Northern India accounted for 329,000,000 lb. and Southern India for 46,000,000 pounds. Four hundred and twelve thousand ac. produced in 1925 209,500,000 lb. of tea. In the same year the production in Java amounted to 94,500,000 lb. from about 220,000 ac. and in Sumatra the produce of 30,000 ac. totalled 17,000,000 pounds. As regards China which, unlike India and Ceylon, is a country of small producers, statistics of production are necessarily vague. The total production is estimated at about 1,000,000,000 lb. annually, less than 100,000,000 lb. of which are exported. In Japan 115,000 ac. are under tea, producing some 75,000,ooo Ib. annually, almost all being unfermented green tea, twothirds of which is consumed in the country, the remainder being sent to the United States and to Canada. The island of Formosa has about 90,000 ac. planted, and produces from 30,000,000 to 35,000,000 Ib. each year, most of it going to the United States. In Africa, the Natal tea industry is declining; but in Nyasaland it is increasing, 5,000 ac. being planted on the slopes of the Mlanje Mountain: about 1,000,000 Ib. were exported in 1925. In Uganda and Kenya experimental planting shows promise. A small quantity of Annamese tea has appeared on the London

737

market. In Brazil attempts are being made to grow tea from Assam seed, and in Transcaucasia tea-growing is becoming an important industry. . Increase of World-Consumption.—The world-wide consumption of tea is increasing. The United Kingdom is the largest consumer—during 1925 duty was paid on over 400,000,000 Ib. for home consumption, equal to nearly nine lb. per head of the population. Canada, Australia, and New Zealand show an even larger consumption per head. Other countries are slowly acquiring the taste for tea, and energetic efforts are being made to develop the markets both in the United States and in France. In March 1924 the Indian planters voted £20,000 for promoting the sale of their tea in France, and £40,000 for similar propaganda in the United States. It is expected that prohibition in the latter country will

stimulate the demand for tea. Before the War Russia was a large consumer; her imports of other

than China tea during the period 1909-13 averaging over 157,000,000 Ib. per annum, of which 50% came from India, 25% from Ceylon, and 25° from Java. During 1925 direct shipments and re-cxports to European Russia totalled only 16,250,000 lb., of which about 45 % came from India, 35° from Ceylon and 20% from Java. It is known that Russia is taking large quantities from China overland. The Soviet Govt. by her trading system is securing large supplies, China being the main source. The method of financing the Russian buying is not easily traceable on the market. The official buying organisation puts its business through brokers on a cash basis to some extent, but needing credit it also buys through groups of financiers in various countries who, in turn, operate through brokers or dealers. Distribution of Exports and Imports.—The exports from producing

countries in 1925 were as follows:—

Ib. Northern

India

Southern

India

Ceylon

- 304,544,265 43,948,848 . 205,493,536

Java Sumatra Nyasaland : China (estimated) Japan 2

.

. .

Formosa

.

Total .

94,037,988 16,654,053 1,114,633 86,000,000 27,759,600 20,842,800

. 800,395,723

Imports into the principal consuming countries during 1925 were as follows:— Ib.

Great Britain Irish Free State United States of America

Australa Canada . : New Zealand Nlorocco S. Africa Germany Egypt Chile Argentina France Poland Algiers Denmark

. .

. 491,000,000 23,305,000 . 100,962,000

48,833,000 35,785,000 18,764,000 10,199,000 ` 0,387,000 8,934,000 8,229,000 4,460,000 4,370,000 3,654,000 3,194,000 1,677,000 1,436,000

The British Market.—During the World War a Board of Control was instituted under which distributing firms balfloted monthly for the tea available, this being divided according to quality into three grades. ‘The producer was granted a fair price as shipments from India and Ceylon were arranged by the Government, and imports from China and Java were prohibited. The retail distributor was . rationed as to the quantity he might draw and it was required that the retail price to the public should not exceed 2s. 8d. per 1b., even though the duty was, in Sept. 1915 increased to 1s. per Ib. and the stocks in the United Kingdom reduced by Dec. 1917 to 37,500,000 pounds. It was also required that tea should be sold retail by net weight—a requirement still in force. After the conclusion of peace, decontrol gradually took place. In 1919 imports from all sources were again permitted and the free marketing of tea resumed. The trade was, however, confronted with some difficulties, the chief being a glut of tea on the market due to a record supply being avail-

able and the absence of a demand from consuming countries. Free shipping and supplies available from all places, aided by large reexports from the United States, resulted in the import of over 500,000,000 Ib. during 1919. Stocks grew to over 210,000,000 Ib. and the expectation that these could be liquidated by the demand

TEACHING

738 from other consuming

countries than the United

States proved

illusory. These factors influenced prices and common tea was in 1920 sold down to 54d. per lb., a price below producer’s costs. Subsequently prices gradually improved, until in 1924 a new high record for common tea was created when the price touched Is. 84d. per pound. The average prices of British-grown teas on the London market were as follows:—

| Assam . i go Darjeeling. f Duars . Cachar and Sylhet Ceylon . i S. India ; x

: ; i ; h

Sg : ‘ : : :

: ; i : ;

ey . . . . .

1924 ES, PO td is. g-97d. Is. 3°-77d. Is. 2-15d. Is. 11-85. Is. 10:32d.

1925 Is. 904d. Is. 9°63d. Is. 7°4Id. Is. 629d. Is. 10:72¢1. Is. 9-03d.

To these prices must be added the import duty which, early in 1926, was 33d. per lb. for Empire-grown sorts and 4d. per Ib. for forcigngrown. (C. L: TB.)

TEACHING.—The period roro~25 was one of unexampled educational activity and development, not confined to the Western nations but almost world-wide In range. While most of the ideas now taking shape in the national systems were active on a small scale before 1914, the moral shock of the World War was undoubtedly the cause of their present influence. This is seen particularly in Germany, the land where the older educational tradition was fullest developed and most firmly established, which has, since the revolution, been the theatre of a remarkable educational ferment productive already of far-reaching changes. Education in Russia has undergone a still more dramatic upheaval; but the transformation of the schools under Soviet rule though known to be very great, has as yet been insufficiently observed by competent Western critics. In the countries where educational methods were less well defined and less rigid, and where there has been less political disturbance, the changes, though not so conspicuous, are still highly important both in actuality and in potentiality for the future; and Belgium, England, France, Italy and

the United States have all made

significant contributions to a truly international movement. The Pre-War Movement.—Before the War zeal for national efficiency was, on the whole, the dominating motive in education. Under modern conditions economic prosperity was perceived to depend increasingly upon the spread of knowledge among the

masses of a people, and upon the production of men, well informed, trained and disciplined, capable of exercising leadership in the several branches of Its affairs; and the trend of political changes conspired with industrial and commercial developments to make sound education a national necessity. Largely under the stimulus of this motive, elementary education became, In all the progressive countries, at once more liberal in scope and more practical in outlook; and countries like England, which had done comparatively little for their secondary schools, began to foster them sedulously (see SECONDARY SCHOOLS). Everywhere attempts were made to bring school teaching into closer touch with the facts and needs of ordinary life and with the national interests. Many important advances in teaching and teaching methods thus came about: for instance, a notable extension of practical teaching in science, especially in England, a treatment of geography which made it a rational discipline helping the student to understand essential features of the modern world, the “ direct method ” of teaching foreign languages (q.v.) which

sought to make the study of a tongue a key to the life and mind of the people who speak it, and the development, particularly in America, of instruction in manual and domestic arts. And side by side with these advances in the teaching of the elementary and secondary schools there was a corresponding growth of technical education (¢.v.), which aimed still more directly at national efficiency, and led to much useful experimenting in the methods of teaching and training young people for industrial, commercial and domestic occupations. Post-War Changes.—Since 1918 the pre-War movement has

been resumed, but other ideas than national efficiency are conspicuous, and seem likely to produce profounder changes in school organisation and teaching. These derive their force

ultimately from the democratic faith that the purpose of education should be to secure for every person the fullest life of which he is capable, and their operation has been directed by the wider and deeper psychological knowledge that has become available. In brief, education tends increasingly to start from Rousseau’s position that youth is not a preparation for life but a part of life, and secks to make that part as rich as possible in itself in the belief that this is to make it as fruitful as possible in subsequent values. And with this attitude is combined the psychological doctrine that life is essentially spontaneity or “ self-activity,” which is always motived from within though its course is neces-

sarily determined largely by environment and external guidance. Montessort and Other Systems —Dr. Maria Montessori’s methods in the education of young children offer a simple model of the way in which these ideas work out. (See MONTESSORI SYSTEM.) The essence of her scheme is to provide for a group of children a series of carefully devised occupations and then to leave the individuals of the group to educate themselves by selfchosen activity under the eye of a “ directress,” whose function is to watch carefully the progress of her charges and to interfere with them as little as possible. The occupations are believed all to contribute to the child’s mental and moral development, and are, designed so that he can observe his own progress and success in them; they range from simple exercises for training senses and movements up to self-initiation into the arts of reading, writing and reckoning. While Montessori’s system as a whole has not been very largely adopted, her cardinal] idea, under the name of “ individual work,” has spread widely in infants’ schools in England and elsewhere, modifying or replacing the tradition of the Froebel kindergarten. It has also helped to inspire numerous attempts to break away from the old-fashioned routine of class-instruction in the education of older scholars, and to give, in both elementary and secondary schools, a larger place to individual and selfdirected study and practical activity. Some of the more systematic of these attempts (e.g., the “ Dalton Plan,” the “ Winnetka Plan,” the “ Howard Plan”) have been studied more widely than they have been imitated, but the general influence of the ideas they incorporate is unmistakable, and in spite of some short-lived extravagances has been salutary and vivifying. The Influence of Dewey.—\Long before Dr. Montessori gave fresh vigour to the notion of individual self-education, Professor John Dewey, then of Chicago, had worked out his doctrine of education not merely for but through activities of social value. This doctrine, like Montessori’s, opposes to the ideas underlying the conventional methods of class-teaching a conception of educational activity much more free and natural; and it has had much influence upon educational thought and practice, more immediately in the United States, but in a less direct way also in Europe. In the United States it is expressed partly in efforts to bring the activities of school into as close relation as possible with those of the outer world; elsewhere it has helped to form the broader view that the school should be a place where the young may come into effective contact with the great cultural traditions that have shaped modern civilisation. Dewevy’s pragmatism has also done much to further the mode of teaching known in the

United States as the “ project method.” By this term is meant that the scholar should acquire his knowledge, say in mathematics, science, geography, or history, in the attempt to achieve some interesting purpose or to understand how certain problems of practical and social importance are solved. To learn the rudiments of trigonometry in order to carry out a survey of the home district would be an instance of the project method. The “ New School. ”’—The foregoing tendencies and ideas are reflected in many ways in the schools of Europe and America. In England there have been numerous educational experiments (g.v.}—some bold and even daring adventures in unconventionalitv, others more cautious, tempering the new ideas with what is soundest in the older traditions. The schools founded by Reddie (1899) and Badley (1902) were pioneers of a movement which, under the name of the ‘‘ new school,” has spread into

several

Continental

countries.

Among

the “ thirty points ’’

TEA ROOMS—TECHNICAL of the movement the more essential are that a “ new school ” is a boarding school, preferably for both sexes, that it should be in the country and be conducted as a free, co-operative society in close contact with nature, and that it should give a large place on the one hand to manual work, the cultivation of the soil and the breeding of animals, and on the other hand to the practice of the arts and the pursuit of science. Decroly’s school in Brussels, whose programme has been in effect approved by the State, is a special type of ‘‘ new school ” in which the curriculum is presented through a study of primitive man. In England there are or have been schools (e.g., Oundle, under Sanderson) pursuing the main purposes of the ‘‘ new school ” by less unconventional methods. German Reforms.—In the educational reforms in Germany a large part is played by the “ activity schools ” CArbettsschile) inspired by the veteran Kerschensteiner of Munich. The term meant originally a school in which manual work was the core of the curriculum, but its significance now includes “ project ” methods in all subjects. Service of the community is the obí

jective of the education, and “creative learning ” its fundamental principle—that is, learning motive by the pupil’s own interests and initiative and his instinct for social co-operation. Under this scheme the timetable and the conventional division of the curriculum into subjects tend to disappear, for all instruction becomes *‘ incidental.” Accordingly, what is called “ integrated instruction ” (i.e. teaching which ignores subject-divisions) is largely the rule in the Arbetisschule, and has even been, in some German states, prescribed by law for the first four school years. (See EDUCATION.) (T. P. N.) TEA ROOMS: see FOOD SERVICE. TECHNICAL EDUCATION (see 26.487).—The tendency in recent educational administration has been increasingly to focus phases of industry in particular institutions.

I. IN THE

BRITISH

EMPIRE

The statutory duty of local education authorities to co-ordinate all forms of education within their area has led them, since 1909, to develop technical education by a progressive delimitation of the functions of rival schools. Secondary education (g.v.) and, to a less extent commercial education (g.v.) are being removed from technical schools. and concentrated elsewhere; similarly, adult education (g.v.) now being developed at evening schools for men and women and at literary institutes, is being taken away, by degrees, from the technical schools to utilise accommodation for the teaching of scientific and technological processes. In large centres of population, technical instruction is grouped around the major technical schools within the area, minor or junior technical schools being affiliated to a parent institution. In 1913, the evening school system of London was re-organised by the London County Council on these lines, and a similar reorganisation has been effected in other large towns. The present system is designed to encourage boys and girls on leaving the elementary schools at the-age of 14 to enrol in junior technical schools or junior commercial schools for a course of study until the age of 17 or 18 is attained, provision being made by most authorities for trade scholarships at the age of 13 for children of exceptional ability. At the age of 17 or 18 the junior students can be transferred to the appropriate senior school, free places being awarded to those who have given promise of assiduity or ability. The need, especially in rural districts, for the old type of elementary instruction for more or less illiterate adults has practically disappeared, and, in the opinion of the Board of Education, the tendency to concentrate classes and to reduce their number has on the whole been beneficial. In recent years, the function of evening schools has considerably changed; and, although the number of students has been diminished by schemes of re-organisation, a general raising of the standard of attendance and of work has been achieved. The modern type of evening school or institute is more closely in touch with industrial and commercial requirements than formerly, and the enrolment of serious students steadily increases, notably among women and girls by

EDUCATION

739

reason of the development of trade schools for girls and of women’s institutes. Special Schemes——In London and elsewhere special schemes have now been drawn up for technical education in textiles, mechanical and electrical engineering, chemistry, technical optics, architecture and the building trades, furnishing and furniture making, flour milling, retail distribution, banking and secretarial occupations, grocery and provision trades and the boot and shoe trades. Recent advances include the institution of national certificates by the Board of Education in conjunction with professional associations dealing with mechanical engineering, chemistry and the gas industry, and the extension of the day training of apprentices in various trades, e.g., the rubber trades, music trades, printing and gas fitting. Consultative Committees have been appointed, either by the Board of Education or the local education authorities, to co-ordinate the details of technical instruction with trade requirements. Monotechnic Institution.—The monotechnic type of institution has shown great potentialities in pushing forward education for specific trades, particularly in towns with a population or an industry large or important enough to support a technical institute of this type. Comparatively new industries have tended to go forward in education more rapidly than old industries, but, gradually, the application of scientific principles is extending through the medium of specialised technical training. Technical institutes in Great Britain may now broadly be divided into three categories:—(1) The monotechnic type which deals with everything in relation to one particular trade; (2) the polytechnic which provides instruction in practically all subjects of local importance; (3) junior technical schools and trade schools. The monotechnic type of technical institute has achieved its greatest development in London, the largest institute of this {ype being the London School of Printing and Kindred Trades with 2,500 day and evening students. Other monotechnic institutions have been provided in London for the building trade, the meat industry, lithography and photo-engraving, and for the leather and boot and shoe trades. Printing schools are also maintained at the Ecole Estienne in Paris, and at Utrecht, Brussels, Amsterdam, Zurich, Leipsic, Vienna and other European centres. Economic depression arising from the Great War restricted the development of technical education abroad. One effect of the War was a world-wide reaction in favour of the humanities, but later economic stress led to a more insistent demand for technical education. Canada.—In Canada subventions have been voted for the improvement of technical and agricultural education, and in Denmark also development has been very largely in favour of agricultural education. In Australia technical education is being increasingly modelled on British lines. Lower commercial instruction has been organised in Norway and a number of agricultural continuation schools have been opened in Austria. Statistics.—In England and Wales in 1922-3, there were 4,129 schools providing technical education. The enrolment at these schools was 659,936, of whom 23,317 were in day continuation courses. The enrolment was greatest in London which had an average of 4°%5 of its total population under technical instruction; the average for the county boroughs was 2%, and for the administrative counties slightly over 1%. These percentages do not, however, represent the effectiveness of the Instruction, since there is considerable divergence in local regulations governing the opening of classes and the attendance of students. Post-War conditions caused violent fluctuations in the number of students receiving technical education. The highest attendances were recorded in 1921; subsequently economic duress and unemployment caused a decline, but in 1924 and 1925 enrolments began to increase again in many towns, notably in London which had an increase of nearly 20,000 students in two years in its day and evening technical and continuation schools. The average number of student hours worked by each student rises steadily; in 1923 it was 76 hours per student for the county boroughs, 61 hours for London, and 56 hours for the other administrative counties. The total public expenditure from rates and

740

TEETH—TELEGRAPHY

taxes on technical education in Great Britain in 1925 was slightly over £3,000,000. For bibliography, see EDUCATIONAL LITERATURE. (G. H. Ga.) II. IN THE UNITED STATES Agriculture was the first subject in which technical education was provided in the United States, because the country was long an agricultural country. The Congress of the United States made appropriations for agricultural education during the Civil War, and at later periods gave large grants to support schools of agriculture and divisions of agriculture in state universities Congressional support was extended in ro14 through the

Smith-Lever law to what is known as agricultural extension. Under this law agents are distributed through the various states operating from the agricultural colleges, and promoting the development of popular courses in agriculture for adults and also courses in the high schools. The development of high school courses in this line has been so rapid that the colleges of agriculture find their student bodies seriously falling off in numbers because the subject-matter which they used to teach has been taken over by the high schools. The registration in all day agricultural schools under the supervision of the Federal Board for Vocational Education is indicative of the growth in interest in such courses at the secondary level. The details of this expansion are as follows:— Number of Pupils in all-day Agricultural Schools 1918 1920

15,453

31,201

1922

1925.

.

2,961

65,945

Engineering.—The development of engineering schools in the United States came much later than the establishment of schools of agriculture. In recent years, various types of engineering have come to be an important part of university curricula, especially in the great state universities of the Middle West and West. Furthermore, the larger cities have organised technical high schools in response to the demands of industry. These were originally thought of as schools for the training of mechanics. Experience has shown, however, that a relatively small percentage of the graduates of these schools actually work in the trades. Most of them enter upon higher careers as managers or follow the high school training by study in higher institutions. In the technical high schools and in the so-called mechanic arts courses of the ordinary high school, the pupils who are preparing to enter the trades usually remain only for one or two years. The short-period pupils in the technical courses constitute the group who are receiving what is commonly defined as industrial training rather than technical education. Part-time Plan.—A method of relating theoretical training in the technical arts to practical operations in the world of industry was devised and first practised at the University of Cincinnati. This method is called the part-time plan, and provides for a periodical shift of students from school to factory and back again. The period of stay at school and factory varies in different institutions from one week to a month. Usually two equal groups of students alternate with each other, so as continuously to provide the industrial plant and the school with classes for the type

of work which it is the share of each to contribute. The early experiments with the part-time plan demonstrated the necessity of a careful correlation of the work carried on in the two institutions concerned. The advantage of such a plan is that it releases the school from the necessity of equipping itself with the tools and machines demanded by modern mechanics. The learner gains the advantage of contact with current methods in industry and with the results of science. The plan is so successful that it has been imitated in commercial schools and in some of the lower industrial schools. The larger industrial concerns have found that it is necessary for their success to carry the training of some of their employees to levels which equal those reached in college and university

laboratories, and have accordingly established research laboratories and schools for the training of engineers. The effort is being made on an increasing scale, especially in

urban centres, to train all the people in matters mechanical through industrial museums and exhibitions. The purpose of such institutions is to satisfy the popular desire for mechanical knowledge which has been stimulated by the extensive use of the automobile and the electrical contrivances and machines which are now common in homes. The successful example of Europe

in this line has undoubtedly contributed to the development of (EHT such experiments in A:merica. TEETH: see DENTISTRY. TEHRAN, Persia (see 26.506), with a population of about 200,000, has, like the rest of Persia, seen little change. The Lalazar, the centre of the city, has some well-built shops, and in the suburbs are wide shady roads, lined with houses in large gardens. There are no factories except those for making carpets, but Tehran is one of the chief commercial centres of Persia, and an exhibition, with the object of increasing trade, was held in 1923. A police force, trained by Swedish officers, was organised in r911 to try to enforce law and order in Tehran and southern

Persia. The lightly metalled road from Tehran to Khanaqin on the Persian frontier, which was made by the British during the World War, has been kept up since by means of heavy tolls on traflic, and has become one of the main trade routes, as Khanaqin is linked with Baghdad by rail, and the northern trade routes have been closed. A.road fit for light traffic has recently been made to the Caspian, and a motor service to Resht was started in 1924; it is also planned to metal the route to Bushire on the Persian Gulf, which carries a large proportion of the foreign

trade, but is only a caravan track. No railway had been built to Tehran up to 1925.

TEISSERENC

DE

BORT,

LEON

PHILIPPE

(1855-1013),

French meteorologist, was born in Paris Nov. 5 1855, the son of an engineer. He began his scientific career in 1880, when he entered the meteorological department of the Bureau Central Météorologique in Paris under E. E. W. Mascart. In 1883, 1885 and 1887 he made journeys to North Africa to study geology and terrestrial magnetism, and during this period published some important charts of the distribution of pressure at a height of 4,000 metres. In 1892 he became chief meteorologist to the Bureau, but resigned in 1896 and founded a private meteorological observatory at Trappes, near Versailles, where he carried out investigations on clouds and the problems of the upper air. In

1898 he published an important paper in Comptes Rendus detailing his researches by means of balloons into the constitution of the atmosphere. His discovery of the so-called isothermal layer, or stratosphere, as it Is now generally called, will always stand out as one of the most important events in the study of the upper atmosphere. He also carried out investigations in Sweden and over the Zuider Zee, the Mediterranean and the tropical region

of the Atlantic, and fitted out a special vessel in order to study the currents above the trade winds. He was elected a fellow of the Royal Meteorological Society in 1903, hon. member in 1900, and was awarded the Symons gold medal of the society in 1908. He collaborated with Hugo Hildebrandsson in Les bases de lu météorologie dynamique (1900-5). He died at Cannes Jan. 2 1913. TELEGRAPHY (see 27.510).—The two outstanding features in the art of telegraphy since r910 have been (1) the widening application of printing telegraph systems, particularly those using the Baudot or five-unit code, and (2) development of carrier telegraph systems. It has been found feasible to transmit alternating currents of frequencies as high as 30,000 cycles per sec. over open wire metallic return telephone circuits, and by means of thermionic valves or vacuum tubes to amplify the feeble received currents and retransmit or relay them into connecting circuits. As the voice range in ordinary telephone transmission requires only a band width of 2,000 or 3,000 cycles at the low end of this range, the remainder may be used for carrier telegraph and carrier tele-

phone (see TELEPHONY). A circuit from which telephone and direct current telegraph channels are derived, the telegraph employing the frequency range between zero anc the lowest frequencies required for tele-

phone purposes, is termed a composited circuit.

The separation

TELEGRAPHY is effected by means of simple electrical filters which are generally referred toasa ‘‘composite set.”’? The compositing idea has been carried still further by superposing a high frequency carricr telegraph system upon a telephone circuit, the two being separated as before by more elaborate filters, which are sometimes referred to as a “high frequency composite set.” A carrier telegraph circuit provided with equipment for utilising the alternating currents within the voice range for telegraph purposes is termed a “‘ voice frequency carrier telegraph circuit.” MIETHODS

OF TRANSMISSION

Composite Telegraph and Telephone.—Considerable advance has been made in the technical knowledge of simultaneous tele-

graph and telephone operation over the same’ wires.

The funda-

mental idea was that of Van Rysselberghe of Belgium. By means of electric wave filters, consisting of condensers and inductance

coils, a line circuit is bifurcated at the terminals into two circuits, one offering low impedance and attenuation to the low frequency telegraph signals and high impedance and attenuation to the higher frequency telephone currents, the other offering high impedance and attenuation to the low frequency telegraph signals and low impedance and attenuation to the higher frequency telephone currents. The telegraph may be operated as a twowire metallic return circuit, or as two separate grounded circuits. The former is the method used on small gauge circuits in cables, whereas the latter is the standard practice for open wire lines. Fig. 1 shows the separating filters or, as they are termed, the (">=

wea

ee

ot

ee

n Se

ee

Poel

+

pi

Composite Set 1 ae catia Semen ene

tor = f ne

ITTelegraph lSet N? T -> me op ar =r

Fic, 1.—Schematic of Composite Set for grounded telegraph system.

“ composite set. ” Where it is desired to use two telephone circuits in tandem to provide long telegraph circuits, the telephone circuits are connected together through intermediate composite sets which permit the telegraph currents to pass but effectively separate the circuits for telephone communication. Carrier Telegraph Systems.—The greatest contribution to the art of telegraph transmission over land lines since 1910 has been the application of vacuum tubes and the electrical filter which have made practicable the carrier current systems. Two carrier systems have been developed, one the high frequency system for use on open wire lines over which it is possible to transmit alternating currents of frequencies above the voice range, and another system for use over land cable circuits, which utilises the voice range of frequencies and so is called the voice frequency system. High Frequency Carrier Telegraph System—The high frequency system has been designed for operation over one pair of wires. Transmission in both directions is obtained by dividing the band of frequencies available (3,000 to 10,000) at about 6,000 cycles, and using one portion of the band for east to west transmission and the other portion for west to east. This separation is achieved by suitably designed electrical filters termed “ directional filters.” To obtain a number of telegraph channels, it is necessary to split up these wide bands—-3,000 to 6,000 and 6,000

741

to 10,000—into narrower bands, but still of sufficient width to enable telegraph signals of good quality to be transmitted. Within the frequency range mentioned, ro telegraph channels in each direction are obtained. An east to west channel is associated with a west to east channel, thereby providing the equivalent of a duplex circuit. A carrier system thus provides the equivalent of ro duplex circuits. Each channel of a high frequency carrier system comprises a vacuum tube oscillator, tuned to a particular frequency, the steady output from which is applied intermittently by the actuation of the sending key or other transmitting device used. These trains of alternating current waves are amplified, pass through a tuned selective circuit, combine with the signals from other channels and thence flow into the line. At the receiving end they enter aselective circuit which, being tuned to the same frequency, offers a path of low impedance to them but a high impedance to all other frequencies. The signals are then amplified and rectified, the rectified signals actuating a relay. To separate the carrier Currents as a group from the currents used for ordinary telephony and telegraphy, “ high pass” and “ low pass ”’ filters are used.

This combination of filters is sometimes called a high fre-

quency composite set. To separate the voice frequency currents from the currents of still lower frequencies used for the ordinary telegraph circuits, the ordinary composite set is used. Carrier circuits of this type provide hizh grade signals, are very stable in operation and are free from the balance troubles of direct current duplex systems. This system has enabled the following communication facilities to be obtained commercially from a single pair of open wires: 20 one-way carrier telegraph channels, 4 one-way direct current telegraph channels, and 14 telephone circuits including the phantom. Voice Frequency Carrier Telegraph System—The heavy telephone traffic in thickly populated territories has led to the use of cable circuits in place of open wire lines. To provide telegraph facilities over such routes, it would not be possible to use the high frequency carrier system because of the great attenuation of high frequency currents in cable conductors. The need for such facilities led to the development of a carrier system using frequencies within the voice range. This system has been designed particularly for use over four-wire telephone circuits so that the same frequencies may be used in each direction. Although fundamentally the same principle as the high frequency system, this system differs in a number of details. One multifrequency generator, furnishing currents of r2 frequencies from 425 to 2,295 cycles per sec., spaced 170 cycles apart, is the source of power, and is capable of feeding as many as 20 separate carrier systems, t.e., 240 carrier channels. The steadily applied carrier current of each channel is interrupted by actuation of the transmitting key or other sending device. This interrupted carrier current passes through a sending band filter constructed as to permit relatively free passage of current of frequencies slighily above and below the carrier frequency for which it was designed. To currents of other frequencies it offers a high impedance, and this practically excludes. them. After passing through the filter, the current combines with currents of other frequencies from the other channels and passes over the line as a composite current. As the over-all range of frequencies and the energy levels are about the same as those of telephone circuits, standard telephone repeaters are used to relay the currents. At the receiving end, the carrier currents are separated by a group of recciving band filters, each of which offers a low impedance path to a relatively narrow band of frequencies comprehending that of a particular carrier frequency and acts substantially as an open circuit to other frequencies. After passing through the receiving filter, the current is amplified and then rectified, the rectified or direct current signals actuating a relay. An east to west channel and a west to east channel are combined to furnish the equivalent of a duplex circuit. The above description applies particularly to a system developed in the United States. In Germany a somewhat similar system has been developed. The German system uses a separate vacuum tube oscillator for each channel and interrupts the

742

TELEGRAPHY

carrier currents

to form telegraph signals, no sending filters

being used. At the receiving end, four-electrode vacuum tubes are used for amplifying and rectifying the signals. Over a four-wire circuit, six telegraph channels in each direction are

provided.

|

Direct Current Metallic Telegraph System—The increase in knowledge of the fundamental requirements of simultaneous telephone and telegraph operation has enabled a direct current telegraph system to be developed for operation over long smallgauge telephone cable circuits. This system is arranged for me-

tallic circuit working using a relay operating with a current of

To Telephone

mr

Circus t

chines are actuated electrically and are capable of operating at much higher speeds than the earlier models. Baudot.— Use of the Baudot multiplex printer system has been widely extended in Great Britain, and the system modified by British engineers. It has been duplexed, thereby doubling its traffic carrying capacity. ‘Transmission is controlled by perforated tapes actuating automatic transmitters, instead of by direct keyboard operation, thereby permitting the rate of operation to be increased about 50%. Electrical vibrating reeds and phonic wheel motors are used to drive the distributors, ensuring stable synchronism. | Murray Multiplex.—This system of multiplex is based on the Baudot. Operators prepare messages by perforating paper tapes by means of keyboard perforating machines having a keyboard similar toa typewriter. Each key of the machine, when depressed, perforates a particular combination of holes in accordance with

Feed Holes

Line

nNnAh&w N~

FIG, 2.—Schematic of Composite Set for metallic return telegraph system,

approximately two milliamperes.

The general circuit arrange-

ments of this system are shown in fig. 2. The cable circuit is di-

vided by a composite set or filter into two branches, as has been described under Composite Telegraphs. All metallic circuits in a single office are supplied from a common battery. The type of sensitive polar relay, which was specially designed for this service, is shown in fig. 3. The relay is provided with four accurately balanced line windings and two additional windings for use

Permanent

Fic. 3.—Polar relay for metallic return cable system.

in a Gulstad vibrating local circuit. The armature is a reed, fixed at one end, and forms the cross piece of a magnetic bridge. The six windings surround the armature. Current in one direction causes that end of the armature carrying the contacts to move towards one pole, and current in the opposite direction causes it to reverse its motion. PRINTING

SYSTEMS

Creed System.—This system, which came into use early in the present century, has been improved by simplification of apparatus units and elimination of need for air pressure. The new ma-

Fic. 4.—Murray

“ TELEGRAPH."

multiplex ‘tape, showing perforations for word

the arrangement of the five-unit code adopted by Murray.

Fig.

4 shows a portion of tape perforated to transmit the word “ tele-

graph.” From the perforating machine the tape passes directly into an automatic transmitter which has five selecting pins, each controlling a contact lever resting normally against a busbar connected to the spacing pole of the line battery. When aselecting pin passes into a hole in the tape, the associated contact lever moves over and makes contact with a busbar connected to the marking pole of the battery. The positions of the contact levers are therefore determined by the perforations in the tape. Each lever is connected to its own particular segment on the sending ring of the distributor, the five segments associated with a transmitter usually being placed in sequence around the ring, so that as the brushes pass over the segments a particular combination of signals representing a letter, comprising positive and negative impulses, is sent out to line. Immediately the brushes have passed over the last of the segments associated with a particular transmitter, a local current impulse is sent from another ring of the distributor through a ‘ cadence ” electromagnet in the transmitter, which when operated withdraws the selecting pins, feeds forward the paper tape and sets up the next letter combination. Provision is made to prevent the transmitter overtaking the perforating operator by causing a taut tape between the two machines to move a light lever and so open the circuit of the “cadence electromagnet,” thereby stopping the operation of the transmitter. As soon as the tape slackens the lever is restored to normal and the transmitter starts again. American Multiplex Systems —The Western Electric and Western Union Telegraph companies jointly developed a multiplex printer system primarily to meet the needs of the Western Union Telegraph Company. It resembles the Murray system as regards use of keyboard perforators, rotating distributors and page printers, but differs from the Murray in many details. Instead of transmitting extra signals per revolution of the distributors to maintain synchronism, correcting impulses are generated from the character signals, thus saving line time. A large vibrating fork is used to drive a phonic wheel motor, which is the motive power for the distributor. Various types of printer units have been successfully used with this system. All circuits are operated duplex, and double, triple and quadruple channel systems are in service. Speeds as high as 50 and 60 words per min. per channel are maintained by operators. Another American

multiplex printer system has been developed by the MorkrumKleinschmidt Company. This system does not differ radically from that described above except for the utilisation of camcontrolled contacts in place of segmented ring distributors with rotating contact brushes.

743

TELEGRAPHY Siemens and Halske Automatic System.—This system is a single channel high speed synchronous printer system, using a fiveunit code. At the sending end the operations are practically identical with those of the Wheatstone, Creed and Murray Automatic. A number of operators prepare perforated tapes which

are passed to an operator who feeds them into the transmitter. The hole combinations are arranged across the tape as in the Murray multiplex, but the tape has two rows of feed holes, one along each edge. The tape is not stepped forward but moves uniformly, the transmitter being geared to the distributor brushes. No special signals are transmitted to maintain synchronism, correcting impulses being derived from the message signals. When no messages are being sent, provision is made for sending a signal once per revolution to maintain synchronism. The sending distributor brush arm is driven by a shunt wound motor, having a heavy flywheel mounted on the same shaft. The receiving and translating arrangements of the receiver are almost entirely electrical. The brush arm of the receiving ring is mounted on the same shaft as the typewheel. The exact position of the typewheel when the paper tape is momentarily pressed against it to print a letter is determined by the particular signal combination set up in one or other of two groups of storing relays. Synchronism is maintained by varying a resistance in the field of the driving motor of the distributor. The printed tape is pasted on message forms, as is the practice with all tape printing machines. Provision is made for receiving messages as perforated tapes by associating one of the keyboard perforators with the receiving ring segments. The system may be worked simplex or duplex, and is capable of operating at a maximum speed of 1,000 letters per min.in each direction, f.e., 166 words in the English language. Start-Stop Printer System.—A “ start-stop ” system is one which provides for the transmission of one message over a circuit, or, when duplexed, one message in each direction simultaneously. The term “start-stop” has been adopted because the distributor brush or equivalent rotating mechanism is started and stopped once per revolution. Start-stop sets are in wide use in the United States, where several types have been designed. One type comprises a keyboard transmitter, a motor-driven brush distributor and a printer. In some cases the keyboard is arranged to control a perforator, so that messages may be transmitted either direct from the keyboard, or set up as perforations in a tape and so control the operations of an automatic transmitter. The distributor brush arms (one on each face of the distributor), driven through a friction clutch, are ncrmally held stationary by a latch and make one rotaticn for each character transmitted or received. The start impulse releases the sending start-latch and actuates a relay at the distant station to release the receiving start-latch, so that if the rotation speeds are approximately the same the transmitted impulses are distributed properly to the selecting magnets or clements of the printer at the receiving station. In duplex operation, the sending brush arm and recciving brush arm rotate independently of each other. Close synchronism is not required, since the distributors are stopped and caused to start from the same initial position for each character. This feature automatically takes care of line lag and renders the system well adapted for use on circuits having a number of stations operating simultaneously. These systems have been used to a considerable extent over telegraph circuits

obtained from telephone circuits and have a maximum speed of about 360 letters or characters per minute. Another type of set has a battery of cams mounted within the printer to take the place of the brushes and segmented rings of the distributor. Either a page printer capable of operating at 360 letters per min. or a tape printer at about 270 letters per min. may be associated with this set. Cipher Printing System.—A printing system for rapidly enciphering and deciphering telegraph messages has been developed by the engineers of the American Telephone and Telegraph Company. It was successfully applied by the U.S. Army Signal

Corps during the World War, when enciphering and deciphering were performed with increased speed and accuracy.

Gulstad Relay.—In 1898 Gulstad of Copenhagen invented a modified form of polarised relay known as a vibrating relay, the use of which has enabled much higher speeds of working to be attained on all types of telegraph circuits using polar or double current transmission. The principle of the relay may be understood by referring to fig. 5. It will be seen that the ends of the local windings are joined to terminals B and C and their centre to terminal A, which is connected through an adjustable resistance Y to the relay tongue. This resistance is for regulating the local current so that the magnetic effect produced thereby is less than that produced by the steady line current through the line windings. Terminal B is connected to ground through a condenser K and terminal C through a resistance X. Generally, resistances X and Y are made equal. Line Coils

Local Coils

C

x

Fic. §.—Schematic of connections for Gulstad relay.

Assuming that there is no current in the line windings and the relay tongue has just reached the contact M (Marking), there will then be a momentary rush of current through the winding AB to charge the condenser K, in a direction to keep the tongue to the marking side, thus preventing any tendency of the tongue to rebound. This charging current quickly ceases as the condenser becomes charged and directly its intensity falls below that of the current flowing through the winding AC, the preponderance of the latter causes the tongue to move toward the spacing contact S. Immediately the tongue leaves the marking contact, the condenser K discharges through both windings BA and AC in such a direction as to accelerate the movement of the tongue, so that its transit time from one contact to the other is thereby lessened. When the tongue reaches the opposite contact, the condenser k is again charged, but this time from the other pole of the battery; a similar cycle of effects therefore takes place on that side, and the tongue moves in the reverse direction. In this manner the relay tongue is kept vibrating at 2 speed depending on the values given to the condenser and resistances and the distance of travel of the tongue between its contacts. In practice, the adjustments are such that the rate of vibration of the tongue under the control of the local current is approximately equal to the rate at which the transmitter at the distant station sends reversals at working speed. When this obtains, the signals passing through the line windings merely determine the length of time that the tongue remains in contact with either stop, its movement therefrom being effected by the local current through the

local windings as soon as the strength of the line current falls below that of the local current in the winding AC. Interference. —Ground return telegraph circuits are subject to three sources of interference which impair or degrade them,

744

TELEGRAPHY,

“namely, induction from AC power lines, induction from other telegraph circuits along the same route and differences of direct current earth potential between the terminal stations. In the first case, where the frequency is not too close to that of the telegraph, the interference can be considerably reduced by the provision of tuned drainage shunts, high impedance anti-resonant series devices and by reducing the responsiveness of the receiving circuits to the interfering current by balancing arrangements. Where possible, it is usually preferable, however, to locate and eliminate the source of the induction. This is particularly true in the case of high-speed telegraphs, where the above methods are generally inapplicable. In the second case, the interference is usually mutual between several conductors and is more generally experienced on cable circuits. This interference can be greatly diminished by coupling the duplex scts together by means of condensers and transformers so as to neutralise the current introduced through coupling between the lines. The effect of local ground potential differences can be overcome by supplying a counter electromotive force from a special generator automatically adjusted for neutralisation. STATISTICS

The following table gives the miles of telegraph wire throughout the world, Jan. 1 1924 and 1910. Single Wire

Great Britain and North Ireland Denmark À ; ; France Germany zoog -. Italy . ; ; ; .

.

4 ;

Norway Sweden

Switzerland ne Other countries in Europe Total Europe .

British India China . Japan . od : Other countries in Asia

Egypt . : : è Union of South Africa Other countries in Africa .

Total Africa

;

;

:

:

;

Other countries in North America . Total North Amcrica Argentina Brazil Chile : : . ; Other countries in South America

Total South America

299,307" 9,352 495,000! 484,514 255,000!

311,942? 8,048 379,888 388,412 126,505

20,138 51,967

13,120 40,171

25,318 936,416

16,336 826,730

2,577,012

2,111,152

à .

162,397 175,487

i 97,300 399,030!

772,179

496,330

23,067 44,912 118,618

pa 46,853 110,000!

86,597

156,853

1,875,000 270,782 76,105

1,480,000 153,000 bs

2,270,232

1,711,000

48,345

78,000

175,975 95,463 38,090 50,759

360, 187

143,590

Australia. New Zealand Philippine Islands

97,438 23,067 9,200

2,909 20,188 i

Total Oceania

151,383

127,797

6,317,590

4,746,722

Other places in Oceania Total world 1 Partly estimated.

_

Jan. I 1910

347,295 87,000!

Total Asia

United States Canada Mexico :

Jan. I 1924

21,678

14,700

? For Great Britain, exclusive of Ireland.

BIBLIoGRAPHY.—K., Gulstad, “ Vibrating Cable Relay,” Electrical Review (June 1898, Aug. 1902); A. C. Booth, “ A Method of Reduc-

ing Inductive Interference,’ Post Office Electrical engineers’ Journal,

vol. 2 (1909); D. Murray, ‘' Practical Aspects of Printing Telegraphy,” Jour. Inst. Elec. Eng. (1911); D. McNicol, American Telegraph Practice (1913); “ The Siemens Automatic Fast Speed Printing Telegraph,” Electrician (July 11 1913); E. Lack, * The Creed

SUBMARINE Telegraph

System,”

Post

Ofice Elec. Eng. Jour., vol. 6 (1914);

“The Gulstad Relay,” čbid., vol. 7 (1915), vol. 10 (1918); P. M. Rainey, “A New Printing Telegraph System,” Electrical World

(April 3 1915); A. HI]. Roberts, ‘A New Type Printing Telegraph System,” Post Office Elec. Eng. Jour., vol. 8 (1915); Report by Joint Commiltee on Inductive Interference (San Francisco, Sept. 1915); T. E. Herbert, Telegraphy, 3rd ed. (1916); B. Gherardi and É. B. Jewctt, “ Telephone Repeaters,” Proc. Amer. Inst. Elec. Eng. (Oct. 1919); J. I. Bell, “ Printing Telegraph Systems,” Trans. Amer. Insti. Ilec. Eng., vol. 39, pt. 1 (1920); A. C. Booth, “ Telegraph Keyboard Perforators,” Post Office Elec, Eng. Jour. (July 1921); E. A. Colpitts and O. B. Blackwell, ‘ Carrier Current Telephony and Telegraphy,” Amer. Inst. Elec. Feng. Jour. (April, May and June 1921); È. Lack, “ Description of New Creed Apparatus,” Flectrician (Jan. 21 1921); J. I. Bell, ‘‘ Composite Telegraphy and Telephony,” Post Office Elec. Eng. Jour. (April 1922); W. H. Martin, G. A.

Anderegg and B.W. Kendall, ‘“ Key West-Havana Telephone Cable,” Amer. Inst. Elec. Eng. Jour. (March 1922); A. H. Reiber, “ Printing Telegraph Systems,” ziid. (Feb. 1922); A. E. Stone and E. A. Lackey, *‘ Baudot Distributor,” Post Office Elec. Eng. Jour. {April 1922); H. Harrison, Printing Telegraph Systems and

Mechanisms (1923); J. H. Bell, R. B. Shanck and D. E. Branson, “ Metallic Polar Duplex Telegraph System,” Amer. Inst. Elec. Eng. Jour. (April 1925); S. C. Bartholomew, “ Power Circuit Interference, with Telegraphs and Telephones,” Inst. Elec, Eng. Jour. (Oct. 1926);

J. R. Fry and L. A. Gardner, ‘' Polarized Telegraph Relays,” Inst. Elec. Eng. Jour. (March 1925); W. D. Hamilton, ‘' A Frequency Telegraph System,” Post Office Flec. Eng. Jour. 1925); G. S. Vernam, “ Cipher Printing Telegraph Systems,” Inst. Elec. Eng. Jour. (Feb. 1926). (J. H.

Amer. Voice (Oct. Amer. B.)

TELEGRAPHY, SUBMARINE (see 26.527)}.—Improved methods of working have been introduced and apparatus has been invented with the object of increasing speed and reducing error in transmission and reception. Signalling Difficulties —One of the factors which limit the spced of signalling over a submarine cable of any considerable length is its inductive capacity due to which the impulses forming the letters, which are transmitted into the cable lose their definition and appear at the receiving end distorted and attenuated in what might be described as a spread out condition. The maximum speed of signalling is therefore that at which it is possible to distinguish between the various impulses or sets of impulses in order to make the signals readable. The siphon recorder is still the instrument generally employed for recording these signals, but whereas in the past the messages were written up by hand, the recorder is now usually employed for watching the shaping of the signals and for adjustment purposes, the signals actuating a train of automatic apparatus by which the messages are typed or printed. By the introduction of appropriate capacity and inductance into the sendirg and receiving circuits it is possible to improve greatly the received signals which although reduced in size are much more clearly defined, thus allowing an increase in the speed of transmission. Alagnifiers—By the use of a magnifier the received signals can be increased in size and, in turn, the speed of transmission may again be raised. Magnifiers can seldom be employed to their full advantage on account of imperfections in the duplex balance and local disturbances due to induction from other circuits and electric tramways or powcr mains, but their introduction usually permits an increase of speed of about 30%. In order to minimise the disturbances compensating devices are employed necessitating the use of twins or tricore shore-end cables, the actual point of earthing the circuit usually being some miles out at sea. Several forms of magnifier are employed which depend on the movement of a suspended coil as in the case of the siphon recorder, but the movement is utilised to bring about the operations described hereafter instead of deflecting the glass tube. An ordinary siphon recorder is usually employed in conjunction with the magnifier to register the resulting signals. The Heurtley Magnifier —This operates by upsetting the equilibrium of a Wheatstone bridge balance, two arms of which are composed of extremely fine wires. The wires carry current and, in the earlier form of the apparatus, are moved by the action of the coil so that they become immersed in or shielded from a current of air. The resulting change in temperature causes an alteration in their resistance values and thus affects the recording instrument connected in the cross circuit of the bridge. In a

TELEGRAPHY, SUBMARINE later form a pair of hot wires carrying current are moved towards or away from a similar but fixed pair thus varying their temperature and in consequence, their resistance.

Lhe Judd and Fraser Afagnificy —This instrument depends on the movement of an electrode between two fixed ones immersed in an electrolyte such as dilute sulphuric acid. The resistances of the electrolyte between the moving and fixed electrodes form two arms of a Wheatstone bridge the remaining arms being adjustable resistances. Thus, any displacement of ihe movable electrode from its symmetrical position between the fixed ones consequent upon deflection of the suspended coil has the effect of upsetting the balance, thereby causing a current to flow through the coil of the recording instrument which is connected in the cross circuit of the bridge. In order to avoid the production of gas and a polarising of the electrodes the current which is passed through the electrolyte is an alternating one. This is brought about by the use of an electrically driven reed carrying a contact head so designed that the positive and negative polesof the battery are rapidly reversed. Simultaneously the current in the recording instrument is rectified by means of a second set of contacts mounted on the same reed. A blocking condenser is included in the circuit to prevent the passage of any direct current through the electrolyte. In a later form a three-electrode valve and transformer are introduced to amplify further the current before rectification, The Cox Magnifier.—In this type a specially constructed selenium cell is divided into two sections which form two of the arms of a Wheatstone bridge. A beam of light is passed through a metal comb and reflected on to the cell by a small mirror mounted on the suspended coil. A deflection of the coil causes one portion of the cell to become darkened and the other to become increasingly illuminated thus bringing about a change in the resistance values of the two sections of the cell and operating the recording instrument or relay in the cross circuit. The Orling Magnifter.—A Jet of liquid, such as acidulated water, is deflected by a fine wire attached to the suspended coil, which wire intersects or penetrates the stream. A slight movement of the coil and wire will cause a considerable deflection of the stream which may complete a recorder circuit by coming into contact with one or other of the two conductors situated one on each side of the initial and normal position of the axis of the stream. Alternatively, the stream when deflected may provide a temporary bridge between one or the other of the two pairs of contacts.

Thermionic Valves.—These have also been used very successfully in connection with cable circuits for amplifying purposes. Relays (Repeaters) —If, instead of tracing the signals by means of a glass tube as in the case of the siphon recorder, the moving coil be employed to make electrical contacts, retransmitting apparatus taking current from a local battery may be operated, thus repeating the weak incoming impulses into a second cable as strong signals. An instrument of this description is known as a relay and on a long cable such an instrument may be used in conjunction with a magnifier. The speed at which a cable may be worked depends very largely on its KR, this being the product of its inductive capacity (K) expressed in farads and its ohmic resistance (R). It is, however, dependent to a certain extent on the voltage employed for transmitting, an increase giving a somewhat higher speed. It is usual to consider that the speed at which cables may be worked varies inversely as their KRs and if, therefore, a cable, say, 3,000 m. in length and having a KR of 6 could be diverted into an island situated half way along, the KR of each section would then be 1-5 since both the resistance and capacity values are reduced by one-half. The through speed of working could then be increased four times if an automatic relay were installed at the intermediate station. Relays by Dr. Muirhead and S. G. Brown are in considerable use and the “ Jockey ” relay introduced by the Eastern Associated Telegraph Companies is now almost exclusively employed in their service. This relay permits of the use of ordinary shaping conditions and does not, as in other cases, necessitate the use of an unshunted receiving condenser in the coil circuit in order to

745

block out earth currents which would otherwise involve a disturbance of the zero position of the coil thus causing bias or thickening of the signals on one side and thinning on the other. When an unshunted condenser is employed to obviate this trouble a “local correction ” is necessary to counteract the overcurbing or falling away of the received signals consequent upon the use of the condenser. This is usually applied by means of a second winding on the suspended coil, the current through which is adjusted to vary at the correct rate and strength to hold up the signals. With the “‘ Jockey ” relay a correction of this sort is unnecessary since by the use of a resistance shunt over the receiving condenser the overcurbing or falling away of the signals is obviated. The relay contacts are mounted on a frame suspended on a pivot and free to move as the contact tongue attached to the main coil is deflected by the earth current. The frame or “ jockey ” carrying the contacts is so damped by means

of vanes immersed in oil that it is not displaced under ordinary signalling impulses but is nevertheless able to respond to the relatively slow changes of coil zero brought about by earth current variations, thus keeping the contacts symmetrically dis-

posed with regard to the contact tongue operated by the coil. Bruce Relay—In a relay introduced by W. M. Bruce, a contact tongue attached to the suspended coil rests on a revolving drum divided into three insulated contact sections as in the case of S. G. Brown’s relay. Each of the two outer sections with which

the tongue makes contact when the coil is deflected to one side or the other, is connected to the grid of a three-clectrode valve in the anode circuit of which the windings of a translating device or relay are included. Since it is only necessary to transmit potential to the grids in order to allow of the passage of anode currents to operate the translating device, the resistance of the contact between the tongue and revolving drum is not of great importance, and light contact pressure may be employed, thus

reducing the mechanical damping of the coil and allowing of increased speed of signalling. Automatic Working.—Automatic working has resulted in a very great reduction in the time of transmission of traffic and also in improved accuracy. The monthly statistics carefully compiled by the Eastern Associated Telegraph Companies show that the error percentage for automatic working is approximately one-fifth to one-sixth of that for manual working and except for the initial operation of preparing the perforated tape for transmission the system adopted on nearly all main line cables is entirely automatic. As an example, a message handed in in London is dealt with by an operator who by means of a perforator, the keyboard of which resembles that of a typewriter, prepares a perforated paper tape which ts run through a transmitter thus sending into the cable electrical impulses corresponding to the

perforationsin the tape. Thesesignals are automatically repeated by apparatus installed at the various stations along the route so that a message for Australia, India, South America or China arrives at its destination without any further reperforating or retransmitting by manual means. At the terminal station an automatic perforator produces a tape which is a replica of that originally prepared in London. This in turn passes through a printer which types out the message in the form in which it is delivered. Distortion Effect and Remedy.—The signals received from a

cable of any considerable length when working at a speed approaching the maximum, are somewhat distorted and it is undesirable to retransmit these signals through a number of cables linked together by relays since the distortion is cumulative. Certain stations along the route are therefore provided with automatic receiving perforators in place of simple relays so that a perforated tape is prepared and immediately passed through a transmitter thus sending perfect signals into the next cable and thereby ensuring accuracy and avoiding a reduction in the

through speed of transmission. The Regenerator: —The delay introduced by this method of working, known as tape-translation, is small but the recent advent of a system of retransmission employing an instrument known as the “ Regenerator ” allows of the direct linking up by

746

TELEGRAPHY, SUBMARINE

relays in conjunction with this apparatus of a greater number of cables, thus decreasing the total delay as well as reducing the chance of error by the retransmission of perfectly corrected signals at each stage. The comparatively large tolerance of the regenerator for correctly interpreting distorted signals depends to a great extent on the fact that it is running at exactly the same speed as the transmitter at the distant end of the cable; further, it is also able to follow any slight alteration in the speed of transmission. This is effected by taking the average time of arrival of the signals and comparing it with a predetermined position of a point on the shaft of the retransmitting apparatus. If this time differs, corrections are caused to occur to increase or

decrease either momentarily or permanently the speed of the shaft so as to maintain the operative parts on the shaft in con-

stant relation to the incoming signal.

Special precautions are,

however, taken to ensure constant speed and both transmitting

and receiving instruments are run by phonic motors which are controlled by electrically driven reeds or tuning forks. Although the frequency of vibration of the type of reed employed is for nearly all practical purposes constant, a high grade electrical clock is in many cases used to control the reed in order to eliminate any small variation due to temperature changes or other causes.

Performance.—As an example of the speed of transmission, His Majesty the King’s message comprising 12 words announcing the opening of the British Empire Exhibition at Wembley on April 23 1924 was flashed round the world by the submarine cable systems in 80 seconds. The route was as follows:— The Stadium-Penzance-Fayal-Halifax

by the Imperial

(British

Government System). Halifax-Montreal-Vancouver-Bamfield-Fanning-Suva-Auckland-Sydney by the Pacific Cable Board's system. From Sydney by two routes, both of the Eastern Associated Companies’ system as follows: (1) Sydney-Adelaide-Perth-CocosRodriguez - Durban - Capetown - St. Helena - Ascension - St. VincentMadeira-Porthcurnow-London. (2) Sydney-Adelaide-Darwin-Singapore - Madras - Bombay - Aden - Suez - Alexandria - Malta - GibraltarPorthcurnow-London. The messages arrived in London simultaneously at 11:50-55 A.M. having been despatched from the Stadium 80 seconds previously at 11:49-35 A.M. The total distance traversed via the South Africa route was, in round numbers, 32,300 m. made up of 26,000 m. of cable and 6,300 m. of landline. By the Indian route the total was 30,000 miles including roughly 8,200 m. of landline.

At the end of 1924 there were some 3,500 submarine telegraph cables in operation, having a totai length of over 332,000 nautical miles, approximately 77,700 m. being administered by the various governments and the remainder by private companies. Of the latter approximately 144,000 m. are owned by British Companies, 83,000 m. by American Companies and the remainder by Companies of other countries. Since the above date several additional cables have been laid and no less than 26,000 m. were contracted for in the twelve months following June 1924.

Super posing. —By means of a system introduced by Dr. Pernot and L. Rich three messages are transmitted simultaneously over submarine cables and good results have been achieved on one approximately 1,100 m. in length. The cable is worked duplex in the ordinary manner and in addition, signals are transmitted in one direction by means of an alternating current of a frequency of the order of 40 cycles per second. The direct current for the ordinary duplex working is provided by a small motor-generator the generator field of which is excited from a battery joined up through the contacts of an automatic transmitter. Connected in series with the armature of this generator is the stator of a small alternator the field of which is energised from a battery through the contacts of a second transmitter. Suitable tuned circuits and filters are included in the circuit at the sending and receiving stations in order to avoid interference and to separate out the alternating and direct currents. The former are amplified by means of thermionic valves and eventually operate ordinary telegraphic apparatus as employed for direct current working. This system which is a form of “wired wireless ” was first installed with very satisfactory results on one of the Eastern Telegraph Company’s cables between Gibraltar and Malta. The Loaded Cable-—The submarine cable of the future un-

doubtedly will be of the new loaded type. The number of words

per minute that can be sent through an ordinary submarine cable is limited owing to the signals being distorted as they pass through the cable, so that at a certain speed they become unreadable. In the loaded cable this distortion is very largely eliminated and on a long cable a working speed in one direction of as much as ten times that of an ordinary cable of similar length may be attained. The loaded cable is so named because of its peculiarities being similar to a certain mechanical analogy. The ordinary cable can be likened to a light rope stretched tightly in water and the process of signalling to lateral movements at one end that cause waves to pass along the rope. These waves will rapidly diminish in size due to the friction of the water, but if the rope be weighted or ‘‘ loaded ” with weights at short intervals, the waves will travel along the rope with much less loss of size, owing to there being more energy associated with the waves. The loading of a cable is obtained by increasing its inductance or electrical mass.

One method of accomplishing this is to insert at intervals along the cable loading coils comprising an insulated conductor wound around a metal that will become magnetised when a current is passing through the cable and winding. The insertion of these coils presents mechanical difficulties, especially where the cable is to be laid in deep water as would usually be the case where a long cable is concerned, and the necessity for an increase of speed most apparent. It may, however, be possible to introduce inductance in this form, known as “ lump loading ” into existing cables

which are not laid in very deep water. The possibilities of loading have been realised for many years, and cables loaded with soft iron wire were laid over twenty years ago for telephone purposes. The small increase of inductance due to soft iron makes it unsuitable for use for long telegraph cables and it is the recent

development of nickel-iron alloys that has made the loaded telegraph cable a successful project. (See TELEGRAPHY.) Continuous Loading.—The introduction of these nickel-lron alloys of high permeability for low magnetising forces has made it possible to employ “‘ continuous loading ”’ which does not alter the present regular form of the cable or add to the difficulties of laying or raising for repair. This alloy is employed in the form of a fine wire or tape which is wound continuously and directly around the copper conductor before the gutta percha insulating sheath is applied. The first telegraph cable of this description was manufactured in England and laid for the Western Union Telegraph Company in Sept. 1924 to connect New York with Horta in the Island of Fayal, Azores. Another cable was laid in March 1926 for the Eastern Extension Company to connect Cocos Island with Perth, Western Australia. A cable of this type can work at a very high speed when compared with an unloaded cable of the same length and having similar weights of copper and gutta percha per mile. On such a cable the actual speed in letters per minute attainable is above that of any automatic receiving apparatus at present available for directly printing the received traffic or for producing a perforated tape which can be utilised for operating a printer. The use of receiving apparatus comprising thermionic valves and a specially constructed high speed siphon recorder would necessitate the introduction of a manual operation for preparing the message for retransmission or delivery, such as perforating, writing or typing from the tape on which the signals are recorded and this would undoubtedly result in delay and increased percentage of error. It therefore appears likely that a multiplex system such as employed on fast landlines will eventually best meet the requirements, so that several messages will be transmitted to all intents and purposes simultaneously. For example, by adopting the Baudot or similar system it would, no doubt, be possible to operate a number of channels up to say, six, each dealing with about 4o words per minute. Experiments are also being made with a view to the simultaneous transmission of signals by alternating currents at different frequencies, these being separated out at the receiving end by means of tuned circuits and filters. The problem of “ du-

plexing ” a loaded cable presents a number of difficulties but

TELEKI— TELEPHONY research work is being carried out with a view to the production of a satisfactory “ artificial line ” to copy as nearly as possible the characteristics of the cable. (J. D.-P.; N. C. G. W.) TELEKI, PAUL, Count (1879), Hungarian politician and geographer, studied jurisprudence and geography in Budapest. After being elected to Parliament in 1905 he spent some years in geographical study abroad, and published Aé/as zur Geschichte der Kartographie der Japanischen Inseln (Budapest, 1909), which was crowned with the Prix Jomard by the French Société de Géographie. During the early part of the World War he served as an automobile officer in the campaign against Serbia and found time to prepare a handbook on The History of Geographical Thought (1917). When the revolution broke out he retired from public work and produced a number of ingenious maps showing the national minority problems and economic situation of Hungary. Teleki organised the scientific side of the preparations for the Peace Conference, making an exhaustive and enlightening exposition of the Hungarian case. He was appointed Minister for Foreign Affairs in the first parliamentary cabinet of Admiral Horthy, the Regent (April 1920), andin July of the same year became Prime Minister. He resigned in 1921 after the first attempt of King Charles to regain his throne. Later in the year he was appointed professor of economic geography in the University of Budapset. In 1924 he served in a scientific capacity on the commission appointed by the League of Nations to enquire into the Mosul frontier dispute bet ween Great Britain and Turkey, Teleki’s works include, besides those already mentioned, The Evolution of Hungary and Its Place in European [History (New York, 1923); Ethnographical Map of Hungary (1920); Economic Geography of America (1922, Hungarian).

TELEPATHY: see PSYCHICAL RESEARCH. TELEPHONY (see 26.547).—The steady sequence of improvements in exchange cable which began with the installation of the first cable of this type in 1882 has, in the years now under review, included a goo-pair, 22-gauge! cable in 1912; a 1,200-pair, 24-gauge in 1914; followed by the 45o0-pair, 19-gauge cable in 1918, which because of the large size conductors it contains Is being extensively uscd for the building of long toll lines, as will be mentioned in the paragraph Long-Distunce Telephony by Cable. These increases in the number of conductors—increases of from 200° to 500% over the original value—have all been accomplished without any increase in the outside diameter of the sheath, which still remains, for the largest sizes, at 2§ inches. Along with these increases in number of conductors has gone a notable decrease in the first cost per mile of installed cable conductors. The same developments are also making possible corresponding economies in all smaller sizes of cable which, because of fewer conductors, do not require the maximum size of sheath. A change in cable sheath material has also been effected which makes possible an equally durable sheath at a lower cost. The new

sheath consists of lead alloyed with 1% of antimony instead of 3% of tin as formerly.

Telephone Repeaters —One of the outstanding achievements of the period 1910-26 is the devclopment of long-distance wire telephony to the point that the voice can be carried over practically any terrestrial distance. In this advance the telephone repeater has played a dominant part. The repeater in its present form employs the three-electrode thermionic vacuum tube as the amplifying agent for telephone currents and also includes balancing networks, electric filters and means for controlling amplification, their association calling for great precision of design and manufacture. The first and one of the most notable achievements, employing the thermionic telephone repeater, was the opening for public service, in 1915, of the telephone line between New York and San Francisco, a distance of some 3,400 miles. In 1921, in order to cope with an increasing demand for transcontinental service, the loading coils were removed from this line and repeaters of an improved type were applied in place of the original six. This change made the circuits suitable for the application of carrier current facilities, and also resulted in a 1 The wire gauge here referred to is A.W.G.

747

large improvement in the clearness and volume of transmitted speech. The four wires of the original transcontinental line now furnish three telephone circuits and, over certain sections, as many as 20 telegraph circuits. Some picture of the accuracy and amplifying power of the telephone repeater can be gathered from the fact that, in passing from New York to San Francisco, the voice current is amplified over a million-million fold and yet arrives with all the clearness and intelligibility with which it starts.

Long-Distance Telephony by Cable.—As the demand for longdistance telephone service increased, it was foreseen that ultimately the need would arise for an improved type of long-distance circuit offering increased electrical stability and increased immunity from damage and disruption by storm. Moreover, lurge densities of trafhe made desirable a long-distance circuit more compact physically than those in use. Accordingly, research was undertaken along various lines with the object of removing the restriction which had always limited the use of cable circuits to relatively short distances. The success of these researches is attested by the long telephone cable (over goo m.) which has been completed between New York and Chicago at a cost of $25,000,000. It supplies approximately 250 telephone channels and soo telegraph channels. Among the developments which have made this cable possible are: improved designs of cable, improved methods for minimising capacity unbalance, means for automatically controlling the amplification of repeaters (as the resistance of the wire circuit to which they are attached varies with temperature), new and very compact types of telephone repeaters and other office equipment and new systems of telegraphy. One system of land cable telegraphy employs a unidirectional line current of about.1/2oth the magnitude of the current employed in the standard grounded telegraph circuits; and another, known as “ voice frequency ” carrier telegraphy, supplies 10 duplex channels In the frequency band required for a single speech channel. New systems of loading designed to reduce “ transient ” and “‘ echo ”’ effects have also contributed to the success of the cable. In this connection, it may be pointed out that whereas it has become economically desirable, as noted in a preceding paragraph, to remove all loading from certain long, open-wire lines, nevertheless long cables depend upon loading because of their intrinsically higher attenuation. The Echo-Suppressor—One of the many novel developments underlying the successful long-distance cable is the “ echo suppressor.” In talking over very long cable circuits an appreciable interval of time exists between the uttering of the speaker’s words and the return of reilected transmission or the “‘ echo ” to his ear from the distant end of the cable. This time interval is in the neighbourhood of $ of a second and carly investigations showed that, to the average telephone user, appreciable echoes having such a delay are not only very noticeable but extremely confusing. The voice-operated echo suppressor was, therefore, devised automatically to restrict transmission on the circuit to one direction at a time. The long telephone cable, possessing a high degree of electrical stability and placed either underground or on heavy poles, 1s a type of long-distance trunk line which will become increasingly important in the future, particularly between large cities. Carrier Current Telephony and Telegraphy.—From the earliest days of both the telephone and the telegraph there have been many attempts to develop methods for the multiplex transmission of messages employing relatively high frequency currents as “ carriers.” It was not until the development of the thermionic vacuum tube, however, that carricr systems were brought within the realm of practicability. These tubes are usec in carrier systems as repeaters or amplifiers, as generators of the different carrier frequencies and as “modulators” and “ demodulators ” for respectively combining the messages with and separating them from the carrier currents. These systems also employ extensively another important device which was given to the electrical art contemporaneously with the vacuum tube repeater. This is the electric wave filter.

748

TELEPHONY

This remarkable device can be so designed as to select any predetermined band of frequencies, rejecting all others without absorption. The rôle that the filter plays in carrier systems as a means of separating one message from another is therefore obvious.

Both carrier telephone and carrier telegraph systems have been extensively applied since 1918. When multiplexing a pair of telephone wires, it is customary to add either three or four high frequency channels to the voice frequency channel, thus increasing the message capacity of the wires either four or five fold. In the case of carrier telegraphy, the message capacity of a wire circuit may be made much larger and systems are in use in which as many as Io to zo carrier frequency channels are placed upon a single pair of wires. The shortest length of line which it is now economical to multiplex with carrier facilities lies between 150 and 200 m.; but it is expected that as further improvements and simplifications are made, the limiting distance will be brought down to a much lower figure. Transmission Measurement and Maintenance —The successful maintenance of vast networks of long-distance telephone circuits, both open wire and cable, has in large measure been made possible by the development of accurate means for making transmission measurements. Great success has been attained in the development of measuring apparatus, which, although of an exact and complicated character, is so simple of manipulation as to be used continuously in extensive daily programmes of routine measurements. In this apparatus, use of vacuum tube amplifiers permits the measuring of minute quantities by instruments that are rugged and, wherever necessary, readily portable. Radio Telepkony.—Since r911 the entire growth, if not the actual birth, of the radio telephone art has taken place. Like the developments in carrier systems this rapid progress has been largely due to the high standards attained in the design and manufacture of thermionic tubes. An early radio telephone achievement was the transmission of speech across the Atlantic Ocean in 1915. The development of radio telephone apparatus was undertaken during the World War for such purposes as continuous communication between observing aeroplanes and artillery stations behind the lines, and between the units of a destroyer ‘flotilla.

Following the War, public interest in the possibilities of radio telephony was quickly awakened, with a consequent rise of broadcasting (g.v.). The development of radio telephony for commercial message uses may appear, in contrast to the rapid strides of broadcasting, to have lain dormant. However, notable progress has been made. Immediately following the War, the development of radio systems for establishing ship-to-shore telephone communicafion began. In 1920 an experimental system was demonstrated by American telephone engineers which enabled a passenger on a ship several hundred miles at sea to communicate with any telephone subscriber on land through the latter’s regular instrument. To accomplish this, the message was carried over the water by radio and at a coastal station was relayed to the land lines, which, in the case of one demonstration, were 4,000 m. long. The system was entirely two-way in its operation, in that it permitted the telephone subscriber and the person at sea to hold a conversation exactly as over the usual telephone circuit. Thus far no very extensive installation of ship-to-shore radio telephony has been made, largely because of the numerous commercial difficulties involved, although a limited service of this sort is, it is understood, offered by some German steamships. Transatlantic Radio Telephony.—In 1020 a serious study of transatlantic radio telephony was undertaken. The difficult

character of the technical problems involved may be inferred from the fact that, due to the extreme variability of atmospheric conditions as they affect the transmission of radio signals, the sending power required to produce a given effectiveness of received signal may increase by several thousand times within the space of afew hours. To ensure even reasonably reliable communication at all times of day and throughout all seasons of the year, therefore, necessitates transmitting stations of large reserve power and special receiving systems to reduce the interfering noise arising from atmospheric disturbances.

Another difficult requirement to be met is that the transoceanic radio link must automatically relay messages to and receive messages from the wire lines in both Europe and America, so that it will be as easy for two telephone subscribers, wherever placed, to converse as though each were located at one of the radio stations. To illustrate the progress made, the demonstration of March 7 1926 might be cited, during which some 20 press representatives in London had two-way conversations with their American confréres.' In this test, transmission was effected by wire from New York to the radio transmitter located about 7o m. out on Long Island, where it was automatically relayed to the transatlantic radio link. Wire Telephony as an Adjunct to Radio Broadcasting. —Early in the development of radio broadcasting, it was apparent that the popularity of the programme would be greatly augmented by bringing to the broadcasting station events of public interest such as large orchestral programmes, sporting events and national ceremonies. This virtual extension of the walls of the

studio by the use of telephone lines is now a matter of almost daily occurrence, particularly in England and America. As many as 25 or more broadcasting stations are sometimes joined together by a wire network to disseminate the same programme.

Transmission of Pictures (see PHoTO-TELEGRAPHY).—Over a long period of years, many schemes were proposed for the electrical transmission of pictures. Although these early systems were in most cases physically operative, none proved practical. To be of commercial value, a system must be at once simple, rapid and accurate. It has remained for developments of late years to meet adequately all of these requirements. In April 1925 the first commercial picture-transmission service, a development of the Bell Telephone engineers, was introduced. This service, embracing the cities of New York, Chicago and San Francisco, made possible the transmission of pictures in either direction between any of these points. The actual sending time of a 5-in. by 7-in. picture is but seven minutes. At the sending end, the picture is required simply in the form of a positive transparency made by the ordinary photographic process, and after transmission It appears as a negative film from which prints can be pro-

duced without delay. As it is possible to transmit while the positive transparency is still wet, the total time of transmission is reduced to a minimum. Machine Switching Systems.—A retrospective examination of the manually operated switchboard discloses the fact that the tendency of development has been continuously in the cirection of increasing the number and extent of the switching operations that are performed electromechanically, thus decreasing the amount of time and effort required of the operator for the handling of a connection. When a point is reached where the operations performed manually at the central office are entirely eliminated, except in the case of certain special classes of calls, the

term “automatic ” or “machine switching ” is applied to the equipment. In this equipment the subscriber’s telephone set is furnished with a finger-wheel or dial having ro finger holes. These holes are designated by the ro digits, and for the larger cities also by letters. By inserting a finger in one of the ro holes, rotating the dial to a stop and then letting it return under the control of a spring, the calling subscriber sends to the central office mechanism a series of from one to 10 electric impulses. In this way the number is given by electrical impulses rather than called, the operation of the dial conveying to the central office mechanism the necessary guiding impulses for setting up the connection desired. Main Types.—There are three principal types of machine switching equipment in extensive use, viz.: the “ panel,” “ stepby-step ” and “ rotary” types. These names refer to the mechanical design of the devices termed “selectors,” which are supplied in the central offices to switch the subscribers’ lines into connection with each other. A selector consists of a set of movable terminals which can be connected with any one of a number of sets of fixed terminals and takes the place of the flexible cords, plugs and jacks of the manual switchboard. For 1See Nature, p. 386 (March 13 1926).

TELEPHONY example, in the “ panel ” type of selector the movable terminals are driven up and down ina straight line over the fixed terminals, which are placed on a flat surface in the form of panels. The stepby-step system was first developed for use in small cities, but redesigned for use in London. The other two systems were de-

veloped particularly for use in large cities. | New Magnetic Materials —Among the new magnetic materials

developed for telephone purposes, two deserve special mention. One consists of very finely divided iron dust cemented together under extremely high pressure to yicld a material of substantially the same density as iron, of only g0,$55 the electrical conductivity of iron. ‘The product has nearly the same initial permeability as iron, and yet because of its finely divided ingredients, and the consequent microscopic free poles distributed throughout it, the material possesses practically no residual magnetism even after exposure to strong fields. The second new magnetic material, also a development of the Bell system

engineers, has been called permalloy. It is so sensitive to magnetising influences that it is completely saturated in the carth’s field and is making possible important advances in various branches of the communication art. For example, in co-operation with the Western Union Telegraph Co., a submarine telegraph cable loaded with permalloy has been laid between New York and the Azores, the message capacity being about four times that of the standard type of cable. The permalloy in tape form is wound as a cylindrical covering around the copper conductor, and, because of its very high initial permeability at low magnetising field strengths, causes a more rapid building up of current at the receiving end, which in turn results in increased speed of sending. Permalloy is also being employed in the magnetic circuits of many telephones and telegraph relays, telephone transformers and receivers. —— The Use of the Telephone-—Coincidental with these technical advances in the telephone art, there has been a notable increase since 1910 in the use of the telephone throughout the civilised world. The accompanying table shows the number of telephones in the principal countries and continents at Jan. t 1910 and at Jan. 1 1925, the latest date for which comparative data are available. The number of telephones per roo people, which is also shown in the table, affords a means of comparing the telephone development of areas differing widely in total population and in total number of telephones. It will be noted that the aggregate number of telephones in service throughout the world increased from about 10,400,000 to over 26,000,000 in the 15 years under consideration. Table I. shows that, at the end of this period, 62° of all the telephones in the world were in the United States, 26°% were in Europe and the remaining 12% were scattered among all other countries.

Great Britain and Northern Ireland had, at Jan. 1 1925, somewhat less than 5 °% of the world’s total telephones, Germany had slightly over o% and France about 2-5% of the total. There was, at that date, one telephone for every 7 people in the United States, one for every 36 people in Great Britain and Northern Ireland, one for every 26 people in Germany and one for every 58 people in France. Sweden had one telephone for every 14 people, Norway one for every 16 people and Denmark one for every 11 people. ‘The Scandinavians also rank high among Europeans in respect to the use of the telephone. During a recent year there were 13r telephone conversations per capita in Denmark, 113 in Norway, 106 in Sweden, 23 in Great Britain and Northern Ireland, 30 in Germany and 20 in France. The corresponding annual figure for the United States was 191 telephone conversations per capita. The Telephone and the War.—The increment between rọro and 1925 in the world’s total telephones does not, of course, represent an even growth throughout the period. ‘The normal rate of increase was decidedly retarded in the principal telephoneusing countries during the World War. The difficulty and high cost of securing and shipping telephone supplies was felt throughout the world. In the belligerent countries these conditions were intensified by the necessity of giving priority to war requirements and the telephone systems were further handicapped

749

by the depletion of their working forces to supply communication technicians for the military and naval forces. For example, about 13,000 out of the 20,000 men in the engineering

department of the British Post Office joined the army. After the United States entered the War, nearly 25,000 employces of the Bell system joine.| the war service of the Government. Of this number 233 were women telephone operators who were recruited and sent overseas: and hundreds of others were in training for this service at the time of the Armistice. An enormous amount of telephone construction was also carried out to meet the wartime need for extra telephone service in Washington and at army posts, camps and cantonments,

aviation

fields and naval and coastguard

stations.

Experience with the telephone in the World War practically revolutionised modern military practice in the maintenance of communications (see SIGNALLING, ARMY). The Signal Corps of the U.S. Army, for example, constructed during the War 1,990 m. of permanent pole

line with 28,000 m. of wire, erected 3,230 m. of wire on French poles, and installed approximately 40,000 m. of combat lines, American military telephone exchanges on permanent lines in France numbered 273, and those in the advance section 123, besides small temporary field installations. About 1,600,000 long-distance telephone calls were handled by the Signal Corps, in addition to local telephone calls estimated at 47,000,000.

Post-War Development.—After the War, the accumulated demand for telephone service in various countries was sufficient . to accelerate telephone expansion to the maximum rate permitted by the amount of telephone apparatus which could be made available. In Japan, however, a further setback was experienced as a result of the disastrous earthquake of Sept. 1923, which put out of service upwards of 70,000 telephones, or more than one-eighth of all the telephones in the empire. In the re-establishment of service in the devastated area the opportunity is being taken to introduce “‘ automatic” or “‘ machine-switching ”’ systems in place of the manual equipment formerly used. A like change is gradually being made in many of the large urban telephone systems throughout the world. By the end of 1925 the number of automatic or machine-switching telephones in the United States exceeded 1,650,000. Administrative Changes.—Some important changes in telephone administration have taken place in Europe since 1)10. In Great Britain, on Dec. 31 1911, the British Post Ojfice took over the entire

telephone system of the National Telephone Company. All public telephone service in Great Britain and Northern Ireland is now rendered by the Post Oce, except at Hull and on the islands of Guernsey and Jersey, where the telephone systems are operated by the local authorities. Upon the establishment of the Irish Free State, the British Post O.itce transferred to the Free State Govt. its telephone system in Southern Ireland. In 1916 the Netherlands Govt. acquired the 19 exchanges of the Netherlands Bell Telephone Company. Other local systems owned by private companies or by municipalities have been taken over by the Govt. from time to time; but the local telephone service in the larger Dutch cities is still under municipal operation. The interurban lines are owned and operated by the Netherlands Government. The Swedish Govt. in 1918 purchased the telephone system of the Stockholm Telephone Company. On the other hand, a tendency has been manifest in Europe, since the War, toward the extension of private enterprise in preference to government ownership in telephone administration. The Spanish Govt. has transferred its publicly owned telephone system to a private company, which has been granted a concession for the development of a nation-wide telephone network. Local telephone systems formerly operated by the Govt. of Italy have been ceded to private concerns under concessions covering limited territorial zones, The Polish Govt. has transferred its telephone properties in a number of cities to a corporation in which it has only a minority interest. Elsewhere, notably in Germany, official action has been

taken looking to the establishment

of a form of administra-

tion for the national communication services which shall approximate as closely as practicable the corporate organisation commonly employed by private enterprise. At Jan. I 1925, approximately 71 “o of the world’s telephones were privately owned, and the remaining 29 % under public ownership.

International

Telephone Communication.—The

improvement

of international telephone communication has received much attention during the period under consideration. The Bell system in the United States has been connected by submarine cable with the telephone system of Cuba and its long-distance lines afford access to many points in Canada. In Europe, although the distances between the principal cities are less than those covered by circuits in everyday commercial use in the United States, long-distance telephony has encountered obstacles. Differences of language, of equipment and of operating practices

TELEPHONY, SUBMARINE

750

have exerted a restrictive influence on long-distance communication, particularly across international boundaries. European telephone authorities have, however, taken cognisance of this situation. An international conference was held at Paris in March 1923, to organise a “‘ Comité Technique Préliminaire pour la téléphonie à grande distance en Europe” in which Belgium, France, Great Britain, Italy, Spain and Switzerland were represented. Various technical proposals were adopted looking to the betterment of long-distance telephony in Europe. A permanent secretariat and a continuing advisory international technical committee were set up. At subsequent technical conferences additional countries have been represented and further progress has been made in the study of the technical problems involved. Greater difficulties are presented, however, by the question as to what, if any, form of international organisation should be entrusted with the administration or supervision of international telephone circuits. TABLE I. Telephone Development of the World, Jan. 1 1gto and 1925 (Some of the figures are necessarily partly estimated) Jan. I I9I0

Jan. 1 1925

=

e& | aS na 3

Sg 5a

tw

22 ES 5e

|

Z

Great Britain

609,274]

Germany

968,101]

Denmark France

Norway

63,131)

.

Switzerland Other Countries in Europe

.

.

Total Europe

Japan

.

.

Other Countries Asia

22

Union

of

|11,264,024)

2-8

9:0 1-7

654,750

United States Canada Other Countries

North America

i in

1:5 | 2,385,177]

3-9 | 1,417,076 0-4

172,900]

.

57:945] 2:4

168,518)

6-1

73:759| 2:0

189,429]

4:8

1,328,895

O:4

110,573

244,263

506,636

822,259

115,671

Total North America .

09

434,653

257,975}

0°03!

213,755

802,408]

o-1

648,408

Total South America .

Australia New Zealand . Other Countries in Oceania. ;

Total Oceania

13,650| 0-2

271,448]

1-0

57,798

18,000] 0-02

82,055|

ol

64,055

31,650] 0-02

153,503]

O-I

121,853

7,273,592!

155,007]

0-5

116,107

|17,300,219|11-2

|10,026,627

0-2

246,246 214,452

3'3 0-2

460,698

0-3

46,500,000 2,793,596 391,564

41-0 30:3 I-2

Total North America

49,685,160

323

Tota! South America

986,709

I4

1,266,825 363,361 290,626 1,920,812

21°8 26°3 O-4 2-8

of Victory (1921).

3318,279] *120,097|

5-5 8-7

237,239 90,417

75,480]

O-1

65,480

513,856]

0-7

393,136

I-4

15,631,546

|

126,038,508

$

i .

76,161,827

(1925); N. P. Weinbach,

Textbook of Transmission in Telephony (1924); 5. G. McMeen and Kk. B. Miller, Telephony (1922); H. J. Van der Bijl, Thermionic Vacuum Tube (1920); Kk. S. Johnson, Transmission Circuits for Telephonic Communication (1925); A. B. Smith and W. L. Campbell, Automatic Telephony (1914); J. E. Kingsbury, The Telephone and Telephone Exchanges (1915); F. G. C. Baldwin, The fistory of the Telephone in the United Kingdom (1925); A. Lincoln Lavine, Circuits

81,040] 1-8 29,680] 2°7

0-6

2,227,678

A. F. Puchstein, Telephone Communication

298,157

120,720] 0-3

2-6 O-l

nal; Electrical Communication. For facts regarding modern telephone engineering, construction, and operating methods, and regarding the telcphone’s status as affected by political and economic conditions, consult the Bell Telephone Quarterly and also C. A. Wright and

O-5

10,406,962

1,537,237 690,441

14:9 15:3 12:3 1-2

BIBLIOGRAPHY. —For facts regarding scientifc and technical progress in the telephone art, consult recent volumes of Jour. of

373,157|

a

Total World

42

410,628 921,509 482,091 3,425,506

4-9

Amer. Inst. of Electrical Engineers; Trans. of Amer. Inst. of Electrical Engineers; Electrician; Physical Review; Bell System Technical Jour-

75,000] 0-2

10,000} 0-03

20,880,770

Norway Sweden Switzerland : ; Other countries in Europe

Total World

7-6 |16,072,758l14-2 | 9,077,066 3:3 | 1,072,454l11-6 833,454

5°5

12-0 1-3

1,963,890

Australia New Zealand i Other countries in Oceania Total Oceania

1-4 | 4,143,365

109,780} 0-2 | *544,433|

38,900] O-1

7,417,263 550,000

France

United States Canada . : Other countries in North America

109,769

174,055) 3°T | 418,318) 6-9 |

6,995,692] 239,000|

Germany Italy

Total Africa

220,541 448,463

South

Total Africa

10°8 21°8

Total Asia

15

0-2

154,000] 0:02 |

Africa . E Other Countries in Africa .

1 2 3 4

mo

397,977| 660,127]

44,220) O'OI

Total Asia .

4,966,746 713.1 37

Union of South Africa . Other countries in Africa

|So/s8ede |T ZARR se |O4 oe

. | 2,752,000| 0-6 | 6,895,365] in

Great Britain and N. Ireland . Denmark . : : :

Total Europe .

Se DD

ee Peleper pone wire 100 population

Z,

1-3

0:2

Riese telephone a

Japan . Foa dk . Other countries in Asia

28 EP so

H

sae ee asia

TABLE II. Telephone Wire of the World, as of Jan. 1 1925 (Some of the figures are necessarily partly estimated)

2e | get ggns oa | Om |Sagut

ua

||gra S8!

87,436] 3:2 211,664] 0-5

Italy

Sweden

Meel om

18 Be ge

BoS

England has long been connected with the Continent and with Ireland by submarine telephone cables and the Scandinavian peninsula has enjoyed like facilities for communication with neighbouring European countries (see TELEPHONY, SUBMARINE). An event of considerable interest, however, in long-distance telephone extension was the establishment, during 1924, of telephone communication between Spain and Morocco by a cable spanning the Straits of Gibraltar.

aad

Exclusive of the Irish Free State. March 31 1925. June 30 1924. Exclusive of 23,800 telephones temporarily out of service as a

result of the earthquake. Note: In the case of countries the boundaries of which have undergone change, the figures for each year represent the number of telephones within the boundaries of that year.

(W. S.G.)

TELEPHONY, SUBMARINE.— Progress in submarine cable telephony has been due partly to improvements in cable design and partly to the introduction of the telephone repeater which has, in turn, reacted on the design of cables. Continuous Loading.—In 1887 Oliver Heaviside, in The Elecfrician, vol. 19, showed that the transmission efficiency of a telephone circuit could be improved by artificially increasing the inductance of the circuit. So far as submarine cables are concerned this had been effected by “‘ continuous loading” up to the year toro. “ continuous ” or “ krarup ” loading is effected by winding wire or tape of magnetic material, generally iron, in a close spiral on the conductors of the circuit. Unfortunately in addition to increasing the inductance of the circuit the effective resistance to alternating currents is also increased as well as the

TELEPHONY, SUBMARINE mutual capacity between the conductors. In practice this has hitherto imposed a limit of approximately 20 millihenries per nautical mile as the maximum inductance which can be obtained in a continuously loaded cable. In order to obtain a greater increase in inductance ‘‘ coil Joading ”’ has therefore been resorted to. In roro a coil loaded cable was manufactured and laid by Messrs. Siemens Bros. & Co. for the British Post Office between Abbot’s Cliff near Dover and Cape Gris Nez in France. Details of the cable are given in the table on page 752. The loading coils are spaced at intervals of one nautical mile (“ naut ’’). Efficiency of Circuit.—The efficiency of a telephone circuit is measured by the ratio of the current received to the current sent into the circuit. This ratio is expressed by the formula e7#! where e is the base of the Napierian system of logarithms, £ is ‘the attenuation constant per unit length of circuit and J is the

length of the circuit. The naut will be taken as the unit length for the purpose of this article. For the cable referred to above the value of 8 for the cable unloaded is 0o-o524 and for the loaded cable 0:0166. Therefore for the same efficiency the loaded cable could be rather more than three times the length of the unloaded cable. The value of 8 depends upon the electrical constants of the circuit. Fora coil loaded cable the natural inductance is usually small compared with the inductance added by the loading coil and may therefore be ignored. The following approximate

ae, hee CtaE yE

formula may then be used B=—-————_

where R is the loop resistance of the circuit in ohms, C the mutual capacity between the conductors of the circuit in farads, L the inductance in henries and G the leakance in mhos, all per unit length of circuit. Rı and Lı are the effective resistance, and the inductance of the loading coils respectively. All these values are to be taken at the particular alternating current frequency under consideration. In the formula given the two quantities Rı/Lı and G/C represent properties of the loading coils and of the dielectric respectively. In the Anglo-French cable already mentioned, the value of the former is 60 and of the latter roughly 120 at 1,000 cycles per second. In the next cable laid, the AngloBelgian cable, the value for G/C was reduced to 12, at 800 periods per sec., by using balata in place of gutta percha. As regards the quantity R,/L; the value has been reduced to 4o. In addition to the coil loaded cables shown in the table two coil loaded cables have been laid from Dungeness in England to Audresselles in France, two from Dover to Sangatte, and one from St. Margaret’s Bay to La Panne, Belgium. In the Abbot’s Cliff-Gris Nez cable only the two physical circuits are loaded but in all subsequent cables additional coils have been introduced to enable a third loaded circuit to be provided by superposing. The addition of these coils slightly increases the attenuation constant for the physical circuits, on account of the additional resistance introduced by the superposed circuit coils. In the year following the laying of the Abbot’s Clifi-Gris Nez coil loaded cable the French Govt. laid between the same points a continuously loaded cable with gutta percha insulation, details of which appear in the table. The loading of the physical circuits automatically loads the superposed circuits. A fourth circuit operated as an earthed circuit can be worked over all four wires on which the loop superposed circuit is formed provided that the electrical balance of the conductors is such as to prevent undue crosstalk, and that interference from earth currents is negligible. This system has been worked over the Vancouver-Victoria, B.C., cable manufactured by Messrs. W. T. Henleys Telegraph Works Co. Telephone Repeater. —The growing demand for circuits for international communication is leading to the adoption of cables with more numerous conductors. This is rendered practicable by the developments which have taken place in the telephone repeater consequent upon the introduction of the three electrode thermionic valve. The use of the telephone repeater, which amplifies the speech currents, enables smaller conductors to be used and an increased number of circuits can thus be provided

751

in a given size of cable. An example of such a cable is the LebaTenkitten cable across the Bay of Danzig. This cable contains 12 telephone wires laid up in three groups of four wires (quads) and three telegraph wires all paper insutated. It is provided with two lead sheaths, as a precaution against the penetration of water. In order to assist the lead sheath in supporting the external pressure to which the cable is subjected a spiral of steel wire is placed between the cable core and the lead sheaths. Further, the armouring, instead of the usual cylindrical wires, consists of wires drawn roughly Z shape so as to interlock and form a practically incompressible tube. ‘The ordinary jute serving over all completes the cable. The direct current resistance of the telephone conductors per naut loop is 20-9 ohms for the physical circuits and 10-45 ohms for the phantom circuits. The increase of resistance with frequency due to the loading is indicated below, where w= 2mX the frequency. The testing current was 2 ma.

W = 3,000 w = 5,000 w= 7,000 Physical circuit o445 ohms 1-17 ohms 2-17 ohms Superposed circuit o-241 “ 0-538 “ 0-965 “ The rise in resistance as the frequency increases involves an increase in attenuation of the higher speech frequencies. Frequencies up to 2,000 per sec. corresponding to a value of W=12,400 approximately, must be transmitted without serious loss if good commercial speech is to be obtained. Special attention is therefore paid to the resistance-frequency characteristics of cables with a view to the efficient transmission of

the higher frequencies. In 1924 the first continuously loaded paper core cable between England and the Continent was laid between Aldeburgh, Suffolk, and Domburg, Holland, for the Anglo-Dutch service. This cable contains 16 wires (four quads) providing eight physical telephone circuits and four superposed circuits. Each conductor consists of a center wire 0-076 in. (1-93 mm.) in diameter surrounded by three copper strips each o-oro in. (0-254 mm.) thick; weight 165 Ib. per naut. Each conductor is wound with two layers of 0-008 in. (0-203 mm.) diameter iron wire; weight 87 lb. per naut. The loaded conductor is wrapped with paper to a diameter of 0-188 in. (4-77 mm.). Two lead sheaths are provided, the external diameter of the outer lead sheath being 1-52 in. (37-6 mm.). The armouring consists of 24 cylindrical wires 0-232 in. (5-9 mm.) diameter. The overall diameter of the cable is 2-42 in. (61-5 mm.). No steel spiral is provided between the core and the lead sheath, as the water in which the cable lies is comparatively shallow. The length of the cable is 82-242 nauts. It terminates in a telephone repeater station at Aldeburgh and is extended on the Dutch side by a continuously loaded underground cable to a repeater station at Middelburg. It provides circuits between London and Rotterdam, Amsterdam and The Hague. In the operation of the two-wire telephone repeater the circuit on each side of the repeater station is balanced by a network having the same impedance as the circuit over a range of frequencies corresponding with the range of speech frequencles to be transmitted. Unless the electrical constants of the circuit are uniformly distributed the curve connecting circuit Impedance with frequency will not be smooth and an accurate balance becomes impracticable. The repeater could not then be worked at its highest efficiency. In the Anglo-Dutch cable the impedance frequency curve is so smooth that so far as the cable is concerned the highest amplification which the repeater is capable of giving could be used. Other factors not connected with the submarine cable limit the amplification actually obtained. A second similar cable will shortly be laid between the same points by the Dutch Government. The success of the Anglo-Dutch cable has led to the decision to adopt a similar type of cable for the Anglo-Belgian and Anglo-French cables in each of which 28 conductors will be provided in seven quads giving 14 physical circuits and seven superposed circuits. The make up of the cables will be as follows:—Conductor, solil wire 0-08 in. (2-03 mm.) diameter; weight 118 lb. per naut. Loading is one wrapping of iron wire 0-008 in. (0-203 mm.)

|

|

A,

T |X

f

|

à’ lar

|

|t 4

\ T

E

ey

:

|

|} e

uPigjag-osuy

é

9z61|

əsod

"ad

9761

-O1 3JeZpuLS ə səpjəssəIpny ee

y-ojĝuy youa©

E9

=

pee

|

I-07

I I

I

I

4 2

32

8 5 I

8

5

a

„OSI

90,428 86,868

30,000

62,845

475,760 i

205 | 4,350,982

It will be seen that the mining and quarrying group is the bodies; in others the federations themselves become amalgama- | largest in point of membership, the second being the group tions. The following table shows that during the five years 1920-4, known as general workers.

810

UNIONS

TRADE

This organisation is carried further by the establishment of group committees. For administrative purposes the 17 trade groups were formed into six group committees as follows:— (a) mining and quarrying, railways, transport; (b) shipbuilding, engineering, iron and steel, building; (c) cotton; other textiles, clothing, leather; (i) glass, pottery, etc., agriculture, general

workers; (2) printing, public employees, non-manual workers; (f) the two women members and three members appointed by the General Council from organisations with women members. The Congress also accepted in 1920, as did the Labour party conference of 1921, proposals for the establishment of a national joint council consisting of the chairman and secretary and three members of the General Council of the Trades Union Congress, the Executive Committee of the Labour party and the Parliamentary party, making r5 members in all. This body was set up to deal with questions affecting the Labour movement as a whole. the Congress and conference, further, agreed to the establishment of four joint departments—(a) research and information, (b) press and publicity, (c) international and (d) legal. This new central machinery resulted in a great expansion of activities by the General Council of the T. U. C. itself and by the Council in conjunction with the political Labour movement. In 1925 the standing joint committee of industrial women’s organisations included 25 national organisations, and represented over 1,000,000 organised working women. The General Council of the T. U. C. deals with a wide range of questions andits authority continuestoincrease. Ithas instituted a standing trade boards advisory council, composed of representatives of organisations catering for workers covered by the Trade Boards Acts.

It has its education committee which has

concerned itself with the problem of adult education, whose proposals, approved by the Trades Union Congress in 1925, were designed to assist in the promotion of educational facilitics for trade unionists, and had been arrived at in agreement with Ruskin College, the Education Department of the Co-operative Union, the Labour College, the Workers’ Educational Association and the National Council of Labour Colleges. The object of the proposals was ‘‘ to provide working class education in order to enable the workers to develop their capacities and to equip them for their trade union, Labour and Co-operative activities generally, in the work of securing social and industrial emancipation.” Early in 1926, the Countess of Warwick handed over her estate, Easton Lodge, Dunmow, in Essex to the General Council of the Trade Union Congress for use as a Labour College and as a labour centre generally. The General Council has taken an increasingly important part in large industrial disputes. At the Hull Congress of 1924, its hands were strengthened in this matter. In the event of a breakdown of negotiations in a dispute, however, “ the deadlock being ofsuchacharacteras to directly or indirectly involve other bodies

of work-people affiliated to the Trades Union Congress in a stoppage of work or to imperil standard wages and hours and conditions of employment, the council may take the initiative by calling representatives of the unions into consultation, and use its influence to effect a just settlement of the difference.” Before this resolution was carried, the General Council had, in fact, interveñed by mediation or the granting of moral and financial sup-

port, in disputes in which affiliated societies were concerned.

In

the prolonged Boilermakers’ dispute in 1924, in the Dock Workers’ dispute, the Tramway dispute in the London area, the South-

ampton Shipyard dispute, and the Building Trade dispute in

the same year, the General Council used its good offices. But the adoption of the resolution of Sept. 1924 placed greater authority in the hands of the Council. On the occasion of the dispute in the coal industry in July 1925 the General Council appointed a special industrial committee (which has since become a standing body) and took a very prominent part in the negotiations which led to the temporary settlement. The Industrial Committee in Aug. 192s, intervened in the dispute in the wool textile industry which had culminated in a stoppage of work. In conjunction with the Labour party and the Miners’ Federation of Great Britain the General Council established a commit-

tee early in 1925 to prepare a policy for the coal industry, and the proposals of this joint committee were submitted to the Royal Commission on the Coal Industry set up by the Government after the coal settlement in July 1925. After the publication of the Royal Commission’s Report, the General Council, through its Industrial committee resumed its consultations with the Miners’ Federation and was associated closely with the Federation during the course of negotiations. Finally, it declared a large scale sympathetic strike (erroneously called a gencral strike) and for the first time in its history directly conducted an industrial stoppage. This, however, was called off in a few days (see

STRIKES AND LOCKOUTS). The Council also takes active steps to deal with difficulties which arise between affiliated unions. For this purpose the General Council acts throughits disputes committee. In 1925 this committee held no less than 32 meetings. The disputes which occur between unions vary in their character. Animportant and developing side of the activities of the General Council is the forging of closer bonds with the trades and labour councils which exist in large numbers up and down the country. Before 1895 trades councils were represented at the annual Trades Union Congress. But from that date until 1924 there was no direct contact between these local representative bodies of trade union branches and the T. U. C., though the Frades councils (many of which are local Labour Parties) were affliated to the Labour party and may send delegates to its annual conferences. After the establishment of the General Council, efforts were made to remedy this defect in organisation, and in 1925 a model form of constitution for trades councils was worked out, arrangements made for the publication and circulation of special literature on trade unionism, and a regular monthly statement from the general council to the trades council was inaugurated. At the end of 1924, there were 476 trades councils known to be in existence in Britain, including industrial sections of local Labour parties. In 1913 the number was 328. From 1913 to 1924 the aggregate afliliated membership rose from 1,481,000 to 2,219,000, the latter figure representing about two-fifths of the total membership of trade unions. But perhaps, the most significant amongst the activities of the General Council, is its efforts under the instructions of the Trades Union Congress to promote and assist trade union amalgamation on the lines of organisation by industry. Though the General Council has from time to time brought together unions for discussion of the possibilities of amalgamation, it has realised that much more is needed than empirical action of this kind. Judged by the results the efforts to bring about amalgamations of the General Council cannot be regarded as successful, though it is still too early, having regard to the real difficulties of amalgamation, to pronounce this work as a failure. Its real importance, however, lies in the persistent and painstaking labour to reach an ideal, and the certainty that, if need be, larger powers will ultimately be given to the general council to deal with the problem. It is significant that the consolidation of forces should be regarded as of paramount importance. Finance.—Up to 1923, the affiliation fee of cach union affiliated to the T. U. C. was 1d. per member per year. In that year the fee was raised to 3d., payable quarterly on the full membership, including probationary and free members. The increased fees were required principally for publicity purposes and to maintain The Daily Herald, the organ of the British Labour movement. In addition to the ordinary affiliation fees, each union contributes £1 per thousand members towards the fee payable to the International Federation of Trade Unions. Congress affiliation fees in 1924-5 amounted to £21,088. The affiliation fee to the International Federation of Trade Unions was £4,450. Tuk INDUSTRIAL AND THE POLITICAL MOVEMENTS

As the Trades Union Congress really gave birth to the Labour party, it is natural that close relations should always have existed between the industrial and political sides of the Labour movement. From rogos onward there existed a joint board representing the Parliamentary Committee of the T. U. C., the Executive

TRADE Committee of the Labour party and the Management Committee of the G. F. T. U. (which aliso owed its existence to the T. U.C.).

The

members

of the board

were

the secretary and

three

members from each of the three bodies. But in 1914 the Congress decided to dissolve the tripartite joint board and-to establish a new one representing the Parliamentary Committee of the Trades Union Congress and the executive committee of the Labour party. At the Congress of 1917 steps were taken to ensure close co-operation between the two committees. Regular joint monthly meetings were arranged, following the separate mectings of the two committees. These joint meetings continued, and joint action has been taken on innumerable occasions. Large questions demanding considerable enquiry are usually referred to joint committees of the two bodies. The great developments

which have taken place in the activities of the General Council with all the implications they involve, led in 1926 to an understanding whereby the Council shall have research, press and international statfs under its direct control, but arrangements were made for the closest co-operation. GENERAL

POLICY

During the period from rorr to the outbreak of the War, there was considerable labour unrest due largely to the steadily rising

cost of living, but receiving inspiration in some degree from the intellectual ferment in the world of labour. Syndicalism, though

never a potent force in the British trade union movement prompted and encouraged the movement towards militant industrial unionism. The persistent propaganda of the Socialist societies had also begun to iniluence the outlook of the trade unionist. From about roro it is clear that the trade union movement, judged by the resolutions of the T.U.C. was socialist in temper. It was definitely in opposition to capitalism and to private ownership of the means of production. The socialism, however, to which trade unionism gave adhesion, was essentially collectivist; but a closer association with the problems of industry and a widening knowledge of the world of industry led to a sense of dissatisfaction with the arid doctrines of undiluted collectivism, which came indeed to be described as “ State capitalism.” Syndicalism, whilst it never commanded a large measure of support,

did, by its emphasis on the workers’ right to control, indicate the possibilities of a policy which whilst providing for public ownership escaped the charge of “‘ State Capitalism ”’ by the adoption of the principle of democratic control. Shop Stewards Mfovement.— During the pre-War years, however, these ideas had not clearly emerged. The effects of State regulation during the War, however, powerfully assisted in swinging active trade union opinion round to a sympathetic appreciation of the essential doctrines of Guild Socialism. Morcover, the new importance of the Labour clement in the community gave birth to new aspirations, and to the claim that the workers should enjoy increasing responsibility and power in the actual conduct of industry. One of the most powerful groups of intluences which moulded

the minds of organised Labour were those connected

with the conditions of War-time employment. In the chief industries, the unions were parties to arrangements for the increase of output and the avoidance of stoppages of work. But the abnormal psychology of War time, unsympathetic and short-sighted administration in the munitions areas, and the knowledge that the union executives were in a position of great difficulty, led to unofficial strikes and to the evolution by the workers of unofficial machinery for securing the removal of grievances. Shop committees sprang up in the munitions industry, and in the engineering trades they became influential organisations. Shop stewards became the real leaders of the rank and file in matters affecting the day to day lives of the workers in industry. This new re-organisation within the industrial Labour movement—the creation of the circumstances in which the trade union executives were inevitably placed—proceeded swiftly and to a considerable extent effectively. It was unknown to the general public until it had established itself. It was spontaneous—an obvious method of satisfying the need for some rapid local machinery which could deal with grievances in the workshop. It is true, of course, that

UNIONS

SII

there grew up a literature embodying the philosophy of the shop stewards’ movement, but it gave a justification to the movement rather than an impetus to its growth. This rank and file movement strengthened the demand for self-government in industry. It spent itself during the War. With the end of the War, it lost the passion which had sustained it; but the value of shop committees and of shop stewards was recognised, and, first in the engineering industry and subsequently in others, the unions adopted this machinery and grafted it on to their organisation. In the meantime, the policy of self-government in industry had become crystallised, and since the War the T. U. C. has accepted the policy of public ownership combined with the association of the workers in the government and control of industry. The application of this policy may be seen in the bill prepared by the Railway Clerks’ Association for the nationalisation of railways, and subsequently in the scheme for the future of the coal industry placed before the Coal Commission of 1925-6 by the Miners’ Federation, with the full support of the T. U. C. General Council and the Labour party. | | Reactions of the Russian Revolution—The Bolshevik revolution in Russia had its reaction upon the British Trade Union movement. Some of the leaders of the shop stewards’ movement embraced Communist doctrines, and when the Red International of Labour Unions was formed by the Moscow Communist International attempts were made to secure the adhesion of trade

union bodies to the R. I. L. U. Such British bodies as are afhliated, however, are not national unions, but sectional and local or-

ganisations. Under the inspiration of communist doctrines the National Minority movement was organised, as what may be called the communist wing of the trade union movement. It consists of groups and sections of trade unions, and the voice of its spokesmen is heard on the floor of the T. U. C. in favour of an advanced policy and in support of a policy for closer relationship between Britain and Russia. The General Council of the Congress itself sent a delegation to Russia towards the end of 1923, and the Council has actively supported a policy of friendship between Britain and Russia, and has used every effort to bring about an understanding between the International Federation of Trade Unions and the Russian Trade Unions. The National Unemployment Workers’ Committee movement established during the period of heavy post-War unemployment is directed largely by people of Communist sympathies. It is impossible to assess the influence which Communism within the trade union movement is exercising; but numerically the number of trade unionists definitely attached to the Communist party of Great Britain is small. The factors which have led a minority of ` trade unionists into the ranks of Communism and the National Minority movement (which it may be said includes a considerable portion of workers who could not be described as Communists) have led a far greater number to a realisation of the need for a more vigorous industrial policy for the trade union movement. The establishment of the General Council of the T. U. C., the enlargement of its powers, and the large extension of its activities were an expression of this need. One of the first problems, however, is that of the organisation of trade unionism; for clearly the success of any industrial policy must depend in the last resort on the efficiency of trade union organisation. Industrial Unionism-——sSo long ago as 1910 and ror the Congress committed itself to the principle of organisation by industry, and in rori urged the Parliamentary Committee to call conferences of the different industries ‘‘ with a view of amalga-

mating the several trade unions connected with each industry.” This somewhat crude principle was interpreted in a reasoned resolution adopted by the Congress in 1918, when it was agreed (a) that the organisation of an industrial union should allow for the maintenance within the union of each district craft combination and for the possibility of federating such combinations with like bodies outside the union for specific purposes; and (b) that every craft union and general Labour union should allow sectional combinations within the union, on industrial or occupational lines, so as to facilitate inter-union federations, and, if circumstances require, the transfer of a section to any more appropriate union.

TRADE

812

In 1922 the Trades Union Congress instructed the General Council to make an enquiry into the present organisation of the trade union movement as a necessary basis for a policy of closer unification. The Hull Congress of 1924 led to the appointment of a special committee by the General Council to tackle the question of trade union organisation, and the present attitude of the Council on this matter is contained in an able memorandum by Mr. W. M. Citrine, submitted to this Committee and published in the annual report of the Congress for 1925. The General Council has boldly admitted the defects of the existing trade union structure and method—the prevailing sectionalism, the competition between different unions for workers, varied rates of contributions and benefits, demarcation of work and the lack of a co-ordinated policy. It is certain that the conflicting claims of pure and unadulterated industrial unionism, occupational unionism, federal unionism and craft unionism, will necessitate some composite method which, within the framework of the industry, permits variety of organisation to meet the needs of special crafts

and groups.

(A. GD.) II. THE

UNITED

STATES

The period from 1910 to 1926 has been an eventful one for trade unionism in the United States. Since 1910 notable changes have taken place in the philosophy and practices of both employers and trade unions. Business has made some progress in the stabilisation of industry and the standardisation of its products. A number of employers have made the protection of their employees’ welfarea part of their labour management activity, while others have engaged actively in an “ open shop ” campaign against trade unions. In this period the courts have been unusually liberal with their use of the injunction and have rendered a number of decisions against the activities of trade unionism. The period has also seen the World War with its effects on the labour movement. In response to these and other developments, American labour has evolved some remarkable trade agreements, providing for union-management co-operation, industrial courts and unemployment insurance. The trade unions have also entered the

banking field and established schools and colleges for their

UNIONS Since 1910 the trade unions have had a number of set-backs at the hands of the courts. The lower courts have been free in granting injunctions against trade-union action during strikes. Of these the injunction against the railway shopmen in 1922 is one of the most sweeping decrees issued in labour disputes. The Supreme Court also handed down several decisions which greatly hamper trade-union activity. In 1915 the U.S. Supreme Court in the case of Coppage v. Kansas (236 U.S.1) held unconstitutional a Kansas law preventing employers from threatening to discharge their employees unless they renounce union membership. Two years later in the Hitchman Coal and Coke Co. v. Mitchell case (245 U.S. 229) the Supreme Court held that, where an employer has required his employees to sign a contract that they will not join any labour union, it is illegal to attempt to organise them. In 1921 in Duplex Printing Company v. Deering (254 U.S. 443) the Supreme Court held that a secondary boycott was

unlawful and the employer had a right to a restraining injunction under the Sherman Act as amended by the Clayton Act. The same year in American Steel Foundries v. The Tri-City Central Trades Council (257 U.S. 184) the Court held that it is Wegal during a strike for more than one picket to be stationed at a point of ingress or egress to a plant. In Truax v. Corrigan (257 U.S. 3142), 1921, the Court declared unconstitutional an Arizona law, modelled on the British Trades Disputes Act, which sought to place a limit on the free use of the injunction. The law attempted to declare illegal any injunction seeking to restrain workers from ceasing to patronise or from advising others to cease patronising an employer against whom they were on strike. In 1922 the Court in U.S. Mine Workers 2. The Coronado Coal Company (259 U.S. 344) held that a trade union may be sued under the Sherman Act for damages done to an employer during a strike. During these years a remarkable development in productive

efficiency has taken place.

No reliable estimates have been

made, but the gain is notable in nearly all industries. This increase in efficiency has had causes other than the technological development, though the latter is the most important factor. The U.S. Department of Commerce in 1921 began a systematic campaign for the elimination of waste in industry. Since then it has conducted some goo conferences of business men which have set 229 committees at work on various phases of the programme. The department set out to eliminate not individual or wilful wastes, but those wastes which can be eliminated only by co-operative action of the industry or community. The growth of efficiency in industry Is probably the most important development for trade unionism which has taken place during the period since 1910. Its effect has been like that of a two-edged sword. The mechanisation of industry has eliminated the necessity of skilled labour. American trade unionism is founded upon the philosophy of the craft and the crafts are being eliminated, one by one. The great problem before the American labour movement to-day is the organisation of the unskilled, machine-tending, factory workers. On the other hand, the growth of efficiency has brought higher wages. The

members. In 1912 Congress authorised the formation of a Federal Commission on Industrial Relations. This commission’s investigations lasted three years. It examined 500 witnesses and prepared a report very favourable to organised labour. This was the first time in American history that a government commission has unhesitatingly pronounced the trade-union movement a fundamental and indispensable public institution. The Clayton Anti-trust Act which became a law in 1914 declared that human labour is not a commodity and that labour organisations are not to be construed as illegal conspiracies in restraint of trade. It also limited the use of the injunction in labour disputes. This Act was hailed as labour’s Magna Carta, but subsequent court decisions have left the legal status of trade unions quite as uncertain and unsatisfactory as if no such Act had been passed. When the United States entered the World War, the American Federation of Labour pledged its unequivocal support to the Government. Placing organised labour thus at the service of the nation secured for it for a time a degree of national prestige

greater the output per worker, the greater will be the employers’ wage-paying capacity and the higher will be the wages which ‘both union and non-union labour can successfully obtain. Wages have shown considerable increases both in money rates

and freedom to expand which could not have been secured by many years of agitation and strikes. The War Labour Board

and in purchasing power during the post-War years. The American Federation of Labour has taken note of the increases

guaranteed to labour the right to organise, the basic eight-hour day and the living wage. In 1916 the American Federation of Labour membership was 2,072,000; by 1918 it had risen to 2,726,000; by 1919 to 3,260,000, by 1920 to a maximum of 4,078,ooo. Since then it has declined to 2,877,000 showing that 40° of the War-time gains have been retained. With the falling off of immigration due to the War and the passage of the immigration restriction law of 1921, the power of American trade unionism has been increased, for while certain trades had been able to unionise the immigrant, he has been a constant barricr against organisation.

in efficiency and the elimination of waste and at its last convention went on record as approving the movement towards waste elimination. It further pointed out that if social equality and industrial stability are to be obtained, the hours of labour must be decreased and wages increased in proportion to the progress that is made in increasing production. During the years 1910-26 there has developed a new capitalistic philosophy and a new set of labour management practices. Many employers have voluntarily set out to do for their employees the very same things which trade unions have been doing for their members. These welfare practices have originated

TRADE mainly in the unorganised industries and have greatly retarded the extension of trade unionism therein. These new labour policies have set out to protect the standard of living of employees in various ways. Some employers are voluntarily paying higher wages; some are introducing profit-sharing schemes, bonuses, Wage premium plans, education, housing, community betterment, plant restaurants, vacations with pay, etc. Shop committees, works councils and systems of employee representation have also been inaugurated. Some of these plans have been undertaken in the interests of greater production. Some represent an effort to retard the development of trade unionism by making it less necessary. But regardless of motive, much good has come from them. However, there are a few shortcomings which should be noted. Such welfare work tends to tie the worker to his job and reduce his independence and gives no guarantee of permanence. A change in corporate management or a decline of prosperity may cause abandonment of the arrangements. The workers did not secure the introduction of these plans, and, being unorganised, they cannot enforce their continuance. Nor can collective dealing with company unions be considered a substitute for collective bargaining with trade unions. Even where a company union may negotiate a wage scale for the plant, its bargaining power is inferior to that of a trade union. The latter has greater membership, larger funds and more able leadership. The American Federation of Labour has felt the strength of this new development especially strong in certain industries, and has begun a careful study of the subject so that its members may better meet the issue in their organised work. In Oct. 1919 President Wilson summoned to Washington I5 representatives of labour, 15 of capital and 15 of the public for the President’s Industrial Conference. At this conference the employers stood solidly for the open. shop and the labour group stood as solidly for the closed shop and collective bargaining. The conference broke up without accomplishing anything. The unsuccessful conclusion of the conference and the steel strike of the same year solidified opinion on both sides and the employers started what is known as the Open-Shop drive. The movement seemed to spring up spontaneously in practically every industrial centre in the country and was vigorously pushed by employers’ associations, its purpose being to weaken trade unions, prevent unionisation and convince the public of the desirability of the open shop and the anti-union campaign. In 1926 a number of Important industries were conducted under the principles of the open shop, or the “ American Plan,” as its proponents often call it. Among the most important openshop industries may be mentioned the steel, textile, automobile, book and job printing, machinery and paper industries, also the San Francisco building industry. The open-shop movement has proved a great set-back to trade unionism, but it is not known whether it has spent itself and its influence is waning. In Feb. 1923 a co-operative plan between the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad and the railway shop crafts was undertaken with a programme for the elimination of waste, the betterment of shop organisation and the stabilisation of employment. Under the plan the unions were to be made necessary parts in the shop administration on a par with the superintendents. Regular

joint local and district meetings are held. The local federated shop crafts committee meets with a committee of the shop management. The officers of the system federation and of each craft meet with the head of the road’s maintenance of equipment department. After the success of this plan was demonstrated in one shop, the co-operative scheme was extended to all the

shops of the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad. Recently similar arrangements have been made on the Chicago and Northwestern Railway, the Canadian National Railways and the Chesapeake and Ohio Railway. This plan has the official endorsement of the American Federation of Labour. The union management co-operation plan as adopted on these railways is a logical extension of the principle of collective bargaining and is based

on a labour policy which accords the labour movement a positive

UNIONS

813

function in the conduct of industry. It is the trade union’s answer to the open-shop drive, the welfare work and company union policies. The period 1910-26 has seen also a remarkable series of trade agreements which have set up a system of private industrial law and a system of private unemployment insurance. A protocol signed in 1910 by the employers and the International Ladies’ Garment Workers Union of New York City may be regarded as the first real constitution in the clothing industry. In the men’s clothing industry, industrial government dates from the 1911 agreement between the Amalgamated Clothing Workers and the firm of Hart, Schaffner and Marx. This agreement set up a joint and impartial judicial machinery and specified the rights and duties of the two partics. Disputes between the parties are carried to a trade board and thence, if necessary. to a Board of Arbitration. Similar agreements have been made subsequently between an association of the remaining Chicago clothing manufacturers and the Amalgamated Union. Such judicial systems have also been established in the Rochester (New York) men’s clothing industry, the New York City men’s clothing industry and the ladies’ garment industry of Cleveland. In all these courts the decisions are recorded, precedents are established and a body of industrial common law, not dissimilar to the early English common law, is gradually accumulating. In 1923 the Amalgamated Clothing Workers and their employers in Chicago reached an agreement on the principle of an unemployment insurance fund. There are over 4oo firms in the Chicago men’s clothing market which employ about 35,000 workers. There are five boards of trustees, one each for the two largest firms, one for the remaining large concerns, one for the non-association houses and one for the contractors. One man is chairman of all the boards. The union has the same members on all the boards, but the personnel on the employers’ side differs with each board. One insurance office keeps the books and carries on all the statistical work. The employer deducts the weekly premium of 1:5% from the wages of each employce and forwards the total amount, together with an equal amount as his own contribution, to the treasurer. Payments of benefits began in May 1924. Benefits to those out of work amount to 40% of the unemployed worker’s average wage.

The maximum

benefit is $20 a week and the combined wage and benefit for workers on part time cannot exceed $50 a week. This unemployment insurance scheme was later applied in the New York men’s clothing market, in the ladies’ cloak and suit industry, the hat and cap industry and the fur industry of New York, as

well as in the ladies’ garment industry of Cleveland. Workers’ education began with the establishment in 1916 of a Workers’ University in New York City by the International Ladies’ Garment Workers Union. In 1926 there were workers’ classes and study groups, under the direction of state federations, In over 300 Industrial centres of go states, with some 40,000 students enrolled. Two resident labour colleges with permanent teaching staffs have been established, Brookwood College at Katonah, N.Y., and Commonwealth College at Mena, Arkansas. In addition, eight workers’ summer schools with resident faculties—some in connection with regular universitics—have been opened, and several universities have started workers’ classes as part of their extension work. During the five years to 1926 no less than 350 scholars and university instructors have been associated with the movement. In 192r this trade union educational work was placed under the supervision of the Workers’ Education Bureau in co-operation with the American Federation of Labour. Nearly 30 books and pamphlets have been issued by the bureau and half as many more are in preparation. Trade-union activity in the banking field began with the opening in 1920 of a Washington Bank in which the International Association of Machinists had acquired half interest. During the ensuing six years various labour organisations secured control of, or organised, over 30 banks with combined resources of well over a hundred million dollars. Many of the most prominent unions entered the banking business, but as yet there is considerable difference of opinion as to the desirability of this

TRADE

S14

new development. The American Federation of Labour has begun an investigation of the subject and at its last convention adopted a resolution calling attention to the “ grave responsibility assumed by those who enter into these undertakings ”’ and sounding a note of ‘‘ emphatic caution because we appreciate the potentiality of labour banking and wish to promote its wise development.” Trade-union leaders who are active in labour banking maintain that workingmen’s savings deposited in private commercial banks are used to promote the interests of business men and not the welfare of the labouring classes. A number of trade-union leaders are sceptical of the desirability of entering into the banking business. They urge that banking is a foreign responsibility which will take time and attention away from the bargaining issue. Organisations which become prosperous in banking are apt to become bankrupt in unionism. It is further contended that there is a tendency for labour banks to violate safe banking principles. Interest payments have been generous. The temptation to loan to an employer who recognises the union and yields to its demands is grave and dangerous from the banking standpoint. As yet labour banking is a new and unsettled policy. On Dec. 13 1924 occurred the death of Samuel Gompers who had organised the American Federation of Labour and had been its President for 43 years. He was succeeded by William H. Green of the Miners’ Union. The passing of Gompers typifies the change that has been coming over the American labour movement. He was a pioneer leader who fought for the establishment of the movement, while Green is a business leader who has shown a desire to guide the already established movement into constructive and co-operative agreements between its membership and their employers. (J. R. Co.)

Ill. INTERNATIONAL ORGANISATIONS. After the War in practically all countries trade union membership stood at a much higher level than it had done before theWar. The table below shows the growth of membership in over 20 countries from 1910 onwards. The table covers all the most important countries in the world except Russia, where figures are not available for the pre-War years, and China, Japan and India, where trade unionism was little developed before the War. Reliable estimates are available for the following 20 countries (United Kingdom, Germany, U.S.A., France, Italy, Belgium, Holland, Denmark, Sweden, Norway, Finland, Switzerland, Spain, Austria, Hungary, Czecho-Hungary, Canada, Australia, New Zealand and Serbia}. The total trade union membership was at the end of ror1o, 10,835,000; 32,680,000.

I914,

13,222,000;

IQIỌQ,

UNIONS In ro years, according to these figures, trade union membership had trebled, and more than doubled in five years. A small part of the rise is due to the greater completeness of the returns, and another small part (probably about 10%) to the natural growth of the population, but even allowing for these two factors, the growth of trade unionism was considerable and it was common to all countries. In most countries during the first part of the War the growth of trade unionism was checked. The decline was substantial in Germany, Austria, Hungary, Italy and Czechoslovakia but in these countries the numbers began to increase in 1917. After the end of the War numbers increased rapidly, especially in the Central European States. In Europe the total membership at the end of 1919 was at least 26,000,000 as against about 8,500,000

at the end of roro. In the 30 countries of the world for which information 1s available the total membership in rg19 was 42,040,000, and in 1920, 48,029,000. If we take the figures for 1919, no less than 80% of the trade unions belonged to European countries. Of the remaining 7,079,000 members outside Europe, 5,985,000 belonged to the

North American continent. Six countries—Germany, Britain, the United States, Russia, France and Italy accounted in 1919 for 33,500,000 members, whilst the remaining 24 countries accounted for only 8,750,000. Two-thirds of the total trade union membership was concentrated in four countries—Germany, Britain, the United States and France. Prior to the World War the two chief organs of the International Labour movement were the International Federation of Trade Unions and the Second International, the former industrial and the latter political. After the War, early efforts were made to reconstruct the industrial and political Internationals. The Amsterdam International—The International Federation of Trade Unions (the I.F.T.U.) was reconstituted in rọ1ọ following a Congress held at Amsterdam. It consists of the various

national central trades union organisations affiliated, but the General Council includes three delegates from the “international trade secretariats,” (7.e., representatives of the “trade internationals ” such as the International Miners’ Federation}. The management of the I.F.T.U. is vested in the executive committee, the General Council and the Congress. The Executive Committee (or the Bureau, as it is often called) consists of the officers (i.e. the president, vice-presidents and secretaries) and meets six times a year. The General Council (often referred to as the Management Committee) is a larger and more representative body. The supreme governing authority is the Congress which consists of the General Council and the representatives of the affiliated national centres (c.g., the British Trades Union Congress), Representatives of the “ trade internationals ” take part

Membership of Trade Unions at the End of the Years 1910-9 Country

United dom

IQIO

IQII

1912

1913

IQI4

1915

IQI6

1917

1918

I9IQ

King. . | 2,400,000 | 2,970,000 | 3,226,000 | 4,192,000 | 4,199,000 | 4,417,000 | 4,677,000 | 5,547,000 | 6,645,000 | 8,024,000

Germany U.S.A. France Italy

Belgium . Netherlands

Denmark Sweden Norway . Finland .

Switzerland Spain Austria on gary zechoslovakia Rumania Canada Australia

New Zealand .

Serbia (Yugoslavia)

2,960,000 | 3,336,000 | 3,566,000 | 3,572,000 | 2,271,000 | 1,524,000 | 1,496,000 | 1,937,000 | 3,801,000 | 0,000,000 2,100,000 | 2,282,000 | 2,539,000 | 2,722,000 | 2,672,000 | 2,860,000 | 3,000,000 | 3,451,000 | 4,000,000 | 5,607,000 977,000 | 1,029,000 | 1,064,000 | 1,027,000 | 1,C26,000 L f 1,500,000 | 2,000,000 | 2,500,000 817,000 847,000 861,000 972,000 962,000 806,000 70L,000 740,000 1 1,800,000 139,000 189,000 231,000 203,000 203,000 1 L i 450,000 750,000 154,000 169,000 189,000 220,000 227,000 251,000 304,000 369,000 456,000 625,000 124,000 115,000 47,000

125,000 II1,000 53,000

15,000 75,000 41,000 200,000 86,000

20,000 78,000 80,000 200,000 95,000

100,000 8,000 120,000 302,000

154,000 136,000 64,000

156,000 141,000 68,000

173,000 151,000 78,000

189,000 189,000 81,000

224,000 244,000 94,000

316,000 302,000 180,000

360,000 339,000 144,000

86,000

28,000 89,000

31,000 50,000

30,000 65,000

41,000 224,000

128,000 253,000 107,000

121,000 I 47,000 107,000

76,000 112,000 43,000

161,000 149,000 90,000 211,000 215,000

21,000 177,000

190,000 257,000 102,000

42,000 89,000 99,000 109,000 55,000

150,000 295,000 500,000

211,000 772,000 500,000

100,000 6,000 133,000 365,000

107,000 10,000 160,000 433,000

107,000 i 176,000 498,000

55,000 E 166,000 523,000

40,000 17,000 143,000 528,000

24,000 16,000 160,000 546,000

43,000 16,000 205,000 564,000

I61,000 1 249,000 582,000

657,000 l 378,000 628,000

57,000

66,000

61,000

71,000

74,000

68,000

71,000

7,000

8,000

5,000

9,000

14,000

12,000

12,000

12,000

15,000

20,000

1 Figures not available.

139,000 120,000 61,000 24,000

l

1

100,000

TRADE

UNIONS Asta

in congresses, but without the right to vote. Congresses have been held at Amsterdam (1919), London (1920), Rome (1922), The Hague (1922) and Vienna (1924). The afihated membership

North America

In 1924, the I. F. T. U. created an international committee of trade union women which held its first meeting in Nov. 1925. The number of women organised within the national centres of

the I. F. T. U. on Dec. 31 1923, was as follows:—

Czechoslovakia Denmark France.

.

.

700,000

Rumania

Germany A.D.G.B. Afa-Bund . 471,949 Great Britain . 4,350,982 Holland . 137,839 Hungary 176,401!

Country

Canada

14,639 13,568

pp

400,221 40,000 210,741

360,337

151,502 10,000

a

54,931 38,050 i 78.255 . 1,201,390 280,437

2,598

22,383 27,026

E 828,088"

Belgium Brazil . i British India Bulgaria Canada

578,000? pa oe 15,0007 105,912?

[39,520]

[40,000]*

a

i

Communist A

Denmark

;

;

|

Dutch East Indies

(217, 149]5

Estonia Finiand France i y ; Germany A.D.G.B. . Germany Afa Bund . Great Britain Holland Hungary Iceland Ireland Japan . Latvia

Lithuanta Luxembourg Memel

a

a

æ

123,769?

300,000 100,000 1,202,403"

88,527!

101,2762 612,952?

es 100,000

35,000 ae

60,000 12,000 5,000 47,633 163,000 1,300,000

151,130? 115,359?

7,700

13,800

1,076,765 192,071

25,000

269,754"

4,000 373,454 1 764.4237 (Fascists) 230,000?

300,000

is

6,425?

14,6397

pa 13,568° 1,907

19,385? 9,687?

750,841

100,000

407,037 50,000 234,004 `

88.527 300,000 100,000 1,886,605

60,000 12,000 30,000

47,633 999,276

6,984,901

534275747 291,760 191,542 4,000 373,454 2,334,177 230,000 40,449

9,687

13,568

4,047

[2,140}’

Mexico ; 1,000,000 New Zealand S Norway si Palestine 18,362? Peru . he Poland 300,221? 158,385? Portugal ni Rumania 40,0007 Russia y A South Africa 10,000 40,000 Spain 210,741? Sweden 360,337 11,030 Switzerland 151,502" United States i 800 Yugoslavia. 40,000? 1 Unless otherwise stated these figures refer to 1923.

ap.

372,492

200

a

ee ee

n

699,743

497,037”

58,092

am

I 049,228

A m?

30,000

ro

120,000

100,000?

[69,588]*

700,000? 4,500,0007 471,949" 4,350,982? 187,839? 176,401

4,633

Total Membership

172,841?

302,704

13,272

Various

101,500

25

343,284?

32,693

_ Yugoslavia

699,743

80,128?

Egypt .

Italy

Spain!

Sweden . Switzerland!

|

y

Czechoslovakia .

319 44,120 1.543

Poland Rumania . South Africa

120,000

Australia Austria

. .

Latvia Luxembourg Memel Palestine .

1 Figures for 1924-5.

Syndicalist |)ee

:

Czechoslovakia Denmark France . ` Germany! Great Britain . Holland . Hungary . Italy 5

1,907!

LF.T.U

Argentina

Chile China Cuba

269,754

Spain Sweden Switzerland Yugoslavia

190,984 51,012 790

Austria! Belgium! . Bulgaria .

Europe

. .

10,000!

1 At Dec. 31 1923.

total membership of the trade internationals was over 14,750,000. The following statistics of membership of the trade union centres affiliated to the I.F.T.U. are the most recent available. Unless otherwise stated, they refer to the year 1924-5:— Italy Latvia Luxembourg Memel Poland

-

Africa South Africa

At the end of 1923, the

828,088 578,000 15,000 343,284 302,704

105,912

Canada

(2,585,717), transport workers (2,091,840), miners (1,941,199), textile workers (1,326,030), building workers (938,940), factory workers (844,988), woodworkers (711,287) and commercial, cler-

Austria Belgium . Bulgaria .

18,362

Palestine

of the I. F. T. U. since its re-establishment has been as follows: on Dec. 31 1921, 21,991,615; 1922, 18,185,531; 1923, 15,316,127. The chief ‘“‘ trade internationals’? are the metal workers

ical and technical employees (695,185).

815

1,000,000 &80,c00

92,767?

1,800

25,000 280,000

40,0007 16,148

6,604,700? 200,000 38,000?

A

58,000

=

Sa

6.000

3 From a Communist source.

28,812

25,000 50,000 133,500 3.378,297° 18.055

80,000

94,567

18,362 25,000 738,606 40,000

84,960

6,604,700

35,000 450,741 448,337 269.032

3,436,297 64.855

_ 4 Official Fascist Government Figure. 5 The figuresin brackets indicate the membership of organisations which, though not affiliated to the 1.F.T.U. nevertheless adopt p its Iplatform. g

? 1924-5.

TRAFFIC PROBLEMS

816

The Red International—There are, in addition, a number of Chief Registrar of Friendly Societies and the Industrial Directory of trade unionists who are linked with the Red International of La- the Ministry of Labour. [mportant publications issued by the British Labour movement, bour Unions which was brought to birth by the Communist Interwhich contain official decisions and a reprint of the leading docunational. The idea was, however, conceived at the Zimmerwald and ments and correspondence are the Annual Reports of the Trades Kienthal conferences. The R.I.L.U. was established in 1920 Union Congress and the Annual Reports of the Labour party. during the second congress of the Communist International, These two bodies also publish The Labour Year Book (see issues for 1916, 1919, 1924, 1925, 1926). See also The Labour Bulletin of Indusat which minority trade union representatives from various trial and Political Information (monthly). On the international side, countries were present, when it was declared that “ it is the duty information is available in the publications of the International of the working class to gather together all trade union organised Federation of Trade Unions, the Communist International and the Red International of Labour Unions. forces with a powerful revolutionary class association, which, General \Vorks.—For the history, organisation and theories of working shoulder to shoulder with the political organisation of trade unionism, the chief works are Sidney and Beatrice Webb, The the Communist International of the proletariat and in closest History of Trade Unionism (new edition, 1920) and Industrial Democcontact with this organisation, would be able to develop all its racy (new edition, 1920); C. M. Lloyd, Trade Unionism (new edition, forces for the general victory of the social revolution and the es- 1921) (these works contain Bibliographies); G. D. H. Cole, Organtsed Labour: An Introduction to Trade Unionism (1924). tablishment of a world Soviet Republic.” It was also laid down International Movement.—See also A. Losovsky, Trade Unions in that the International Federation of Trade Unions “ because of Soviet Russia (1920), and The World's Trade Union Movement (1925), its programme and tactics ” could not “ secure the victory of the published by the National Minority movement. The Trades Union Congress is publishing a series of pamphlets on Trade Unionism in proletarian masses in all countries.” The first R.I.L.U. conAction, of which two have appeared —The Story of the Trades Union gress was held in July 1921, in Moscow, and has since continued Congress, and The General Council of the Trades Union Congress, Its its work in close association with the Communist International. Powers, Functions and Work. The Trades Union Congress published Relations between the I.F.T.U. and the R.I.L.U. have been (1924) the Report of its delegation to Russia. The Internationa! Federation of Trade Unions is publishing an International Trade hostile. The British Trades Union Congress, however, has enUnion History of which two volumes have appeared—C. Mestens, deavoured to bring about an understanding, though without The Trade Union Movement in Belgium (1925) and Walter M. success. Citrine, The Trade Union Movement of Great Britain (1926). For It is not easy to ascertain the real strength of the affiliated Germany, see S. Sanders, Trade Unions in Germany (1916), and for membership of the R.I.L.U., but Losovsky, the secretary of the Ireland, W. P, Ryan, The Irish Labour Movement (1920). Special Studtes.—There are some special studies of trade unionism. Red International, has analysed its membership as follows (see See G. D. H. Cole and R. Page Arnot, Trade Unionism on the Rail“ The World’s Trade Union Movement, 1925, pp. 24475) :— ways (1917); E. Selley, Village Trade Unions in Two Centuries The Red International of Labour Unions has eight types of affliated organisations:— 1. National trade union centres embracing the whole trade union movement of their respective countries, such as Russia, with 6,400,000 trade union members; Bulgaria, 40,000; Greece, Egypt, 50,000; Persia, 20,000; Estonia, 25,000, and so on. _ 2. National trade union or regional revolutionary centres existing parallel with reformist centres and carrying on a struggle against

them, our organisations being stronger than the reformist ones.

Such are: France, with 480,000 members; Czechoslovakia, 300,000; Yugoslavia, 100,000; Java, 35,000; and so on.

3. National trade union centres playing a small rôle in comparison with the reformist trade union movement of their respective countries, as in Holland with 20,000 members; Belgium, 12,000; Germany, 150,000; the United States, 25,000; and so on.

4. National trade union centres identifying themselves with the principles of the R.I.L.U., but not affiliated thereto, as a result of the ‘' White Terror,’ as is the case in Finland, 50,000; Rumania,

60,000; and so on.

f

5. Independent unions and unions formed of expelled members not belonging to the national trade union centres of their respective

countries. , , 6. Minorities inside the reformist trade unions organised under

the direct leadership of the Communist Italy, Sweden, Denmark, ete.

faction: Germany, Japan, EA

7. Opposition blocs or minority movements co-ordinating the action of all left-wing elements both inside and outside the reformist and the Anarcho-Syndicalist unions of such countries as: the United States, Great Britain, Spain, Austria, the Argentine, Mexico and

elsewhere.

8. Finally, there are the left-wing elements belonging to the unemployed committees (Great Britain), shop stewards committees, etc., generally supporting the R.I.L.U. policy.”

It will be seen that no national trade union body representing the whole of the organised workers of any country, apart from Russia and certain small countries where trade unionism is an ineffective force, has associated itself with the R.I.L.U. and that outside Russia its chief support comes entirely from individual trade unions and minority groups, though Losovsky is at pains to point out that the figures of membership of the I.F.T.U. are swollen by the adherents of the R.I.L.U. It is not, however, the case, as stated by Losovsky, that ‘‘ the strength of the R.LL.U. and the I.F.T.U. is equal.” The position of trade unionism in the world, so far as it can be ascertained is given in the table on the preceding page. The figures are analysed according to the orientation of the respective national trade union centres, and unless otherwise stated, the figures refer to the year 1923. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—The chief British publications are the Labour Gazette, published by the Ministry of Labour, the Reports of the

(1920); Mrs. Barbara Drake, Women in Trade Unions (1920); R. W. Postgate, The Builders’ History (1923); Sidney Webb, The Story of the Durham Miners and Industrial Negotiations and Agreements (Joint Labour Publications Dept.), G. D. H. Cole, Labour in the Coal

Mining Industries, 1914-21. On the legal side, see H. H. Slesser and Baker, The Law of Trade Unions. A shorter work is H. H. Slesser, The Law Relating to Trade Unions (1921). (A. Go.)

TRAFFIC PROBLEMS.—Throughout the civilised world the countryman is being irresistibly drawn towards the great cities, which spread outwards, ring by ring, over the open fields, while the ancient core of the city on which millions of workers now converge retains the shape imprinted on it in mediaeval times when a small compact area amply sufficed.

I. IN GREAT BRITAIN London.—Although the difficulties thus created are by no means restricted to Greater London, where the population had risen from 74 millions in 1911 to 73 millions in 1925, yet it is probably within this area that the typical problems present themselvesinthe most aggravatedform. In 1923 the registrar-general published, for the first time, a report on the workplaces of residents in London and the five home counties. The preface reminds us that in a less highly organised and industrialised society localities may be self-suflicient, every residential group being supplied with its needs by members of the same groups in their working capacity. Such conditions were due to the dispersion of necessary service and production, which in the absence of transport facilities, had to be located in proximity to the population served. The subsequent development of transport and communications fostered a concentration which has changed the whole face of industry. The growth of great commercial centres calls for the concentration of an army of workers far beyond the residential capacity of their immediate neighbourhood; the housing deficiency is aggravated by the substitution of warehouses for dwellings in the centres, while the very development of transport which makes it necessary for the worker to live at a distance from his work has also made it possible for

him to do so. Thus it happens that great masses of the population move in tides of daily ebb and flow, as evidenced in the City of London, whose night population of 13,709 expands thirtyfold during the day (416,150). To gauge the magnitude of the traffic problem the following data may be of service. In the year 1904 a census was taken of vehicles of all classes passing 14 of the more congested points in London. The total reached was 291,930. In the year 1025 a

TRAFFIC

PROBLEMS avaan

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arliament cov:

-ar

ee

e

-n

a

-m

=-

Va.

Side

ewe

eer

:i

tÁ ;z

r+ p1 Berm

West

)wee Teen

Westminster

Hospital we

ewww lg * + ene weet een eee

Street cis ' `

„xof

y get wesew wT

st Margarets

-wm

a

4

N

~

Ya

5 -= ʻa-

‘Old Palice Yord “rhea

Fic. 1.—Diagram illustrating the gyratory system, in operation in Parliament Square, London.

count taken at the same 14 points gave a total of 458,376, an increase of 57.02%. The outstanding feature on the London streets is the motor-omnibus, of which in the year 1913 the number licensed was 3,664. By Jan. 1 1924, the number had risen to 5,311, and by Oct. 1 1925 to 5,502. In the year 1913 the passengers carried by omnibuses numbered 736,000,000; in 1924, 1,485,000,000; while in 1925 a total of 1,600,000,000 was comput-

ed to have been reached. The important part played by the London County Council’s tramways can be estimated from the statement that their tramcars carry more than 1,000,000 passengers during the six busiest hours of the day. On the Victoria Embankment 400 tramcars pass every hour. Expressed in millions the numbers of passengers carried by the various forms of transport in London have been estimated as follows:

ee

Suburban Trunk Rail-

See

ways

grounc

T eas way

. ee

Total

uses

(esti-

mated) IOI3 . IQIQ . 1923 .

1924 .

.

450 505 488

298 480 367

812 1,064 1,001

474

369

983

736 SOI 1,214

2,206 2,910 3,070

1,485 | 3,311

In 1925 a grand total of 3.524,000,000 was reached. The increase in the volume of traffic is out of all proportion to the growth of population. A principal factor in the increase of congestion on the streets is the growth and spread of the travel habit. It has been estimated that whereas in the year 1900 every Londoner, man, woman and child, travelled 158 times a year, that figure had risen in the year 1925 to 460. ‘The burden thus thrown upon the transport agencies is even greater than these figures would indicate, owing to the fact that the

“peak ” periods of the day are now

more compressed.

‘The

hours of industrial workers having been shortened, their travel period now tends to coincide with that of the clerk and warehouseman, with the result that travelling facilities have to be provided for a heavier peak traffic concentrated within a shorter number of hours. Remedies.—The remedies for traffic congestion on the streets are easier to enumerate than to apply. First and foremost all wanton obstructions should be removed; fountains, clock-towers, refuges, obelisks, horse-troughs and such like structures erected in the leisurely days of an earlier century must justify their existence in the light of changed circumstances. Street traders and stalls must be relegated to side streets; slow and heavy vehicles must be prohibited from using, during the busy hours of the day, certain routes in which rapid movement is indispensable; the position of the great markets must be reconsidered in order that the streams of ponderous traffic to which they give rise may not choke all-important adjacent arteries. By extending railway sidings into markets, now served by road, much of the congestion on the latter might be relieved. Parallel Routes —A useful purpose may be served by the judicious sign-posting of parallel routes, so that inexperienced drivers may be induced to leave the overcrowded roads and make use of less familiar thoroughfares. A glance at the map of our great cities will show how many such alternatives are already

available and how many more might be rendered feasible by the demolition of a few buildings which interrupt the continuity of a line of streets. In many instances greater advantage would accrue from the completion of an alternative route by the acquisition of such obstructive buildings than from the customary widening at enormous cost of the principal thoroughfare by the demolition of one entire frontage. Two roads are better than one, seeing that an accident may at any time have the effect of closing a single thoroughfare, however wide. Unavoidable traffic stoppages due to road repairs can be shortened in many cases by the use of quick-setting cements and the introduction of pneumatic tools for breaking up old foundations. In the

818

TRAFFIC

busiest thoroughfares repairs should proceed uninterruptedly day and night. Co-ordination between adjoining highway authorities would prevent the annoyance of parallel routes being simultaneously closed for repair. The extreme need of some co-ordinating body for London led to the creation in 1924 of the London and

Home Counties Traffic Advisory Committee, which reports to the Minister of Transport upon all matters affecting transit in that populous area. Single-way Trafic.—Narrow streets which are so situated as to form useful lines of communication can often be advantageously utilised as single-way routes, a practice which has been widely adopted in Paris, where no less than 105 streets are reserved for one-way traffic. Obviously the facilities for establishing alternative routes and single-way routes are greatest in cities which have been methodically laid out on a fairly rectangular plan. In cities of haphazard growth more formidable difficulties will arise. The delay intlicted upon trafic at busy cross roads can be climinated by the enforcement of gyratory movement in the rare cases where space permits, or by the construction of a bridge or tunnel enabling one stream of traffic to pass over the other—a device that is only rendered feasible by a convenient configuration of the ground. The ample dimensions of the “ places ” of Paris have enabled gyratory movement .to be instituted at 19 traffic centres, whereas in London the experiment was tried in Jan. 1926, for the first time, in Aldwych and Parliament Square (see fig. 1) where its success has led to its extension to other trafhe centres. |

Il. IN THE UNITED STATES New York.—A distinctive aspect is given to the traffic problem of New York by the grouping within a restricted central area (Manhattan) of sky-scrapers, (Woolworth, Singer, Equitable, etc.) accommodating thousands of workers whose movements create congestion of perilous intensity. Somewhat similar conditions prevail in the “ Loop ” district of Chicago, where nevertheless only some few of the buildings exceed 17 storeys in height but where the day population exceeds 2,500 per ac., as compared with 614 per ac. in the City of London. The difficulties thus created are aggravated by the almost universal ownership of motor-cars in the United States, where in some towns one car 1s counted for every five inhabitants (men, women and children). Europe can produce nothing comparable with the transit problems presented by the massing within the Woolworth Building in New York of a working population of 14,000 souls—exclusive of visitors. The impossibility of providing stances for motor vehicles within easy walking distance of such a building is likely to militate against the more extended urban use of the automobile. It has been pointed out by Dr. Raymond Unwin that if only one in 10 of the occupants of the Woolworth Building wished to park a car it would be necessary to provide for that purpose exclusively a carriageway 60 ft. wide and three quarters of a mile long. Chicago.—At Chicago, within the “ Loop ” district, the streets which represent no less than 40° of the ground-space are quite inadequate to carry the present traffic, and of the 60,000 motorcars owned by the occupants of the “ Loop ” only 3,500 can find standing-room within the district. Temporary relief is afforded by the large open space set aside for Grant Park, where as many as 25,000 motor-cars have been seen parked at one time. Regulations of Traffic —The ever-growing demands made upon the police for the marshalling and regulation of street traffic have led to the introduction, in many cities, of mechanical signalling devices designed to reduce the staff and lighten their labours. Among such devices are the lamps now installed at cross roads on some of the Paris boulevards, which, by means of red and green lights, signal tratlic to stop on one thoroughfare and proceed on the other, reversing these instructions at regular intervals, so that in each direction the flow of traffic is alternately held up and released. In some instances the change of signals is heralded by the sounding of a bell. In the larger American cities light-towers have been introduced as a means to the more scientific marshalling of traffic. These towers, erected at

PROBLEMS convenient points, are regulated from a master control tower, so

that the traflic extending for a distance of from three to seven m. can be alternately held up and released, the period of arrest being carefully calculated in proportion to the relative volume of north-south traffic and east-west traffic respectively, so that the heavier stream may have the longer period of flow.

III. SOME SUGGESTIONS Circumferential Roads.—Whatever eflorts may be made to take full advantage of the roads already in use, the vast increase in vehicular traffic will in most of our growing cities call for the provision of additional thoroughfares. While the radial roads may be tolerably adequate it will usually be found that suitable circumferential roads are wanting, save in the case of towns whose fortifications have given place to a ring road. Relief to the congested centre of a city can often be most readily afforded by the building of circular roads which enable traffic to pass

round the outskirts.

By suitable regulations it should then be

possible to limit the passage through the crowded centre to vehicles whose business legitimately requires their presence there. Little hardship is inflicted upon drivers who are relegated to the circular road, seeing that, although their journey may be longer, the time occupied is less, owing to the absence of congestion. As a good example of this type of route may be cited the

circular road, 26 m. long, in 1926 approaching completion round the north of London. Town Planning —For the provision of new relief-roads in areas still undeveloped much can be done by the adoption of town planning procedure which enables the line of route to be laid down several years in advance, with a view to its ultimate construction as and when the land traversed is developed for

building purposes. Co-ordination—At the root of the traffic problem in great centres of population lies the difficulty that the present local government boundaries usually have no relation whatever to the wider traffic region upon which the welfare, the work and the very existence of the city depend. Concerted action for the common good is defeated by the multiplicity and divergent interests of the small administrative units which encircle the city.

In the aggregate the resources of the greater community

forming the traflic region are amply suflicient to provide the remedies which are admitted to be necessary, but the application of these resources to the desired purpose is impracticable, in the absence of some public body empowered to determine the best means of promoting improvement schemes and to apportion the cost over the traflic region which ultimately benefits. Until this power of apportionment can be exercised there are insurmountable obstacles to the execution of vital improvements in poverty-stricken administrative areas, where local conditions often generate trafic delays reacting injuriously upon the whole traffic region. An authority exercising control over such a traffic region would naturally be charged with the duty of co-ordinating the different traflic agencies and means of transit, so as to eliminate wasteful competition and the congestion to which it gives rise. Certain routes would be reserved for trams or trolley vehicles, others for motor-buses, others for underground railways. The number of vehicles plying on various routes would be restricted to the needs of the travelling public, instead of being dependent upon the varying fortunes of the struggle between rival undertakings. It is indeed questionable how much longer the interests of the citizen can tolerate the use of the public highway as the arena for unrestricted traffic competition. Franchises —Many great cities have already had to adopt a “ franchise’ system, under which exclusive privileges are conferred upon particular traffic agencies in return for guaranteed services at prescribed fares. Even if the inconvenience of traflic congestion due to free competition were less marked, the arguments for some form of “ franchise ”’ system would still be cogent, owing to the fact that the fresh capital which is urgently required for the modernisation and extension of certain traffic agencies will not be forthcoming unless some security is afforded to those operating the undertaking.

TRAINING Railway Electrification.—The need for additional resources is acutely felt by congested suburban railways constructed in the days of steam traction. Electrification of such lines is often the only means of increasing their carrying capacity and great activity prevails in the application of this remedy. As an instance may be quoted the electrification of the London suburban lines of the Southern Railway, involving the conversion of 650 m. of track, at a cost of nearly £8,000,000. The trafic flow of a railway being governed in large measure by its terminal capacity, the aim must be to enable the largest number of trains to enter and leave the terminal. It has been claimed that thanks to electrification the capacity of terminals can be increased by 150%, so that five trains would run where two ran formerly (see RAILWAYS, ELECTRIFICATION OF). 7 : Future Developments.—Casting a prophetic glance forward one can discern certain directions in which the development of our civic, social and industrial life may be fundamentally affected by the pressure of the traffic problem. There is already a tendency towards the creation of self-contained satellite towns of moderate size where the citizen can live within an easy walk of his work and yet within sight of the green fields. The administrative centres of capital cities can be relieved by moving to the

open outskirts of towns certain offices and departments which do not require an absolutely central position. As open spaces in central districts become rarer and rarer we may see legislation promoted to safeguard such squares and gardens as have escaped the builder. e

Continuous

Use of Offices—It is conceivable that the high

rental value of office accommodation in the heart of great cities and the increasing closeness of business contact between countries of every latitude may lead to the continuous use of offices throughout the day and night, with the result that the volume of passenger traffic to and from the suburbs would be better distributed, It is perhaps significant that several London restaurants should remain open throughout the 24 hours. A time may indeed be in sight when the problem of transport will be the dominating influence in moulding the life of the citizen in every highly developed industrial community. (H. My.) TRAINING CAMPS.—Prior to 1913 the people of the United States, although certain to be involved in the approaching world crisis, had made no military preparation which would enable them to play their appropriate part in the struggle for

civilisation. Impelled by an appreciation of this situation, and realising that the interest necessary for properly meeting it could best be built up through the youth of the country, Maj. General Leonard Wood took up in 1913, as chief of staff of the army, with the Secretary of War, Lindley M. Garrison, the project of establishing training camps for duly qualified youths, and obtained his approval. The project was pushed forward by General Wood in the following three years. 1923 Camps.—The 1913 camps, known as Students’ Military Instruction Camps, were held at Gettysburg, Pa., and Monterey, Cal., and were made up principally of college students. The total number in camps was 244. Those at Gettysburg formed a permanent organisation, which became known as the National Reserve Corps, and had for its purpose the building up of a corps of reserve officers. The results at Gettysburg and Monterey were such that these first camps attracted immediate and favourable recognition, and were the seeds from which sprang the Plattsburg camps. The active co-operation of the universities and high schools was secured through the efforts of General Wood and President Drinker of Lehigh University, who took steps leading to the organisation of an advisory committee consisting of the outstanding university executives in the United States. 1914 Camps.—The following year (1914) camps were established at Fort Ethan Allen, Burlington, Vt.; Asheville, N.C.; Ludington, Mich.; and Monterey, California. The total number in the different camps was 667. These aroused a gradually growing interest, reinforced by considerations growing out of the outbreak of the World War, and the Department of War determined that four such camps should be established during

CAMPS

819

the summer of rors, at Chickamauga Park, Ga.; Plattsburg N.Y. (three camps); Ludington, Mich.; and at the Presidio, San Francisco, California. The total number of men who passed through the camps during this year was 3,406. The camps were no longer limited to students from colleges and high schools, but were open to men from all walks of life who had the necessary physical qualifications and showed sound qualities of leadership. As Plattsburg was the largest training centre, the camps, wherever held, began to be called “ Plattsburg Camps.” The Army Report —Speaking of the training camps, the chief of staff of the army, in his Anmual Report for 1915, said: The reports show that the results have fully justified the establishment of these camps... . Aside from the military instructions given these students and business men, I feel that the interest in preparedness which leads these men not only to give their time to the government but to incur the expense of buying uniforms and paying for transportation to the camps is of great value to the country, and should be encouraged by the War Department. These camps have passed the experimental stage, and there can hardly be any question as to the advisability of continuing them and extending them where the conditions of service of regular troops are such as to permit the department to send troops and instructors to the camps. Men with means probably do not object to paying the necessary funds to get the military training which the government expects to use in case of need. This, however, does not make it right. Men who are not so fortunately fixed financially should be permitted to show their patriotism and interest in preparing the country for war. If these camps are of value, which undoubtedly they are, and are to be continued, certain ese) expenses of the men willing to give their time should be met by the government.

Developments in 1916.—In 1916 a series of four camps, each for a month, was held at Plattsburg, N.Y.; a camp of one month’s duration for boys at Fort Terry, N.Y.; a series of six camps of two weeks’ intensive training at Wadsworth, N.Y., for the police of New York City; and a series of three camps, each for a month, at Oglethorpe, Georgia. Over 16,000 men were passed through the camps. In 1917, applicants for the camps numbered 130,000, and had the United States not gone into the War in the spring well over 100,000 men would have been trained in these volunteer training camps. During the winters of 1915-6 and 1916-7 courses were opened in Boston, New York, Providence, Detroit, Pittsburgh, Philadelphia, and other cities for the instruction and examination of applicants for reserve commissions, and through them were developed a large number of ofħñcers who played a vital part in the training of the great War levies. lWFar Training Centers.—When the United States entered the World War these hastily but intensively trained enthusiastic men were invaluable. They furnished the nucleus of civilian officers with which to begin the great work of developing 200,000 officers, and added a valuable and indispensable force to the scanty number of regular officers and national guard officers available for the training of men. In the spring of 1917 the Federal Government took over the whole task and established a serles of camps for the training of officers for the War. Under authority of Section 54, National Defence Act, 1916, the Secretary of War directed the establishment of 16 Citizens’ Training Camps throughout the United States at the following points: Platisburg Barracks, N.Y. (two camps); Madison Barracks, N.Y.; Fort Niagara, N.Y.; Fort Myer, Va.; Fort Oglethorpe, Ga.; Fort McPherson, Ga.; Fort Benjamin Harrison, Ind. (two camps); Fort Sheridan, Ill. (two camps); Fort Logan H. Roots, Ark.; Fort Snelling, Minn.; Fort Riley, Kans.; Leon Springs, Tex.; Presidio of San Francisco, California. Officers’ Training Camps.—The training camps for officers were ordered to be ready for the reception of reserve officers about May 8, for candidates for commission May 14, and the course of instruction was to beginon May 15 1917. The minimum age for attendance was 20 years and nine months; the maximum age, 44 years. In addition to the foregoing, General Order 119, War Department 1917, established a training camp at Fort Winfield Scott, Cal., for the training of members of the coast artillery section of the Officers’ Reserve Corps residing within the territorial limits of the western department, and a similar camp at Fort Monroe, Va., for the balance of the coast artillery reserve corps officers. These training camps began operation on

TRANSCAUCASIA

820

Sept. 22 1917. A medical officers’ training camp was also established in 1917 at Camp Greenleaf, Fort Oglethorpe, Georgia. Other camps for officers were established at the headquarters of the various divisions, the courses being essentially the same as those at the former officers’ camps. The period allotted for the development of an officer at the government training camps was three months. The work was intensive and hard. It was an attempt, in the rush and confusion of war, to produce officers in the minimum period of time. The purpose was to turn out the largest possible number of platoon leaders and a limited number of company commanders and officers of field grade. The same general plan was carried out at the training camps for officers in the quartermaster corps, medical corps and other staff corps. The courses involved much hard work and were necessarily defective in some particulars, but they served to turn out many tens of thousands of officers with elementary training which was later supplemented by their work with the divisional organisations to which they were assigned. Public Support—Theodore Roosevelt gave the full support of his great prestige and influence in the upbuilding of the camps, and never lost an opportunity to impress upon the public their importance and to push forward their development. Men too numerous to mention, men who are leaders in every walk of life, co-operated to the limit of their ability in the upbuilding of these camps, and in waking the country to an appreciation of the gravity of the situation and the need of preparation. The camps were a great force in firing the public conscience and rousing the people to a realisation of their obligation to prepare the country for defence and to do their part in the great struggle then threatening the world.

(L. Wo.)

TRANSCAUCASIA (see 27.172).—The Transcaucasian Socialist Federated Soviet Republic comprises the former states of Azerbaijan, Armenia and Georgia with an area of 195,800 sq. km. or 0:9% of the area of the Sovict Union (U.S.S.R.). Area and Population

Soviet Republic Azerbaijan Armenia Georgia Total

.

Area in sq. versts

Population

34,288

57,967

2,125,152 I ,400,000 1,792,000

168,702

5:317,1§2

76,447

Out of the total population, just over 1,000,000 or about 19% are classified as urban, the remainder being engaged in rural pursuits. The total population represents 4:1 % of the population of the U.S.S.R. Political Histery—On Sept. 20 1917 a council of Transcaucasian peoples met at Tiflis and declared Transcaucasia to be a Federal Republic within the Russian dominions. The effects of the Bolshevik revolution began to be felt in the following spring; in March a Bolshevik rising took place in Baku and established a Soviet régime, and in April the council declared the complete independence of the Federal Republic. In May it opened peace negotiations with the Germans and Turks, the latter having in-

vaded the country and captured Batoum and Kars.! The Federal Council dissolved, however, on May 26; Georgia declaring its complete independence and National Councils of Armenians and ‘Tartars taking over the administration of Armenia (Erivan) and Azerbaijan. Separate treaties were signed by Georgia with Germany on May 28th and by the three republics with the Turks and Germans on June 4th, which resulted in the “ friendly ” occupation of Armenia by the Turks and of Georgia by the Germans. In the following month the Bolshevik administration at Baku was overthrown and on Aug. 4th the advance guard of a

British force under Maj. Gen. L. C. Dunsterville landed and were soon engaged in defending the town against the Turks (see PERSIAN CAMPAIGNS). On Sept. 14 the British troops evacuated Baku, which was then occupied by the Turks and became the seat of the Azerbaijan Government. The Turks, however, 1 By the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (March 3 1918) Russia had ceded to Turkey the districts of Kars, Ardahan and Batoum.

were compelled to evacuate the whole of Transcaucasia by the terms of the Armistice with the Allies of Oct. 30, and in the middle of Nov., Baku was reoccupied by a British force which administered the district on the collapse of the existing Azerbaijan Government. Just before the close of the year further British forces landed at Batoum to occupy Georgia and Armenia. During 1919 the three Governments gradually established themselves, under the protection of the British forces, though Armenia opened hostilities in Jan. against Georgia and in Aug. against Azerbaijan. In both cases the disputes (territorial in origin) were settled by British mediation. The British forces evacuated the whole of Transcaucasia except Batoum on Aug. 28 ro1g. In Jan. 1920, the Supreme Council sitting in Paris accorded de facto recognition to the three Governments. On April 27-28 there was a revolution at Baku and the Azerbaijan Govt. was replaced by a Soviet Republic which invited the Russian Soviet forces to occupy the country. Georgia and Armenia, however, retained their independence for a time, and the former signed treaties with the Soviet Governments of Azerbaijan (May 7) and Russia (June 6), a step which Armenia refused to take. On July 7 the British forces evacuated Batoum and handed over the district to the Georgian Govt., whose independence was recognised by Soviet Russia in a second treaty signed in August. On Aug. ro Armenia was compelled by threat of force to sign a treaty with Soviet Russia, but was shortly afterwards attacked by the Turkish Nationalists and the Soviet Govt. of Azerbaijan, with the connivance and support of Soviet Russia. In the result an Armenian Soviet Govt. was established in Dec., whose independence was recognised in a treaty by Soviet Russia. On Jan. 27 1921, the Supreme Council sitting in Paris accorded de jure recognition to the Menshevik Govt. of Georgia, but on Feb. 12 there was a rising against this Government in the country and a week later the Russian Soviet troops crossed the frontier. Turkish forces then occupied Batoum at the invitation of the Mensheviks, but withdrew on the signature of peace and the proclamation of a Georgian Soviet Republic (March 19). In the following May a treaty of Alliance was signed between the Georgian and Russian Soviet Governments. Meanwhile the three refugee Governments from Georgia, Azerbaijan and Armenia had fled to Paris and there proclaimed a Caucasian Federation, asserting that the respective Soviet Governments did not represent the wills of the three peoples. A revolt against the Armenian Soviet Govt. in the summer was easily suppressed. The three Soviet Govts. regulated their relations with Turkey in a treaty signed at Kars on Oct. 13, the provisions of which followed the lines of the Treaty concluded in Moscow between Russia and Turkey, March 16. On March 12 1922 the three Soviet Govts. signed an agreement establishing the Transcaucasian S.S.S.R. which, though in close alliance with the Russian Soviet Republic, retained a nominal independence until the creation of the Union of Socialist Soviet Republics (July 6 1923) of which it then became a constituent member (see RUSSIA). Natural Resources —Transcaucasia contains some of the finest mountain scenery in the world; the vegetation ranges from subtropical on the west coast of Georgia to the dry and arid region of Kura, where cultivation is only possible by artificial irrigation, while Armenia is predominantly pastoral. The forest area comprises some 12,000,000 ac. rich in numerous varieties of timber; beech, oak, hornbeam, pine, spruce, fir, are the chief, but the commercially valuable varieties are said to be in the neighbourhood of a hundred. The chief agricultural crop is maize, but wheat and barley are also grown, while rice and cotton are cultivated in the eastern districts. The mulberry tree is also cultivated and there the silk-worm industry is reviving, the output in 1924 being about 35% of 1913, but the raw silk is sent ` to Moscow for manufacture. Tea planting is steadily increasing, the area planted having risen from 4os5 ac. before the war to 2,700 ac. in 1924. The plans of the Georgian Government propose a further extension to 16,200 ac. by 1929. The principal] mineral deposits are oil (in the neighbourhood of Baku, Azerbaijan g.».),

TRANSJORDAN— TRANSMUTATION manganese (at Chiaturi), copper (in the mountains), and there are also considerable layers of rock salt.

Communications.—Baku

is in direct railway communication

with Moscow, by a line which runs up the shore of the Caspian and crosses over towards the Black Sea north of the Transcaucasian frontier. Another line connects Baku with Batoum via

Tiflis, which town is also in rail communication with Kars and Tabriz. There is also a regular motor service over the passes connecting Transcaucasia with the Caucasus district of the Russian Socialist Federated Soviet Republic; this service is maintained by the Union commissariat of communications. The two principal ports are Batum on the Black Sea and Baku on the Caspian, the latter being connected by a regular ferry service with the Central Asian Railway at its terminus at Krasnovodsk on the other side of the Caspian. Regular air services connect Baku with Moscow (via Rostov) and with Batum, which port also enjoys an air service to Novorossisk. There are four institutes of quasi-university standing, two each at Tiflis and Baku. (See also Russia.) TRANSJORDAN, a territory in Asia Minor under British mandate. Its existence as a definite political entity dates from 1920 when, on the collapse of Faisal’s Syrian kingdom of which it formed part, the three districts of Irbid, Balga and Kerak, each enjoying a measure of internal autonomy under the guidance of British political officers, came under the general mandatory control of the High Commissioner for Palestine. Boundaries.—The whole area was and still is subject to the British Mandate for Palestine, but the clauses relating to the establishment of a national home for the Jews have been specifically declared to be inapplicable to Transjordan area, which is bounded on the west by the central line of Wadi ‘Araba, of the Dead Sea and of the Jordan as far as the confluence of the Yarmuk with the latter; on the north by the central line of the Yarmuk as far as the first railway bridge across it, and thence along the southern edge of the Hejaz Railway as far as Muzairib, whence it strikes across country to Nasib station and the village of Imtan, The eastern boundary of Transjordan was fixed at the Bahra conference of 1925 (see ARABIA) and runs from a point southeast of Cast Azraq along the western edge of Wadi Sirhan, On the south the boundary of this area was an east-west line crossing the railway between Jauf ed Derwish and ‘Aneiza stations, pushed further south-

ward in July 1925 to the line Mudawara-Haql ‘“Aqaba).

(on the Gulf of

English Miles 90 Kilometres baa

_o Railways

Political History—In Feb., 1921, the Amir ‘Abdullah, second son of King Husain of the Hejaz, arrived at ‘Amman with a small force with the idea of attacking the French

in Syria.

Mr. Winston Churchill was at the time holding a Middle Fast conference at Cairo and, after an interview with ‘Abdullah, ar-

ranged that the latter should be Amir of Transjordan with his

OF ELEMENTS

S21

capital at ‘Amman and with a grant-in-aid from the British Govt. to assist him in the establishment of an efficient administration in the territories committed to his charge. The arrangement was admittedly experimental, and the Amir was placed under the general control of the High Commissioner for Palestine whose representatives supervised the work of the local government. After a six month’s trial and the occurrence of various untoward incidents this arrangement was modified. The chief British representative in Transjordan remained under the control of the High Commissioner for Palestine, but the Amir’s

government was allowed a sort of de facto independence.

This

scheme succeeded better, and in Oct., 1922, ‘Abdullah visited England at the invitation of the British Govt. to discuss arrangements for the formal recognition of the independence of Transjordan. In April 1923, the High Commissioner announced at ‘Amman that H.M. Govt., subject to the approval of the League of Nations, recognised the existence of Transjordan as an independent state under the Amir ‘Abdullah, on the condition that its administration should be conducted on democratic and constitutional lines and should, by a subsequent agreement, place H.M. Govt. in a position to discharge their international obligations in respect of the area concerned. This formal announcement never became operative. ‘Abdullah and his government were unable to rule the country. Reckless financial administration and general misgovernment culminated in the serious rebellion of the ‘Adwan tribe in Sept. 1923, which was suppressed by the Royal Air Force. The British Treasury declined to provide the annual grant-in-aid unless ‘Abdullah was more closely controlled, and in April 1924, the Chief British Representative became in effect the supreme authority in Transjordan, controlling the administrative and financial administration of the Amir and his government under the orders of the High Commissioner for Palestine. By the end of 1925 Transjordan, nominally enjoying a sort of independence, had in effect become a non-Jewish province of Palestine and the Amir’s civil list had been reduced to £12,000 a year, while the financial administration of his government was made subject to audit by the Palestine Government. Population.—The population of Transjordan is about 300,000, of whom about half are Badawin. The rest include about 30,000 Circassians, inhabiting colonies planted there by the Ottoman Govt. after the Russo-Turkish war of the ‘seventies, and 40,000 Christians of various sects. The chief towns are ‘Amman (15,000), Es Salt (18,000), Kerak (8,000), Irbid (3,000) and Ma ‘an (3,000), The country comprises the biblical territories of Gilead, Moab, Edom and part of Bashan. At the beginning of the Christian era ‘Amman (Philadelphia), Jarash (Gerasa), Umm Keis (Gadara) and other places were important centres of Greco-Roman civilisation. Later, part of these territories formed the independent kingdom of Chassan and were conquered by the Muslim armies in 637. During the Crusades Kerak (see 15.753) was the chief administrative centre of Outtic-Jourdain and afterwards it was ruled by various kings or Amirs. Under the Ottoman régime the whole of Transjordan formed part of the vilayet of Syria, but its southern part (Kerak, etc.) did not come under effective Turkish control until the Hejaz Railway, which traverses the territory from Nasib to Mudawara, was completed in 1904. (See also ARABIA; PALESTINE.) BIBLIOGRAPHY.— Draft Mandates for Mesopotamia and Palestine, Cmd. 1, 176 (1921). (1. St. J. B. P.)

TRANSMUTATION OF ELEMENTS.— The growth of knowledge with regard to the nature and constitution of atomic nuclei which has resulted from the study of radioactive phenomena, the scattering of a-particles by matter, and the investigation of atomic masses by positive-ray analysis, has aroused considerable interest in the possibility of effecting a transmutation from one element to another by artificial means. The Structure of the Flements.—The fundamental factor which distinguishes one element from another is the resultant positive charge on the nucleus of the atom, which, when expressed in terms of the magnitude of the electronic charge, is equal to the atomic number of the element. Thus in passing from one element to the next higher clement, the nuclear positive charge increases by one unit. Corresponding to every value of the nuclear charge there is a definite configuration of electrons each of which revolves in a separate orbit round the nucleus, the number of

$22

TRANSPORT—TRANSPOR TATION

electrons being equal to the atomic number of the element, thus causing the system to be electrically neutral. The ordinary chemical and physical properties which characterise any element are due to its particular configuration of extra-nuclear electrons, and are thus controlled by the nuclear charge. To bring about a transmutation from one element to another it is therefore fundamentally necessary for the nuclear charge to be increased or decreased by some means, for if this can be brought about the configuration of external electrons will adjust itself to the changed conditions. The experimental difficulties involved in effecting a change of nuclear charge would be expected to be very considerable, and up to the present time the record of definite evidence of the successful achievement of such an alteration—i.c., of artificial transmutation—is not very extensive. | | Spontaneous Transmutations.—The

spontaneous transmutations which we have in the radioactive series of elements are transformations in the direction of decreasing atomic mass, and lead to the attainment of ultimate stability in the direction of decreasing atomic number. It does not however follow that artificial transmutation will necessarily be most easily brought about in the same direction. | Conditions of Transmutation.—There is strong evidence that protons (or hydrogen nuclei—positive particles of unit mass and unit charge), a-particles (or helium nuclei—positive particles of mass 4 and charge 2), and electrons, enter into the nuclei of the atoms of the heavier elements as constituent units. Transmutation would therefore necessarily take place if either a proton, an a-particle, or an electron, could be caused to enter or leave the nucleus of any atom. | Experimental Work.—By bombarding the atoms of various elements with a-particles, Rutherford and Chadwick, and subsequently Kirsch and Pettersson, have found that from several elements particles are produced which are capable of causing a scintillation on a fluorescent screen placed far beyond the range of the original a-particles. From experiments on the bending of their paths by a magnetic field, these particles were shown to be protons. After testing in various ways to find out whether they could have originated from hydrogen present as an impurity, either in the elementary form or in combination, it was concluded that these particles must have come from the atoms of the element under test. Nitrogen was one of the first elements for which this effect was found, but many other elements have since been shown to give rise to protons when bombarded by apatticles. The ejected proton eventually acquires an electron and settles down as an ordinary hydrogen atom. The actual pro-

portion of the impacts which result in disintegration and the production of hydrogen is, of course, extremely small.

Ejection of Units.—In these cases we have clear instances of transmutation by the ejection of one of the units of their structure from the nuclei of atoms, the definite evidence of the transmutation being the detection and identification of the ejected

portion. With regard to the ultimate condition of the remaining part of the bombarded nucleus, and the fate of the bombarding a-particles there is no evidence in the case of most of the elements, but with nitrogen a definite investigation of these problems has been made by Blackett, who, by the Wilson cloud condensation method, photographed the tracks of a very large number of a-particles through nitrogen, and was able to identify several of these tracks as showing the occurrence of a disintegrating impact. In each of these cases only one track other than that due to the projected proton could be found diverging from the point marking the occurrence of the disintegration. From this it was concluded that the bombarding a-particle was retained by the struck nitrogen nucleus, thereby producing a system of mass 17 and nuclear charge 8, a system which would be an isotope of ordinary oxvgen.

The experiments conducted by Blackett could not by their very nature enable a decision to be made as to whether such a system has any permanent stability. Harkins and Ryan, and Akiyama, have on the other hand obtained photographs of aray tracks in air showing collisions resulting in disintegration,

with three branches diverging from the point marking the occurrence of the collision. As the disintegrating atoms in air were presumably nitrogen atoms, these results seem to indicate that even in any one substance the fate of the bombarding aparticle is different in different disintegrating collisions. Further Evidence.—In addition to the evidence of transmutation of elements resulting from a-particle bombardment of atoms, we have the evidence brought forward independently by Miethe and Stammreich, and by Nagaoka, of the conversion of mercury into gold, and the evidence recorded by Smits of the production of thallium and mercury from lead. In each case the recorded transmutation is in the direction of decreasing atomic number, but there is no evidence as to whether the changes involve decrease of atomic mass or not. The change from mercury (atomic number 80) into gold (79) might conceivably be effected either by the entry of an electron into, or the removal of a proton from, the nucleus of the mercury atom, and the same alternatives present themselves in regard to the transformation of lead (82) into thallium (81). Nagaoka, in attempting to bring about the transformation of mercury into gold, held the view, based on a consideration

of the resem-

blance of the non-scries spectrum lines of gold and mercury, that in the mercury nucleus a proton existed asa sort of satellite to the main nucleus, which was the same as that of the gold atom, and he de-

signed his experiments with a view to bringing about a powerful disturbance of the nucleus in the hope of ejecting the satellite proton. He passed a discharge in paraffin oil between electrodes of iron and purified mercury with a short spark gap, using an induction coil of 120 cm. spark length. After four hours he succeeded in obtaining evidence of the presence of gold, and confirmed his result by subsequent experiments. Although the experiment was designed to facilitate the ejection of a proton from the mercury nucleus, it would not preclude the possibility of a transmutation being effected by the entry of an electron into the nucleus. Micthe and Stammreich’s experimental arrangement was entirely different, for they obtained traces of gold from mercury vapour lamps in which a heavy current had been passed under a potential difference of only 170 volts. The arrangement employed by Smits was somewhat similar to that of Miethe and Stammreich. It consisted of a quartz lead-vapour lamp of special design run at voltages of less than 100 and with currents up to looamperes. Smits records that initially the spectrum showed only one of the mercury lines, namely 42536, but that after running the lamp for 10 hours the strongest mercury lines in the visible as well as the ultra-violet region of the spectrum had made their appearance, and that the most characteristic thallium line was also visible. It is difficult to believe that the electric field due to a potential difference of only 100 volts or so across the tube would be strong enough to effect the disruption of an atom and to bring about transmutation by the ejection of a proton, and the alternative possibility of the entry of an electron into the nucleus must be taken into account. In the case of the transmutation of lead (82) into mercury (80) the change might take place either by the intermediate production of thallium by one of the processes already suggested, and the subsequent conversion of thallium into mercury by one of these processes, or it might occur as a one-stage transformation by the ejection from the lead nucleus of either one doubly charged positive particle (presumably an a-particle) or two singly charged positive particles (presumably protons) simultaneously. The fact that Smits records stronger evidence of the production of mercury than of the production of thallium seems to argue against the formation of mercury from lead by the intermediate production of thallium in his experiments.

When atoms are bombarded by high speed electrons, it is possible that occasionally an electron penetrates within the K sheil of extranuclear electrons. If such a penetration does occur the electron will be attracted towards the nucleus and may perhaps be absorbed by it. It is possible that something of this kind occurred in the experiments of Miethe and Stammreich, and of Smits, giving rise to the detected gold and thallium respectively, though it is surprising that the penetration of the K shell of electrons could occur with the small potential differences they employed. If a nucleus were to absorb an electron in the way suggested it is possible that with some nuclei instability would result and disruption occur. This can perhaps be more readily imagined if the nuclei have satellite protons as suggested by Nagaoka in the case of mercury. In the case of an element such as lead, for which several isotopic forms occur, it is conceivable that the close approach of an electron to the nuclei of different isotopes would have different results. That the mercury detected in Smits’ experiments could have been produced from the disruption of the nucleus of one of the lead isotopes following instability resulting from the close approach of an electron to the nucleus, must however, be regarded simply as a conjecture. For a discussion of the subject see Sir E. Rutherford, Electricity and Matter in Phases of Modern Science (1925). (F. Ho.*)

TRANSPORT: sce FLYING; INLAND WATER TRANSPORT; MOTOR TRANSPORT. TRANSPORTATION:

see URBAN TRANSPORTATION.

TRANSVAAL— TREATIES TRANSVAAL

(sce 27.186), since 1910 a province of the Union

of South Africa.

Area, 110,450 square miles. Population (1921),

2,087,636, compared with 1,686,212 in r911 and 1,269,051 in 1904. The white population increased from 297,277 in 1904 to 543,485 in 1921, a retlection chiefly of the development of the gold and coal-mining industries. Half the white population was

concentrated on the Rand, where there are six large municipalities besides Johannesburg (q.v.), the largest city in South Africa. Brakpan is the centre of the Far East Rand, from which since 192t the bulk of the gold has been mined. The only other big town is the capital, Pretoria (.2.). Apart from gold-mining, which maintains its position as the chief industry, there has been a notable increase in the production of coal. Copper has been produced in considerable quantities since 1914, and in 1923 a valuable discovery of platinum was made in the northern Transvaal, though up to 1926 the mines had not reached the producing stage. The Transvaal also maintained its position as a stock-raising country. The cultivation of maize and tobacco largely increased, and (since 1917) cotton has been extensively planted, while manufacturing industries have been developed on the Rand. | As in the other provinces, the bulk af provincial expenditure was on education, the prov incial council being noted for its many educational experiments. On the language question from 1912 onward instruction in the lower standards was in ‘‘ the home language of the child.” Primary education is compulsory, and both primary and secondary education is free. Expenditure on education, which in 1915-20 averaged £1,203,000, was £2,508,000 in 1922-3. Expenditure on general administration for the same periods was £69,000 and £106,000. The subsidies from the Union Govt., which averaged £841,000 In ro91s5—20, were {1,456,000 in 1922-3. An item of revenue peculiar to the Transvaal is a native pass tax-—24s. a year—in labour districts, paid by the employer, elsewhere payable by the native. This tax yields from £330,000 to £350,000 per annum. The provincial system of administration is as in the other provinces (see CAPE PROVINCE). The Transvaal presents in its social life many extremes, the conservatism of the back-veld Boer contrasting strongly with the progressive and democratic spirit of the dwellers on the Rand. Both these elements have their counterparts in other provinces, but party feeling was more strongly expressed in the Transvaal than elsewhere, and this led to the introduction of politics into

the provincial council. The white workmen on the Rand form the main strength of the Labour party in the Union. A considerable number of Boers in the western Transvaal took part in the rebellion of 1914, but the influence of Generals Botha and Smuts kept many burghers loyal to the British connection. The disturbances on the Rand in 1913-4 and the revolt of 1922 were not on racial lines, though the majority of the white miners were Dutch-speaking. But feelings were strongly marked in the provincial council, as was shown by agitations against officials because of their nationality or their politics. Thus, after the general election in June 1924, when the Nationalist and Labour parties gained the victory, there was an agitation to remove the administrator, Mr. J. H. Hofmeyr, because he belonged to the South African party, an agitation which Gencral Hertzog, the Prime Minister, refused to heed. Mr. Hofmeyr’s predecessors as administrators had been Mr. Johann F. B. Rissik (1910-7) and Mr. A. G. Robertson (1917-24). (See SOUTH AFRICA). (F. R.C.) TRANSYLVANIA (see 27.210), a province of Rumania, transferred to that country from Hungary by the treaty of Trianon (1920). Its area is 22,312 sq. m.; and the population (Hungarian census of 1910) 2,678,367. The Hungarian census gave 1,472,031 persons of Rumanian, 918,217 of Magyar and 234,085 of German tongue; these figures certainly over-estimate the Magyar population at the expense of the other nations. The Germans are settled

in compact and largely urban settlements, mostly in the south; the Magyars in one compact settlement in the east (Székley) and on the western fringe; most of the landowners and officials were Magyar or Magyarised. The Rumanians form the majority of the rural population. For administrative purposes, Transylvania is divided into 22

823

districts, each placed under a prefect appointed by the Government in Bucharest. Transylvania and the Banat send 120 deputics and 60 senators to the Parliament at Bucharest. Of these 18 represented the national minorities (1925). In Oct. 1918 the Rumanians of Transylvania formed a national committee at Oradea-Mare which, invoking the right of selfdetermination, claimed separation from the Austro-Hungarian Empire and separate representation at the Peace Conference. In Nov. this committee formally demanded from the Hungarian Goyt. the surrender of executive powers in the countries inhabited by Rumanians and eventually assumed administrative control throughout Transylvania and the Banat. Cn Dec. rt 1918 a national congress, meeting at Alba Latia, proclaimed the union of Transylvania and the Banat with Rumania. The Treaty of Trianon (June 4 1920) ratified this arrangement. The German settlements had voted for the union Jan. 21 1919, but the Magyars only accepted it under protest in 1921. The chief measures since introduced by Rumania consist of universal suffrage and land reform. The large estates were parcelled out, the previous owners retaining a maximim of 300 aC.; Over 100,000 peasant families (2,700 of which were Hungarians) received arable land through this measure. Education, which had been greatly neglected under Hungarian rule, made rapidstrides. In 1917 there were five secondary and 2,296 primary Rumanian schools; in 1925 there were nearly 100 and 6,157 respectively; there were 2,231 elementary schools for the minorities (1,669 Hungarian, 403 German) and 148 secondary schools (119 Hungarian, 29 German). (G. Bo.) TRAWLING: see FISHERIES. TREATIES (see 27.229).—The question a the sanctity or renewal of treaties is always a very serious one at the close of a war. But before the World War many great authorities held the opinion, which was expressed by some (e.g., Professor Oppenheim) actually during the War, that the apparent ‘“‘ breaking-up of laws,” which takes place in war is usually succeeded by a stronger emphasis upon them when peace is attained. The sanctity of treaties is a dogma open to several interpretations.

For

instance,

many

international

jurists,

including

Bethmann-Hollweg, hold that Germany committed a breach of international law in invading Belgium in defiance of the treaty of 1839. Others, among whom is Sir Ernest Satow, an authority on both the theory and practice of diplomacy, would maintain that Germany by violating Belgium merely gave any other guaranteeing state the right to attack her. In other words, Germany risked her existence but did not specifically break international law. ‘The difference between these two views is that the first relies upon custom, etc., to establish the sanctity of treaties, and the latter upon force. The difficulty of the first view lies in the fact that custom may change. For instance, it was thought to have been established in 1871 that no great Power which had joined with other great Powers in signing a treaty could violate the provisions of that treaty without the consent of the other signatories, z7.c., without a European conference. But in 1908 Austria-Hungary violated Article 25 of the Treaty of Berlin (1878) by annexing Bosnia and Hercegovina, and refused the demand for a conference. There can be little doubt that this principle had been abandoned before 1914. The peacemakers of 1919 therefore tried to set up a state of things whereby the sanctity of treaties would be upheld by the general co-operation of all states. President Wilson condensed this aspiration into a single sentence: “ What we seek is the rule of

law sustained by the organised opinion of mankind.” League and Regional Guarantees —Some treaties which had proved impotent to guard certain countries, as, e.g., those neutralising Belgium and Luxembourg, were abrogated altogether (cf. Articles 31, 40-1 of the German, Article 83-4 of the Austrian and Articles 67-8 of the Hungarian Treaties). The League of Nations Covenant, however, attempted to give a general guarantee to all the members of the League in respect of their territorial integrity and independence. This general guarantee, embodied in Article 10 of the Covenant (q.v.), has, on the whole, been rather watered down in its interpretation. It

824

TREE—TRENCHARD

has, in fact, been succeeded by a system of special or regional

states other than the Allies after certain limited periods had

guarantees. Thus in the Treaty of Locarno (signed Dec. 1 1925), the demilitarisation of the Rhineland, enacted by the Treaty of Versailles, Articles 42-44, was guaranteed by France, Great Britain, Germany and Italy. This guarantee becomes effective on the admission of Germany to the League of Nations In case of need Great Britain guarantees France against the unprovoked attack of Germany, and vice versa. Similar regional guarantees are given by France to Poland and to Czechoslovakia. The “ Little Entente Treaties’ (of which the first was signed Aug. 4 1920) constitute a system of regional and special guarantees between Czechoslovakia, the Serb-Croat-Slovene kingdom and Rumania to preserve the territorial limits laid down in the treaties of St. Germain, Trianon and Neuilly (see LITTLE ENTENTE). Similarly it was recognised in Article 26 of the Covenant

passed, e.g., Article 268, of German Treaty. Nor did Germany fail to avail herself of her power. After having been compelled to abrogate the treaties of Brest-Litovsk with Soviet Russia, she negotiated the Treaty of Rapallo with them on April 16 1922. This step evoked much protest from the Allies, and it was con-

that the Monroe Doctrine was “a regional understanding,” which meant a practical admission by the principal Powers that the United States guaranteed other states on both American continents against the aggression of non-American neighbours. There can be no doubt that many smaller states now enjoy

greater advantages under the Covenant and special and local guarantees than did the neutralised states of the roth century. The Covenant was successfully invoked by Great Britain on

behalf of Albania against the Serb-Croat-Slovene kingdom in 1921, and by Greece against Italy in the matter of Corfu in 1923.

Also the inclusion of Germany in the League will in itself mean a strengthening of League guarantees. Compulsory Arbitration.—It is a singular and interesting fact that many smaller Powers (e.g., the Scandinavian kingdoms, the Netherlands and China) have signed the compulsory jurisdiction clause in the protocol establishing the Permanent Court of International Justice. If both litigating Powers have signed the compulsory clause a peaceful settlement can be imposed by the court. There can be no doubt that such smaller Powers as cannot depend on the guaranteed protection of larger ones feel that they are safest in this way. And it is an interesting fact that Denmark is the first state in Europe since the War to propose the reduction of her armed forces to the level of mere police, and to trust to the justice and opinion of the world for support in time of need. If it continues, the Permanent Court will in time create a standard of international justice which it can impose upon all those who have signed the compulsory clause. Were it possible, or certain, that the principal Powers would also sign the compulsory clause the peace of the world could be reasonably assured. Abrogation or Renewal of Treaties after War.—Highly technical points are raised by this question which, though less generally interesting than those already mentioned, are none the less of some importance for the future of diplomacy. Treaties are of two kinds, bilateral between two states, multilateral between several states. All treaties between the contending parties cease on the outbreak of war. It is clear that in the case of bilateral treaties when State A can force State B to sign a treaty of peace after the war, A can renew or refuse to renew with B all the pre-war

treaties that she chooses. Germany did not question this right in bilateral treaties. In the case of multilateral treaties the Allies claimed the right to refuse permission to Germany and to the enemy Powers to keep in force treaties with states not actually then engaged in the War, as, e.g., Soviet Russia, or with neutrals who had not been in the War at all though they had severed diplomatic relations with Germany, as, e.g., Peru and Ecuador. In reply to the German protests, the Allies maintained and inserted in the German and other treaties their right to “ reapply ” all “ multilateral treaties which seemed to them to be com-

patible with the new conditions arising out of the War,” and “ to indicate which of these treaties with Germany they intend to revive or allow to be revived.” The Allies particularly insisted on making Germany grant for limited periods to the Allies themselves or to some of them certain terms already granted to her friends or neutrals. But they did not dernand that Germany should be prevented from negotiating new instruments with

tended that Germany had not the right to do it. The use of power by the victor to enforceon his defeated antagonist the abrogation of treaties with neutrals is not in itself desirable; but it does not appear, on the whole, that such power, even if abused at the moment of victory, is likely to be abused for very long. The special grievances or difficulties thus created by any such abuses in 1919 will be well compensated for if the settlement of Europe has in fact brought a greater sense of security and permanence, whether through the agency of the League, of regional guarantee or of the Court of International

Justice.

(See also COMMERCIAL TREATIES.)

BIBLIOGRAPHY.——L. Oppenheim, International Law, 3rd ed., 2 vol. (1920); Sir E. M. Satow, Diplomatic Practice, 2nd ed., 2 vol.

(1922).

Each of the Peace treaties of 1919 contains a section headed “ Treaties.” The passages on Treaties in the German Observations on the draft Treaty and the Alied Reply are quoted in H. W. V. Temperley, ed. History of the Peace Conference of Paris, 6 vol. (Institute of International Affairs, 1920), 322-6, and these are authoritative expositions of the rival points of view,

H. W. V. T.) TREE, SIR HERBERT BEERBOHM (1853-1017), British actor and manager (see 27.234), died in London July 2 1917. He

published a volume of Thoughts and Afterthoughts (1913) and other occasional papers. See Max Beerbohm, Herbert Beerbohm Tree: Some Memories of Him (1920).

TRENCH, FREDERICK HERBERT (1865-1923), British poet and playwright, was born at Avoncore, Co. Cork, Nov. 12 1865.

Educated at Haileybury and Keble College, Oxford, he was elected a fellow of All Souls’ College, and from 1891-1908 was an examiner in the Board of Education. This appointment he gave up in 1908 in order to devote himself to literary work. In 1908 he became director of the Haymarket Theatre, London, where he staged King Lear and Maeterlinck’s Blue Bird. His first volume of poems, Deirdre Wedded, appeared in 1901. It was followed by further poems, notably “Apollo and the Seaman,” included in New Poems (1907), and Lyrics and Narrative Poems (191r). Among his later publications were an Ode from Italy in. Time of War (1915); Poems: with Fables in Prose (1918); anda poetic play Napoleon (1919), which was produced in London by

the Stage Society in 1919. He died on June 11 1923. His collected works, edited by H. Williams, were published in 1924, and a volume of selected poems in the same year. See Abel Chevalley, Herbert Trench: Notice sur sa Vie et ses Oeuvres (Paris, 1925). TRENCHARD, SIR HUGH MONTAGUE (1873), British air marshal, was born Feb. 3 1873. Commissioned in the Royal Scots Fusiliers in 1893, he served in the South African War with the Imperial Yeomanry and the Canadian Scouts. From 1903 to 1910 he served in West Africa. In ror2 he qualified as an

air pilot and became an instructor at the Central Flying School at Upavon, where he was appointed assistant commandant the following year. On the outbreak of the World War Trenchard assumed charge at Farnborough, but before the end of 1914 was summoned to France, and became head of the military wing of the Royal Flying Corps.

His strong personality, foresight and

power of command made his name a household word in France, and with the expansion of the air service he rose from major to major-general in little over a year. After the formation of the Royal Air Force he became, in March 1918, chief of the air staff. This position he resigned a month later, owing to disagreement with the first Air Minister, Lord Rothermcre. But a few weeks later he received command of the newly formed Independent Air Force, whose mission was to raid Germany, a post that gave scope to his gift for inspiring men and to his development of the strategical réle of aircraft. In the same year he was created K.C.B.; and in 1919 was again appointed chief of the air staff and received a baronetcy. In 1922 he was promoted air chief marshal.

`

TRENT—TRIANON, TREATY OF TRENT, England (see 27.250).—A scheme of improvement of navigation between Nottingham and Newark has been proceeding on the river Trent for some years, and aims at encouraging industrial development. The river is to be regulated by locks so that barges of 120 tons will be able to come up to Nottingham. Locks, roo ft. long and 30 ft. wide, were in course of construction in 1925 at Stoke Bardulph, Hazleford and Gunthorpe, and the last was completed in September. TRENTINO: see TIROL. TRENTON, N.J., U.S.A. (see 27.251), grew to a population of 119,289 in 1920, of whom 30,168 were foreign born; and to 132,020 in 1925 (census bureau estimate). Its factories produced goods valued at $49,115,000 in 1909; $122,478,000 in 1919; and almost as much ($116,622,782) in 1923, after some decrease in the period of depression. It maintained its leadership in the production of pottery, wire and wire rope, structural steel, and linoleum, and ranked second in the manufacture of automobile tires and other rubber goods. The public school system contained 31 schools by 1925, with 698 teachers and an enrolment of over 20,000 pupils. The Board of Health paid particular attention to measures for promoting the health of children, both in the public and in the parochial schools. Three municipal markets were established in 1920. Docks, wharves and warehouses on the Delaware river were owned by the city. A modern sewage disposal plant was under construction in 1925. In 1911 a commission form of government was adopted.

TREVELYAN,

GEORGE MACAULAY

(1876-

), British

historian, was born Feb. 16 1876, the third son of Sir. G. O. Trevelyan (see 27.255). Educated at Harrow and Trinity College, Cambridge, he devoted himself to historical research and became an authority on certain phases of Italian history. In 1904 he married Janet, daughter of Mrs. Humphrey Ward. Trevelyan's works include Gartbaldi's Defence of the Roman Republic (1907); England in the Age of Wycliffe (1909); Garibaldi and the Thousand (1909); Garibaldi and the Muking of Italy (1911); Manin and the Venetian Revolution of 1848 (1923); The Life of John

Bright (1913, new ed. 1925); History of England (1926).

TREVES, CLAUDIO (1872), Italian politician, was born in Turin of a Jewish family. He graduated in law and at an early age became a Socialist. He first edited If Tempo of Milan, and when that paper came to an end he joined the staff of Avanti’, the official organ of the Socialist party, which he afterwards edited. But he soon resigned, owing to disagreements with the general tendencies of the paper, and subsequently limited his journalistic activities to writing articles in Turati’s La Critica sociale. He entered Parliament in 1906 as member for Milan, and was re-

elected at all subsequent elections, being returned as a Unitarian Socialist at the 1924 elections. In Socialism he represents the orthodox Marxian view. When the split over the reformist tendency occurred at the Reggio Emilia congress in 1912, Treves remained with the majority, but he also held out a hand to the secessionists (Bissolati, Bonomi, etc.). During the World War he adopted an uncompromising non-interventionist attitude. After the Fascist advent to power he ceased to play a prominent

part in politics, but he continued to edit Giustigta, the official organ of his party. TREVES, SIR FREDERICK (1853-1023), British surgeon, was born at Dorchester Feb. 15 1853, and was educated at Merchant Taylor’s School, London, and the London Hospital, where he became surgical registrar. In 1881 he was appointed as professor of pathology and in 1885 as professor of anatomy at the Royal College of Surgeons, subsequently going into private practice. He served as consulting surgeon during the South African War in ro00, and was made surgeon extraordinary to Queen Victoria in that year, and surgeon to King Edward VII. in 1901. LHe will be particularly remembered for his skill in operating on King Edward VII. when he fell suddenly ill in June 1902. He was created K.C.V.O. in tg90r and a baronet in 1902, and later serjeant surgeon to King George and surgeon in ordinary to Queen Alexandra. During the World War he assisted in the founding of the British Red Cross. His work on the intestinal

canals of man and mammals was based on hundreds of original

825

dissections, and corrected many popular misconceptions. He died at Lausanne on Dec. 7 1923. His publications include several surgical and medical books, of which Surgical Applied Anatomy (1883) is well known, and various treatises on intestinal obstruction, peritonitis and appendicitis, as well as a number of more popular books such as The Tales of a Field Hospital (1900), The Riviera of the Corniche Road (1921), The Lake of Geneva (1922), and The Elephant Man and Other Reminiscences (1923). TRIANON, TREATY OF.—The treaty of peace between the Allied and Associated Powers and Hungary was signed at the Trianon on June 4 1920. Owing to the outbreak of Béla Kun’s revolution in Hungary, the delegates of that nation were not summoned to the Peace Conference till Nov. rọrọ. Previous to that date, however, on June 13 1919 the Supreme Council had decided upon the new frontiers of Rumania and Czechoslovakia and had published them. The Hungarian Govt. received the treaty in Jan. 1920 and on June 4 it was signed at Trianon. It actually came into force on July 26 1921. General Observations.—Though the separation of Hungary from Austria and its complete independence are recognised, the details of the Hungarian Treaty otherwise are very closely akin to those of the Austrian. The most important difference is that, while the treaty of St. Germain is signed with the republic

of Austria, that of Trianon is signed with Hungary, or with “the national Government of Hungary,” a phrase permitting her to be regarded as a Government where the monarchy is temporarily in suspense. Though Charles never abdicated the kingship of Hungary and there is no provision in the treaty for his deposition or for that of any Habsburg, he was formally deposed by a law passed by the Hungarian Assembly (after his attempted Putsch Oct. 1921) at the insistence of the Allies. (Sec HABSBURG.) On her admission to the League of Nations in r922 Hungary submitted to the League a document pledging herself not to restore the Habsburgs without the consent of the Allies, and confirming the undertaking to the Conference of Ambassadors of

Nov. 10 1921. It may therefore be said that, while an international understanding has been given by Hungary, prohibiting the election of a Habsburg to the Hungarian throne, there is no in-

ternational obligation to prevent any other individual from being elected king.

Territorial Clauses. —The territorial clauses of the Hungarian Treaty reduce her to a population of 7,500,000 (1910 census), of whom 6,250,000 are Hungarians (Magyars); 500,000 are Germans, 500,000 are Jews, 230,000 are Slavs and Slovaks and 50,000 are Rumanians. Fiume was ceded to the principal Allies by article 53 and, after being erected into a free city, was eventually annexed by Italy (1924). Hungary has lost to other nations over 3,000,000 Magyars, of whom 1,500,000 go to Rumania, nearly 1,000,000 to Czechoslovakia and 500,000 to Yugoslavia. These losses have been much bewailed by the Magyars on the ground of self-determination, but their complaints are not wholly sound. Much of the Magyar population lost (as e.g., the Székler area) consists of Magyar islands tsolated amid a sea of Slavs or Rumanians. The Pécs area, with its valuable coal mines, has been returned and a line drawn in this area so as to give Hungary a defensible frontier. The chief offence against nationality is on the eastern border of Hungary, where the line is so drawn as to give to Rumania the three Magyar towns of Satul-Mare (Szatmár) Oradea-Mare (Nagyvárad) and Arad and the surrounding Magyar zone. But this concession was made primarily for economic reasons. Without the railway line connecting these three cities from north to south there would be no connection between north and south Transylvania. Had the Hungarian Govt. possessed the intervening strip, it would certainly have made difficulties as to the cheap and easy transport of food from south to north. On the whole, however, whether we consider Rumania or the Serb Croat-Slovene kingdom, we must admit that both got much territory at Hungary’s expense, though neither of them got as much as they wanted and demanded. The Hungarians, with complete indifference to the claims of nationality, have always asserted that they have a

826

TRIESTE—TRIPOLITANIA

right to the whole original kingdom of Hungary, including the Rumanians, Slovaks, Italians, Serbs, Croats and Germans,

of

which the Magyar population formed little more than half. It is entirely true to say that the Allies, in making the Treaty, showed much more respect for nationality than Hungary has ever done. | Articles 36-78 deal with the details of ceding territory to Italy, Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia, and are similar to the corresponding section in the Austrian Treaty. Tlungary is less affected by interests outside Europe than Austria, but is, none the less, compelled to cede all rights in capitulations, concessions, etc., in China, Siam, Egypt, etc. Part V.—The military, naval and air clauses are almost exactly

similar to those of the Austrian Treaty, except that Hungary 1s allowed an army of 35,000 instead of Austria’s 30,000. Part VI., Prisoners of War and Graves, and Part VIL, Penalties, are the same as in the Austrian Treaty. (See ST. GERMAIN, TREATY OF.) | Part VIII —Reparation.— This section is verbally almost identical with the Austrian section, and both are a close imitation of the German. For various reasons it was not possible to fix the exact amount of reparation. But Hungary was forced to surrender all rights to her merchant ships on “ the ton for ton, class for class basis,” and her reparations in kind were to be fixed in three months by the Reparation Commission, which was to deliver cattle to Italy, to Rumania, and to the Serb-Croat-Slovene kingdom (Annex. iv. to Part vili.). As parts of Hungary had already been amply sacked

by Rumanian soldiers in Aug. 1920, this did not leave them much livestock in hand. , , Financial and Economic Clauses.—Articles 180-199 are mainly concerned with liquidating the Austro-Hungarian National Bank,

thus separating the last link with Austria, Part X., the economic clauses, calls for no special remark, nor does Part XL, Aerial Navigation. The economic clauses are the same as the Austrian, the latter

like that of both German and Austrian Treaties. Part XIE, ports, waterways and railways, is mainly concerned with the regulation of the Danube, for which a Statute was eventually drawn up. As in the case of the Austrian Treaty (Article 311), the Hungarian in Article 294 provides for the free access of Hungary to the Adriatic, though practically nothing has been done to secure it. Part XIII., labour, is the same in all treaties and Part XIV., miscellaneous provisions, calls for no remark,

Summary.—In

the Hungarian Treaty, as in all others, the

war Criminals and reparation sections proved impossible of execution. Indeed, it is a great misfortune that these clauses of the Hungarian Treaty were modelled so closely on those of the Austrian and German. In the result, Hungary, being an agricultural country, has proved much more elastic in her recovery than Austria and her economic and financial situation are both sound. It has not proved true, as was averred by her statesmen at the time, that the loss of so much territory and population would cripple her. She retains areas of great agricultural, and some mineral, wealth. Her conduct is, however, open to suspicion. On her admission to the League in 1922 the military experts stated that her army was above the limit of 35,000 men, and there was an extraordinary forgery of French francs in 1926 in which a prince, a bishop, the Budapest chief of police and possibly higher officials, were implicated. The real cause of discontent is the refusal of the Mazyar irredentists to accept the inevitable and their incessant

pressure upon the Government. The prospect is not a good one in the political sense, but the presence on her borders of three hostile nations, each formidably armed, is probably sufficient to keep the peace for some years. That the present treaty will ever be sincerely accepted by the present governing class in Hungary no one acquainted with their mentality believes to be possible. But their energy and their resources are quite sufficient to keep the country prosperous, if they abstain from rash political projects. BisLioGRApHY.—H. W. V. Temperley, ed. History of Peace Conference, vol. 4-5, including texts of Treaty and of agreements of contributions towards Act of Liberation (1921); George Birmingham, A Wayfarer in Hungary (1925). See also: Treaty of Peace between the Allied and Associated Powers and Hungary, and Protocol

and Declaration, signed at Trianon, June 4 1920 (Treaty series No. 10,

cmd. 896 of 1920).

(H. W. V. T.)

TRIESTE, Italy (see 27.269), a centre of Italian patriotism under Austrian rule, was ceded by Austria to Italy under the

trealy of St. Germain in 1ọ18. Italian, the official language, is generally spoken. With a population of 238,655 in 1921, Trieste is the eighth city of Italy, and the chief port of the Adriatic Harbour improvements were in hand in 1925. The AustrianLloyd Steam Navigation Company, which for many years has had its headquarters at Trieste, is now the Lloyd-Triestino Company. There are dockyards and an arsenal. The inland republic of Czechoslovakia has been granted rights in the use of the port. A university was opened in 1924.

TRINIDAD:

sce WEST INDIES, BRITISH.

|

|

TRIPOLI (see 27.291).——In 1925 the population of this seaport was estimated at 60,000. Since 1912 it has been the capital of the Italian colony of Tripolitania (qy.2.) which is also commonly known as Tripoli. In a looser sense Tripoli includes, in addition, Cyrenaica (q.%.). Considerable improvements have been made in the city and harbour by the Italians. The minimum depth of water at the entrance to the port is 24 ft.; at the pier quays 20 to 24 feet. In April 1926 Signor Mussolini visited the town, this being the first occasion upon which a Prime Minister of Italy had set foot in an Italian colony. See A. Fantoli, Piccola Guida della Tripolitania (Tripoli, 1925). | TRIPOLITANIA, an Italian colony in North Africa (see 27,288), has an area approximately of 300,000 sq. m., mostly desert. The natives numbered, according to a 1925 estimate, between 600,000 and 700,000. European population (1921) 20,716, of whom 18,093 were Italian. The chief towns, all on the coast, are Tripoli (q¢.2.), the capital; Misurata, 14,000 inhabitants;

and Homs (see Khoms) 4,000. History.—Yhe vilayet of Tripoli (Tripolitania), together with that of Benghazi (Cyrenaica), passed from Ottoman to Italian rule as a result of the Italo-Turkish war of 1911-2. The Italians at the end of 1912 held only the coast region, and they met with considerable opposition from the natives (Berbers and Arabs) in their occupation of the interior. Their most redoubtable opponent was the Berber chieftain Suleiman el Baruni, who set up an independent kingdom in the Nefusa hills, but was beaten by the end of 1913 and fled to Europe. By Aug. 1914 every place of importance in the vilayet was in Italian hands. Meanwhile in the coast districts the Italians had begun with great energy a big

programme

of public works,

while towards

the Arabs

and

Berbers they adopted a policy of confidence and trust. Unfortunately, in the adjoining vilayet of Cyrenaica the War

continued, the Turks having incited the Senussites to continue the struggle (see Senusst). In Sept. 1914 the Fezzani, many of whom adhered to the Senussi sect, rose in revolt. Turkish, German and Senussi propaganda was very active throughout Tripolitania, and the declaration of war by Italy upon Austria

(May 28 1915) was the signal for a general rising. There had

already been serious fighting with the rebels, and in one engagement the Libyan auxiliaries of the Italians had gone over to the enemy on the field of battle. In view of the situation in Europe the Italians now abandoned the whole country with the exception of the scaports of Tripoli and Hloms (Khoms). Another seaport, Zuwara, was reoccupied in Aug. 1916. Meanwhile a brother of the Senussi chief ruled in Fezzan; Suleiman el Baruni reappeared (Sept. 1916) with a firman from the Sultan of Turkey appointing him Governor-General of the vilayets of Tripoli, Tunis and Algiers; Ramadhan el Shtewi, another powerful chieftain, established a so-called Republic of Tripoli and ruled at Misurata, which place became a German submarine base. All through 1917 el Barun’ harassed the Italians, but failed to fulfil his boast to drive them into the sea. There was in fact little cohesion and much jealousy among the opponents of the Italians. The Turks sent Prince Osman Fuad to Misurata in April 1918 with instructions to compose the quarrels among the tribes, a task in which he did not succeed.

Moreover,

the Senussi were now divided, one section, which in the end gained the mastery, having as early as April 1917 come to terms with the Italians—a fact of more importance, however, to Cyrenaica than Tripolitania. Such was the state of chaos in the country at the end of the World War, and the Italians were then in no mood to undertake

TROELSTRA—TROPICAL the reconquest of Tripolitania by force. A plan was formed to govern through native chiefs, to whom were to be attached political officers. Negotiations entered into with El Baruni, El Shtewi and other chiefs led to their acknowledgment of Italian rule, and a royal decree of June 1919 gave the country ‘‘ complete local citizenship ”’ with an elective assembly styled a parliament. The chiefs cared little for such an assembly. They were more concerned in consolidating their own authority and did not scruple to flout that of Italy. There was little real improvement in the situation until Signor Giuseppe Volpi became governor in Aug. 1921. Under his direction a campaign, which began in Jan. 1922 with the reoccupation of Misurata, was conducted to a successful issue by the end of 1923. Thereafter, by wise and conciliatory measures and by a bold policy of economic reconstruction, Signor Volpi restored order and a degree of prosperity to the greater part of the country, though Fezzan was still troubled by rival factions. In the latter part of his governorship Signor Volpi had the full support of the Fascist Goverment. For his services he was created Count Volpi of Misurata, and on resigning his post in July 1925 he became Minister of Finance in the Italian Cabinet. His successor as governor was General de Bono. Economic Conditions —Owing to the disturbed state of the country little progress had been made up to 1926 in economic development, which depends for marked progress largely on the construction of costly irrigation works. The Italians, however, planted very large numbers of olive, orange, vine and other trees, and began the afforestation of the dunes. Since 1918 Italian immigrants have taken up a number of land concessions and have made fair progress. The Government has built a railway along the coast westward from Tripoli to Zuwara (75 m.) and begun a line eastward to Homs. Another railway (31 m.) runs inland from Tripoli to El ‘Aziziva. The chief exports are tunny fish and sponges, henna, esparto grass, wool, dates and salt; the chief imports, foodstuffs and textiles. Trade is mainly with Italy, Malta, Egypt, Greece and Great Britain, and revenue is largely derived from import duties, which give preference to Italian products. According to a British consular report, the value of imports, in 1922 was, in sterling £985,000, while that of exports was only £145,000. The colony has been a considerable burden to the Italian Treasury, largely through military expenditure. The military establishment in 1924-5 was some 17,000 men, of whom 4,800 were Italians. In that year military expenditure was 112,300,000 lire, compared with

34,470,000 lire spent on civil administration. BrsLioGRAPHY.—A

Handbook

of Libya, British Admiralty pub-

lication (1920); C. Fidel, Une mission en Tripolitaine (1921); P. Gherardi, ‘‘La Reconquéte de la Tripolitaine,” Renseignements Coloniaux et Documents, No. 7, Supplement to L'Afrique française (July, 1925); see also Bolletino di informazioni, Italian Ministry for the Colonies (Rome) and L’Agricoltura Coloniale aR C)

TROELSTRA, PIETER JELLES (1860), Dutch politician, was born at Leeuwarden and educated for the legal profession at the University of Groningen, but early abandoned it for politics and journalism. He adopted socialist opinions, but becoming dissatisfied with the leadership of Mr. Domela Nieuwenhuis, under whom Dutch Socialism had assumed an extremist complexion bordering on anarchism, he founded the Social Democratic Labour party in 1894. The new party prospered in the country and in the States-General, and for many years Dr. Troelstra was the acknowledged leader of the Socialist movement in the Netherlands. At the elections of 1918, as a result of the introduction of universal suffrage, the Social Democrats made important gains, and under the influence of the German revolution Dr. Troelstra in a remarkable speech in the Chamber called upon the Government to resign with a view to the formation of a Socialist state. His party, however, refused to support him and the attempted coup d'état failed (see NETHERLANDS). Thenceforward Dr. Troelstra’s influence steadily declined. In 1925, owing to failing health, he retired from political life.

MEDICINE

827

TROELTSCH, ERNST (1865-1923), German philosopher and theologian was born at Augsburg on Feb. 17 1865 and studied at Erlangen, Göttingen and Berlin. He began his teaching career at Göttingen, and thereafter became professor first at Bonn, and thenat Heidelberg and Berlin (1915). In 1919 he became a member of the Prussian National Assembly and parliamentary secretary of state in the Prussian Ministry of Worship and Instruction. For some time in 1tg21 he was a member of the Imperial

Government.

He died in Berlin on Feb. 1 1923.

Troeltsch was a contributor to the Theologisches Rundschau, the Zeitschrift für Theologie und Kirche, the Theologische Jahresberichte, the Preussische Jahrbücher, ete. Among his many works may be mentioned Die Bedeutung des Protestantismus fiir die Entstehung der modernen Kultur (1906, 1924); Trennung von Staat und Kirche, Sostallehren der chrisilichen Kirchen und Gruppen (1919); Naturrecht und Humanität in der Weltpolitik (1923).

TRONDHJEM, Norway (see 27.305), has grown considerably, and had a population of 55,030 in 1920. A garden suburb has been laid out at Lillegaarden, and costly harbour works have been undertakeh. Since 1921 Trondhjem has been connected with Oslo by the Dovre railway. TROPICAL MEDICINE.—As medicine advances from the status of an art to that of a science, so do the bounds which demarcate tropical medicine become more faint. Few major diseases are restricted to the lower latitudes, and tropical medicine, as here considered, embraces all those maladies which, for some reason, prevail especially in the tropics, though not necessarily limited thereto. Some diseases lightly regarded to-day as essentially tropical are merely commensurate with a primitive stage of civilisation, and consequent unhygienic conditions. Bubonic plague smouldered in England for centuries, every few years flaring up to epidemic degree, and ceased as an endemic infection only about 1679. Cholera was common enough in John Wesley’s day to demand a paragraph in his little volume on household remedies. The Londoner of Charles II.’s time could enjoy a jest in Hudibras unintelligible to anyone not familiar with the stages of a malaria paroxysm. These Captains of the Men of Death, in Bunyan’s phrase, no longer menace Britain, but, with many others, they still confront the increasing multitude who follow their avocations beyond the seas. The present stimulus to the special study of tropical medicine comes from the spread of commerce and empire, from causes far back in history and from the ever-growing complexity of modern economic conditions. SPECIAL

PROBLEMS

OF TROPICAL

MEDICINE

Liability to contract disease in the tropics is not due in the main to inherent change in the individual, but to circumstances generally favouring a luxuriance of animal life. The causative organisms of some diseases, e.g., malaria and yellow fever, depend for their propagation on insects most numerous and active in tropical conditions; warmth and humidity are essential for the development of hookworm larvae in the soil; and in such surroundings bacterial life in general flourishes most abundantly. Though exceptions to these rules spring tothe mind—typhus fever, a louse-borne disease, reaches its maximum range under cold weather conditions, and the factors governing the transmission of common colds and coughs determine the spread of pneumonic plague. The newcomer to the tropics is faced by all these potential dangers, with risks of infection usually intensified an hundredfold by native standards of sanitation. Preventive medicine has done him one great disservice. Born in pre-hygiene times, he would almost certainly have acquired a natural immunity to a variety of diseases which nowadays in his own country he escapes, but to which the native, surviving childhood, is relatively immune. This resistance to disease, previously believed a racial characteristic, is now generally considered a personal immunity gained by the individual during early life. As regards this aspect of malaria in natives, Christopherson has shown that in hyper-endemic areas children pass through a period of acute infestation lasting for about two years. During this time manifestations of the disease are practically continuous. A stage

TROPICAL

828

of immune infestation is then reached which lasts through childhood into adult life. Whatever the nature of the immunity it is sufficient to enable adults, under conditions that lead to intense infection in the child, to live infected but without suffering appreciably from sickness due to malaria. The Briton, beyond most others, does not lightly resign his national prejudices and customs, and for years a red tunic and a tight leathern stock were thought suitable wear for the plains of India. So to-day the sojourner in the tropics may complicate the problems of tropical medicine, already sufficiently involved, by an unwillingness to adapt his regimen and habits to new surroundings. Therefore, physiological changes, including alterations in the functioning of the endocrine glands, may result, with a consequent train of morbid symptoms. Native customs and modes of life evolved by the empiricism of years, may repay study. A temporary adoption of the Indian fashion of wearing the shirt outside the trousers has in practise averted the threatened onset of heat stroke. The early inhabitants of Northern Africa cooled their houses by structural devices which modern architects might copy and adapt to the needs of European residents in hot climates. Even the adobe houses of the Mexican natives are designed on sounder principles than the corrugated iron furnaces occupied by white settlers in parts of the tropic zone. Wise in their generation, the Conquistadors did not disdain to Jearn from the aborigines of the New World, and we are the richer in possessing cincona and ipecacuanha as the result. METHODS

OF TROPICAL

MEDICINE

Accurate diagnosis is essential to the correct treatment of any disease; this is no new knowledge—‘“‘ as sayeth the prince of

physic Avicenna: ‘ How shouldest thou hele a sore and not yknow the cause? ’ ” The aim of modern medicine is to prevent rather than to cure, and in like manner a close study of causation is a requisite preliminary to wise and successful prevention. Therefore a basic knowledge of bacteriology, entomology and other branches of medical parasitology is a necessary part of the training prescribed for students of tropical medicine. Not every species of Anopheles can be infected with malaria, nor are the breeding habits of all the malaria-carrying anophelines the same. A system of drainage which eradicates malaria in one locality may have no effect in another, and actually may intensify the disease in a third. Slight changes in the chemical reactions of water may prevent mosquito breeding, a discovery likely to have far-reaching results in malaria prevention. And thus the importance of these ancillary sciences to tropical medicine becomes more obvious every day.

Further, statistical data, when investigated and scrutinised by exact methods and correlated with clinical observations, may yield valuable information regarding the nature and origin of disease. If a malady is found to be periodic, the climatic and physical changes associated with the rise and fall of the infection may indicate the causal agents, and when their identity is established effective measures may be taken against them. Rogers’ researches show that cholera begins to spread only when the degree of atmospheric humidity has reached a certain figure; in consequence, the possible commencement of an epidemic can be foreseen and appropriate prophylactic measures undertaken in advance. Already tropical research has achieved great triumphs, and when the true economy of preventive medicine is realised more fully in tropical administration, the return in the form of mcreased efficiency will multiply accordingly. RESULTS

Before the last decade of the roth century, the agent responsible for the spread of malaria (q¢.v.) was unknown. No eye had seen the bacillus of plague; and fleas were thought merely unpleasant creatures, rather less scandalous than lice. Yellow fever mosquitoes besported themselves unheeded, except in so far as they might disturb an afternoon’s siesta. But when Patrick Manson argued that some biting insect serves as intervenient host for the nematode parasite of man, Filaria bancroftt, and turned his theory into proven fact, he stood like Cortez on a peak

MEDICINE in Darien, viewing a new world. Following on Manson’s example and advice, and faced by difficulties which would have disheartened most, Ross carried out his laborious researches and finally Anopheles was incriminated as the vector of malaria. In the old yellow fever (q.v.) days, a king’s ship, the ‘* Tiger ” cruised off Barbados, and out of a complement of 220, buried 600 men dead of yellow fever within two years; the commander, as he reported, “ still pressing men out of the merchant ships that came in, to recruit his number in the room of those that died daily.” The heroic work of Reed and his collaborators proved that this infection is transmitted through the bite of a mosquito, Aédes argenteus (Stegomyia fasciata), and Noguchi’s discovery of the causative micro-organism has confirmed their work. Fortunately the peculiar breeding habits of the insect vector render it relatively easy to control, and in the West Indies to-day yellow fever is little more dreaded than in England.

Ankylostomiasis (hookworm) (g.v.), which reduced the vitality and lowered the efficiency of millions of people, has been laboriously investigated. Firm, constant, but inexpensive measures of sanitation prevent infection, and recent close study of the freeliving stages of the worm points to still more effective methods of control. Schistosomiasis yields to the antimony treatment elaborated by Christopherson, and the labours of Miyairi and Suzuki and Leiper, showed that the parasites develop in water snails vulnerable to attack. Prior to the recognition of the curative prope ties of intravenous antimony, kala azar (q.v.), which decimates rich populous tracts of Bengal and Assam, killed over 90% of those attacked.

The disease is in process of investigation by a special commission,

and the mode of transmission, so far baffling identification, is likely to be revealed. If the active agent proves to be a species of “ sand-fly,” as has been surmised, the success of the hygienic methods adopted in practice will be explained. The progress of physiological knowledge in the special branch of endocrinology has secured success in the treatment of cases of sprue (q.v.), where the restoration of the calcium content of the blood has been effected by the administration of parathyroid extract.

Cholera and plague may be stayed by prophylactic vaccines, and the results of anti-typhoid inoculation were one of the medical triumphs of the World War. The incidence of tropical liver abscess has been enormously reduced by the use of emetine, and the special “ liver-abscess-days ’’—~earmarked for surgical operations—once a feature of some tropical hospitals, are now a thing of the past. Synthetic chemistry adds to the resources of the scientific physician of tropical diseases; “‘ Bayer 205 ” ‘and tryparsamide in the treatment of African sleeping sickness have given hopeful results, while new antimony compounds are replacing tartar emetic for intravenous medication, seemingly with all its advantages and none of its drawbacks. Thus the diseases which take so heavy a toll of human life are one by one yielding to science and coming under control, and the outlook to-day is brighter than even the most optimistic would have dared to prophesy some thirty years ago. In honouring the men who thus have extended the science of medicine, we should not forget those of old time who caught glimpses of truth, often through a glass darkly, but at times with a clearer vision. Of such was Donald Monro; nearly two hundred years ago he expounded methods of preventive medicine superior, in part, even to the practice followed in our own time. In these affairs, as in others, we are too apt to forget that there were heroes who lived before Agamemnon. PROBLEMS

OF THE

FUTURE

Even should science succeed in finding a cure for every tropical disease, still other problems await solution. Can the individual be protected and enabled to work as efficiently as in a temperate zone? Can impairment of his vitality and nervous energy be prevented and normal health and longevity secured? Whether or not the tropics can be mace a safe home for white settlers depends largely on the extent to which local administration will initiate and maintain effective and scientific systems of sanitation, and will educate the indigenous population into ways of cleanliness

TROTSKY and order. Panama sanitary methods, dependent on abundant capital and a soldierly precision of enforcement, are possible only in limited and specially favoured areas. The public health official who finds himself hampered on every hand by apathy, or worse, may dream enviously of some such despotic and off-with-

his-head régime, alas, seldom realised in these days of government by enumeration of heads without regard to the cerebral content. And in certain tropical localities it is notorious that the practice of sanitary law bears little relationship to the excellence of the principles embodied in the statute-book. When all these difficulties have been faced and overcome, and the life of white settlers modified in matters of housing, diet, work and play to meet their altered physical environment, there remains the great question: Can a white race settle permanently in a tropical country and after several generations still retain its original stamina and mental vigour? In spite of thousands of years of colonisation this question still awaits a final answer. Heretofore the results of disease—chronic malaria and ankylostomiasis stunting body and mind—moral decay, consequent on association with lower or even debased native modes of life, have been confused inextricably with the effects of climate. Who can assess the share of the climatic factor, per se, in the production of the “ poor white ’’? An adverse environment alone

can weaken mental and moral fibre in an astonishingly short space. Children reared in a Glasgow slum may appear a race far apart from their cousins-german, hardy fisher lads in the Outer

Hebrides. Yet here there is no climatic difference to account for the observable deterioration. The unfavourable factor in tropical climates has been variously identified as the heat, or light, rays of the sun, the depressing monotony of an equable temperature, or a high relative humidity; the last admittedly trying, and affecting both comfort and efhciency. Even so, the individual can be trained to withstand a degree of temperature intolerable before acclimatisation, but whether continued exposure to such temperatures results in some subtle change in the nervous system, with loss of vigour and driving power, is a matter of dispute. Whatever the responsible agency, certainly some diminution in vitality commonly occurs, as is evidenced by the accepted practice of granting home leave to government servants and to staffs of business concerns, and this from no motives of philanthropy but because it pays. The history of the Dutch settlement abandoned and forgotten in the East Indian island of Kisser is often cited as evidence of successful tropical acclimatisation of Europeans, and the descendants of the settlers have been described as retaining their North Europe characteristics after 250 years of tropical life. Unfortunately for this contention, Elkington’s researches show that the ordinarily accepted account of the colony is far from accurate. The Dutch colonists have inhabited Kisser only since the end of the 18th century, at the longest; moreover, four of the original nine settlers married women of coloured blood. When the island was rediscovered, the colonists were found to have retrogressed, and had lost both the Christian religion and the Dutch language. Elkington concludes that their lowered mental and physical state can be explained by the environmental conditions and acquired disease; that the measures adopted by the Dutch Govt. during recent years have resulted in definite improvement and regeneration, and that a European standard of mentality persists in substantial degree. None the less, the admixture with native blood vitiates what otherwise might rank asa conclusive experiment, at any rate so far as concerns climates resembling that of Kisser. Rack

PROBLEMS

When two races live in association there is a natural tendency either for the weaker to disappear, or for both to amalgamate. Such a fusion has taken place over large areas of South America, and in parts of the West Indies. But the modern Nordic man views with repugnance any mass admixture with indigenous stocks, however suitable the resulting hybrid race might prove for tropical existence. This colour prejudice, though seemingly of relatively recent origin, is deeply grounded, and in any colonisation scheme affecting North Europeans the persistence

829

of racial integrity is a fundamental principle (see ANTHROPOLOGY,. APPLIED; COLOUR AND RACE PROBLEMS). For reasons which need not be discussed here, the prestige of the white man has received a serious set-back of late Years, and in consequence he may be excluded in increasing measure from certain tropical countries and forced to find an outlet elsewhere for his energies. In Professor J. W. Gregory’s words!:— “ We have seen therefore that in North America the presence of the negro has introduced problems of inscrutable perplexity; that in South America a mixed race is in firm possession; that in Africa as a whole the white man has no chance as a colonist; and that in South Africa his future depends on some complex measure of segregation. In Asia only, in the north and northwest, has the white man any prospect of permanent dominion. In contrast to those restrictions, in Australia the fundamental problem is the possibility of the occupation of the whole continent by the European race.”

The settlement of tropical Australia by whites, with the deliberate exclusion of other races, amounts to trade-unionism on a national scale, and raises questions of far-reaching political and economic import. It is not even known if such settlement and acclimatisation of white stocks is possible. We are assured in the most pragmatical manner that there is no physiologica] objection to the projected colonisation of tropical Australia by whites. The case, either way, is unproven, and a final pronouncement can be made only when five or six generations have been born, reared and married in tropical surroundings. Will the race then retain the qualities of temperament and nervous force inherent in white folk bred in the temperate zones? Can these peculiar characteristics persist In any race of Nordic blood who never see the snow fall? Prophecy is dangerous, and these questions cannot be answered here, nor within our lifetime. (W. P. Maca.) TROTSKY, LEV DAVIDOVICH (1877}, Russian politician, whose real name was Bronstein, was born near Elizavetgrad, the son of middle-class Jews. He received an excellent education at the Peter and Paul Real Schule in Odessa and at the university of that town. Leaving the university in 1897, he was arrested as a revolutionary in the following year and soon after exiled to Eastern Siberia. In Aug. 1902 he escaped and made his way to England with a forged passport in the name of Trotsky (which name he used thenceforward). In London, despite his youth, he soon became an important member of the small body of Social Democrats which included Plekhanov and Lenin. He collaborated with the latter and others in the publication of Iskra (Spark), the most famous of the Russian revolutionary newspapers. In rg905 he returned to Russia, was elected a member of the St. Petersburg Soviet of Workers’ Deputies and was chairman of the meeting at which the whole Soviet was arrested. He was exiled to Tobolsk but escaped immediately on his arrival in Siberia and went to Vienna, where he worked for the Arbeiter Zeitung and the Pravda. He also worked for some time in a chemical factory. In roro he attended the Social Democratic Congress at Copenhagen, defending a position of his own, midway between that of the Bolsheviks and that of the Mensheviks. In 1913 he was in Constantinople as a war correspondent. The following year found him in Zurich and Paris, taking part in the publication of a revolutionary paper. He wrote a book on the aims and origins of the World War which, published in German, earned him a German sentence of eight months’ imprisonment. But he opposed the War not only in Germany but in the Allied countries, and in Dec. 1916 was expelied from France. He was arrested by the Spanish authorities on crossing their frontier but was presently allowed to leave for America, where he edited the Russian revolutionary newspaper, Novy Mir (The New World). When the revolution broke out in March ror7 Trotsky’s friends and subscribers to the paper collected the money for his journey to Russia. He was, however, arrested by the British authorities and taken ashore at Halifax, where he was interned until the Russian Provisional Govt. asked for his release. IIe arrived in Petrograd soon after Lenin. He was the leader of a small party of Social Democrats and soon joined the Bolsheviks, together with his followers, although he did not actually become a member of the Bolshevik party until July 1917, when he was 1 Address to British Association, 1924.

830

TRUMBIC—TRUSTS

arrested for being concerned in the rising which took place in that month. He played a part hardly less important than that of Lenin in organising the Bolshevik revolution in Nov. ro17 and became People’s Commissar for Foreign Affairs in the new Soviet Government. Trotsky was the most important figure in the Russian delegation during the negotiation of the Brest-Litovsk peace treaty. Believing that the moral effect of the revolution had already been such that the Germans would be unable to force their troops to move against Russia, he met the oppressive German demands with the statement that Russia would not sign a treaty on such terms but that she considered the War to be at an end and would demobilise her troops. Lenin disagreed with him, considering that the risk was too great since at that time the Germans could easily have taken Petrograd. A few days of uncertainty intervened, followed by the German advance. After a series of heated debates in the Central Committee of the Bolshevik party, Trotsky announced that he now sided with Lenin and by a majority of one it was decided to sign an even more unfavourable treaty than that which he had previously refused. Trotsky was replaced by Chicherin as Commissar for Foreign Affairs and, on taking over the Commissariat of War, he entered upon the task of creating the Red Army. In spite of opposition from many of the older Communists he made great use of officers of the old army. The results obtained by so doing were used to justify the employment of ‘“ bourgeois ” technical experts in the factories. When he had made a new army that showed itself superior to those of the Whites his energies were used in preventing the complete collapse of the railways. In 1g20 he organised ‘‘ labour armies,” using for the building of bridges and the collection of fuel armies which had been freed for such peaceful activities by their victories on the various fronts of the civil war. Until the introduction of the New Economic Policy Trotsky urged industrial conscription, but wholeheartedly accepted the new policy which made such measures impossible. During the Polish war of 1920, he opposed the disastrous advance on Warsaw but was overruled by Lenin. In the autumn of 1923, during a discussion in the Communist party, he adopted a position whereby it was possible for the “ old guard ” of the Communist leaders to accuse him of canvassing for the support of the younger men. He was ill at the time but his illness did not save him from a most violent attack by Stalin, Zinoviev and others. Many of his friends were shifted from their posts and he himself was on the way to the Caucasus to take a cure, when Lenin died.

Throughout the revolution the names of Lenin and Trotsky had been coupled together and the death of the one seemed to leave the other alone in the field. This was not really so. Seniority counts for much in the Communist party and the older leaders never forgot that Trotsky, in spite of his prominence, had only joined the party in 1917. The campaign to discredit him was continued and some went so far as to urge that he should be ejected from the Central Committee and even from the party. He lost his post as Commissar of War and when he returned from the Caucasus was given work of small political significance, being made head of the committee for the development of electric power in Russia. In 1925 he resigned from this post and was made head of the Central Committee for Concessions. Trotsky stood revealed as by far the most brilliant of the revolutionary leaders, a striking orator with a gift for metaphor, an extraordinarily persuasive writer of pamphlets, an acute debater, with a power of practical organisation rare not only in the Communist party but in Russia in general. His chief recreations were writing and shooting. He wrote a number of books on the history of the revolution, on Lenin, on the civil war and on the relations between revolution and literature, besides a long serics of polemic essays on questions of the day. One of the most important being rgr7, 2 vol. (Moscow, 1924) Eng. trans. of Introduction The Lessons of October 1917 (1925). For this Encyelopedia Trotsky wrote the biography of Lenin. (A. R.) TRUMBIĆ, ANTE (1863), Yugoslav statesman, was bornat Spalato(Spljet). He became successively Mayor of Spalato, and deputy for the city in the Dalmatian Diet, and after 1907

deputy in the Austrian Parliament. In 1905 he and his fellow Dalmatians, Pero Cingrija, Smodlaka and Supilo, as delegates of the Croat National party, played a leading part in the movement for renewed co-operation between Serb and Croat, which culminated in the resolutions of Fiume and Zara in 1905, and in the parallel negotiations with the Magyar coalition parties. The programme of reform in Croatia, which was the basis of the agreement with Hungary, was soon frustrated by the intransigent attitude of the Wekerle Government. The Dalmatian Croats, and notably Trumbić and Supilo, consistently endeavoured to improve their relations with the Italians and to combat the constant efforts of Vienna to set the two.races at variance. On the eve of the World War Trumbić crossed the frontier to Venice, where he was joined by Supilo and several other Croat and Serb leaders. The first winter of the War he spent in Rome, hoping to win Italian official support. But Sonnino’s anti-Slav policy and the secret agreement concluded between Italy and the Entente at the expense of the Yugoslavs in the spring of 1915, forced him to transfer his centre of operations to France and England. The Yugoslav committee, of which Trumbić was president, was formally constituted in May 1grs in London. In the summer of 1917 he and several of his colleagues conducted lengthy negotiations with the exiled Serbian Govt. in Corfu and representatives of all the Serbian parties, and the result was the so-called “ Declaration of Corfu,” which outlined the principles on which the united Yugoslav State was to be based. Through the mediation of his British friends Trumbić met representative Italians in Dec. 1917 and March 1918, and reached an agreement which became the basis of the congress of oppressed nationalities, held in Rome in April. In the closing stage of the War the Yugoslav committee was handicapped by the narrowly Pan-Serb attitude of Pašić, and the Entente Govts. withheld their recognition of the Yugoslav programme pending a definite agreement between Pašić and Trumbić. The result was that after the collapse of AustriaHungary the Italian claims were revived in their full force. When the provisional] Yugoslav Govt. was formed at Zagreb in Oct. 1918 Trumbié was appointed Foreign Minister and peace delegate in conjunction with Pašić and Vesnić. In spite of his sane and convincing advocacy of Yugoslav claims he was unable to win the support of the Entente, which considered itself still bound to Italy by the secret Treaty of London. With the waning of President Wilson’s influence, the Yugoslavs were obliged to come to a direct agreement with Italy, and the Treaty of Rapallo was signed Nov. 1920. Trumbić’s long absence in Paris, coupled with the policy of abstention pursued by the Croat Peasant party under Radić,

placed him at a fatal disadvantage when the question of the new constitution came up in 1921. Trumbié voted in the minority and thereafter drifted steadily into stronger opposition to the new régime in Yugoslavia. His group formed part of the coalition “ bloc’? which was in power from July to Oct. 1924, and for a time he effected a working alliance with Radić and committed himself to federalism and even republicanism. The sudden volte face of Radić after the elections of 1925 left Trumbić somewhat isolated, as the leader of the newly constituted ‘ Croat Federalist Peasant party.” TRUSTS (see 27.334).—The term trust is a convenient though mostly inaccurate label popularly applied to any large business concern, or amalgamation or association of business concerns, which exercises some degree of monopolistic power over output and prices in the industry with which it is connected. The “ trust,” as it first appeared in America in the ’eightics, was a form of organisation in which the shareholders of a number of enterprises agreed to assign the whole of their stock to a group of trustees, receiving in exchange trust cert’ficates representing the valuation of their properties. Under this arrangement the trustees controlled all the businesses and could not only coordinate and regulate the operation of the plants thus brought under one direction, but could also dictate to some extent the output of the whole industry and the prices at which its products should be sold. Consolidations formed on ‘‘ trust ”’ lines still

TRUSTS exist in important industries in many countries, but they represent in Europe but a small part of the whole movement, from interbusiness competition to monopolistic combination, with which this article is concerned.

I. THE UNITED KINGDOM This transition from competition to combination, which has been a marked feature of industrial development the world over since the latter part of the roth century, has in each country accommodated itself to national characteristics and conditions. In the United Kingdom great consolidations wielding monopolistic and political power have not hitherto been so formidable as in America, nor have British associations of independent manufacturers developed the range of activities displayed by such organisations in Germany. The movement toward industrial combination in the United Kingdom has been relatively more cautious and less spectacular than elsewhere. The reasons for this would appear to be partly the deep-rooted individualism of the British manufacturer and partly the greater difficulty of establishing monopolistic consolidations in a country where many of the principal industries are widely. dispersed, where the raw materials of most of the great industries are drawn from worldwide sources and where such shelter as monopoly might obtain from protective import duties has not been available. None the less, combination has replaced or minimised competition over a great part of the industrial activity of the United Kingdom. Terminology.—lIt is usual to distinguish the various types of combination by convenient labels, but the terminology is somewhat arbitrary and the distinctions sometimes without much significance. The holding company,.the ‘‘ combine,” the vertical consolidation and the horizontal consolidation are frequently quoted types, but they are by no means mutually exclusive; and often a concern which by origin belongs to one of these categories belongs by present nature and actual operation to another. The one feature which these four have in common is that they are permanent fusions of previously independent business concerns, which, under the new régime, are under more or less completely centralised direction and control. Under the

holding company arrangement each of a number of companies sells its shares to another company established for the purpose, receiving in exchange shares in the holding company. The “ combine ” might be described as another name for the holding company, except that whereas the holding company may operate firms in various lines of business and may have been initiated by outside financial interests, the term combine is usually employed to designate a merging of firms previously in the same line of business at the instance of a majority of the firms or of some dominant concern among their number. Although the holding company or combine is always subject, as already mentioned, to centralised control, there are cases in which the constituent firms retain some limited measure of autonomy. The vertical consolidation is a complete merging into one industrial and commercial entity of previously independent firms engaged in the production of a commodity at successive stages of manufacture: e.g., coal and iron mining, pig iron, iron and steel, ships. The horizontal consolidation is a complete merging of previously independent firms engaged in the same line of business at the same stage of production and can only be distinguished from the holding company or the combine by having originated in the outright purchase of a number of concerns by one predominant concern in the industry or by some outside

financial interest. A more easily definable and distinct type of trade combination and one that has proved particularly applicable to British conditions, is the terminable association. Under this arrangement the firms constituting the association remain independent financial and commercial entities, but they associate for the purpose of controlling output or prices or both in the industry in which they are engaged. Such associations are properly constituted bodies having rules, constitution, officers, subscriptions, entrance fee, etc. The methods of trade regulation are various.

Some associations simply fix a schedule of prices to which all

831

must conform; others have arrangements in regard to tenders for contract work; others regulate output by allotting to each member a fixed percentage of the total production, whatever that total may be, with penalties for exceeding the quota and compensation for falling short. Some partition out the home market, or the foreign trade, among the members, and some have from time to time reinforced their control of the markets by agreements with similar foreign associations as to the amount which shall be exported from each country to certain markets. The distinguishing feature of the association is that each component firm remains a financially separate business concern, with full

freedom of action in all matters that are not ruled by the association. If under stress of circumstances, or for reasons of internal

jealousy, it should break up, the constituent firms revert to their original unfettered independence. Permanent Combinations.—Permanent combinations, falling into one or more of the four categories mentioned above, are found in the United Kingdom in most of the main industries and in many smaller ones. Any amalgamation of two or more business concerns might, of course, be called a ‘ combination,” but the present article is confined to those cases in which the combination produces a concern of such predominance in its industry as to give it some degree of monopolistic power. It has been asserted that any consolidation or association which covers 80%» of the output of an industry can dictate the prices at which the other 20% shall sell its competing products and so may be described as having an effective monopoly; but that formula cannot be applied indiscriminately, inasmuch as the limiting conditions of control vary greatly from industry to industry and in some industries very effective monopolies of merely local range may exist. It must suffice here to mention a few outstanding examples of consolidations in a position to exercise some degree of monopolistic power. In the cotton branch of the textile industry great amalgamations of previously independent firms are to be

found.

Messrs. J. & P. Coats have long occupied, as a result.

of growth and absorption, a pre-eminent position in the sewingcotton industry. The Fine Cotton Spinners’ and Doublers’ Association is a mammoth amalgamation, dating back nearly 30 years. In the cotton spinning and manufacturing branches two other great amalgamations have come into being since the War, The Amalgamated Cotton Mills Trust and Crosses and Winkworths, in both of which previously independent concerns have been merged. Principal Industries.—In the woollen and worsted industries combination has taken the form rather of association than consolidation; but Woolcornabers Ltd. is an amalgamation dating back some years, while since the War large amalgamations have been formed in the worsted spinning and knitting wool spinning sections of the industry. In textile bleaching, dycing, printing and finishing the combine type of consolidation prevails. The three largest combines are the Bradford Dyers’ Association, the Bleachers’ Association and the Calico Printers’ Association; all these had their origin in the early

days of the century. In view of the terminology adopted above in describing the various types of combination, it should perhaps be emphasised that these are not terminable associations but permanent amalgamations. Two other combines in this industry are the British Cotton and Wool Dyers’ Association and the English Velvet and Cord Dyers’ Association. In the chemical industry, Brunner Mond and Company and the United Alkali Company are predominant concerns in the manufacture of heavy chemicals. Lever Brothers, British Dyestuffs Ltd., the Salt Union, Borax Consolidated, and Nobel Industries Ltd. are each dominant in their respective branches of industry. In the coal industry amalgamation has not proceeded far, except in South Wales, where there are two large groups of anthracite collieries, merged under Amalgamated Anthracite Collieries Ltd, and United Anthracite Collieries Limited. A pre-War Welsh combine is the Consolidated Cambrian Limited. Colliery combines are only to be found in occasional instances in England and Scotland. In the iron and steel industry combination by terminable association has been accompanied by great concentrations of capital, such as Dorman Long & Co., Bolckow, Vaughan & Co., Baldwin’s Ltd., the Ebbw Vale Co., Guest, Keen and Nettlefolds, the United Steel Companies Ltd. and Richard Thomas & Company. All these are what have been described as vertical consolidations, but in fact the

merging which they embody has been on both the horizontal and

vertical planes.

832

TRUSTS

The engineering and shipbuilding industries, again, present a network of terminable associations studded by large consolidations. Foremost among these are Vickers Ltd., Armstrong Whitworth & Co., Cammell Laird & Co. and John Brown & Co., but a score more

could be quoted within almost the same range of importance. Most of these great amalgamations are of pre-War origin; but they acquired additional properties during and since the War. In the post-armistice boom pertod some new amalgamations of considerable importance were formed.

Only a few of the principal industries are dealt with above. In other industries examples of dominant consolidations are to be found, notably in matches, glass bottles, electric lamps, shoemaking machinery, glass and tobacco. Other Assoctations.—Preceding paragraphs have dealt with consolidations. As regards the terminable associations, it would avail little to mention even the most important by name or to describe their individual activities. Suffice it therefore to say that associations of manufacturers and traders for the regulation of prices or output or both are found in most, if not all, branches of British industry and trade. Even in industries already dominated by a single large consolidation there is usually to be found a trade association, of which the dominant concern is a member, and through which it can exercise more directly than otherwise its influence upon the industry as a whole. The consolidation and the association by no means exhaust the catalogue of arrangements whereby trade and prices may be controlled. The “‘gentlemen’s agreement” or “honourable understanding’ may in favourable circumstances be as powerful an instrument for minimising competition as a formal organisation. Interlocking directorates, with or without exchange of shares, may result in two or more companies coming under concerted control without any outward change in constitution. Other examples of the tendency towards concentration of capital and economic power will be seen in the great banking amalgamations, in the multiple shop system, in the tied house system in the licensed trade and in the control exercised over tobacco, meat and other commodities by interests domiciled outside as well as inside the United Kingdom. The amalgamations of shipping companies and the maintenance of liner freights by the shipping rings are other long-standing examples of the concerted control. The degree to which combination has supplanted competition as the ruling factor of business operations should not be overestimated. Even in the most powerfully organised industries competition plays its part with fitfully recurring intensity; while there are still industries (e.g., coal, shipbuilding, textile manufacturing, as well as a host of minor industries) in which the concerted control of output or prices has made relatively little headway. But the steady trend is toward increased combination. Under the influence of war conditions not only were numbers of listless associations galvanised into greater activity and enterprise, but many new associations were formed. Also, one effect of the excess profits tax was to encourage the buying up of unprofitable businesses by prosperous concerns, for such purchases were in effect paid for by moneys which would otherwise have gone in excess profits duty to the revenue. For this and other reasons the war period was one of unusual increase in the number of amalgamations. Advantages and Disadvantages of Combination.—Industrial combination has undoubted advantages. By combination substantial economies can be effected in buying, manufacturing and selling. As regards the buying of material and components, purchases can be made in gross instead of in detail, with the advantages of better selection, better terms and lower transport charges; middlemen can be side-stepped and, if need be, the control over the sources of material can be acquired. As regards manufacture, parts can be standardised and made interchangeable, with consequent economies and benefits, sectional specialisation can be developed, orders can be more advantageously distributed and the whole of the plant and methods of production can be raised to a uniformly high level. As regards selling, the wastes of competitive salesmanship and advertising can be greatly diminished, and a serviceable selling organisation, inspired by

the interests of the industry as a whole, can be instituted.

Along

with all this goes another advantage; the wider and freer spread through the industry of what would otherwise have been jealously guarded knowledge of processes and costs. Against these possible gains on the score of productive and distributive efficiency must be set some possible losses. Where an industrial unit grows beyond the compass of one man’s personal detailed direction, ‘‘system’’ must be introduced, and system can degenerate into bureaucracy and red tape. What is gained in power and knowledge at the centre may be lost in freedom and strength at the circumference, and the over-grown unit is in constant danger of becoming inefficient and reactionary.

Again,

under the shelter of monopoly a comfortable somnolence may descend upon the giant concern, the fear of change is a wellknown characteristic of large administrations, and the large business unit may become stagnant and even reactionary, especially if its control falls increasingly into aged hands. But whatever the balance of these influences may eventually be—greater or less productive efficlency—combination brings in its train the further danger of monopoly power being used to exact monopoly prices and conditions from the public. The problem as !seen by British eyes has therefore been one of how to leave business concerns free to achieve the economies and other advantages of combination in so far as they are consistent with the general interest, and at the same time to provide means of curbing any tendency to use monopoly power detrimentally to the public

and of penalising those who do so use it. The Commitiee on Trusts.—The policy of ‘‘ declaring war on the trusts ” has found little informed advocacy in the United Kingdom. American experience of repressive legislation as embodied in the Sherman and Clayton Anti-Trust Acts has been observed, but without admiration. The committee on trusts, appointed by the Minister of Reconstruction in Feb. 1918, turned its attention rather to what might be called ‘ policing '’ action than to repression. It sought for ways in which combinations might be controlled or supervised to safeguard the public interest from the abuse of monopoly power while being otherwise left free to achieve all those economies and improvements which combination alone can furnish. Public ownership, public control, public competition, profit limitation and profit taxation were passed under review. In all these suggested schemes three main difficulties were encountered at the outset: first, that of defining a monopolistic concern; second, that of distinguishing rightful rewards of enterprise and efficiency from the exactions of monopoly; and, third, that of determining the datum on which rate of profit can be calculated. These suggestions were one by one rejected as limited in scope, difficult of application, or hazardous

in reaction, and the committee

turned

its attention

in

other directions. It was thought that if fuller publicity in regard to the conduct and earnings of business concerns generally, and of the working and effects of combinations in particular, could be secured, the desired object would be in great measure achieved. It was also thought that some machinery should be provided whereby suspected or alleged abuses could be penalised. Accordingly, the conclusion was reached that there should be established a department of state charged with the duty of informing itself as to the nature, extent and development of combination of all kinds in so far as they tend to the restraint of trade and the creation of monopolies, and of making preliminary inquiry into complaints made in regard to them; also that a tribunal should be set up to which the department could apply for powers to obtain particular information, and would refer for full investigation cases in which combinations appeared to act injuriously to the public inter-

est. The requisite publicity would thereby be secured in two ways:

the relevant facts as to offences proved before the tribunal would be made public, and the department would present annually to Parlia-

ment a report upon the nature, extent and development of combina-

tions. Publicity thus secured would not only be in itself a considerable safeguard against the abuse of monopolistic power, but it would serve to reveal actions and developments for which publicity alone

was not a sufficient safeguard, and against which further action should be taken, whether in the form of nationalisation, public competition or the control of prices and profits. These conclusions formed in substance the recommendations of the committee; but

down to the end of 1925 they had not been made the subject of legislation. Until the appointment of the committee on trusts no official investigation of the problem presented by the growth of combination in British industry generally had been made. The Report of that Committee, with its appendices, afforded for the first time to Parliament and the pablic authoritative information as to the position.

Subsequently

committees

appointed

under

the Profiteering

Acts of 1919 and 1920 issued reports upon particular industries in

which much

detailed information

was embodied.

These

reports

TRUSTS constitute a mine of information for the student of industrial combination in the United Kingdom. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—Report of the Committee on Trusts (Cd. 9236 of 1919), with Memoranda by Mr. John Hilton, Mr. Percy Ashley and Sir John Macdonnell. Reports of 57 committees appointed under the Profiteering Acts 1919 and 1920. A list of these reports, together with a survey of the work done by the committees, will be found in

a report—The Work of the Central Committee (H.M. Stationery Office, 1921). Other official publications bearing closely on the subject are the Report of the Royali Commission on Food Prices (Cmd. 2390, 1925); Reports of the Committee on Industry and Trade (1925 and 1926); various Reports by committees appointed under the Safeguarding of Industries Acts; Reports on the coal industry and coal prices by committees appointed by the Mines Department (1923 and 1924); the Linlithgow Reports on the distribution and prices of agricultural produce by committees appointed by the Minister of Agriculture (1923 and 1924); Reports on prices of building materials by Ministry of Health and Board of Trade (1923 to 1925); Report of the Royal Commission on the Coal Industry (1926). The best account of industrial combination in the United Kingdom before the War is given in H. W. Macrosty, The Trust Movement in British Industry (1907). . (J. H.)

I.

THE

UNITED

STATES

The Sherman Anti-Trust Act of 1890 did not satisfy the popular demand for corporate control. The rapid industrial development brought about an even flercer competition, which in turn brought about many consolidations. Between 1898 and 1901 there were an extraordinary number of consolidations which, while checking many of the evils of excessive competition, were attended also by many of the evils that are an inevitable part of great and sudden prosperity. With consolidation came power and sometimes the temptation to use it without a nice regard for business ethics. Moreover the feverish consolidation of business gave added impetus to the labour movement, resulting in the employment by organised labour of methods no less reprehensible than were some of the practices of their employers. To meet this situation President Wilson recommended to Congress, Jan. 20 1914, a comprehensive programme of trust legislation, embracing: (1) Laws to prevent the interlocking of the directorates of competing corporations; (2) a law giving the Interstate Commerce Commission power to superintend and regulate the financial operations of railways; (3) a legislative defini-

tion of the meaning of the Anti-trust law and of the practices prohibited thereunder; and (4) the creation of a Federal Trade Commission as a fact-finding agency for the guidance of business and the public. | Trade Commission Act.—This programme was embodied in three bills: the Federal Trade Commission bill, the Clayton bill and the Railroad Securities bill. The last-named measure was postponed on account of the disturbed conditions created by the War, but the Trade Commission bill was approved on Sept. 26 1914 and the Clayton bill on Oct. 15 1914. The Trade

Commission Act provides for a Federal Trade Commission of 5 members vested with powers of regulation and investigation. It is empowered to prevent persons, partnerships and corporations, except banks and common carriers subject to the commerce acts, from using unfair methods of competition in commerce; to investigate and gather information concerning the organisation, business conduct, practices and management of any corporation engaged in commerce, except banks and common carriers; to investigate and report, upon the direction of the President or of either House of Congress, the facts relating to alleged violations of the anti-trust laws by any corporation; to investigate and make recommendations, upon application of the Attorney-General, for the adjustment of the business of any corporation alleged to be violating the anti-trust laws, to investigate trade conditions in and with foreign countries, where these conditions may affect the foreign trade of the United States, and to report to Congress thereon with such recommendations as it deems advisable. The important business practices which the commission regards as unfair methods of competition are: misbranding, local price cutting, use of bogus independents and “ fighting brands,” full-line forcing, boycotting and black-listing, espionage, commercial bribery, false and mislłeading advertising, false labelling, rebates and coercion.

833

Clayton Act.—The Clayton Act forbids, where the effect is substantially to lessen competition or to tend to create a monopoly in interstate or foreign commerce: (1) discriminations in price between purchasers of commodities; (2) exclusive purchase and sale arrangements in connection with any patented article; (3) the acquisition by a corporation engaged in commerce of the stock of a competing corporation, except solely for investment purposes or the formation of subsidiary corporations to carry on their immediate lawful business; (4) interlocking directorates in corporations engaged in whole or in part in commerce, other than banking and trust companies and common carriers, whose capita; surplus and undivided profits aggregate more than $1,000,000, if such corporations are or have been competitors. The remedies provided against the violation of these provisions are: (1) enforcement by the Interstate Commerce Commission where applicable to common carriers, by the Federal Reserve Board where applicable to banks, banking associations and trust companies and by the Federal Trade commission where applicable to all other character of commerce; (2) suits by the U.S. Govt.; (3) suits by individuals for three-fold damages; and (4) suits by individuals for relief by injunction. The Clayton Act further contains certain provisions desired by organised labour. These provisions, it was popularly believed, gave labour certain immunities not enjoyed by any other class. Section 6 of the Act declares . that the labour of a human being isnot a commodity or article of commerce. Nothing contained in the Anti-trust laws shall be construed to forbid the existence and operation of labour, agricultural,

or horticultural organisations, instituted for the purposes of mutual help, or to forbid or restrain individual members of such organisations from lawfully carrying out the legitimate objects thereof; nor shall such organisations, or the members thereof, be held or construed to be illegal combinations or conspiracies in restraint of trade, under the Anti-trust laws.

Section 20 limits the use of the injunction in labour disputes, and legalises strikes, picketing and boycotts, when carried out in a peaceful and otherwise lawful manner. The courts have held

that these provisions do not introduce any new principle into the equity jurisprudence of the Federal courts, but they are merely declaratory of what was the best practice always. Cotton Futures.—On Aug. 18 1914 a Cotton Futures Act was approved, which levies a tax upon all contracts for the sale of cotton for future delivery, except such as comply with certain prescribed conditions, such as specifying the grade, the prices paid, etc. It is required further that standard grades shall be delivered and full weights tendered. Disputes shall be settled in accordance with rules and regulations prescribed by the Secretary of Agriculture. War Afeasures—The effect of the War experiences upon the attitude of the public toward combinations was marked. The first act of the Secretary of the Treasury when the railways were placed under his charge was to order that they all be managed as one system. The emergency of war showed at once the economic mistake of the Interstate Commerce Act of 1887 in forbidding pooling under proper restrictions, a mistake to which the Interstate Commerce Commission had from its beginning called attention. Again, the services most efficiently rendered by such organisations as the leading packing companies, the great steel corporations, the American Telegraph and Telephone Co. and others, services that could not possibly have been so promptly rendered by any number of smaller competing companies, showed clearly to the general public—and, one may add, made clear also to the courts—the real advantages that may le in consolidation. This change in public opinion has been clearly shown in the trend of later legislation and court decisions. Other Legislation-—~The Webb-Pomerene Act of April 1c 1918 exempted export trade associations, not operating so as to restrain trade or to enhance or to depress prices within the United States, from the operation of the Anti-trust laws placing them under the supervision of the Federal Trade Commission; and the Capper-Volstead Act of Feb. 18 1922 extended similar exemption to agricultural associations, provided such associations operated for the mutual benefit of their members as producers;

834

TSCHAKSTE—TSINGTAO, CAPTURE OF

and placed them under the supervision of the Secretary of Agriculture. The Packers and Stockyards Act of Aug. 15 1921 Classified packers, commission merchants and stockyards for special regulation under the direction of the Secretary of Agriculture. These businesses are held to be agencies of interstate commerce, and as

such are subjected to the afhrmative law of public service. It is unlawful for them to engage in or use any unfair, or to manipulate or control, prices, to create a monopoly or otherwise to restrain interstate commerce. Similar regulations were extended to boards of trade by the Grain Futures Act of Sept. 21 1922. The Act forbids the use of any interstate instrumentality of commerce or communication in offering or accepting sales of grain for future delivery or to disseminate prices or quotations thereof, except by the man who holds the grain he is offering for sale, or by the owner or renter of land on which the grain offered for sale is to be grown,or by members of boards of trade located at a terminal market on which cash sales occur in sufficient volume and under such conditions as to reflect the general value of grain and its different grades, and which have been designated by the Secretary of Agriculture as “ contract markets.” Besides this national legislation there have been numerous state laws, or amendments to state laws, regulating the intra-state activities of industrial combinations and trusts, resulting in much duplication of effort, some conflict of jurisdiction and considerable inconvenience to business. The Relations of Government and Business.—The result of this anti-trust legislation, especially the early legislation, has been to take the Government more and more into business and business into politics, thus creating evils in many ways as serious as those which the laws were designed to correct. Furthermore, the Government has been only partially successful in preventing unfair business practices and in maintaining effective competition

in business where such competition is desirable. situation there is now well under way a movement

To meet this from within

business to remove the causes for public regulation. This movement is based upon the theory that no matter how wisely conceived or how efficiently administered governmental regulation of business may be, it can never be as effective as regulation by business itself from within. In pursuance of this policy of industrial self-government, many trades, acting through trade associations, have formulated fair business practices codes and there have been organised voluntary co-operative agencies for investigating and prosecuting false advertising and the many forms of commercial fraud. In line with this practice is a procedure instituted by the Federal Trade Commission in rọrg, under which the trade submits its trade practices to the commission for that body’s information. The commission makes no ruling, but for its own information it requests the members of the trade to put into concrete form their conclusions as to the practices regarded as unfair and in several instances it has instituted formal proceedings against those who refused to conform to the standard practice. Numerous suggestions have been made to bring about joint action between producers and distributors to eliminate business

wastes. To this end the Department of Commerce has co-operated effectively. Many national trade associations are furnishing to it business data which are published monthly and the Bureau of Standards is engaged in the work of standardisation and of cooperative research with many of these trade associations, which result in enormous annual savings to business and to the Government.

Decisions of the Supreme Court.—These attempts at self-improvement on the part of trade associations, and the co-operation of these associations with the Government in the ways noted, indicate a new trust policy in the process of evolution, a policy involving less persecution and more co-operation. In 1g11 the Supreme Court in United States v. Standard Oil Company (221 U.S. 1) applied the rule of reasonable construction to the Sherman Anti-trust law, holding that only contracts and combinations that were in unreasonable restraint of trade at common law are illegal. In 1920, in United States v. United States Steel Corporation (251 U.S. 417) this court refused to regard the mere size of a corporation as of itself illegal, and intimated that it did not approve prosecutions under the anti-trust laws that

did not serve the public interest. And in 1925 two decisions of farreaching importance to the industrial life of the country were given (Maple Flooring Manufacturers’ Association v. United States and Cement Manufacturers’ Association v. United States, 45 Sup. Ct. 578), holding that “ trade associations or combinations of persons or corporations which openly and fairly gather and disseminate information as to the cost of their product, the volume of production, the actual price, stocks of merchandise on hand, approximate cost of transportation ...and who... meet and discuss such information and statistics without however reaching or attempting to reach any agreement with respect to prices or production or restraining competition, do not thereby engage in unlawful restraint of commerce.” Similar trade association activities had been held illegal in 1914 and 1921 (234 U.S. 600; 257 U.S. 377).

It is also significant that comparatively few of the corporations cited for violation of the anti-trust laws since roro were what are popularly known as “ trusts.” It is big business that is setting the higher standards. These higher standards have long been advocated by economists and by many of the great leaders of the large combinations, but the change of policy has doubtless been affected also by the tremendous increase in corporate stockholders in the years 1915-25, a movement largely instigated and furthered by special offers of stock in some of the largest corporations to their employees or of gas companies to their customers. In the meantime no amount of regulation has materially checked the integration of American business from the small independent factory, performing but a single step in the process of production, to the horizontally and vertically organised super-combinations of to-day, tending to become complete and self-sufficient industrial units. (See also CARTELS; FEDERAL TRADE COMMISSION; INTER-STATE COMMERCE.) BIBLIOGRAPHY. —]. W. Jenks and W. E. Clark, The Trust Problem (revised, 1924); E. Jones, Trust Problem in the United States (1921); F. D. Jones, Trade Association Activities and the Law (1922); R. J.

Swenson, National Government and Business (1924); W. L. Thorp, Integration of Industrial Operations, Department of Commerce, Bureau of Census Monograph III. (Washington, 1924); E. H. Naylor, Trade Associations, Their Organisation and Management (1921); Trade Association Activities, Department of Commerce (Washington, 1923); Commercial and Industrial Organisations of the United States, Department of Commerce, Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce

(Revised Ed., 1923); Trade Associations,

Their

Economic Significance and Legal Status, National Industrial Conference Board (New York, 1925); Public Regulation of Competitive Practices, National Industrial Conference Board (New York, cous (J. W.J)

TSCHAKSTE, JAN (1859), first president of the Republic of Latvia, was born in Courland Sept. 14 1859. He was educated at the Mitau gymnasium, studied law at the university of Moscow, and was for some years in the public prosecutor’s department of the Courland Government. Leaving the public service in 1888 he started practice as a barrister in Mitau and began to edit the paper Tēvija (Fatherland). In r902 he served on a committee appointed by the local administration to inquire into agricultural conditions in Courland, and from time to time was employed on various Imperial Govt. committees. In 1906 he was elected a member of the first Russian Duma. The German invasion of Courland, July ro1s, obliged him to leave Mitau. He went to Petrograd (Leningrad) where he founded a central relief committee for war refugees. In 1916 he went to Stockholm to promote the cause of Lettish independence and published there in German, his book Die Letten und ihre Latvija. In r918 Tschakste was elected chairman of the People’s Council and was later head of the delegation sent to Paris and London to secure the recognition of the Republic of Latvia. In 1920 he was president of the Latvian National Assembly, and also became professor of international law at the University of Riga. On Nov. 14 1922 he was unanimously elected president of Latvia by the first Latvian Saeima (Parliament), and on Nov. 6 1925 was re-elected for a further period of three years. TSINGTAO, CAPTURE OF.—The first part which Japan took upon herself to play in the World War was the reduction of the German stronghold of Tsingtao, on the bay of Kiaochow. This fortress served at the outset of the War as the only base of operations in Eastern Asia for the German marauders menacing the Allied trade routes. It was imperative to make Von Spee’s raiders homeless, and the military and naval operations against

TUAN CHI-JUI—TUBERCULOSIS the redoubtable base, which was under the command of Capt. Meyer-Waldeck and garrisoned by some 13,000 men, of whom - 55599 were German regulars, were started with the utmost dispatch. On Aug. 27 1914 the blockade of Kiaochow Bay was declared by the Japanese Navy, and Lungkow, 150 m. north of Tsingtao, was chosen as the point for landing troops. On Sept. 2 1914 the Japanese division, under the orders of Lieutenant-General Kamio, commenced landing at Lungkow. Despite the terrible weather conditions, the vanguards arrived on the 12th at the small town of Tsimo, where they encountered the enemy for the first time. The second Japanese contingent began to land at Laoshan Bay, within the leased zone, on Sept. 18 and soon established touch with the I. Army. The Japanese forces under General Kamio thus amounted to about 22,980 officers and men, and they succeeded in some 10 days in wresting from the Germans several of their advanced positions. On Sept. 24 there arrived at the arena of campaign the British force, commanded by General Barnardiston, consisting of g1o officers and men of the znd South Wales Borderers and 450 of the 36th Sikhs. After the non-combatants had been permitted to leave the fortress, the general attack on the position was commenced on Oct. 31, the Japanese blockading fleet off the harbour assisting by a continuous bombardment. On the morning of Nov. 7 white flags were descried on the forts of Moltke, Bismarck and Iltis, to the pleasant surprise of the attacking army, which had expected a protracted siege. After the fall of the stronghold it was ascertained that all enemy ships, including the Austrian cruiser ““ Kaiserin Elisabeth,” had been sunk in the port of Tsingtao. The Japanese Army lost, during the campaign, 1,968 killed or wounded, and the Japanese Navy a cruiser, a destroyer and a torpedo boat. The port of Kiaochow was reopened for trade by the Japanese on Dec. 28 1914. (See WORLD WAR: BIBLIOGRAPHY.) TUAN CHI-JUI, Chinese politician, was born in Anhwei and graduated from the Peiyang military school. Rising rapidly, he was largely responsible for the re-organisation of the Northern Army and after succeeding Yuan Shih-kai as viceroy of the Hukuang Province, he became commander of the I. Army. He was one of the military leaders who signed the memorial of Jan.

1911, urging the Emperor to abdicate, and joined the first Republican Cabinet in Nov. 1912 as Minister for War. He was acting Premier from May to July 1913, Minister of War again in 1914, and Premier in April 1916. In May 1917 he was dismissed by Li Yuan-hung, but the failure of Chang Hsun’s attempt to restore the monarchy brought him back to office. In Oct. 1918 he resigned, and, after an ill-advised coup on behalf of the Anfui Club, played no great part in national affairs till Nov. 24 1924, when he succeeded Tsao Kun as President. TUBERCULOSIS (see 27.354).—Tuberculosis is a disease of man and animals caused by the tubercle bacillus, which belongs to the “ acid-fast ’’ group of bacteria, some of which are pathogenic and others quite harmless. The most important pathogenic varieties are the “ human,” the “ bovine ” and the “ avian.” Whether these are to be regarded as distinct organisms or merely as mutations is not yet settled but they are easily distinguished by their selective effects on test animals. Tuberculosis, when it has reached the stage at which it is clinically recognisable, may be regarded as the end-result of a slow progressive and long unrecognised bacterial invasion. It should never be forgotten that, in the majority of infected persons in civilised communities, this clinically recognisable endstage is never reached; in other words, only a small proportion of the number of infected persons becomes clinically tuberculous. Distribution Throughout the World.—A world-survey shows that tuberculosis tends to be wide-spread in densely populated areas

linked by commercial and social ties with the outside world, and is rare or absent in sparsely populated and culturally isolated communities. Climatic, geological and racial factors appear to play a secondary part. Density of population, with the opportunities for frequent and close contact with infective persons which jt involves, appears to be all-important in the dissemination of the germ, while wages, occupation, housing, diet, climatic conditions and racial customs constitute ancillary factors of varying significance in so far as they bear upon the capacity of the individual to resist the infective dose or doses to which he has been subjected.

835

With human tuberculosis, it is where men are herded together in

the centres of industry that the infection becomes so common as to be almost universal. That this statement is true is proved by the

post-mortem findings of reliable pathologists in Europe and America who have investigated long series of cadavers of persons dying from all diseases. In the words of M. Fishberg ‘“' no matter what the cause of death may have been, whether the persons knew they had tuberculosis or not, between 50 and 100% of people living in large cities

show active, quiescent or healed tuberculous lesions in some organ of their bodies.” 3 These findings bring into sharp relief the importance of the distinction between infection and disease. The results of tuberculin

tests applied to healthy pe (Pollak, Vienna, 1911; Mantoux, Paris, 1909 and 1910; Fishberg, New York, 1914; Calmette, Lille, 1911 and others) show that, by the age of 15 years, nearly every individual living under urban conditions has already become infected with the tubercle bacillus.

It is clear, therefore, that, in densely populated countries, tuberculous infection is far more widespread than tuberculous disease. In sparsely populated and isolated countries, on the other hand, neither tuberculous infection nor tuberculous disease iscommon. Borrel, for instance, found that only 3% of the Senegalese soldiers summoned to Europe for the World War gave a positive response to the tuberculin skin-test on arrival in France, while numerous investigations carried out in the African and Asiatic Colonies and Dependencies of the European Powers show that primitive tribes living under their natural conditions are almost free from tuberculosis. It has frequently been shown, however, that the members of these primitive communities, on quitting their native surroundings and coming into contact with the “ tuberculised ” populations of Europe, tend to show a marked susceptibility to tuberculosis; the clinical course, in these cases, being of a rapidly progressive and usually fatal type. It would seem, in fact, that, where there has been little or no previous exposure to infection, the individual remains completel unprotected against tuberculous disease, while, on the other barn’. there is manifest in the members of communities in which tuberculous infection is wide-spread, a considerable power of resisting the development of the tubercle bacillus and of rendering latent the active foci of infection.

Climical Manifestations —The primary clinical manifestations of tuberculosis tend to vary with the portal of entry of the bacillus. In uninfected subjects, the germs can pass through the mucous membranes of the respiratory and alimentary tracts, without causing, at the moment, any marked local disturbance and their transit thence is easy along lymphatic channels to the nearest lymphatic glands. In these glandular filters, the tubercle bacilli tend to be arrested and there they pullulate and set up the first foci of disease. The formation of secondary foci of infection depends upon the spread of tubercle bacilli from their primary foci in the lymphatic glands to other tissues and organs. The presence of secondary foci thus implies a generalisation of the infection chiefly by way of the blood stream. This generalisation can take place much more easily In susceptible persons than in those who are more resistant, and in the young than the old. Thus the tendency to widely disseminated tuberculosis is much more marked amongst those groups of individuals in which the “ tuberculin test ” shows the highest proportion of negative results. In the infants and young children of European and American communities, the proportion of bone and joint tuberculosis and of tuberculous

meningitis

is far higher than

in adults;

while,

in the

adults of “‘ primitive ’? communities, brought for the first time into contact with infection, the same tendency to wide dissemination of lesions is always found.

The reactive intolerance implied in a positive response to the tuberculin test which is only acquired as the result of a preceding infection, constitutes a factor of supreme importance in limiting the spread of tubercle bacilli within the body, by causing local inflammation, cell-proliferation and finally fibrosis, with arrest of the wandering germs and their confinement within a fibrous or calcified area. And this reactive intolerance is manifested, not only toward endogenous re-infection from pre-existing foci but to exogenous re-infection from outside the body. Pulmonary Disease.—With this conception in mind, it is not diffi-

cult to understand why the tuberculosis of adult life in civilised and

TUBERCULOSIS

836

“ tuberculised ’? communities usually takes the form of pulmonary disease. In the generalisation of infection through the blood stream from the primary lymph-gland foci, the bacillary emboli must travel along the veins from the glands and since all the venous blood must necessarily pass through the capillary bed of the lungs before being re-distributed throughout the body, the lung tissue presents the first filter to be encountered by the blood-borne bacilli. It is into the lungs, too, that all contaminations are drawn in respiration.

While

both blood-borne and air-borne tubercle bacilli may pass unchecked through the “ virgin” lung-tissue of children and non-infected

adults,

they

where

tend,

‘reactive

intolerance ”

exists,

to

be

arrested in the pulmonary tissue and to set up the inflammatory and

ulcerative phenomena of phthisis.

I. IN GREAT BRITAIN Changes in Clinical Type.—The statement is frequently made that the cases of pulmonary tuberculosis encountered 30 or so years ago were much more acute than those seen to-day, and a general impression exists amongst clinicians that phthisis is more acute even now in parts of Ireland, Scotland and Wales than in London and the big industrial centres. This clinical impression receives strong support from the statistical inquiries of J. Brownlee (M.R.C. Special Report Series No. 18, 1918), who has shown that, in males especially and to a less extent in females, the age-period of maximum death-rate has steadily receded from the ‘‘ young'adult ” group to the “‘ middle age ” group in the succeeding decennia from 1851-60 to the present time. This diminution of the “ young adult ” type of death-rate has, however, been less marked in certain counties of Ireland, Scotland and Wales, and indeed, in agricultural communities everywhere, than in the larger centres of population. Brownlee, in the report quoted, suggested that these differences might be due to the existence of para-tubercle bacilli of unequal virulence, but later researches by Tulloch have failed to discover any antigenic variants in a large serics of ‘‘ human ” tubercle bacilli investigated by him, It may be assumed, therefore, that the recession of the age-period of maximum mortality from early adult to later life implies a more protracted clinical type of pulmonary tuberculosis now than formerly and in the larger centres of population as compared with the more sparsely populated agricultural districts.

Fall in Tuberculosis Mortality—As will be seen from the appended table (extracted from the registrar general’s Statistical Review of England and Wales for the Year 1924, Table 6, page 35) there has been, from 1838 onwards, a steady fall in the tuberculosis death-rate affecting both the pulmonary and all other forms of the disease. This fall, which has been observable in other civilised countries, though often claimed as evidence of the value of modern methods of prevention, was just as marked before the recognition of the infective nature of tuberculosis as after the discoveries of Villemin and R. Koch had given a definite direction to sanitary efiort. Clearly therefore, some factor of natural adaptation must have been present to supplement the efforts of preventive medicine. TABLE

I. Annual Mortality at All Ages Per Million Persons Living Period erio

Tuberculosis (All forms)

Lueiro (Respiratory of System)

1838-42 (5 years) 1847-50 (4 years)

4,419 3714

3,782 2,889

1861-5

3,313

1851-5 1856-60

1866-70 1871-5 1876-80 1881-5 1886-90 18901-5 1896-1900 19001-5 1906-10

IGII-5?*

1916-20!

í :

:

3,638 3:323

2,805 2,572

3,201 2,942 2,817 2,543 2,324 2,122 1,906 1,743 1,566

2,447 2,217 2,038 1,830 1,635 1,461 1,323 1,218 1,106

1,414 1,441

2,527

1,047

1,107.

884 1,126 1921 889 1,121 1922 836 1,062 ; ‘ 1923 841 1,058 be oes . | 1924 only. civilians to relates 1915-20 years the for 1 The mortality

The foregoing table is taken from the registrar general's Statistical Review of England and Wales for 1924. Those who favour the theory of an ‘ hereditary disposition ” to tuberculous infection see in this diminution of mortality the result of the dying off of susceptible stock and the survival of the more resistant. Others consider that, with the wide dissemination of infection resulting from the agglomeration of large numbers of persons into urban communities, there has been at work a factor of natural auto-immunisation, individuals acquiring various degrees of resistance as the result of mild and repeated infections. In favour of the latter theory, it may be said that ‘ acquired immunity ” plays a part in limiting the spread of other bacterial diseases, that even the most susceptible animals may be made relatively resistant to tuberculosis through mild laboratory infections and that a high degree of resistance in any given community, as evidenced by a relatively low death-rate and a relatively chronic clinical type, goes hand in hand with a wide diffusion of infection as proved by tuberculin tests.

Prevention.—Man is liable to infection from two main sources, the first and infinitely the more important being infected persons and the second, milk from infected cows. Not all infected persons are equally infective. Those suffering from the chronic type of pulmonary disease with cavities are, perhaps, the most dangerous of all, such cases producing, as a rule, copious expectoration of a sputum heavily charged with bacilli while, being relatively resistant, they often survive for years and are well enough to remain at home. There exist, too, cases whose symptoms are more suggestive of chronic bronchitis or asthma than of tuberculosis and who consequently remain undiagnosed, no precautions being taken. Not only the sputum of such persons but the droplets emitted in coughing and talking are sources of danger to others, while the excreted bacilli may accumulate on the clothing and bedding used by them and in the apartments which they occupy. Such persons establish the greatest concentration of infective matter within the home, and the smaller, the worse ventilated and the more crowded the home, the more massive the infection and the more serious the danger to others. In the home contact with susceptible persons is most likely—for the home Is the nest for infants and young children. It is upon the homes and the families of infected persons that preventive measures must be focussed. i Adequate provision of hospital and sanatorium accommodation is

also a prime necessity so that infected persons may be removed from amongst their still healthy relatives. The use of sputum flasks, the ventilation of rooms, provision of good food for dependants—all these will help. In France, promising results are being attained on the Grancher System by which the young children of tuberculous parents are placed with selected foster parents in country districts. Another interesting line of prophylactic effort now under trial in France is the protection of the infants born to tuberculous parents by “vaccination” with living but attenuated tubercle bacilli. A. Calmette and C. Guerin have succeeded, by special cultural methods, in so reducing the virulence of a selected bacillary strain that it no longer produces tuberculosis but merely a transitory and benign infective process accompanied, however, by the development, in experimental! animals, of a high degree of resistance against re-infection by virulent strains. This vaccine of Calmette (B.C.G.) is now being administered not only to calves but to the infants of tuberculous parents shortly after birth. So favourable have been the results of experiments on laboratory animals that there are real grounds for hope, both as to prevention of human and bovine tuberculosis. But it will take years to evaluate the success or failure of these experiments, In the interval, the want of any specific preventive measure throws us back upon general measures of hygiene, attempts to diminish the pool of infective persons by improved methods of treatment and the supervision, control and, where possible, isolation of infected persons through the machinery of the tuberculosis schemes of local authorities and by precautions against the sale or the use of milk containing living tubercle bacilli. General measures of hygiene find their most important application in arrangements for the conscientious notification of diagnosed cases, the inspection of “ contacts,” the medical inspection of school children, the provision of “ clean milk,” the betterment of housing, the adequate disinfection of contaminated articles and places and

tactful and efficient ‘‘ health visiting.”

Recent Methods of Treatment.—Symptomatic treatment, while often affording relief, cannot cure. Even “ specific’ treatment

aiming at the production of immunity, while helpful in certain patients, has proved disappointing. Tuberculin, in its various forms, is no longer regarded as “‘ a cure in the strict sense of the

TUBERCULOSIS term ” and is not entirely free from risk. The natural power of the human body to amplify its powers of resistance is very great and many cases do well if placed under favourable conditions of life. In this lies the secret of “‘ sanatorium treatment ” in which the mode of life of the patient is carefully adjusted to the limits imposed by his disease. Within these limits he can exercise and work with benefit to himself and an increase in the amplitude of his resistance. For the more favourable types of pulmonary cases, sanatorium treatment offers a very definite prospect of restoration to average health and working capacity. Although so much stress is laid on controlled exercise and work, the basis of the treatment is rest. In the case of ‘ surgical tuberculosis,” too, where the bones and Joints of the body are affected, we find in rest the greatest of all adjuvants to recovery. A study of the results attained at such English centres as the Treloar Hospital for Cripples at Alton, the Shropshire Orthopaedic Hospital, the North Wales Sanatorium and the Metropolitan Asylums’ Board Hospital at Carshalton will suffice to prove the curability of sur-

gical tuberculosis in children by judicious immobilisation and rest. Fresh air (see Pusric Heartnu), sunlight (see HELIOTHERAPEUTICS) and the artificial sunlight produced by are lamps are being used, more and more, to help on the results of treatment by surgical rest, and wonderfully favourable results are already claimed for these methods. In pulmonary tuberculosis, too, the method of “surgical rest ”’ for the affected part is applicable where the disease is confined or almost confined to one lung; and new vistas are being opened up through the use of artificial pneumothorax apecolysis and thoracoplasty. Nothing is more certain than that the surgical treatment of pulmonary tuberculosis is destined to play an increasingly beneficient part in the future. But, while all these methods are of proven value in appropriate cases, none of them can be claimed as a cure, and it is to Chemotherapy that we turn in our hope for the future. Robert Koch found that salts of certain metals, and especially gold, had a lethal effect on the tubercle bacillus but only in concentrations which were also deleterious to the tissues. Research however, has continued on these lines, and within the last two years, Prof. Méllgaard of Copenhagen has succeeded in producing a gold compound, sodium aurothiosulphate or Sanocrysin, which, while still under test, appears to have a definitely lethal effect on tubercle bacilliin the human or animal body, in concentrations which are non-toxic for the patient. Here, again, we appear to

be upon the threshold of a great advance in the treatment of tuberculosis. Tuberculosis Schemes.—Up to the end of 1910, the work of fighting tuberculosis in Great Britain was left, for the most part, to the initiative of the more progressive local authorities, supplemented by private enterprise and the work of voluntary organisations. Much knowledge was accumulated through the work of the Royal Commissions of 1890 and 1901 and through the activities of the Local Government Board, but there was no co-ordinated national effort to deal with the disease. In Nov. 1911, it was made incumbent on every medical practitioner attending on or called to visit any person suffering from pulmonary tuberculosis to notify the case immediately to ie Medical Officer of Health concerned. These regulations, the outgrowth of orders by the Local Government Board of Dec. 1908, were made applicable to all forms of tuberculosis in Dec. 1912. In I911, too, the National Insurance Act made provision for sanatorium benefit for insured persons, the Local Government Board being empowered to authorise County Councils to provide, maintain and manage institutions for the treatment of tuberculosis. Under the Finance Act, I91I, and the Insurance Act, a sum of £1,500,000 became available for provision of or grants in aid toward sanatoria and other tuberculosis institutions while the Govt. undertook to pay 50°% of the annual cost of the anti-tuberculosis work carried out by local authorities. The Public Health (Tuberculosis) Act of 1921 placed a statutory obligation on each County and County Borough Council to make arrangements for the treatment of all persons suffering from tuberculosis, whether insured or not. Finally, in 1911, a Departmental Committee, presided over by Major (now Lord) Astor, was appointed to report on the general policy in regard to tuberculosis in its preventive, curative and other aspects. The tuberculosis schemes now operative everywhere throughout England, Scotland and Wales are based, for the most part, on the report of the Departmental Committee.

The units in a complete scheme are as follows:—

837

1. The Tuberculosis Dispensary or Institute-—The functions of this unit are to be ‘a receiving and clearing-house and a centre for diagnosis, consultation and observation, where persons can avail themselves of the services of specially qualified medical men.” On the dispensary or institute is based, too, the work of the tuberculosis nurses and visitors ‘‘ who advise and instruct patients in a hygienic mode of life ”’ and help the tuberculosis officer to keep in touch with the homes of tuberculous cases. | 2. Residential Institutions.—These consist of sanatoria for the more favourable cases and hospitals for those patients unable, at the moment,

to benefit

by sanatorium

treatment.

The

schemes,

in-

clude arrangements for home nursing, dental treatment, provision of extra nourishment, training in new occupations and “ after-care.’"!

The growth of anti-tuberculosis work in England since the passing of the Insurance Act may be gathered from the steady increase in expenditure shown in the following table which is

quoted from Dr. Coutts’ pamphlet :— TABLE

II.

Tuberculosis Expenditure (England) Payments from the

Exchequer Gross To i in ae of xpenditure rom expenditure } Local Insurance incurred Authorities | Committees | during the Period mentioned ; in col, I

E

. Period

(1)

(2)

July 15 ī912, tọ March 31 1913 . Year ended March 31 1914

:

`

:

Year ended March 31 I9I5 : ; . Year ended March 31 1916

Year ended 1917 Year ended Ig18 Year ended I9Ig Year ended

i

March Í i March i : March i d March

1920

:

.

(4)

96,000

34,000

30,000

373,000

189,000

87,000

595,000

227,000

176,000

700,000

211,000

237,000

894,000

251,000

300,000

1,087,000

266,000

384,000

1,285,000

314,000

450,000

:

:

1,954,000

621,000

635,000

:

.

2,950,000

828,000

I,OI1,000

|

:

;

3,074,000

200,000

1,717,000

`

Year ended March 31 1922

(3)

31 i 31 ‘ 31 ; 31

Year ended March 31 1921

| |

si

33

Large as these figures may seem, there is still a vast field to cover if tuberculosis is to be dealt with adequately on the present lines. The actual notifications, amounting for England and Wales to 57,737 persons in 1924, or 1-47 per 1,000 of population, are admittedly an under-estimate of the known cases, while the undiagnosed carriers of infection must be more numerous still. If the isolation of infective persons is to become effective—and the Public Health Act, 1925, contains clauses providing for the compulsory hospitalisation of infective cases—it will be necessary to face the public maintenance of their dependants while

patients remain in residential institutions.

And there is an ur-

gent need for further expenditure to provide accommodation and treatment for cases of surgical tuberculosis. The best chance of ultimate economy would sem to lie in the endowment of research directed towards effective preventive measures and curative treatment. BIBLIOGRAPHY,.— Medical Research Council, Special Report No. 18. “Epidemiology of Phthisis in Great Britain and Ireland,” parts 1 and 2 (1918); Special Report No. 33, “*‘ Pulmonary Tuberculosis; Mortality after Sanatorium Treatment” (1919); Special Report No. 46, ‘‘ Epidemiology of Phthisis in Great Britain and Ireland,” part 3, Stationery

Ofhce,

London

(1920); Special Report

“ Report on Artificial Pneumothorax,”’

No. 67,

Stationery Office, London

(1922); See also Sir A. Newsholme, The Prevention of Tuberculosis, 2nd ed. (1910); Sir J. K. Fowler, Pulmonary Tuberculosis (1921); C. Riviere, The Early Diagnosis of Tubercle, ard ed. (Oxford 1921); tbid., Problems in Tuberculosis: Administration, Diagnosis, Employment, Settlements (Oxford, 1923). (Se DLG:

! For a full account of this subject a pamphlet on ‘f Anti-Tubercu-

losis Measures in England,” by Dr. F. J. H. Coutts, C.B., Senior Medical Officer, Ministry of Health, may be consulted.

TUKHACHEVSKY

838 Il. IN THE A more

berculosis

UNITED

or less continuous

had

been

noticeable

STATES

decline in mortality from

in

the United

States

tu-

since

about 1880; but between 1910 and 1924, and especially after 1917, the decline was extraordinary. The death-rate for the

disease fell from 202 per 100,000 population in 1900 to 160 in I9tO; 150 1N 1917; 9r in 1924; a reduction of 55° for approximately the first quarter of the century, and of 21% for the first decade, only 6% from 1g1o to 1917, and 39° between 1917 and 1924. Although the statistics have not yet been compiled it is estimated that the tuberculosis mortality for 1925 will show a further decline, to about 88 per 100,000. Such a diminution of mortality in a disease like tuberculosis is unparalleled in the annals of epidemiology. In rors tuberculosis, which had always been the first cause of death, yielded its unenviable pre-eminence to heart disease. It has since been outranked also by pneumonia, cerebral haemorrhage (apoplexy), and cancer, so that in r924 it occupied fifth place or near the foot of the list of major diseases. As usual, pulmonary tuberculosis accounted for about seveneighths of all deaths due to the disease. Urban Communities—All sections of the country and all elements of its population participated in the great betterment. But urban communities, as exemplified in New York City, outstripped the rural districts in the control of the disease. In them tuberculosis is declining more rapidly than in the country at large. In 1900 New York City’s tuberculosis death-rate was 280, or 39% higher than that for the nation; by 1920 it had fallen to 126, or only 11% greater; and in 1924 it was 93, or barely 2°% in excess of the general rate. Such changes are revolutionary and, for a great and crowded city, are unparalleled in the history of tuberculosis. They may be better appreciated by reference to the accompanying chart, which suggests that in 1924 a New York citizen’s chance of dying of tuberculosis was less than one-half that in rg1o and one-third that in 1900. Among infants and children the reduction of tuberculosis has been almost sensational. In New York City the death-rate for infants in 1923 was only one-sixth that of 1898 (94 in 1923 and 609 in 1898), while for children under 15 the decline between the two years was from 136 to 33.

Causes of Decline —Much has been written about the causes of the continued, and of late the extraordinary, decline of the disease. The phenomenon is apparent in all countries under our industrial type of civilisation, although latterly it has been most marked in the United States. The presumption is therefore strong that broad economic and social movements which characterise our era, though they elude close definition, are potent factors. Undoubtedly, the amelioration of existence, a resultant of the enormous increase of wealth in the United States, has played its part. But two other instruments have also been brought to such effectiveness in that country as to be likewise decisive in the control of tuberculosis. Organisation of Control.—The first is the National Tuberculosis Assn., founded in 1904. Through its central office in New York City and its hundred and more subsidiary state and civic bodies, this organisation extends its influence into every hamlet, as it maintains services and agencies to be applied to every phase of the disease. Its funds are recruited through the unique manner of selling, every year at Christmas-time, its so-called “‘ Christmas seals ’’ stamps to be affixed to postal matter but not for postage. Their sale has become so enormous as to bring an annual gross return of almost $5,000,000 though they cost but a cent each. Sanatoria.—As organisation is the key-note of the social control of the disease, so is the sanatorium the keynote of its medical control. In no other country has the sanatorium movement been so highly developed. Twenty years ago, when death-rates were around 200, there were hardly a score of these institutions in the United States. In 1925 they numbered more than 600, with a capacity of 52,460 beds for civilian patients and 13,940 beds for Federal patients, veterans of the wars. Their annual’“ turnover ’’ was approximately 150,000 patients, or perhaps one-fifth of those ill with the disease. The standard of institutional facilities has been put at one bed for every annual death. On this

basis the United States, with 78,096 deaths from pulmonary tuberculosis in 1924 (Registration Area), has perhaps two-thirds the ideal equipment, omitting the beds for Federal patients. Special Treatment.—Oft special methods of treatment, artificial pneumothorax (g.v.) has become a standard procedure, much employed in selected pulmonary cases. Since 1920, more radical surgical measures, such as the various forms of thoracoplasty, have been on trial; their use is increasing rapidly. Heliotherapy (q.v.), sun treatment and other forms of light therapy are now in common use in non-pulmonary disease. Specific treatment (tuberculin) valuable only in expert hands, holds its own. Chemotherapy has made no headway; nor have the various preparations, advocated recently on the continent of Europe (Senocrysin, Krvsolgan, etc.) been, as yet, received kindly in the United States. Of all diagnostic measures, the X-ray (g.v.)} has had by far the greatest development, and has become indispensable. It has not, of course, superseded physical examination; and it is noteworthy that time brings a growing appreciation, that diagnostic precision and refinement are to be

attained only through the co-operation of the examining physician and the Réntgenologist. No specific or laboratory test has been found decisive in diagnosis, except the long-recognised demonstration of tubercle bacilli in tissue products. Immunity.—The practitioner of 1925 regarded tuberculosis from a point of view quite different from that of tg10. The disclosure that tuberculosis exists as a latent infection in almost all people, and that infection confers a measure of specific immunity to reinfection, gave rise to the almost necessary presumption that adult pulmonary tuberculosis develops from infection acquired in childhood and that the adult is insusceptible to exposure to infection from without. But latterly an increasing number of studies of American authorities has brought about some modification of too rigid an adherence to this opinion. They have shown that conditions are only relative. Although early infection and a resulting immunity are conceded, it is pointed out that infection is capable of complete healing, with a consequent great diminution or even disappearance of immunity; and that, therefore, there is every likelihood that reinfections— and active disease from them—are possible at almost any period of life. In 1915 there occurred the death of Edward L. Trudeau, the recognised pioneer and leader of tuberculosis activities in the United States. In the next year was held the first session of the Trudeau School of Tuberculosis, the first of its kind, in Saranac Lake, N.Y., to give systematic instruction to physicians. In 1917 was issued The American Review of Tuberculosts, a monthly

scientific periodical, founded by the National Tuberculosis Association. It was in 1925 the only tuberculosis journal in the United States, and had done much to stimulate the study and investigation of the subject. Among the more prominent centres of research in tuberculosis were the Trudeau Foundation at Saranac Lake, the Henry Phipps Institute at Philadelphia, the Kenneth Dows Laboratories of Johns Hopkins University at Baltimore, the National Jewish Hospital for Consumptives at Denver, the Municipal Sanitarium in Chicago and the Colorado Foundation at Colorado Springs, all of which were established since 1910. (A. K. K.) TUKHACHEVSKY, MIKHAIL (1893}, Russian soldier, was born in the government of Smolensk. He received the best Russian military education in the corps of cadets and the Aleksandrovsky military school, out of which he passed in July 1914In Feb. 1915 he was taken prisoner by the Germans, and, after several fruitless attempts to escape, he succeeded in the autumn of 1917 and made his way back to Russia. He was at once taken into the military service of the Soviet, took part in the operations in defence of Petrograd (Leningrad), and in June 1918 received the command of an army. He commanded successively the I., VIII. and V. Armies and then the Caucasian front. After the successful conclusion of operations against Denikin, Tukhachevsky was given the command of the Western front. After the Civil War he became chief of the military academy, and in April 1924 was appointed assistant chief-of-staff.

TULSA—TURBINE, STEAM

839

TULSA, Okla., U.S.A. (see 27.368), in the midst of the rich,

further powers were conferred in 1925 on municipal councils. In

oil-producing area of northeastern Oklahoma, increased fourfold in population in the ro years after rgro, reaching 72,075 1n 1920 (109-3 males to 100 females), of whom 8,878 were negroes and only 2,025 foreign-born. In 1925 the census bureau estimate was 124,478. Annexations of land brought the area to 12 sq. m. in 1925. In 1925 there were 1,500 individual firms engaged in the oil business. The International Petroleum Exposition was established in 1923, on its permanent ground of ro acres. Manufactures developed rapidly, until in 1923 there were 106 establishments producing goods valued at $22,327,907. Debits to individual accounts in Tulsa banks amounted to $1,181,952,000 in 1923. Civic improvements, up to 1925, included the adoption of a town plan, a regional plan and zoning regulations; the extension of the park system until there were 13 larger parks, containing 2,385 ac., and numerous small playgrounds; and the completion of a water-supply system at a cost of $8,000,000 which brings soft Ozark Mountain water from a reservoir of 20 billion gal. capacity in the Spavinaw Hills, 60 m. distant, over and under rivers, hills and ravines, by force of gravity alone, although the difference in the elevation of the source and the terminus is only go feet. In June 1921 there was a serious race riot, in which more than 25 persons lost their lives and many more were injured. As a consequence, the county was placed under martial law by the governor for a time in 1923. The old council tree of the Creeks, a huge spreading elm, still stood (1926) in the grounds of a private residence. TUNISIA (sce 27.393), area about 50,000 sq. m.; population (1921) 2,093,039. The natives numbered 1,937,824, of whom 48,436 were Jews. The Europeans numbered 156,115 and included 54,476 French, 84,799 Italians and 13,520 Maltese. Tunis, the capital, had 171 ,672 inhabitants, Sfax 19,754 and

archaeology important excavations were carried out at Carthage and other sites, and efforts were made to attract tourists. Industry and Trade—vTunisia is essentially an agricultural country, but has also very valuable mineral resources. The average annual export of wheat in the period 1915-24 was 319,000 quintals, of barley 627,000 quintals. Tunisian olive oil is of very high quality; there were in 1924 8,000,000 fruit-bearing olive trees, and the production of oil was 220,000 quintals. Tunisian

Bizerta 20,763.

History.—The protectorate form of government was maintained, the Bey being the head of the Regency, while the French resident-general controlled the administration, the army of occupation being 25,000 strong. Mohammed en Nasr, who had been Bey since 1906, died in 1922, and was succeeded by his cousin Mohammed el Habib (born 1858). During the World War tribesmen from Fezzara, led by Turkish officers, attacked the French outposts in southern Tunisia. There was some sharp fighting in Sept. and Oct. 1915, when the French reestablished order. Later on large numbers of Tunisian soldiers were employed in France. In 1919—20 by agreement with Italy the territory on the Sahara south of Tunisia forming salients between the oases of Ghadames and Ghat and between Ghat and Tummo was transferred by France to Tripolitania. As the census figures given show, the majority of the European inhabitants are Italians or Maltese. As part of an effort to give the protectorate a more French character, decrees were issued in 1921 declaring that British (¢.e., Maltese) and Italian subjects, born of parents who were themselves born in Tunisia, would be deemed to be of French nationality. These decrees provoked resentment, especially among the Italians, whose right to maintain their nationality was protected by a convention of 1896 still provisionally in force, and no settlement of the question with Italy had been reached by 1926. As to the British, an arrangement was reached with France in 1923 whereby the persons affected were entitled to decline French nationality. In 1922, in order to give Tunisians a larger share in the administration, a general council for the protectorate, consisting of 44 French and 18 nominated native representatives, and also regional councils, were established. The general council superseded the consulting conference set up in 1905, and had greater powers than that body. There had already arisen a nationalist agitation, and this in 1924~5, when the cost of living was four times as great as In 1914, was mixed up with a Communist agitation accompanied by some disturbances in the towns. The Communist agitation was not deep rooted, but among educated Tunisians there was a demand for a democratic form of government. This demand was not met, but as an educational measure

wines, mostly red, are of some repute, and some 600,000 to 800,-

ooo hectolitres are produced yearly. Of minerals the production of phosphates was 1,882,000 tons in 1912, had fallen to 819,000 tons in 1918, and had risen to 2,400,000 tons In 1924. Iron, lead, zinc and manganese ores are also exported in considerable quantities. Marine salt of a superior quality is produced to the extent of some 300,000 tons annually— it is exported to places as far apart as India and the United States. In 1913 imports were valued at 144,000,000 fr. and exports at 185,000,000 fr.; for 1924 the figures were imports 927,940,000 fr., exports 582,350,000 francs. The Tunisian franc follows faithfully the movements of French currency, so that no exact comparison can be drawn between the figures of 1917 and 1924.

More satisfactory evidence of prosperity was found in the increased production, while the excess of imports was due to the comparatively rapid development of the country’s resources— only a small part of the imports were for articles of luxury. External trade was increasingly with France, the combined result of a protective tariff and the low exchange value and instability of the franc. Next to France trade is chiefly with Italy, Great Britain and the United States. The British trade was in 1924 some 17% of the total. Considerable sums were spent, from the raising of loans, on railways, agriculture and colonisation by French settlers. The budget figures of 1924, for ordinary receipts and expenditure, showed a surplus of 40,413 fr. on a total revenue of 219,130,800 francs. Jn rors (with the franc at par) revenue had been 60,000,ooo fr. and the surplus 1,470,000 francs. BIBLIOGRAPHY.— Statistique générale annuelle de la Tuniste (Paris); Reports on the Trade of Tunisia (Dept. of Overseas Trade, London);

de Lanessan, La Tuntsie (Paris, 1917); J. Saurin, Le Peuplement francais en Tunisie (Paris, 1918); L. E. Douglas, Behind Tunisian Walis (London, 1923); A. Bernard, Enquête sur l'habitation rurale des indigènes de la Tunisie (Tunis, 1924); E. Fallot, “ La délimitation entre les territoires français et italiens du Sahara, ” Afrique Française, vol. 34 (Paris, 1924). (F. R. C.)

TUPPER, SIR CHARLES

(1821-1915),

Canadian statesman

(see 27.410), died Oct. 30 rors. TURBINE, STEAM (see 25.823 and 842, also STEAM ENGINE). The Reaction and Impulse Principles —Since the kinetic energy in a jet of steam issuing from a nozzle resides entirely in the velocity of the steam, it follows that to utilise the energy efficiently the steam must be brought as nearly as possible to rest. There are two methods by which this can be accomplished. Either the nozzle itself may be caused to move backwards with such a velocity that the issuing jet of steam remains stationary in space or on the other hand the jet of steam may be made to impinge on a moving blade system and its velocity thus abstracted. The words “reaction”? and “impulse” are used respectively to designate the two principles outlined, and the same terms have now come into general use as descriptive of turbines which embody, more or less, the respective principles. The development of the steam turbine as a practical machine dates from 1884 when Sir Charles Parsons patented a design in which the total range of steam pressure which it was desired to utilise was divided up into a large number of stages, the small velocity energy due to each partial drop of pressure being absorbed before the next partial drop occurred. The complete turbine thus consisted of a number of elementary turbines working in series, each of which, having only a small steam velocity to deal with, could operate efficiently with quite a low blade speed. The Parsons principle of “ pressure compounding ” a turbine in this manner can be taken advantage of in two ways. if each partial pressure drop takes place in a set of fixed nozzles,

TURBINE, STEAM

840

so that steam at the full velocity due to this drop impinges on the running blades, we have what is known as the pressure compounded “ impulse ” turbine. If, on the other hand, the steam is arranged to expand in both the fixed, and running elements of the turbine, so that the mov ing blades are impelled chiefly by the reaction of the steam issuing from them, the machine is called a pressure compounded “ reaction ” turbine. i The Parsons.—The inherently high efficiency of the reaction

turbine is the use of a succession of simple De Laval impulse wheels in series in the steam flow, 7.e., compounded on the Parsons principle of subdivided pressure drop, already described. All subsequent designers of successful impulse turbines have followed the lines laid down by Rateau, except as regards certain minor details of construction. Modern machines of the compound impulse type have been constructed in sizes up to 60,000 kw. capacity, and high efficiencies have been obtained. A feature that is peculiar to impulse turbines is the ease with which the admission of steam may be restricted to a part

water turbine was well known to engineers prior to 1883, ard

orly of the circumference of the bladed wheels, by admitting

for this reason the original compound steam turbine of Sir Charles Parsors was constructed as a “ reaction ” machine. The reaction principle as developed by him at Heaton Works, Newcastle-on-Tyne, has since been embodied in turbines aggregating millions of horsepower and is the principle employed in many of the largest and most efficient plants in the world. The first Parsons turbine was constructed in 1884-5. It consisted of a rotor about 3 In.in diameter carrying numerous rings of outwardly projecting brass blades which alternated with corresponding rings of fixed blades projecting inwards from the casing. Steam was admitted at the centre of the casing and flowed axially to the exhaust at each end. The partial expansion of the steam in each row of the fixed blading generated a velocity which was absorbed by the succeeding row of moving blades, while the similar partial expansion of the steam in the latter tended to urge them forward

steam through nozzle groups subtending only a small arc. It is now recognised that this results in a certain loss of efficiency due

VARIOUS

TYPES

OF TURBINE

by its reactive effect. The action of the steam was identical with that employed in the reaction turbine as built to-day. This early machine was directly coupled to a 4 kw. Parsons dynamo which it drove at a speed of 18,000 revolutions per minute. It used steam at a pressure of 60 Ib. per sq. in., and exhausted to atmosphere, its steam consumption under such conditions being about 200 lb. per kw. hour. It worked satisfactorily for several years, and, owing to its historic value as the prototype of the modern steam turbine, has since been placed in the South Kensington Museum (see fig. r on plate). The De Laval.—In the year 1887 De Laval patented an improved impulse turbine, the essential feature of which was the employment of a diverging nozzle to develop the velocity due to the full pressure drop of the steam and to direct the latter on to the blades of a sirgle wheel. The invention of the diverging nozzle was a highly important one in connection with impulse turbines, as without it only a small range of expansion could be efficiently utilised. Since in the De Laval turbine the whole of the energy of the steam was to be absorbed in a single stage, very high blade speeds were necessary, and these implied very high speeds of rotation. The wheel was of special design to withstand the severe centrifugal stresses involved and it was mounted on a very thin flexible shaft in order that it might be able to rotate about its own centre of gravity and principal axis when running. The wheel of a 5 H.P. turbine had a diameter to the centre of the blades of only 3-94 in., and ran at no less than 30,000 revolutions per minute. In a machine of 300 H.P. the wheel was 29-92 in. in diameter and made 10,600 r.p.m., giving a mean blade speed of 1,380 ft. per second. At such speeds of revolution direct driving was impossible, so De Laval incorporated double-helical gear in the design, giving a speed reduction ratio of about ten to one. Owing to greater limitations to permissible stresses in larger disks and to the difficulty of providing sufficient nozzle arca round the wheel, turbines of this type have not been constructed in sizes developing more than a few hundred H.P., but within their limitations they are moderately efficient machines. By the invention of the diverging nozzle and high-speed mechanical gearing, De Laval made two important contributions to turbine development. The Compound Impulse-—The typical impulse turbine of to-day owes its development principally to Prof. A. Rateau of Paris, whose work on steam turbines dates from 1894, when he first devoted his attention to simple impulse machines of the de Laval type. The essential feature of the modern Rateau 1 Throughout this article the value of one kilowatt is understood to equal 1-34 horsepower.

to the fan-action of the unoccupied blades, but on the other hand it permits the substantial advantage of using blades of a reasonably large height running at an adequate velocity at the high pressure end of the turbine, where the volume of steam to be passed through the nozzles and blading is but small. Another special feature of the impulse turbine is that, since the steam can be expanded in the nozzles to a moderate pressure before entering the body of the machine, no part of the main casing or of the wheels or blading system need be exposed to steam at the initial high pressure or temperature. The losses due to disk friction of the wheels running at high speeds in a comparatively dense medium, and those due to the comparatively high velocity of the steam through the blades, are however considerable. The Curtis ——The essential feature of the Curtis turbine was

the combination of the expanding nozzle of De Laval with “ Velocity compounded ” blading. The steam entered the blading of each stage at a comparatively high velocity, acting on a wheel carrying two or more rows of blades, alternating with fixed blades projecting from the casing. After acting on the first row of moving blades it was deflected back on to the second row by the fixed, or “ guide ” blades and so on, its velocity being continuously reduced. As many as four moving rows per wheel were adopted In some instances, and thus a high initial steam velocity could be dealt with by blading running at a very moderate speed. It is, however, very difficult to obtain a satisfactory efficiency with several rows of impulse blades working in series in this fashion, and the use of two rows only per pressure stage became general, reaction machine in which the alternate rows of blading are arranged to project

axially from opposed discs which rotate in opposite directions. Each disc is mounted on the end of a separate shaft carrying an alternate rotor, the two alternators working electrically in parallel and each contributing half the total output of the machine. The steam is introduced between the centres of the bladed discs and flows radially outwards, escaping at their circumference to a space connected with the condenser. Since both blade systems rotate, the relative blade speed is double that which would correspond to the speed of rotation at which each of the alternators is driven, consequently the required degree of pressure compounding can be obtained with a reduced number of blade rings. The similarity of the discs and the method by which the blade rings are fixed, morcover, practically eliminate difficulties due to distortion when running, and very fine clearances can therefore be used. Combined Types.—The velocity compounded wheel of Curtis is frequently used for the first pressure stage of a turbine of which the succeeding stages are either of the reaction or of the simple impulse type. The builders of compound impulse machines frequently seek higher efliciency by arranging for a certain amount of expansion of the steam in passing through the blading, thus partially adopting the reaction principle. The construction of turbines consisting of a multi-stage pressure-compounded high-pressure cylinder, followed by a low-pressure cylinder of the reaction type has been advocated and several such machines have been built. The idea of constructing a turbine in more than one cylinder is not new, having been first adopted by Parsons in the 2,000 s.h.p. turbine engines of the steam yacht.

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Fic. 2. 10,000 K.W., 3,000 r.p.m. Parsons Reaction Steam Fic. 1. The first type of Parsons machine (Science Museum, London). FIG, 3, 50,000 K.W. Parsons Reaction Steam Turbo Alternator, arranged Cross Compound on 3 shafts (I.P, and L.P. Turbo Alternator. in line), Speeds, H.P. and I.P. 1,800 r.p.m. L.P. 720 r.p.m.

TURBINE, STEAM * Turbinia ” in 1879 and in the 1,000 kw. turbines constructed for Elberfeld so long ago as 1900. In the combined type referred to, the impulse portion contains an unusually large number of wheels, which are of comparatively small diameter and turned from a solid forging. The blade speeds and steam speeds are

therefcre low and the disk friction is also less than would be the case with larger wheels. PRESENT

POSITION OF THE TURBINE

So rapid has been the development of steam turbines since the construction of the first turbine of ro H.P. in 1884 that their position as prime movers for the generation of electrical energy and many other purposes is now unrivalled. The successful development by Parsons of double-helical gearing for the transmission of large powers has permitted complete freedom of choice with regard to turbine speeds, so that the steam turbine, which is essentially a high-speed prime mover, can be employed

with advantage for driving machinery which is required to run at any moderate or even low speed. Mechanical gearing has, for example, supplied the solution to the problem of the continuous current turbo-dynamo. Moderate speed generators have now reached an output of 3,000 kw. from a single machine, the current collected from a single commutator being as much as 6,000 amp., and with the interposition of gearing such generators can now be turbine-driven. Turbines of only a few horsepower are now frequently used to drive fans, centrifugal pumps and auxiliary apparatus used in connection with power stations, and there appears to be almost no limit to the applicability of the turbine as a prime mover. For steam railway locomotives, the reciprocating engine still holds its own, but there are signs that the turbine may also find a place. Progress in this direction has been hindered by the two practical difficulties of reversing the locomotive easily, and of constructing a satisfactory portable condenser. The variable speeds at which locomotives must run also impose a condition adverse to the turbine. Nevertheless the construction of the Reid-Ramsay locomotive in Great Britain, and particularly of the Ljungström locomotive in Sweden, the latter operating in regular service with a fuel consumption only half that of recip? rocating-engine locomotives on similar duty, indicates a possible development in this direction (see RAILWAY ENGINEERING; LOCOMOTIVE DESIGN). Trend of Modern Design.—-The broad difference in the practices of to-day lies between the so-called impulse and reaction principles as applied to horizontal compound turbines. The arguments in favour of either type may be based either on preference for the mechanical construction appropriate to it, or on the theoretical efficiency to be obtained from it. The cost of manufacture is also an important commercial factor. This last consideration tends to the construction of impulse turbines with comparatively few stages, seven or eight being commonly employed in a medium-size machine. Such machines are short and compact, but the high steam velocities inherent in the design involve serious frictional and eddy losses both in the nozzles and blades. Trouble with erosion of the blades, especially towards the low-pressure end of the turbine where the steam is wet, is also sometimes experienced. The much lower steam velocities, due to the many times more numerous stages which are usual in a reaction turbine are favourable to efficiency. Moreover, since the steam velocities in a pair of fixed and moving blade rows in a reaction turbine are identical, considerations of symmetry would indicate that a higher efficiency would be obtainable than in a turbine in which the whole of the expansion per stage took place in one element (the nozzles). It is interesting to note that builders of reaction machines have experimented with different ratios of expansion in the fixed and moving elements, but up to the present the practice of using equal ratios has proved to be the best. An approach towards the reaction principle has

been advocated by some builders of impulse turbines, who consider it better to allow a certain amount of expansion to take place in the moving blades, but opinion is by no means unanimous on this point.

SAI

In modern practice the best results as regards blade efficiency are obtained with a ratio of blade speed to steam speed cf about o-85-0-90 in the case of reaction turbines, and o-43-0-48 in the case of impulse turbines having a single row of rotating blades after each set of nozzles. The diminution of nozzle efliciency with increasing velocity of the steam has been confirmed by recent investigations of the Steam Nozzles Research Committee? but there yet remains to be found the exact cause of this loss of efficiency and whether its reduction or elimination is possible. Another point which bears upon steam turbine

design is the experimental fact that the stage efliciency of a turbine is less with saturated or wet steam than when the steam is superheated. Thermodynamics of Turbine Design.—These problems are closely associated with the thermodynamics of turbine design.

All engineers engaged in such work are desirous of making the design of nozzles and blading a matter of exact calculation, and are also anxious to be able to agree upon a rational basis of comparison for the performances of different turbines working with different steam conditions. Up to the present these problems are not completely solved, the influence of the cumulative heat due to the inefficiency of the several stages of a turbine, and the experimental fact of decreased stage efficiency where wet steam is found, having made exact calculation somewhat difficult.

The proportion of the heat supplied to the steam in the boiler that is converted into useful work, does not depend upon the efficiency of the turbine only, but is a function of the conditions under which the heat is received and rejected. The efficiency of the thermodynamic cycle, which governs the relation between the available energy and the heat supplied to the steam, is explained in the article on thermodynamics (g.v.). Attention has been turned to the possibilities of increasing the available energy itself by extension of the thermodynamic cycle, more particularly in the case of land turbines which operate under much less restrained conditions than those prevailing at sea. By the use of higher pressures and temperatures (see STEAM ENGINE), the lowest possible vacuum and other devices, it is not unreasonable to expect to reach an overall thermal efiiciency (from fuel to electricity) of 30% or in other words an efliciency not inferior to the best attained by oil engines, even neglecting the oil consumed in cylinder lubrication. With regard to the possibility of increasing the thermodynamic efliciency by extending the lower end of the temperature range, which the turbine can utilise to an extent completely beyond the range of the reciprocating engine, a limit is imposed in this direction by the temperature of the cooling water available. A condenser temperature of about 70° F., corresponding to an absolute pressure of 0-36 lb. per sq. in., or a vacuum of 29-25 in. of mercury (barometer 30-00”)is about as low as can be maintained in

practice under favourable conditions. vacuum

demands,

however,

The effective use of such a

the provision

of adequate

blade

area and passage way for the low-pressure steam, which is of great volume. Throughout the stages of a turbine the criterion of efficiency is the ratio between the blade speed and the steam

speed, and the areas of the blade passages must successively increase In such a manner as to maintain the desired velocity ratio. The axial component of the steam velocity is carried on from stage to stage without appreciable loss. It is even built up to higher values as the peripheral and steam velocities increase. Its final loss at the exhaust end of the turbine, however, is practically unavoidable, and with the high peripheral speeds adopted in most low-pressure blading at the present day, an exhaust blade arca which gives a perfectly satisfactory velocity ratio may entail a loss of energy in the issuing steam of considerable amount. Such loss is augmented if, for the sake of weight or cost, any sacrifice is made of the final velocity ratios, which sacrifice might otherwise be a perfectly justifiable compromise. It is evident, therefore, that the exhaust end of the turbine requires separate treatment in its design from the point of view of limitation of the ‘See Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Jan. 1923 et seq.

842

TURBINE, STEAM

leaving loss, that is, the energy lost in the issuing steam. Broadly speaking, where high efficiency is the aim, this consideration imposes a limit upon the axial velocity of the steam in the final annulus. For a given vacuum, therefore, the area of the final annulus must increase in proportion to the output, and for a given output any increase in the vacuum involves an increase in the area of the final annulus. It will be seen, therefore, that any effort to extend the steam cycle, by lowering the temperature of condensation, brings at once into prominence the problem of the exhaust end. | Various expedients have been adopted for the purpose of surmounting this limitation. The area of the final annulus can be increased by increasing the blade height, and any means of

extending the height permissible on a given diameter is valuable for this purpose. Thus in many turbines, the blades of the last stages are made of varying section and discharge angle, permitting a greater length ratio without unduly increasing the centrifugal stress. Another method, commonly employed in both land and marine turbines, is to carry out the final stages of the expansion by divided flow, as for example in a double ended low-pressure turbine, the steam entering at the middle and flowing in each direction towards an exhaust at each end. In such an arrangement two exhaust pipes are provided and frequently two condensers. In another example of divided flow, some makers double only the last row or last few rows of blading, employing specially shaped passages to conduct the steam to the divided portion from the preceding stages. The design of exhaust end advocated by Baumann is yet another attempt to overcome the same difficulty. In this device instead of carrying over a part of the steam by special ports to additional blade rings, it is made to flow through inner annuli of the preceding blade rings, the vanes of these inner annuli being specially shaped to reduce the resistance involved to a minimum. If no restrictions are imposed, either upon the diameter of the exhaust end or upon the speed of revolution, a simple and probably the best solution of the exhaust area problem in large machines is to provide a separate low-speed turbine of large diameter for the final stages of the expansion, having blades of normal profile throughout, and correspondingly high efficiency. This low-speed turbine can be arranged in close proximity to the condenser, so as to reduce to a minimum both the length and the resistance of the exhaust passages. In the exhaust passage itself, it is not sufficient to provide area to reduce the mean velocity of the steam passing through it toa moderate value, but the exhaust steam must be distributed into the passages uniformly, so that the velocity is everywhere nearly the same. Neglect of this requirement leads to unnecessary hydraulic losses, and may also cause troublesome blade vibration in the final stages. Many attempts have been made to obtain the benefit of the diffuser principle, which has been so commonly adopted in the case of water turbines, but in the case of steam turbines without substantial success. In any attempt to carry this principle into effect, ample exhaust pipe area should be provided, with progressively larger cross section on the way to the condenser, so that the exhaust steam from the last row of revolving blades is gradually slowed down, with a possible recovery of static head. The practical difficulties in the way of such recovery of pressure in the exhaust steam are very great, and the best that can be done in this direction would appear to be to utilise the leaving velocity of the exhaust steam to overcome the resistance to flow in the exhaust passages, so that the absolute pressure at entry to the condenser is the same as at the exit from the blading. Modern practice with regard to these matters may, perhaps, be best exemplified by the large Parsons turbine plant (see fig. 3 on plate) erected (1925) in the new Crawford avenue power station at Chicago, where, after allowing about 3% for the total power absorbed by the auxiliaries, an overall thermal efficiency (from fuel to electricity) of 27-80% is anticipated. Developments in Marine Turbines.—The design of the earlier marine turbine installations was largely a matter of compromise 1 For a full account of this plant see Engineering, vol. 121, p. 283.

between the high speed of revolution desired for the turbine and the much lower speed which was more suitable for the propeller. Like all compromises, each side had to sacrifice something and although a satisfactory efficiency could be obtained in the case of high-speed vessels, it was realised that a much greater economy would be possible if both turbine and propeller could be arranged to run each at its own most eflicient speed of rotation. This was of course impossible so long as both were directly coupled to-

gether. By the introduction of gearing between the turbine and the propeller, the desired freedom of each with regard to speed was obtained, and thus the turbine not only became applicable to slow-speed vessels, but better results were obtainable even in

high-speed vessels, such as warships, liners and channel boats where the direct coupled drive was already firmly established. A small example of marine turbine reduction gearing had actually been built in 1897, in connection with a twin-screw Jaunch in which the Parsons Marine Steam Turbine Co. fitted aio H.P. turbine driving the two shafts by means of helical gearing with a speed ratio of 14:1. In 1909 the “ Vespasian,” a cargo vessel of 4,350 tons displacement, was fitted with geared turbines driving a single propeller. The vessel had previously been equipped with triple expansion reciprocating engines of the usual type and before these were removed they were put into perfect order and very careful tests were made to determine their efficiency and performance. The geared turbines drove the same

shaft and propeller as the engines had done and were supplied with steam from the same boilers. The power developed was about 1,000 H.P. and the shaft ran at 70 revs., the gear ratio being 19°9:1 in a single reduction. The installation of the turbines resulted in an increase of about one knot in speed for the same coal consumption, or alternatively a saving of 16° in fuel consumption, and the results of the trials were convincing as to the advantages of geared turbines over reciprocating engines. After the “ Vespasian ” had run 18,000 m. in regular service, the pinion was examined and found to be in perfect condition, the wear not exceeding 0-oco2 inches. (See Truns. I.N.A., 1910 and IQit.) . The success of the “ Vespasian ” led to rapid developments. Fn roro the British Admiralty introduced mechanical gearing, the torpedo boats “ Badger” and “ Beaver” being the first warships to be fitted with geared turbines. In these vessels each L.P. turbine drove its shaft directly but the H.P. and cruising turbines were geared to a forward extension of the L.P. turbine rotor. At full load about 3,000 H.P. were transmitted through each set of gearing. Six years later complete gear drives had become the standard practice for British war vessels of all types and by 1920 some 6s0 gears, transmitting an aggregate of 7,280,000 H.P., were fitted or on order for the Royal Navy (Tostevin, Trans. 1.N.A., 1920). Numerous tests have been carried out to determine the mechanical efficiency of large marine turbine reduction gears. The efiiciency of a single reduction gear at full load should be over 98°, and efliciencies of 98-5% have been recorded. With double reduction gear the efficiency is over 97%. These figures include bearing friction. No method of obtaining speed reduction by hydraulic or electrical methods has yet been devised which has approached the efficiency obtainable with mechanical gearing. Since the introduction of mechanical gearing the marine turbine has tended to become assimilated in type to the land turbine, the same conditions making for thermal efficiency, namely, high velocity ratios, high steam pressures and temperatures and high vacua, being equally applicable. An arrangement of turbines in which the high pressure portion of the expansion is confined to a small high-speed turbine, is advantageous for the improved thermodynamic systems already referred to in connection with land practice, and such systems with high boiler pressure and temperature are now on the point of being introduced into marine work. Assuming such a design to be adopted for an installation of about 5,000 s.h.p. with boiler pressure 500 lb., maximum temperature 700° F., feed heating to 350° F., and effective air pre-heating to give a boiler efficiency of about 84%, a careful estimate based

843

TURIN—TURKESTAN on known performance shows that, owing to the increased available energy of the steam and when burning oil, a fuel consumption of about 0-55 lb. per s.h.p. would be obtained for turbines only and about 0-65 1b. per s.h.p. for all purposes including auxillary machinery. An installation on such lines is now under construction for a Clyde steamer which will therefore be the pioneer of this improved method of propulsion. The machinery will have a propulsive s.h.p. of 3,500 on two shafts with a boiler pressure of 550 lb. per sq. in. and a temperature of 750° Fahrenheit. The principle of stage feed heating is to be adopted. The feedwater will first be heated to about 200° F. by the auxiliary exhaust steam and then raised to a higher temperature in a second heater by steam withdrawn from the turbines. The boilers will be coalfired and the air to the furnaces heated by the flue gases by means of air preheaters arranged in the uptakes. It is anticipated that this installation will satisfactorily demonstrate the practicality of applying the latest land practice to marine work and will pave the way to a considerable advance in economy in marine propulsion. Two examples of such applications, for total outputs of 27,000 and 13,500 S.H.P., were described in a paper read by Sir John Biles, and comparisons made on an economical basis with installations of other types for the same vessels with Diesel engines. When the difference in price between fuel oil and Diesel oil is taken into consideration and also allowance made for the cost of lubricating oil for the Diesel engines in excess of that for turbine, such proposals promise an economy in cost of fuel not inferior to that obtained with Diesel engines, whilst they permit the use of either coal or oil as fuel. Further the first cost of such an Installation will be considerably less than the cost of Diesel engines and little, if any, greater than that of a geared turbine installation of the usual design with low pressures and moderate superheat. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—K. Baumann, “ Recent Steam Turbine Practice,” Proc. Inst. E. E., vol. 48, p. 768 (1912); ‘“‘ Some Recent De-

velopments in Large Steam Turbine Practice,” Proc. Inst. E. E. (1921); H. L. Callendar, The Properties of Steam (Arnold 1920); Enlarged Steam Tables (Arnold 1924);S. S. Cook, ‘‘ Steam Turbines ”’ (Howard Lectures), Proceedings R.S.A. (1923); ‘‘ The Efficiency of Marine Auxiliary Machinery,” Section G., British Association at Southampton 1925; also Proc. Inst. Marine Engineers (1926); R. Dowson, ‘“ Maximum Commercial Efficiency of Steam Turbines,” World Power (Dec. 1923); W. J. Goudie, Steam Turbines, 2nd ed. (Longmans 1922); H. M. Martin, ‘‘ A New Theory of the Steam Turbine,” Engineering, vol. 106, p. 11 (1918); Hon. Sir Charles A, Parsons, ‘' Description of the Compound Steam Turbine and TurboElectric Generator,” Proc. Inst. M. FE. (1888); Lund Humphries, “Steam Turbines,”

(1924);

Trans. World Power Conference, vol.

A. Stodola, Die Dampfturbine,

2, p. 1477

6th ed., Julius Springer

(Berlin 1925); H. B. Tostevin, “ Experience and Practice in Mechanical Reduction Gears in Warships,” Trans. ILN.A. (1920); R. J. Walker and §. S. Cook, “ Mechanical Gears of Double Reduction for Merchant Ships,” Trans. I.N.A. (1921); Robert Warriner, “ Reduc-

tion Gears for Ship Propulsion,” Trans. Amer. (1921).

Soc. N.A. and M.E. (R. D.*; 8. S, C.)

TURIN, Italy (see 27.418), the fourth city of Italy, and the chief town of Piedmont, is a flourishing and important industrial centre, with a population in 1921 of 502,274 (517,140 including suburbs). The city has large motor car and artificial silk industries. A fine monument to Mazzini was erected in 1915 at the junction of the Via Pomba and the Via Andrea Doria, and a memorial to Italian cavalrymen to the east of the Palazzo Madama in 1923. TURKESTAN or TURKISTAN (see 27.419), the name applied to certain Russian territories just east of the Caspian. Russian Turkestan is divided between two independent Socialist Soviet republics, Turkmenistan and Uzbegistan, which, however, are constituent states of the U.S.S.R. Turkmenistan (capital Polterask, formerly called Askabad, with a population of 33,636 in 1925) comprises all the territories west of the Oxus and the south of the Kirghiz A.S.S.R., and also a small strip of territory on the east bank of the river. Uzbegistan (capital Samarkand, ! The relative commercial efficiency of internal combustion and steam engines for high-speed passenger vessels (Trans. Inst. Naval Arch., vol. 67, 1925).

with a population in 1925 of 72,370; largest town Tashkent, with population of 263,871), comprises the territory between the Oxus on the south, where it forms the Afghan frontier, Turkmenistan on the west, the Kirghiz A.S.S.R. on the north and the Kara Kirghiz autonomous province on the east. It includes nearly the whole of Bokhara, and the districts of Ferghana and Samarkand. Comprised within its territory is the autonomous Socialist Soviet Republic of Tadjikstan (capital Durhambe) which forms the southeastern portion of Uzbegistan. These administrative divisions correspond fairly accurately with the ethnographical distribution—the three republics being inhabited principally by Turcomans, Uzbegs and Tadjiks respectively. According to estimates of 1925, Turkmenistan had a population of 914,558, of which 79% were Turcomans and 5% Russians. Its exact boundaries had not been delimited. Uzbegistan had a population of 4,150,000, of which 3,575,000 were Uzbegs, and an area of 184,800 sq. miles (250,000 versts). Tadjikstan had a population of 609,0c0, of which 90% were Tadjiks, and an area of 31,680 square miles.

Political History.—After the revolution of March 10917 the Amir of Bokhara asserted his independence and on April 20 granted a constitution; while the Provisional Govt. of Russia convened an All-Russian Moslem congress in May 1917, which was eventually dissolved by the Bolsheviks in May 1ror8. It appears to have achieved little. Following the Bolshevik revolution, a Turkestan Moslem congress proclaimed, in Dec. 1917, the autonomy of Turkestan and Khokand, and established a Provisional Govt., which, however, was overthrown by the Bolsheviks in Feb. 1918. By May the Bolshevik forces had surrounded Bokhara, and in August they had established themselves in Merv. In November “ White ” forces recaptured Merv, only to lose it the following May, after which event a Turkestan Soviet Govt. was formed, which in August sent a diplomatic representative to Kabul. In Sept. rọrọ there was a successful anti-Bolshevik rising in Ferghana, which resulted in the formation of a Provisional Govt., which lasted until Feb. 1920. This month saw the consolidation of Soviet power in Turkestan; a rising in Khiva resulted in the abdication of the Khan, and by the end of the month only Bokhara maintained a precarious independence under the Amir. A successful Soviet campaign in August led to the establishment of the Bokharan Soviet Republic early in September. In the same month a treaty was signed with the Republic of Khwahrezm,which had been established after the capture of Khiva, and a similar treaty was signed with Bokhara the following March. In April (1921) a decree of the AllRussian Central Executive Committee formally established Turkestan as an autonomous Republic. In March 1922 Enver Pasha began a campaign against the Soviet forces in Bokhara, and he was only finally defeated on June 26 at Bairin; Enver was assassinated in the following August in Bokhara. Thenceforward all organised opposition to the Soviet administration ceased, though the Basmachi, adherents of the ex-Amir, continued to wage a guerilla warfare against the Soviet authori-

tics down tor925. In Oct. 1923 Khwahrezm was converted intoa Socialist Soviet Republic by a congress sitting at Kiev, and in Oct. 1924 the Republics of Turkmenistan and Uzbegistan were formally admitted to the Union of Socialist Soviet Republics. Natural Resources.—The climate of Turkomanistan and Western Uzbegistan is very dry; rain only falls in the spring and cultivation has to be carried on almost entirely by artificial irrigation. The average summer temperature is 30° C., and for the year 17°C. The population is largely nomadic, though wheat, rice, cotton and fruit are grown. Cotton planting has lately been intensively developed and large sums spent on irrigation; the area under cotton in 1926 has been estimated at 196,000 acres. Crops of all sorts are, however, uncertain owing to irregular water supply and to the ravages of locusts. Farther east the climate improves as country becomes more mountainous, and the Uzbegs (nomads of Mongol descent) breed horses, sheep, horned cattle and camels, and cultivate the river valleys. Artificial irrigation is being developed; the area so watered in the Oxus basin is to be increased from 405,000 ac. to over 3,000,000

by 1930 at a cost of £15,000,000. The area under cotton in 1926 had been increased to 1,515,000 acres. Fruit is also grown for export. The mineral deposits are as yet undeveloped, but uranium ore is sent to Kazan for the extraction of radium; coal, mercury, Glauber’s a

za

}

TURKEY

844

lost her provinces in the Balkan Peninsula west of the River Ma-

salt, rock salt and naphtha have been located. Silk weaving is still an important village industry. Communications.—Considerable developments in the communications of Central Asia have taken place. The northern branch of the Central Asian railway has been extended from Tashkent to Pishpek and a further extension to Alma-Ata (formerly Vyerni) has been begun. The southern branch has been extended along the Oxus to Termez and a further extension to Dyushambe is in hand. The whole permanent way has been overhauled, and regular express services with dining and sleeping cars run to Tashkent. Road construction is also being taken in hand, and from March to Oct. regular air services link up Khiva, Termez, Dyushambe, Pishpek, Kagan and intermediate towns.

BiBpLIOGRAPHY.—A.

J. Toynbee,

ritsa, in which the Turkish element was in a minority. The core of the Empire, including the former capital, Constantinople, as well as Eastern Thrace and Anatolia, is intact. The area of the Republic is estimated at 494,450 sq. milcs. Population—Under this head it is practically impossible to give even approximate statistics, owing to the succession of wars and forced migrations since rg11. Pending a census, the population of Turkey within her present frontiers at the present time may be conjectured to be between six and eight millions, though Turkish authorities give a much higher estimate. As regards towns, Constantinople, while ceasing to be the po-

Survey of International Affairs

1920-3, pp. 428-445 (1925), and 7d. 1924, pp. 217-228 (1926).

These works give some further references to the little literature available on this subject.

litical capital, has somewhat increased in population.

TURKEY (see 27.426).—The Republic of Turkey is bounded in Europe by Greece and Bulgaria, and in Asia by Syria, ‘Iraq, Persia and the Union of Socialist Soviet Republics. The member of the Union which adjoins Turkey is the Transcaucasian Federal

minorities, but has retained her commercial position, which depends on her geographical situation. Next to these two Cities, Samsun and Adana would appear to have the greatest future. Angora, the present political capital, is a small town, and is unlikely to increase in population very rapidly, as it has no commercial or other economic advantages.

Republic, or more accurately two of its constituent States, namely the Republics of Erivan and Georgia. Inside the Republic of

As contrasted with the former Ottoman Empire, the present

Georgia the port of Batum, together with that small part of the

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Fic. 4.—-Cross section of pair of expanding pulleys.

effect is obtained. Corresponding to step by step movement, fig. 2 shows an infinitely variable transmission by pulleys which forms part of the cotton spinning device of Houldsworth invented Just a century ago. Here the variation of speed between the driving and driven pulleys is obtained by shifting the belt to and fro along drums of nearly conical form. Fig. 3 shows a modern form of variable transmission as applied very successfully to motor bicycles. Here the pulley is of a “ V” shape, shown in cross section, and having driving and driven pulleys both capable of expansion and contraction. This expansion or contraction is efiected by shifting in one direction or another the conical movable side of the pulley. The closer the sides come together the greater will be the effective diameter of the pulley. This device is given in greater detail in fig. 4 which figure shows the pair of pulleys in cross section. In the latter diagram it will be scen that powerful springs ensure that the driving belt shall be gripped on both pulleys, an idle wheel running between two pulleys in order to accurately secure the correct location of the conical surface. A development is now taking place of this type of variable transmission for larger powers. Fig. 5 shows how the variation of the distance apart of the conical sides of a driving and driven pulley is effected when much power has to be transmitted. The hand wheel {w) operates a combination of worm and worm wheel (b) so as to turn to other worms (cic2) and thereby move levers,

Fic. 6,—Infinitely variable gear in which a friction roller is moved edgeways to and fro ona disk.

l

driver, the speed of the driven disk p is least when ¢ is nearest the edge, and the greatest driving force is then obtained. On the other hand, when r has approached towards the centre of the disk $ the greatest speed is obtained with corresponding reduction of driving force. The power transmitted with this gear is however comparatively small as it depends entirely on frictional contact of the surfaces and the wear of the frictional surfaces is considerable. A novel type of varjable friction gear was exhibited at the London Power Exhibition in 1885, operating a sackhoist. This transmission, although not of much practical importance, has certain interesting features, and although not used for power purposes has been largely employed as a spherical integrator. The principle of operation is the movement of a sphere which in the above case was a steel ball. This sphere was supported in a frame by four friction rollers, the frame being pivoted on a vertical axis. In contact with the sphere, in a horizontal plane, were the driving and driven rollers, the axes of which were at right angles to each other. By swivelling the frame the relative velocities of driving and driven wheels could be altered between any required velocity ratios; a discussion of the theory being given in Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc., Part IT. 1885. Mechanical —Variable transmission of mechanical kind can be said to be practically confined to the employment of trains of toothed wheels. ‘The most familiar case of all is that of a lathe headstock shown in fig. 7, in which by coupling up the largest

iS

=

| HHH

Fic. 7.—Variable transmission as used in a lathe headstock.

Fic. 5.—Diagram showing how the variation of the distance apart of the conical sides of a driving and driven pulley is effected when much power has to be transmitted.

step pulley to the spur whecl to the spindle of the headstock a direct drive is obtained from the speed pulleys. If this coupling is released and by means of a handle shown in the figure the back axle is approached to the main spindle so as to bring into engagement the two pairs of tooth wheels, the driving now takes place through the pinion driven by the step cone pulley

VARIABLE

TRANSMISSION

through the axle shaft, and back to the lay spindle. Increase of driving force is thus obtained which in the present example is nine times as great as by the direct drive. Fig. 8 shows the clutch type of motor car change speed gear box, in which the engagement of different ratios of spur wheels and pinions is obtained by sliding the teeth sideways into mesh with each other. This is called the “ clash ” engagement. In RSE

SESE

Se

AAALAC TAAL RAL GRIER ERTPR

GEARS

929

Westinghouse, of Sultzer Diesel and Dewa are on the same fundamental principle as the Tilling-Stevens electric transmission, namely, production of electrical current by a dynamo from an internal-combustion engine and the operation by an electric motor of some form of gearing to turn the wheels. In the electric railways there is no variable transmission apart from the driving motor itself, and as far as the writer is aware there are no cases on a large scale of an internal-combustion motor operating directly through self-contained electrical variable gear. Hydraulic—The last form of transmission, and in its development the most recent, is hydraulic transmission. A beauti-

ful device by Hastie was described as long ago as 1881 in the gth

Fic, 8.—Clutch type of motor car change speed gear box.

this diagram the whole transmission is shown out of gear. In another type of gear box no such sideway sliding takes place, the teeth of the respective wheels being always in mesh with each other. Change of gear is effected by sliding the different jaw clutches into engagement with each other. For many years inventors have aspired to produce an infinitely variable mechanical transmission on the principle of ratchet motion, in which by altering the positions of the fulcrum of a lever operating a driving pawl, relative variation of force and speed is obtained without any variation in the driving effort. One form of this gear of extremely interesting character is a French invention by de Lavaud which operated quite effectively on a small motor car. More attention, however, has been attracted by the torque converter of Constantinesco. The latter is a ratchet gear, but has practically no resemblance to the gear oÍ de Lavaud and appears to introduce an entirely new mechanical principle, in which as the velocity of the motor increases the inertia effect of a weight changes the position of the fulcrum of the lever and causes an impulsive effort to be given to what is called the secondary shaft by the movement of what is called the primary shaft. Although this gear has been applied both to a motor car and to a locomotive, as well as to other purposes with remarkable results, it can scarcely be said at present to be beyond the experimental stage, the difficulty of the invention being to find an effective friction ratchet, or as the inventor calls it, a “ mechanical valve,”’ which will satisfy all the conditions of practice. |

Pneumatic—Many

attempts have been made to introduce

pneumatic variable transmission since 1900 by Dunlop, Lenz, Lebach and others. The best account of these pneumatic devices as applied on a large scale to locomotives was given in La Revue Générale des Chemins de Fer, May 1923, by Brillé. Up to the present these devices, though extremely interesting and ingenious, have not proved efficient in practice. Electrical.— Various inventors have suggested continuously variable electric change speed gear. As already explained a mere reduction of effort by interposed resistance is not a true variable transmission, and all the most important examples of real variable electric transmission as on electric railways, is of essentially a step by step nature. Locomotive systems such as Crochat’s mine locomotive, the loco-tractor of Moyse, those of

Edition of The Encyclopedia Britannica, in an article on Hydromechanics. By means of two springs the stroke of the crank can be altered, when the crank pin slides in a groove. When the effort is great the springs are compressed and the stroke is increased correspondingly, enabling a constant hydraulic pressure to overcome a variable resistance. This resistance may vary within wide limits, with the corresponding economy in the matter of the fluid employed. In the foregoing case the working fluid was water supplied by a high-pressure hydraulic main on the principle first introduced by Armstrong. Modern hydraulic variable gear in which oil is the working fluid has been brought into extensive operation chiefly to enable electrical power to overcome very variable resistance without unduly causing a rise in the ampères transmitted. The principle of operation is exactly identical with the generation of electrical current by a dynamo, which current is transformed into mechanical effort by an electrical motor. In the case of hydraulic transmission, however, a variable stroke pump is employed to produce a flow of incompressible fluid, generally oil, which operates in a hydraulic motor. Thus it is only necessary to effect a change in the stroke of the pump when any required hydraulic pressure can be obtained without unduly increasing the driving effort on the pump. Hydraulic variable gear has been employed for a great variety of purposes such as cranes, lifts, winches, tipping wagons, rail cars, gun mountings, planing and broaching machines, swing bridges, etc. The chief types of these gears may be distinguished as parallel and radial. Fig. 9 shows a section of the JanneyWiliams gear (either pump or motor) which is an example of the former type, and it will be seen that the variation in effort is attained by varying the angle of what is known as the swash

Fic. 9.—Section of the Janney-Williams hydraulic variable gear.

plate, with the result of altering the stroke of the pistons. As the streke is reduced the working pressure can be increased; thus when the stroke is very small a very great pressure can be produced and consequently great resistance can be overcome. The necessary valve action is obtained by causing the opening at the inner end of the cylinders to pass alternately in succession supply and exhaust ports. Fig. 10 shows the operation of one radial type pump. The cylinder body revolves about a fixed axis which forms a cylindrical valve. As the cylindrical body revolves, the working {luid is alternately admitted from and exhausted into the two ports aand p respectively. The fluid comes in under no pressure from the

VARIETY

930

port a and is driven out under any required pressure from the port $ along the shaft. In order to obtain any required variation of pressure the frame to which the connecting rod ends are attached is made to pivot about the fixed centre c by a rod attached

THEATRE While the floating ring is found to give almost indefinite life to the pump there was a characteristic hum or noise which was after years of research traced to the same deformation that produces the sound in a bell. The latest form of radial variable stroke radial pump, while employing the same type of cylindrical valve is found, when properly designed, to be almost silent. The floating ring is dispensed with, variation of stroke being obtained by allowing the pistons, which work inwardly instead of outwardly, to be operated by the equivalent of a crank in the form ofa live ring mounted with roller bearings on a compound eccentric. The compound eccentric consists of two parts of equal eccentricity, the stroke varying mechanism being arranged to effect rotation of these two parts in opposite directions with the result that the resultant eccentricity may be varied at. will irom zero to maximum in either direction.

This gear was fully

described in Engineering, Oct. 16 1928. BiBLIoGRAPItY.—A. Graham Clarke, Text Book on Motor Car Fngineering, vol. 1, Construction (1911); EF. Butler, Transmission Gears (1917); F. D. Jones, Afechanisms and Mechanical Movements (1918); W. H. Berry, Modern Motor Car Practice (1921); G. Constantincsco, Variable Transmission for Aufomobdiles (1924); G. H. C. Hartman, PIN

Les Mécantsmes (1925).

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Fic. pump.

10,—Diagram

showing

the operation

of one

radial

type

to the upper end of the frame. In the middle position there is obviously no stroke, and when the neutral position is passed the direction of flow is reversed. Two views of another type of radial stroke pump are shown in fig. 11 (Hele-Shaw Pump), the left-hand view being in half section, the lower portion of which shows ffa revolving case

k

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Fic. 11.—Two views of the Hele-Shaw radial stroke pump.

called the “‘ floating ring.”” The sectional portion in the view shows that this floating ring is carried on ball races r and y, their object being to reduce the frictional wear of the rollers or slippers by allowing the floating ring to rotate freely with the cylinder body, in which the pistons are carried. If the floating ring is moved bodily along guides on the line a-b (shown in the other view) the stroke of the pistons and the fuid pressure can be varied as required, just as in the previous example. The action of the fixed cylindrical valve is exactly the same as in fig. 10, the employment of the four cylindrical passages in the shaft instead

of two being simply a matter of design.

(H. S. H-S.)

VARIETY THEATRE (see Music Harris, 19.87).—The history of the European variety theatre since rọrr is a regrettable chronicle of the gradual decline of an old and hitherto extremely popular form of entertainment, and its waning hold upon the imagination and support of the public at large. In the quarter of a century preceding the War the variety stage generally had evolved to a position of paramount importance in the entertainment worid. It touched the zenith of its popularity in the first decade of the 2oth century since when it has retreated from popular favour with markedly greater rapidity than it had previously advanced. The reasons for this decline are manifold. In the first place and to the most superficial observation, it is clear that the principal requisites of successful variety entertainment, that is, performers of exceptional ability endowed with magnetic personalities, have not been produced during the present century in sufficient numbers to maintain the music hall as a whole in its former pre-eminence. In the case of the British industry, for example, the great artists of the earlicr generation, who delighted the public from end to end of Great Britain and whose names were household words throughout the Empire, have not been replaced in any sense by the younger generation. The death in the early years of this century of Dan Leno, the greatest, probably, of all entertainers in this particular ficld was an irreparable loss and in its way marked the beginning of the end of the era of variety. Leno possessed in the greatest measure that personal histrionic art which, while it inspired laughter, touched also often so nearly on tears, The Art of Personal Explottation.—The art of the music hall is essentially the art of personal exploitation. It differs from its sister art of the theatre in that the varicty artist has to create his own mood almost without the aid of any intermediary. He is directly face to face with his audience and, broadly considered, his principal effects are those of personality accompanied, of course, by technique. But, primarily, it is the individuality of the performer rather than his choice of material which determines his success or failure. Leno, like all the finest artists of the music hall, such as the French clown Grock, relied but little upon his material. But his self-exploitation was entertaining and apparently illimitable. Leno stands, and will probably stand for all time, as the personification of the British music hall at its best and most successful. Marie Lloyd, who died in 1923, was another artist whose popularity was only equalled by her remarkable abilities. She, like Leno, was unsparing of her gifts and like him, too, she had at command that authoritative persuasion of an audience which is so rare a gift but which is always essential to the highest achievement of the histrion. Another supreme product of the British music hall was Albert Chevalier whose Cockney characterisations expressed the London of his time as directly, as intelligibly and as sympathetically as

VARIETY Yvette Guilbert expressed the Paris of the ’90’s. Chevalier possessed a remarkable gift for assuming character as well as for exploiting his own characteristics. His art therefore partook, more than did that of many other leading music hall performers, of the “ legitimate ” drama. Among the great impersonators one who has left the variety stage the loser for her retirement is Vesta Tilley, who, in her own ficld of male impersonation, stands unapproached. All these artists, with many others who have died or retired and others who still appear, were the direct product of a régime very different from that obtaining in the present world of vaudeville. To understand how such a great number of performers could have appeared in one generation, it is necessary to glance back at the evolution and conditions of the theatre which produced them. Origins of the British Music Hall—The British music hall, like its continental similars, derives primarily from the smoking concert or “‘ free-and-easy ”’ of early Victorian times. To these informal concerts, usually associated in the first instance with licensed premises, came a number of amateurs or semi-professional entertainers who plied their trade of amusement in a more or less haphazard way. That is to say, the majority were not in the true sense of the word professionals at the outsct. Those who merited popular appreciation naturally became assets of the managements concerned and gradually attained professional status owing to the continuous demands upon their services. From such humble beginnings was the great British music hall industry developed. The next phase followed naturally from the first. The “ free-and-easy ” established itself as the small music hall, giving regular nightly or twice-nightly performances, and by the middle of the roth century numerous music halls were carrying on a prosperous trade. The artists of this régime were in direct contact with their audience. They had to establish themselves as entertainers or step down to give place to others more capable. But the decentralised control of the early music halls (and this is true of the continental houses as well as the British) meant that cach proprietor sought for talent suited to his own particular public. It was therefore possible for an individual artist to familiarise himself with a more or less specialised audience. If he succeeded he might move on to wider conquests. But he had ampler opportunities than does the variety performer of to-day of testing his personality, his talent and his material and in winnowing the chaff from the grain. | The managements, too, were in a more direct relationship to their immediate public than are the directorates of the big syndicates who nowadays control practically the whole world of variety. Thus a more intimate personal relationship, so vital to successful showmanship, was a feature of the earlier variety world and thus were brought to [fruition the talents of the great race of music hall performers.

Syndicates and the Decline «of Variety—-When once these artists had created a prosperous industry, however, a system of managerial exploitation very different from this personal direction began to evolve. During the early years of this century vast syndicates ‘‘ cornered ” variety. The inevitable sequel to this amalgamation and centralisation of control was reckless speculation in the leading personalities. ‘ Star ” salaries beyond the most avaricious dreams of the old performers began to be the order of the day. Artists of any standing were given longdate contracts at long prices. The few big syndicates rivalled one another in luring under their management all established artists. But that very lack of personal management, so evident in the syndicate system, was destined to affect disastrously the prosperity of the industry which the syndicates monopolised. For syndicate control has notably failed to encourage and advance the art of the emergent performer and in the course of a very few years the race of the giants was without succession. With a decreasing number of powerfully attractive personalities, the music hall began to languish. : The internationalisation, or rather denationalisation, of the music hall has further depreciated its attractiveness, especially in so far as European countries are concerned. America with

THEATRE

931

its cosmopolitan public and with its very considerable proportion of Jewish theatrical patrons is in a somewhat dilferent position. In Great Britain, France, Germany and Austria, however, there is no doubt that the music hall since roro has suffered from the decrease in the embodiment of national character and characteristics on the various vaudeville stages. This is another aspect of the changed conditions of financial control which has led to a measure of international exchanges of talent comparatively unknown in former years, Inthe British music hall, for example, artists like Sir Harry Lauder, J. W. Rickaby, George Robey, George Formby, Harry Weldon, Nellie Wallace, Lottie Collins, Louie Freear and many others characterised or caricatured a person, a district or a race easily recognisable and intimately observable by the public. They made the art of the music hall as familiar almost as the very households of the public. The cosmopolitanisation of varicty has produced nothing to replace this attractive homeliness.

Revival of Vaudeville 1n France-—The character song is the backbone of the best and most successful of music hall entertainments and, while the dearth of this 1s perhaps more than anything else responsible for the waning attraction of presentday vaudeville, it is to be noted that in France a most significant revival of the typically national lyric, suitably set to music, has sponsored a very definite revival of popular esteem of variety. French vaudeville is indeed recovering rapidly its hold on the public. Like the British “ free-and-easy ” the French café-concert was almost wiped out. Fortunately, however, extinction was not complete and the recent success of the great Parisian music halls, Olympia and the new Empire, have profited by their encouragement of French music hall singers. The chanson has again become a part of French national life. This revival was in part assisted by the encouragement of several of the favourite artists of an earlier generation to reappear on the music hall stage. Some of these chansonniers and the songs thus resurrected, renewed their former success in surprising fashion. Mayol and Yvette Guilbert, returning once more to the scenes of their former triumphs, are outstanding examples of this. Their performances have encouraged a number of new lyrists, composers and singers to develop their art to the advantage of the music hall industry as a whole. Aristide Bruant, the inimitable ballad singer of the Montmartre of other days, not long before his death in 1925 returned to delight the Parisian public and added a notable quota to the revival to neglected songs of the boulevard. The French Press has been of great assistance to the new growth of interest in the music hall. Whereas in England the music hall, although tolerated and occasionally patronised by distinguished theatrical journalists, has never been taken seriously as a department of theatrical art, in France informed criticism and helpful publicity have been a feature of modern Parisian and provincial journalism. Another factor which has undoubtedly furthered the cause of French vaudeville has been the establishment in Paris of permanent circuses. These have created a desire for, and developed the talent of “dumb acts. ” It is true that a tentative effort was made to re-introduce several of the once famous personalities of the music halls to the London public. Arthur Roberts, Charles Coborn and others were persuaded to appear in their former successes, being billed as“ veterans of variety.” But the British impresarios concerned in this venture seemed more concerned to show these masters to the public as oddities or freaks of entertainment and to indicate to the audience the strange tastes of the preceding generation than, following the example of their French colleagues. to revitalise the most important province of the art of the music hall, the characteristic song. Syndicate control led also to great changes in the atmosphere of the entertainment houses. Vast palaces replaced the simple halls of other days and thus decreased the intimacy of contact between the stage and the public, thus requiring a broadening of the illusional effects of individual artists, whose very audibility indeed became menaced by the increasing size of the halls in which they were called upon to perform. The material or “ numbers ”’ used by artists have been disastrously “‘ commercialised ”

VARIETY

932

in like manner under the new system. Formerly any artist had virtual monopoly of his “ business,” “ patter,” ‘‘ props” or songs. Now these are freely used by almost all comers who care to pay the fee for the performing rights. There is thus little encouragement to the individual artist to obtain or to the composers to provide first-rate exclusive material. Syndication has indeed reacted throughout most unfavourably upon the artistic appeal of vaudeville. The Bane of ‘Refinement.”’—In response to sundry puritanical attacks on popular entertainment the refinement of the music hall began with this century. Artistically it may be said to have commenced with the appearance of Albert Chevalier. This great creator of Cockney types was, however, in no way responsible for the development of the so-called refining influence which robbed the music hall of its happiest and healthiest attributes and led to the transplantation to its stage of the worst elements of the concert-room and drama-house. Inferior musical turns, poor sketches performed by merely adequate “ legitimate ” artists were

among

the phenomena

of attempted

refinement,

which actually only resulted in debasing the music hall as a whole. The introduction of eminent dramatic artists in feeble oneact plays has done nothing to reflect credit on either the artists or the managements concerned.

For it must be noted that the

advent of artists with great reputations from other spheres of the entertainment world, whether dramatic or musical, has almost invariably been considered an act of condescension. This is generally unfavourable to the efficiency of variety because the technique of the music hall is a technique of its own, requiring immediate rupport between audience and player and a much more direct liaison between stage and audience than does the ordinary or concert performance. This technique is difficult to acquire and the only theatrical artists who have continued to hold the interest of the music hall public have been those who, like Chevalier, adapted, broadened and sharpened the dramatic technique to suit the needs of their new environment. The names of notable theatrical artists on the bills of the variety theatres have often proved a false promise, since the work which they have contributed has very seldom been up to the standard required. The introduction of big names unbacked by the “ goods ” has undoubtedly done definite harm to the industry. This is another aspect of the refinement of the music halls which must be in large measure ascribed to the introduction on the managerial side of amateur showmen, recruited from the ranks of accountants, lawyers and other professional men associated with the controlling syndicates, who have taken the place of the individual proprietors of other days. Thus the decline of the British music hall has been brought about, and whereas French cabaret is continually providing new blood to revivify the French music hall no such revival is noticeable in Great Britain. For British cabaret seems content to avail itself of cosmopolitan and mostly American artists whose material is largely negroid or Semitic of inspiration and certainly reflects little or nothing of the characteristics of the various British folk-traditions. In Germany and Russia the divorce between the music hall and cabaret is almost complete, the Middle European music hall comprising almost entirely “‘ dumb acts.” Not only have theatrical illusion, strong character and robust comedy been driven out as a result of alleged respectability, but the characteristic costumes of the acrobats have given place to shirt and trousers or to the even more incongruous evening dress, and in other respects the old pression glamour has been almost abolished. Officious interference which, with the consent of the syndicated directorship, thus made itself felt inside the music hall was also busy outside. The sale of intoxicating liquors, formerly an integral part of a variety entertainment, was soon limited to the bars and eventually the London County Council, the most important licensing authority, whose example was naturally followed by similar bodies in other districts, prohibited the sale of intoxicating liquors in all variety houses. Only towards the end of 1925 was this harassing, inconsistent and unfair regulation

THEATRE removed after sustained agitation carried on during a number of years by the entertainment proprietors immediately affected and backed by a considerable body of public opinion. Other Adverse Influences —The above must be considered the principal factors contributory to the decline in popularity of the music hall. But social changes have also had their effect. The World War provided a vast influx of prosperity to most types of entertainment. Concentrations of troops near the large towns, the passage of innumerable colonial and foreign migrants and the general desire to escape for a few hours from the stern realities of existence by the aid of entertainment, led to the expenditure at the box offices of a great deal of money which otherwise would never have found its way thither. But War-time vicissitudes undoubtedly reduced the artistic level of variety. A large number of entertainers were drawn to the colours, many gave their lives on the various European fronts and the careers of many more were harshly interrupted. The later post-War years, which have witnessed a continuation of the pre-War decline of varicty, have witnessed a very definite revival of the drama proper and of musical comedy. These have usurped to some extent not only the popularity but even the premises which were formerly devoted to vaudeville entertainment. This is distinctly scen in London where the Hippodrome is a more recent convert to the successful American

type of musical comedy, which seems destined to oust the formerly popular Viennese type of operetta. The London Pavilion is now most successfully devoted to spectacular revue of the more cultivated type and the Palladium frequently houses revue productions of a more democratic style. The Empire, formerly a famous and much frequented variety theatre, has recently been the home of film and musical productions, even of “ straight ” drama. Innumerable provincial houses have likewise succumbed to the superior attraction of revue and cinema. A remarkable exception to the general enfeeblement of vaudeville is the London Coliseum which, under the direction of Sir Oswald Stoll, has achieved a leading rôle in the entertainment world of London. This house, however, cannot be considered as a typical modern music hall. It is indeed a law unto itself, the individual product of discerning and novel showmanship. While its performances consist largely of variety turns, these are frequently reinforced by novel features. The frequent appearance

at this house of items from the repertory of the Diaghilev Ballet, Comédie Française, productions by specialised dramatic troupes (Sumurun by a German company, the Scottish National Players, etc.) have added to the reputation of this unique and popular place of amusement. Considerable developments of transport, excursion and holiday facilities both by rail and road, have naturally reacted

upon

theatrical entertainment. The great increase of athletic opportunities has caused sport to draw its quota from indoor amusements. The rapid growth of the cinema as a popular relaxation was probably the most serious rival of vaudeville in the years immediately preceding the War. But present-day tendencies seem to suggest that the cinema has touched the zenith of its popularity and the fact that many of the big film houses are interpolating variety acts into their programme (this is especially the case in America) has led those interested in the welfare of the variety artists to claim that the future of vaudeville may well lie in the direction of a considerable co-operation between this and the motion-picture industry.

Rise of Revue.— In spite of the enormous developments of the cinema during the period which we are considering, it is probable that the most serious rival of the music hall at the present time is revue. Attempts had been made before the War to promote entertainments in some way similar to the performances which have achieved conspicuous success on the Continent, either in intimate form, as the Capucines or Palais Royal (where scénes d'actualité were the principal items) or in spectacular style as at the larger music halls, Folies Bergére or Casino de Paris. Revue had long been a favourite pastime of the continental theatre-goer. It was, however, not until ror4 that revue as an

art-form caught the imagination of the British public to any

VARIETY considerable extent. With C. B. Cochran’s production of Odds and Ends at the Ambassadors’ Theatre, revue may be said to have been launched on its successful career in this country. This entertainment and its immediate successors were in the nature of revues intimes, but the first experiments proved emphatically successful and so much to the liking of the public that numerous other inipresarios rapidly adopted this type of entertainment and proceeded to exploit it both in the London area and throughout the country. Revue evolved from the intimate to the spectacular with astonishing celerity. It is probable that the emotions of Wartime were in a measure responsible for the immediate and ready acceptance granted to this new type of entertainment. However this may be, revue certainly displaced both the legitimate drama and the older type of variety entertainment to a great extent in the various amusement resorts in Great Britain. Unfortunately the apparent ease of production and the elasticity of the revueform led to its abuse by a number of inexperienced or incompetent managers. But revue at its best as an intermediate form between drama and the typical music hall bill has certainly recommended itself to a large and discerning body of theatregoers. The ideal revue is no mere haphazard collection of numbers, no mere pot-pourri of music hall turns, dramatic sketches, dances and so on. Its ingredients need the most careful mixing. It must develop in as orderly a manner as a symphony, and the laws of revue composition, although unwritten, are as exacting as those of a pictorial design. In the past few years some of the purest gems of theatrical art have been seen in revue productions. Many scenic artists, actors, dancers and technicians of the theatre have developed their talents in this field and not a few others have found here a means for fuller self-expression than they have discovered in any other department of the theatre. (Ci. Bs) THE

VARIETY

THEATRE

IN THE

UNITED

STATES

Beginnings —As in England and on the continent, variety was one of the very carly forms of theatrical entertainment in the New World. During the last decade of the 18th century, in most of the larger cities, resident theatrical companies presented alternately legitimate production, generally farces and comedies, and variety programmes. Company members and guest stars visited from one city to another, augmenting these local stock companies. In the last few years of the 18th century and the first of the 19th, varicty became permanently dissociated from dramatic and operatic production, of which until then it had been an interlude or added attraction, and there began the policy of assembling complete programmes of music hall turns and specialty artists of varied talents. At the beginning, variety was a theatrical stepchild. The halls in which variety had its birth in America were miserable enough, hardly better than stables. Frequently they were on the second storey, over stores, in rooms originally intended for dance halls. Such “theatres” generally eventuated casually, instigated largely by dance hall patrons who conceived the notion that they could jig, or sing. A brisk trade in refreshments augmented the rather informal entertainment. To facilitate this, patrons sat at tables. Sawdust or sand besprinkled the floor. Later variety theatres often had a museum adjoining, in which an exhibition of freaks, human and otherwise, served to amuse and attract the overtlow. The Period of Barnum and Tony Pastor —By 1830 variety was an established and flourishing theatrical enterprise. Phineas T. Barnum, the great circus man, was early attracted to this form of entertamment. In 1835 in a hall on Chatham Street, New York City, his variely endeavours began with the exhibition of Joice Heth, later supplemented with Signor Vivallia, juggler and equilibrist of the Cinquevalli order. Adding several other attractions, he took this show on tour the following year, playing in a tent around the cast and south, a forerunner of his circus activities. Back again in 1841, he continued variety for a short time in Vauxhalls Gardens, New York City. Following Barnum there were numerous adventurers in vari-

THEATRE

933

ely. Between the days of his initial show in 1835 and the opening of Hoym’s theatre in 1858, the first playhouse built expressly for variety, every one of New York’s sixteen theatres was at one time or another given over to variety. But it was not until after the Civil War that variety acquired any firm foothold among American theatricals. In 1866 Tony Pastor, famous New York showman, took over the Hoym Theatre which he held for nine years. The period was rich in personalities, in artists not excelled among stars of modern vaudeville. Many who later made their mark in legitimate drama were seen singly and in pairs in “acts?” at Tony Pastor’s, at Niblo’s Gardens, at the Eagle theatre. Such supreme entertainers as Harrigan and Hart; Weber and Fields, whose low buffoonery was infinite artistry; the Four Cohans; Flo and May Irwin; Nat C. Goodwin, Jr.; the glorious blonde Lilian Russell; Montgomery and Stone; Hallen and Hart; Pat Rooney; Evans and Hoey; Maggie Kline; and Tony himself, were a few of the lights of those days. Many of the prime successes in American variety were teams. Whereas the ballad and the popular song were the mainstay of European variety, the comedy sketch, generally enacted by two or more, was the piece de resistance upon Amcrican programmes.

Often whole families appeared in such acts, as the Four Cohans, the Four Mortons, the Lauri Family and the Vokes Family. Faundeville—j]ust when the word “ vaudeville” began to be used in this country is not recorded. A program for Vauxhalls Gardens for August 1 1842 uses the word, and Tony Pastor employed it several times in 1877. In following years other managers took it up. But until the ‘8o0’s it had no particular significance; it was merely a change from the overworked word “ yariety.” Vaudeville as something to be distinguished from variety, as a revised and refined edition of the latter, came into being in 1882, conceived by a Boston showman, B. F. Keith, whose name has gone down in American theatrical annals as

the father of modern vaudeville. He was an ex-circus man who started on his own as proprictor of a small dime muscum and varicty show in a meagre store building in the heart of Boston. His emporium differed from other variety houses in one particular fcature—it was uniquely clean. In 1885 he was joined by Edward F. Albee, his eventual partner and successor, and present head of the Keith-Albee vaudeville circuit. Together they fought for Keith’s dream of putting variety on a par with the legitimate theatre, a dream never quite attained but admirably approached. In 1887 Messrs. Keith and Albee presented the first variety sketch with a legitimate star as principal. The star was Fran-

cesca Redding, a popular actress of the day. The success of that venture opened the way for a long parade of legitimate stars across the vaudeville stage. E. F. Albee enticed such dramatic

celebrities

as

Maurice

Barrymore,

David

Warfield,

Ezra Kendall, Eben Plympton. An event of 1897 was the presentation of Clara Morris, then at the height of her legitimate career, in vaudeville at Keith’s Union Square, New York. Her appearance moved one New York critic to write: “ Vaudeville just now seems to be the goal of dramatic aspiration. We may yet see the day when the Divine Sarah will take it. But I can’t help saying that I think not.” Despite his thoughts, a few years later Bernhardt became one of the highest salaried and most popular headliners to tour the Keith Circuit. Edna Goodrich, Loie Fuller, Marie Tempest, Lily Langtry, Mrs. Leslie Carter and Phyllis Neilson Terry were a few more of the celebrities to grace the spotlight of American vaudeville. Concert and opera

stars, legitimate

actors

and

actresses

no longer

spurn vaudeville engagements; rather it has become the logical answer to a lull in their ordinary activities. Public demands have made it necessary to augment motion pictures with vaudeville. This condition has resulted in several screen and variety mergers and a policy of presenting both forms of amusement at the majority of vaudeville houses. This idea seems destined, by force of popular demand, to rule, with exceptions only in the larger cities, in all variety houses, thereby combining two extremely popular theatrical factors on one programme. (M. A. L.)

934

VASSAR

COLLEGIE—VENEREAL

DISEASE

the period 1910-

(Royal Philharmonic Society, 1922) might be described as the

25 the endowment of Vassar College grew from about $1,500,ooo to $7,000,000 with goo ac. in campus and farm. Student enrolment, formerly limited to 1,000, was increased to 1,150. The college has always maintained a full roster, admitting new students whenever vacancies occur. Some of the new students each year are admitted in order of application, provided they pass the entrance examination; but about one-third of the entering class is admitted on competitive examination. Plans call for enrolment exclusively by compctitive examination after 1928. The funds available for student aid in one form or another amounted in 1926 to over $450,000. The physical equipment of the college, exclusive of faculty residences, includes 30 buildings, seven of them dormitories, a library containing 132,000 catalogued books and a farm of 675 ac., with vegetable gardens and a model dairy. Student self-government ts in effective operation, the students themselves assuming responsibility for most of the regulations governing attendance and conduct, for the management of the Students’ Building and a Club House conducted for the maids; also for all extra curriculum activities, including the providing of various money-making occupations for self-supporting students. The price for rooms and board is the same for every student. The rooms are selected by lot. There are no sororities or other clubs to which membership is not absolutely open. No fee may be charged for admission to any campus building. All these facts help to maintain the democratic spirit of which the college is justly proud. The increased endowment mentioned includes $3,000,000 pledged in ro21-2 for the increasing of teachers’ salaries. The college in 1925 received a gift of $550,000 by Mrs. John W. Blodgett, of Grand Rapids, Mich., for the erection and endowment of a laboratory of ‘ euthenics,” a term comprising the sciences which contribute most directly to physical efficiency. This development is in keeping with the wishes of Matthew Vassar, founder of the college, to the effect that the curriculum should provide, in addition to other studies, those related to the fullest development of the primary interests of women in

deep breath of content which a man draws on recovering the wholesome sanity of the English country. A Mass in G Minor

VASSAR

COLLEGE (see 27.946d).—During

relation to parenthood and the family. (B. J.*) VATICAN: sce PAPACY. VAUGHAN WILLIAMS, RALPH (1872), British musical composer, was born at Down Ampney, Glos., Oct. 12 1872. He early determined on the pursuit of music, but his development as a composer was slow. At Trinity College, Cambridge, where he became Mus. Bac. in 1894, and at the Royal College of Music, where he studied with Parry and Stanford, his work made little mark. He seemed singularly lacking in the power of clear selfexpression. The revival of English folk-song, however, in which he became absorbed, unlocked his latent creative powers. The Norfolk Rhapsodies for orchestra (founded on folktunes), and the symphonic impression Ji the Fen Country, on original themes of folk-song character, show his development. Other types of distinctively national music, notably the Tudor Church composers and Purcell, strengthened his technical resources and helped to determine his own style in the direction of vigorous melodic outline, the free use of model scales, an unflinching contrapuntal texture and a high-handed attitude towards harmony. Among poets, Walt Whitman specially attracted him, and his setting of Toward the Unknown Region, for chorus and orchestra (Leeds Festival, r907), made its impression through the unaffected and sincere aspiration of the music and its close contact with the poem. A Sea Symphony for soprano and baritone soli,

choir and orchestra (Leeds Festival, roro), with the words selected from several poems of Whitman, was the crowning achievement of this period. A Londen Symphony for orchestra only (produced at the Queen’s Hall, London, 1914) is a vividly imaginative piece in which poetry is discovered in such common places of London life as the noise of traffic and the street urchin playing a mouth-organ. During the World War he served in the R.A.M.C. and later gained a commission as a gunner. Afterwards he took up his music where he had left it. A Pastoral Symphony for Orchestra

(Westminster Cathedral, 1923) ts one of the noblest pieces of pure church music since Byrd’s setting of the liturgical text for five voices. A choral work called an oratorio, Sancta Civitas (Oxford, 1926), shows the composer dwelling in a phase of mystic thought which he had already touched on in the scene for the stage from Tke Pilgrim's Progress, called The Shepherd of the Delectable Mountains. The ballad opera, Hugh the Drover (words by Harold Child), belongs to the earlier period when folklore and folk-songs were the primary inspiration of his work. As musical director of the English Folk Dance Society Vaughan Williams carried on the work which Cecil Sharp initiated. He also became conductor of the London Bach Choir and professor of composition at the Royal College of Music. VAZOFF, IVAN (1850-1921), Bulgarian poet and novelist, was born at Sopot. In common with the founders of Bulgarian literature, Rakovsky, Karaveloff and Boteff, he was first inspired by the sufferings of his countrymen before the liberation. His Trials of Bulgaria describes the nation’s struggle for freedom. A bard of the people, Vazoff’s style is simple and unaffected; his Epic Poem to the Forgotte, celebrating the great deeds and sacrifices of the Bulgarian people, thrilled the nation, as also Under the Thunder of Victory (1914), Songs of Macedonia (1916) and New Echo (1917). Vazoll’s most inspired poems and novels of a descriptive character are those relating to the Bulgarian countryside and village life. He dicd at Sofia Sept. 22 1921. | His chief novels are: Under the Yoke (Eng. trans. 1894); Svetoslav Terter (1907), Hadji Ahil and Kazalarskata’ Tsariisu; and his dramas include: Bortslav (1910) and Towards the Abyss.

VEBLEN, THORSTEIN B. (1857), American author and teacher, was born July 30 1857. He was educated at Carleton College, where he took the A.B. degree in 1880, and did postgraduate work at Johns Hopkins, Yale and Cornell Universities. He was appointed reader in political economy at the University of Chicago in 1893, becoming successively instructor and assistant professor. He was associate professor of economics at Stanford University, rg906-9, lecturer in economics at the University of Missouri in r911—7, and lecturer in the New School for Social Research, New York City, 1918. He made contributions to the theory of economics, especially as modified by current business practices. Among his works are The Theory of the Leisure Class (1899); The Theory of Business Enterprise (1904); The Instinct of Workmanship (1914); Imperial Germany and the Industrial Revolution (1915); An Enquiry into the Nature of Peace and the Terns of lis Perpetuation (1917); The Iligher Learning in America (1918); Vested Interests and the State of the Industrial Arts (1919); The Engineers and the Price System (1921); Absentee Ownership and Business Enterprise in Recent Times (1923).

VEDDER, ELIHU (1836-1923), American artist (sce 27.964), died at Rome Jan. 29 1923. His book, Doubt and Other Things, was published a few days before his death. VEJDOVSKY, FRANTISEK (1840— ), Czech zoologist, studied in Prague, Trieste and Naples and specialised in zoology, comparative anatomy and embryology. In 1877 he qualified as. a lecturer at the Prague technical institute by a work entitled Monographie der Enchytraeiden (1879), and in 1879 was appointed professor at the Charles University in Prague. Of his numerous works the most noteworthy are those dealing with the problem of the ripening, fertilisation, segmentation and cleavage of ovum cells, on which he became widely known as an authority. In addition to numerous articles in periodicals his most important works are: Dre Siisswasserschwdmme Béhmens (1883); Nene Untersuchungen über die Reifung und Befruchtung (1907). Prof. Vejdovský received many academic distinctions and was made a corresponding member of numerous native and foreign biological and zoological socicties.

VENEREAL DISEASE.—The period from 1910-25 has been marked by the commencement of a campaign which has developed into a world-war against venereal diseases. In this work Great Britain has taken a prominent part but the campaign has also been carried on in other parts of the world.

VENEREAL In 1913 a royal commission under the chairmanship of Lord Sydenham was set up to inquire into “‘ the prevalence of venereal diseases in the United Kingdom, their effects on the health of the community, and the means by which those effects can be alleviated or prevented.” The royal commission reported in 1916, and their recommendations were immediately acted upon by the Local Government Board of England and Wales (now the Ministry of Health), and the public measures for combating venereal diseases In England and Wales are now as mentioned below, while in Scotland and Ireland the campaign is being conducted on the same principles. | Legislative Action.—1. By an Act of Parliament passed in 1917 the treatment of patients for venereal disease by others than registered medical practitioners and the sale without the prescription of a registered medical practitioner or the advertisement to the lay public of remedies for the treatment or prevention of venereal diseases are forbidden. 2. There are 193 centres chiefly in voluntary hospitals for the treatment, free of charge, of persons suffering from venereal disease. 3. Fourteen hostels exist for the care and treatment of females who are infected, and would, unless helped by shelter, become professional prostitutes. 4. Seven institutions are specially for the care of pregnant females who are infected. 5. Treatment of venereal disease is also provided in poor law

institutions.

6. Arsenohenzol (salvarsan) compounds are given free of charge to medical practitioners qualified to administer these remedies. 7. Specimens from persons suspected to be suffering from venereal disease can be examined free of charge in 73 laboratories which have been approved for the purpose. 8. The work of educating the public in the dangers of venereal diseases and the importance of early and continued treatment is carried out by the British Social Hygiene Council Qormerly the National Council for Combating Venereal Diseases}, which receives

from the Government a grant in aid of its expenses. Propagandist work is also undertaken by the county councils and county borough councils, either directly or in conjunction with the British Social Hygiene Council. The arrangements for establishment of free treatment facilities for distribution of arsenobenzol compounds and for laboratory examinations are under the control of county councils and county borough

councils, which receive from the Government 75 °5 of their approved expenditure on this account.

Resulis Obtained. —Some idea of the results obtained may be gathered by comparing the returns of cases seen for the first time in 1920, when the numbers were highest, with those scen for the first time in 1924, as presented hereunder:— Soft Chancre

42,805 22,010

Gonorrhoea

Non-ven.

40,284 31,272

19,654 18,842

Total

The table ‘discloses a substantial reduction in the number of cases of syphilis, and the figures indicate that the incidence of syphilis in the community has declined considerably. Similar results have been reported by other countries which have set up venereal-disease schemes on the principle of treating the in-

fected. The attendance at the centres In 1920 was 1,488,514 and in 1924 had increased to 1,645,415. Gonorrhoea.—No outstanding remedy has been discovered analogous to that of arsenobenzol in syphilis, but, particularly since 1914, Improvements in detail have made the diagnosis and cure of gonorrhoea more certain. In diagnosis, improvements in methods of cultivating the gonococcus on artificial media have placed the surgeon on firmer ground when determining the ques-

tion of cure. In treatment cines to raise the patient’s common. In complications rheumatism and iritis, what has proved useful.

the practice of administering vacresistance has become much more of gonorrhoea, such as gonorrhoeal is known as protein-shock therapy

The remedies employed in this form of treatment are quite varied; for example, colloidal silver or anti-typhoid vaccine injected into a vein: milk or turpentine injected into the muscles. hey have the immediate effect of raising the patient's temperature and by the next day there is usually a definite improvement in the symptoms.

Another form of treatment which has been in use by a few for a number of years but is only now becoming more general is

DISEASE

935

diathermy (see ELECTRO THERAPY). The principle of its use in gonorrhoea and its complications is that the gonococcus is very sensitive to heat, being killed at temperatures which are supported with comparative ease by human tissues. Good results have been obtained in gonorrhoea of females by this method, but undoubtedly its most pleasing effects are in epididymitis and in gonorrhoeal rheumatism in men. In gonorrhoeal rheumatism and iritis the reservoir from which the joints and eyes are continually being infected is commonly in the prostate and the seminal vesicles, both situated at the base of the bladder. The current is applied by means

of an

clectrode

placed in the rectum

and

is increased

in

strength until the patient feels the part becoming uncomfortably hot.

Soft Chancre or Chancroid.—The figures showing the new cases which have been seen at treatment centres indicate that chancroid is not now very prevalent in Great Britain. The treatment is now more conservative than formerly. The chancroid is viewed as possibly harbouring also the germs of syphilis, and with the object of avoiding any action which may prejudice the microscopical search for the more severe disease, the surgeon withholds for as long as possible the application of antiseptics. When a bubo forms in the groin, a comparatively rare event under modern practice, it is more usual now to attempt to secure resolution by protein-shock therapy (see GONORRHOEA) and by aspiration of the abscess followed by injection into the abscess cavity of some drug which will lead to the destruction of the germs.

Syphilis —Improvements in methods of detecting the germ of the disease, Spirochacta pallida, under the microscope, viz., by dark-ground

illumination, have made it possible to diagnose the

disease very rapidly en the day it makes its first appearance. The

Wassermann,

or

the

Bordet-Wassermann,

test

has

heen

modified considerably in its details and is generally more delicate than formerly. In 1918 Sachs and Georgi published the details of a new test which, either in its original or a modified form is now being practised very extensively. It depends on the fact that, if a suitably diluted extract of heart muscle, with some cholesterol, is incubated at 37°C. for a number of hours with the blood serum of a syphilitic person, small floccult appear in the previously clear or very slightly turbid mixture. Jn Great Britain, Dreyer and Ward have devised a test which depends on the same principles but is much more precise in technique and expresses the strength of the reaction numerically. In the U.S.A., Kahn has produced a modification which is extremely easy to carry out. So far these flocculation tests have not reached the degree of perfection which would justify their substitution for the Wassermann test, but often they give positive results when the original gives negative and vice versa, so that they supplement usefully the Wassermann test. The examination of the fluid in the spinal canal is now carried out much more frequently than formerly, and a patient is not regarded as cured unless all tests of this cerebro-spinal tluid have given negative results. As to all these tests it must be emphasised that negative reactions to all of them do not prove the absence of syphilis. It is therefore customary to pursue the treatment far

beyond the stage of the first negative reactions.

Great strides have been made in treatment since roro when Ehrlich introduced dioxy-diamino-arsenobenzol dihydrochloride, commonly known as “ 606 ” or salvarsan, as a remedy for syphilis. The effect of a single dose of this remedy is usually to cause the spirochaetes to disappear from the discharge of syphilitic sores in 24 hours and syphilitic lesions heal with a rapidity which was a source of great wonder to those who had toiled in the treatment of syphilis with the help of only mercury and preparations of iodine. The original preparation has largely pound introduced by Ehrlich in 1912 varsan or “914,” which is much more disturbing to the patient than was the

been suppłanted by a comunder the name of neosalconvenient to use and less original preparation. These

advantages are somewhat offset by a lower therapeutic activity of

the newer preparation. Combinations of arsenobenzol with silver and with zine are also used. The manufacture of arsenobenzol preparations spread during the War into the hands of a number of firms each of which has attached to the same chemical compounds trade names of their own to an extent which may be somewhat bewildering to the uninitiated.

Every arsenobenzol compound is made in batches cach of which receives a distinctive mark and must pass a certain test of toxicity and of therapeutic activity before it can be issued to the public. The testing in Great Britain is carried out by the Medical Research Council. Experience has shown that, although the

VENEZUELA

936

arsenobenzol preparations act very promptly, a number of injections in successive courses must be administered to secure eradication of syphilis and that it is advisable to supplement

them by administering another metallic compound. Arsenobenzol will not penetrate into the nerve tissue of the brain, and this limitation has led to the introduction of an arsenical preparation of another order, viz.: tryparsamide

or

n-phenyl

glycine-

amido-p-arsonic acid into the therapy of locomotor ataxy and general paresis, The results show generally that tryparsaniide is valuable

for this purpose.

In 1920 Sazerac and Levaditi showed that tartro-bismuthate of potassium and sodium is more powerful than mercury in destroying the spirochaetes of syphilis, and a large number of bismuth preparations have been placed on the market since it was found that it is the metal rather than the compound which matters in the therapeutic action. Generally it can be said that bismuth injections effect more towards the cure of syphilis than do mercurial and that preparations of bismuth can be used which cause less discomfort than do any mercurial. Bismuth is useless for the cure of syphilis if given by the mouth and its injection into veins is practised very little on account of its greater toxicity when administered by this route. Bismuth is generally considered to be an adjuvant rather than a substitute for arsenobenzol treatment. It is retained in the tissues for long after a series of injections has been given, and it thus prolongs the antisyphilitic effect after all the arsenobenzol has been excreted.

The powerful effect of the arsenobenzol and bismuth compounds on the germ of syphilis has led to a number of experi-

ments to determine whether or not they prevent the development of syphilis after inoculation. There is strong evidence to the effect that a few arsenobenzol injections given after contamination with syphilitic virus does protect against the disease. Kolle has produced experimental evidence tending to show that the injection of bismuth carbonate protects against infection resulting from inoculation with syphilitic virus so long as the compound remains in the muscles. Rabbits treated thus proved resistant to inoculation with syphilitic material for as long as 109 days after injection of the bismuth. The disadvantage of injections as a method of preventing syphilis after venereal risk led Levaditi to try an arsenical compound called stovarsol or acctyl-oxyamino-phenyl arsenic acid, which is administered by the mouth. There is good evidence that the ingestion of stovarsol in suitable doses prevents infection, but considerably more work on the subject will be necessary before stovarsol can safely be given to the public as a prophylactic against syphilis.

Treatment of General Paralysis of the Insane.—A great advance has been made in the treatment of a form of syphilis which is acknowledged to be the most incurable of all, namely general paralysis of the insane. This disease is one which has almost always ended fatally, defying the most intensive treatment by antisyphilitic remedies. Its course is marked by remissions of varying length, during which the patient may appear to have recovered. It has been known for a century or more that an intercurrent infection accompanied by fever often results in a long remission, and this knowledge has led Wagner von Jauregg and his colleagues in Vienna since 1887 to inoculate patients with a variety of substances designed to make their temperatures rise. The best of all the agents has proved to be the parasite of benign tertian malaria and since its introduction in 1919 the method has been tested all over the world. The results have been very encouraging. The inoculation is by injection of malarial blood or by the bites of infected mosquitoes, and eight to twelve attacks of fever are allowed before quinine ts given. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—L. W. Harrison, ‘‘ The Public Control of Venereal Diseases,’ St. Thomas’ Hospital Gasetie, vol. 29, Nos. 7 and 8 (1923); L. W. Harrison, The Modern Diagnosis and Treatment of Syphilis,

Chancroid and Gonorrhoea (1924); W. Kolle and K. Zieler, Handbuch der Salvarsantherapte, Bd. 1 and 2 (1924 and 1925); Royal Commission on Venereal Diseases, Final Report, Cd. 8189 (1916); Ministry of Health Reports on Publice Health and Medical subjects, No. 1, The Complement Fixation Test in Syphilis, Commonly Known as the Wassermann Test, HASO. (1920): Ministry of Health, Annual Reports (Stationery Office, London); Medical Research Council, Special Report’on laboratory diagnosis of gonococcal infections, No. 19; on laboratory tests of syphilis, Nos. 14, 19, 21, 25, 45,47, 55 and 78; on salvarsan, Nos. 44 and 66 (Stationery a wees: :

(L.

W.

H.*).

VENEZUELA (see 27.988).—A republic on the north coast of South America. Its area is 398,504 sq. m. and the estimated population on Jan. 1 1925 was 2,563,334. The population of Caracas, the capital, in 1920 was 92,212; Maracaibo, 46,706; Valencia, 29,466. Venezuela acquired membership in the League of Nations in 1920. | Venezuela’s constitution of 1922 declared that the republic was composed of 20 states, 2 territories, a Federal district and certain islands in the sea of the Antilles. It provided that the Federal district was to be organised by a special law and should be composed of the city of Caracas with the neighbouring parishes as well as the department of Vargas. It is further stipulated that

the territories

of Amazonas

and

Delta-Amacuro,

which

were to be organised by a special law, might become states when they fulfilled certain conditions, as when they had at least as many inhabitants as the quota required by the constitution for the election of one deputy to Congress.

I. POLITICAL

HISTORY

Constitution.—On May 18 19014 a Congress of Deputies from the Venezuelan states adopted a new constitution for their union. That constitution declared that the Venezuelan states reciprocally recognised their autonomy and equality, and that they retained all sovereignty not delegated to the central Govt. by the constitution. The states agreed to promulgate constitutions that would harmonise with the fundamental law, and agreed to see that the national constitution, laws and orders were obeyed. Early in June assemblies at the capitals of the respective states ratified the new form of government, which came into force on June 13 1914. This constitution conferred male suffrage on all citizens 21 years of age or over. Foreigners who took part in political controversies (contiendas) could be arrested, confined or expelled by order of the president. Executive power was vested in a president and a Cabinet of ministers appointed by him. The president was to be elected for a sevenyear term by vote of Congress. Among the extensive powers vested in the chief executive were the following: to administer the Federal district and the two Federal territories; to issue decrees and regulations for the better execution of the laws; to negotiate loans as provided by Congress; to grant certificates of naturalisation; to appoint national officials whose appointment was not otherwise provided for; to convoke an extraordinary session of Congress; to declare war when authorised by Congress; to negotiate treaties with foreign nations; and to pro-

claim martial law throughout the republic. Legislative authority was granted to a Congress composed of a Senate and a Chamber of Deputies. The Senate was to be composed of two Senators from each State chosen. by its Legislative Assembly for three years. The Chamber of Deputies was to be composed of members chosen from every State and from the Federal district by popular vote for three years at the ratio of one deputy to every 35,000 inhabitants. Congress was to mect annually on April 19 at the capital for a session of 70 days. Judicial authority was vested in a Supreme Court designated the Corte Federal y de Casación and in other tribunals established by law. The Federal Supreme Court was to be composed of seven judges who were to be elected by Congress for a term of seven years. Clauses defining the powers of this court provided that it should take cognizance of accusations against the president and other high officials. It was given jurisdiction over cases involving claims against the nation, cases relating to foreign diplomatic agents in Venezuela, cases arising from contracts made by the president and cases involving conflicts between laws or decrees, State or Federal. These provisions were retained in the constitution of 1022. Events from 1908-—-When in Nov. 1908 President Castro left Venezuela to visit Europe, the first vice-president, Juan Vicente Gémez was given the presidential power. In decrees of Nov. 23 1908 Gómez appointed a general secretary and confirmed the existing Cabinet appointments. On May 3 1909 he issued a decree announcing that he was exercising the powers of president of Venezuela, and after suppressing opposition to his

VENEZUELA rule, he was acclaimed President

Dec.

19 1909.

Under the

constitution of 1909, on Aug. 27 1910 Congress elected Gómez constitutional President for four years. In June and July ror1 Venezuela celebrated the centenary of her declaration of independence. During the rule of Gómez diplomatic relations with foreign nations that had been ruptured were resumed, and Venezuela undertook to pay those obligations to foreign nations upon which payments had lapsed. Upon an attempt of exPresident Castro to regain power, President Gómez issued a

proclamation on Aug. 3 1913 announcing that he was leaving the capital to undertake a campaign for the restoration of public order. On Aug. 4 he delegated his authority to José Gil Fortoul, president of the council of government. On Jan. r 1914 he re-entered Caracas at the head of his army and reassumed the powers of President. According to the constitution the term of office of President Gómez ended on April rọ r914. Upon that day a Congress of Deputies from the Venezuelan states aclopted a provisional constitutional statute for the Union, which declared that all laws not inconsistent therewith should remain in force. It further provided that this Congress should elect a commander-in-chief of the national army at the same time that it elected a provisiona] president of the republic. Congress was also to frame a new pact of union for Venezuela, which should be submitted to the assemblies of the states for approval. The period of provisional rule should last until the new constitution had been ratified by the states and until the constitutional functionaries had taken their posts. On the same day Congress elected Victorino Marquez Bustillos, who had been Minister of War and the Navy, provisional President, and by a decree of the same day Bustillos appointed his ministers of state. Congress elected General Gémez commander-in-chief of the national army. On May 3 1915 the Congress chosen under the constitution of t914 unanimously elected Gen. Gómez President of the republic for the term ending April rọ 1922, but the presidentelect did not assume the presidency. The provisional president continued to exercise authority while General Gómez remained commander-in-chief of the army with the title president-elect of the republic. In May 1922 Gen. Juan Vicente Gómez was unanimously re-elected President of Venezuela. On June 19 a new constitution was promulgated which made some slight but important changes in the constitution of 1914. Articles 137 and 138 of that fundamental law, which stipulated that the provisional president and the vice-presidents of the republic should hold their offices until the new magistrates were inaugurated and that the commander of the national army should exercise his functions until the inauguration of the constitutional president, were omitted from the constitution of 1922. This constitution further provided that in case the president should be

permanently disabled, he should be succeeded by the ranking vice-president.

On June 24 following, General Gémez relieved

Márquez Bustillos of the nominal authority which the latter had exercised since 1914, and assumed the powers of president for the term terminating in 1929. On July 1 1923 the president’s brother, Gen. Juan C. Gémez, first vice-president of the republic, was murdered in Miraflores Palace. In Oct. 1923 the Venezuelan Minister of Foreign Affairs declared that Mexico had severed diplomatic relations with his country alleging that Venezuela had expelled a Mexican theatrical company. In April 1924 the Congress of Venezuela assembled at Caracas.

Boundary Disputes.—The boundary dispute between Colombia and Venezucla, which had been submitted to the arbitration of the Swiss Federal Council, was decided in March 1922 in favour of the Colombian contention; namely, that she was entitled to take possession of such portions of the territory in dispute as had been adjudged to her in accordance with the decision of the King of Spain in-189t. This award also decided that both Colombia and Venezuela might proceed to occupy sections of territory bounded by natural frontiers which had been adjudged to them by the action of mixed commissions. The boundary line through the contested territory, so far as it had not been definitely settled, was subsequently determined

937

by Swiss experts who employed aeroplanes and cameras to map out the unexplored areas involved. Defence.—I\n 1912 Venezuela purchased a small vessel from the

United States, which was made the flagship of the navy. In 1925 the Venezuelan Navy was composed of three gunboats and a training ship with a personnel of a few hundred men. The standing army was composcd of some 9,000 infantry, artillery and cavalry. In addition there was a reserve estimated to consist of about

100,000

men. By a law published in June 1919 military service was made compulsory for all adult male citizens with certain exceptions. Service in the army or navy for two years in peace-time and during war at the president’s pleasure was made compulsory with relegation to the reserve until the age of 45. A decree of April 17 1920 provided for a military aviation school at Maracay. Fducation—According to the law of 1921 primary education is free and compulsory between 7 and 14 years. Secondary education comprises two courses; one of general study occupying four years, and one of professional study occupying two years. Normal training

is furnished by two institutions at Caracas. Among the special schools are schools of commerce and modern languages at the capital and other important cities, besides two schools of industrial arts and trades. Higher education is afforded by the Central University of Venezuela at Caracas where instruction is given in medical science, political science, ecclesiastical science, mathematics and physical science. There was a similar institution, the University of the Andes, at Mérida. Physical education is compulsory in all schools up to the age of 21. According to the report of the Minister of Public Instruction for 1925, the attendance at educational institutions of Venezuela for 1924 was as follows: Primary schools, 352,337; secondary schools, 9,203; normal schools, 3,664; special schools, 14,762; higher institutions, 4,304; making a total of 384,270. Expenditure on education for 1924-5 was 4,648,345 bolivares.

IL FINANCIAL AND ECONOMIC HISTORY Finance.—Since 1909 the financial condition of Venezuela has steadily improved. Fhe new law concerning public credit which came into force on June 15 1923, introduced reforms in the administration of Venezucla's finances. Among other provisions it stipulated that certificates of the internal national consolidated debt which were received by the Treasury should be burned. The following details of the public debt of Venezucla in bolivares as outstanding on Dec. 31 1923, are taken from the report of the Minister of Finance for 1924:— External debt:

National three per cent diplomatic debt Three per cent diplomatic debt of 1905 Total Internal debt: National internal three per cent consolidated debt ; . Three per cent inscribed debt

Total

9, 169,490°26 68,117,635.26

42,647,277 -93 2,098,652°50

44,745,930°43

The total indebtedness of the Venezuelan Govt. on Dec. 31 1923 thus amounted to 112,863,565-69. The budget for 1924-5 estimated expenditure at 63,354,500 bolivares. Over one-fourth of this amount was allotted to the Ministry of Finance and Public Credit, one-fifth was assigned to the Ministry of War and the Navy, while more than one-sixth was given to the Ministry of the interior. In the budget the receipts of that year were estimated at 66,167,000 bolivares, an increase of 3,322,000 over those for 1923-4. In his message to Congress on April 25 1925 President Gémez stated that the total national debt had been reduced to 99,445,723 bolivares by Jan. 1 1925, and that on Dec. 31 1924 there was in the treasury a surplus of 64,692,080.46 bolivares. The bolivar was relatively stable during the World War. The exchange value of the U.S. dollar measured in bolivares at different dates was as follows: July Igr4, 5:30; April 1917, 5:14; April 1918, 4°32; Jan. 1919, 4:25; Dec. 1919, 5-16; Feb. 1920, 5-18; Sept. 1923, 5:43; Jan. 1924, 5:25; and Oct. 1924, 5:18. On Dec. 31 1923 there were in circulation in Venezuela 35,129,695 bolivares of hank-notes, while the gold reserve aggregated 55,149,749. Of the paper currency 25,293,340 bolivares was supplied

by the Banco de Venezuela, A shortage of silver in the circulating media has been met under the provisions of a law of 1918 by the minting of new silver coins. Industry and Commerce.—Agriculture and cotton raising were the chief sources of national wealth, and for 1924 the Venezuclan oilfields showed a successful yield; in 1924 petroleum production was 1,330,912 metric tons. Exports of coffee had risen from 52,088,000 kilos in 1922 to 38,436,000 during the first six months of Ig24. According to official reports, the total foreign trade of Venezuela

in 1923 amounted to 309,396,512 bolivares (1 bolivar = $.19295). The

imports aggregated 152,692,315 while the exports came to 156,704,197 bolivares. The countries furnishing the largest amounts of the imports were in order: United States, Great Britain, Germany, France, the Netherlands, Spain and Italy, while the countries taking the largest amounts of exports were the Netherlands, United States,

VENICE—VENISELOS

938

In_1923 the chief Spain, France, Great Britain and Germany. exports were valued as follows in bolivares: coffee, 68,945,726; petroleum, 27,321,920; cacao, 23,817,102; sugar, 5,359,123; balata, 4,084,588; hides, 3,515,550; cattle, 1,901,455; gold, 1,300,000; asphalt, 1,332,940; heron plumes, 1,017,735; and pearls, 740,880.

Communications.—In 1924 thirteen railways of importance were operating in Venezuela. The total length was 645 m., and the construction of new, short lines was contemplated. The construction, improvement and repair of Venezuclan roads continued to receive much attention from the Government. Decrees have been issued providing especially for the construction of a Great Western Highway to connect Caracas with the Colombian border near Cristóbal, and for the construction of a Great Eastern Highway to connect Caracas with Venezuelan Guiana. Wireless communication with Trinidad

is maintained

through

the Caracas

station, which

has been im-

proved. Communication with Puerto Rico has been maintained through the Maiquetia station. The Puerto Cabello and Maracaibo stations have ceased operations. BeLIoGRAPIY.—P. L. Bell, Venezuela (Washington, 1922); L. V. Dalton, Venezuela (London, 1922); W. S. Robertson, History of the Latin-American Nations (New York, 1922); and HispanicAmerican Relations with the Uniled States (New York, 1923); Mensaje que el General Juan Vicente Gómez, presidente constitucional

de los Estados Unidos de Venezuela, presenta al Congreso Nacional en sus sesiones ordinarias de Venezuela (Annual, ports, Annual Series Council of Corporation

de 1025 (Caracas, 1925); Anuario Estadistico Caracas); Department of Overseas Trade Re(H.M. Stationery Office, London); Report of of Foreign Bondholders (Annual, London).

(W. S. Ro.)

VENICE, Italy (see 27.995), had a population of 171,615 in 1g2t. An exact reproduction of the famous campanile, which collapsed in r902, was finished in 1912; and the Loggetta det Cavalieri, which was crushed in its fall, has also been repaired. The city suffered from aerial bombardments in the World War; 620 bombs were dropped, but the damage to its famous buildings and monuments, though considerable, was less than had been feared. The church of Santa Maria Formosa was practically destroyed, but has been restored. The bronze horses of St. Mark’s were removed to Rome for safety. After the War various pictures were returned to the Academia by Austria. In 1920 the Procuratie Nuove, which was first the home of the procurators of St. Mark’s and then a Napoleonic palace, was given to Venice by the Italian royal family, and now houses the civic museum of art and history. In 1925 the foundation stone of a votive temple was laid on the Lido by the Venetian patriarch in fulfilment of a vow made in ror7 that if the city was saved from falling into the hands of the enemy a church would be built

in honour of the Virgin. A brick from St. Peter’s and a piece of rock from the Grotto at Lourdes have been incorporated in the foundations. Improvements to the Port—In 1917 plans were made for a new

port for Venice on the mainland, south of the railway line to Padua; in 1922 the canal of approach was opened by King Victor Emmanuel, and named in his honour, and in 1924 the construction of the main works was begun. The port, when finished, will cover twice the area of Venice itself, and will consist of parallel moles 3,000 ft. long with docks of 600 to 800 ft. between. Two moles will be built at first, with isolated jetties on the canal for oil ships. With the existing docks in Venice this will give the port a capacity of 10,000,000 to 12,000,000 tons a year. It is hoped that the industrial area, which is being built behind the docks, will create a considerable volume of trade. Behind the industrial area again a garden suburb to house 30,000 is being brought into existence by the municipality. Special customs facilities have been granted for the encouragement of trade in the new port, which, it is thought, will in no way spoil the beauty of Venice.

VENISELOS, ELEUTHERIOS

(1864-

—), Greek statesman,

was born in Crete Aug. 23 1864 of a family which had emigrated from Greece in 1770. Having been educated in the schools of

Syra and Athens and having taken a degree in the University of Athens at the age of 23, the future statesman practised law in Crete. But following his father’s example and like most members of his profession in the Near East, he soon became a politician, and in the insurrection of 1889 was compelled to flee from the island. After his return and the re-establishment of tranquillity, Veniselos was elected a member of the Cretan Assembly,

and in 1897 came into prominence as one of the leaders of the Cretan uprising; it was he who received the British, French and Italian admirals when they came to negotiate a settlement between the insurgents and the Turks early in Feb. of that year. In Dec. 1898 Prince George of Greece landed in Crete as the High Commissioner of the Great Powers, and a few months later Veniselos became head of the Island Executive. But he soon found himself at variance with the Prince’s autocracy, and in 1904 a complete rupture occurred. Subsequently the Veniselists were defeated at the polls, but the Cretan leader organised a revolt, which greatly increased the unpopularity of the High Commissioner among a people whom he was misruling. In Sept. 1906 the Prince left the island, his place being taken by M. Alex. Zaimis, who was appointed not by the Powers, but by the King of Greece. From that time until 1909 Veniselos was sometimes Chief of the Cretan Govt. and sometimes Leader of the Opposition. But whilst the Cretans often came into sharp conflict with the Protecting Powers, Veniselos’s wisdom and moderation were responsible for the generally friendly relations which existed, and his far-sightedness, particularly after the departure of M. Zaimis in Oct. 1908, and during the crisis of 1909, facilitated the union of Crete with Greece, which ultimately took place as a result of the first Balkan War. In 1909 the military league headed a bloodless revolution against political corruption and court favouritism in Greece and invited Veniselos to come to Athens. He persuaded King George and the League that the best way out of a dangerous situation would be the revision of the Constitution by a National Assembly. Elections were held in Aug. 1910, and Veniselos, who had re-

mained technically a Greek citizen during his Cretan political life, took his seat at Athens for the first time. The Chamber having been opened in Sept., a month later Veniselos became Prime Minister. Indeed, such was his power at this time that, although faced by parliamentary difficulties, he was in a position to have brought about the expulsion of the royal family and the establishment of any régime which he thought desirable. But the Cretan statesman was bent upon reforms by pacific means, and realising that a fundamental change would be contrary to the interests of the country, he loyally decided to work with the King and his successors. The Constitution was successfully revised in rori, reforms in the public services were introduced, and the reorganisation of the army and of the navy were respectively placed in the hands of French and British

Missions.

In the spring of 1912 Veniselos was returned to power

as the leader of an overwhelming majority in an ordinary Chamber which then replaced the Revisionary Assembly. By that time, too, the Prime Minister was busily occupied with the formation of the Balkan League, and on May 29 1912 the Greco-Bulgarian Treaty was signed. Other Greek statesmen had worked for a like object, and the circumstances may have been more favourable than heretofore, but it is certain that the Balkan League would never have come into being except for Veniselos’s foresight in accepting the necessity for taking Greece into an alliance which had already been made between Bulgaria and Serbia.

Whilst the Balkan Wars and Veniselos’s diplomacy led to an unexpected Hellenic expansion, the assassination of King George at Salonika on March 18 1913 removed a man who had always been in favour of moderation, and placed upon the throne his son Constantine, who had not forgiven, and who never really forgave, Veniselos for his attitude towards Prince George in Crete. When the World War broke out, therefore, the position of Greece was greatly complicated by the facts that she was bound to Serbia by a Treaty signed in the summer of 1913; that from the first Veniselos was an ardent supporter of the Allied cause; and that the King was in sympathy with the Central Powers. Before the entry of Turkey into the War, Veniselos openly favoured Hellenic assistance for the Entente in case of that entry, and early in rorg the Prime Minister advocated concessions to Bulgaria, Greek support for Serbia, and Greek co-operation at the Dardanelles in exchange for the promise of important future compensations in Western Asia Minor. But,

VENISELOS though he appears originally to have approved of the idea, the King vetoed Veniselos’ decision to accept this offer, and he was forced to resign, though he possessed a strong majority in the Chamber. In the election which followed in June the Veniselist party secured the return of rgo deputies out of a total of 316, of which the Chamber was then composed. In spite of this, and with the excuse of the King’s illness, Veniselos was not recalled to power until after the mecting of the Chamber in Aug. and by that time the situation had become seriously modified. The entry of Italy into the War, helpful as it was, complicated the position of Greece, the attack upon the Dardanelles had proved a failure, and developments in the Balkans were reacting seriously against the Allied cause. Serbia managed more or less to hold her own during the first year of the War, but now a fresh Austrian invasion was imminent, and Bulgaria, whose support the Allies had failed to gain, was preparing to throw in her lot with the Central Powers. In equity, if not in actual law, the entry of Bulgaria brought into operation the Greco-Serbian Treaty of 1913 and necessitated the support of Serbia by Greece. Bulgaria mobilised on Sept. 19 1915, and a few days later Veniselos had an audience with the King, at which His Majesty reluctantly consented to a Greek mobilisation and to a Greek request that the Allies should furnish an army of 150,000 men to take the place of the contingent which ought to have been supplied by Serbia under the Treaty. Immediately after the original Allied landing at Salonika on Oct. 1 Venisclos secured a vote of confidence during an historic and stormy meeting of the Chamber, when he declared that if in aiding Serbia Greece was brought into contact with Germany she would act as her honour demanded. In spite of a formal protest against the Allied passage through Hellenic territory, this speech led to the second dismissal of Veniselos and to the open and final rupture between that statesman and the King, who, it would seem, always intended to withdraw his consent to an Hellenic entry into the War. Zaimis, the new Prime Minister, maintained his position for a month as a result of the patriotism of Veniselos, his friend from Cretan times, but, with the accession of Skouloudis to power, on Nov. 6 the Chamber was dissolved and a new election ordered for Dec. 19. As a protest against what was the King’s infringement of the spirit, if not the letter, of the Constitution, Veniselos called upon his party to abstain from the polls, and therefore, whilst M. Gounaris secured an overwhelming majority for his policy of neutrality, the fact that M. Veniselos was able to prevent a large proportion of the voters from taking any part in the election proved the then existing strength of his party. Veniselos spent that winter and spring (1915-6) In endeavouring to compel the King to change his point of view. But the surrender of Eastern Macedonia to the Bulgarians in the summer of 1916 and the delay in the success of the Allied Campaign at Salonika had strengthened the position of Constantine, and on Sept. 25 1916 Veniselos, together with his principal supporters, sailed for Crete, whence he sent out proclamations calling upon all true patriots to flock to the Standard of the Entente. Proceeding thence to Salonika, early in Oct., he founded a Provisional Govt., which was recognised about two months later by Great Britain and France, though not by Italy. A call for volunteers was responded to by the inhabitants of those parts of Greece not in Constantinist hands, and thousands of volunteers were soon gathered at Salonika, but the Royalist Govt. countered this and other developments by causing a solemn anathema to be pronounced against Veniselos by the Archbishop of Athens. After the dethronement and enforced departure of King Constantine, Veniselos returned to Athens on June 26 1917, and took over the Government of the whole country. The June 15 Chamber was convoked, a general mobilisation was ordered, and Greece formally entered the theatre of hostilities upon the Allied side. But the removal of the King, the successes of the Central Powers, particularly in the Balkans, and an increased Greek desire for neutrality, backed up by German’ propaganda, were responsible for a great diminution of the Prime Minister’s popularity. Thus, whereas the entry of Greece into the War mate-

939

rially favoured the Allied position at Salonika, and whereas Hellenic contingents co-operated in that area, the officers and functionaries

whom

it was

necessary

to retire on account

of

their political views formed a dangerous element in an opposition which became ever more and more active. Between the Armistice of Nov. ror8 and his fall two years later, Veniselos and his colleagues, who represented Greece at the Peace Conference, were almost continuously absent in Paris and in London and, during this period, it appeared that the widespread influence of the Premier would secure for his country a success to which even her most ardent admirers had never even aspired. About the end of April 1919 the Greeks were permitted, or encouraged, to land at Smyrna; a year later the Conference of San Remo promised large areas to Greece, and the Treaty of Sèvres (Aug. ro 1920) coupled with the earlier Treaty of Neuilly (Nov. 27 to19) seemed destined to promote that country from a position of secondary Balkan importance to one of international significance. During this period, too, the Hellenic representative won such admiration and played so brilliant a part that he became a leading figure in the counsels of the Allies. Nevertheless, at a moment when his triumph appeared to be complete, and when he might have been expected to be a greater hero at home than abroad, an attempt was made upon his life at a Paris station (Aug. 1920), and three months later (Nov. 14) he received a crushing defeat at the hands of the Greek electorate for whom he had worked so hard. Opinions have been, and are, widely divided as to the reasons for Venisclos’s political downfall. It has been attributed to the unpopularity of the war in Asia Minor and to the consequent continued mobilisation, and it has been ascribed to a determination on the part of the people to regain what they called their liberty. Each of these factors played its part, but the decision was influenced primarily not by the foreign but by the broader aspects of the home situation. Thus the facts that Veniselos had been maintained at Salonika, that he was brought back to Athens in 1917, and that he was kept in power there largely by foreign support, were resented by the people. Moreover the re-assembly and particularly the prolongation of the Chamber

of rors, the maintenance of martial law, the bad administration carried on by the subordinates of the Premier while he was abroad, and the formation of and injustices practised by the “ Corps de la Streté ” were responsible for widespread ill-fecling. Furthermore, the continued absence of the Premier and the unreliable information then supplied to him caused him to lose touch with the electoral atmosphere, and gave him a confidence which was entircly unjustified. And, lastly, there was the popularity of Constantine, gained in the Balkan Wars and greatly increased by his enforced departure from Athens in 1917. This was always a matter of fundamental significance, but after the unexpected death of the young King Alexander, as a result of a monkey’s bite, immediately before the election, the dynastic

question, open mention of which had previously been prohibited, was brought into the forefront of the political struggle and, in what then became the direct issue between Constantine and Veniselos, the King won an overwhelming victory. From the arrival of the King in Athens on Dec. 20 1920, until his final abdication and second departure on Sept. 30 1922, Veniselos took no official part in Greek affairs, though he continued to use his international influence in order to endeavour to mitigate the results of the Asiatic disaster, the seeds of which he had sown by his own policy. After the revolution (Sept. 1922), however, Veniselos for a time undertook the representation of Greece in Western Europe, and in that capacity he voiced the interests of his country during the long-drawn-out Conference of Lausanne which culminated in the peace signed with Turkey on July 24 1923. In the following Dec., when the publication of that document and various other events had aggravated the existing internal dissension and when the election (Dec. 16) had again given his party a majority, Veniselos was persuaded to return to Athens, where he arrived on Jan. 4 1924. King George was already then on leave of absence, Veniselos was Prime Minister from Jan. 11 till Feb. 4, when he resigned on the advice

940

VENTILATING—VERDUN, BATTLES OF

of his physician, and a great struggle centred around the future constitutional system. Veniselos favoured a Republic, should a plebiscite support its establishment, and about a fortnight after his departure from Athens on March 10, this alternative was declared to have been adopted by the Chamber, which secured a mandate for its policy at a plebiscite held on April 13. Veniselos, who spent the greater part of his leisure from 1921-6 in France, was left a widower with two sons (Kyriakos b. 1893 and Sophocles b. 1895) in 1895. On Sept. 15 1921 he married Miss Helena Schilizzi, heiress of a Greek Chiot family established in England. BIBLIOGRAPHY.-—-C. Kerofilas, Eleftherios Venizelos, his Life and Work (Eng. tr. 1915); S. B. Chester, Life of Venizelos (1921); H. A.

Gibbons, Venizelos (1921): W. Miller, A History of the Greek People, 1821-1921 (1922); The Vindication of Greek National Policy, Speeches delivered in the Greek Chamber Aug. 23-26 1917 (Eng. tr.

London, 1918); ‘‘ The Internal Situation in Greece and the Amnesty of Political Offenders” (speech in Greek Chamber April 23-May 6 1917); Greek Bureau of Foreign Information, London (Lng. tr. 1920).

(H. C. Wo.)

VENTILATING: see HEATING AND VENTILATING. VERDUN, BATTLES OF. from the east is confronted by a series of ridges between the Moselle and Paris. The second of these ridges is formed by the historic escarpment 400 metres in height, above the Meuse and called the Heights of the Meuse. Here is placed the fortress of Verdun, one of the main barriers on the road to Paris. The reduction of this position was one of the main aims of the Germans, especially after their failure to break through in the carly months of the War. The following account of their efforts is presented in four sections, entitled respectively: I. Verdun before 1916; II. The First Battle, Feb. 1916; II. The second Phase, March-Sept. 1916; and IV. Verdun Set Free.

I. VERDUN

BEFORE

1916

In order that the strategic importance of Verdun may be duly appreciated, its position in the general French defensive scheme must be briefly described. History of the Fortress After the war of 1870 Gen. Séré de Rivière, who was entrusted with the task of organising the frontier defences, constructed a protective curtain stretching from Verdun on the north to Toul on the south. Fortresses guarded the routes between these two places. The forts at Génicourt and Troyon covered the bridges of Dieuc and Lacroix. The battery at Paroches dominated the pass at Shada. The fort at the camp of the Romans dominated the road to St. Mihiel. Further south the forts at Liouville, Gironville and Jouy linked up with Toul. On this rampart of the Heights of the Meuse Verdun formed the northern muzzle, opposite the fortified camp at Metz some 4om. away. The railway from Paris to Metz passes within the precincts of the fortress by the Tavannes tunnel. The fortress was planned so as to form the principal line of resistance towards the north —on a cross ridge on which were the forts of Froide Terre, Douaumont, and Hardaumont. On the east, on a line following the crest of the cliffs, were the forts of Vaux, la Laufée and Moulainville. The line then turned south on a cross ridge, the ridge of Rozellier, east of the Meuse along the Dugny and Landrecourt ridges on the west. The line then closed on the west and north on the ridges of the left bank by the forts Regret, Sartelles, Choisel and Bois-Bourrus. A second line of defence on the right bank, behind the first, was flanked by the fortifications at Belleville, Saint Michel, Souville and Belrupt. The core of the position consisted of an old fortified enclosure of Vauban’s time and a citadel dating back to Henry II. Galleries hewn out of the rocky foundation of the citadel, with workshops, bakeries, stores of food, water pumps and barracks formed a subterranean city safe against bombardment. Verdun in 1914.—At the beginning of the War the fortress was an independent command. After the battle of the Frontiers the III. Army in retreat based its right upon it and, pivoting round it, finally faced west on the Crown Prince’s flank. The latter then sought to turn it by a southerly move along the

valley of the Ornain, but on the morning of Sept. 13 1914 was obliged to retreat by the defeat of the German armies before Paris. The French lines were then established 10 km. north of Verdun and the point was quiet for nearly 18 months. At the southeast of Verdun where the Heights of the Meuse slope east to the plain of Woévre, a stiff but indecisive fight took place in the spring of 1915 for the observatory of Les Eparges. French and Germans remained face to face along the crest. Further south, in the area of St. Mihiel, by a surprise attack on Sept. 20 1914 the Bavarians penetrated to the camp of the Romans and gained a foothold on the left bank of the Meuse in the barracks of Chauvoncourt. The French IH. Army on one side and the I. Army on the other, checked the Bavarian success by operating on their flanks. The Bavarians stabilised their position in the woods of Chevaliers and Mouilly and to the south in the woods of Ailly. The German lines remained huddled up opposite St. Mihiel. West of Verdun the Crown Prince attempted to reach the Argonne in the direction of Varennes and forced the French lines back to the edge of Boureuilles and Vauquois. The Verdun-Boureuilles line had the grave defect of exposing the main supply line for Verdun to enemy fire from Aubréville. Status of the Fortress Changed.—The autonomy of the great fortresses was cancelled on Aug. 5 1915 in order to make their garrisons and equipment available for the armies in the field. Dunkirk, Verdun and Belfort, the three great fortresses on the area of battle, became fortified regions linked up with the armies. The fortified region of Verdun (R.F.V.) was placed under Gen. Herr, who ranked as an army commander. His headquarters were at Dugny. The R.F.V. was at first part of the group of Armies of the East, but on Feb. 1 1916 was attached to the group of Armies of the Centre—then commanded by Gen. Langle de Cary whose headquarters were at Avize. On Feb. 10 1916 Gen. Herr had available seven divisions with one in reserve, and two territorial brigades. On the left hand, the 29th and 67th Div. formed the Bozelais group. On the right bank the XXX. Corps, with two divisions (72nd and 51st) was on the heights. The 14th Div. with the territorial brigades was to the east in the plain of Woévre. The II. Corps was in support from Fromezey to Paroches. The 37th and 48th Divs. formed the reserve. These dispositions were laid down by the Instructions of Aug. 9 1915. They were entirely defensive in nature and sought to secure the front between the Army of Humbert on the left and the Army of Roques on the right. Germany Selects Verdun for Attack About Christmas 1915 Gen. von Falkenhayn submitted to the German Emperor a report setting forth the views of the German Staff as to the campaign of 1916. The report urged that France had reached the limits of exhaustion. Russia was powerless, Serbia destroyed, Italy deceived, though all were sustained by the will of Britain who was fighting against Germany as she had fought against Napoleon. Unfortunately it was not easy to reach Britain effectively either in her distant possessions by operations which could never be decisive, or on her own soil, or on the Continent. In Flanders, no attack could be made before the middle of spring. The ground was too difficult. Between Arras and the So ’s front—-an offensive would take 30 divisions. Germany could gather only 26 divisions, to be used all together, and this would expose dangerous points on the front. It was impossible to attack Britain directly. She would be defeated if the Allied armies on the Continent were broken. Where, then, was this to be done. Defeat of Italy would have little effect on England. Operations against Russia could not begin till April and then only towards the Ukraine where communications were lacking and a flank would be exposed to Rumania. The only possible line of attack was against France. It was not necessary to attack or break through in force, which would be costly and stood condemned in the light of the recent failure in Champagne. Behind, but close to, the French front were positions of such importance that they would have to be held to the last man. Operations on a limited scale would not involve very large forces and Germany had reserves enough to mect all emergencies. This reasoning led to the battle of Verdun.

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Jouy ce Camp dehomains eee The German Command sought to force the French to accept battle under conditions of forced defence—conditions which the art of war shows are fatal to the defender. The two objectives which realised Falkenhayn’s conditions were Belfort and Verdun. The capture of Belfort involved the evacuation by the French of Upper Alsace. Verdun, however, was important for three reasons. From Verdun the French could launch an attack, similar to that contemplated by the Germans, upon the Germah communications. ‘ Verdun,” said Falkenhayn’s report, ‘‘is the strongest starting point for any attempt by the enemy to threaten the whole German front in France and Belgium with relatively small forces.” The French lines were but 12 m. from the German communications. Throughout the War German headquarters dreaded an Allied attack starting from Verdun, and with justice since it was from Verdun that Marshal Foch hurled the great American attack on Sept. 25 1918 (see VICTORY, ADVANCE TO).

French Preparations.—An attack on Verdun had been foreseen by the French side. Col. Driant, Deputy for Nancy, who commanded a group of chasseurs in the fortified region of Verdun, at the Bois de Caures, wrote to the Minister for War that the decisive blow would be struck on the line Verdun-Nancy. The defensive organisation of Verdun was very incomplete. It could hardly be otherwise. Gen. Herr, by the instructions of Aug. 9 had to link up the III. Army in Argonne with the I. Army in the Woévre. That involved the revision of the defensive system of the fortress from a circular scheme to one of a

series of parallel and successive lines. But the Supreme Command, disturbed by the thrust of the Germans in the Argonne, also ordered Gen. Herr to prepare a defensive position on the left bank in case Verdun had to be abandoned. Gen. Herr could not manage this double programme with his resources and of four positions suggested on the right bank, only the first existed at the end of Jan. rot6. On Dec. 3 Col. Driant was in Paris and communicated his views to his colleagues on the Commission of the Army. Gen. Pedoya, President of the Commission, passed the warning to Gen. Galheni, the Minister for War, who wrote on Dec. 16 to Marshal Joffre inquiring whether all along the front a defensive system of at least two lines had been planned and carried out with such constructional features as were necessary in support. On the 18th Joffre replied somewhat confusedly and stated that the improvement of the double line system already existing along the whole front had been ordered on Oct. 22, that the organisation of the fortified areas in the rear of the armies had also been ordered, and that this combination of defensive measures was in process of completion and at a number of points had been completed. He ended thus: “ I consider there is no justification for the fears you express in the name of the Government in your despatch of the 16th of December.” He complained that the criticisms had not reached him in the proper official manner and offered to resign. Gallieni replied on the 22nd that the Government hoped that the works still to be completed would be carried out with all

VERDUN, BATTLES OF

942

speed and care and that the Government had full confidence in the Commander-in-Chief. In order to conceal its plans about Verdun the German High Command arranged to carry out preliminary measures at several points on the front. The French Staff was for long in doubt whether the attack would come in Artois or in Champagne. But from Jan. 1916 French airmen reported enemy preparations on the Verdun front. On Jan. 16 Gen. Herr collected all this information in a formal report and asked for a division to reinforce him. This was sent to him. On the roth Gen.

Castelnau, as Inspector General, visited the

front. In his letter of the 26th to Gen. Herr, summing up the results of his visit he stated that the first line was in accord with requirements. He ordered the construction of strong points for the reserves and of closed redoubts with counterscarp. The second line was to be strengthened and the defensive works carried to the counterscarp.

Il. THE

FIRST

BATTLE

On Feb. 8 1916 it was discovered that the Germans had brought a mass of manoeuvre to the neighbourhood of Verdun. A deserter disclosed the presence of the III. Corps and the VIII. Res. Corps. On the rith an intelligence officer reported a concentration of troops on the right bank of the Meuse, which included the XV. Corps and heavy artillery. The French Command at once took precautions. On Feb. 13 three divisions of the VII. Corps (14th, 37th and 48th) were moved to Souilly a

march south of Verdun, followed on the 16th by two divisions of the XX. Corps. On the 20th the Commander-in-Chief, who had inspected this front on the roth, ordered the I. Army to place the 16th Div. at Gen. Herr’s disposition, thus completing the XX. Corps. Between Feb. 10 and 20, 85 heavy guns were added to the equipment of the Verdun Frontier Region, the scene of the future battle. It thus had 388 field guns and 244 heavy guns. French Supply Problems.—Transport questions arose. Ordinarily two standard gauge railways serve Verdun. The southern line had been cut by the enemy. The western line would be, and was, cut as soon as operations started. A departmental railway, the Meusien line, and a road from Bar-le-Duc still remained. To maintain supplies for an engagement in which 15 or 20 divisions are engaged, the daily requirements are 2,000 tons of munitions, too tons of supplies and material for each division, say 2,000 tons, and from 15,000 to 20,000 men. The Meusien Railway at best carried 800 tons daily. On the roth Capt. Doumenc, commanding the M.T. service, undertook to carry 2,000 tons and 12,000 men daily in lorries provided that the M.T. service had sole control over the roads. Motor traffic was organised on the 2oth on railway lines. From the 29th, 3,000, later 3,500, lorries

passed in an endless stream along this little road only seven yards wide. 6,000 average frequency the traffic rose to guage of the War

vehicles passed a given point in 24 hours, an of one vehicle every 14 seconds. At times one vehicle every five seconds. In the lanthis road was known as the “ Sacred Way ”

(La Voie Sacrée). German Dispositions.—Verdun was confronted by the German V. Army—part of the command of the Crown Prince, who directed the offensive. The Germans had 26 divisions available on the Western Front. A third of these were kept as a general reserve; 17 to 18 divisions were therefore available for the Verdun attack.

The German Command

allotted nine divisions

to the first attack, which started from the right bank. Fast of the Meuse was the VII. Res. Corps (one division in line, one in support); then the XVIII. Corps and the III. Corps in echelon of divisions. Further east the XV. Corps was held in the plain of the Woévre, ready on the breach of the French front to hurl

itself on the French flank. The 113th Div., completing the assault troops, was in support. This mass of manoeuvre had been embodied in the Crown Prince’s Army command and to make way for it, room was made between the V. Res. Corps and the VI. Res. Corps.

The duty of the latter, on the left bank of the

Meuse, was to attack the French when broken on the right bank

and to bar their retreat. Thus it was engaged only on March 6.

On Feb. 21 1916 at 7:15 A.M. the Germans commenced bombardment on a front of 25 m. from the Bois d’Avocourt to Etain. It was of unheard of intensity. Heavy shell were used in vast quantities, not a shell was smaller than 150 or 210 millimetres. The woods were full of guns which fired ceaselessly with measured regularity. Observers from the air ceased to mark batteries on the map. The woods to them were masses of clouds pierced by flashes of lightning. Soon the French squadrons were chased from the sky. The enemy had mastery of the air as of the artillery duel. The Attack Opens——About 4:45 P.M. the first infantry attack was launched. Commandant Vouvard remarks that “It is probable that there were strong reconnoitring parties to test the efficacy of the artillery preparations and to seize trenches which had been destroyed. Beyond doubt that first day the Germans sought to put their infantry in an advantageous position and to get into line for the battle of the next day, by making it pass even the unequal intervals separating the lines.” As a fact, the Germans, to effect a surprise, had not dug parallels from which to issue and moved from their lines at distances from the French lines which varied from 600 to 1,100 metres. Gillet describes their new tactics thus: “ Each troop had a specific task, with an objective of limited breadth and depth. Before taking hold of it, a wave of scouts was sent forward to test the destruction by the artillery fire. If the destruction were not thorough the scouts retired and further artillery preparation was organised. The attack took place in waves about 80 metres apart. First came a line of pioneers and men with bombs. Then came the main body in single file. Then followed a reserve section carrying up ammunition, tools, sandbags, and filling up gaps in the first wave. A second line followed in the same order, passing through the first line, supporting it if checked and renewing the assault on their own initiative. The attack should now proceed by encircling movements, utilising cover and passing along ravines. Thus the centres of resistance would fall one by one. Shell fire would support the advance continually. On no account should troops attempt to overcome resistance which has not been broken by artillery fire. Units when held up must wait for fresh artillery action.” Early German Successes —The French line rested on the village of Brabant, then on the Bois de Consenvoye, Bois d’Haumont, Bois de Caures, Bois de Ville and on Herbebois. A little in the rear the Bois de La Wavrille (southeast of the Bois de Ville) and the village of Beaumont had been strengthened with redoubts. On the extreme right the line rested on the village of Ornes. Before the German attack, what remained of the French trenches was filled with defenders. At Herbebois the Germans captured the first lines but were stopped in front of the supporting trenches. The Bois de Caures was lost but its northern part was retaken during the night. The loss of the Bois d’Haumont was a serious matter. A French counter-attack on the 22nd at 6 A.M. failed. The line had been pierced. The Germans made good use, on the 22nd, of the advantage gained at the Bois d’Haumont. The village of Haumont was destroyed by shell fire and at 5:00 p.M. was attacked by three columns. The main redoubt, built of concrete, collapsed and buried 80 men. The remaining defenders were hunted from the cellars by bombs and liquid fire but rallied at Samogneux. Bois de Ville was lost. Bois de Caures was then enveloped on the right and leit and Col. Driant decided to withdraw his chasseurs to Beaumont. He was the last to leave the wood and was then killed. On the 23rd the village of Samogneux was overwhelmed by shells and set on fire but the garrison held on till night fell. On the extreme left the village of Brabant outflanked by the German advance became untenable and was evacuated. On the right Wavrille and T[erbebois were lost and the front passed along the northern edges of Bois des Fossés and La Chaume. In three days the Germans had captured the first of the Trench positions. Each side was reinforced on the 24th. A fresh regiment from the V. Res. Corps was sent to each of the German corps. The corpson the right which, having gained the greatest success, thereby became as it were a pivotal wing, also

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a battalion of chasseurs. On the French side the two in line from the 21st were reHeved from the left by a of the VII. Corps, on the right by two brigades from Corps. These troops, thrown at night into doubtful in the open country, were immediately destroyed. The 24th was the most critical day of the whole battle. On their right, where the Germans sought to move out from Samogneux, they were nailed down by the French artillery on the left bank. But they started a fresh attack immediately eastwards and captured all the line Beaumont, Bois des Fossés, Bois des Cauri¢res. Further they penetrated towards Douaumont along the ravine of the Vauche. The second French position was lost in one day. In the evening the situation was so grave that Gen. Langle de Cary, commanding the Centre group of Armies, ordered the II. Corps, then closely engaged in the Woévre, to fall back on the Heights of the Meuse. This movement was carried out during the night. That same evening (24th) Gen. Joffre handed over the operations before Verdun to a fresh army, the IL., commanded by Gen. Pétain, who after the Battle of Champagne had been resting at Noailles. The X. Army, on relief by the British Army, was placed in the general reserve. New French Dispositions —The initial task of the army under instructions of Icb. 25 at g:o0 A.M. was to gather together the troops of the Verdun area on the left bank and to prevent the Germans from crossing the Meuse. But on the 24th at midnight Gen. Castelnau set out for Verdun armed with full powers from the Commander-in-Chief. He halted at Avize, headquarters of Gen. de Langle de Cary, whence at 5:45 A.M. on the 25th he telephoned to Gen. Herr to order him to hold at all costs

the line on the right bank facing north between the Meuse and Douaumont and, facing east, on the Heights of the Meuse. At 7:00 A.M. Gen. Castelnau reached Dugny, the headquarters of Gen. Herr. Gen. Pétain went on the morning of the 25th to Chantilly and thence to Dugny, which he reached in the evening. He took charge of the battle on the 25th at midnight.

During the 25th, on the French left, the Germans advanced

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r,500 metres south of Samognceux up to the mill of Cotelettes. Further cast they captured Bezonvaux. A party of Brandenburgers crept up to the fort of Douaumont, found it empty and took possession of it. Gen. de Bonneval, commanding the 37th Div. on the French left on the Talon and the Poivre Hills was afraid of being surrounded and ordered retreat on the Belleville Hills. This order was only partially carried out. The Zouaves held their position on the west of the Poivre. On the other hand while the 37th Div. retreated, the 39th Div. of the XX. Corps, going up into the line, passed it and covered the line BrasHaudiomont. On the 26th Gen. Pétain, at his headquarters at Souilly, reorganised the battle plan. He drew a sharp line—Bras-Douaumont—which he entrusted to the XX. Corps. He divided the area into four sections: (1) under Duchesne in the Woëvre, (2) under Balfourier from the Woëvre to Douaumont, (3) under Guillaumat astride the Meuse, and (4) under Bazelaire on the left bank. The artillery as it arrived was divided between these four commands, On Feb. 21 it consisted of 388 field guns and 244 heavy guns. Ina few wecks there were 1,100 ficld guns, 225 guns of calibres from 80 to 105 mm. and sgoheavy guns, Many fresh battery positions were created and linked up by telephone. The Trench regained the mastery of the air. The sgth Div. was set to build two defensive positions chosen on the 27th and redoubled on March 2 by two intermediate lines. Bridges were built across Meuse. Three thousand territorials repaired and widened the Sacred Way. French Resistance Stiffens—Reinforcements arrived. The I. Corps was at Souilly on the 25th and the XIII. Corps atRevigny. The XXI. Corps followed it two days later. The AIV. Corps detrained on the 2oth and the III. Corps on the 2gth. Between the 26th and the 2zoth the Germans hurled violent attacks against Douaumont, using 560,000 men. On the east they reached the position of Hardaumont and attacked Bois de la Caillette. They stopped, exhausted, on the 2oth. It was the first lull for eight days. Gen. Castelnau deemed the

situation firmly held (Calée) and returned to Chantilly.

944

VERDUN, BATTLES OF

II. THE SECOND PHASE The Germans failed to gain an immediate decision at Verdun. They soon realised that the British Army was about to attack them on the Somme. At the beginning of April they had to reinforce their front on the Ancre by a division. For four months they kept the battle of Verdun going with furious tenacity in order to disorganise the attack prepared by the Allies in Picardy. For the French Staff the problem was to hold on at Verdun without ceasing to prepare for the Somme, to exhaust the enemy as much as possible in advance and to wear him out for the attack on the Somme. Front of Attack Extended.—The principal episodes of that struggle were the capture on March 4 of Douaumont after a violent attack on the 2nd. The French entrenched themselves 200 metres south. On March 6, as Gen. Pétain had expected and feared from the beginning, the Germans extended the action to the left bank. The attack was made by two corps, the VI. Res. and the X. Res., the latter taken from the General Reserve. On the 6th they captured the Hill de l’Ote and on the roth Bois de Cumiéres. They were thus enabled to attack one of the pillars of the main line of defence, the Mort Homme. On the

14th they captured the lower crest of that double hill. The higher crest, Peak 295, could be held by neither side and was No Man’s Land. The second pillar of the French line, further to the west, and known as Hill 304, was attackedon March 20 by the 11th Bavarian Div.which took the Bois d’Avocourt but could not issue thence. While extending his attack on his right, the Crown Prince also developed it on his left. On March 8 the III. Corps with the 113th Div. and two regiments of the XV. Corps attacked on the line Douaumont-Hardaumont. The works at Hardaumont

were taken. Next day the attack was developed further. On the west the VII. Res. Corps attacked the Côte du Poivre while the 2rst Div. advanced on the ravines and crests between the Céte du Poivre and Douaumont. On the east the V. Res. Corps attacked the village and fort of Vaux but met with a bloody reverse, renewed on the 16th and 18th. The Germans brought up fresh troops and the battle began again on March 28 on the left bank. It ended on April 8 by the

April Gen. Pétain was called to command

the Armies of the

Centre and handed the II. Army to Gen. Nivelle.

The Germans,

too, from March had divided the field of battle into two sections, Gen. von Mudra commanding on the right bank, Gen. von Gallwitz on the left bank. In April Gen. von Mudra was replaced by Gen. von Lochow. In July Gen. von Francois relieved von

Gallwitz. The Allies’ preparations on the Somme took definite shape. Before all things the Germans had to prevent the French from taking part in these operations. For this a new success in the Meuse was necessary. Germans Capture Thiaumont and Fleury.—The main French line of defence on the right bank was the Côte de Froide Terre— Fleury—Fort de Souville. On the right this position was covered by the fort of Vaux, on the left by the crest of Thiaumont. It was first necessary to capture Vaux and Thiaumont. On June 1 these two positions were attacked. Vaux was taken on

the oth. Thiaumont farm, taken by the Germans on the 1st, was recaptured by the French on the znd, who lost it again on the oth. German attacks on the Thiaumont outworks behind the farm failed completely. They succeeded in establishing themselves on the west and opposite side in the ravine of LaDame. At the same time battle was resumed on the left bank. Between May 29 and 31 the Germans took Cumiéres but tried vainly to move out of Bois Camard against Hill 304. On the 15th the French resumed the offensive and recaptured a kilometre of trenches on Mort Homme. Time pressed more and more. On June 4 Gen. Brusilov started a wide offensive in Volhynia. In his announcement of the Russian victories of June 13 to the troops, Gen. Joffre said:

“ Soldiers of Verdun, to your heroic resistance we owe these victories. From your resistance will spring the victories we are soon to win.” In these conditions the Germans attacked the line Froide Terre-Souville on June 2r in the grand style, with 19 regiments. On the west the Bavarian Corps took the fortified post of Thiaumont but was checked in front of the fort at Froide Terre.

In the centre the Alpine Corps captured Fleury.

On the west the rogrd Div. took the first line of trenches in front of Souville but failed before the second line. So serious was the situation for the French that on June 23 Gen. Pétain French losing all that remained of their former front line. The commanding the Armies of the Centre warned Gen. Joffre and new front passed thereafter by the redoubt at Avocourt, the suggested moving to the left bank if the enemy reached the counterscarps. Joffre’s answer on the 27th was a peremptory first slopes of Hill 304, the southern reverse of the Mort Homme and the north of Cumiéres. On the right bank on March 31 the order to hold on to the right bank. The Turn of the Tide—Meanwhile the preliminaries of the Germans captured the village of Vaux, which had held out till then, and on April 2 took the lake behind the village. Then on great Franco-British offensive on the Somme started on June April 9 the Crown Prince attacked on both banks on a scale not 24 and the actual battle began on July r. On July rr the Gerknown since the first attacks in February. On the left bank mans made yet another attack on Verdun—from Vaux to Soualone, 1m regiments were involved. The results were insignifi- ville with 12 regiments. It crumpled up on the slopes of Souville cant. On the morrow Gen. Pétain wrote in his orders of the day the principal objective. On Aug. 1 another attack with eight “the oth April was a glorious day for our Armies . . .Courage. divisions also failed. On Aug. 3 the French retook Thiaumont Nous les aurons.” and Fleury on Aug. 4. The Germans regained Thiaumont on the French Counter-Attacks——On April 20 the French counter8th. Throughout the whole month there was local fighting. The attacked on the left bank in order to clear the Mort Homme. last German attack on Sept. 3 also failed. The battle of Verdun, properly called, had come to an end. From Feb. 21 to June 15 The goth Div. continued the struggle till May 3. The eastern the Army at Verdun had seen 66 divisions on its front. Up to front became practically what it was before the German attack of April ọ. But on May 3 the Germans renewed the offensive by July 1 the Germans had used up 435 divisions. It is true that they maintained them on the ground by depots situated a march an attack on Hill 304. On the 8th they captured Bois Camard, behind the front and left them fighting till worn out. The west of the Hill. On the 13th and 16th they attempted without success to advance from this position. They then organised a | French artillery fired 10,300,000 rounds with the field artillery, new attack on the 18th with a fresh corps, the XVIII. Res. 1,200,000 rounds of medium calibre and 600,000 rounds of large Corps and two divisions of the XVIII. and added on the 22nd calibre. the 22nd. Res. Division. This violent battle ended on the 24th IV. VERDUN SET FREE with the capture of Cumiéres. As the Germans had no reserves available the tired units could not be relieved and on the 26th On Sept. 13 M. Poincaré handed to Verdun the cross of the they lost a portion of the trenches they had won. On the right Legion of Honour and Allied decorations. The ceremony took place in the casemates of the citadel. From that moment began bank in front of Douaumont, where on the 22nd the French made a vigorous counter-attack on the I. Bavarian Corps des- a new phase, that of the liberation of Verdun. To a large extent the glory of this feat belongs to Gen. Mangin. He it was who tined for the left bank. They held Douaumont but their attacks led the attack on Douaumont on May 22. Called from the on the left bank were checked. There had been changes in the command. On April 2 the battlefield of Verdun on June 22 he was placed in command of right bank section had been placed under the orders of Gen. Group D, which then stretched from the Meuse to Fleury and Nivelle, the leit bank under Gen. Berthelot. At the end of was progressively enlarged right up to the cliffs of the Meuse. Ap N

VERDY

DU VERNOIS—VERMONT

945

VERGA, GIOVANN! (1840-1922), Italian novelist (see 27.1021), On Sept. 17 in a report to Nivelle he set forth reasons for abandoning operations in detail and for seeking to free Verdun by a died in Rome Jan. 27 1922. Cos’e il Re (short stories) was published in 1922, and two of his works were translated into English plan on broad lines. Relief Offensive Opened.—The first scheme, approved by by D. H. Lawrence: Muastro-don Gesualdo (New York, 1923), and Little Novels of Sicily (Oxford, 1925). Nivelle on Sept. 21, dealt only with an advance up to 300 metres north of the farm of Thiaumont. The scheme of the 24th went BIBLIOGRAPHY. —Laura Gropallo, Autori italiani d'oggi —Giovanni Verga, etc. (1903); L. Russo, Grovarii Verga (1920); C. A. Levi, further and included the fort of Douaumont as far as possible. A third scheme, that of Oct. 9, covered the capture of the fort of Autort drammatict ttaliant, G. Verga, etc. (1922); N. Scalia, Grovannt Verga (1922). Douaumont and perhaps that of the fort of Vaux. A formi VERHAEREN, EMILE (1855-1916), Belgian poet (see dable artillery preparation with 650 guns started on Oct. 2r. 27.1023), greatly increased his reputation during the last years The assault was delivered on Oct. 24 at r1:4o A.M. by three of his life, mainly owing to the publication of his chief work divisions, the 38th on the left, 133rd tn the centre, and 74th on Toute la Flandre, which he wrote from 1904-12 and which inthe right. The first waves marched under a rolling fire which cludes six series of poems dealing with the memories of his boyprogressed according to a set time-table, so that the infantry hood, Les tendresses premières; the Belgian coast, La Guirlande were as it seemed fastened to a wall of steel. By night Douaumont was taken with 6,000 prisoners. The division on the right des dunes; various episodes of Flemish history, Les kéros; life in had not reached the fort of Vaux which ‘vas evacuated by the the small towns, Les villes à Pignons; and the Flemish countryGermans on Nov. 2, the day before the date fixed for attack by side, Les plaines and Les blés mouvants. The comparison between this great work and the first volume of verse published by the the 63rd Division. The Fortress Liberated—In order to exploit this success to the poet in 1883, on a similar subject Les Flamandes, shows the full development of his technique and of his genius. In 1o11, full Gen. Mangin was obliged to restore his ammunition reserves by continued economy. Ile intended to attack again on Dec. § Verhaeren published Les keures du soir, a series of intimate poems dedicated to his wife, completing two previous series published over a front of ro m. in order to retake at one blow the whole of the former second French line which had been lost on Feb. 24. in r905, Les heures de Paprès-midi, and in 1896, Les heures Artillery -preparation started on Nov. 29 with 750 guns. Bad „claires. His tragedy, Hélène de Sparte, was produced in Paris in 1912. During the World War, the poet wrote Les ailes rouges de weather intervened. The Germans had been warned and the value of a surprise was lost. In order to upset the plans of the la guerre (1916), which contains an ode to Rupert Brooke, and two short volumes of prose, La belgique sanglante (1915) and French the Germans made a violent attack on Dec. 6 and capParmi les cendres (1916). He died on Nov. 27 1916, a victim of tured Hill 304. Fine weather returned on the oth and Nivelle recommenced the artillery preparation. It was a keen struggle— a railway accident in Rouen station. Selections of Verhaeren’s poems have been translated into English by Jethro Bithell and the Germans replying vigorously. In the air, too, battle was by Alma Strettell. An English version of his Lore Poems has set. On the 15th at toA.M. the attack was made. The German been published by F. S. Flint, and the plays have been translated barrage started two minutes too late. The attack had started, four divisions—126th, 38th, 37th and 133rd—being in line. By by Arthur Symons, Osman Edwards, F. S. Flint and Jethro night they had retaken the whole of Poivre Hill. The line was in Bithell. VERMONT (see 27.1025).—The population of the State was front of Hill 378, stopped 20 metres south of the farm at Cham352,428 in 1920, as compared with 355,956 in rọro, a loss of brettes, then turned south across Bois d’Hardaumont and la Vauche up to the outwork at Bezonvaux. The French cap- 3,528, or 1%. As in many other States, there were losses in the rural districts and gains in industrial towns and cities. In roto, tured and destroyed 115 guns and took 9,000 prisoners. ‘This, 27°8% of the total population lived in villages and cities of known as the battle of Louvemont, was completed on the 18th 2,500 and over, and in 102a 31:2%. Native whites of native by the recapture of Chambrettes with a total of 11,387 prisoners. parentage constituted 64:7% of fhe population. Foreign born It was the end of the battle of Verdun. On the evening of Dec. whites constituted 12:6, of the population. Of the foreign 15 Nivelle took over the command of the Armies of the North. Mangin went to the VI. Army. The II. Army was entrusted to born whites, 31:8% were French Canadians, and, including all Canadians, the percentage was 55-8. The following are the cities Gen. Guillaumat and reduced from 25 to 15 divisions. The and towns having a population of 9,000 or over and the percentspring passed in organising the area conquered and in making age of increase or decrease for the decade:— preparations for the final battle. The Final Battle—In the summer of 1917 Pétain formulated Percentage | plans for a series of limited offensives for the purposes of raising ne 1219 inc. or dec. the spirit of the army and decided on an opcration on the northern front of Verdun on both banks having as objectives, Burlington . 22,779 20,468 +11-3 Rutland 14,954 13,546 +104 Mort Homme on the left and Samogneux and Beaumont on the Barre 10,008 ee -6-8 right. From these positions the line would link up with BezonBennington 9,982 4° vaux through Bois le Chaume and Bois des Cauritres. The Germans, however, anticipated the French by making an attack A griculture.—Vermont is pre-eminently a dairy state and its on the left bank on June 28 which was followed by fighting right principal crops are hay and forage grown for cattle. The number up to Aug. 3. The attack planned by Pétain was delivered on of farms in 1920 Was 20,075, and in 1910, 32,709, a decrease of Aug. 20 after six days’ heavy artillery preparation. The XIII. 35634, or 11-1 %. Improved land increased from 1,633,965 ac. and XVI. Army Corps attacked on the left bank, the XV. and in īoro to I ‚691,595 in 1920, a gain of 3:5%. The value of all XXII. on the right bank, 16 divisions in all being engaged. farm property in 1920 was $222,736,620, an increase of 53-2% Mort Homme was captured on the 2oth, Hill 304 on the 24th. over the rogro total of $145,390,728. The average value oa On the right bank Hill 344 was taken on the 20th, Samogneux farm was $7,661 In 1920, a gain of 72-4 over 1910. The average on the 21st. More than 10,000 prisoners were taken. Beaumont Vermont farm area, 145-7 ac. is the largest of any State east alone remained in German Verdun.

hands.

This was the final battle of

BIiBLIOGRAPHY.— H. Dugard, Bataille de Verdun (1916); M. Genevoix, Sous Verdun, aoñt-octobre Irọr14 (1916); G. Jollivet, L'épopće de Verdun, 1916 (1917); L. Gillet, Bataille de Verdun, 1916 (1921); See also WoRrLD WAR: BIBLIOGRAPHY., (H, B1.*)

VERDY

DU VERNOIS,

JULIUS

VON

(1832-1910),

general and military writer (see 27.1019), died Sept. 30 r1gro.

German

at Stockholm

of the Mississippi river.

On Jan. 1 there were 377,000 milch

cows, 83,000 other cattle, 73,c00 horses, 48,000 sheep and 50,000 swine. Much milk and cream is shipped daily on special trains

to the New York and Boston markets. In 1925 practically half the milk and cream supply of Boston came from Vermont dairies and quite a good proportion of that consumed in New York City. Vermont's ratio of dairy cows per capita (1-19) is the highest of any State. Only three States surpass mon in percentage of pure bred cattle.

946

VERRALL —VERSAILLES,

The value of Vermont crops as reported by the census of 1920 was $47,999,600, and of this total the value of hay and forage was $29,581,464. In round numbers there were produced cereal crops worth $5,000,000, chiefly corn and oats; vegetables valued at $7,000,000, of which white potatoes were valued at $5,000,000; maple sugar and syrup, worth 33,500,000; and fruits worth $2,000,000. The total value of all Vermont’s agricultural output

crops, dairy products, poultry, eggs, maple sugar and syrup, meat products and forest products of farms, was $89,757,053. Crop reports of the U.S. Dept. of Agriculture for 1924 showed that Vermont led all other States in average yield of bushels of corn per ac. (47 bushels). In 1924 the production was: oats, 2,888,000 bu.; maize, 3,901,000 bu.; wheat, 21,000 bu.; barley, 279,000 bu.; . potatoes, 3,340,000 bushels. Vermont produces more maple sugar and syrup than any other State, according to crop reports of the U.S. Dept. of Agriculture (1925). Manufacturing.—Vermont leads all other States in the production of marble and granite and ranks second in its output of slate and talc. Owing to its large supply of hard and soft woods,

it contains many woodworking establishments.

It contains the

largest plants in the United States producing scales, pipe organs and reed organs, screen windows, portable ovens and brush fibre. In 1921 there were r,tor1 manufacturing establishments; 2,931 salaried employees, receiving a total of $6,433,000; 25,767 wage earners, receiving a total of $28,068,000. Raw material to. the value of $63,688,000 was used; and the output amounted to

$113,904,000-—a decrease of 32% on that of roto. There are large plants in Springfield and Windsor making machine tools, and Springfield contains a large factory for utilising reworked wool. Bellows Falls contains large paper mills; Burlington and Brattleboro manufacture cotton goods on a large scale, and Winooski contains a large woollen factory. Bennington is noted for the manufacture of knit underwear. Readsboro contains a large plant manufacturing school furniture. Package dyes, butter colour, children’s washable play clothes, refrigerators and boxes are made in large quantities in Burlington. Rutland manufactures silos, maple sugar utensils and marble- and granite-working machinery. Brattleboro produces chairs and overalls in large quantities. Barton produces piano actions; Orleans, piano sounding-boards. Montpelier manufactures sawmill machinery and clothes pins. St. Albans contains a large factory manufacturing summer clothing. Bristol contains a large burial-casket factory. In Hyde Park is a very large plant dealing in green calf skins. History —During the administration of Gov. Fletcher, the State constitution was amended, changing the date of the biennial State elections from Sept. to Nov. and the time of the convening of the legislature from Oct. to January. The power of the governor was strengthened by requiring a two-thirds instead of a majority vote for overriding the veto. The power of commuting sentences was taken from the legislature. In 1915 a workman’s compensation law was enacted. Beginning in 1912 a series of Acts was passed leading to the establishment of a State system for the care of dependent, neglected and delinquent children. An important step was taken in 1917 in co-ordinating the work of State departments, commissions and boards, and it was carried still farther in 1923. A direct primary law was passed in 1915 with a referendum clause attached. The result of the referendum was a small majority in favour of the law. A presidential primary Act was repealed in 1921. The educational laws were revised in 1915 and in 1923 greater control in the management of school affairs was given to municipalities. Following the ratification of the amendment to the national constitution granting the right of suffrage to women, the State constitution was amended along similar lines, and in rg21 a law was enacted giving women the right to hold office. Vermont has been Republican in State and national politics since the organisation of the party. The recent governors have been: John A. Mead, 1910-2; Allen M. Fletcher, 1912-5; Charles W. Gates, 1915-7; Horace F. Graham, 1917-9; Percival W. Clement, 1919-21; James Hartness, 1921~3; Redfield Proctor, 1923-5; Franklin S. Billings, 1925- . (W. H. CR.)

TREATY

OF

VERRALL, ARTHUR WOOLLGAR (18sı1-ror2), British scholar, was born at Brighton Feb. 5 r851. Educated at Wellington and Trinity College, Cambridge, he graduated in 1873, becoming fellow and tutor of his college. He published editions of many classical plays, especially the Medea (1881), Agamemnon (1899) and Choephoroe (1893). In 1895 appeared Euripides the Rationalist, followed in roos and roro by editions of most of Euripides’ plays. He was an original critic, and a frequent contributor to The Classical Review and other journals. In Feb. torr he was appointed to fill the new King Edward VII. professorship of literature at Cambridge, which had been endowed by Sir Harold Harmsworth, later Viscount Rothermere. He died at Cambridge June 18 1912. VERSAILLES, TREATY OF.—The German Treaty was signed on June 28 1919, and came into force by exchange of ratifications on Jan. ro 1920. It was intended originally that it should be only one part of a general and inclusive treaty, comprising settlement with Austrians, Hungarians, Bulgars and Turks, as well as Germans. In such case it would have been strictly comparable to the Treaty of Vienna in 1815, which was, in fact, an “omnibus treaty.” But the delays in dealing with these peoples, particularly Hungarians and Turks, not only separated the German Treaty from the others, but caused it to be the first to be signed and the first to come into force, Just as it was the first in importance. It is also an important fact that, in the end, all the Principal Allied Powers (except the United States} recognised the Wilsonian principles and maintained that they had been applied in the German Treaty. No state, except the United States, recognised or attempted to apply the Wilsonian princtples to the Austrian, Hungarian, Bulgarian or Turkish treaties.

I. NEGOTIATIONS BEFORE THE ARMISTICE It is important, therefore, at the outset to understand the implications of the correspondence conducted between the German Govt. and President Wilson during Oct. and Nov. 1918, when the former was asking for peace. The governing document of the series is the reply of President Wilson to the German Govt. of Nov. 5, which embodied the result of the decisions of the principal Allied and Associated Governments as a whole (i.e., France, Great Britain, Italy and the United States). In that document they offered to make peace on the basis of President Wilson’s speech of Jan. 8 1918, which embodied the ‘*‘ Fourteen Points ’? (excluding only point 2 relating to the freedom of the seas). In addition, they promised to make peace by “the principles of settlement embodied in his subsequent addresses,” t.e., speeches up to Nov. 5 1918. They added to this a definition of what was meant by President Wilson’s statement, (Jan. 8 1918) :— That the invaded territories must be restored, as well as evacuated and freed, and the Allied Governments feel that no doubt ought to be allowed as to what that provision implies. By it they understand that compensation will be made by Germany for all damage done to the civilian population of the Allies and their property by the aggression of Germany by land, by sea and from the air.

So we may say that the Allies offered to make peace on the general basis of President Wilson’s speeches in 1918, minus his point about ‘freedom of the seas,” and plus a definition of loss and damage. The Germans sent no reply to this offer in writing, but in fact accepted it by communicating with Marshal Foch and asking for an armistice. ‘The Germans never denied that they were bound by the Wilsonian principles, and the Principal Allies explicitly admitted their binding force in their reply to Germany of June 16.2 So there was no difference between Allies and Enemies as to the binding character of the Wilson principles in the German Treaty, though they differed greatly in the end as to their interpretation. The course of the negotiations is related in the article PEACE CONFERENCE, and all that can be done here is to indicate the character of the treaty itself and its apparent meaning as deduced from its clauses. It is at once the l For the text see FOURTEEN POINTS. 2Text of the Reply in Misc. 4, 1919, Cmd. 2883 (H.M. Stationery Office).

VERSAILLES, largest and the most complicated of modern treaties, and the best way to analyse it would seem to be to take its 15 parts separately.

II. ANALYSIS

OF THE

TREATY

Part I. The Covenant.—Part I. deals with the Covenant of the League of Nations (see COVENANT). It may be here remarked that the Covenant unites all its members in a league guaranteeing their territorial independence and integrity. The entrance of Germany into the League was deprecated at the time by some of the Allies and only became a certainty after the signature of the agreements of Locarno on Dec. 1 1925, and their ratification in 1926. The most important powers granted to the League are the supervision of Mandated Territories (art. 22), whereby the future government of the German

colonies, after

having been assigned to various mandatory Powers, is subject to supervision by the Permanent Mandates’ Commission. This is appointed by the League, and it inspects the annual reports of ` the mandatory Powers on the territory committed to their charge. Similarly, the racial and religious Minorities’ Treaties have been placed under the guardianship of the League, but their supervision here, though real, is not so effective as over territories under the mandates. Ultimately the supervision of disarmament, as provided in the German Treaty, is to fall into the hands of the League, and this has finally been accomplished by the dissolution of the inter-Allied naval and military commissions and their supersession by the League at the end of 1925. The international control of health and disease is provided for in article 25 and has been actually much extended since. Article 23 provides for international co-operation in labour questions (see below, Part XHI.). The most binding obligation of the League is found in articles 12-16, by which members bind themselves not to go to war in disregard of its covenants until three months of arbitration or inquiry by the council have elapsed. It is provided under article 8 that the League shall formulate plans for reduction of national armaments, and it will take the lead in the disarmament conference about to meet In 1926.

The actual machinery, through which the League functions, consists at the outset of a council of nine, of whom five must be France, Great Britain, Italy, Japan and the United States. As the latter declined to accede, five out of the original nine seats were left to be filled by smaller states, whose representatives are elected by the Assembly of the League. The Assembly consists of representatives of all member states, and is an annual international Parliament. Two institutions connected with, but actually separated from the League are the Permanent Court of International Justice (provided for under art. 14), and the International Labour Office and annual conference (art. 23-4). The League also, as will be described below, is the governor of two important pieces of territory, the Saar basin and the free city of Danzig. Parts II. and III, Territorial Dispositions. (a) Western Frontiers.—Germany lost territory in the south, north and east as a result of the War, whilst other arrangements tended to weaken her influence beyond her own borders. Belgium, for example, ceased by article 31 to be a neutralised state, and has since entered into a military alliance with France. She has also acquired by cession from Germany the frontier districts of Moresnet, Eupen and Malmedy (art. 32-4); Luxembourg similarly ceases to be a neutralised state (art. 40-1), and has since entered into an economic union with Belgium. By articles 42-4 the whole left bank of the Rhine and the right bank to the west of a line drawn 5o km. to the east of the Rhine, has been demilitarised forever. Fortifications are to be dismantied there, and no per-

manent works for manoeuvre or mobilisation By articles 45-50 the Saar basin forms an trol of an international commission and of coal-mines are ceded to France. At the end

are to be permitted. area under the conthe League, and its of 15 years a plebi-

scite will be taken, whereby the inhabitants will vote as to their

preference (a) for the existing international régime, (b) for union

TREATY

OF

947

with France, (c) for union with Germany. Finally, and most important of all, by articles 51-79, Alsace and Lorraine are ceded by Germany to France. The latter thus gains nearly 2,000,000 inhabitants, great strategic advantages, and over three-fourths of the German-produced iron with other valuable minerals. (b) Northern Frontier —Toward the north Germany consented (art. 115) to demolish the fortifications of Heligoland and to demilitarise it, but she retains its territorial sovereignty. She has lost the northern part of Schleswig to Denmark. By articles 1og-14 it was provided that there should be a plebiscite in two zones. Of these, the northern voted for incorporation with Denmark and the southern, or Flensburg, zone

elected for

Germany. Denmark thus received that plebiscite which Bismarck had promised her but which he never gave (Art. IIL, Treaty of Nikolsburg July 26 1866). | (c) Eastern Frontier.—By articles 87-93 it was provided that there should be a plebiscite in Upper Silesia. This has resulted (1921) in a decision in which the southern half of the area— including valuable mines—passed to Poland, the upper half returning to Germany. Two other such plebiscites were provided for in East Prussia in the Allenstein and Marienwerder districts respectively, both of which went in favour of Germany. By the boundaries as drawn, a large part of the Posen and Bromberg area goes to the new Polish Republic. In addition, a Polish corridor is run to the sea between East Prussia and Brandenburg ending in the free city of Danzig. The latter is administered by the league but its foreign relations are controlled by Poland. Finally, the city and hinterland of Memel, ceded to the Principal Allies in the treaty, was handed over to Lithuania in 1924. About 3,500,000 former inhabitants of Germany are ceded to Poland or Lithuania in the east, of which rather less than onethird are German. Altogether, the total number of inhabitants ceded to the various Powers under the German Treaty falls not far short of 6,000,000. And this loss is probably a good deal less

serious than the economic injury suffered by Germany in the loss of most of her iron and other minerals. Part LV. German Rights and Interests outside Germany.--By articles 119-27, Germany ceded all her oversea colonies to the Principal Alhed Powers. She thus lost in Africa the Cameroons (divided between France and the British Empire as mandatories); Togoland (to Great Britain as mandatory); Southwest Africa(to the Union of South Africa as mandatory); East Africa (to Great Britain and to Belgium as mandatories). These territories included some 18,000 Germans and between 12,000,000 and 13,000,000 natives. In the Pacific she lost the Marshall Isles (ceded to Japan as mandatory); Samoa (to New Zealand as mandatory); New Guinea (to Australia as mandatory); Nauru Island (to the British Empire as mandatory). She also renounced outright to Japan (art. 156-8) the peninsula of Shantung, a province Japan returned to China in 1921. In addition to all these cessions of territory, Germany lost all her state property, movable and immovable, in her colonies. She was further obliged to cancel all her valuable treaty rights, capitulations and concessions with countries like China, Liberia, Siam, Egypt and Morocco. An absolutely clean sweep was made of her transmarine possessions, properties, powers and rights. By article 438 even the property and stations of German missionaries are to be handed over to trustees, and the individual missionaries controlled or expelled from the mandated territories, at the will of the mandatory. The course of time will show how far the general dis-

abilities inflicted on German oversea undertakings will cripple the transmarine state enterprise of Germany in future, and hamper her private traders and steamship lines, as well as her missionaries. Part V. Military, Naval and Air Clauses —The aim of these clauses was similar in all cases, to destroy the existing German fortifications and the matériel of war, and to maintain Germany permanently in an absolutely weak and crippled condition, so far as armaments went. The maximum of the German Army in future was to be 100,000 men, with stores of ammunition, guns, etc., in strict proportion. Beyond this figure all existing munitions, etc., were to be surrendered and destroyed and munition

948

VERSAILLES,

manufacture henceforth restricted. Germany consented to abolish conscription and to adopt a system of long-period voluntary enlistment of at least 12 years for the men, and of 25 for the officers. Military training outside the army was forbidden, and the existence of a large general staff prohibited. The naval clauses were almost equally drastic, and the German fleet was henceforth restricted to six battleships of the “ Deutschland ” type, six light cruisers, 12 destroyers, 12 torpedo boats (art. 181), in short, to a flotilla for coast defence, with the important proviso that submarines were absolutely forbidden. No new ships above 10,000 tons are to be built for replacement purposes. A voluntary long-period recruitment for the navy, on the lines of that of the army was provided. A complete demolition of naval works and fortifications within 50 km. of the coast was insisted on. The air clauses (art. 198-202) were the most drastic of all, for they absolutely prohibited naval or military air forces, and arranged for the total destruction of all military or naval air matériel. Inter-Allied commissions of control were provided for all these arms of the service, and their work was finally concluded in 1925. But the German armaments are still subject to supervision and inspection by the League. Part VI. Prisoners of War and Graves —This section is common to all the treaties and provides for the return of prisoners of war and for the upkeep and maintenance of graves. It calls for no special remark. Part VII. Penalties -—This is the most disputable of all parts of the German Treaty, as it is the only one that has remained wholly a dead letter. It provides (art. 227) for the trial of William II. “ formerly German Emperor, for a supreme offence against international morality and the sanctity of treaties.” An international tribunal of five, with one member nominated by each of the Principal Allies, was to try this high-placed offender. The statement of the procedure to be adopted, and of the punishment to be inflicted, was judiciously vague. The project never came to anything because the Netherlands Govt., in whose territory the ex-Kaiser had taken refuge, refused to surrender him in accordance with the Allied request. Articles 228-30 provided for the punishment before military tribunals of the allies of Germans “ accused of having committed acts in violation of the laws and customs of war.” Eventually a list of over roo such criminals was drawn up, and their extradition demanded from Germany. Finally, about a dozen of them were tried in Germany itself by Germans and, though only a few were convicted, the Allied Governments decided to drop the matter, for extradition was impossible without fighting. In 1925 Field-Marshal Hindenburg, himself a ‘‘ war criminal,” was elected President of the Republic without any formal Allied protest.

Part VII, Reparation.—This is among the most celebrated and important of the sections of the Treaty, and it was affected more than any other by outside and popular influences. The payments demanded were called ‘ reparation ”’ rather than indemnity, in deference to the principles of President Wilson, but it is hard to see how more money could have been demanded under any name. ‘‘ The reparation chapter,” as it 1s called, opens with the famous article 231, which is here given in full:— The Allied and Associated Governments affirm and Germany accepts the responsibility of Germany and her allies for causing all the toss and damage to which the Allied and Associated Govern-

ments and their nationals have been subjected as a consequence of

the War imposed upon them by the aggression of Germany and her allies.

Standing by itself, this article might be construed to mean no more than that Germany is rendered liable to pay by a pro forma admission of her guilt. But the reply of the Allies to Germany of June 16 must be considered an authoritative interpretation of their views. They admitted in it the binding character of the Wilsonian principles and interpreted the treaty as a whole, and therefore article 231 in particular, as fixing the War guilt on Germany. Article 232 defined (in connection with an annex) the categories of loss and damage under which Germany was liable. Among these was included pensions to civilians. This

TREATY

OF

seems clearly contrary to the definition given in the memo. of Nov. 5 1918, which has been quoted above. It would appear from the doubtful manner in which this question is handled in the covering letter and reply of June 16 that the Allies themselves were uneasy upon this point, and most impartial observers would now agree that this uneasiness was justified. The remainder of Part VIII. is concerned with the ways and means of paying reparation, and a body, known as the Reparation Commission, was set up with very extensive powers. It appears that Mr. Lloyd George intended these powers to be used for the purpose of greatly reducing the ultimate liabilities of Germany, but the absence of the United States from the commission and the French influence upon it, together with English popular opinion, defeated this idea. The later course of reparation cannot detain us here, but the original proposals were greatly modified in execution. Mr. Keynes estimated at the time that about £2,000,000,000 was all that could be got out of Germany, and it is pretty certain that £3,000,000,000, or at most £4,000,000,000, represented the utmost they could have' paid. The institution of the Dawes Scheme in 1924 put an-end to the original reparation clauses and to the Reparation Commission. The payments in kind provided for in article 236, and in various annexes, were based on sounder ground. They included, among other things, “‘ the ton for ton, and class for class ”’ replacement of Allied merchant shipping by German vessels.

Great Britain benefited most under this head; France most by deliveries of coal and coal derivatives; Belgium by livestock. Part IX, The Financial Clauses,—This section is largely technical, dealing with order of priority, with the meeting of special debts from special assets, currency questions, etc. It is closely connected with the ‘Reparation Chapter.” Pari X. Economic Clauses.—The first section of this consists of articles 264-75, which deals with commercial relations, shipping

and unfair competition, commercial treaties, etc. Much was attempted at the conference in the way of promoting internationalisation of rivers and canals and transport. It was even proposed to make raw materials free of tariffs throughout the world. But in the end the only practical gain was that the Allied Powers secured a “most favoured nation treatment” from Germany for five years, and adjusted various commercial treaties for this purpose. Sections III.-VIII. (articles 296-311) provide for the regulation of enemy property, debts, contracts, etc. In the liquidation of German property in foreign countries the principle was adopted of giving the Allies power to confiscate the private property of German individuals in an allied country, and of crediting the sums obtained to the amount paid as reparation by the German National Government. In other words, the private property of German individuals held anywhere abroad was as liable to confiscation for reparation purposes, as if it had been German state property confiscated in a ceded colony. The German Observations to the Allies seem to admit that German private property held abroad could not be expected to escape altogether. The Allies, in their reply of June 17, pointed out that they had had, as a result of the War, to take over foreign investments from their nationals, thus infringing on their private rights. They added: “the time has arrived when Germany must do what she has forced her opponents to do.” It is quite true that, though private property was invariably respected in former wars, the advance of socialistic ideas and the conditions of modern warfare cause difficulty in applying strictly the doctrine of total immunity of private property. None the less, it appears that the demands of the Allies in this particular went much too far, as is evidenced by the fact that the

powers thus given to the Allies

have

been

exercised 1 toto no-

where except in France, that they have been only partially applied in Great Britain, and that they have been abandoned A R in some countries, e.g., the Union of South Africa. Anyhow it constitutes a dangerous precedent for the future. It is notable as being one of the very few parts of the treaty with which “ The Big Four "’ did not interfere. Part XI. Aerial Navigation.—This merely arranges for full liberty of passage and facilities for Allied airships flying over Germany up till fan. 1 1923. Part XII. Ports, Waterways and Ratlways.—This is an important section, though a highly technical one. The aim was to secure international control over rivers which flowed through more than one country. This wasa very extraordinary development from the doctrine laid down as to international rivers at Vienna in 1815. It was, however, affected by the desire to provide access to the sea for countries like Switzerland and Czechoslovakia. These were land-locked, though they are the source of rivers which end in the sea. International commissions wcre set up to control the Rhine,

VERWEY Oder, Elbe, Niemen and Danube.

The result is that Germany is in a

minority in the control of three rivers regarded as typically German, the Rhine, Oder and Elbe.

The Kiel canal is in effect international-

ised to give freedom of access to all vessels of whatever country in peace and in war but, subject to this condition, is under German administration. Access to the sea is secured by providing free zones for Czechoslovakia in the harbours of Hamburg and Stettin. As regards international transport by rail, the clauses were mostly of a temporary nature; and were subsequently more defined by an international transport conference held at Barcelona in 1921 under the auspices of the League. Part XIII, Labour.—This section marks the beginning of an attempt to build up an elaborate fabric of international Labour machinery, to provide for periodic international discussion, and to arrange for the representation both of employers and of working men. Three of the most distinguished of Labour representatives took part in its construction, Samuel Gompers of the United States, George N. Barnes of Great Britain, and Albert Thomas

of France,

the last-named becoming the permanent head of the International Labour Office. This is established at Geneva side by side, but not identical, with the League Secretariat. It is, in fact, the instrument set up to carry out article 23a of the Covenant by which the members undertook ‘‘ to endeavour to secure and maintain fair and humane conditions for men, women and children, both in their own countries and in all countries to which their commercial and industrial relations extend.” Though an integral part of the League, its character and organs are autonomous, which is not the case with the machinery set up to deal with health and transit questions. In the allocation of its finance the League has control, but not over the organs, of international Labour, The Labour office is controlled by the governing body of 24 persons, of whom 12 represent Governments; six are elected by employers' delegates to the conference and six by workers’ delegates to the conference. | The general conference, or Labour Parliament, which has to meet once every year, consists of over 200 members, and is constituted as follows: Every member of the League is entitled to four representatives, of whom the state government nominates two, while a

third is elected by the employers and a fourth by the workers of the state concerned. The conference has met annually, but has met with grave difficulties in the application of universal rules and standards. ft is largely due to the conference, however, that the hours of labour in the West have been recognised as 48 per week, while most Eastern countries have been induced to adopt a 60-hour week standard, which represents a great advance upon anything previously done in this direction. The care with which questions of injury to workers, e.g., lead poisoning, are investigated and the publicity given to the deliberations is, however, a matter of the greatest importance (see INTERNATIONAL LABOUR OFFICE),

Part XIV. Guarantees—Provision was made in the military clauses (see above) for the demilitarisation of the left bank of the Rhine. But a military occupation of Allied troops is also

provided for.

By article 428 the whole of this area, together

with bridgeheads across the Rhine, is to be occupied for 15 years from the coming into force of the treaty (Jan. 10 1920). But it is provided in article 429 that there shall be a successive Allied evacuation of the three zones and bridgeheads into which the area is divided. That of Cologne is to be evacuated in five years, that of Coblenz in 10 and of Mainz in 15. These evacuations are not, however, to take place unless Germany faithfully carries out the provisions of the treaty asa whole. The Cologne evacuation was delayed from Jan. to Dec. 1925 on this account. But the meaning of articles 429 and 430 appears to be that the Allies are only permitted to continue occupation if German conduct proves unsatisfactory. There does not seem any justification under the treaty for the action taken by the Allies as a whole, including Great Britain, in 192r, when areas in Germany beyond the bridgeheads were occupied. Still less would there appear to be any Justification for the occupation of the German district of the Ruhr by the French and Belgians in Jan. 1923. This was not approved of at the time by the British Govt., and was subsequently declared by them to be in their opinion illegal in a note to the French Govt. (Aug. 1923). As a guarantee for the settlement of the Eastern frontier of Germany, as fixed at the peace, article 433 abrogates the Brest-Litovsk treaties between Germany and Soviet Russia and binds all German troops to evacuate territory beyond their new frontier. Part XV. Miscellaneous Provistons—This consists of a number of miscellaneous and technical matters which were accidentally omitted elsewhere. In so far as they are of any im-

portance they are mentioned in connection with their appropriate subject above.

949

Ill. SUMMARY The German Treaty appears, when its variousitems are assembled together, to have been crushing and severe to a high degree. This result was partly due to the fact that the separate parts of the treaty were worked out by the different committees, and its cumulative effect not recognised when they were assembled together. It is due, however, more particularly to the fact that popular pressure was very great both on President Wilson, Mr. Lloyd George and M. Clemenceau not to make a lenient peace. Indeed, the scheme prepared by Mr. Lloyd George on March 25 (published as Cmd. 1614) shows sufficiently what his ideas were. And he only modified them when he received on April 8 the famous “ round-robin ” telegram of 370 M.P.’s, whereupon he abandoned his ideas of leniency. At the beginning of June he again showed a tendency to moderation, but by this time President Wilson had made up his mind and all efforts were useless. M. Clemenceau was considered by some French organs not to have sufliciently supported the interests of France, and he could hardly have been more moderate, even had he so desired. The representatives of the British Dominions were generally in favour of severity, with the conspicuous exceptions of Generals Botha and Smuts, who strongly urged moderation. The chief defects of the peace, the procedure against the Kaiser and the War criminals and the inclusion of pensions to civilians in reparation, must be considered concessions to popular feeling rather than due to the deliberate judgment

of the peace

negotiators.

The

first two have been

abandoned and the last greatly modified. The territorial concessions were carefully considered and may, with some effort, be brought within the bounds of ‘ the Fourteen Points ’’ and of the Wilsonian principles. As regards permanent maintenance of the new frontiers, the British Govt. has guaranteed these in the West by the Locarno Treaty, but they are evidently not prepared to give any special guarantees for the existing Eastern frontiers of Germany, though France has promised to support Poland and Czechoslovakia against Germany, if need arise. The “ guarantees ” section of the Peace Treaty was carried out by the evacuation of the Cologne area and by the tacit abandonment of policies like the invasion and occupation of the Ruhr. The Property section of the treaty has been, in great part, modified or abandoned. No great diplomaticinstrument has ever been so speedily modified, revised or altered, whether by tacit consent or by deliberate design. Two parts of the treaty alone have expanded and developed, the institutions set up by the international Labour organisation and by the League. President Wilson is known to have thought that other parts of the treaty were, to a large extent, temporary but that the League would be permanent and eventually prove the corrective and solvent of such difficulties as other sections had created. His prediction is now in a fair way to become verified. BrpLioGRAPHy.—J. M. Keynes, Economic Consequences of the Peace (1919); H. W. V. Temperley, ed. History of Peace Conference, 6 vol. (1920-4); A. Tardieu, The Truth about the Treaty (1920); B. M. Baruch, The Making of the Reparation and Economic Sections of the Treaty, New York (1920); R. Lansing, The Peace Negotiations (1921); Col. E. M. House and C. Seymour, What Realiy Happened at Parts, New York (1921); R. S. Baker, Woodrow Wilson and World

Settlement (1923). Texts. The Treaty of Peace, ed. with notes by H. W. V. Temperly, with Introduction by Lord R. Cecil, (Oxford, 1920); do., with Reply of the Alles and Official Index, H.M. Stationery Office, (London, 1920). (H. W. V.T.)

VERWEY, ALBERT (1865), Dutch man of letters, was one of the leading figures of the revival of Dutch literature, called ‘ The movement of 1880.”’ He helped to found and from 1884-9 was one of the editors of the Nieuwe Gids; from 18941904 Of the Tweemaandelijksch Tijdschrift and De X Xe Eeuw, and from 1905-19 of De Beweging. In 1924 Verwey was appointed professor of Dutch literature in the university of Leyden. His anthology with commentaries of Nederlandsche Dichters behalve Vondel (1893, etc.)and his essay on Potgieter and his ‘circle Het Testament van Potgieter (1908) are works of lasting value. Verwey, who held an honorary doctor’s degree from the

950 University of Geroningen,

VESNIC—VETERINARY SCIENCE translated into Dutch Shelley’s

A

University Developments.--The rise of animal husbandry, animal industry and zootechny as divisions of veterinary In 1885 he issued an article on The Sonnet and the Sonnets of science in countries such as North and South America, Switzerland and Rumania, led to the establishment of chairs in the Shakespeare. See M. Uyldert, Albert Verwey (1908). VESNIC, MILENKO (1862-10921), Serbian diplomatist, was universities of the countries mentioned, so that “ in view of the born as a Turkish subject in what was then the Sanjak of Novi constantly increasing importance of the production and conPazar, but made his way to Belgrade, where he was educated. servation of food and clothing for mankind, especial consideraAfter studying law he took his doctorate in Munich. He entered tion will be given to problems in breeds and breeding, feeds and the Serbian diplomatic service in 1891, but soon left it to edit feeding, care, management, exhibition, marketing and utilisation of all classes of livestock and their products ”’ (University the Serbian law journal and became professor of international law at the Iigh School (soon to become the university) of Bel- of the State of New York, 1920). The isolation of one particular branch of education is now grade. In 1893 he entered Parliament and was for a short time Minister of Education in the Gruijić Cabinet. In 1899 he and generally condemned. In those countries which were the pioneers other Radical leaders were charged with complicity in the in veterinary education there still exist huge veterinary instituattempt on King Milan’s life, and though entirely innocent, he tions. But where a new veterinary institution has been established within recent years it has usually been founded in a was sentenced to two years’ imprisonment. After a year he was university centre and as an integral part of the university. At pardoned, resumed his professorship, and in rgor became Minister in Rome. In 1904 he was appointed Minister in Paris, a present the movement towards the universitics has become post which he held, with short intervals of political work, until general. It is recognised that to be in the university as part his death. He was one of the delegates sent by King Peter to of a national scheme gives education stability. In the United states, where veterinary schools of various kinds were very negotiate the peace of London in 1913, and in 1919 was delegate numerous, every school, with two exceptions, outside the of the new Yugoslav State at the Peace Conference. In 1920 universities or state colleges collapsed during the War. ‘The Vesnić, who remained a staunch though level-headed Radical, was selected to fill the office of premier and remained In office utilisation of existing endowments in the universities for the advancement of veterinary education has proved of immense for 12 months with a coalition cabinet. He died on May 15 1921. benefit, expecially in such subjects as physiology, where comVETERINARY SCIENCE (see 25.2).—There is no single cause plete departments with endowments already existed. to which the rapid development of veterinary science since 1910 The universities have recognised veterinary science by grantcan be attributed. Powerful influences have been at work, such as increasing national appreciation of the importance of agri- ing veterinary degrees, which in some countries entitle the holders to practise, e.g., South Africa, Australia, Brazil and Japan. culture as a whole, and recognition of the facts that animal In other countries, as in England, the degrees are simply evihusbandry forms one of the greatest divisions of agriculture, and dences of academic achievement and are not licences to practise. that disease is intercommunicable between other animals and man. Although degrees of B.Sc., in which certain veterinary subjects Public Health Service—The evolution of a public health could be taken, were already granted by the universities of service has been the means of allocating to animal disease an London and Edinburgh, the University of Liverpool was the important position in schemes of preventive medicine. The indebtedness of veterinary science to some of the pioneers in first British university to grant a full veterinary degree. This university has instituted degrees of bachelor, master and doctor public health ts indeed great. The bearing which the animal of veterinary science (B.V.Sc., M.V.Se. and D.V.Sc.). food products, especially milk and meat, have upon the welfare Research Institutes—Under the auspices of the Development of man has, during this period, become fully appreciated. In Commissioners and their advisory committees, research instisome countries, as North and South America and South Africa, tutes have been founded at London and Cambridge in England, animal by-products have become an extremely valuable naand in Scotland, for the Animal Diseases Research Association. tional asset. In South America it is commonly said that when Scores of thousands of pounds have been disbursed, and in 1925 dealing with an animal body “ nothing is lost but the breath.” the commissioners enlarged their held of support by making a The purity of meat and milk supplies has assumed a congrant of £15,000 on a pound for pound basis to the University siderable importance. Inspection, carrying with it a guarantee of Liverpool to provide more adequate buildings and equipment of purity, has proceeded very rapidly in some countries. For example, in meat inspection alone Germany employed 1,180 for teaching and research in the purely veterinary subjects of the university veterinary school, which is the only intramural qualified veterinary surgeons before the World War. In U.S.A. 800 were employed, and in the French Department of the Seine school in a British university providing a full course of instrucalone 67 were exclusively thus engaged in 1913. At this time the tion for a veterinary qualification. The commissioners state that they ‘‘ were impressed by the opportunities available at number engaged in Britain in the whole public health service, Liverpool for the scientific training of veterinary students ..., meat inspection included, was under 50. In 1914 an investigation was made into the annual output of that an increase in the supply of highly trained veterinary practitioners and research workers should justify itself by a diminuqualified veterinary surgeons in several countries In proportion to the population, with the following result: Denmark, 1 in tion in the national losses from animal diseases, and that Liverpool could specially meet the needs of students from western 133,000; Germany, 1 in 210,000; France, 1 in 300,000; Sweden English counties and from Wales.” Sir A. D. Wall and Sir t in 275,000 (making provision for 1 in 183,000): United Kingdom Thomas Middleton took a leading part in this movement. I IN 500,000. Outbreaks of Diseases.—Foot-and-mouth disease has appeared In 1921 Dr. Gerald Leighton, chief inspector (foods) for Scotland, instituted a searching enquiry into the question of periodically in Britain since 1910 and has been very prevalent meat inspection in Scotland. As a direct result, Scotland has on the European continent. The rapid spread of the, disease in The most secured by law a complete and uniform system of meat inspec- Britain during 1922-3~4 created consternation. severe outbreak in the history of the United States occurred in tion in which it is definitely laid down that the only persons who 1914-5. The cost to eliminate the disease was $9,000,000, and are entitled to act as inspectors of meat with the power of passing judgment are: the medical officer of health (M.O.H.) of the 172,000 animals were affected. In 1914 Britain experienced the district; a veterinary surgeon; a person who, not being the highest number of outbreaks of swine fever since 1896. In 1903 England was free from rabies and continued free until Sept. M.O.H. or a veterinary surgeon, has had not less than seven years’ practical experience of the subject and has received a 1918. Between this date and 1922, 304 cases were reported. special certificate from the Board of Health. It was thus left Western Europe was free from rinderpest from 1870 until 1920, when the disease was introduced into Belgium by zebus from to a medical colleague to secure this clear definition of the vetl America. The eradication of glanders in Britain was slowly but erinary surgeon in relation to this important work. surely progressing until the year 1917. In 1918, however, 34 ! J. Share Jones, Higher Agricultural Education in Wales, Defence of Poetry and Sidney’s An Apology for Poetry (1891).

VETERINARY outbreaks were reported; but since that year the number of outbreaks again diminished, the figures in each successive year being 25, 15, 11, 4,9, 3. On April 1 1923 it was decided to allow the importation of Canadian cattle into Britain. The decision of the royal commission was that Canadian cattle were free from foot-and-mouth disease, pleuro-pneumonia and cattle plague. During the World War “ horrible epizootics were disseminated throughout Russia by marching and retreating armies... Anthrax, glanders, rinderpest, contagious pleuro-pneumonia of cattle, foot-and-mouth disease, hog cholera, swine erysipelas, rabies, mange—each of them contributed to the disappearance of the comparatively dense animal population of Russia ”’ (Podgaez). The result was that in 1922 Russia had slightly over one-third the number of horses it had in 1914, one-third the number of cattle, half the number of sheep and a quarter the number of pigs. In Sept. 1924 contagious bovine pleuropneumonia appeared in Japan, being imported with cattle from China. In 1925 the disease broke out again in Osaka and spread rapidly to the five neighbouring prefectures. Research —Strenuous efforts have been made to bring about a closer relationship between the workers in human and veterinary medicine. In Great Britain the Royal Society of Medicine has instituted a section for comparative medicine. The outstanding result achieved is the universal recognition of the bearing disease in the lower animals has upon disease in man. This is evident in most of the important researches of the period. At the ninth international veterinary congress held at the Hague it was resolved: 1. That swine plague and hog cholera are different diseases. 2. That anactive serum against foot-andmouth disease is possible. 3. That the presence of negri bodies is the best diagnostic of rabies. Amongst researches carried on over a prolonged period the following are deserving of mention: McFadyean and Stockman (England) on abortion in cattle; Buxton, Brown, Tocher and others (Scotland) on grass discase (they claimed to have demonstrated that grass disease in horses in Scotland was botulism); Jensen (Copenhagen) on bradsot; Gaiger (Scotland) on lamb dysentery; Thieler (South Africa) on protozoan diseases; Watson (Canada) on dourine (he utilised the complement-fixation method of diagnosis, through which it is claimed that the disease will be climinated in a few years); Ligniéres (Brazil) on Pasteurelloses; Vallée (Paris) on foot-andmouth disease; Magnusson (Sweden) on joint ills; Hall (U.S.A.) on the treatment of hookworms by carbon tetrachloride (which has since been applied to more than 12,000 human cases in the Fiji Islands with success). In 1909 Nuttall and Hadwen reported the

successful use of trypan blue in canine piroplasmosis and later suggested its use in piroplasmosis of cattle. Bruce and others concluded in 1910 that cattle may act as reservoirs of the virus of sleeping sickness. The final report of the Royal Commission on Tuberculosis (1911) claimed: (1) that there were

three types of tubercle bacilli, (2) that animals and man can be reciprocally infected, (3) that a considerable amount of tuberculosis in Bld must be ascribed to milk infection, (4) that milk may be

infective when there is no evidence, even on post-mortem examination, of tuberculosis of the udder. The intimate relationship existing between the disease in man and in animals is thus clearly established. At this time Siegel (Germany) claimed to have found the causal organism (a coccus) of foot-and-mouth disease; and McGowan (Edinburgh) and Ferry (Detroit) individually to have found the causal organism of canine distemper. The work of Twort and Ingram on the diagnosis of Johne's disease in 1912 was an outstanding merit. Leptospiral jaundice was recognised in dogs probably for the first time by Courmont and Durand in 1917. A special committee was formed to investigate grass disease in 1918. In the following year the South African Govt’s. select committee recognised the dipping scheme introduced by Watkins-Pitchford as an ; effective antidote for East Coast fever. In 1922 Mellanby issued important results of his work on rickets in puppies carried out for the Medical Research Committee (lLondon). In the same year The Field inaugurated a fund to assist research in canine distemper, and the Animal Discases Research Association of Scotland received official recognition. The claim of Dahmen and Frosch (Berlin) to have discovered in 1924 the virus of foot-and-mouth disease has not been recognised. Interesting work on leptospiral jaundice was done in England by Okell, Dalling and

Pugh in 1925.

At the congress on the prevention of tuberculosis in London 192s, Professor Mélgaard, of the Royal Veterinary College, Copenhagen, gave an account of his experiments on animals leading to his discovery of the treatment of tuberculosis with

SCIENCE

951

sanocrysin, and Professor Faber, of Copenhagen University, gave the results of the application of Mélgaard’s method to a number of his human patients. Remarkable progress has been made in veterinary science in Japan, and The Journal of the Japanese Society of Veterinary Science, edited by Drs. J. Muto and N. Nitta, is an excellent specimen of a first-class scientific journal. The three reports of Kk. Muto, director of the army veterinary school, T6ky6, on the “Toxic Action of Carbon Disulphide ’’; Konno’s work on the diseases found in young chicks in the Nagoya region and commonly called “ kufun ” or “ohri” in which he isolated the anaerogenic strain of B. pullorum, one of the causal agents of bacillary white diarrhoea of voung chicks in Europe and America; the “ Resistance of Erythrocytes of Healthy Domestic Animals,” by Kohanawa and Kadono, of the Veterinary Institute, Hokkaido Imperial University, Sapporo; Ono’s work at the laboratory of the animal quarantine station, Yokohama, on contagious bovine pleuro-pneumonia; and the work of Kohanawa and Ogura on cattle diseases in the Sapporo district indicate a breadth of view as well as high scientific capacity. Progress in Surgery.—Considerable progress has been made in veterinary surgery. With the general adoption of anaesthetics, major operations are now widely practised. The operation on the laryngeal ventricle in the treatment of roaring, originally performed by the brothers Gunther, was reintroduced by Williams of Cornell and subsequently practised and popularised by many operators on thousands of cases with, it is claimed, 2 considerable measure of success. The most comprehensive work on roaring as a result of researches in the Argentine appeared in Spanish published at Buenos Aires. Imrie has done much to confirm the contention of Macqueen during the previous decade, that the abdominal cavity of the horse may be entered surgically almost with impunity, and Pugh has made an interesting contribution to thoracic surgery in the ox. In ror4 the first English work published on surgical anatomy of the horse was completed by Share Jones. Veterinary Science in War-—In toro the strength of the British Army veterinary service was 160 officers and 218 others, or a total of 378. In 1917 there were over 1,200 officers and over 20,000 N.C.O.’s and men. Sixty-two men were killed in action and 358 died. Of the officers, 46 were killed in action or died ot wounds or disease. Over 70 veterinary hospitals were establishea with accommodation for more than roo,cco animals. Much of the capital cost of hospitals in France was defrayed by the R.S.P.C.A. Most of the work in connection with the sale of horse-flesh for food was supervised by veterinary surgeons, and the funds thus realised were utilised to reduce the cost of the veterinary services in France. During 1917 over 1,000,000 horses were on the strength at one time on all fronts, and of them 436,000 were in France. The average daily number of sick horses in that year rose to 110,000. The total dead wastage from Aug. Ig14 to Nov. 1918 from all causes was over 500,000, of which 269,000 were in France. The weekly wastage in France was nearly 2° of the total strength. The total admissions to hospital in all theatres was 2,526,549, and of these 78°, returned to duty. The mortality was worst in 1917, when the number lost was 145,475. The mortality in mules was only half of that in horses. During the War, the total number of camels admitted to hospital has been stated to exceed 60,000. One camel hospital averaged 1,103 camels daily, and the percentage discharged for duty was eight. Cases of poll evil and quittor were common in horses and mules. It is stated that in one group of French hospitals 627 cases of quittor were dealt with in one day. Roarers were also numerous, and it is claimed that 80°) were successfully treated. Specific ophthalmia appeared in 1916, and the number of cases rose to 1-4°%o of the strength. A point of great interest and importance is that glanders was not prevalent. This is due to the thorough manner in which the mallein test was apphed. Mallcin was ultimately produced at Aldershot at 2d. a dose. In 1918 the corps was raised to the status of a Royal Corps. In 1917 Rainey claimed that the total wastage (from death, destruction, missing and casting) of horses and mules of the British forces at home and abroad during the year ending Dec. 1916 was 13% of the total. In peace time (1912) it was 14-8°%, while the average annual mortality during the South African War, when there was no Army

Robert

veterinary

corps,

was

Pringle, Sir Frederick

55°.

The

names

Smith, Sir Layton

of Generals

Sir

Blenkinsop and

VICTOR EMMANUEL

952

Sir John Moore will be permanently dinary development.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.— Finlay

Dun,

HI.—VICTORY,

associated with this extraor-

Veterinary

Medicines,

12th

ed.

(Edinburgh, rg10); F. Hutyra and J. Marck, Special Pathology and Therapeutics of the Diseases of Domestic Antmals, 3rd ed. (1912);

E. W. Hoare, ed., A System of Veterinary Medicine (1913); L. Mon-

tané and E. Bourdelle, Anatomie des animaux domesiigues (1913); W.

Ellenberger and H. Baum, Lehrbuch der Topographischen Anatomie des Pferdes (1914); J. Share Jones, The Surgical Anatomy of the Horse, vol. 4 (1914); R. O. Neumann and M. Mayer, Atas und Lehrbuch wichtiger tierischer Parasiten und threr Ubertrdger (Munich,

1914); L. A. Klein, The Principles and Practice of Milk Hygiene (Pennsylvania, 1917); S. Sisson, The Anatomy of the Domestic Animals, 2nd ed. (Philadelphia, 1917); T. Strangeway, Veterinary Anatomy, 10th ed. (Edinburgh, 1917); B. F. Kaupp, The Anatomy of the Fowl (Philadelphia, 1918); W, L. Williams, Veterinary Surgical and Obstetrical Operations, 4th ed. (1919); IX. Winslow, Vefertnary Materia Medica and Therapeutics, 8th ed. (1919); O. C. Bradley, The Topographical Anatomy of the Horse (1920); R. G. Linton, Veterinary Hygiene (1921); D. W. Paton and J. B. Orr, Essentials of Veterinary Physiology, 3rd ed. (1921); Sir F. Smith, Veterinary Physiology, 5th ed. (1921); R. E. Buchanan, Veterinary Bacteriology (1922); B. F. Kaupp, Poultry Diseases (1922); F. X. Lesbre, Précis d'analomie comparée (1922); Sir J. McFadyear, The Anatonry of the Horse, 3rd. ed. (Edinburgh, 1922); R. Schmaltz, Atas der Anatomie des Pferdes (1923); G. H. Wooldridge, Encyclopaedia of Veterinary Medicine (1923); E. W. Hoare, Veterinary Materia Medica and Therapeutics, oe ed. (1924); F. T. G. Hobday, Surgical Diseases of

the Dog and

Cat (1924); Sir L. J. Blenkinsop and J. W. Rainey,

History of the Great War, Veterinary Services (1925); R. Edelmann, Text Book of Meat Hygiene, sth ed. (1925); H. Kirk, Diseases of ihe Cat (1926). ae)

VICTOR

EMMANUEL

III. (1869-

), King of Italy (see

28.28). When in rors Italy declared war on Austria, the King at once went to the war zone, remaining there until the Armistice, appointing his uncle Ferdinand, Duke of Genoa, regent of the kingdom to act in his stead. At the front he lived in a most unassuming manner at the “ Villa Italia,” near Udine, and after Caporetto near Padua, constantly visiting the trenches and the most exposed positions, as well as the military hospitals, and leading to a very large extent the life of the soldiers. His example was of great value as an encouragement, and he fully lived up to the tradition of his house that it has never known fear. He took the keenest interest in everything concerning the welfare of the men;

but

although

nominally

commander-in-chief

he

never interfered with the conduct of operations nor in the matter of appointments, and he allowed himself no more leave than was accorded to other combatants. After Caporetto he multiplied his activities a thousandfold, and his proclamation of Nov. 19 1917 sounded like a trumpet call to the whole people. ‘ As neither My House nor My People, one in spirit, have ever wavered in the face of danger, so even now we look adversity in the face without flinching. . . . Citizens and soldiers, be a single Army! All cowardice is treachery, all discord is treachery, all recrimination is treachery.” After the Armistice King Victor Emmanuel returned to Rome on Nov. 14 1918, and had a triumphal reception. He visited Paris and the French front with the Crown Prince, and subsequently London. At the time of the Fascist March on Rome (Oct. 28-30 1922), the Prime Minister, Sig. Facta, intended to proclaim martial law throughout Italy, and had actually prepared the decree and communicated it to the prefects and the Press; but the King, with that intuition that has never failed him on critical occasions, realised that its application would mean civil war, and refused to sign it and insisted on ils immediate withdrawal. After the occupation of the capital the Fascist squadre before returning home marched past the Quirinal and paid homage to the King. The advent of the Fascist Govt. undoubtedly strengthened the prestige of the Crown, which the troubles of 1919-22 had seriously shaken. On May 26 1924 the King, accompanied by the Queen, the Crown Prince and Princess Mafalda, arrived in London to return the State visit to Rome of King George and Queen Mary. On June 7 he visited Madrid for a similar reason. In June 1925 the 25th year of his reign was celebrated throughout Italy with the greatest solemnity. After the birth of his son and heir, Umberto, Prince of Piedmont (Sept. 15 1904), the King’s family was increased by two

ADVANCE

TO

more daughters, Giovanna, born Nov. 13 1907, and Maria, born Dec. 26 t914. His eldest daughter, Princess Yolanda, was married on April g 1923 to Captain Count Giorgio Calvi of Bergolo, and his second on Sept. 23 1925 to Prince Philip of Hessen. A keen scholar, and especially interested in numismatics, in 1910 and r913 he published six volumes of his monumental work on the coins of Italy, the Corpus nummorum tfalicorum, After the War he made over to the nation a large number of royal residences in various parts of Italy, a heritage of the days when Laly was divided into a number of separate states, each with one or more royal or ducal palaces and villas. Among the most famous of these are the Pitti Palace in Florence, the villas of Castello, La Petraia and Poggio a Cajano in the neighbourhood of that city, the royal palaces of Milan, Venice, Genoa, Naples, the villa of Capodimonte near Naples and the ‘ Neapolitan Versailles ” at Caserta. Some of these buildings were turned into hospitals and homes for War victims, and others into museums. (NT) VICTORIA (see 28.37), a State of the Australian Commonwealth. Area 87,884 sq. miles. Its population increased from 1,339,102 in r9tr to 1,670,852 in 1925. Victoria is the most Conservative of the States of the Commonwealth, and up to the end of 1925 had had only one Labour Govt., which was appointed in June 1924 and defeated six months later. The farming interests (Country party) are well represented, and in the Coalition Govt. (Nationalists and Country party) which came into power in Nov. 1924, a representative of the Country party, Mr. J. Allan, was elected Premier. State-aided immigration was re-established in 1908 and a vigorous policy of close settlement adopted. Irrigation and Production.—The Water Act 1905 practically nationalised every river and watercourse within the State, and between 1905 and 1925 over {13,000,000 was expended in works of irrigation and water supply. The area artificially supplied with water for domestic and stock use in 1923 Was 13,440,000

ac.

and the land under irrigation culture, chiefly along the valleys of the Goulburn and Murray rivers, was over 300,000 acres. After 1918, good progress was made in intensive fruit-growing at Mildura on the Murray. The total area under crops in 1924 was 4,682,144 ac., of which 2,705,323 ac. was under wheat. In the same year 86,888,000 lb. of butter was produced. Minerals and Manufactures—Depcsits of brown coal and lignite of Immense extent occur in various districts. In 1918 a commission was appointed by the Government to work the brown coal deposits at Morwell, to be utilised for the generation of electricity to serve

Melbourne

and other towns.

The

first

generator was brought into operation in 1924 and is serving Melbourne. The manufacture of briquettes on a commercial scale is being undertaken. The State also operates the black coal deposits at Wonthaggi; the output of this field in 1923 was 418,394 tons, the total production for the State being 476,823 tons. The total value of the manufacturing output in 1924 was £113,921,000, of which factories connected with food and drink accounted for £33,760,c00, and clothing and textile factories for {23,617,000. Great progress has been made in the manufacture of woollen goods, and in 1924 there were 27 woollen and tweed factories, the output being valued at £3,561,980. Melbourne, the capital, had a population of 885,700 on Dec. 31 1924. It is the second port in the Commonwealth. Of the other important towns, Ballarat and Bendigo owe their rise to the gold rush, and are now prosperous agricultural centres. Geelong is the next port to Melbourne and is also the centre of the woollen industry.

(See AUSTRALIA.)

|

VICTORY, ADVANCE TO.—By the end of July ro18 the German offensive on the Marne and in Champagne, which had been Intended by their high command to be decisive, had been brilliantly repulsed by an Allied counter-blow which had forced the enemy to evacuate the greater part of the ground gained and had almost cleared the Allied lateral railway communications from Paris eastwards.

In the meantime, the British front about

Amiens had not been idle. During May and June, the Australian Corps in Gen. Rawlinson’s IV. Army had by constant raids and

VICTORY, ADVANCE TO minor operations obtained an almost complete moral mastery over the enemy, and had done much to encourage the harassed

troops on other parts of the front.

The following article de-

scribes the Allied advance, which began early in July 1918 and ended with the Armistice. It has been divided into six sections, namely: I. Battle of Amiens; Il. Battle of Bapaume-Peronne; Ili. The Breaking of the Hindenburg Line; IV. Battle of MeuseArgonne; V. The Offensive in Flanders; VI. The French Armies.

I. THE

BATTLE

OF AMIENS

Towards the end of June, Rawlinson decided that an operation on rather a larger scale than the Australians had so far carried out had every chance of meeting with success. On July 4, six Australian battalions, working in close co-operation with some 60 tanks, together with four companies of the American 33rd Div., which was attached to the IV. Army for training, attacked on a front of nearly 33 m., and with consummate ease and only small losses captured the ridge running from Villers-Bretonneux down to the Somme at Hamel. This operation gave greater depth and valuable positions for observation to the British line, while at the same time it denied to the enemy important observation over much of the Somme valley. It also showed that the German infantry was no longer the determined foe that it had been in 1916 and 1917, and that the enemy’s defences were not formidable. The real significance of the operation was its evidence that on the IV. Army front a well organised attack, supported by tanks well trained beforehand to co-operate with infantry, would have every prospect of breaking through the enemy’s defences, given the element of surprise. On July 17 Rawlinson, to whose initiative the opening of the decisive Allied offensive was chiefly due, submitted proposals to Haig for an attack by the IV. Army on a front of approximately 16 m. from Mereuil to Morlancourt. The plan was at once approved by Haig, who, in response to a request from Gen. Foch that the British should take the offensive on the Lys front with a view to recovering the important position on Kemmel

953

artillery were moved by road, the remainder being brought up in some 290 special trains, 230 for personnel and guns and 60 for ammunition and material. As the Canadian Corps, at the time in reserve near Arras, had not been involved in the desperate fighting earlier in the year, it was realised that wherever it was identified in the line by the enemy an early offensive would certainly be expected. The first problem, therefore, was to camouflage its move and to keep its presence secret up to the last possible moment. With this object a few Canadian units were moved into the line near Kemmel, whilst the remainder moved down to the Amiens front, though it was not allowed to take over its part of the front line until just before zero hour on Aug. 8. The task also of introducing and registering a very large number of guns without detection was no easy matter. All movements of artillery units and the formation of ammunition dumps had to be done at night. A strictly limited number of guns only were allowed to fire daily, nothing above the normal number of rounds being permitted.

General divided

;

Plan of Attack.—The

between

the Canadian

British Corps

front of attack

(Currie,

was

four divisions)

from the Amiens-Roye road to the Amiens-Chaulnes Rly., 7,500 yd.; the Australian Corps (Monash, five divisions) thence to the Somme, 7,500 yd.; and the III. Corps (Butler, four divisions) thence to the river Ancre, 5,000 yd.; while to each corps a proportion of tanks was allotted. The task of the ITI. Corps

was

to form

a defensive

flank

north

of the

Somme,

whilst the French I. Army would carry out a similar task on the right of the Canadians. ‘Three successive objectives were assigned at distances respectively of 2-25, 3-5 and 6-8 m. from the original starting line. Owing to the ample provision of tanks and the weakness of the enemy’s defences a preliminary bombardment was unnecessary, the artillery, infantry and tank action commencing simultaneously at zero hour, up to which moment there was no

divergence from the ordinary daily routine of trench warfare.

Hill, recommended that the venue for the British offensive should

With the French, however, the situation was different, as tanks

be changed to the Amiens front. To this proposal Foch assented with the modification that the French I. Army (Debeney) should attack on the southern portion of the front between Moreuil and the River Luce (about 34 m.) shoulder to shoulder with the British IV. Army, both armies operating under the direct orders of the British commander-in-chief. On July 28 Foch issued his orders. *“ The object of the operation,” he said, “is to disengage Amiens and the AmiensParis railway, as well as to beat and push back the enemy between the Somme and the Avre. The offensive, covered on the north by the Somme, is to push forward as far as possible in the direction of Roye.” The Amiens-Roye road was fixed as the

were not available to assist them; and Debeney decided to bombard the enemy’s defences for 40 min. prior to the infantry advance. The zero hour, 4.20 A.M., of the IV. Army advance synchronised with the opening of the French bombardment. The hostile forces believed to be available to oppose the British were six divisions in first line with eight in reserve of the German II. Army (Marwitz), while in front of the attacking corps of the French IJ. Army were the two left divisions of the German II. Army and one division of the German XVIII. Army (Hlutier). By the morning of Aug. 8 all preparations for the battle were complete, and the Allied forces, all unsuspected by the enemy, were about to enter upon the first stage of their continuous and victorious march to the Rhine. The British Attack, Aug. 8—At 4.20 A.M. (approximately one hour before sunrise) Rawlinson’s IV. Army, under cover of a powerful barrage, debouched to the assault. Thick ground mist veiled the advance from the eyes of the Germans, who were completely surprised and overwhelmed with little resistance along nearly the whole front. The Canadian Corps attacked with three divisions in line, the 3rd, rst and 2nd in order from the right. The Canadian 3rd Div., making light of the difficult task of debouching from a narrow bridgehead on the south bank of the River Luce, captured Ilangard and Demuin, and by noon had carried its front forward to the second objective, between Mézières and Cayeux. The 3rd Cav. Div. then went through, followed by the Canadian 4th Div., but, after taking Beaucourt, was held up by machine-gun fire. The infantry on coming up succeeded in pushing forward, though they were unable that day to capture le Quesnel, the final objective. . The Canadian rst Div. in the centre reached the first objective by 6.20 A.M.; but the Canadian 2nd Div. on its left only attained it an hour and a half later, having met with strong opposition at Marcelcave. At 8.20 a.m. the advance was resumed, the German machine-gunners putting up considerable resistance against the Canadian 2nd Division. The 1st Cav. Div. now sent forward

dividing line between French and British, and Aug. 10 was to be

the day of attack. This date was subsequently advanced to Aug. 8. Preparations for the British Attack.—On July 26 orders were received that the preparations, which Rawlinson had already begun in anticipation of sanction being given to his proposed operation, were to be pressed forward with all speed. The essence of the whole plan was secrecy. Unless the existing conditions both as regards the state of the hostile defences and the absence of reserves could be maintained, success could not be guaranteed, and in consequence it was not until July 31 that divisional commanders even were told the true story of the operations, a false but adequate reason having been given for the preparations.

Allied Forces —On Aug. 1 the strength of the [V. Army was seven divisions, one cavalry division, three tank battalions (about rro tanks), rı squadrons R.A.F. and 1,000 guns and howitzers. By zero hour on Aug. 8, this force had been increased to 13 divisions, three cavalry divisions, 12 tank battalions (about 456 tanks), 17 squadrons R.A.F., and over 2,000 guns and howitzers, of which 672 were ‘ heavies.”” In addition, one division, retained in the hands of the commandert-in-chief, was brought into the area, while two others arrived on the day of the battle. The cavalry, about 96 whippet tanks and part of the

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WASSERMANN, AUGUST VON—WASSERMANN, JAKOB China for complete autonomy was not granted, nor the request made, in view of the nation’s financial necessities, that her quota be raised from 5% to 123%. It was decided, however, that China’s customs revenue should be increased by $46,000,000 silver annually, through an advance to 5% effective, a surtax of 24% and a surtax not exceeding 5°% on luxuries. The Treaty provided for the convening of a Tariff Revision Commission at Shanghai, the opening of which was delayed until Oct. 1925, owing to the internal troubles of China. Other resolutions included agreements that foreign radio stations should transmit only government messages, that there should be no unfair discrimination in railway rates, an expression of hope that the railway system might be unified under Chinese Govt. control, and an agreement for the establishment of a board of reference for Far Eastern questions. Shaniung—Vhe question of the Japanese occupation of Shantung entailed long negotiations which at times seemed to reach a dead-lock, especially those relating to the TsingtaoTsinan-fu Railway. Largely through the mediation of Mr. Hughes and Mr. Balfour, a separate agreement was finally reached between Japan and China and signed Feb. 4. It provided for the

return to China of the former German leasehold and 50-km. zone in Shantung, and the withdrawal of Japanese troops and gendarmes; China was to purchase the Tsinan-fu Railway for $30,000,000, but, before complete redemption, there were to be appointed a Japanese traffic manager subject to the direction of the Chinese managing director, a Japanese accountant and a Chinese accountant of equal rank. Japan renounced all rights to foreign assistance stipulated in the Chinese-German Treaty of 1898, and relinquished the maritime customs at Tsingtao and former German public properties. As to Siberian problems, Baron Shidehara made a full statement to the effect that it was ‘ the fixed and settled policy ”’ of Japan to respect the territorial integrity of Russia, and to observe the principle of non-intervention in the internal affairs of that country, as well as the principle of equal opportunity for the commerce and industry of all nations. The Treaties-—-The decisions taken by the conference were embodied in seven treaties and various supplementary resolutions: (1) Five-Power Treaty Limiting Naval Armaments, designating the capital ships to be retained by each contracting Power and determining the ratio of capital ship replacement—525,000 tons for the United States and Great Britain, 315,000 tons for Japan, 175,000 tons for France and Italy each—or 5-5-3-1.66. This treaty also limited the tonnage of individual capital ships to 35,000 and the calibre of guns to 16 inches; individual cruisers were limited to 10,000 tons and their guns to eight-inch calibre. Aircraft carriers were limited in general to an individual tonnage of 27,000 with a total tonnage of 135,000 for the United States and Great Britain, 81,000 for Japan, 60,c00 for France and Italy each. With certain exceptions the stalus quo was to be maintained with regard to fortifications and naval bases in the Pacific. (2) Five-Power Treaty Relating to the Use of Submarines and Noxious Gases in Warfare, embodying the resolutions described above. Accompanying these treatics were two resolutions for a commission of jurists to consider amendment of the laws of war and limitation of their jurisdiction. (3) Four-Power Treaty, between the United States, Gréat Britain, France and Japan, relating to the insular possessions and the insular dominions in the Pacific Ocean, with an accompanying Declaration. (4) Four-Power Treaty, between the same Powers relating to the foregoing, and defining “‘ insular ” so as to exclude Japan proper from its scope. (5) Nine-Power Treaty, relating to principles and policies to be followed in matters concerning China, as described above. This was supplemented by 1o resolutions embodying the decisions taken as to a board of reference, extra-territoriality, foreign postal agencies, forcign armed forces, unification of railways, Chinese military forces, existing commitments of China or, with respect to China, the Chinese Eastern Railway. The treaty embodied the Root resolutions as its Article I., and strongly emphasised the principles of the “ open door.” (6) Nine-Power Treaty, relating to Chinese customs tariffs. (7)

993

Chinese-Japanese Treaty, regarding Shantung. Two other treaties connected with the work of the Conference were: United Stafes-Japanese Treaty, regarding Yap; and the Six- Power Treaty, allocating German cables in the Pacific. The Conference on Limitation of Armament was formally terminated Feb. 6 1922. On March 1 the U.S. Senate ratified, by a vote of 67 to 22, the treaty with Japan regarding Yap. By June 9 1923, all the signatory Powers except France had ratified the Five-Power Treaty in relation to the use of Submarines and Noxious Gases in Warfare, the Nine-Power Treaty

relating to Principles and Policies to be followed in Matters concerning

China,

and

Chinese Customs Tariff.

the Nine-Power

Treaty

relating

to

France ratified the last two on July

20 1925, but had not, up to Feb. 1926, ratified the treaty in relation to the use of Submarines and Noxious Gases. By July 28 1923, all the signatory Powers had ratified the Five-Power Treaty limiting Naval Armaments; also the Four-Power Treaty relating to Insular Possessions and Insular Dominions in the Pacific Ocean, the Declaration accompanying this treaty, and the treaty supplementary thereto. Norway adhered on Sept. 23 1925, to the treaty relating to Chinese Customs Tariff; and on Nov. 13 1925, to the treaty

relating to Principles and Policies concerning China. Denmark and Sweden signified their adherence to the treaty relating to Chinese Customs Tariff on Aug. 27 1925 and Sept. 11 1925, respectively. BinLioGRarny.—G.

Z. Wood,

China,

the United States and the

Anglo-Japanese Alliance (New York 1921); H. W. Taft, Japan and the Far East Conference, 1921-2 (New York—-London); L. Archimbaud, La Conférence de Washington

(Paris 1923); A. L. P. Dennis,

The Anglo-Japanese Alliance (Univ. of California Press 1923); Canadian Government: Conference on the Limitation of Armament

Held at Washington. Report of the Canadian Delegate Including Treaties and Resolutions, (Sessional Paper No. 47, 1922); French Government: Documents diplomatiques; Conférence de Washington, juillet 1921 —février 1922 (1923); United States Government: Address Submitting Treaties and Resolutions Approved and Adopted by Conference Together with Report of American Delegation of Praceedings of Conference, Submitted io the President oih Feb. 1922 (Senate Doc. 125, 1922); Proceedings of Conference on Limitation of Armament Teld at Washington, Nov. 1ọ21—Feb. 1922; Presidents Address to Senate, Letter of Secretary of State Submitting Treaties to the President, etc. (Senate Doc. 126, 1922); Report of the American Delegation (1922); American Association for International Conciliation: Washington Conference on the Limitation of Armaments, Dec. 1921, 2 parts (New York, Inter. Conciliation, No. 169 and No. 172). (C. SEY.)

WASSERMANN,

AUGUST

VON

(1866-1925),

German

pro-

fessor of medicine, was born Feb. 2r 1866 at Bamberg, in Bavaria. He studied in Erlangen, Munich, Strasbourg and Vienna, and in 1888 began to practise as a physician in Strasbourg. He was then engaged as an assistant to the Robert Koch Institute for Infectious Diseases, Berlin, where, from 1906, he directed the department of experimental therapy and serum research. In 1913 he became director of the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute in Berlin-Dahlem. Wassermann achieved international fame and reputation by his discovery of sero-diagnosis in syphilis—the so-called Wassermann Reaction—which enables both past infection and the activity of the process of the disease to be ascertained. In addition he investigated the problem of a cure for cancer and collaborated with P. Ehrlichs in introducing the diphtheria serum into practice. In later years Wassermann sought to obtain a sero-diagnosis of active tuberculosis; as to the practical utility of the latter as a reliable diagnosis, however, there is still a considerable divergence of views. He died in Berlin March 15 1925. llis works include: “ Allgemeine Einleitung zur Lehre von den Infektionskrankheiten "’ in Ebstein and Schwalbe’s Iandbtich der praktischen medegia: Influensa, Immunität und Serumtherapie and Hdmolysine, Zytotoxine und Prdsipitine (1910).

WASSERMANN, JAKOB (1873), German writer, was born at Fürth, Bavaria, March 10 1873, the son of a small merchant. Afteran unhappy youth spent in wandering and poverty he settled in Austria, and it is about Austria and Austrians that

he writes. realism

His literary life, as he himself has said, began “ when

and

naturalism

were

rampant”

but he remained

a

WATER, PURIFICATION OF

994

solitary figure owing allegiance to no school. His first novel Die Juden von Zirndorf was published in 1897, but it was Die Geschichte der jungen Renate Fuchs (1900) which first brought him fame. Many of his works have been translated into other languages but Christian Wahnschaffe (1919), published in America as The World’s Illusion (1920), first made him known to the Eng-

lish-speaking world.

Other translations into English followed:

Gold (1920) Faber, or the Lost Years (1925). Some of his novels were collected under the title of Der Wendekrets (1920-2); his other works include Das Gansemdnuchen, Casper Hauser (1908), and an autobiography, Afein Weg als Deutscher und Jude (1921). WATER, PURIFICATION OF (see 28.404).—Great changes have occurred in waterworks procedures since 1910. They began with the successful chlorination of the Lincoln water supply in 1905, consequent upon the typhoid epidemic there (about 50,000

inhabitants, over 1,000 cases of typhoid fever and 100 deaths). Chlorination.—In the United States and Canada chlorination,

for some years past, has been the rule, not the exception. In England, progress has been much slower, but the World War greatly altered things, thanks to the initiative of men like Horrocks and Sims Woodhead. Further, the bold step taken by the Metropolitan Water Board in chlorinating so huge a volume of water as Over 100,000,000 gal. a day proved a great incentive to further investigation of this tremendous asset in the work of water purification. The “ chlorinators’’ plead that inasmuch as they destroy practically all the non-sporing bacteria of intestinal origin they

incidentally kill all the microbes associated with epidemic waterborne disease. It is a bold claim, but apparently sound on the basis of current knowledge. The “ anti-chlorinators ” urge that a “doped” water is prima facie open to condemnation, and assert that there have been conspicuous failures in the chlorination processes in the past due to break-downs in the plant, or to dangerous compromises between doses sufficient to sterilise the water and yet small enough to avoid taste troubles. They further claim that natural processes (e.g., storage and slow sand filtration) remove at least 98% of the total number of bacteria in the original water of whatever sort they may be, and that prolonged experience has shown that this is an absolute protection from the diseases associated with the ingestion of impure water.

A third school claims that all purification processes are merely a retrograde movement—that safety lies alone in choosing virgin, uncontaminated sources of water supply, requiring no sort of purification. It is possible to sympathise strongly with this exalted attitude of mind, but practically we must face, to an increasing extent, the necessity of rendering impure waters safe for domestic use. As regards the “ chlorinators ”’ and the ‘‘ anti-chlorinators,” there is much to be said on both sides, and each case should be judged on its own merits. Chlorination is an exceedingly cheap process; less than one shilling per 1,000,000 gal. of water treated may suffice. It is disputed how the chlorine acts. Some say it has merely an oxidation effect, others claim that it has an intrinsic bactericidal action.1 The dose is usually from 0:25 to o-5 of available chlorine per 1,000,000 (2:5 to 5 lb. of chlorine per 1,000,000 gallons). The time required for sterilisation varies according to the dose and the quality of the water. A few minutes may suffice, but one to five hours, or even longer in certain cases, should be aimed at. Administration.—The chlorine can be administered as a soluble hypochlorite (e.g., alkaline sodium hypochlorite), or as a solution of bleaching powder (chloride of lime), or as a solution made from the gas liquefied in and liberated from metal cylinders. The latter process is now most extensively used, and there are some highly ingenious forms of apparatus for measuring accurately the gas as it flows from the cylinders through the chlorine apparatus on its way to the vessels or towers used for its final solution. Whatever method is adopted, it is highly important that the mixture of the chlorine and the water to be treated should be rapid and complete. Successes.—The success of the treatment is determined by the destruction

of B.

coli,

a non-sporing

excremental

microbe,

slightly more hardy than the typhoid bacillus and the cholera vibrio. It is also gauged by the circumstance that there are places where the incidence of water-borne diseases has been modified to a most gratifying extent since, and apparently as a result of, the introduction of chlorination processes. Taste Objections —Taste troubles have been a most serious factor in the problem. Frequently, in consequence, the dose has been reduced below the limits of safe sterilisation. Recently, however, knowledge has increased by leaps and bounds. It is now known that the presence of certain bodies (e.g., phenoloid substances) in excessively minute amount (less than 1 in 1,000 millions) may be the root of the trouble.*’ These impurities may arise from atmospheric contaminations, or be conveyed by liquid pollutions (e.g., washings from roads, etc.). Fortunately, valuable remedies (taste preventers) have been found, e.g., potassium permanganate and ammonia (dose about o:2 per 1,000,000 the latter in terms of nitrogen). Even the organic matter, naturally present in waters, is a taste preventer, or “‘ remover ” of real value.* There is no reliable indication that chlorinated water has any deleterious effect on man, the lower animals, fish-life or horticultural operations. On the whole, the same may be said as regards its alleged injurious effect on metals. Chlorination is a factor of great Importance in water purification, although this admission may be coloured with certain cautious limitations. It can increase the margin of safety and can bring almost any water to any pitch of epidemiological perfection required. In the language of “ the man in the street,” chlorine, in doses of 0-25 to o-5 per 1,000,000, can render dangerous waters safe without giving them (at all events in conjunction with taste removers) any unpleasant taste, or conferring on them any undesirable characteristics. Beyond all question, chlorination has come to stay, although it may be wise to regard it as a most valuable adjunct to other purification processes rather than as an absolute panacea. Excess Lime Process.— in 1912 a new method of purification called the excess lime process was described.4 In softening waters lime is added in amount equal to, or Just short of, what is necessary to combine with the dissolved carbonic acid in the water and with the bicarbonates. Carbonate of lime is formed, which, being practically insoluble, is thrown down as a precipitate. This mechanically purifies the water to a considerable extent, but does not produce a true bactericidal effect. In the excess lime method slightly more lime is added, so as to leave the water caustically alkaline, and this produces a marked bactericidal action. The amount of excess necessary depends on the duration of contact and the amount of impurities in the water, but one part of lime (as CaO) per 100,000 parts of water is usually sufficient. The following quotation® may serve to illustrate the usefulness of the excess lime method:— ... the experiments carried out by us during the last two years at the Langford experimental station of the Southend Water Co., using water from two comparatively small rivers, show that by acting on Sir A. Ilouston’s suggestion to use excess lime better results can be obtained than by the use of chlorine, since chlorine does not remove any of the organic matter in solution, whereas the excess lime will remove at least 50% of this. Waters, therefore, which a few years ago would have been considered quite unsuitable for a supply, and which no system of purification then known would have rendered safe, can now be utilised.

The method proved highly successful (1917) at Accra (Gold Coast Colony) in dealing with an impure swamp water used for water works purposes. Its successful use in 1913 enabled Aberdeen® to decide on the retention of the River Dee as a source of water supply, thus saving over £100,000 on alternative schemes. In ror4 it was shown at Sunbury that the raw River Thames could be purified to a wonderful extent.” For example, the ten worst samples of the river water and of the outlet from the first tank gave, on the average, colour estimations of 155 and 37 respectively, a reduction of 76%. B. colt was found to be absent from 10,000 c.c. of the treated water, on ten separate days. The method has disadvantages: for example, the cost, the difficulties attendant upon the neutralisation of the excess of

WATERHOUSE—_WATTERSON caustic alkalinity and the problem of disposing of lime sludge in the case of hard waters. On the other hand, the advantages are considerable. Questions of taste are eliminated. Hard waters may be softened and soft waters hardened by the process. Hard impure waters are not only softened and rendered safe bacteriologically but improved greatly, as judged by physical and chemical standards. Water Tests——The physical, chemical and bacteriological tests used in the examination of waters have not altered very materially during recent years. Physically, observations are made of the colour (using a colour meter), turbidity (gravimetrically, or with some form of turbidimeter) and opacity (as shown, for example, by passing a beam of light through the water), etc. Chemically, the chief tests are still for ammoniacal, albuminoid and oxidised nitrogen, chlorides, oxygen absorbed from permanganate, hardness, etc., although new tests, like the determination of the hydrogen-ion concentration, are being used extensively. Bacteriologically, the number of bacteria (especially at 37° C.) and the B. coli test still hold the field. In connection with the latter test, a vast amount of work has been done, but we are still uncertain what significance should be attached to the various races of B. coli encountered in water analyses. The tendency is to insist on the possession of, say, two positive attributes (lactose -+indol+) which characterise human faecal microbes and then judge the matter on a quantitative basis. On the whole, the attempts to differentiate between B. coli of human intestinal origin and those derived from the lower animals, fish and birds have been most disappointing. The modern teaching is that as it is economically possible, by adequate purification processes, to eliminate (or nearly so) all “ lactose+indol+ B. coli,”

this

standard

should

always

be

aimed at. Speaking generally, nearly all are agreed that there should be no B. coli of the kind referred to in 100 c.c. of water in more than half of the samples examined. Results —The interpretation of results has altered considerably during recent years, especially in those cases where chlorination is practised. The tendency is rather in the direction of condoning certain imperfections of quality (e.g., the amount of organic matter present) provided that B. coli is killed. It is

considered that if B. coli is destroyed the occurrence of epidemic water-borne diseases is impossible and that therefore other inferential indices of safety lose much of their significance. But those who cling to past traditions regard chlorination as a short cut to apparent rather than real purity. Natural Methods.—These methods of purification have not been neglected of late years. The value of storage is being increasingly recognised. The three factors making for safety are equalisation, sedimentation and devitalisation. By equalisation is meant the dilution and averaging of any sudden access of pollutions to the water “ feeding ” a storage reservoir. Sedimentation means the settling out of solid impurities. Devitalisation imphes the gradual extinction of undesirable bacteria under the conditions of storage which are unfavourable to the continued vitality of pathogenic microbes. Nature’s method of purification has certain disadvantages. Just as some things die, so do others multiply, sometimes with embarrassing results. There are the diatoms, the protozoa, green and blue growths, etc. Some of these growths give rise to taste troubles (e.g., tabellaria, synura, uroglena, etc.); others exercise a serious blocking or choking effect on sand filtration processes (e.g., asterionella, synedra, cyclotella, fragilaria, etc.). Copper sulphate (in doses of o-1 to 1-0 per 1,000,000; 1 to ro lb. per 1,000,000 gal.) has been proved to be a valuable algicidal agent. The smaller doses have no injurious action on fish, but with the maximum doses great care must be exercised, especially in the case of trout. Filiers —A new and interesting development is the suggestion that rapid (mechanical) filters should be used to remove nearly all the suspended matters (including algal and other growths) from water, and worked at the very rapid rate of 100-200 gal. per sq. ft. per hour. In order to cover the additional cost involved it is hoped that it may be feasible to work slow sand

995

filters at six instead of two gal. per sq. ft. per hour as a final filtration process. The underlying idea is that slow sand filters might be worked considerably faster than is usual if rapid filters were used antecedentally to remove the bulk of the suspended matters. Those who favour these departures usually advocate chlorination as an additional safeguard, or, at all events, as a stand-by measure. REFERENCES.—(1) Joseph Race, Chlorination of Water (1918); (2) B. A. Adams, ‘‘ The Iodoform Taste Acquired by Chlorinated Water,” The Medical Officer, No. 869, vol. 33, No. 12 (1924); (3)

Nineteenth Annual Report of the Director of Water Examination, Metropolitan Water Board (1922); (4) Ninth Research Report by the

Director of Water Examination,

Metropolitan

Water

Board

(191 a):

(5) J. C. Thresh and J. F. Beale, Preface to 3rd ed., The Examination of Waters and Water ilea (1925); (6) James Watt, “ Purification of Water Supply by the Excess Lime Method,” Jour. of State Medicine (Aug. 1913); (7) Tenth Research Report by the Director of Water Examination, Metropolitan Water Board (1914). BIBLIOGRAPHY.—S, Rideal, Water and Its Purification (1902); J. Don and J. Chisholm, Afodern Methods of Purification (1913); A. C. Houston, Studies in Water Supply (1914); A. C. Houston, Rural Water Supplies and Their Purification, and Rivers as Sources of i nee (1918); A. H. Hooker, Chloride of Lime in Sanitation (1913). See also Dr. R. J. Reece's Report to the Local Government Board on the Epidemic of Enteric Fever in the City of Lincoln, 1904-5, No. 226 (1906); Dr. A. Houston, ‘' B. Welchit, Gastro-enteritis and Water Supply,” Engineering News Record, vol. 89, p. 484 (1921); The Oficial Circular of the British Waterworks Association gives the

most up-to-date account of all matters of interest relating to water supplies, including purification. (A. C. Ho.)

WATERHOUSE, JOHN WILLIAM (1847-1917), British painter (see 28.370), diced in London Feb. 10 1917. WATERLOW, SIR ERNEST ALBERT (1850-19109), British painter (see 28.381), died at Hampstead, London, Oct. 25 1919. WATER POWER: see HYDROELECTRIC ENGINEERING. WATERWAYS: see INLAND WATER TRANSPORT. WATSON, JOHN BROADUS (1878), American psychologist, was born at Greenville, S. C., Jan. 9 1878. He graduated at Furman University (A.M. 1900), continuing his studies at the University of Chicago (Ph.D., 1903). After serving as assistant and instructor in experimental psychology at the University of Chicago, he was appointed professor of experimental and comparative psychology at Johns Hopkins University in 1908, becoming also director of the psychological laboratory there. He became known as the leading exponent of behaviourism. In 1917 he served as major in the aviation section of the

Signal Corps, U. S. Reserves, and with the A. E. F. He was

editor of Lhe Psychological Review, 1908-15; became joint editor of The Journal of Animal Behavior in 1910; and editor of The Journal of Experimental Psychology in 1915. See BEHAVIORISM. Watson wrote Animal Education (1903); Behavior—An Introduction to Comparative Psychology (1914); Homing and Related Activities of Birds (1915); Suggestions of Modern Scientists Concerning Education (1917); Psychology (1919); and Behaviorism (1925).

WATSON, JOHN

CHRISTIAN

(:867—

), Australian poli-

ticlan, was born at Valparaiso, Chile, April 9 1867, when his parents were on their way as emigrants to Australasia. He was educated at the public school of Oamaru, N. Z., and as a boy began work as a compositor. He also made an early entrance into politics, attaching himself to the Labour party, which came into prominence during the great strike of Australian dock and transport workers. He was president of the Sydney Trades and Labour Council in 1890. From 1894-1901 he was a member of the N.S.W. Legislature. In roor he was elected to the Commonwealth Parliament, and for a short time in 1904, on the resignation of Deakin, he led a Labour Ministry. He resigned after a few months, though he continucd to lead the Labour party until 1908, when he retired from public life.

WATTERSON, HENRY

(1840-1921), American journalist (see

28.418), was among the first to urge, in 1911, the nomination of Woodrow Wilson as Democratic candidate for President. In Aug. 1918, he retired from active editorship of the Louisville (Ky.) Courier-Journal, remaining “ editor emeritus ” till April 1919, when he severed all connection with the paper because of its support of the League of Nations. He died at Jacksonville,

996

WATTS-DUNTON—WEALTH

Fla., Dec. 22 1921. He was the author of Old London Town (1910); History of the Manhattan Club (1915); and “ Marse Henry’; an Autobiography (1919). WATTS-DUNTON, WALTER THEODORE (1832-1914), British man of letters (see 28.422), died at Putney, London, June 6 1914. WEALTH AND INCOME (sce 28.437).—Before the World War fair progress had been made in different countries in the more accurate computation of annual income and in its capitalisation on sound lines in order to arrive at aggregate wealth. But the methods varied very widely. Much depended on the degree of civilisation which had been attained, on the methods of taxation in force, and on the extent to which statistical measurement had been pursued; and even if the War had not intervened it would still have been impossible to get a complete picture of the total income or wealth of the world. Such figures as have been offered are rich chiefly in speculation, and, as the following analysis of fundamental principles will show, they depend largely on the methods of investigation which have been adopted.

I. GENERAL

AND

been so great that the remark is still applicable in certain parts of the world. Public Debt. —But the substantial consideration is present-day effort to measure the aggregate of gross personal wealth and to make strictly accurate allowance for public debt and its consequent burden of taxation. For even if all the debt is held internally, neglect of its influence, viewed as a capital obligation and the cause of heavy annual taxation, may lead to ridiculous results. Although the debt is held within the State, it has been described as a concealed liability, through taxation, on income and capital generally. In this matter the usual method is to count as wealth the individual holdings in Government stock and to deduct the debt as a mortgage on the property held by the State or the collective community. There is not, however, uniform practice in different countries. The magnitude of the problem which is raised by this apparently simple principle may be gathered from the following comparison of the pre-War and post-War public debt of the leading nations. Public Debt by Countries

CONSIDERATIONS

In some respects the World War assisted research in this wide field of finance; in others it added substantially to its difficulty. Everywhere (including countries nominally neutral in the strife) public debt was largely increased. Acute disease, usually described as inflation, overtook the currency of the nations. Valuation of almost anything, save within narrow limits, became hazardous; and the stress laid on monetary or nominal income, as opposed to real income (in the sense of purchasing power), was in itself a complication which rendered valid comparison almost impossible. For these reasons it would be idle to attempt any review of world income and wealth in the period since tg10— the central feature of which must be the virtual revolution brought about by War conditions—without preliminary notice

of certain basic principles. These principles throw important light on this form of public financial computation and comparison. The summary presented to the Royal Statistical Society by Sir Josiah Stamp in May 1919 endeavoured to present the position as in ror4. As he himself explained, it was a first attempt and necessarily elementary in character, but since then there has been no serious challenge of its main conclusions. In all problems

of the kind there is the constant danger of partisan estimate. Apparently competent authorities had argued that the wealth of the United Kingdom in 1914 was approximately £10,000,000,000; others had placed it as high as £24,000,000,000. Much depends on the use to which estimates of the national wealth are put. They are available as tests of progress, affording comparison with different years; they show the accumulation of capital, the distribution of wealth, and the effect of changes in the rate of interest or in the value of money. They may be employed to test the relative prosperity of resources of different nations; or for comparisons of income with capital and property; or to reveal the distribution of wealth according to individual fortunes, with the changes in that distribution; or to facilitate the consideration of the applicability and probable yield of specific schemes of impost or taxation such as a capital levy; or for the purpose of dealing with questions relating to war indemnities, In which case even simple inquiry has shown that wealth or income at any given moment is not the sole test of ability to pay indemnity or make reparation; it is at best only a partial test. In such investigation there are innumerable intricate and highly technical problems. The mass of recent work in different countries has emphasised the difficulty of careful and authoritative estimate. It is not easy to secure adjustment as at a uniform date, 1914; in addition to the disturbing effects of war there is the abiding problem of the comparability of like subject matter. Reliable as it might be for broad purposes in 1914, it has since been subject to great variation, and the range of error at the present time is probably considerable. The wealth of a tribal community is not readily comparable with that of a people advanced in civilisation, and although the illustration may be regarded as extreme the ramifications of war disturbance have

INCOME

Post-War

Country ?

TOUS Pre-War

=

Year

£000,000's

£000,000’s

omitted Phe British Empire Great Britain India Canada . Australia New Zealand South Africa . © Other Countries | United States France . Germany Italy i Belgium . Austria . Spain : : Holland . ; Japan . . Russia Portugal Denmark Norway . Sweden . i

Switzerland Greece.

Rumania Servia . . Czecho-Slovakia Hungary

Poland Bulgaria Turkey

Egypt

;

©

na

i , i

gi : i .

;

2...

Argentine Latvia Finland China Chile . Siam i Brazil

Total

;

;

706 307

omitted

335 92 126

1923-4 1923-4 1921-2 1922-3 1922-3 1921-2

245 1,315 1,055 _ 611 I85 510 382 97 372 1,046 130 20 20 36

1921-2 1922-3 1919 19I9 IQIg I9I9 1923 1924 1921 -2 1917 1922-3 19221922-3 1922-3

4,715 11,472 9,850 3,12. 784 3,470 ° 478 286 323 3,415 25 66 85 79

1922

316

68

48

66 27 270 = 35 I51

94

; : À

Debt

124 ay af 130 33 6 194

R805

I9IQ

1919 I9I9 IgIg I9I9 I919 1919 I9I9

1923

1919 1919 1919 IQI9 1919 I9I9 I9IQ

|.

7,706 585 500 92: 219 179

148

445 234 388 1,587 440 218 412

93

I2 24 74 172 50 180

53,759

The various currencies have been converted into sterling at par of exchange, e.g., $4.867 =£1, or 25:225 fr.={1.

Definition of National Wealth—These statistics must be read

in conjunction with the vital fact that the deduction of debt from State property will often give a minus quantity. In such questions, there is still much confusion of thought. The wealth of a country may mean either the value of objects within its boundaries or the wealth of its inhabitants including foreign possessions, but excluding wealth within the country held by people abroad. This confusion was very well illustrated in the prolonged discussion of the taxable capacity of Ireland; it constantly recurs in kindred problems at the present day, notably in the effort to arrive at working arrangements to avoid double taxation. Again,

WEALTH

AND

wealth in private hands is not easily defined. In the various shades of ownership Sir Josiah Stamp has summarised absolute personal disposition of the whole value, trust interests, collective ownership with only potential specific allocation to individuals, collective ownership without the possibility of individual allocation, communal wealth such as city and local property, and national property including even the instruments of defence. Much controversy still attends the inclusion or the non-inclusion of the valuation of domestic service by members of families. And there are still many countries in which stock or produce occupies a large place in total valuation; in post-War fluctuation values have varied very widely at short intervals, rendering all the more difficult every effort to estimate aggregate wealth. Estimates Based on Taxation.—It is important to notice also the various methods of computing wealth and income. Many of them are necessarily based on data arising from taxation of income, especially collective taxation or taxation at the source. The immediate advantage of this system is the comprehensive result; on the other hand there is liability to error owing to tax evasion, omissions from the scheme of tax, and difference of practice in the basis of capitalisation, that is, in the number of years’ purchase adopted. Many estimates rely on the taxation of income on individual returns. But there also arise the tendency to considerable evasion, the omission of all income held collec-

tively, and the difficulty of determining the ratio of income to capital on the average, the last point making capitalisation no easy task. l Many estimates proceed on the basis of data arising from the annual taxation of capital. It varies on particular classes of property; and these particulars supply only a part of the whole capital valuation. Other estimates have relied on material arising through the taxation of capital at irregular periods, such as the statistics of estates passing at death and chargeable with death duties. This method has always provoked controversy as to the multiplier which should be employed in order to indicate aggregate value. Within recent years the multiplier has undoubtedly been greatly improved, but it is still open to doubt on certain essential points. In hisreview of the private wealth of Australia, Mr. G. H. Knibbs described two methods. Under the first there was determination of the average interval of time between the passing of estates to the successors in title, generally called the devolution-interval method; under the second there was ascertainment of the average rate of the passing of estates during any

period under review, commonly called the devolution-rate method. Further difficulties in the use of property returns for such a purpose include defects in administration, the evasion of a particular duty the statistics of which are being used, the effect of inter vivos gifts in keeping a certain proportion of wealth from passing with the frequency of ordinary intervals for estates as a whole, legal points affecting estate duties, the fact that vital statistics are constantly changing, the problems which are raised by the method compiling the vital statistics themselves, and the actual growth of wealth in the period under review. The Census System.—Of other methods, the inventory system aims at valuation in the aggregate of each form in which wealth is embodied without regard to ownership by individuals, com-

panies or others.

It is often called the objective method.

Toa

large extent, however, it depends for success on the existence of statistical material compiled for other purposes, e.g., the statistics of imports and exports, local government taxation, the valuation of mineral and other resources and kindred material. The chief defects of this method are probably the impossibility of testing how far the ownership of the wealth is within the country or not, the difficulty of determining whether all forms of wealth have been included, the risk of overlapping, as in stocks and shares duplicated with real property owned by companies, the divorce from all tests of profit-earning capacity, and the task, where averages are employed as factors, of accurately determining them. In some countries, notably France, Germany, Spain, Australia and the Argentine, the inventory method has been applied by single observers; in the United States it summarises the collected results of many investigators, and is called a census. In

INCOME:

99/

=

the census method proper a statement is taken from each individ-

ual declaring the whole of his wealth and income.

It depends

very much on the completeness and efìciency of the tax in question. The British method of depending largely on taxation at the source (that is, by deduction before dividends or other payments are made to the recipients) is clearly very much more reliable than the tax system of other countries destitute of that feature. The occupational census method is used for dealing with wageearning classes and smaller incomes to which ordinary income tax statistics are not applicable. In the net output or census of production method the total value of work done or goods produced in a year is determined; the value of the raw materials is deducted; and the added value is taken as the fund which forms the income of the people. Broadly speaking, in the British census of production in 1907 the net output was the gross output (selling value) less the cost of the materials used. The new census of production in which Great Britain is now engaged should be of substantial value in the next effort to estimate both aggregate income and aggregate wealth (see PRODUCTION, CENSUS OF).

Il. THE

WEALTH

OF VARIOUS

COUNTRIES

With these fundamental principles in mind it is easier to follow such statistics of the wealth and income of the leading countries of the past 15 years as are available; their incomplete, and often irreconcilable character is already fully explained. Great Britain and the United States —Bound together in a debt settlement covering the next 60 years, and closely associated in many of the post-War financial operations, it may be convenient to group Great Britain and the United States of America. Before the Royal Statistical Society in 1914 Mr. Edgar Crammond estimated British capital wealth at £16,472 millions; in British Incomes and Property, published in 1916, Sir Josiah Stamp put the aggregate amount in 1914 at £14,319 millions. Estimates of income are generally made up of the income of the income-tax paying classes, compiled from the tax statistics, the income of the wage-earning classes, and the income of others below the income-tax limit which was the subject of special inquiry by the British Association some years ago. For rorr Sir Josiah Stamp put British income at £2,090 millions, of which almost exactly half was attributable to wages and small salaries, £926 millions to incomes over {160, and the rest derived from miscellaneous sources. On a similar basis the figure was £2,250 millions in 1913-4. That figure, rather than the £2,400 millions which was frequently in debate, was accepted in authoritative circles. Since the World War estimates have varied enormously; in 1925 (in the absence of much of the reliable material for such an investigation, they ranged from £2,500 millions to nearly £4;000 millions, the latter being clearly extravagant. For more than three-quarters of a century America has relied on the census conducted by the Washington Bureau; but Sir Josiah Stamp has pointed out that, although called a census,

it is more strictly an inventory, “as far as possible on a tax basis, for it does not require individual statements of personal wealth, but delegates the construction of the inventory to a large number of officials for different areas, under careful, uniform instructions.” Expressed in sterling, the total national wealth of the United States was, in 1912, put at £38,577,000,000; the population was rather more than 95,000,000; and the national wealth per head of population £404. Most of the leading authorities on the income of the United States have urged the practical impossibility of estimating with more than general accuracy. Dr. King thought that it might be attempted either by test of the consumption of the people, or of the production of the nation. The second method was probably preferable, for information regarding retail prices was scanty and unreliable, and in such ‘consumption ” which takes place for purposes of further production there was the substantial difficulty of duplication. But in 1910 the total money income was placed at £6,272 millions, £68 per capita, £307 per family, or £5,861 millions on the basis of net goods consumed. | Mr. David Friday, dealing with the taxable increase of the United States, has estimated the income of the United States as

~ WEALTH

998

AND INCOME

a whole for 1917 and ro1r8, and also as subject to excess profits and income taxation. By the net product method his figure was £13,400 millions. The Hon. A. C. Miller, of the Federal Reserve Board, estimated the income for r917 at more than {10,000 millions. Other authorities have put it as high as £14,000 millions, chieily by adopting the roro basis of Dr. King, adding 31 % for increased production and 71° forincrease in prices. In this work the subject is discussed by Professor T. N. Carver. (See UNITED STATES; Finance and Wealth.) Germany.—In the case of the German Empire Dr. Helfferich, director of the Deutsche Bank, published in 1913 an analysis of aggregate income and capital. The total income of personal taxpayers and persons exempt appeared to be £1,092 millions, compared with £1,058 millions in tori. Statistics later than 1913 should be used with caution, but for that year Dr. Helfferich made an increase which brought the aggregate income to £2,105 millions. Several of the leading British authorities contend that there may be 5°%% error in the estimate of tax-free incomes either way, and that the 10% addition for evasion is a minimum figure which should probably be increased to 20 per cent or thereabouts. Taking the statistics about the property tax in Prussia as a basis in capital valuation Dr. Helfferich made a 20% allowance for taxable property omitted, analysed the position of private property legally exempted, dealt with the position of more than 5,500,ooo owners, made certain allowances for furniture, utensils and clothing, and for property in impersonal ownership, and finally arrived at an aggregate of £7,850 millions. On the assumption of a like basis for the other States he concluded that the aggregate for the German Empire was probably £12,750 millions, to which he made additions for State railways, profit-making undertakings of State and municipalities, schools, churches, parks and similar unproductive property, all of which, after deduction of public debts, gave a grand net total of £13.950 millions for rọ11. But this total was checked by reference to fire insurance statistics for that year, which gave a total of more than £16,000 millions, and from further analysis of tax method and fire insurance method a final figure of £14,150 millions was derived. This may be taken therefore, as a fair estimate. France.—Comprehensive treatment of the corresponding problem in France by M. Rene Pupin, published in 1916, recognised, as regards income, four methods of computation. These were a coefficient giving a constant relation between rental values of premises and the incomes of their inhabitants; the reckoning of income from the amount of taxes paid; the classification of trades

by Thery for the same year. A later estimate by another authority, but dealing with 1913, was almost exactly £12,000 millions or approximately £300 per head. The following ten years probably saw an increase in this figure, in spite of the tremendous losses caused by the World War. Ttaly.—Italy is rich in computations of aggregate wealth, but weak in estimates of annual income. Two ofthe leading authorities estimated that in ror4 the aggregate wealth of the Italian people was £4,484 millions and £4,000 millions respectively; Gini certainly took very great pains by local inquiry in each of the areas to ascertain the extent of the deficient valuation of land and buildings, a problem which, as most of the critics have contended, dominates the estimate. The weakness of Italian tax data makes it practically impossible to offer reliable estimate of the national income of Italy, nor is much assistance to be derived from the occupational census. In his survey of the direct costs of the World War Bogart adopted a current estimate of £800,000,000. Other Countrices.—The statistical material of other countries varices very greatly, both in scope and reliability, but the following figures of annual income and aggregate wealth, together with the years to which they apply, are offered from such material as is available:— Country

Year 1913 I910 I9I3 I9l3 IQII

Spain . Holland Sweden Belgium Norway Australia Canada Japan . Argentine

Total Income Million £

(approx.) 228

5

a

1915

Total Wealth Million £ (approx.)

29.40 1050 777 III 184

16.43

I9I5

2285

IQI4 IQI4

2400 2400

War conditions which, as already indicated, interrupted the normal work of neutrals as well as belligerents have in many cases prevented the compilation of later and probably more accurate statistics. There are, however, certain broad general conclusions. The United States would appear to have a considerable absolute lead in real wealth, and in the rapidity of its in-

crease; the difference between the United Kingdom and Germany has probably been exaggerated; the effects of the thrift of the French people are readily traceable; and Japan has made

remarkable progress, allowing, however, for the fact that over

National Wealth of Certain Countries ; Year

Country Great Britain Canada. India . : United States France . Italy

1923 1923 1922 1923 1923 es

National wealth

In sterling at par

| £ 20,000 millions a |$ 25,000 millions | £ 5,100 | Rs. 15,000 crores | £10,000 | $355,000 millions | £72,900 | Fr. 1,200,000 millions £47,600 1923 |L.611,000 millions! £24,222

In sterling at current rate of exchange in May 1926

Current rate

of exchange in May 1926

£20,000 millions millions | £ 5,400 millions millions | £10,000 millions millions | £81,200 millions

Aig $4.465 = £1 I5rs. = {I $4.37 ={1

millions | £14,400 millions millions | { 6,100 millions

82:88 fr=f1 |100 15-32 lire={1

and callings according to local areas, with a coefficient of pro-

60% of her population is engaged in agriculture and lives on an

ductivity; and “ successive approximations ” under which an effort is made to reach the net income or annual produce from capital and work at the disposal of the French people after paying all the general expenses of their enterprises. In the period immediately preceding the outbreak of the World War Pupin’s total of individual incomes in France was f1,280 millions, but to that sum substantial additions had to be made for the undistributed profits of companies, the subsistence of nearly 5,000,000 persons living on the holdings of their farms, together with land belonging to the State and other territorial jurisdictions. For 19tr Pupin’s estimate upon the direct method of the capital resources of the French people was £11,420 millions, compared

amount per head which would be regarded as impossible in Europe. To complete the picture in such form as is possible, there should be offered the latest estimate of the national wealth of some of the chief countries. Six of these are taken for our purpose, namely Great Britain, United States, France, Italy, Canada and India. Cost of the War.—By the side of these figures must be set the cost of the World War. The statistics on the following page deal with the six fiscal years rg14—9 inclusive; they do not cover the total outlay of the War period, but they are substantial representation of gross and net cost, a problem which is in process of constant adjustment as inter-Allied debt arrangements are completed:—

with £11,380 as estimated by Peret for 1912 and £12,100 millions

WEA THER—WIEDEKIND Cost of the War! The Cost of the War—Entire period covering the six fiscal years 1914 to 1org inclusive

(In pounds- 000,000 omitted.) Stank Nations

Total, expendi-

| Gross ao

versity as a parliamentary Net eae

ture

Allied and Associated Powers Great Britain Australia Canada India : New Zealand ; Union of South Africa Crown Colonies Total British Empire Belgium. : : France. Greece Italy Japan . : : ; Portugal. : : Rumania

Russia

Serbia . i United States Total Allies Central Powers

Austria-Hungary Bulgaria i Germany Turkey

Total Central Powers Grand Total

11,0760 | 10,112°0 4767 364-1 762-7 520-3 O87°1 212-0 2344 114-0 1590 407 [82-0 40-5 13,5779 11,4046 411-8 284-8 7,926-2 6,8948 II5-I 67-0 4,432°7 3,828-2 4I9-I 115-9 235°3 141-5 308-8 224:3

5,312°7

9,001 +9 330-8 521°9 212-0 87-5 29-2 41-5 10,2248 < 3,7859 8-6 3,024°6 115-9 112-9 139:5

4,099°9

3:3550

40,963°6 | 34,666-9

30,2122

119-0 8,105-0

4,068 +4 261-0 10,341°1 451-8

89-4 7,516°5

2,957°5 164-0 9,666-7 260:3

in 7,435:0

2,752:0 66:2 9,6667 143:0

. | 15,122°3 | 13,048-5 | 12,6279 56,086-9 | 47,7154

administration. From ro1s—-25, he was a member of the Executive of the Labour party, for which he wrote Labour and the New Social Order. In 1918, he stood unsuccessfully for London Uni-

12,840°1

t Adapted from Inter-Ally Debts, by H. E. Fisk, Bankers’ Trust Company, N. Y., 1924. Brip_roGRAPiuy.—W. I. King, Wealth and Income of the People of the United States (1915); Sit J. Stamp, British Incomes and Property (1916); A. L. Bowley, The Division of the Product of Industry: an Analysis. of National Income before the War (1919); G. F. Shirras, The Science of Public Finance (1924); Sir J. Stamp, Studies in Current Problems in Finance and Government (1924). (W. GRA.)

WEATHER: see METEOROLOGY. WEAVER, JAMES BAIRD (1833-1912), American lawyer and political leader (see 28.439), died at Des Moines, Ia., Feb. 6 1912. WEAVING: sce TEXTILE MACHINERY. WEBB, SIR ASTON (1849), British architect, son of Edward Webb, engraver and painter, was born in London May 22 1849. His advance in the architectural profession was rapid, and he was elected president of the Architectural Association in 1884, and of the Royal Institute of British Architects in 1902. One of his earliest commissions was the restoration of the beautiful church, St. Bartholomew’s, Smithfield, London. Among many other public works of importance carried out by Sir Aston Webb, who was knighted in 1904 and made K.C.V.O. in 1914, were the building of the new front of Buckingham Palace, and the design of the architectural settings for the Queen Victoria Memorial there, as also the imposing Admiralty Arch at the other end of the Mall, London. He was also responsible for the completion of the Victoria and Albert Museum, the Royal College of Science and other institutions at South Kensington. In Jan. 1919 he was elected president of the Royal Academy, being the second architect chosen to fill that post. He resigned the presidency owing to ill-health in 1925, when he was made G.C.Y.O. WEBB, SIDNEY (18s0), British writer and politician (see 28.455), from 1909 played, with his wife Beatrice, an increasingly important part in moulding the opinion of British Labour and supplying it with an intellectual armoury. Mrs. Webb was a member of the royal commission on the Poor Laws, whose Minority Report, issued in 1909, was the work of herself and her husband. They were concerned in the founding of the weekly New Statesman in 1913, and for some time before that had been busily promoting the development of the London School of Economics and Political Science, a department of the

University of London where Mr. Webb was professor of public

candidate;

In 1922,

after an extra-

ordinary educational campaign by himself and Mrs. Webb, he was returned as M.P. for a Durham mining constiLuency, Seaham Harbour, with an immense majority, which was maintained at subsequent elections. In roro, Mr. Webb was a member of the royal commission on coal mines, and put before it a complete plan for the nationalisation of the industry; in the same year he served on the committee on trusts, set up under the Profiteering Acts. Tis inclusion in the first Labour Govt. was a matter of course; but his presidency of the Board of Trade, an oflice which he held in 1922-23, was not marked by any striking innovations. Among the publications of Mr. and Mrs. Webb

after 1906, the

following were the most important:-—-Huglish Local Government: The Manor and the Borough (1908); The Break-up of the Poor Law and The Public Organisation of the Labour Market (1909); English Poor Law Policy (1910); The State and the Doctor (1910); The Story of the King’s Highway (1913); The History of Trade Unionism, new and revised cd. (1920); A Constitution for the Socialist Commonwealth of Great Britain (1920) and The Consumers’ Co-operative Movement (1921), and The Decay of Capitalist Civilization (1921) in which, after being active members of the Labour and Socialist movement for over 30 years they for the first time frame an indictment of the capitalist system. Mr. Webb also published Grants in Aid (1911); Iow to Pay for the War (1916); The Works Manager To-day (1917);

and The Story of the Durham

Miners (1921).

In 1926 Mrs. Sidney

Webb, who before her marriage was Miss Beatrice Potter, issued an

autobiographical work, My Apprenticeship.

WEBER, MAX (1864-1920), German economist, was born at Erfurt April 21 1864, and studied jurisprudence at Heidelberg, Strasbourg, Berlin and Göttingen. He took up the teaching of Roman law and commercial law in Berlin in 1802, and became professor of commercial law and German law at the university of that city In the following year. professor of national economy at

In 1894 he was appointed Freiburg (Baden). Three

years later he was transferred to Heidelberg, but resigned his appointment on grounds of ill-health in 1903, and lived in Heidelberg as a private individual until the revolution of 1918. He then accepted an invitation from the university of Munich. During the ardent political disturbances of this period he proved himself in lectures and writings a most penetrating, practical and vigourous critic, whose opinion was backed by encyclopaedic knowledge. He died in Munich June 14 1920. Weber first became known for his works on Roman and then German

agrarian history. His first important work was Die rémische Agrargeschichte in threr Bedeutung fiir das Staats—und Privatrecht (1891). Later he occupied himself principally with sociology and social philosophy, as in Die sozialen Grinde des U ntergangs der antiken Kultur (1895). Other works are The rural Community, lecture delivered before the international Congress in St. Louis (1904); Russlands Uebergang zum Scheinkonstitutionalismus (1906). The following works were

published after his death: Gesammelte Aufsätze zur Religionssozio-

logie (1920, 1921); Gesammelte politische Schriften, and Gesammelte Aufsdise sur Wissenschaftslehre (1922); Wirtschaft und Gesellschaft (1921); Wertschaftsgeschichte (1923); Gesammelte Aufsdize zur Soziolo-

gie und Wirtschafts Geschichte (1924); Soziologie und Sozialpolitik (1924).

Gesammelte

Aufsätze

zur

WEDEKIND, FRANK (1864-1918), German dramatist, was born in Hanover July 24 1864, his father being a doctor. He was educated at his father’s château at Lenzburg in Switzerland, and

in 1883 took up journalism.

Afterwards he became an advertis-

ing manager and then, in 1890, secretary of a circus in Paris and London. In 1896 he contributed political articles to Sim plicissimus and in the following year he set up as an actor and producer in Leipzig, moving in 1898 to Munich. He acted in his own dramas with his wife, and a company on tour, which made yearly visits to Berlin and performed at the Deutsches Theatre. Wedekind’s dramatic works deal mainly with erotic problems, sharp criticism being directed against middle class society. They include Kammersänger (1900); Biichse der Pandora (1904); Hidalla

(1906); Oaha (1908), Schloss Wetterstein and Franziska (1912).

I 000

WEDMORE—WELDING

The scenes are generally symbolic and the characters are representative of types rather than individuals. Wedekind also wrote poctry, novels, Afine-laha (1¢06), etc., and essays. He died in Munich March 4 1918. See A. Kutscher, Frank Wedekind (1924). WEDMORE, SIR FREDERICK (1844-1021), British art critic and man of letters (see 28.466), dicd at Sevenoaks, Kent, Feb. 25 1921. He was knighted in ror2. His later publications include Afemories (1912), Painters and Painting (1913) and a novel, Brenda Walks On (1016). WEEKS, JOHN WINGATE (1860-1926), American public official, was born at Lancaster, N.II., April 11 1860.

He gradu-

ated from the U.S. Naval Academy in 1881, served two years as midshipman, then resigned from the navy and became assistant land commissioner of the Florida Southern Railroad. In 1886 he helped to organise the banking and brokerage firm of Hornblower and Weeks, Boston, Mass., of which he was a member until r912. In 1890 he joined the Mass. naval brigade, and during the Spanish-American War commanded the second division of the auxiliary U.S. naval force on the Atlantic coast. From 1894 to 1900 he was a member of the Mass. military advisory board and of the military board of examiners. After serving as alderman of Newton, Mass., he was elected mayor (1903-4). In 1905 he was chairman of the Mass. Republican state convention. During 1905-13 he was a member of the national House of Representatives and as a member of the committee on banking and currency took an active part in framing the AldrichVreeland Currency Bill. In 1913 he entered the U.S. Senate, but was defeated for re-election in 1919. He was a member of the Senate committee on military affairs during the World War. In 1921 he entered the Cabinet of President Ilarding as Secretary of War. In this office he served also in the Cabinet of President Coolidze, but resigned on account of ill-health Oct. 12 1925. He died at his summer home, Lancaster, N.I1., July 12 1926. WEI-HAI-WEI (see 28.404), a territory with an area of about 288 sq. m. to the west of the Shantung peninsula leased to Great Britain by China under a convention of July 1 1898. The population is about 246 foreigners, including officials and naval and military detachments, and 154,146 Chinese. The question of the rendition of the territory to China arose at the Washington Conference, when Mr. (Lord) Balfour proposed to restore the district if it would facilitate the Sino-Japanese agreement in Shantung. He made a definite offer on Feb. 1 1922 after the announcement of the Agreement in Shantung to surrender the lease of Wei-Hai-Wei, subject to the territory remaining available as a summer resort for the British China squadron. In a letter addressed to the Chinese delegations on the following day it was suggested that a joint commission should be set up to study the question on the spot and arrange the details of the transfer. Provisional agreement was in fact reached on May 31 1923, under which the greater part of the British Govt. property was to be handed over to the Chinese Govt., who were asked in return to provide facilitics for a trading and residential settlement and to leave certain buildings and an area of the harbour free for limited use by the British Admiralty. Objections were raised by the Chinese authorities to the details, and up to the end of r925 no further steps had been taken in the matter. (See CHINA.) WEINER, LEO (1885), Hungarian musical composer, was born in Budapest April 16 1885 and studied composition under Hans Koessler at the Royal High School of Music in that city, where he was subsequently (1907) appointed professor of composition, and later of chamber music. His works include the orchestral plays: Serenade (1906, awarded the Budapest Lipótvárosi Kaszinó Prize), Carnival, Scherzo and accompanying music to a play by Michel Vörösmartz entitled Csongor és Tinde. Chamber music: two string quartets (the second of which gained the Coolidge Prize in America, 1922), two sonatas for violin and pianoforte, and a ballad for clarinet and pianoforte (also for orchestra). Weiner’s music shows great delicacy of feeling and a meticulous care for detail. His style is classical and he ignores both the romantics and the ultra-modern school.

WEIR, WILLIAM DOUGLAS WEIR ist Baron (1877J, British politician and business man, was born May 12 1877, the son of James Weir of Over Courance, Dumfriesshire. His talents for business organisation were recognised by the Coalition Govt. during the World War, when he was appointed director of munitions for Ireland, a post which he held in 1915-6. In 1917-8 he was controller of acronautical supplics and a member of the Air Board. In the same year (1918) he became directorgencral of aircraft production at the Ministry of Munitions, an appointment which he held in conjunction with a seat on the council of that department; and also (April—Dec.) Secretary of State and president of the Air Council. In 1919 he was appointed chairman of the advisory committee on civil aviation. Lord Weir was managing director of the engineering firm of G. & J. Weir, Lid., Glasgow, which constructed the “‘ Weir ”’ stecl houses, about which there was a good deal of controversy in 1925 and 1926. He received a knighthood in 1917 and in the following year was raised to the peerage and sworn of the privy council. WEISMANN, AUGUST (1834-1914), German biologist (see 28.499), died at Ireiburg-in-Baden Nov. 6 1914. His latest publications were an estimate of Darwin’s work and Die Selektionstheorie, both published in rgo9. See Ernst Gaupp, August Wetsmann (1917). WEISS, BERNHARD (1827-1918), German theologian (see 28-499), died in Berlin Jan, 14 1918. WEKERLE, SANTOR (1848-1921), Hungarian statesman, (see 28.500). During the World War he stood firm for union with Austria and took office as Prime Minister for the third time in Aug. 1917. In Oct. of the following year, after the fall of Fiume, he resigned. He died in Budapest Aug. 26 1921. WELDING (see 28.500).—This article discusses electric weld-

ing and gas-torch welding. A third form of welding, thermit welding, is discussed in the article THERMIT.

I. ELECTRIC WELDING Spot Welding —The important development known,as spot welding is a modification of the Thomson process, peculiarly applicable to uniting overlapped sheets of metal by welded “‘ spots ” or localised areas of union of the sheets in place of riveting them. It leaves little or no projection or deformation on the outer surfaces of the shects so united.

weer = — |e ey

ae EF

Miike

Me ‘eae I

\ i

\

ay

ere Jt

!

om

T

Fic. 1.—Spot Welder with electrodes (E).

FIG, 2.

The machine for such work is called a “ spot welder,” ? and usually has two electrodes arranged in a vertical line, one above the other. The electrodes consist of short, heavy, blunt copper bars, E E (fig. 1) (watercooled in the larger machines); the upper electrode E is made movable up and down under control of a manually operated pressure lever, L, or by a piston actuated by air or water pressure controlled by a valve. The opposed ends of the electrodes, which bear upon and form contact with the sheets to be united, are usually chamfered or given the form of frustums of shallow cones. This reduces resistance loss in the electrodes and adds to their rigidity and durability. The electrodes, as in other resistance welders, are made the terminals of ‘

WELDING the heavy secondary circuit of a welding transformer, T, the usual single turn of large section. The current is large, but is delivered to the work at low voltage. The weld which unites the sheets is a spot, usually round in form, confined in extent to the area covered by the ends of the electrodes. The opposed faces of the sheets are thus locally and quickly heated to welding temperature, and the pressure of the electrodes causes complete union; such welded spots are successively made at intervals over any extent of surface of the sheets as in riveting (see figs. 2 and 3). While spot welding has been

SLL:

ERK

ZZ

EE

Fic. 6.—Principle of the low-pressure or injector type of gas torch.

The use of a blowpipe or torch in some form was known to the ancients, but the high-temperature gas flame is principally a development since 1910. The application of the oxy-acetylene torch to metallic welding dates experimentally from 1901 and commercially from 1903; Edmond Fouché, Paris, who did considerable experimenting in conjunction with Picard, is generally credited with making the first really practical torch. The early torches used both oxygen and acetylene under high pressure, but this proved too dangerous, and a low-pressure or injector type was next used. Following this was the Gauthier-Ely positive- or medium-pressure torch, which used both gases under moderate and independent pressure. The injector and the positive-pressure types are the ones now in commercial use. The development of the latter is largely due to Augustine Davis and

oxygen at B. Fhe acetylene, at less than r Ib. pressure, goes to chamber C, from which it is sucked by the oxygen, under 5 to 30 lb. pressure, pouring out of nozzle D, and is carried along with the oxygen into the mixing chamber E. The thoroughly mixed gases issue from the nozzle of the torch, where they are burned. Carbureting device which positively and

Valve 2

\ACETYLENE *.The two gases strike together at right angtes creating a vortex which insures intimate mixture

The diameters of the parts in the carbureting device

are proportioned to each size of tip, to deliver proper volumes of gas for each size of flame produced

a Luminous Cone of Flame A4

secondary reaction.

Hydrogen and carbon

monoxide burn, taking the necessary oxygen 'n from the air and produce water vapor an

l |carbon dioxide.

Fic. 8.—A typical positive pressure torch.

Positive- Pressure Torch.—The positive-pressure torchiprinciple is illustrated in fig. 7. Here the oxygen, at from 1 to 14 lb. pressure, enters at A, and the acetylene, at from r to 24 lb. pressure, enters at B. The oxygen enters the small chamber C and thence out through the centre hole. The acetylene goes to chamber D and also out through the centre hole. The two gases start to mix at E andare thoroughly mixed in the channel F in the torch nozzle G. A typical positive-pressure torch is shown in fig. 8. ‘Torches are made with tips set at various angles from oo° to straight, the latter being principally used in welding and cutting machines. Where the work is heavy the tips are water-cooled. In welding very thin metal the edges are often turned up or “ flanged ” and the torch used to fuse them together without using any additional metal. On heavier work the edges to be welded are V'd out at an angle of from 60° to 90°, and this channel is filled in by using a welding rod or wire, care being taken to obtain perfect fusion between the old metal and new. Welding of this kind is progressive, as the welder gradually OXYGEN REGULATOR

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Oxygen Tank Valve ant: X (A Pome Connection Nut” = SEA Randle

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ACETYLENE REGULATOR Handle

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Adapter---- f s- mAN oe

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Po

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=

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=

= 7

=

Oxygen - Hose} `

v

yl

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Ps

=

ion

TORCH Ey

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Eugene Bournonville.

wo Sc

*.Oxygen Hose Connection

zS e

ACETYLENE = TANK =

L]

Oxygen needle

Hermann von Eckhardstein, Ten years at the Court of Si. James 1895-1905. (1921); ` Germany, Forcign Office, Deutschland schuldig? (1919); By a German (R. Grelling), J'accuse! Translation by A. Gray.

(1915);

J. W. Headlam, The History of Twelve Days. (1915); J. W. Headlam, The Outbreak of War. Foreign Office Documents. (1926); K. Kautsky, Outbreak of the World War (1924). Translation. Full collection of German official documents—Die deutschen Dokumente zum Kriegsausbruch.

6 vol. (1919);

Prince K. Lichnowsky, My Mission to London ror2-14. (1918); Count Max Montgelas, The Case for the Central Powers. (1925); Dr. W. Miihlon, Dr. Miihlon’s Diary, ror4. (1918); C. Oman, The Outbreak of the War of 1914-18, Based on official documents. (1919); R. Poincaré, The Origins of the War. (1921);

Das Russische Orange-Buch von r9r4.

R. W. Seton-Watson, Serajevo. (1926).

(1925);

The Annual Register.

Brassey's Naval Annual, Portsmouth. (1914-9); Whitaker's Almanac (1914-9), short chronologies;

“Times, The,” Documentary History of the War. 11 vol. (1917, etc.)3 Capt. A. Tosti, La Guerra Iialo-Austriaca 1915-18. Good official resume. (1925); G. M. Trevelyan, The War and the European Revolution in relation to History. (1920). MISCELLANEOUS

eee ee 1921);

G. P. Gooch, History of Modern Europe 1878-1019. Anonymous, The Pomp of Power. (1922);

(1914-9);

HISTORIES

CONTINGENTS

rors,

(1919);

in Flanders.

3 vol.

(1918);

: pape H. Steele, The Canadians in France 1915-1918. (1920); ndia Gen. Sir J. Willcocks, With the Indians in France. (1920); New Zealand H. T. B. Drew, The War Effort of New Zealand. 4 vol. (1924); Col. H. Stewart, The New Zealand Division 1916-1919.

(1921);

South Africa T a History of the South African Forces in France. 1920); : South Africa, Department of Defence, The Union of S. Africa and the Great War. Official history, (1924); . Maj.-Gen. R. L. Bullard, Personalities and Reminiscences of the War. (1925); Lt.-Col. de Chambrun and Capt. de Marenches, L'armée américaine dans le conflit européen.

Histories (see also under Military Operations) Gen. Schwarte’s volumes (q.v.). Austro-Hungarian Campaigns. Nothing official published. Good material in Gen. Schwarte’s (1920, etc.);

Zur Geschichte des grossen Krieges 1914-18.

(Eastern Front). (1924); J. Buchan. A History of the Great War. 4 vol. (1921); Bulletin Belge des Sciences Militaires, Belgian official account of the War coming out in this periodical;

Gén. Cherfils, La Guerre d la Délivrance, 3 vol. (1920-2); Lt.-Col. M. L. V. H. Corda, La Guerre Mondiale 1914-18. (1922); L. Cornet, rọr4-1915 Histoire de la Guerre. Political and general.

(1915-22);

Brig.-Gen, J. E. Edmonds, Oficial IMistory of the Great War. With maps and plans. (1925, etc.); Diario Della Guerra d'Italia. Official; 65 parts. (1923); The Military and Financial Effort of ltaly during the War. Official figures. (1919); Les Armées Francaises dans la Grande Guerre. French Official History of War. 2 vo). of chronological dictionary of formations during whole War. 1 vol. (thin) story. Numerous vol. of documents only. Difficult to obtain; Sir Charles P. Lucas, The Empire at War. Dominions and colonics in particular. 3 vol. (1921, etc.); Nations of To-day Series. Ed. J. Buchan. 12 separate vol. Great Briiain (2), Bulgaria and Rumania, France, Belgium, Haly, Ireland, India, Yugoslavia, Baltic and Caucasian States, British America, Japan. Description of War, etc., in cach. (1923, etc.); Gén. B. E. Palat, Za Grande Guerre sur le Front Occideittat, II vol. (1917, etc.); | A. F. Pollard, A Short History of the Great War. (1920); Reichsarchiv, Der Weltkrieg 1914-18. German official History of the War. 2 vol. out, of probably 12. A popular abbreviated edition of each vol. is also published. (1922, etc.)

AND

seer z s W. Currie, Canadian Corps Operations during I9I18. (1920); Maj. C. G. Roberts and M. Aitken (Lord Beaverbrook). Canada

Very good

(1921);

Final Report of Gen. J. J. Pershing. (1919). Covers history of J.S.A. forces; Capt. Shipley Fhomas, Mistory of the American Expeditionary Force. (1920); United States, G.S., Historical Branch, Monographs (3) on Mobilisation, Economic Agencies, etc, (1921). ARMS

Gen. Lt. M. Schwarte (Ed.), Der Grosse Krieg 1914-18. and full. 11 vol. to date. (1921-4);

OF ARMIES

Australia Oficial History of Australia in the War, 12 vol. (1925); Lt.-Gen. Sir J. Monash, The Australian Victories tn France im 7018. (1920); Canada Report. Canada, Afinistry ef Overseas Military Forces. Report

|

(1921);

Gen. Oberst A, Arz,

(1923);

N. Sokolov, The Afurder of the Imperial Family. (1921); War Office, Statistics of the Mulitary Effort of the British Empire 1014-1020, (1922); H. Wickham Steed, Through 30 years (1892-1922). (1924).

Chronology of the War, ror4-7g. Edited by Lord Edward Gleichen. 3 vol. (each of 2 years) and atlas. (1918-20), Committee of Imperial Defence (Historical Section), Principal Events r914~-1918. (1922); S. R., Chronologie de la Guerre. to small vol. (1919); “Times, The,” The Times Diary and Index of the War, 1914-18.

volumes.

Le tragique destin de Nicolas IT. et de sa famille.

United States

GENERAL Histories (Chronological) Annual Register, Great Britain,

OF

WAR, BIBLIOGRAPHY

OF THE

SERVICE

Maj.-Gen Sir L. J. Blenkinsop and Lt.-Col. J. W. Rainey, Official History of the Veterinary Services. (1925); Lt.-Col. F. S. Brereton, The Great War and the R.A.M.C. (1919) (sce also Macpherson, under Medical and Casualties); Bt.-Col. J. F.C. Fuller, Tanks in the Great War, 1914-18. (1920); Royal Engineers’ Institute, The Work of the R.E. in the European War 1914-19. (1921, etc.}. MILITARY OPERATIONS The Western Front.

Terms of Armistices concluded with Germany, Austro-Hungary

and Turkey. Cmd. 53. (1919); Belgian Army, La campagne det’ Armée belge, July 30 1gt4-Jan.r

1915.

(1915);

,

The War of rọr4. Official. (1915); Commandant Willy Breton, Pages d’fistotfre. (1915, etc.). On Belgian operations. Various volumes. Official basis; Maj. A. Corbett-Smith, The Retreat from Mons. (1916); Maj. A. Corbett-Smith, The Mfarne—and After. (1917); P, H. Courrière, Commenti ful sauvé Paris. (1918); H. Dugard, La victoire de Verdun, Feb, 21 1916-Nov. II 1917.

(1918);

Général Dupont, Le haut commandement

allemand

en 1914.

(1922). From German standpoint; Gen. E. v. Falkenhayn, General Headquarters, 1914-16, and its critical decisions. (1919) Field-Marshal Visct. French. zọr4. (1919);

Ficld-Marshal

rgt4-15.

Visct. French,

(1907);

The Despatches of Lord French,

ao

General Staff, Germany, Der Grosse Krieg in Hinzeldarstellungen

(1920). Selected episodes. 8 parts published; Ypres, ror4. Trans. (1919); Germany, Reichskanzlet, History of events immediately preceding the Armistice. Official German. (1920); Les origines de l’Armistice. Translated by Koeltz (German official). (1919);

WORLD Sir D. Haig’s despatches, 1915-19. aston.

(1919);

WAR, BIBLIOGRAPHY

Ed. by Lt.-Col. J. H. Bor-

ries ie Ernest Hamilton, The First Seven Divisions (in 1914). 1910);

G. Hanotaux, Histoire illustre de la guerre de 1914. (1914, etc.);

13 vols.

Gen. Oberst A. v. Kluck, Der Marsch auf Paris und die MarneSchlacht, 1914.

J. Maercker,

Also in English (1920);

Vom Kaiserheer sur Reichswehr.

(1921).

German

Revolution;

Maj.-Gen. Sir F. Maurice, Forty Days tn 1914. (1919); Maj.-Gen. Sir F. Maurice, The Last Four Months (1919); G. S. Gordon, Mons and the Retreat—with preface by Lord French. (1918); Oberstlt. A. Niemann, Katser und Revolution. (1922); Reichsarchiv, Germany, Schlachten des Weltkrieges.

(1921, etc.);

Gen. Sir II. L. Smith-Dorrien, Afemories of Forty-eight Years Service (incl. 1914). (1925); Austro-Italian Gen. L. Cadorna, La guerra alla fronte italiana, etc. (1915- Nov. 7917). 2 vol. (1921); Gen.-Lt. A. von Cramon, Quatre ans au G.Q.G. austro-hongrois. (1922). As German representatives; Italy, ee Supremo, Report on batile of Vittorio Veneto.

(1919); Gen. Maj.

H. Kerchnawe, Der Zusammenbruch der oesterreichischungarischen Wehrmacht in r918. (1921); Russian Gen. B. Gourko, Russia in 1ọ14-17. (1918); (1924). Gen. M. Hoffmann, The War of Lost Opportunities. Eastern Front. Translation; Maj.-Gen. Sir A. Knox, Waith the Russian Army, 1914-17. (1921); Capt. R. S. G. Watkin-Williams, Under the Black Ensign. (1922). Operations on the Murman Coast; S. R. (Serge Raffalovitch), Pages d'histoire. L'Histoire de la révolution russe, 1Q905—I9I7. (1917);

Balkan

G. Gordon-Smith,

Through the Serbian Campaign (and retreat).

(1916);

G. Gordon-Smith, From Serbia to Jugoslavia, 1974-18. (1920); Lt.-Col. Hon. H. D. Napier, Experiences ofa Military Attaché in the Balkans. (1924); H. C. Owen, Salonica and after. (1919); C. Price, Serbia’s Part in the War. Vol. I. (1918); G. W. Price, The Story of the Salonica Army. (1917); soo ae Einzelschriften, Der Endkampf in sfacedonien.

(1921);

(1920};

Lt. M. Sturdza, Avec larmèe roumaine, 1016-18. (1918); L. Villari, The Macedonian Campaign. (1922); Dardanelles and Gallipoli Brig.-Gen. C. P. Aspinall, Gallrpolt. Official history; (1926); The Final Report of the Dardanelles Commission. (1919); Gen. Sir I. Hamilton, A Gallipoli Diary. 2 vol. (1920). Gen. O. Liman Dardanelles;

v.,Sanders,

Fiinf Jahre

Ttirkei.

(1922), incl.

J. Masefield, Gallipoli. (1923); P. F. Schuler, Australia in Arms (Anzac). (1916); Dr. H. Stuermer, Two War Years in Constantinople. Translation;

o

(1924);

Historical Section of Staff, Campagne

A. Aaronsohn, tion;

Lt.-Col.

hau;

W.S. Rayner and W. W. O'Shaughnessy, How Botha and Smuts Conquered German South West Africa, (1916); P. J. Sampson, The Capture of De Wet: The South African Rebellion. (1915);

Dr, H. Schnee, Deutsch Ost-Afrika im Weltkrieg. (1921); Correspondence re Operations in Togoland. (1915); Lt.-Commidt. W. Whittal. With Botha and Smuts in Africa (South West African campaign). (1917); England CT T The German Air-raids on Great Britain 1914-18, 1925);

Lt.-Col. A. Rawlinson, The Defence of London, 1915-18.

Miscellaneous Correspondence re Taking of Samoa.

W.

Vollerthun, O'Neill.

MEMOIRS

Der Kampf

OF COMMANDERS,

G. E. Badcock,

Mistory

Egyptian Expeditionary Force.

(1917).

des Dardanelles. Transla-

of the Transport,

Services,

(1925);

and Palestine campaigns, 1914-18, (1922); E. Dane, British Campaigns in the Nearer East, 1914-18, (1919); Egyptian Expeditionary Force, Record of the advance of the Egyptian Expeditionary Force, July 1917-0Oct. 1918. (1919). official sources;

Lt.-Col. P. G. Elgood, Egypt and the Army (egypt during the War). (1924); W. T. Massey, Tke Desert Campaigns (1918); Lt.-Col. Hon. R. N. O. Preston, The Desert Mounted Corps (Palestine and Syria), 1917-18. (1921); E S. G. Watkin-Williams, Jn the hands of the Senoussi. 1916);

Mesopotamia and Persia Maj.-Gen. L. C. Dunsterville, (Persia and Baku).

(1921);

STATESMEN,

The adventures of Dunsterforce

Report of the Commission on Mesopotamia. (1917); Brig.-Gen. F. J. Moberly, Afesopotamia Campaign, 1914-18 (1923, etc.). 3 volumes. Official; Maj.-Gen. Sir C. V. F Townshend, My Campaign in Mesopolamia. (1920);

(1920)

(1923);

See

also

ETC.

Sir G. Arthur, Life of Lord Kitchener, 3rd vol. (1920); A. I Atteridge, Marshal Ferdinand Foch. (1918); Lord Bertie, Diary, ror4-1918, 2 vol. (1924); Princess E. Blücher, An English Wife in Berlin. (1920); Sir G. Buchanan, My Mission to Russia, etc. 2 vol. (1923); Rt. Hon. W. S. Churchill, Tke World Crisis. 2 vol.: 1911-4

1915.

(1923);

l

and

,

Feld Marshal Frhr. Conrad von Hötzendorf, Aus meiner Dienstzeit (1006-1918). (1924); J. W. Gerard (U.S.A. Ambassador), My Four Years in Germany.

(1917);

Frederick

William,

Ex-Crown

Prince

of Germany;

(1922);

Viscount Grey of Fallodon, Twenty-five

B. J. Hendrick, Life and Letters of WW. HH. Page Feld

Marshal

P. v.

3 vol.

(1922-5);

Hindenburg,

Aus

Translation, Out of My Life (1920);

The Intimate Papers of Col. House,

Memoirs.

Years, 1802-1916.

1925);

arranged

2 vol.

(U.S.A. Ambas-

meinem

Leben.

(1919).

by C. Seymour.

(1926);

Gén. H. de Lacroix, Le Maréchal Foch. (1921); Gen. E. Ludendorff, Kriegführung und Politik, (1921); Gen. E. Ludendorff, My War Memories. (1919); a Morgenthau (U.S.A. Ambassador), Secrets of the Bosphorous. 1918);

Memoirs.

tion;

(1917).

Hirth the Turks tn Palestine.

(1915); Tsingtaun.

um

M. Paléologue, 42% Ambassador’s

Maj.-Gen. Sir M. Bowman-Mainfold, An outline of the Egyptian

From

(1921);

Gen. O. von Lettow-Vorbeck, Heia Safari! (1921). German campaign in East Africa; Gen. O. von Lettow-Vorbeck, My Reminiscences of East Africa. (1920). Translation; ee O'Neill, The War in Africa, etc. (1918). Includes Kiao

Col. a C. Repington, The First World War. ee Marshal Sir W. Robertson,

1921);

Gen.

v.

(1919);

Egypt and Palestine

I1II3

Africa Brig.-Gen. J. H. Crowe, General Smuts’ Campaign in East ¿ifrica. (1918); E. Dane, British Campaigns in Africa, ete. (1919); Brig.-Gen. C. P. Fendall, The Hast African Force, 1914-19.

sador in London).

Gen. Sarrail, Mon Commandement en Orient (Salonica), 1916-18.

OF

Stein

(War

S

Minister),

(1923-5). 2 vol.

Transla-

(1920);

from Private to Field Marshal.

Erlebnisse

i

Adml. A. v. Tirpitz, Jy Memories.

2 vol.

und

Betrachtungen.

(1919).

NAVAL AND MERCANTILE MARINE Admiralty, The Battle of Jutland, Official, with maps, ctc. (1920);

Narrative of the Battle ef Jutland. (1924); Return showing loss of ships of R.N. Return showing loss and damage of Merchant- and Fishing-vessels. (1919); Board of Trade, Aferchant Shipping.

of life. July Iı 1o1r4—Dec. 31 1078;

Return of casualties and loss

Sir J. S. Corbett, Jistory of the Great War.

(Naval Operations).

Official, 3 vol. (1920-1); C. E. Fayle, Seaborne Trade. Official, 3 vol. (1920, etc.); Germany, Marine Archiv., Der Krieg zur See, 1974-18. 4 vol. to 1915. (1924); Maj. P. Gibbon, The Triumph of the Royal Navy. Official record of surrender of German Fleet. (1919); Adm. Visct. Jellicoe, The Grand Fleet, 1914-16. (1919); The Crisis of the Naval War. (1920); M. Parmelee, Blockade and Sea Power, 1014-190. (1925); A. H. Pollen, The Navy in Battle. (1918); e Scheer, Germany's High Sea Fleet in the World War.

1920); J. R. Smith, Influence of the Great War upon Shipping. (1919); C. S. Terry, Ostend and Zeebrugge. Despatches, ete. (1919); Adm. Lord Wester Wemyss, The Navy in the Dardanelles Campaign. (1924).

WORLD

III4

WAR, BIBLIOGRAPHY

A. Pulling, Food Supply Manual and Orders; War Material Supplies, etc., etc. Numerous publications. (1916 onwards); Sir J. A. Salter (sce also Carnegie Endowment), Allied Shipping

AVIATION

Maj. W. A. Bishop, Winged Warfare.

(1918);

Capt. A. Bott, “Contact,” An Atrman’s Outings. (1917); E. Middleton, The Great W arin the Air, 2 vol. (1920);

Sir W. A. Raleigh, The War in the Air. Official.

Control:

1923 Maj.-Gen. Sir W. G. Macpherson, History of the Great War. oe Services and Diseases in the Great War. 4 vol. Official. 1924 Red Cross, Reports by the Red Cross and Order of St. John on (1921);

War Office, Afemo. on treatment of injuries. 11.1.S.O. (1916); Injuries and Diseases of War. (1918); Return of Officers (2 parts) and Men (80 parts) died in the Great War,

1914-1919.

(1919-20).

POLITICAL Brest-Litovsk, le of Peace between Central Powers and Ukrainian Government. Cd. 9105. (1918); Maximilian Harden, Arieg und Frieden. 2 vol. (1918); G. de Manteyer (Ed.), Austria's Peace Offer, 1916-17. (1921); Maj.-Gen. Sir F. Maurice, Jutrigues of the War. (1922); ~ Mermeix, Fragments d'Histoire, TO14-19. 6 vol. (1919, etc.); C.F. Nowak, The Collapse of Central Europe. Translation. (1924); Official German documents relating to the World War, Reports of German rst and 2nd Sub-Committees. Commencement of the War. (1923); Dr. A. F. Pribram, The Secret Treaties of Austro-ITungary, 1870-

1914 (1920);

.v. Puyvelde, Le mouvement flamand et la guerre. (1918); L.. Rogers, America’s case agatnst Germany. (1917); J. B. Scott (Ed.), Diplomatic correspondence between the U.S.A. and Germany, IQI4-17. (1918); J. B. Scott CEd.), A Survey of International Relations between U.S.A. and Germany. (1918); J. B. Scott (Ed.), Oficial Statements of War Aims and Peace Proposals, (1921); G. V. Seldes, The United States and the War. (1917); R. Fo ale‘Baker, Woodrow Wilson and World Settlement. 3 vol.

(1922);

H. W. V. Temperley, A History of the Peace Conference of Paris.

6 vol.

(1923);

Stationery Office, Treaties of Peace: Between Allies and Germany (Versailles, rọrọ); Austria (St.Germain, To1r9), Hungary (Trianon, 1920), Bulgaria (Neuilly, 1920) and Turkey (Sèvres, 1920—not ratified):

President Wilson’s Great Speeches and Other History-making Documents.

(1919);

ECONOMIC AND FINANCIAL N. Angell, The Fruits of Victory. (1921); . E. Barker, Economic Statesmanship (1918). Problems arising ` from the W ar} A. L. Bowley, Prices and Wages in the United Kingdom, 1914-1020.

(1921);

Gamed. Endowment, British Series.

Economte and Social History of the

3 vol:

War.

(1922, etc.);

Rear Adm. M. Consett, Tke T riumph of Unarmed Forces, 1914-18. German supplies. (1923): G. A. B. Dewar, The Great Munition Feat, t91T4-178. (1921); Disconto- Gesellschaft, Berlin, Die deutsche Volkswirtschaft im Kriege. (19485, etc. X A. Dix, Wirtschuftskrieg und Kriegswirtschaft, (1921); Foreign Office, Reports on the Economic Situation in Germany During the War.

E, Goldschmid, reichs.

Die

(1914-8);

irleh

helen Kriegsorganisationen Oester-

(1919);

F. H. Hatch, The Iron and Steel Industry of the Un ited Kingdom under

War

Conditions.

(1919);

B. J. Hibbard, Effects of the Greni War upon Agriculture in ihe U.S.A. and Great Britain. (1920); Major D. C. Huston and Major O. Rutter, Gen. Sir J, Cowans, the O.M.G. of the Great War. (1924); J. M. Keynes, The Economic Consequences of the Peace. (1920); A Revision of the Treaty. (1921); Ministry of Reconstruction, Reconstruction Problems. Prices During War and after. No. 16. (1919); National Expenditure, Reports (1—10) from the Select Commiitee on National Expenditure. (1918); J. S. Nicholson, War Finance. (1918); W. A. Paton, The Economic Position of the United Kingdom.

(1919

L. Pat

(1918);

Dubois; L'effort économique

;

et financier de l'Angleterre,

R. Pommereuil, La guerre économique, 1914-17.

(1917);

An

Fxperiment

in

International

Administration.

(1921);

(1922, etc.

MEDICAL AND CASUALTIES S; eo and K, O. V. Petersen, Losses of life caused by War.

work during the War.

OF

E. H. Starling, Report on Food and Agricultural Conditions in Germany. (1919); Tariff Commission, The War and British Economic Policy. (1915);

H. Withers,

War and Lombard Street,

INTERNATIONAL Correspondence

(1916).

Law, VIOLATIONS, ETC. between

H.M.

and

U.S. Governments

re alleged

_ interference with American Shipping. (1916); Jaralong,”’ Der Baralong-Fall, (1916); “Baralong,” Correspondence re the Alleged Incident Cd. 8144, Cd. 8176. (1916); Belgium, Commission @enquéte sur les violations des régles du droit des gens, etc. 3 vol. (1915-6-21). Belgium, Die belgischen Grenuelthaten gegen dre Deutschen. (1914); Die vélkerrechiswidrige Frihrung des belgischen Volkskriegs. German Whitebook (May i0 1915); Belgian Ministries of Justice and Foreign Affairs: Reply to German Whitebook, May ro rors. English Translation. (1918); Correspondence with the U.S. Ambassador Respecting the Execution of Miss Cavell at Brussels. Cd. 8013. (1915); Visct. Bryce, Report and Fvidence of Commiitee on Alleged German Outrages. 1914-10, Cd. 7894. (I915); C. L. Droste, The Tissue Case. Pro-German. (1915); France (Official), Recenil de Documents relatifs ala Guerre. 3 vol. Enemy violation of International Law. (1915, etc.); J. W. Garner, International Law and the World War. (1920); A. Got, The Case of Miss Cavell. (1920); A. Hurd, Ordeal by Sea. German atrocities at sea. (1918); Kommission Schücking, German Commission on Complaints of

Maltreatment of Prisoners in Germany. (1920); Report of Fermal Investigation of Loss of S.S. “ Lusitania,” Cd. 8022 (1915); Proceedings in Camera. Cd. 381 (1919); Prof. J. H. Morgan, The German War Book. (1915); German Atrocities: An Official Investigation., (1916); C. Mullins, The Leipsig Trials. German mentality. (1921); Das Schwarsbuch der Schandtaten unserer Feinde. (1915); Exchange of Correspondence between U.S.A. and German Governmenis re action of Submarines. (1917); Semi-official. A. J. Toynbee, The German Terror in Belgium,

(1917);

A. J. Toynbee,

The

German

Terror

in

France.

Semt-official.

(t917).

MISCELLANEOUS

Maj.-Gen. Sir G. Aston, War Lessons, New and Old. (1919); Oficial Names of Buttles, etc., TOTJ-10. (1921); E. Bevan, German Social Democracy during the War. (1918); Re ports by U.S. officials on treatment of British Prisoners of War. (1915);

Gov en Committee on treatment of British Prisoners of War. (1915). 2nd ed. (1916); Report on treatment of British Prisoners of War in Turkey, Cd. 9208. (1918); Report on treatment by the Germans of British Prisoners and year in German Bast Africa. Cd. 8689. (1917); Sir C. Cook, Defence of the Realm Manual, (1918): Sir B. T. Cook, The Press in War-Time. (1920); N. Everitt, British Secret Service during the Great War. (1920); Sa i: Felstead, German Spies at Bay, 1914—1918. From Official sources. (1920);

E. Fraser and J. Gibbons, Ed., Soldiers’ and Sailors’ Words and

Phrases, (1925); Germany, Reichsgesundheitsamt, Damage to German stamina through hostile blockade. (1913); AL, Ifammond, British Labour Conditions and Legislation during the War. (1920); Capt. V. W. Holohan, Divisional and other Signs. (1920); | E. M. H. Lloyd, Experiments in State Control at the War Office and the Food Ministry, (1924);

A. Marchand, Les chemins de fer de l'Est, r914-18. (1924); Oberst W. Nicolai, The German Secret Service. T ranslation.

(1924);

Nachrichtendienst, 1921); |e B Osborn (Ed.), E. A. Pratt, British A. Pulling, "Defence

Presse

und

Volksstimmung

im

Weltkrieg.

The Afuse in Arms. Anthology. (1917); Railways and the Great War. 2 vol. (1921); of the Realm, regulations and orders. (1915

onwards);

Sir C. Stuart, Secrets of Crewe ITouse. (1920); Sir Basil Thomson, Queer People. (1922); Mrs. Humphry Ward, England's Effort. (1916 Ñ} Sir A. K. Yapp, The Romance of the Red Triangle. (1918).

Y.M.C.A.

WORTHINGTON-EVANS—WRIGHT, Mars, ETC.

3

I. Bowman, U.S.A.

The New

World:

(1922);

ethnographic.

a

(1918);

(1921);

Catalogue

The pre-eminence in the Graeco-Roman

Problems in Political Geography.

Hl. J. Fleure, The Treaty Settlement of Europe.

Geographic and

of Maps of the Theatres of War,

Nelson's AMfap-book of the World-Wide

War.

(1917);

G. Philip and Son, The World's Batilefronts at a glance. The Western Front at a glance. Useful. (1917); ““The Times,” War Atlas.

(1917);

War Atlas, Atas of “ Chronology of the War.”

Small.

etc.

(1918);

(1920).

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Bibliothèque et Musée de la Guerre, Catalogue du fonds allemand de la bibliothèque. 4 vol. (1921-3); Camille Bloch (Carnegie Foundation), Bibliographie générale méthodique de l'histoire économique et sociale de la France pendant la Guerre. (1926); British Muscum, Subject Index of Books on the War. (1922); M. E. Bulkley, Bibliographical Survey of Contemporary Sources for the Economic and Social History of the War. (1922): Dr. J. L. Kunz (Austrian), Bibliographie der Kriegsliteratur.

1920);

Haa libiane, Collection, La Grande Guerre. Iconographie Bibliographie, Documents Divers. 11 vol. (1916); Sir G. W. Prothero, A Select Analytical List of Books Concerning the Great War. (1923); Stationery Office, List of Publications Issued by Stationery Office. The European War. (1914-6);

United States, Library of Congress. A Check List of the Literature, etc., on the European War. (1919);

List of References on Europe, etc. (1914); Select List of References on Economic Reconstruction.

War

Office

Library,

Catalogue:

Very full work of reference.

Subject

Index,

WILBUR

(1919); (1915-25). (E. G.*)

WORTHINGTON-EV ANS, SIR LAMING (b. 1868), British politician, was born Aug. 23 1868 and became a solicitor in 1890. In 1910, after one unsuccessful attempt, he was elected conservative M.P. for Colchester, and in 1918 for the Colchester division of Essex. In 1916 he entcred the Coalition Govt. as parliamentary secretary to the Ministry of Munitions, having previously been controller of the foreign trade department of the Foreign Office. He left the Ministry of Munitions in 1918 to become Minister of Blockade, and afterwards filled the following offices under Mr. Lloyd George and Mr. Baldwin: Minister of Pensions, 1918-20; Minister without portfolio, 1920-1; Secretary for War, 1921-2; Postmaster-General, 1923-4; and again Secretary for War, 1924. He has written books on company law. WRANGEL, PETER NICHOLAIEVICH, Baron (1878X Russian soldier, was born at St. Petersburg (Leningrad) Aug. 15 1878. After experience in the ranks of the horse guards and as a mining engineer in Siberia, he served as an officer in a Cossack regiment, transferring after the Russo-Japanese War to the horse guards as a captain. During the World War he commanded successively a squadron, a regiment and a division of Cossacks. He was one of the first officers to Join Kaledin against the Bolsheviks. After Kaledin’s suicide Wrangel allied himself to Alexeyev and Deniken, distinguishing himself particularly by his defence of Tsaritsyn. On April 4 1920, after Deniken’s retreat, Wrangel was appointed commander-in-chief of the volunteer army. From May to Oct. 1920 his forces met with considerable success, but after the signing of a peace treaty between Poland and the Bolsheviks the tide turned. On Nov. 15, Sebastopol was lost and the evacuation of the army carried out. WRESTLING (see 28.844). —The popularity of this sport among amateurs has increased considerably since the institution of the modern Olympic Games, as is proved by the extension of the number of nations entering competitors for these Games. At the Games held in Paris, 1924, no fewer than 25 countries were represented. At the same time, the catch-as-catch-can (free) style, the inclusion of which in the Games was secured by Great Britain in 1914, has made great strides. At Antwerp, in 1920, of the four weights contested, two championships were secured by Finns and one by a Swiss. In 1914, the weights were increased to seven. Switzerland captured two, Finland one, the four others went to the United States. Great Britain’s solitary success was third place in the heavy weight.

III5 style that France

once held has been transferred to the Scandinavian countries. The Finnish wrestlers have proved the most successful. Finland and Sweden shared the championships in the Games at Stockholm, 19r2, repeated the success at Antwerp, 1920 and won four of the six weights at Paris, 1924, France and Estonia respectively taking the heavy and bantam weights.

In 1924, Turkey, Egypt and Japan were represented for the first time, with results indicating that the Western styles of wrestling are being well studied throughout the East. The inauguration, in 1921, of an International Federation of Amateur Wrestling will certainly lead to a yet wider development of the sport. In Great Britain, apart from professional tournaments encouraged by local associations in the northern and western counties, it seems probable the sport would have disappeared altogether but for the exertions of the National Amateur Wrestling Association. This organisation has kept the sport alive by the holding, except during the War, of annual championships at various weights in the Cumberland and Westmoreland and catchas-catch-can styles. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—H. Leonard, Handbook of Wrestling (1897); G. Bothner, Sctentifie Wrestling (1912); Cann and Hastings, Manual of Wrestling (1912); P. Longhurst, Wrestling (1917). (P. Lo.)

WRIGHT, SIR ALMROTH EDWARD (1861-

), British bac-

teriologist, was born at Middleton Tyas, Yorks., Aug. 10 1861. He was educated at Dublin University, and afterwards studied law, subsequently obtaining his scientific and medical training at the Universities of Leipzig, Strasbourg and Marburg. In 1887 he became a demonstrator of pathology at Cambridge, in 1889 went to Sydney as lecturer in physiology and from 1892 to 1902 was professor at the army medical school at Netley, being then appointed professor of experimental pathology in the university of London. He was tn addition principal of the institute of pathology and research at St. Mary’s Hospital, and was attached to the medical research service under the National Insurance Act.

He was knighted in 1906 and was elected F. R. S. in the same year. Sir Almroth Wright came into prominence primarily by his remarkable researches into the problems of parasitic diseases (see 20.775;783). Heintroduced thesystem of anti-typhoid inoculation and also did much valuable work on the preparation of other vaccines and toxins, while he carried out many important experiments in bacterial infection and in measuring the protective matter of human blood. He acted as consulting physician to the army in France from 1914-9 and was in 19109 created K.B.E. He wasa member of many learned societies and received numerous British and foreign awards and honours including the

gold medal of the Royal Society of Medicine in 1920.

He pub-

lished a short Treatise on Anti-Typhoid Inoculation (1904); Principles of Microscopy (1906) and Studies in Immunisation (1909) besides many papers in medical and scientific journals. In 1913 appeared The Unexpurgated Case against Woman Suffrage which provoked much discussion. (See HuMANITY.) WRIGHT, WILBUR (1867-1912), American inventor, was born near Millville, Ind., April 16 1867, the son of Milton Wright, a bishop of the United Brethren in Christ. After a high school education in Richmond, Ind., and Dayton, O., together with his brother Orville, he opened a shop for repairing bicycles at Dayton. The Wright brothers early became interested in the problem of flying, and from about 1900 made many experiments with gliding machines at Kittyhawk, North Carolina. On Dec. 17 1903, such a machine with a petrol motor attached flew 260 yd., the first successful flight of an aeroplane; and on Oct. 5 1905, near Dayton, they accomplished their first successful long flight, more than 24 m., at the speed of 38 m. an hour. In spite of this proof of the practicability of flight in heavier-than-air machines, they were unsuccessful in enlisting financial support in America. In r908 Wilbur Wright went to France, and on Sept. 21 won the Michelin Prize by a flight of

56 miles.

This brought him international fame.

In Dec. of

the same year he made from Le Mans, France, a flight of 77 m. in 2 hr. and 20 minutes. In 1909, during the Hudson-Fulton

WRIGHT, WILLIAM ALDIS—WYNDHAM, GEORGE

II16

Exposition in New York City, he flew from Governor’s Is. up the Hudson river to Grant’s tomb and back, travelling 21 m. in 33 minutes and 33 seconds.

awarded Govt.

On March

3 1909, Congress

the Wright brothers a special medal.

purchased

a machine

for $30,000,

Later the U.S

and afterwards

the

invention was officially adopted by the U.S. Army. The French patents were sold for $100,000. After rg1o0 Wilbur Wright gave up public flying and devoted his time to mechanical improvement of the Wright machine. Fe received many medals and honours from European countries. He died at Dayton

May 30 1012.

His brother,

ORVILLE

WRIGHT

(1871-

), was

born

at

Dayton, O., Aug. 18 1871. He was educated in the Dayton schools, worked with his brother Wilbur in the bicycle-repairing business, and was closely associated with him in all his experiments in developing a practicable aeroplane. He shared in the many honours awarded by foreign countries, and after the death of his brother became director of the Wright Aeronautical Laboratory at Dayton. In 1913 he received the Collier trophy for developing the automatic stabiliser. In 1915 he was appointed a member of the U.S. Naval Consulting Board. The same year the Wright Acroplane Co. sold its patents to a New York syndicate, Orville Wright remaining chief engineer. WRIGHT, WILLIAM ALDIS (1836-1914), British man of letters (see 28.847), dicd at Cambridge May 19 1914. His last publication was The Hexaplar Psalter (1911).

WUNDT,

WILHELM

MAX

(1832-1920), German philosopher

(see 28.855) died near Leipzig Aug. 3t 1920. His latest work was Die Nationen und ihre Philosophen (1915). WU PEI FU (1873), Chinese general, was born at Shantung. He graduated from the Kai Ping military academy, near Tientsin, in 1898, after a brilliant scholastic career, and, after a short spell of service, entered a military school of which Marshal Tuan Chi-jui was director. He joined the Third Army Division, commanded by Tsao Kun, distinguished himself in several minor campaigns, and was rewarded by Tsao Kun in 1916 with the command of a division. The civil wars that followed the death of Yuan Shih-K’ai in that year gave ample opportunities toasoldicr of Wu Pei-fu’s ability and by 1917 he was the Peking Government’s chief bulwark against the Monarchists, Sun Yat-sen’s independent republic at Canton and the ambitions of Marshal Chang Tso-lin, the governor general of Manchuria. Sun Yat-sen was not in a position to take the offensive, but Chang Tso-lin invaded Chihli in the spring of 1922 and, being defeated by the forces of Wu Pci-fu launched another attack in 1924. Wau Pei-

fu was defeated in a great battle near Tientsin in Oct. and fled after which he remained in retirement at Yochow. WURTTEMBERG (see 28.856), a free State and territory of the German Reich (Volkstaat Wiirttemberg). Its area 1s 7,534 sq. m. and its population (r921) 2,391,340. (See GERMANY.) Political History.—Up to 1918 Württemberg was a monarchy. Its ancient constitution was somewhat out of date, but King Wiliam II. was universally popular. Differences were rather acute between the Conservatives and Catholic Centre (“ Black and Blue bloc ”) and the Left. The general tendency was, however, liberal. The Weizsäcker Minisiry, which held office during the War, resigned in Oct. 1918 in consequence of the alterations in the constitution of the Reich introduced by its Chancellor, Prince Max of Baden. A new coalition Parliamentary Govt. was about to meet when revolution broke out on Nov. 9. The first revolutionary Government was formed solely of Socialists, but ils extreme members left it on Nov. rr, and members of the Catholic Centre, the Democrats and the National Liberals entered the Cabinet. The King abdicated Nov. 30. In Jan. 1910, there were industrial disturbances, soon suppressed, after which the Independent Socialists left the Ministry. After this date the Social Democrats and the Liberal parties co-operated without friction. | Constitution—The new constitution was adopted on Sept. 25 1919. The powers of the State proceed from the people, which transfers them to the Diet, retaining, however, the right of dis-

solving the Diet or giving a popular vote on a law.

The Diet

transfers the executive power to the Government. At the head of the Government there is the minister-president, who has the title of President of the State but is not independent of the Dict. The Dict elects the President of the State, who selects the Ministry in accord with the Diet. A peculiarity of the Wiirttemberg constitution is that councils (Beiräte), formed from the different classes according to occupations (Berufssiinde), are attached to the Ministries. Elections for the Diet take place every four years. No provision ts made for a dissolution of the Diet except that, as already mentioned, the Diet can be dismissed by a vote of the people. After the elections of 1920 the Government was formed by the Centre and Democrats, supported by the Social Democrats; it passed several important laws, especially that regulating the relations of Church and State. The elections of 1924, On a new franchise, brought a more conservative ministry, formed by the “ Bürgerpartei ” and Catholic Centre, under Herr

Bazitte, leader of the Bürgerpartci. (W. v. B.) WYNDHAM, SIR CHARLES (1837-1910), British actor (sce 28.872), died in London Jan. 12 1919. In 1916 he married, as

his second wife, Miss Mary Moore, who had been for many years his leading actress and his partner in management. WYNDHAM, GEORGE (1863-1913), British politician and man of letters, was born Aug. 2g 1863, the eldest son of Percy Scawen Wyndham, and grandson of the rst Lord Leconfield. His mother

was

Madeline

Caroline

Frances Eden, daughter of

Sir Guy Campbell, Bart., and through her he was great-grandson of Lord Edward Fitzgerald, the Irish rebel. Ife was educated at Eton and Sandhurst, obtained a commission in the Coldstream

Guards in 1883, and served through the Suakin campaign of

1885. But, interested as he was in soldicring, his eager temperament impelled him still more to adventure into politics and letters. Ile left the army in 1887, married Sibell Mary, daughter of the oth Earl of Scarborough, widow of Earl Grosvenor, mother of the 2nd Duke of Westminster, and became private secretary to Mr. Balfour, at the time Irish Secretary. In 1889 he entered Parliament as Conservative member for Dover and retained the seat till his death. After serving, from 1898-1900, as financial secretary to the War Office, he was appointed in 1900 Chief Secretary for Ireland. Having been private secretary for four or five years to the most successful Chief Secretary of modern times, he started with a large store of experience; and his appointment was regarded with benignity even by the Nationalists on account of his descent from Lord Edward Fitzgerald. His early work in Ireland met with general approval. IIe developed enormously the Conservative policy of land purchase; and the Act which he carried in 1903 for that end was the most comprchensive measure of the kind ever submitted to Parliament. He entertained hopes of arranging some form of local government which should sufhiciently meet Nationalist demands, and with this in view appointed in 1902 an eminent Anglo-Indian, Sir Antony (afterwards Lord} MacDonnell, who was known to be a decided Home Ruler, to the under-secretaryship, giving him at the same time greater authority and wider scope than is usually conferred on a civil servant. The Unionist party, both in Ireland and in England, became suspicious of the tendencies of his administration, and he was driven in 1905 to resignation. He never held office again, but he was very active in support of the causes which he had at heart, such as tariff reform and woman suffrage; he was a keen critic of Lord Haldane’s army reforms, and threw himself vigorously into the “‘ Diehard ” campaign against the Parliament Bill in tort. This varied political activity was, however, but a portion of his life. He was also a man of letters, possessed of fine taste and a graceful style. Here his genius was stimulated by his friendship for W. E. Henley, who dedicated a book to “ George Wynd-

ham, soldier, courtier, scholar.”

His principal published work

was an edition of Shakespeare’s Poems (1898); but he wrote also on North’s Plittarch and Ronsard. The Admirable Crichton of his day, handsome and debonair, he was keen alike on field sports and the arts, the friend and admirer equally of Cecil Rhodes and of Rodin, a working railway director and an efficient

WYOMING colonel of yeomanry, the pet of society and the recipient of honorary distinctions from several universities. On June 8 1913, at the comparatively early age of 50, he died in Paris of congestion of the lungs, after only a few hours’ illness. (G. E. B.) WYOMING (see 28.873).—The population according to the state census of 1925 was 206,381. In 1920 it was 194,402, an increase of 33:2% in the decade 1910-20, as against an increase of 57:7% in the preceding decade. The density of population was two per sq. m. in 1920. The rural population in 1920 was 137,054; the urban population (in places having 2,500 or more) was 57,348 or 29:5°%.

The principal cities are:—

(state census) 23,288 13,202

Caspar Cheyenne Laramie

Hay, tame . Hay, wild Oats Wheat Corn Barley Potatoes

Acres

730,000 315,000 165,000 175,000 150,000 28,000 18,000

county.

There were some 50 pipe lines varying from 3 to 104 m.

in length. There were 19 01] refineries with a capacity per day of 94,000 bbl. and 11 gasoline plants. Natural gas became important after 1916. In 1923 Wyoming ranked eighth with an output of 35,523,000 million cu. ft., valued at $4,222,000. It ranked sixth in production of natural gas gasoline with an output Of 21,292,000 gal., valued at $1,992,000. Manufactures and Railways—Manufactures are of little importance aside from railway shops and the petroleum-refining industry. The increase shown in the table is due chiefly to the latter. 192!

9,629

Sown

duction, with an output of 44,785,000 bbl. valued at $48,900,000, at the wells, the greater part from the Salt Creek field in Natrona

Number of establishments ; ;

Persons engaged

In 1920 there were 25,255 foreign-born whites, 1,375 negroes, 1,343 Indians and 1,538 Asiatics. In 1922 Wyoming ranked lowest among the states of the Union in its death rate (9-3 per 1,000 population). Agriculture —In 1924 there were 15,687,833 ac. of unappropriated public lands. The area of national forests was 8,426,027 acres. The period following the World War was one of depression for the ranching and agricultural interests. The open range and the old-time cattle ranch were giving place to a more varied agriculture, and experiments, such as dairying and honey production, became increasingly prominent. The number of farms in 1920 was 15,748. The acreage for all crops for 1923 was T,784,000. Wyoming ranks second among the States in number of sheep. The estimate for Jan. 1 1924 was 2,700,000, valued at $24,300,000. The wool product for 1923 was 19,520,000 Ib., an average weight of 8 lb. per fleece. On Jan. 1 1924, there were 825,000 cattle, valued at $25,891,000; 190,000 horses, valued at $5,700,000; 3,000 mules, valued at $165,000 and 129,000 swine, valued at $1,2g0,000. Important agricultural products in 1923 were: Crop

1117

Production

7 Value

1,409,000 331,000 5,610,000 2,785,000 4,050,000 840,0900

short tons | $13,526,000 short tons 2,979,000 bu. 2,637,000 bu. 2,228,000 bu. 2,835,000 bu. 546,000 1,800,000 bu. 1,674,000

Sugar beets have been important in the last few years; in 1924 the acreage sown was 25,000 which produced 260,000 tons, valued at $1,950,000. The irrigated area in 1924 was 1,007,083 acres. The area capable of irrigation under completed systems was 2,035,000 acres. There were 874,615 ac. of dry farm land and 16,872,152 ac. of grazing land privately owned. In rg1o0 89% of the farms were operated by owners; in 1920, 85-1 °%%. Afining.—The total value of Wyoming’s mineral products for 1923 was $77,664,547. Wyoming ranked tenth in the output of bituminous coal with 7,575,031 short tons valued at $20,916,000. Other items were: gypsum, 33,644 short tons valued at $176,791; sand and gravel, 1,377,271 short tons valued at $403,911; stone, 186,150 short tons valued at $281,595; and clay products valued at $136,493. Copper and iron mining declined. Most important in mining development after 1912 was the petroleum industry. The total production to the end of 1921 was 89,356,000 barrels.

In 1923 Wyoming ranked fourth among the States in oil pro-

Value of products Value added by manufacture

1919 254

1909 57

268

8,337

8,095

3,393

31,927,000

39,194,866

3,640,889

$80,246,919 | $81,445,394 | $6,249,078

Railway mileage in 1909 was 1,623 m., in 1922 1,959 miles. Education.—There has been considerable progress in education. In 1914 the school enrolment was 29,301, In 1924, 50,581. The total expenditure for schools in 1914 was $1,265,750; in 1924, $5,761,655. The permanent common school fund in r914 was $632,855; in 1924, $10,955,373. The percentage of illiteracy among persons ten years of age and over was 2-194 1n 1920. The state university exhibited a remarkable growth. In 1913-4 there were 411 students in residence; in 1923-4, 1,726. History.— Wyoming was the first state to provide for woman suffrage, and the first to elect a woman as governor. The nine amendments to the constitution and the legislation of recent years indicate a gradual development from frontier conditions and an increasing measure of public control of business and of social welfare. A workmen’s compensation law, a mothers’ pensions law, an cight-hour day for underground work in mines, a 56-hour week for women and a child labour law, illustrate the latter. In 1915 a public service commission was established, in rọrọ a “ blue sky ” law was passed, in 1921 a system of rural credits was begun and a dept. of oil and gas conservation provided for, in 1923 a state dept. of agriculture was created and

laws passed to facilitate co-operative marketing and to prevent price discriminations in the sale of coal, oil and other products of the soil. The problem of fair distribution of the waters of interstate rivers has been a vexing one to Wyoming as to other states dependent on irrigation. The direct primary was adopted in 1911, the executive budget system in r919. The state debt was $90,000 in 1918, $4,133,000 in 1922, $2,937,000 in 1924, the increase being due chiefly to road building. Wyoming has been normally a Republican state in politics, but since 1910 opposing parties have won frequent victories. A combination of Progressives and Democrats won in toro. Francis It. Warren (Rep.) was re-elected to the U.S. Senate in 1912, 1918, 1924, but John B. Kendrick (Dem.) was elected as his colleague in 1916 and 1922. The presidential vote in 1912 was 15,310 for Wilson, 14,560 for Taft, 9,232 for Roosevelt; in 1916, 25,316 for Wilson, 21,698 for Hughes; in 1920 35,091 for Harding, 17,429 for Cox; in 1924, 41,858 for Coolidge 25,174 for La Follette, 12,868 for Davis. Governors since 1911 have been: Joseph M. Carey (Prog.), 1911-5; John B. Kendrick (Dem.), 1915-7; F. L. Houx (acting, Dem.), 1917-9; Robert D. Carey (Rep.), 1919-23; William B. Ross (Dem.), 1923-5; Nellie Taylor Ross (Dem.), 1925(L. A. W)

III8

YACHTING— YALE UNIVERSITY

ACHTING (sce 28.890 and 12.916). — Much of the finest racing in the whole history of yachting took place from 1grto until 1913. The International Yacht Racing Union was well established, and its rule of measurement and rating had produced and was still producing very sound and seaworthy boats in many classes. British yacht building was flourishing, German yachting was at its zenith under the Kaiser. International regattas on a big scale were held at Spithead in rorr, at Kielin 1912 and at Le Havre in 1913. The number of racing yachts, steam yachts and cruisers sailing about the coast exceeded all records. The history of yachting for nearly roo years shows that when racing is successful the whole pastime benefits. America was attracted to European yachting during this halcyon period and in roroa wonderful American racing schooner came to Europe, the

“ Westward,” 323 tons, designed and built by Herreshoff.

She

started in rz races and won them all. Sir Thomas Lipton’s 23-

mectre cutter “ Shamrock ” remained the best British cutter during these seasons. In 1910 there was a remarkable class of 15-metre yachts about so tons. Sir William Burton’s ‘‘ Osturu ” led it, followed by “ Vanity,” the King of Spain’s “ Hispania,” ‘* Mariska,” “ Tritonia ” and “‘ Ma’oona.” In 1911 the 1g-metre class made their appearance. There were four cutters of exactly roo tons, “ Octavia,” ‘“ Mariquita,” “ Corona” and “ Norada.” They were almost exactly equal in speed, and it was only the cleverness of Sir Wiliam Burton as a helmsman that enabled the “ Octavia” to lead the flect by the narrowest margin, just as

his “ Ostava ” had been at the top of the ‘‘15’s” in the previous year. Both were designed by Alfred Mylne. Nicholson’s “ Istria’ Design.—The season of 1912 was chiefly notable for the appearance of a new 15-metre yacht, the “Istria,” designed on novel lines by C. Nicholson for Sir Charles Allom, and the first of a series of yachts by the same clever designer which quickly began to defeat the purpose of the “ International Racing Rule” (see 28.894). In rọr2 and rọr3 his great schooners “ Margherita,” “Istria,” “ Pamela,” “ Paula IIL.” and others were of most undesirable type, but so efficient

as racers that they outsailed the yachts of all other designers. The features of these yachts were huge sails, shallow heavy bodies, high freeboard, short water line and great overall

length. It was in connection with the “Istria” that the term ‘‘ Marconi topmast ” was first used, her topmast having a large number of small wire stays to support its enormous height. Nicholson defeated all comers in the last stages of the International Rule of 1907-17 and may be said to have killed it. An interesting experiment was effectively carried out by the marquess of Ailsa from 1909-14. He repurchased his old go-tonner “ Bloodhound,” built in 1874, and gave her new rigging, spars, sail plan and keel. He started her in 217 races and, sailing with modern yachts, she crossed the winning line first on 32 occasions. She won 64 first prizes—a remarkable achievement. The New Rating Rule.—On the eve of Cowes Week, tg14, the War put an end to all yacht racing. The pastime was only revived in 1919-20, after much difficulty, by the Yacht Racing Association. At the end of the War the Scandinavian nations, having amassed great wealth, purchased nearly all the best British racing yachts. The cost of building new yachts was prohibitive and the high wages of sailors raised the running expenses to nearly treble the pre-War rate. At the instance of the Y.R.A. the International Yacht Racing Union was reformed and a new rating rule was adopted. The new rule reduced the sails of racing yachts to about two-thirds of the pre-War size and prescribed a more compact form of hull, measures which enabled crews to be reduced and thus effected a substantial saving in running costs. As more normal conditions returned many of the old British yachts were repurchased from Scandinavia. The greatest encouragement of all, however, was that the King took the lead in the sport and fitted out the old “ Bri-

tannia ” for racing. This Royal yacht, built in 1893, by a peculiar coincidence of events, had a hull-form very similar to the shape favoured by the new rating rules of 1920, and after some alterations raced successfully against “ Westward,” “Shamrock.” “ Nyria,” “ White Heather ”?” and many modern vessels. In new classes naturally smaller craft have been built since the War. The 92-ton cutter ‘ Moon-Bcam” (Tife), built in 1920, is a model of the new compact form. The new 12-metre class about 35 tons (20 tons displacement,42 ft. LWL and 2,000 sq. ft. of sail) is the latest pattern of compact racing yacht, with good cabins for living and a paid crew limited to four men. The greatest sport internationally was from 1921-4 between Britain and America in a series of races called the British American Cup. W. Fife and F. J. Stephen were the chief British designers for this race which was for 6-mctre class yachts. The Britisk defeated the Americans in the 6-metre team racing. W. Fife has been the most successful designer. From 1921 to 1926 the most marked development in the design of sailing yachts has been the change from the gaff-mainsail rig to the triangular or Bermudian rig. No cutter-rigged yacht bclow 35 tons has been successful against a new vessel with a Bermudian sail, (B H-5) United States —In America, since the War, the sport of yacht racing has increased materially. During these years the racing

fleet has grown steadily in size, both on the Atlantic and on the Pacific coasts. It has developed especially in two divisions— that which includes the smaller yachts which may be raced by men of moderate means, and that which takes in the schooners which are a combination racing and cruising type. There is a constantly enlarging group of racing yachtsmen who are devotees of long-distance contests which bring into play not only a knowledge of sail handling but of navigation. These men own scores of staunch, seagoing vessels which arc not in any sense of the word racing machines. This is a certain Indication that the sport is developing along most durable lines. At what might be called the other extreme, the small boat classes are flourishing. As an example, the International Star Class is now the largest racing division in the world, numbering almost 400 boats. The Stars, on which it is said * the sun never scts,” are only 22 ft. long overall, and 154 ft. long on the waterline, but they have

provided some of the keenest sport that has ever been scen in yacht racing and have done a great deal to popularise small boat competition. Fach year, when the Star Class championships are held, the competitors come from the far ends of the earth to try for the International Trophy. In the old days, when races for the Amcrica’s Cup were the great events of the yachting world, the conception became firmly fixed that yacht racing was a sport only for the wealthy. This has largely been lived down during the growth in recent years of the numcrous small boat classes. (S. La.) YAKUB KHAN (1849-10923), ex-Amir of Afghanistan (see 28.898), died at Dehra, United Provinces, Nov. 15 1923. YALE UNIVERSITY (see 28.899).—In 1919 President Arthur T. Hadley announced his decision to resign the presidency of Yale at the close of the university year; and on June 22 1921 his successor, James Rowland Angell, was inaugurated. In 1920 the university underwent a thorough reorganisation in its administrative and educational system to meet modern conditions. A school of nursing was established in 1923 through a gift from the Rockefeller Foundation. The course of 28 months leading to a degree or diploma includes public health and community work as well as hospital service. The Laura Spelman Rockefeller Memorial in 1924 granted a contribution for a period of five years for an Institute of Psychology. A group of specialists was in 1925 engaged in the study of fundamental problems of human and animal behaviour and in the training of personnel for the further pursuit of new studies in the field of teaching research and of practical applications.

YAMAGATA—YEATS Developments —Many changes were effected in the curriculum; a new course of study in Yale College, designed to provide for substantial mastery of some one field of study, while giving reasonable assurance that no student will be graduated without an intelligent acquaintance with the major subdivisions of the modern world of arts, letters and science; in the Sheffield Scientific School changes were made with a view to increasing the flexibility of the course of study and to emphasising basic scientific and humanistic material as contrasted with purely technical specialisation; the schedules of work in administrative and chemical engineering were definitely crystallised, and through the gift of Mr. and Mrs. Louis J. Horowitz a new group of courses in building construction was offered in the department of civil engineering; changes in the requirements for degrees in the school of law were introduced as well as a summer session, designed for those who desire to pursue graduate law study and for those who wish to save an academic year in the completion of their course by attending three such sessions; a department of the drama was established in the School of the Fine Arts in 1924, funds for the department and for the erection of a University Theatre being provided by Edward S. Harkness (B.A., Yale, 1897); 1n the school of music the changes were designed to adapt the curriculum in a greater degree to the special talents and interest of the individual

student; the curriculum of the school of forestry was broadened and liberalised and facilities for experimental and research work on a scale heretofore impossible were provided in Sage Hall, completed in 1923 (gift of William H. Sage, B.A., Yale, 1865); a chair in transportation was founded in the graduate school and named in honour of T. De Witt Cuyler (B.A., Yale, 1874); also the Dudley chair, Service of the railroads, established in 1923 by receipt of a bequest from Lucy B. Dudley, added to by bequest of Plimmon H. Dudley. Benefactions.—Through the bequest of John W. Sterling (B.A., Yale, 1864) 14 professorships were established; two buildings were erected; the Sterling chemistry laboratory, which provides

for instruction and research in every branch of chemistry, and the Sterling Hall of Medicine, which contains the administrative offices of the school, and teaching and laboratory facilities for the departments of anatomy, physiology, chemistry, psychology and pharmacology and toxicology; the Sterling scholarships established by a fund of $1,000,000; and $250,000 was received towards a total of $1,000,000 for the Sterling Fellowship fund. At the same time the university’s property holdings were augmented and several important buildings constructed, including the Osborn memorial laboratories, the Sloane physics laboratory, the Dunham laboratory of electrical engineering, the Mason laboratory of mechanical engineering, Sprague memorial hall (music), the Brady memorial laboratory (pathology), Artillery Hall and the Artillery armory, and the magnificent Memorial quadrangle, the gift of Mrs. Stephen V. Harkness, of New York City. The University Library, containing over 1,600,000 vol. and pamphlets, received many important accessions, notably the Edward M. House collection of historical papers and the Penniman Memorial Library of Education, besides numerous additions to collections previously announced. The new Peabody Museum, which is French Gothic in design. was formally dedicated on Dec. 29 1925. A complete plan was announced in Jan. 1924, for the architectural development of the university during the next 100 years. This includes a new cross campus, designed to unify the Yale College campus and adjacent grounds, and the indication of sites for future buildings, which will tend to control the direction of

growth of the university.

Edwin McClellan Hall, a new dormi-

tory, following closely in size and style Connecticut Hall (1752),

was opened for Yale College students in Sept. 1925, and another dormitory under construction will be completed in the spring of 1926. The total university enrolment in the autumn of 1925 was 5,294, including 572 who were not candidates for degrees or certificates. The faculty numbered 575 and there were 428 assist-

ants in instruction and administration.

(J. R. A.)

YAMAGATA, ARITOMO Prince (1838-1922), Japanese soldier and statesman (see 28.902), died at Odawara Feb. 1 1922.

IIIQ

YAP (see 20.436).—This island of the Caroline group, formerly owned by Germany, is situated in the Pacific Ocean, south of Japan and east of the Philippines, and north of the equator, in latitude 9.35 north, longitude, 138.15 east. It has an estimated population of 7,155, almost entirely of Malay origin. The importance of Yap arises from its cable connections, since it is a station on the direct line from the United States to the Dutch East Indies via Guam, while another cable runs from Yap to Shanghai. On May 7 1910, Japan was given a mandate over the islands north of the equator previously owned by Germany, including Yap. The U.S. Govt. protested, and asked for a reopening of the subject on the ground that at the Peace Conference it had reserved the right to object to exclusive control of the cable landings by Japan and taken the position that the island should be internationalised for cable purposes. Further, it was contended, the United States, not having ratified the Treaty of Versailles, was not bound. The supreme council of the Allies expressed its inability to reopen the matter. The controversy was finally disposed of at the Washington conference, Dec. 12 1921, by an agreement between the two Powers, wherein the United States recognised the Japanese mandate and Japan agreed that the United States should have free access to the island on a footing of entire equality with

Japan or any other nation in respect to the Yap-Guam cable and any other cables which might be laid by the United States or its nationals, and also similar rights and privileges in regard to radio-telegraphic service. The United States was also granted free entry and exit for persons and property. The U.S. Senate ratified the convention embodying this agreement March 1 1922. (See WASHINGTON CONFERENCE.) YARMOUTH, England (sce 28.905), the largest herring fishery port, with numerous curing and brewing establishments, had a population of 60,700 in 1921 (39,724 in Yarmouth, 20,391 in Gorleston and 585 in Runham Vauxhall), and an area of 3,598 acres. A comprchensive town plan has been prepared. The parish of Southtown was formed from that of Gorleston in rg1r. The esplanade has been extended one-fourth of a mile northwards, and the North Denes estate of 46 ac. was in process of development in 1925. The pavilion on the Britannia pier was burnt down in 1910, but has been rebuilt to seat 1,400, and a large bathing-pool was opened in 1922. An art school was opened in 1913. The East Anglian school for blind and deaf children was

opened at Gorleston in rgt1, and Melton Lodge, on the Marine Parade, as a home for ex-service men’s children in roar; a chil dren’s ward was added to the general hospital as a memorial to King Edward VII., and in r921 a war memorial monolith was erected in St. George’s Park. In ror2 the powers of the Port and Haven Commissioners over the water area of the harbour, and of the corporation over the wharves were transferred to an enlarged harbour commission. Since then the quays have been extended. There is a new trawl market to the north of the fish wharf, with offices. An export quay, 750 ft. long, has been built to the south of the Trinity magazine, making a total of 23,400 ft. of quayage in the port. YEATS, WILLIAM BUTLER (1865}, Irish author (see 28.009). In 1907 was published vol. 5 of plays for an Irish theatre, containing Deirdre. In 1907 Discoveries, a volume of essays, appeared. In 1908 appeared a verse play, The Golden Helmet, Poetry and Ireland,(essays by Yeats and Lionel Johnson) and The Unicorn from the Stars and other plays by Yeats and Lady Gregory. The Green Helmet, and other poems were published in 1g1o, and in 1911, Synge and the Ircland of His Time; in 1912 The Cutting of an Agate (essays); in 1913 Poems written in Discouragement; in 1914 a volume of poems, Responsibilities; and in rors a prose book, Reveries over Childhood and Youth. In 1916 a poem, Easter r916 appeared and also Eight Poems; 1917, The Wild Swans at Coole, other verses and a play in verse; 1918, Nine Poems and Per Amica Silentia Lunae, (essays); 1919, Two Plays for Dancers; 1920 Michael Robaries and the Dancer; 1921 Four Plays for Dancers and a prose book Four Years; 1922, Later Poems, and in the same year The Player Queen, Plays in Prose and Verse, Seven Poems and a Fragment,

II20

YELLOW

FEVER— YORK

and Tke Trembling of the Veil (prose). The Cat and the Moon (a play and poems) was published in 1924. The early poetry of Yeats showed traces of the influence of Shelley, William Morris and Sir Samuel Ferguson, but even through this influence a very original imagination was already apparent. He became more fully himself in Tke Wanderings of Oisin (1889), and in The Wind Among the Reeds (1899), all early influences had finally vanished. In this he appears the self-conscious and fastidious artist, and so remains. The later verse is more intellectual and in contrast to the richly coloured poetry of his youth there is in it a finer sense of the beauty to be revealed by bare words. Mr. Yeats is the pivot around which Anglo-Irish literature has turned from crudity and a rather facile energy to subtlety and self-conscious art. He was awarded the Nobel Prize for literature in 1924. (S. L. M.) YELLOW FEVER (see 28.910c).—The dreaded ‘‘ vomito negro”? which for four centuries claimed more than 50% mortality among its victims, has been relegated to a place of secondary importance since the institution, In 1901, of the anti-mosquito campaign. Between 1910 and 1925 no epidemic invasion of yellow fever into temperate regions occurred, and some of the most noted endemic centres in Ecuador, Mexico and Brazil have been freed of the disease, probably forever; no case has been reported in the entire Western Hemisphere for many months. The use of oil for destroying mosquito larvae has now been practically abandoned in favour of placing in the tanks which serve as water supply for houses in the tropics one or two small fish, which eagerly devour the “ wrigglers.”

Connor, in Guayaquil, first used this method successfully in roro, and it has since been used in other countries with excellent results. ‘The fish must be of small size and able to withstand handling and transportation. Those chiefly used are the minnows, Guambusia affints, Dormuitator latifrons and Fundulus heteroclitus and the common *“‘ lefa ” of South America (Pygidinm piurae C.) some being top-feeding and others bottom-feeding fish. Isolation of the Cuusative Micro-organism of Yellow Fever and Preparation of a Prophslactic Vaccine and a Curative Serum.— While the transmitter of the yellow-fever germ had been experimentally proven, by the American Army Board under Reed, to be the mosquito, Aedes aegypti (formerly known as Stegomyia fasciata or S. calopus), the microbe which produced the disease, had remained unknown until 1918 when a minute spiral organism, subsequently named Leptospira icteroides, was isolated from the blood and organs of yellow fever patients, in Guayaquil, Ecuador. Inoculation of cultures of this organism reproduced all the characteristic symptoms and lesions of yellow fever in guinea pigs, marmosets and young puppies. Yellow fever was also transmitted directly to guinea pigs with blood taken from yellow-fever patients and the same micro-organism from experimentally infected animals. Investigations previously conducted by the American Army Board in Havana had demonstrated that the germ of yellow-fever could pass through the pores of certain bacteria-proof filters (see FILTER-PASSING MICROBES), and this fact alone had been sufficient to disprove the relation to yellow fever of a dozen or more dilferent bacteria. Leplospira tcleroides, on the other hand, proved to be a fillter-passer and to conform with other well-known characteristics of the yellowfever virus: thermal death-point; transmissibility by Aedes aegypti; ability to produce typical fever, extensive hacmorrhages into the gastro-intestinal tract, resulting in the ‘‘ black vomitus”’ and melena, severe nephritis, general jaundice and the characteristic changes of liver and kidney (fatty degeneration and necrosis). Another important proof that connects Leptospira icteroides with yellow fever is that this micro-organism is killed by the blood serum of persons who have just recovered from yellow fever but not by that of healthy persons or persons recovering from other diseases. Leptospira icteroides was subsequently isolated from cases of yellow fever in Mexico, Peru and Brazil. It is actively motile, measures 4-9u long and o-2% wide and there are two spirals for each micron. The ordinary microscope does not

reveal its presence in the living condition, but it is easily seen by means of dark-ground illumination. It grows only on special culture media. The isolation of Leptospira icteroides has made it possible to prepare a preventive vaccine, similar in type to that in use for protection against typhoid fever, and a curative serum. While a given locality may be freed from yellow fever by desiruction of mosquito larvae, this type of preventive work requires some months. Newcomers meantime are in danger, and protection, even of a temporary nature, is welcome. Injection of a small quantity of killed cultures of Leptospira icteroides, as first shown in experimental animals, confers temporary protection from the yellow-fever infection, the inoculation taking effect within about two weeks. The results of prophylactic inoculation of 20,000 or more Individuals since 1919 indicate that if persons are satisfactorily vaccinated they are protected against yellow fever for about six months. The curative serum has been tried in 237 cases. When it has been used early in the disease, i.e., before the fourth day of illness, the death-rate has been comparatively small (16% as compared with the usual ṣo% or more in yellow fever). It is without appreciable benefit when given later in the illness, when the micro-organisms have done irreparable injury to the liver and kidneys. BIBLIOGRAPITY.—H]. R. Carter, Nelson's Loose-Leaf Medicine, vol. 2, p. 113; M. E. Connor, Amer. Jour. Trop. Med., vol. 4, 277 (1924); H. Noguchi and others, Monograph No. 20 of the Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research, (New York, 1924); I. Noguchi, Jour. Trop. Med. and IIyg., 28, 185; (1925); F. F. Russell, “ War on Disease ” Sigma Xi Quarterly, (13, 11, 1925); Rockefeller Foundation, Annual

Report, p. 168 (1923).

(H. No.)

YELLOW RIVER: sce HWANG HO. YOKOHAMA (sce 28.921), the chief port of Japan, with a population of 422,942 in 1920, was practically destroyed by an earthquake in Sept. 1923. Many thousands of its inhabitants were killed, some 60% of the houses were burnt and about 19% collapsed. Temporary barracks and tents were used at first to house the surviving population. The electric light and water systems and the tramways were restored very promptly, but in the reconstruction Yokohama was far behind Tokio in 1925, owing largely to the fact that it had a much bigger foreign element and was much more western in construction. The débris of these solid erecllons was more difficult to remove, and their replacement slower and costlicr than that of the Japanese type of buildings. The starting-point of reconstruction was the new railway station on the coast, and it is proposed to widen 25 m. of existing streets and to build 29 m. of new streets; but in 1924-5 there remained many acres of ruins, the Bluff was still bare, and there were only temporary buildings, mostly dwelling-houses, on the Bund. Railways had been restored, and a plan for their further reconstruction was In hand. A memorial hall was opened in 1925. In 1924 shipping and industry were gradually approaching normal conditions and trade, especially in raw silk, exceeded expectations. Shipbuilding, however, had not recovered. Considerable improvements in the dock accommodation, wharves and equipment of the harbour had been effected before 1923, but during the earthquake about a mile of the breakwater sank 8 ft. and most of the wharves were destroyed. The repair of the docks and harbour was undertaken by the central government, and was practically complete in 1924. Two-thirds of the original warehouse accommodation was then available, and the space for open storage had been doubled. YORK, ALBERT FREDERICK ARTHUR GEORGE, DUKE OF

(1895-

), second son of King George V. and Queen Mary, was

born at York Cottage, Sandringham, Dec. 14 1895. After passing through Osborne and the Royal Naval College, Dartmouth, he was gazetted midshipman in Sept. 1913. Though debarred by ill health from active service during the early years of the World War, he served in the battle of Jutland as a sub-lieutenant, being mentioned in despatches. At the end of 1917 he was attached to the naval branch of the Royal Air lorce and, in Oct. 1918, was on the Western Front, qualified as a pilot and eventually became wing-commander in 1920. After the War (Oct. 1919) he entered Trinity College, Cambridge, taking an abridged course in history, economics and civics. He has since shown a special interest

YOSHIHITO—YPRIS, EARL OF in industrial questions, becoming President of the Society for Industrial Welfare. He was created Duke of York in June 1920 and K.T. on the occasion of his marriage to Lady Elizabeth Bowes-Lyon, April 26 1923, having been previously (Dec. 1916) created K.G. In 1922 and 1923 the Duke represented the King at court

ceremonies

in Rumania,

Serbia and

Czechoslovakia.

In 1925 he was made president of the British Empire Exhibition, Wembley, and in June was appointed to the Privy Council. On April 21 1926 a daughter was born to the Duke and Duchess of York. The Princess Elizabeth, as she is called, is, after the Prince of Wales and her father, the heir to the British throne. YOSHIHITO (1870), r22nd Emperor of Japan, third son of the Emperor Meiji (Mutsuhito), was born at Tokyo on Aug. 31 1879. On the eighth anniversary of his birthday the Prince was proclaimed heir-apparent, the first and second sons of the Emperor Meiji having died in infancy. In Sept. 1887 the Prince commenced attending the Peers’ School, and on Nov. 3 1889 he was cleclared imperial crown prince. Two years later he left the school to continue his studies under private tutors. In 1897 he took his seat, in accordance with prescriptive right, in the house of peers. On May 101900 the crown prince married Sadako, fourth daughter of the late Prince Michitaka Kujo, and on April 29 1901 a son, Hirohito, was born, followed by a second son Prince Yasuhito Chichibunomiya, on June 25 1go2, and a third, Prince Nobuhito Takamatsunomiya, on Jan. 3 1905. On July 30 1912 on the demise of his father, the crown prince ascended the throne; but owing to the national mourning the formal ceremony of enthronement did not take place until Nov. tg14. In the following year a fourth son, Prince Takahito Suminomiya, was born on Dec. 2. Owing to the indifferent health of the Emperor, Crown Prince Hirohito became prince regent on Nov. 25 1021. YOSHIZAWA, KENKICHI (1874), Japanese diplomat, born in Ntigata-Ken. He had literary tastes as a student and studied English literature for his degree in the Imperial University of Tokyo. He later turned his attention to diplomacy, and he had his first experience, as Eléve-Consul at Amoz, south China. After spending two years in Shanghai and in London he returned to the Foreign Office in Tokyo, and was sent as Secretary to the Legation in Peking. This office he held until, in rọrọ he became director of the Asiatic Bureau, where his experience of Far-Eastern people enabled him to adjust differences between his own country and other Oriental Powers. He retained this post until 1923, and was again in Peking in an official capacity when the new Russo-Japanese Alliance was broached in r924. Many Japanese fought against the proposed alliance, thinking it unwise to link their country with Sovict Russia, but Mr. Yoshizawa believed that this bond between the two countries could bring nothing but good and worked to that end. It is said that the strain of innumerable conferences and discussions undermined Yoshizawa’s health. When, in January of 1925, the treaty was made mutually agreeable, it was signed by the representatives of the two Powers grouped round the Japanese Minister’s bed. He was made ambassador in the same year. YOUNG, MAHONRI MACKINTOSH (1877), American sculptor, painter and etcher, was born at Salt Lake City, Utah, Aug. 9 1877. He studied with J. T. Harwood, Salt Lake City, at the Art Students’ League, New York City, and at the Julien and other Academies in Paris. After his return to the United States he became instructor in drawing at the Art Students League and later instructor in sculpture at the American School of Sculpture. IFs works are characterised by simplicity, dignity and breadth of conception, united with exquisite workmanship. He is known chiefly through his statuettes, figures of labourers and cowboys, which exhibit close observation of nature and virile form. Among his best known works are ‘ Man with Pick” in the Metropolitian Museum of Art; the Hopi and Apache groups in the Museum of Natural History, New York City; ‘“ A Labourer” and “ The Rigger” in the Free Public Library, Newark, N. J.; the ‘ Sea-Gull ” monument in Salt Lake

II2I

City; “ Rolling His Own ”; and “ Monument to the Dead ” (with Bertram Goodhue), in Paris. YOUNG, OWEN D. (1874), American lawyer and business man, was born at Van Hornesville, N. ¥., Oct. 27 1874. He was educated at St. Lawrence University, N. Y., (A.B., 1894), and Boston University (LL.B., 1896). He commenced the practice of law in Boston, 1896, being associated with and later a partner of Charles H. Tvler until 1912, when he retired in order to become general counsel for the General Electric Company. In 1913 he was elected vice-president in charge of policy and in 1922 was elected chairman of the Board of Directors. He organised and became chairman of the Board of the Radio Corporation of America. He was also a director of the Federal Reserve Bank of New York, General Motors Corp., the International General Electric Co., and chairman of the American Section of the International Chamber of Commerce. He was a member of President Wilson’s second industrial conference, chairman of the Committee on Business Cycles and Unemployment appointed by President Harding, and chairman of the American Group, International Court of Arbitration of Trade Disputes of the International Chamber of Commerce. In December 1923, he accepted the invitation of the Reparations Commission to act as a member of the first committee of experts charged with the enquiry into the balancing of the German Budget and the stabilising of the German currency. Their ensuing report was accepted by the commission, Sept. 1. (See REPARATIONS.) He was appointed agent-general for Reparation payments ad interim on that date, holding the position till Oct. 31, when he resigned and was succeeded by S. Parker Gilbert. YOUNGSTOWN, Ohio, U. S. A. (see 28.041), the centre of a district which produces one-twenticth of the world’s output of steel, extended its boundaries from 6,606.8 ac. in 1910 to 16,224 by 1923. The population increased 67-4° 5 In the 10 years after toro to 132,358 In 1920, of whom 6,662 were negroes (an in-

crease of 244%) and 33,045 were forcign born; and was estimated at 159,970 in 1925 (census bureau). The output of factories within the city was valued at $81,271,000 in 1009; $241,458,000 in 1919; $272,183,553 in 1923. The character of the dominating industries is reflected in the preponderance of men in the population (11419 males to 100 females, 1920) and in the small number of women employed (18-5 °6 of all 10 years of age and over, the smallest proportion in any of the large cities in 1920). Natural gas from Ohio and West Virginia is used for domestic fucl. Improvements (to 1925) included a belt-line railway, a service-al-cost franchise for the transit system, zoning ordinances, new school buildings, parks and playgrounds, a golf course, the Butler Art Institute and the Stambaugh Memorial Auditorium. A new charter, effective Jan. 1 1925, provided for non-partisan ballots, the recall of elected officers, the initiative and referendum and a budget system. YPRES, JOHN DENTON PINKSTONE FRENCH, ist Eart of, (1852-1925), British soldier, was born at Ripple, Kent, Sept. 28 1852. The son of a naval officer, he entered the royal navy, in which he served as cadet and midshipman from 1866 to 1870.

Joining the militia he passed from this into the army in 1874 and was gazetted to the roth Hussars. He married Eleanora, daughter of R. W. Selby Lowndes in 1880. He served in the Nile expedition in 1884-5, and commanded his regiment from 1889 to 1893.

After two years on the War Office staff he com-

manded a cavalry brigade from 1897 to 1899, and on the mobilisa-

tion of the expeditionary force for S. Africa in the latter year he was chosen to command the Cavalry Division and was promoted major-general. Pending the assembly of this he served in Natal where he commanded the troops on the field at Elandslaagte and took part in the early combats near Ladysmith, but he proceeded to Cape Colony just before the place was invested. After a few wecks in charge of the force at Colesburg, he led the cavalry during Lord Robert’s advance from Cape Colony, relieved Kimberley, cut off the retreat of Cronje’s army, and occupied Bloemfontein. During the subsequent advance into the Transvaal he was in command of the left wing, and at a later stage of the victorious campaign he played a prominent

YPRES— YPRES, FIRST BATTLE

II22

part in the move from Pretoria to Komati Poort. For these services he was given the K.C.B. During most of the second phase of the struggle he was in command of the forces operating against the enemy in Cape Colony, and he was on the conclusion of hostilities promoted lieutenant-general and was given the K.C.M.G. He commanded at Aldershot from 1902 to 1907, in which year he was promoted general, and he then became inspector-general of the Forces for five years. He was appointed chief of the Imperial General Staff in 1912 and was promoted field-marshal in 1913. In April rọr4 he vacated the post of C.I.G.S., owing to military troubles in Ireland in connection with Ulster, but four months later he was chosen to take charge of the Expeditionary Force on the outbreak of the World War, and he commanded the British Army on the Western Front from the outset of the struggle until the end of rọr5. He resigned in December of that year, Sir D. Haig taking his place, and he returned to England, to be raised to the peerage as Viscount French of Ypres and High Lake in recognition of his great services. He then became commander-in-chief in the United Kingdom, and he held that appointment until May 1918, when he was selected to be lord lieutenant of Ireland. This position he occupied under most trying conditions until early in 192r. On resigning he was rewarded with an earldom. He died May 22 1925 at Deal

Joffre, informed of the situation, had informed Sir John French that he was sending his IX. Corps at once to Ypres. The arrival of this corps enabled Gen. d’Urbal to take over the front from the Roulers railway to Bixschoote and enable Haig to place his rst Div. in reserve. D’Urbal hoped to take advantage of the repulse of the Germans at Langemarck and ordered an attack for the 24th, but at this period the opposing forces were approximately equal and neither side had sufficient strength to force the other back. The effort of the French IX. Corps, therefore, yielded but small results, and so the first phase of the first battle of Ypres ended with the French holding the northern and the British the southern half of a semi-circle around Ypres, the apex of the semi-circle and the dividing line between the French and British being near Broodseinde. Preparations for Renewed Action.—During the next few days there was a comparative lull, of which Haig took advantage to

Castle, Kent. At the end of the war, Lord French published his personal narrative under the title, “ z914. ” YPRES, BELGIUM (see 28.941), for four years the centre of the Ypres salient, never more than seven and sometimes less than three miles from the front line, suffered greatly during the World War. The town was deliberately wrecked, and was a blazing furnace for three days in 1915. Nothing remained after the Armistice but cellars and foundations, excepting fragmentary ruins of the Cloth Hall and St. Martin’s church. The town was awarded the British Military Cross and the French Croix de Guerre in 1920. Ypres is now again a beautiful town, with a population estimated at 14,000 in 1924. First temporary hostels, garages, etc., were built outside the Menin Gate, the ruins were cleared, and the materials found were classified. Then the rebuilding of the streets on the old lines, with houses of the original picturesque designs, was pushed rapidly forward. Work was begun at once on the cathedral, the churches of St. Martin, St. Peter and St. James, the Templars’ House, the Chatellerie (now used as the town hall), the Belle Hospital and the Boucherie. The reconstruction of the Cloth Hall and the building of a palais de justice were started in 1924. A hospital has been built outside the town in place of the old one in the Grande Place, and the working class district has been replaced by the garden city of Kalfvaart, between the roads to Bruges and Zonnebeke. The station square has been laid out with lawns and flower beds, and only the battered ramparts remain to show what Yprcs suffered. The Menin Gate has been rebuilt as a memorial to missing British soldiers, with a fine triple arch and a Hall of Memory in the centre. There are 40 cemeteries within two miles of the town.

YPRES,

FIRST

BATTLE

OF.—While

the operations

which

preceded the battle of the Yser were in progress (sce YSER, BATTLE OF THE), the British I. Corps arrived in Flanders. On Oct. 19 it was ordered to Ypres, Sir John French still hoping

to push back and outflank the German right. The full strength of the Germans had not yet been disclosed and the opinion at British headquarters was that there were not more than 33 German corps north of the Lys; actually there were 5}. First Phase of the Battle--The I. Corps advanced with the expectation of attacking the enemy and it was not untilthe 21st, when it had taken up position on the Jeft of Rawlinson’s command between the Ypres-Roulers railway and Bixschoote and had repulsed a great attack by the German XXIII. and XXVI. Res. Corps upon Langemarck, that the true facts became known and Sir John French issued orders that positions were to be entrenched and held defensively. It had become a question of saving the Channel ports, not of outflanking the enemy.

OF

ae RS i

Wwe x

n

BATTLE OF YPRES 1914

English Miles i Osi

a 2 Kilometres 2 a oe

Map Roads

Aatlways

amn

Canals

re-organise his front.

The 7th Div., weakened

fighting, was placed under his orders,

Rawlinson

by prolonged Icaving the

battle front to await other employment; the front of that division was shortened and part of the 1st Div. went again into the line bet ween it andthe 2nd Division. The attempt of Duke Albrecht’s army to break through had been foiled but the Germans were not yct at the end of their resources. Falkenhayn had formed a new army group composed of the II. Bavarian Corps, the XV. Corps, the 6th Bavarian Res. Div. and the 26th Div. behind Von Marwitz’s cavalry, which had been engaged with the British cavalry corps and the left of the British ILI. Corps on the Messines ridge. This group under Von Fabeck was with the help of Von der Marwitz’s six cavalry divisions to drive in the British front between the Lys and the Menin road. This was to be continued with a new attempt on the Yser front before the rise of the floods had made attack impossible. The attack on the Yser front began on Oct. 30 and the Germans breaking through the front of the 2nd Belgian Div. captured Ramscapelle. The situation was Critical but was restored by a counter-attack, ordered by Gen. Grossetti, the commander of the 42nd Div. which took the French and Belgians again into Ramscapelle and repaired the gap.

The

rising water

prevented

the Germans

from

re-

YPRES, SECOND newing the attack as they had intended and this ended the battle of the Yser except for a few somewhat desultory efforts on either side. The battle had cost the Belgians some 18,000 and the French some 5,000 casualties. The German Attack.—Meantime Von Fabeck, after some preliminary attacks on the 29th, made his principal effort. On Oct. 30 the XV. Corps fell upon the weary 7th Div. and drove it back from Zandvoorde, while the II. Bavarian Corps pushed the British cavalry back through Hollebcke and Oosttaverne. There appeared to be real danger that the roads through Ypres behind the British and French troops cast of the town would be cut. Foch at once promised reinforcements for the Hollebcke front. The French 32nd Div. went to the help of the British cavalry at Oosttaverne ard five French battalions under Moussy came up to support the left of the yth Div. at Kicin Zillebeke and St. Eloi. Ere the efect of these reinforcements could be felt a crisis had developed on the Menin road. On Oct. 31, the German XY. Corps and s4th Res. Div. attacking on either side of the road, had captured Gheluvelt and broken the line between the rst and 7th Divisions. Fora time it appeared that retreat was inevitable but a gallant counter-attack organised by Brig-Gen. FitzClarence and delivered by the 2nd Bn. Worcestershire Reg. against Gheluvelt from the north drove the Germans out of the village. Later in the day this success was confirmed by another counter-attack on a larger scale organised and directed by Maj-Gen. Bulfin. Thus the situation was with difficulty restored. But if Von Fabeck’s right was checked his left and centre were not done with. On Nov. r and 2 he renewed his efforts against the British cavalry and captured Messines and Wytschaete and the whole of the Messines ridge, but his further progress was stopped by the timely arrival of French reinforcements, and on this portion of the battle front the Allied line was established east of the village of Kemmel and of the important Mount Kemmel. German Guard Alack: Nov. rr—Another lull ensued and the battle of Ypres appcared to have come to an end. The Indian Corps had relieved the infantry of the II. Corps on the La Bassée-Neuve Chapelle front and the greater part of that infantry had gone up to Ypres and taken over the trenches of the 7th Div. which had left only 4,149 of the 12,522 infantry landed at Zeebrugge a month before. These changes were made without further interference from the enemy than constant shelling, but the Germans had yet another great effort in preparation. Six more divisions, including a division of the German Guard, were collected for a final effort to break through to Ypres. In preparation for this attack Duke Albrecht was directed to keep up the utmost pressure and this resulted in a series of local attacks chiefly against the French, in one of which, on Nov. 10, the gallant defenders of Dixmude were at length driven out of the ruins of that place. On the next day the attack, commonly called the German Guard attack, was made after an intense bombardment on the front from the Messines ridge to the north of the Ypres-Menin road. The German Guard attacking astride the Menin road gained the only success of importance won by the Germans on Nov. 11. The Guard broke through the left of the rst Div. and penetrated into the Nonne wood, but again the situation was restored by two counter-attacks, the first delivered by the Royal Scots Fusiliers near the Menin road, the second by the 2nd Oxford and Bucks Light Infantry driving the Germans out of the Nonne wood. In preparing the latter attack Gen. FitzClarence was killed. Further south the German XV. Corps secured Till 60 near Verbranden-Molcn, a small rise destined to be a bone of contention during the early months of 1915, but elsewhere the attack made no progress. Closing Stages.—The failure of this last attack by the Germans to break through practically closed the battle, though Duke Albrecht made on Nov. 17 an attack on the Herentage Wood which met with no success. Thereafter the Germans decided to adopt a defensive attitude in the West and to send all available troops against Russia. On Nov. 21 the British troops were

relieved by the French, the infantry of the II, Corps being

BATTLE

OF

1123

returned to its commander, who took over the front opposite the Messines ridge, while the I. Corps went into reserve for a short rest. From Oct. 14 to Nov 17 the battle had been almost continuous from the La Bassée canal to the Yser and on that front during that period the British losses had amounted to 54,106 killed, wounded, and missing. BIBLIOGRAPITY.—Viscount French, Despatches of Lord French (1917); E. von Falkenhayn, General Ifeadguarters rg914—6, and Its Critical Decisions (1919); Viscount French, rorg (1989); O. Schwink,

Ypres rorg, Official account published by order of the German Gencral staff (1919); L. E. Edmonds, Military Operations: France and Belgium ror4, being vol. 2, History of the War Based on Official Documents (1925). See also WORLD WAR: BIBLIOGRAPHY. (F.B.M.)

YPRES, SECOND BATTLE OF.—Early in April rors the British front was extended some five m. to include the Ypres salient, so that by the 17th the left of the V. Corps (Plumer) rested on the Ypres-Poelcappelle road. Situation Before the Action.—The V. Corps right joined the II. Corps (Fergusson) just north of Hill 60 on the Ypres-Comines railway, and the two corps formed the Il. Army commanded by Sic Horace Smith-Dorrien. Between the British left and the Yperlee river at Steenstraat, a distance of five miles were the French 45th and 87th Divs., which with a cavalry detachment formed the “ Groupement d’Elverdinghe ” commanded by Putz. The Belgian 6th Div. (de Ceuninck) then held the canal to Drie Grachten, with the remainder of the Belgian Army extending through the flooded area to join another group of Foch’s command between it and the sea at Nieuport. On the German side lay the LV. Army with the XXIII. Res. Corps opposite the Belgians and adjoining the XXVI. Res. Corps, whose left was marked by the Ypres-Poelcappelle road; facing the point of the salient were the 2nd Ersatz and 38th Landwehr Bdes. with the XXVII. Res. Corps and the XV. Corps on the south. On April 14 reliable and detailed information was received at British and French Headquarters that the Germans intended to use a new weapon: to discharge asphyxiating gas from cylinders installed in the trenches opposite Langemarck and southwards beyond the Ypres-Poelcappelle road. Two German corps would follow through the gap made by the gas cloud. The offensive would begin on the night April 15-6 or with the next favourable wind thereafter. The intention, as is now known, was to cloak the transportation of divisions to Russia for a new drive in Galicia, and to shorten the line by reducing the salient at Ypres. The first move would secure a bridgehead across the canal on the north; successive attacks in echelon to the south would roll the British line back to the west of Ypres; thus the threat of combined operations by sea and land along the Flemish coast would be dispelled, and the stage set for a thrust towards the Channel ports. The warning was timely; formations in the salient were cautioned to expect an attack, but the intended use of gas was not communicated to the troops. The days passed without any noticeable augmentation of the German forces, already concentrated unseen in Houthulst Forest. The unusual noise of traflic behind the enemy’s lines caused so little alarm that three of the eight Canadian field batteries in action were caught in the act of carrying out reliefs. Beginning on the roth, the preparatory bombardment of Ypres and Elverdinghe by heavy guns, including a 17-in. howitzer, and an increase of gas shelling in the forward area, were ominous signs of the coming battle. The extension of the British front was effected without incident, but to the south the Germans on April 14 fired a mine at St. Eloi; three days later the British blew up most of ITill 60 and the 5th Div. on the II. Corps front attacked and captured what remained. These and consequent activities diverted attention from the northern face of the salient where the first German blow would strike the junctions of the British, French and Belgian forces. Lhe British Positions.—The new line taken over by the British was marked by short unconnected lengths of breastwork with little wire and no parados. There were no trenches for supports, and ditches served for communication; a few localities had been fortified with breastworks similar to those of the front line and

YPRES, SECOND

1124

affording as little protection; but 5,000 yd. behind the British line and running from Zillebeke to east of Wieltje, then turning northwest, was a second position consisting of a continuous belt of wire covering a series of strong points, each capable of holding 50 men and sometimes linked by trenches. This was known as the G.H.Q. end line. On completion of the readjustment on April 17 the V. Corps held an are of 83 m. with a five-mile radius. Of this the 27th Div. occupied the right, the 28th Div. the centre and the Canadian Div. the left. On April 21 the dispositions of the Canadian Div. were: from right to left the 2nd Canadian Infantry Bde. the 5th Bn. from south of the Gravenstafel road to the Stroombeek; the 8th Bn. north of the stream and along the valley for 1,000 yd., two companies from each being in support and reserve on and behind the Gravenstafel ridge; the 7th Bn. was in brigade reserve between Wieltje and Fortuin, the roth in divisional BATTLE

OF YPRES

1915 > GAS ATTACK

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BATTLE

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pelle. The effect of the gas was greater than the German infantry had anticipated; by nightfall the XXI. Res. Corps, inclining to the right, had reached the canal and crossed at Het Sas and Steenstraate, the NNVL. had penetrated 2,000 yd. south of Pilckem, and swinging to the left was close to St. Julien. By 8 p.m. there were no formed bodies of French troops east of the canal, all their batteries in that sector had been captured, and the Canadian flank for more than 8,000 yd. lay bare and exposed to attack. A gate to Ypres had been pushed open; the Belgian and Canadian hinges held firm, but no German troops were ready to pass through, although the 43rd Res. Div. had been concentrated near Roulers to support the attack. At the first alarm the St. Julien garrison manned the half-made trenches north of the village, and the two brigades in line ordered their reserve battalions up to the left flank, the 7th to Locality C (a few trenches near the houses along the Keerselaar-Zonnebeke road crowning the Gravenstafel ridge), the 14th to the G.H.Q. line at Mouse Trap farm, 1,000 yd. north of Wieltje. The left company of the latter pushed on until at Hampshire farm, 7oo yd. farther west, they found about 200 French, with a machine-gun, occupying elements of a trench and in touch with the enemy. Conditions at the left of the Canadian front were precarious from the first, but some 200 of the Algerians, although gassed, took up a position near and parallel to the Ypres-Poelcappelle road and, reinforced by two platoons and a machine-gun from the 13th Bn., formed a short but effective flank. Between there and St. Julien the two supporting platoons of that battalion were exterminated in countering the move to penetrate behind the trench line and roll it up; the reth Canadian Field Bty., by switching fire to the left rear, stopped the enemy at 200 yd. before moving to a less exposed position. British Counter-Atlack.—Meanwhile, the roth and 16th Bns. had been placed at the disposal of the ard Canadian Infantry

Bde. for a counter-attack to capture the Bois des Cuisiniers, an oak wood of 160 ac. lying 1,000 yd. west of St. Julien. The roth moved up from the G.H.Q. trenches occupied when the attack began, and was joined near Mouse Trap farm by the 16th. Shortly before midnight the battalions formed up in eight ranks on a two-company front, the roth leading, and the advance began.

At first hedges and ditches made it difficult to keep order in the darkness. Three hundred yards from the German trench covering the wood on the south the movement was detected, flares soared upwards, rapid fire Nlickered from the parapet, and the two

reserve between St. Jean and Ypres. On the left the 3rd Canadian Infantry Bde. also held the line with two battalions: the 15th and 13th each with three companies in the trenches, and two platoons in support; the remaining two companies, with one of the r4th, were posted in St. Julien as a garrison. The rath (less one company) was in brigade reserve at St. Jean; the 16th, along the canal north of Ypres, was in divisional reserve. The rst Canadian Infantry Bde. lay at Vlamertinghe in II. Army reserve and had been under orders to be ready in case assistance should be required at Hill 60. German Gas Attack.—At 5 p.m. on April 22 a heavy greenish yellow smoke rose from the German trenches opposite Langemarck and rolled southwestwards in a sullen penetrating cloud on the gentle breeze of that sunny afternoon. Soon native French troops were seen staggering back through: the storm of high explosive and gas shells, past the Canadian batteries and reserve infantry battalions already standing to arms. It was clear that the line on the left had broken, but the extent of the disaster was not realised at first. Actually the German XXIII. and XXVI. Res. Corps., after a short artillery preparation, had attacked under cover of a discharge of 180,000 kgr. of chlorine gas, the former with the 46th Res. Div. to secure the line PilckemBoesinghe, the latter with the 52nd and 5rst Res. Divs. to capture the ridge marked by the road from Pilckem to Poelcap-

battalions charged. Sweeping over the trench they pressed on through the wood, recovering the four guns of the 2nd London Heavy Bty., but, losing direction, they inclined to the right and emerged to dig in along a hedge northeast of the wood. Thus far the counter-attack had been a remarkable success, but machine-guns placed near the southwest corner of the wood still commanded the southern approaches; the nearest troops on the right were about St. Julien, and the 14th were equally distant on the left; so before daylight the line was withdrawn to the captured trench south and east of the wood. The 16th extended towards St. Julien and dug in; the roth held the left and patrolled the wood. The case of the defenders at the point of the new salient was

becoming hourly more serious.

Between the short refused flank

and St. Julien, a distance of over a mile, was a gap through which the Germans had crossed the road, and a machine-gun swept the unprotected rear of the old front line. A withdrawal of 250 yd. by the left company of the 13th was cancelled after midnight on the arrival of reinforcements laden with ammunition. The old front line and the flank along the road were held in the hope that a counter-attack would restore the left. Soon after 3 A.M. conditions were further improved by the 7th Bn. (less one company) moving westwards along the ridge to dig a north and south line some 700 yd. long, the left in touch with the St. Julien garrison, the nght bent back and in the air east of Keerselaar. Other troops in the vicinity when the battle opened were the end Fast Kent, 3rd Middlesex and 5th King’s Own all in bivouac about St. Jean as 28th Div. Reserve. Of these, B Company of

YPRES, THIRD BATTLE OF the East Kent was detached, two companies of the Middlesex moved after dark to guard the canal bridge east of Brielen; the remainder with the 1st York and Lancaster from south of Brielen were placed as a detachment under the Canadian Div., and commanded by Col. Geddes of the East Kent. Ills instructions were to advance and occupy the gap between the Canadian left near Mouse Trap farm and the French, behind whose right the 2nd East York from 28th Div. Res. had arrived before midnight at Brielen. Daybreak found the 9th Royal Scots, 2nd Duke of Cornwall’s Light Infantry and 4th Rifle Brigade, from 27th Div. Res. west of Ypres, already east of St.Jean and the first two added to Geddes’ detachment. Consolidation of the British Line —As soon as news came back of the breaking of the line on the left, the rst Canadian Infantry Bde. at Vlamertinghe had been released from Army reserve and returned to the Canadian Division. The 2nd and ard Bns. were sent to the 3rd Canadian Infantry Bde. to strengthen the line between St. Julien and Bois des Cuisiniers. They arrived at Trap farm at 1:30 A.M. The rst Bde. was first sent to the canal bank at the bridge east of Brielen, and then ordered to cross and attack along the Ypres-Pilckem road at 5:30 A.M. in conjunction with the advance of Geddes’ detachment on the right and a projected French attack on the left. This latter attack had been ordered by Foch at midnight to regain the ground lost, and the French r53rd. Div. was being brought up, but it took some time to gather fresh troops and three Belgian battalions were lent for the attack. ‘The greatest handicap was lack of guns; the Canadian frontage was 300 yd. per gun. At daybreak began the process of establishing a continuous line along the Canadian flank to join the French on the canal. Two companies of the 3rd Bn. went into the gap between St. Julien and the right of the 16th near Bois des Cuisiniers, the 2nd Bn. moved into close support of the roth and 16th. The znd East Kent by 6 A.M. had worked forward to the G.H.Q. line northwest of Mouse Trap farm, and on their Jeft found the French detachment and the company of 14th Canadians in Hampshire farm. Then there was a gap of 1,000 yd.: orders to the 5th King’s Own and rst York and Lancaster had miscarried and they dic not go forward. But farther left the two companies of the ard Middlesex established touch with the 4th Canadian Battalion, Advancing by short rushes across the open under devastating fire, they carried that part of the line to the lower slopes of the Pilckem ridge within a short distance of the enemy’s new trench. On the right the Middlesex captured Turco farm (3,200 yd. from Ypres) but the survivors were too few to hold it and the line came to a standstill immediately south of the farm, with the Canadian left, now strengthened by the 1st Bn., bent slightly back to form a flank, as the French attack had not materialised. To take the place of the V. Corps Res., the 13th Bde. of the sth Div. moved late on April 22 from the II. Corps Res. to west of Ypres. The British Cay. Corps also, from G.H.Q. Res., was brought to Poperinghe on April 23 and the rst Cav. Div. was sent at 11:40 A.M. towards Elverdinghe-Woesten to clear up the situation on the canal. At 5:15 P.M. the whole Cav. Corps became the mobile reserve of Il. Army. The soth Div. in G.H.Q. Res. just out from England was warned to be ready to move. But there were not sufficient French reserves available to recover the lost ground and a further thrust across the canal was to be expected, so the 13th Bde. at 10:30 A.M. was given to the Canadian Div. and ordered to counter-attack northwards along the east of the canal towards Pilckem. This attack began at 5 P.M. and the right advanced to the thin line of the rst Canadian Bde.; the left, assisted by the French, came up abreast and extended to the canal. Simultaneously a second advance moved down the open slopes towards the German trenches on the opposite ridge. Two field batteries only were available in support, and casualties were so heavy that little ground was gained in the face of the 24oth Res. Regt. which, aided by the 37th Landwehr Bde. entrenching along the Pilckem ridge, filled the gap caused by the divergent attacks of the XXIII. and XXVI. Res. Corps. Positions after the Action—The position of the line at nightfall on April 23 was little different from that of the morning; the

II25

German move to widen the breach had failed; an attempt to cross the canal in front of the Belgians met with no success and the refused flank of the 6th Div. still held; opposite the French the ground captured west of the canal had been slightly increased in spite of the efforts of the 87th Div. reserves and fresh troops brought down from Nieuport, but the objective for the day had not been reached and Lizerne was not taken until midnight. On the British front the counter-attacks of the morning had made it possible to build up the long exposed flank, and, but for a gap of 1,000 yd. along the Ypres-Poelcappelle road north of St. Julien a line of defence now existed from the original Canadian left to the canal. But the situation of the troops in the salient was desperate; if the French could not recover the ground on the left an extensive retirement would be necessary, and converging attacks might break down the apex before a withdrawal could be completed. BIBLIOGRAPITY.— Viscount French, Despatches, April rorg-July I916 (1917); H. E. R. Steele, The Canadians in France, 1915-8

(1920).

(See also WorLD WAR: BIBLIOGRAPHY.)

(A. F. D.)

YPRES, THIRD BATTLE OF.—Almost continuous fighting took place in the Ypres-Yser region during many weeks in summer and autumn of 1917, but the operations asa whole may be said to have consisted of two distinct phases. First came the brilliantly successful combat, lasting a few hours, which has come to be known as the battle of Messines. Then, after a lull, there came to be launched immediately north of the scene of the Messines victory a series of attacks at short intervals which gained ground by successive waves and which lasted four months. | British Objectives—The object in view throughout was the occupation of the whole of the belt of high ground which extends from a point about three m. north of Armentiéres to near Dixmude. Ft rises some too to 150 ft. above the great Flanders plain, and reaches a height of over 200 ft. at some points. In the spring of 1917 its southern portion enclosed to a great extent the Ypres salient, although the Allies’ trenches gave them possession of the lower slopes of their side of the high ground. Farther to the north the enemy held the whole of the high ground, as well as some stretches actually to the west of this. The Allies’ general plan of operations was to begin at the southern end and to work thence northwards. But the capture of the high ground, it should be noted, only represented the first part of a strategical plan which contemplated a subsequent effort that was to be carried out in the coast district by fresh forces. Positions of the Adversaries.—The line held by the Allies to the north of Armentiéres, at the outset, formed in plan an inverted “ S,” with the lower loop turned to the west, the upper loop turned to the east, and creating the Ypres salient. The lower loop, on the other hand, represented a pronounced enemy salient jutting into territory in Allied hands and consisting almost entirely of high ground known as the Messines-Wytschaete ridge. Irom this position the Germans enfiladed and even took in reverse Allies’ trenches along the east and the north of the salient,

and they commanded the communications leading up to these trenches from the rear, while they also overlooked the town of Ypres within feld-gun range; so Haig framed his plans for the Flanders offensive so as to capture the high ground about Messines and Wytschaete in the first place. Tue

First

STAGE

General Plumer and his II. Army, who had been acting as wardens of the Ypres front for two years, had been selected to carry out this operation, while the V. Army under General Gough had been transferred from Artois to hold the line north of the II. Army. Preparations for the undertaking had been going on during the winter and spring; they included an elaborate railway scheme, much road construction, and arrangements for deep mining on a colossal scale. twenty huge mines had been established at the end of galleries running right under the enemy’s front line of trenches, and 600 tons of explosives had been distributed among them. For the defence of this salient which they occupied the Germans depended on two separate sets of lines, coinciding in trace

YPRES, THIRD BATTLE OF

1126

with its arc, the more advanced one pushed down the forward slope of the high ground while the rear one followed its crest; the enemy had also constructed two chord positions, stretching along the base of the salient on the reverse slope. The troops of the II. Army detailed for the enterprise were, enumerating from right to left, the If. Anzac Corps, with the Australian 4th Div. in support, the [X. Corps with the rith Div. in support, and the X. Corps with the 24th Div. in support. There were thus nine divisions in front line and three in support. As the final objective

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on to the heights to assist in the capture of the German chord lines of trenches, and this closing effort, which was made later in the afternoon, proved completely successful. So it came about that by the evening the last objectives had been attained. The total casualties incurred by the assailants amounted to only about 16,000, while 7,200 prisoners, 67 guns, 94 trench mortars and 294 machine-guns had been taken from the enemy. A Period of Ouiet.—A pause of some weeks in active operations in Flanders now took place while preparations for carrying out the rest of Haig’s programme were being completed. Although Plumer’s victory of June 7 had put an end to the enemy overlooking Ypres from the south, the Germans still, in a measure, dominated the place from the east, from the northeast and from the north, a fact which exercised an important influence over the arrangements in progress for the offensive about to be undertaken. The preparations could not be concealed and the Germans knew that they were being made. The plan at the outset was that, while the Il. Army stood fast, the V. Army under General Gough on its left with the French I. Army still further to the left, should attack the enemy line along their front extending from near Hooge to some distance north of Steenstraat on the Yser canal. It should be noted that the valley of the little river Steenbeke proved of considerable tactical importance during the operations that followed, for it created a marked depression in the high ground of which Gough was to gain possession. Between the depression and the V. Army lay the low Pilckem Ridge—its first objective-—and after that ridge was taken any further advance towards the main ridge involved crossing the depression. Another point to note is that, whereas the line occupied at the outset by the V. Army and the French I. Army ran from southeast to northwest, the main line of heights which formed the ultimate objective ran from south to north, so that the assailants would in due course be called upon to make a half-wheel to the right, pivoting on that section of the high ground which was situated about east of Ypres. The troops forming the outer (left) flank in the wheel would moreover be called upon to traverse some miles of low, marshy ground before they began to ascend.

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of the assailants was the chord of the arc forming the salient, the time-table took account of the greater distance which some divisions had to traverse than others. The First Attack.—-The moment of assault was fixed for 3:10 A.M. on June 7, and at that hour the line of mines exploded beneath the enemy’s front line with devastating effect. At many points the hostile trenches were completely obliterated and their garrisons wiped out, so that at first very little resistance was offered to the assailants and the first objective was secured almost at once. The infantry then proceeded to the execution of their next task, that of carrying the German second line, and here again they were completely successful. Messines was taken by the New Zealanders, Wytschaete fell to the 36th (Ulster) and 16th (Irish) Divs., fighting side by side, while on the left the 47th (London) Div. overcame most formidable obstacles and took many prisoners. So rapid indeed were the movements of the attacking infantry

in these opening phases of the combat, that the tanks in many cases were unable to get up in time to share in the struggle for the enemy’s second line of defence; by early afternoon all the upper part of the Messines-Wytschaete ridge was in the hands of the British and Australian troops. Guns were promptly pushed up

Aware since early spring that the Allies contemplated offensive operations in this region, the Germans had taken steps to meet the eventuality with characteristic thoroughness and ingenuity. Having learnt by experience that a continuous system of trenches did not proffer a wholly satisfactory form of defence unless there was abundant underground cover, and realising that the waterlogged character of the soil of Flanders militated against the creation of subterranean galleries, they had established a system of numerous disconnected trenches and strong points, arranged in depth rather than in breadth, together with numbers of concrete blockhouses armed with machine-guns. As their front line near Ypres had been in existence since 1915, they trusted to the old system to meet the first shock of attack, and it was rather in the later offensive operations that the Allies found themselves confronted with these new defensive devices. THE

SECOND

STAGE

The offensive was to have started on July 25 but it was for various reasons deferred until the grst. During that period the enemy retired out of his foremost trenches along the canal between Boesinghe and Steenstraat, which enabled the British and French troops on the left to throw bridges, and facilitated their task when they delivered their attack. This first day proved very favourable to the Allies, who reached the line of the Steenbeke, after capturing the Pilckem Ridge. Bixschoote and St. Julien were taken, and only on the extreme right about the Menin road did the assailants fail to gain their objectives. Over 6,000 prisoners were taken, together with 25 guns, and as a result of the fighting Ypres was no longer overlooked from the northeast and north. But the weather broke that day, and in consequence of the continuous rain in the early days of August the offensive could

not be resumed until the 16th of that month. On this day the Allies were successful along the left half of the battle front, pass-

YSER, BATTLE OF THE ing the Steenbeke and capturing Langemarck; but little progress was made along the right half of the battle front, which represented the more important section. Although 2,000 prisoners and 30 guns were captured, little improvement had been effected as a result of a fortnight’s operations about the crest of the ridge immediately north of the ground that had been won on June 7. Up there, the line had only been advanced a very few hundred yards as a result of two regularly prepared attacks. Haig therefore decided to extend the left of the IT. Army northwards and to entrust the attacks against this higher ground to Plumer, who was to work in conjunction with the V. Army operating farther to the left. The weather, however, continued most unfavourable, and it was not until Sept. 20 that the next attack was delivered. Very important results were, however, achieved on this occasion, for the efforts of the II. Army were crowned with brilliant success in a sector where previous attempts had to a great extent failed. The crest of the main ridge on either side of the YpresMenin road was wrested from the enemy and a footing was

gained close to Gheluvelt and in Polygone Wood. The V. Army likewise gained ground farther to the left, and over 3,000 prisoners and many guns were captured. This victory was followed up by a fresh attack on the 26th, when the British position was improved almost all along the line and particularly about Polygone Wood, while another 1,600 prisoners were secured. The combats of Sept. 20 and 26 having given almost the entire crest of the main ridge east of Ypres to the British, to a depth of 13 m. from the positions that had been occupied on July 31, Haig arranged for a very important operation to take place on Oct. 4, the front this time extending from Polygone Wood to the Ypres-Staden railway, although a minor advance was also to take place to the south of Polygone Wood. A severe gale blew on the night of the grd, and torrents of rain fell, so that next morning the ground in most parts of the battlefield was little better than a morass. The attacking side nevertheless gained a signal victory, securing neatly all its objectives in a few hours’ fighting. Especially important were the gains made in the centre, where a position was won along the forward crest of the main ridge about the village of Broodsinde and to the south of it, while on the left a footing was gained in Poelcappelle and the V. Army secured a line clear of the lowest and most marshy part of the Steenbeke depression. Prisoners taken totalled 5,200 with a number of guns, machine-guns and trench mortars, and this highly satisfactory achievement had moreover been accomplished without very heavy sacrifice. THE

Finat

OPERATIONS

As a result of the operations begun on June 7 the crest of the long belt of high ground overlooking the Flanders plain had now, after four months of intermittent fighting, been secured from Messines northwards to within a few hundred yards of the YpresRoulers railway. And yet, regarding this Flanders offensive as a whole, the work was in reality only begun. The Houthulst forest, with the long line of high ground forming the quadrant of a circle beyond it, was still in the enemy’s hands. Until the ridge had been secured to the vicinity of Staden it would be premature to embark upon the second part of the general scheme of operations—an attack on the German positions along the coast between Nieuport and Ostend, for which the lV. Army under General Rawlinson had been assembled on the extreme left, by the sea. Winter was approaching and Haig had now to decide whether or not to continue his gradual advance northeast of Ypres. The whole undertaking had been much delayed at the outset owing to General Nivelle’s unsuccessful offensive in the Aisne country. The weather since the end of July had been deplorable, with the result that the pushing forward of heavy artillery as new positions were secured proved most difficult, and that the British tanks were terribly hampered in their movements. Had the line secured on Oct. 4 been made good two months earlier, there would still have been a quite reasonable prospect of the ridge being secured to beyond Staden several weeks before winter set in, thus allowing for the IV. Army to play its part in

1127

the coastal region. As it was, but little likelihood remained of these Flanders operations achieving the success that had been hoped for when the plan was matured. In view of the discourage-

ment existing at the time in the French forces it was, however, almost imperative to occupy the attention of the enemy as far as possible, and there were, moreover, grounds for hoping that the Allied position to the northeast of Ypres could still be considerably improved from the defensive point of view within the next few weeks. Haig therefore decided to continue the offensive to the north of the Ypres-Roulers railway, and with a view to this a certain readjustment of the orders of battle of the II. and V. Armies was effected.

The wet weather unfortunately continued during early Oct. but an improvement then set in which lasted till the 25th, the very day for which the fresh attack had been fixed. In spite of a downpour of rain the troops detailed for the work on the crest of the ridge gained ground on that day right up to the outskirts of Passchendaele. During the following week the French and Belgian troops on the exireme left pushed forward successfully up to the Blankaart lake and to the outskirts of the Houthulst forest, while progress was also made at a number of other points along the line. Then, on Nov. 4 Passchendaele was captured by a sudden advance of the rst Div. and the Canadian 2nd Div., and the victory brought the 1917 Flanders offensive at last to a close. RESULTS

OF THE UNDERTAKING

The situation in this position of the Western Front had been transformed by the events of the past five months. The chain of, heights from north of Armentières to Passchendaele had changed hands. The Ypres salient, vastly extended, had, from constituting a weak and barely defensible sector of the Allies’ front, become a serious menace to the enemy. Haig had secured a satis-

factory defensive position between the Yser and the Lys, and great hostile forces had been kept fettered to the northwestern extremity of the general theatre of war, striving to maintain possession of a tract that had been captured by the invader three years before. But the main object for which the offensive had been undertaken had been only very partially attained. The German hold upon the coast district remained unshaken. The third battle of Ypres, chiefly perhaps because of unfortunate delays in starting operations and of untoward weather conditions after they had been started, had not, as had been intended, prepared the way for subsequent advance upon Ostend and the great plain north of the Lys. ; BIBLIOGRAPHY.—F. Fox, The Battles of the Ridges: Arras-Messines, Afarch-June 1917 (1918); Earl Haig, Despatches, 1915-9 (1919); B. Willson, Ypres (1°20). See also WorLD War: BIBLIOGRAPHY.

(C. E. C.)

YSER, BATTLE OF THE.—On

Oct. 10 rg14 the whole of the

Belgian field army encamped on the west bank of the GhentTerneuzen canal. The British Naval Div., which had embarked at SL. Gilles-Waes, regained Dunkirk with the exception of two battalions, which were cut off, and passed into Holland; the French Fusilier Marine Bde., half of the English 7th Div. and the 4th Belgian Bde. were holding Ghent and had repulsed an attack on that city by the ist Res. Ersatz Brigade. Information had been received that a division of Bavarian cavalry had advanced towards Deynze, passing between the Schelde and the Lys; that a column of 20,000 men had passed by Courtrai and Menin and that the German IV. Cav. Corps was holding the region Tourcoing-Ypres-Poperinghe. The only way of baffling the threat to the Belgian Army of envelopment on a large scale was an immediate march to the coast, and it was decided to transport all the forces without delay to the coastal region of Ostend-ThouroutDixmude-Furnes, the infantry by rail, the artillery and transport by road under the protection of all the cavalry and Rawlinson’s Corps. Plans of Opposing Commanders —The “ race to the sea ” had in the meantime caused the Western Front to extend to La Bassée. The British Army had been withdrawn from the region of the Aisne and was beginning to detrain west of Lille. Certain French divisions, taken from other sectors, were given the same

YUAN SHIH-K’AI

II28 destination.

It seemed

to Gen. Joffre that the moment had

come for bringing about the much-desired envelopment of the German right wing by a concentric offensive against Lille. The British Army, the Belgian Army and some French reinforcements would constitute, it was believed, under the high command of Gen. Foch, an ensemble capable of securing a decisive victory. Unfortunately, the assembling of the Allied troops by means of the Paris-Calais and Paris-Hazebrouck railways would take time. On the other hand, it was necessary to take in account that the Von Beseler Army Group would not fail to follow on the heels of the Belgians.

at Dixmude had been checked by Meiser’s Brigade. But in the night of the 21st-22nd the 6th Res. Div. made a surprise crossing of the Yser in the Tervaete salient and threw over 2} battalions

to the west bank. Concentrated artillery fire prevented the division from making any progress on the 22nd, but a notable counter-attack, in which four battalions of grenadiers and carabineers faced death with superb indifference, broke down completely under their machine-gun fire, owing to the exposed nature of the ground. The following night the Germans passed a second regiment into the bend without, however, extending their ground. On the 24th, the whole of the III. Res. Corps and half of the

The mission of the Belgian Army was once again that of gain-

44th Res. Div., preceded by a bombardment from ro heavy how-

ing time. The King, anxious to keep his left wing resting on the sea, and to preserve at all costs a fragment of national territory

itzer batteries and rso field guns, broke through the front at St. Georges-Tervaete, only to fnd the Belgians deployed behind the Nieuport—Dixmude railway embankment, together with the French 42nd Div. which had arrived in the meantime.

from invasion, thought best to entrench the army on the river Yser and the Ypres canal. The following orders were accordingly issued on Oct. 14 and 15: ‘‘ The line of the Yser constitutes our last line of defence in Belgium and its preservation is necessary for the development of the plan of operations. This line is therefore to be held at all costs.” Events soon proved the wisdom of this decision. The British II. and III. and Cav. Corps were stopped at the Lys by the German

IV., VII. and XIII. Corps; Rawlinson’s Corps found

Menin in the hands of the XIX. Corps.

Von Beseler’s troops

now entered Bruges and Ostend. It was known that numerous detrainments were taking place west of Brussels and that a new German IV. Army had installed its headquarters at Ghent. In fact Falkenhayn, the new chief of the German General Staff, had anticipated the Allies’ projects and, like them, considered the moment for a decisive victory to have arrived. With four new army corps, composed entirely of volunteers, the XXII, XXIII, XXVI. and XXVII. Res. Corps, Von Beseler’s group and the artillery park from the siege of Antwerp, Prince Albert of Würtemberg was charged to proceed to the Yser with his right towards the sea, in order to attack in flank and in rear the Allied left, whose front the VI. Army was engaging between Arras and Armentières. Falkenhayn considered that: ‘“ The conquest of the coast was the sole means of frustrating the war of blockade which England contemplated and of retaliating through our destroyers, submarines, aeroplanes and Zeppelins. . . . If we succeeded in driving the enemy out of the Yser valley and pursuing him at the point of the sword, there was no doubt that, having replenished our ranks and our stores, we should be in a condition to overthrow the western front.’”! Thus the Belgian Army, which had only just moved into position in the general Allied line, found itself in focus for a new battle. It occupied a front of 40 km., from the sea to Boesinghe, with 43 divisions and 1} divisions in reserve behind the centre. The cavalry division was operating with Mitry’s French Cav. Corps, east of the forest of Houthulst. On the army’s right a French territorial division extended as far as Ypres and Rawlinson’s Corps had entrenched itself along the line PasschendaeleGheluvelt. Opening of the Battle—The battle commenced on the 18th with an attack by Von Beseler’s corps (4th Ersatz and 5th and 6th Res. Divs.} between the sea and Keyem. The Belgian outposts were only driven back after desperate fighting and the enemy did not even reach the Yser.

On the morning of the roth

Ronar¢h’s Marine Bde. and the sth Div. debouched from Dixmude on the flank of the III. Res. Corps. Beerst and Vladsloo were retaken; but the intervention of the XXII. Corps, coming from Thourout, and the XXIII. coming from Cortemarck, checked the counter-attack. By the zoth the fighting had become general all the way from the sea to Gheluvelt bet ween the

Duke of Wiirtemberg’s 54 divisions on the one hand and the Belgian Army, Mitry’s Cav. Corps and Rawlinson’s Corps on - the other. After 48 hours of obstinate fighting the Belgian positions remained practically unchanged. : The attack of the 4th Ersatz Div. on Nicuport had failed, partly on account of the flanking fire from Admiral Hood’s flotilla; while that of the XXII. Corps against the bridgehead 1Falkenhayn, Die Wichtigsien Entschliessungen der O. H. L.

German Failure at Dixmude.—Finding themselves checked in

this direction, the Germans renewed their attack on Dixmude, preluding it with an intense bombardment of four hours (in which 2r and 42 cm. howitzers were emploved amongst others) which left the town in ruins and in flames. At midnight the 43rd Res. Div. delivered its assault, driving its guns through the middie of—and even in advance of—its infantry, but In spite of a three-fold attempt it was completely repulsed by the rzth Belgian Regt., assisted by some French companies of marines. A new attack on the night of the 25th-26th met with the same fate. Opening of the Nieuport Sluices.—The battle had been in progress for eight days. Over a total of 48,000 rifles the losses

amounted to 15,000 in all ranks. Many guns had been put out of action, by excessive use of rapid fire; the munitions were nearly exhausted, the men at the end of their tether. Neither the British nor the French, both hard pressed at Bixscoote, Langemarck and Zonnebeke, were able to send reinforcements. Having no reserves, the Belgian commander decided to call in the sea to his assistance. The Nieuport sluices could, by opening a network of small canals to the ocean, put part of the battlefield under water; but the King did not wish to have recourse to this expedient until the last extremity. On the 26th and 27th all the pioneers were set to stop up the 22 aqueducts of the Nieuport-Dixmude railway embankment so as to prevent the liberating tide from invading the Belgian positions; fortunately, the Germans—being also weary—remained relatively quiet during that time. On the 29th however, their artillery blazed forth again, and it seemed that a new attack was imminent. The sluices were therefore opened during the night. At dawn on the 3oth, the three divisions of Von Beseler’s corps attacked along the line of the railway, taking possession finally of Ramscapelle and Pervyse; but the drains were now ovcrflowing; the flooded meadows soon made it impossible for the Germans to move, and forced them to a hasty retreat. The battle of the Yser was won and the left Pank of the Allies definitely saved. Checked along the coast line, the Germans moved off to make their desperate assault on Ypres. The Belgian Army, in scrupulous observance of the spirit of the obligations of neutrality, had, from Aug. 4 to Oct. 31 1914, gloriously defended its honour and fulfilled all international obligations, paying the price with its blood and abandoning practically the whole of its territory. (See also Ypres, First BATTLE OF; also map, p. 961.) BrsrirocRapuy.—P. Northomb, L’Yser (1916); L. Madelin, Méleé des Flandres (1917); J. Pirenne, Vainqueurs de l' Yser, 1914-5 (1917); Tasnier and Van Overstraeten, L’armée belge dans la guerre Mondiale (1926). See also WorLD WAR: BIBLIOGRAPHY. (R. VaN O.)

YUAN SHIH-K’AI (1859-1916), Chinese statesman, was born at Hsiang Cheng, a member of a family belonging to the smaller landed gentry of the province of Honan. Through the influence of relatives he entered upon the career of a military official, having failed to achieve distinction at the literary examinations. His frst important post was in Korea, where, as Imperial Resident and the trusted lieutenant of the Viceroy Li Hung-chang, he strove by adroit diplomacy to preserve China’s shadowy suzerainty over the Hermit Kingdom and to check the steadily in-

YUAN SHIH-K’AI creasing ascendancy of Japan. After the disastrous war with that country (1894-5) he held office as Judicial Commissioner, with military functions, under the Viceroy Li, in Chihli. The re-

markable success which he achieved in this post, by bringing a division of troops to a standard of discipline and efficiency hitherto unknown in the Chinese army, gained for him the favourable notice of the Manchu Court. Thenceforward,

as the prestige of his foreign-drilled forces

increased, he and they became important factors in the plots and intrigues around and about the Dragon Throne. In Aug. 1898, the Emperor Kuang Hsii, hoping to secure Yuan’s loyal services in support of his scheme to seize and imprison the Empress Dowager, summoned him toa special audience at the Summer Palace. Reassured by his promises and by his professed sympathy for the objects of the reform edicts, His Majesty issued a decree conferring upon Yuan the rank of an expectant Vice-

President of a Board, with special duties in connection with

army reorganisation. The subsequent coup d’état by the Empress Dowager, which removed the Empcror from the throne

and replaced him under severe tutelage, owed its success to Yuan’s betrayal of the Emperor’s confidence and to his active support of the conservative Manchu party. From the orthodox Chinese official point of view, his action was to some extent defensible, the Emperor’s plot against the Empress, his aunt, be-

ing tantamount to lack of filial piety. In any case, it was justified by success and never seriously condemned by Chinese public opinion. But to the end of his unhappy career, the Emperor never forgave Yuan’s treachery, and on his death-bed (Nov. 1908) bade his brother, Prince Chun, see to it that he should not go unpunished. After the return of the Empress Dowager to the control of affairs, Yuan received the Governorship of Shantung as reward for his services. Accompanied by the pick of his troops, he entered upon that office at the end of 1899. In the summer of the following year, upon the outbreak of the Boxer rising, he distinguished himself by prompt and unhesitating firmness, in maintaining order and protecting foreigners throughout his jurisdiction. He was never under any delusions as to the futility and folly of the Empress Dowager’s policy in encouraging the anti-foreign movement. After the signature of the peace protocol (Peking ro01), as the aged Li Hung-chang desired to be relieved of further duty, Yuan was appointed to act in his place as Viceroy of Chihli. At Li’s death (Dec. rgor} the appointment was made substantive. Thus at the early age of 42, Yuan attained to the highest office in the gift of the Throne; at the same time he was made a Junior Guardian of the heir apparent. A month later the Yellow Jacket was conferred upon him, together with the appointments of Consulting Minister to the Government Council and Director General of the Northern railway.

In the following year he became a Minister of the Army Reorganisation Council. During the five years of his viceroyalty, he raised and equipped six divisions of troops, greatly superior in every way to those of the Peking field force or the best provincial levies. But his rapid rise to place and power aroused fears and jealousies of a number of high Manchu dignitaries, and many were the schemes for injuring him in the eyes of the Empress Dowager. Finally, the cabal against him, led by his old rival, the ex-Boxer Tartar General Tieh Liang, succeeded in persuading her Majesty, in the autumn of 1907, to transfer him from the Tientsin viceroyalty to the capital. She saved his face and her own, however, by making him a grand councillor and Presi-

dent of the Board of Foreign Affairs, which post he held until the a of the Empress Dowager and the Emperor in Nov. 1908. The subsequent accession to the Regency of Prince Chun, brother of the late Emperor, was fraught with peril for Yuan. For a month after the death of the “ Old Buddha,” rumours were

rife in the north concerning the Regent’s vindictive intentions

with regard to him. It was the general belief that his days were numbered; but the Regent was eventually persuaded that extreme measures would be impolitic. His decision, finally announced by an edict of Jan. 2, merely deprived Yuan of office

1129

and ordered him into retirement at his native place in Honan. There, until the outbreak of the revolution in the autumn of 1911, he remained, professedly contented with a life free from the cares of office and devoted to the management of his estates. But the lack of his guiding hand was unmistakably felt, even by his enemies, at Peking during those two years. After the death of Chang Chih-tung (1g09), Yuan was the only survivor of the great Chinese viceroys to whom the Manchu Court had looked for help and counsel in time of trouble. When, therefore, the first signs of the revolutionary movement at Wuchang were followed by ominous symptoms of hostile activity amongst the Catonese faction, the Regent lost no time in summoning Yuan to his assistance. By an Edict of Nov. 14 1911, he was appointed Viceroy of Hunan and Hupeh, with a mandate to proceed south with his foreign-drilled troops and put an end to the insurrection. Whatever the defects of his character in other respects, there was never any doubt as to Yuan’s unswerving belief in the monarchical principle as essential to the good government of China; there was therefore no question of his refusing to obey the summons of the Throne in peril. It was impossible for him to sympathise with the Republican programme, gradually evolved by the Cantonese extremists as the helplessness of the Manchus and the disorganisation of the Government became revealed. If, at the outset, he seemed disposed to temporise and to make terms, it was not because of any hesitation to face the situation, but simply because he realised that his failure or success would depend upon control of adequate funds. Before consenting to emerge from his retirement (he arrived at Peking on Oct. 27) he insisted on assurances from the National Assembly and from his

foreign supporters at the capital, that the sinews of war would be forthcoming. If he evéntually failed in his brave endeavour to maintain the monarchy, it was because, at the most critical juncture of the struggle, the predominant influence of Great Britain with the Diplomatic Body was finally exercised in favour of a policy of impartial neutrality. Yuan clearly foresaw and declared that if the Monarchy were overthrown, the result would be chaos, “amidst which all interests would suffer and for several decades there would be no peace.” Thus his avowed policy was to preserve a limited Monarchy, pledged to systematic and practical reforms. Had he been loyally served by his representative, Tang Shao-yi, in the negotiations with the revolutionary leaders at Shanghai, above all, had he received the support which he was entitled to expect in the shape of a foreign loan, he would most probably have won.

As it was, he con-

tinued to fight on, practically single-handed, against the forces of disruption, until Feb. 1912 when the Manchu Court, terrified

by bomb explosions at the capital, decided to abdicate. Within two days of the issue of the abdication Edict. (Feb. 12), the Southern revolutionaries, on the initiative of Sun Yat-Sen, exemplified the ‘“ unbroken continuity of immemorial tradition ”’ in China by inviting him to stand for the Presidency of the Republic. Despite his previous declaration that ‘‘ to be a party to the establishment of a Republican form of government would brand him as a liar before all the world,” Yuan made a virtue of necessity and on March 12 took the oath of office as President. But he did so with mental reservations which were soon demonstrated and ostensibly in deference to the sanction of the new form of Government given by the Throne in its abdication Edicts. His policy as president reflected his unmistakable and fixed determination to maintain the authority of the central Govt. and

with it the prerogatives and practice of benevolent despotism. He continued to uphold the principles which he had publicly proclaimed in justification of his defence of the monarchy, and to insist upon maintenance of the continuity of the classical tradition of Government and the preservation of the Confucian system. He was willing for a time to pay lip-service to the Republican formulas, but his actions proved clearly that he had no sympathy with the “‘ rampant democracy ” of the Cantonese Radicals. His methods of ridding himself of prominent members of the Kuo-Min tang (Radical party) who opposed his authority were typically Oriental and ruthless, but being in accordance

YUDENICH— YUGOSLAVIA

1130

with Chinese traditions of statecraft, they aroused no popular indignation beyond the ranks of the Republican group of politicians.

In the summer of 1913, a “‘ war to punish Yuan ” was started in the south by Sun Yat-Sen, Huang Hsing and other malcontents, but Yuan, having by this time secured a foreign loan and the moral support of the Powers, had no difficulty in retaining the venal “loyalty ” of the chief military commanders in the provinces; the Cantonese insurrection came, therefore, to a swift and inglorious end. He proceeded, thereupon, to dissolve and proscribe the Kuo-Min tang and with it made an end of its farce of parliamentary Government and representative institutions. Upon his formal “ election ’”’ to the Presidency in October, he announced his intention of governing the country thenceforward without interference. He took occasion to observe that “ he had always preferred conservative to radical courses,” and denounced the ‘ minority of turbulent demagogues ”’ who, under the name of Republicanism, had “ dragged principles and Jaws in the dust ”; finally he declared his intention of proceeding with a policy of gradual and suitable reforms. The dissolution of the Kuo-Min tang was naturally followed by the abolition of the national assembly, and Parliament was replaced by a political council, consisting chiefly of Yuan’s own nominees. The provincial governorships having been similarly filled, he was able to proceed with his schemes for the centralisation of power and the restoraion of autocracy; unanimous recommendations by the provincial tuthorities enabled him to assert in his presidential mandates that they were in accordance with the will of the people. Similarly fortified by their approval, after the suspension of the provisional constitution and other significant measures, he announced his intention of performing the winter solstice sacrifice at the temple of heaven, a declaration tantamount, in Chinese eyes, to the assumption of autocratic rulership and the impending restoration of the throne. That heshould aspire to revive the monarchy in his own person was the logical conclusion of his openly avowed principles; as a matter of internal politics, his ambition was not only defensible but likely to be justified by results. The movement for the restoration of the throne organised by a society composed chiefly of Yuan’s adherents, began to assume a definite direction in the autumn of 1915;its plans and propaganda were skilfully handled, but, like Yuan himself, they erred in failing to appreciate the necessity for conciliating foreign, as well as native, opinion. The leaders of the movement failed especially to perceive the danger of the situation created by Japan’s twentyone demands (May rors) and to realise that the active opposition of the Japanese Govt. would in all probability be fatal to Yuan’s ambitions. Warned in this sense from more than one quarter, Yuan nevertheless persisted. In Oct. the State council made an elaborate show of constitutional procedure by referring the question of the monarchy to the provinces. The result (a foregone conclusion) was a practically unanimous vote in favour of Yuan’s accession. Meanwhile, however, the Japanese Minister at Peking, supported by his British and Russian colleagues, had made friendly representations to the Chinese Foreign Office, deprecating the restoration of the monarchical system at this juncture. Yuan apparently believed that the War in Europe would prevent the Allies from actively intervening and overlooked the possibility of serious opposition being organised against him in China. On Dec. 12 the monarchy was proclaimed and the enthronement ceremony fixed for Feb. 9 1916. But it was not to be. A week after the issue of the mandate in which this announcement was made, an insurrection, led by one of Yuan’s own nominees, broke out in Yiinnan; several of his provincial military commanders proved disloyal and the movement began to spread with great rapidity, one province after another declaring

its independence.

On

Jan.

22 Yuan

was persuaded to an-

nounce that the establishment of the monarchy would be indefinitely postponed. But the tide of ill fortune was now running too strongly against him and his position soon became untenable. At the end of March, his few remaining supporters urged him to retire into private life. Towards the end of April he consented, while retaining the Presidency, to surrender all civil authority

to the Cabinet, under the premiership of Tuan Chi-jui. Had he lived, some compromise of this kind would most probably have been arranged, but his health gave way and on June 6 1916 he died. With him passed the last of the great Viceroys of the old régime and the last hope of an early restoration of stable government in China. (J. O. P. B.) YUDENICH, NIKOLAI NIKOLAEVICH (1862}, Russian soldier, was born July 18 1862. He entered the army in 1879, and from 1887 to 1902 served on the general staff. In 1902 he became a regimental commander, in 1905 a general, an assistant chief of staff in 1907 anda chief of staffin 1913. At the beginning of the World war he commanded the IH. Turkistan Corps with marked success and was soon placed in command of all the military forces in the Caucasus, a post which he held till the arrival of the Grand Duke Nicholas in 1915. In March 1917 he resumed command, but here as elsewhere further advance was

rendered impossible by the increasing disorganisation of the Russian army. In 1919 Yudenich led anti-Bolshevik forces in an attempt against Petrograd (Leningrad). This venture was a failure and shortly afterwards Yudenich went into retirement. YUGOSLAVIA,

officially

known

as

“the

Kingdom

of the

Serbs, Croats and Slovenes ” (Kraljevina Srba Hrvata i Slovenaca), came into being in the closing months of 1918, as a result of the collapse of Austria-Hungary and the voluntary union of its Yugoslav territories with the former Kingdoms of Serbia and Montenegro. In point of international law, its existence may be said to date from Dec. 1 1918, when the Prince Regent Alexander of Serbia formally complied with the invitation of the Yugoslav National Council, to assume the Regency over the sister provinces also. That the Great Powers were so long in according official recognition to the new State, was due to purely political reasons, connected with the Adriatic dispute. The previous history of the units which now comprise the Yugoslay kingdom, will be found under SERBIA, MONTENEGRO, CROATIA-SLAVONLA, BOSNIA-HERCEGOVINA, DALMATIA. Area 96,136 19,286 area of

and Populationn—The new State covers a total area of sq. m. whereas Serbia before the Balkan War only comprised and after her conquests in 1912-13, 36,938 square miles, The the other provinces is:— Bosnia-Hercegovina, 20,429; Croatia-

Slavonia,

16,920;

Slovenia,

6,241;

Voivodina,

7,213;

Dalmatia,

4,062; Montenegro, 3,733. The total population at the census of 1921 was 12,017,323 or a net decrease Ol eUS 44A during the previous 11 years in the area corresponding to the new state. This decrease, due to the ravages of the two Balkan Wars and the Great War, was naturally heaviest in Serbia proper (316,271 or 10-9 %), in Macedonia (222,599 or 134%) and Montenegro (38,566 or 16%). This is the more striking because in the two decades 1890-1910 Serbia’s population was increasing at the rate of 34-6% (or 749,740 in a total of 2,911,701 inhabitants). The only province which showed an increase of population was the Voivodina (+27,569 or 2%). That the decrease was much less marked in the provinces north of the Save and Danube line was due not only to the fact that the War hardly reached them, but also to the steady immigration into them from Hungary since 1918. The population was divided as follows:—Serbia (1912 area) 2,655,078; Southern Serbia (i.e. Macedonia, etc.) 1,474,560; Montenegro 199,857; Bosnia-Hercegovina 1,889,929; Dalmatia 621,429; Croatia-Slavonia (with Medjumurje) 2,739,593; Slovenia (with Prekomurje) 1,056,464; Voivodina (Banat, Bačka, Baranja) 1,380,413. On a basis of nationality the population is divided as follows:—Serbo-Croats 8,946,884 (744%) Slovenes 1,024,761

(8-5%), Germans 513,472 (4:3%), Magyars 472,409

(3-9%), Al-

banians 441,740 (3°7°%), Rumanians 229,398 (1:9%), other Slavs (Slovaks and Ruthenes) 174,466 (1°5%), Italians 12,825 (0-1 %), “others” (i.e, mainly Turks, Spanish Jews, Gypsies) 201,368 (1-7°). Thusthe Yugoslav population amounts to 82-9 % of the total. Religious distribution shows the following results: Orthodox 5,602,227; Catholic 4,735,154; Mahommedan 1,337,687; Protestant 216,847; Jewish 64,159. The principal towns are: Belgrade 111,740; Zagreb (Agram) 108,338; Subotica (Szabadka) 101,857; Sarajevo 66,317; Ljubljana (Laibach) 53,306; Skoplje (Uskub) 41,066; Novi-Sad (Neusatz) 39,147; Osijek (Essek) 34,412; Sombor 31,332; Senta 30,697; Maribor (Marburg) 30,641; Bitolj (Monastir) 28,418; Beckerek 27,511; Vršac 26,975; Kikinda 25,809; Nišh 25,096; Split (Spalato) 25,042.

I. POLITICAL HISTORY The Adriatic Dispute at Paris—At the Paris Conference there was from the first a deadlock in the Adriatic dispute (see

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SERBIA). M. Clemenceau and Mr. Lloyd George found themselves between two irreconcilable standpoints—between Sonnino, who claimed the literal fulfilment of their treaty pledges, with the addition of the port of Fiume, and Wilson, who refused all cognisance of the secret treaties and regarded them as abrogated by the Allies when they accepted his successive Notes as the basis of the Armistice. The three Western Powers were in the impossible position of judges in a dispute to which one was a party, while two were accessories. On Feb. 11 1919 the Yugoslavs offered to submit the whole dispute to the arbitration of President Wilson, and on April 16 to leave the settlement of frontiers to a plebiscite. But these proposals were rejected by the Italians, who even withdrew for a time from Paris; and Wilson’s public manifesto on the Adriatic question (April 23) so far from improving matters, actually stiffened Italian resistance. The problem was left unsolved during the final stages of the negotiations on the German treaty, and was still being postponed when on Sept. 12 D’Annunzio and his Arditi, with official Italian connivance, seized Fiume and procceded to create a fait accompli. On Dec. 9 r919 the Supreme Council made a definite proposal to Italy on the basis of a slight modification of the so-called “ Wilson Line,” Fiume as a buffer State, a special régime in Zara, Valona in full sovereignty and an Italian mandate in Albania. Neither this nor a later improvised proposal of Clemenceau and Lloyd George (abandoning the buffer state) found acceptance, while Wilson’s three Notes to the Allied Cabinets (Feb. ro and 25 and

who reckoned with the eclipse of his influence at home in AmericaLate in April the Yugoslavs consented to direct negotiations with Italy, but the Nitti Cabinet fell before any decision could be reached, and it was not till Nov. 12 1920 that the Treaty of Rapallo was signed! By it Italy acquired a frontier considerably farther east than the Wilson line, the watershed of the Julian Alps as far as SnjeZnik (Monte Nevoso), almost all Istria with Abbazia and Volosca, and a narrow strip of shore connecting it with Fiume, which was to become an independent unit under the League of Nations, while the Croat suburb of SuSak was to remain in Yugoslavia and the Baroš Port was added as an outlet for Yugoslav trade. Zara became a free city under Italian sovereignty, but as a tiny island isthmus without hinterland or islands. Italy renounced all claim to Dalmatia, and of all the islands retained only Lussin and Cherso. Special linguistic and other privileges were assured to the tiny Italian minority in the Dalmatian towns, but no corresponding charter was granted to the 400,000 to 500,000 Slovenes and Croats annexed to Italy. The settlement, though far from ideal, involved concessions on both sides: and Italy though still forgetful of the principles enunciated at the Roman Congress, could at least claim to be the only victorious Power which had relinquished its hold upon conquered territory. One practical result of the Treaty was that Italy tacitly abandoned the cause of King Nicholas and accepted as inevitable Montencgro’s incorporation in Yugoslavia. Unhappily Italy allowed the treaty to remain a dead letter as

March 6 1920), though they will always remain classic documents

1 Fuller accounts of these long negotiations willbe found in A History of the Peace Conference of Paris (ed. H. W. V. Temperley), vol. IV.

of the controversy, failed to overcome the opposition of Italy,

1132

YUGOSLAVIA

regards Fiume, which was firmly held by D’Annunzio’s irregulars, to the utter ruin of its trade and prosperity. The final liquidation of the Adriatic dispute was postponed till Jan 27 1924 when Mussolini and Pasié (Pashitch) concluded the so-called ‘“ Pact of Rome” guarantecing the Peace Treaties of St. Germain, Trianon and Neuilly and promising neutrality if either should be attacked by a third party. A supplementary agreement recognised Italy’s annexation of Fiume, but left to Yugoslavia the Baroš Harbour and also a free commercial zone in Fiume itself, with proper railway access. The New Frontiers.—In four other directions also the regulation of the new frontiers was a slow and difficult process. 1. The frontier between Yugoslavia and Rumania rests on a decision of the Peace Conference, published on June 13 1919. Rejecting equally the frontier fixed by the secret Treaty of 1916, under the terms of which Rumania entered the War, and the line up to which the Serbs had been allowed to occupy after the Armistice, the Allies divided the Banat on a mainly ethnographic basis. At the last moment they drove two awkward salients into Rumanian territory, in order to include VrSac and Bela Crkva in Yugoslavia, thereby blocking the railway outlet of Timisoara and Arad towards the Danube at Bazias. 2, The regulation of the Austro-Yugoslav frontier was decided according to a plebiscite supervised by an inter-Allied Commission at Klagenfurt. After a keen contest between rival Slovene and PanGerman propagandists, voting took place in Oct. 1920 and resulted in a majority of 12,747 for Austria in Zone A (the more southerly section in dispute), whereupon Zone B also was automatically assigned to Austria 3. By the Treaty of Neuilly (Nov. 27 1919) Bulgaria was forced to cede to Yugoslavia (@) the Strumnica salient, which threatened the Vardar railway from the east, (b) the district of Kočana and the Bregalnica and (c) the town and district of Tsaribrod, which places Sofia strategically at the mercy of her neighbour. 4. The Albanian frontier remained in suspense till 1921, when the Supreme Council sanctioned the line laid down by the Council of Ambassadors in the winter of 1913, thus putting an end to the disreputable design favoured in some quarters of an Italo-Yugoslav “ deal ” on the lines of " Skutari for Fiume.” . The frontier with Hungary was the last to be regulated. By the Treaty of Trianon the Banat (save a small Magyar triangle opposite the city of Szeged) was divided between Rumania and Yugoslavia, while the latter received the whole Bačka (except Baja and district), part of the Baranya (forming the angle between Drave and Danube) and the Medjumurje (between Drave and Mur). Thus, in order to secure the town of Subotica (Szabadka) with its large Bunjevac (or Catholic Serb) population, she was allowed to annex not less than 250,000 Magyars. Her claim to Pécs (Fiinfkirchen) was disallowed, but owing to the long delay in ratifying the treaty Yugoslav troops remained in occupation of this district and its valuable coal-mines till Aug. 1921.

The Provisional Parliament, 1918-20.—So long as vital frontier disputes were unregulated, the central Government in Belgrade held that elections could not be held, and governed for the first two years through a provisional Parliament for which no one could claim a really representative character. The deputies for Serbia held mandates which had actually expired as long ago as June 1914, but whose renewal war and invasion had prevented; those for Croatia had been elected in Jan. 1914, those for Montenegro were delegated by the revolutionary Assembly of Podgoriča in Nov. 1918. But in Bosnia and most of the other provinces the deputies had no popular mandate whatever, beyond being members of the revolutionary local committees formed when Austria-Hungary collapsed. The union of so many distant political organisms had reduced the party system to a state of chaos, and the first two years were taken up by a process of regrouping, the issue being centralism versus federalism. There was a very keen struggle between the Radicals, who still possessed the best party machine and stood for a narrowly Serbian as opposed to a Yugoslav programme, and the newly constituted Democratic party, which absorbed most of the Serbian Opposition parties, the old Serbo-Croat Coalition of Zagreb and the Slovene Liberals. The Radicals of Serbia, being conservative in all but name, made a working alliance with the Clericals of Zagreb and Ljubljana, and under the leadership of Protić favoured decentralisation, combined with concessions to the expropriated land-owners. But in the land question the Radical party was paralysed by its Bosnian wing, which sided with the peasantry; and thus in Aug. 1919 Proti¢

was replaced by Davidovié, the Democrat leader, and though the government remained a Coalition, its weight was transferred farther to the Left. Aninternal trial of strength continued throughout the winter between the rival governmental groups, until in May 1921 a breach was averted only by a reconstruction of the Cabinet under Vesnić, who as Serbian Minister in Paris since 1905 enjoyed wide prestige, and, though a Radical, stood aloof from party dissensions. Under his weaker but more neutral guidance, and aided by the unifying force of the Adriatic crisis, the parties reached agreement upon a new parliamentary franchise, based on universal suffrage. The Constituent Assembly and the Constitution.—The elections to the Constituent Assembly (Nov. 1920) did not clear up the situation as had been expected. No party secured an absolute majority, and the two strongest, the Radicals and Democrats, being almost exactly balanced, were forced to prolong still further their unnatural alliance. In open opposition stood (a) Stephen Radi¢, the Croat peasant-leader whom the Democrats had unwisely imprisoned in rg19-20 and who now swept the boards in Croatia with a republican and federalist programme and induced his party of 50 to absent itself from the Constituent Assembly; (8) the Croat and Slovene Clericals, who strongly advocated decentralisation; and (¢) the 58 Communists, led by a small group of extreme theorists, but owing their strength to the sub-

versive elements in the Bačka, Macedonia and Montenegro and the secret aid of the Carlists in Vienna and Budapest. As the Coalition lacked the necessary majority, it was reduced to gathering support piecemeal among the more neutral groups and for this task Pašić, who became Premier in Jan. 1921, was specially qualified. . By the promise of 100,000,000 dinars to the expropriated Begs, he won over the Moslems of Bosnia, and by similar methods he detached the Slovene section of the newly founded Agrarian

party (Zemljoradnici). But though he was thus able to carry the first reading of the new constitution by 227 to 93 votes (May 12), he was faced by the passive resistance of the great majority of Croats and Slovenes, who regarded with suspicion his “ Great Serbian ” and centralising aims. It is significant that Protié, hitherto PaSi¢’s most intimate associate, withdrew from the Radical party and from Parliament rather than sanction a constitution so inimical to provincial interests; while Trumbié, the foremost advocate of full national unity, recorded his vote against It. 3 The Struggle between Centralists and Federalists—On June 28 (Kosovo Day) the Prince Regent took the oath to the new constitution, but the ceremony was marred by an attempt to

assassinate him and the Premier by a bomb thrown as they drove home to the palace. This outrage, which was traced to the Communists, provided fresh proof that the Democratic leader Drašković, as Minister of the Interior, was justified in his charges of widespread terrorist conspiracy and even in the muchdebated Decrees (Obznane) by which he sought to combat them. When on July 21 DraSkovié was murdered by a young Bosnian Communist, Parliament resolved on reprisals, and 10 days later passed, by roo to 54, laws of extraordinary severity for “ the Defence of the State,” terrorist agitation being made punishable by death, prolonged penal servitude or heavy fines. The mandates of the 58 Communist deputies were annulled, and the party rendered ineffective. As the Croat Peasant party under Radié maintained its unwise policy of abstention, the parliamentary opposition became almost negligible, but the dissensions between the two governing parties rendered constructive work impossible. At last in the winter of 1922 it came to an open breach and the Democratic Ministers resigned. After the failure of prolonged attempts to produce a compromise between Davidović and Radić, the King invited Pašić to form a purely Radical Cabinet, which appealed to the country. The elections of March 1923 still brought no definite decision. The Radicals increased from g1 to 108, and the Croat Peasants from 50 to 70, while the Democrats fell to 52. The Government lacked a majority, but so long as Radić and his followers refused to take their seats in the

YUGOSLAVIA SkupStina, there was no possibility of overthrowing or replacing it. Negotiations between Radié and emissaries of Pasi€é failed, and in Aug. after a series of indiscreet and intlammatory speeches Radié fled abroad, and settled first in London, then in Vienna, in the hope of interesting Western opinion in his cause. Early in 1923, from this retreat, he reached a working agreement for a joint Opposition bloc with the Democrats, Agrarians, Slovenes and Moslems, and instructed his deputies to enter the

Skupština. Pašić saved himself for the time from a precarious situation by allying himself with the dissident Democrats under Pribičević who were strongly Centralist. From April till July there was a prolonged political crisis, during which Government and Opposition used threatening language toward each other. At last on July 27 Davidović and his bloc were invited to form a Cabinet, which the Radié party supported but did not enter. Radi¢é, who: had meanwhile visited Moscow and coquetted with the “ Peasant International,’ now returned home and undermined the Government’s position by a series of more than usually indiscreet speeches, with the result that on Oct. 15 Davidović, under pressure from the Crown, the army and other quarters, resigned office. After another long crisis he was replaced by a“ Concentration Cabinet” under Pašić and Pribičević which only commanded 123 votes out of a total of 315;it therefore ordered new elections, quashed the last Cabinet’s enquiries into corruption and governed on rigidly centralist lines. In Jan. 1925 it went so far as to dissolve the Croat Peasant party, prohibit its newspaper Slobodni Dom and throw Radić himself into prison on a charge of revolutionary and anti-militarist propaganda. At the Feb. elections the Government, by employing pressure and corruption wherever possible, succeeded in securing a small working majority—163 to 152—though it polled 300,000 fewer votes than its rivals. Radić remained in prison, but with his approval his party changed its name from ‘Croat Republican Peasant Party ” to‘ Croat Peasant Club,” issued a new programme and formed a united bloc with Davidović, Trumbić, KoroSeé and the Moslems. The Government retorted by annulling 58 out of the 67 Croat mandates. At the last moment, however, Radié’s nephew Paul issued a declaration in the party’s name, recognising the constitution, dynasty and army, and thus abandoning the whole basis of its agitation for the six years previous. After a further interval Radić made his terms with Pašić, the one abandoning his alliance with the Democratic bloc while the other dropped the now useless ballast of the Pribičević group. Radié himself became Minister of Education, and though his flow of indiscreet public speeches increased rather than diminished, his statements ceased to be taken too seriously, while his stronghold upon the minds of the peasantry could now be exploited in the interests of national unity and concord. This alliance between the strongest Serb and the strongest Croat party, though setting at defiance all the political principles hitherto current, none the less represented a fresh stage in the consolidation of Yugoslavia. The federalist idea in its extreme form has probably been finally defeated, and it now remains to work out the lines of local autonomy and reasonable devolution of powers in provinces whose culture, institutions and traditions will long remain too divergent to be treated satisfactorily on uniform lines. BIBLIOGRAPHY—YV. Klai¢é, Povijest Hrvata (5 vol., 1901-11); F. SiSic, Geschichte der Kroaten (1917) and Hrvatska Povijest (3 vol., 1911-4); R. W. Seton-Watson, The Southern Slav Question (1911; much enlarged German ed., 1913); L. von Siidland, Die Stidslavische

Frage und der Weltkrieg (1918, Austrophile); Hermann Wendel, Der Kampf der Südslaven um Freiheit und Einheit (1925), an admirable and detailed survey, and Aus dem siidslavischen Risorgimento (1920);

T. G. Masaryk, Vasié-Forgich-Aehrenthal (1911); V. Kühne, Ceux dont on ignore; le Martyre (1917), and Les Bulgares peints par euxmêmes (1917) F. Barac, Croats and Slovenes Friends of the Entente (1919, contains important original documents}; The Southern Slav Library (8 pamphlets published by the Jugoslav Committee, 1915-8). On Bosnia, see A. Fournier, Wre wir zu Bosnien kamen (1909); M. Prelog, Povijest Bosne; F. Schmidt, Bosnien-Ierzegovina (1914). On Banat, see Radonić, Histoire des serbes de Hongrie (1919, with documents); D. J. Popović, Vojvodina (1925). On Dalmatia, see G. Prezzolini, La Dulmazia (1915); Lujo Vojnović, Dalmatia (1920).

1133

On Adriatic questions, see C. Maranclli and G. Salvemini, La QOuestione dell’ Adriatico (2nd ed., 1919); F. Šišić, History of Fiume (1919); L. Hautecoeur, L’ftulze seus Orlando (1919); two collections of documents, viz.; F. Sišić, Jadransko Pitanje (1920), and Adriaticus, La Question Adriatigue (1920). On the Murder and the Black Hand, see Stanojevié, Die Ermordung des Ershersogs (1923); B. Jevtić, Sarajevski Atentat (1924); Ljuba Jovanović, The Murder of Sarajevo (1925); Tajna Previratna Organizacija (Salonika, 1918) (minutes of the Black Hand Trial). On the Jugoslav economic situation, see A. Mousset, Le Royaume des Serhes, Croates et Slovenes; Slavonre Review, Dec. 1925, and Belgrade Economic and Financial Review (official monthly).

Il. ECONOMIC AND FINANCIAL HISTORY Agriculture —Agriculture occupies about 80° % of the total population sou, and and

of Yugoslavia. The different provinces vary greatly in climate, configuration and methods of cultivation. The coastal districts the high Karst land immediately behind them are mountainous often barren and present great difficulties of communication.

The most fertile districts are the Voivodina (Banat and Batka), Slavonia and Northern Serbia (especially the Mačva, Morava and Timok districts) and portions of Croatia, Slovenia and Bosnia.

The

principal crops are maize and wheat (40°, of both being produced in the Voivodina),

sugar-beet,

opium (in Macedonia) Hercegovina).

and

hemp and hops (also in the north),

tobacco

(chiefly

in Macedonia

and

Area Sown and Production in 1024

Hectares

Quintals

Wheat .

717443

15,722,496

Barley . Kye Oats Maize.

363,041 195,303 352,674 1,965,355

2,934,577 1,407,508 3,018,477 37:949,376

17,526 13,086

2,262,592 84,746

.

Haricot beans Potatoes Sugar-beet

Beet for fodder Flax Hemp

; .

.

40,080 217,953 48,257

25,070

Clover . Lucerne

112,601 60,345

Hay

1,595,698

378,020 10,274,825 10,631,066

253,076

3,607,746 1,989,442

33.427,712

Admirable wines are produced in Dalmatia and Hercegovina (both rather strong), Syrmia (of the Hungarian type) and along the Danube in Serbia (Smederevo). The fruit industry is growing steadily in importance, notably in the Sumadija district of Serbia and in the East of Bosnia. In an average year some 750,000 tons of fresh plums are produced, and 40,000 to 50,000 tons of dried plums and prune pulp are exported. Great efforts are being made to improve the methods of drying and packing. The famous Maraschino liqueur is made in the district round Zara (Zadar), and excel-

lent plum brandy (sljivovica) in almost all districts. The pyrethrum is grown in considerable quantity in Dalmatia, for the purpose of preparing insect powder. There are eight sugar factories, two state-owned, the rest in the hands of foreign banks and companies; but though the area of beet cultivation has actually grown since the partition of the great estates among the peasantry, the decline in the price of sugar in the world-market has produced a certain crisis in the industry, despite the specially low freights granted on the state railways. Forestry.—The forests of Yugoslavia cover 7,500,000 hectares of land, of which all save 2,000,000

is old forest.

Timber

is a main

article of export, Italy, Egypt and the Levant being the best customers. The most important state forests are in Bosnia, beech, fir and oak being the commonest trees. The Slavonian oak (known abroad as “ Austrian oak”) is valuable and of high quality. In Serbia 60° of the forests are becch. At Tesli¢ there is a wood-distilling factory which is the largest in Europe and produces methylated spirit, alcohol, formaldehyde, acetone and other chemical

products.

Here and at Bijelišeć charcoal is produced by the dry

distillation process. fn Slovenia large quantities of tannin are produced. There are cellulose factories in Bosnia and Belgrade, and bentwood furniture is manufactured to a considerable extent in Slovenia and Croatia. Livestock.—The livestock of the country, though greatly deplenished by the War, afterwards rapidly revived. In 1924 there were 1,062,893 horses (46,800 being exported), 3,869,985 horned cattle and 7,639,257 sheep (half of the latter being in Serbia). Pigs are estimated at between 2,500,000 and 3,000,000, Goats are naturally most numerous in the poorer districts of the South (Ilercegovina, Dalmatia, Montenegro). Mining and Mineral Resources.—The mincral resources of Yugoslavia have for the most part lain idle since Roman and mediacval times, but offer very great possibilities. Iron ore of good quality occurs In enormous quantity and near the surface at Ljubija, in Bosnia, where it is mined by the state mining authorities and sold

YUKON

1134 for exportation.

TERRITORY

Another iron mine worked by the State exists at

Vareš, in Bosnia, and is worked in conjunction with a coal mine and iron-smelting establishment and the ironworks at Zenica. The metallurgical works here are on a primitive scale, their production being pig-iron and smal! castings. The ironworks at Jesenice (Slovenia), which have a capacity of 70,000 per annum, produce bar iron, iron and steel sheets, steel rails up to 22 kilogrammes per metre (as used on the Bosnian narrow-gauge railways), cold rolled iron, drawn iron and wire nails, Bar iron is manufactured at Store, near Celje, in Slovenia; steel and steel springs at Guštanj, on the MariborKlagenfurt railway, and highly-silicated foundry iron is produced at Sopusko in Slovenia. Large deposits of brown coal and lignite occur in many parts of Yugoslavia, but there is no coking coal. Copper is produced at Bor and Majdanpek in Serbia, the first mentioned being

an important concern, largefy in the hands of French interests. Whereas the total production in terms of metal in 1923 was 6,700 tons for the whole country, in 1911-2 it was 7,600 tons from the Bor mines alone, and in 1917 it is estimated that from the latter mines the Central Powers obtained as much as 30,000 tons. Alluvial gold is found in the river Timok (East Serbia), manganese ores are worked near Sarajevo, lead in the MeZica valley (Slovenia), bauxite

or aluminium ore in Dalmatia. Foreign Trade—The total exports in 1924 amounted to 3,734.974 metric tons, valued at 9,533,774.432 dinars—the principal items being as follows:—

Cereals . Beans and potatoes . Fruit . s : : Wine and Spirits : Alcohol . : Animal Products Skins `o. ; ; Wood . ; ; ; Soda . i : Calcium Žž. : i Cement Iron . ; ; ; Lead . i i Copper Other Minerals ’ Live Stock (less Poultry)

Metric Tons

Dinars

454,046 41,994 32,440 1,508 1,233 23,783 3,452 10,043 21,8387 37,133 341,628 4,070 10,641 7,605 813,976 698,429 (head)

1,359,852,056 172,383,715 246,547,434 9,521,227 19,213,610 748,428,831 276,740,543 119,473,432 65.917.813 123,591,652 189,421,784 33,05.4,22 135,596,956 346,490,091 308,085,497 1,353,045,347

; ; k é . Í i : ; ;

i

|

Italy Austria

:

Czechuslovakia

.

Hungary Greece Switzerland

Germany France Rumania Great Britain

Dinars

1,530,878 452,335

2,757,305, 162 2,332,971,109 9437475132

244333

699,284 255,374

70,226

45,461

84,205

91,656 75,602

756,133,352 676,169,377

389,554,057

388,962,378 362,874,301

252,623,807 131,529,444

A. General: Customs duty and Customs dues Excise. ; . . . ; Monopolies

.

.

:

Profit on Exchange ; Turnover Tax | Receipts from Communications Post-Office Saving Bank . War Invalids Tax . . Ordnance Tax ; ; Direct Taxation with Surtaxes State Properties . Various revenues. . . B. Speciel: Indirect Taxes : ; State Enterprises . : : Nliscellaneous . ; ;

Total.

l

:

:

:

i

: i

;

'

;

:

. : , : . . .

: À ‘ š ‘ : n

: i : i ; ;

i

;

; J

: .

A

‘

hun h o No = Ds

Imports amounted to 1,127,686 metric tons, valued at 8,221,713,552 dinars, the most important articles being cotton and woollen fabrics (25%5) and machinery. Among the countries of origin Italy again takes first place (29-52%) followed by Czechoslovakia, Austria, Great Britain. Revenue and Expenditure —The budget for April 1 1924-March 31 1925 estimated a revenue of 10,405,000,000 dinars and an expenditure of the same amount. The actual expenditure amounted to 10,579,388,339 dinars but the revenue exceeded the estimate,

Dinars 1,600,000,000 1,810,000,000

s

i i . ; s i : : :

2,468,050,000

163,000,900 225,100,000 2,462,550,000 15,000,900 140,000,000 70,000,000 500,000,000 235,000,000 21,000,000 910,000,000

1, 120,000,000 80,000,000 11,910,000,000

Public Debt.— According to figures published by the InspectorateGeneral of the Ministry for Finance, the consolidated public debt stood as follows in 1926:— ;

Their chief countrics of destination were as follows:—

To

The principal sources of revenue as estimated for 1925-6 were as follows:—

|

Amount in 1926 ; Annual PayDinars ment: Dinars

I. Pre-War Debts 2. War Debts . ; : 3. Post-War Debts . 4. Debts arising from the Innsbruck Agreement Total (Dinars)

2,217,630,960 125,159,576 15,312,967,707 | (Not commenced) 6,05.4,989,870 293,204,827 1,353.291,749 24,935,880, 2387

45,293,213 467,288,316

The statistical data given above are based mainly upon an “Economic Survey of Yugoslavia ’’ (compiled for the Department of Overseas Trades, and published in No. 11 of the Slavonic Review) and on ‘! Economic Resources and Problems of Yugoslavia,” by Miss M. R. Shackleton (Scottish Geograph. Mag., Nov. 1925).

(R. W. S.-W.)

YUKON TERRITORY (sce 28.945), a territory of the Dominion of Canada.. With the decline of the gold-mining industry, the population decreased from 27,219 in 1901 to 8,512 in rọrr and 4,157 in 1921. In ror8anamendment to the Yukon Act abolished the council of the Yukon and the territory is now administered by the Northwest Territories Branch of the Canadian Department of the Interior. Law and order are enforced by members of the Royal Canadian Mounted Police. The Yukon is represented in the Dominion Parliament by one member in the House of Commons. The mincral production in 1923 was valued at $2,972,823. Placer gold is still the principal mineral product, the value of the gold output in 1923 being $1,243,287. The Yukon has also been a steady producer of silver and in 1923 yielded 1,914,438 oz. valued at $1,241,953. Lead production amounted to 6,771,113 lb. worth $486,098. The wide distribution of the ores of gold, copper, silver and lead indicate enormous mining possibilities. Coal, of which there are large reserves, 1s mined in small quantities, 313 tons valued at $1,485 being produced in 1923. Large game and fur-bearing animals abound. The ralue of pelts purchased by traders from trappers in the Yukon during the season of 1922-3 amounted to $109,522.

ZAGHLUL— ZANZIBAR

AGHLUL, SAAD (1860-

), Egyptian pasha, was the

son of a notable in the district of Ibian, Gharbia Province. He was educated at the village school and afterwards at the University of El Azhar, in Cairo. When he had completed his prescribed course of studies, he was, in 1880, appointed editor of the Official Journal. Later he was nominated a Moawin under the Ministry of the Interior and eventually became Chicf of the Contentieux for the province of Giza. Involved in the Arabi revolt, he was one of the many notables detained on the occupation of Egypt by British troops in 1882. On his release he ceased to hold office and in 1884, when the native tribunals were instituted, he began to practice at the bar. In 1892 he was appointed counsellor of the native court of appeal. Having become proficient in the French language and in the science of law, he obtained his diploma in law. He became Minister of Education in 1906, and under his “ enlightened administration ”’ it was said by Lord Cromer (Modern Egypt, vol. IL., p. 535) that “education in Egypt made rapid strides in advance. ” A change of the Ministry during Lord Kitchener’s tenure of the Cairo Agency resulted in Zaghlul’s ceasing to hold the Portfolio for Education, but he was appointed vice-president of the Legislative Assembly and he took a special interest in its deliberations until the outbreak of the World War. On the signing of the Armistice Zaghlul, who had for long been considered the principal spokesman of the Nationalist party, appealed to the Residency in Cairo for the recognition of Egyptian independence, basing his demand on President Wilson’s self-determination policy to which effect had been given by the British Government’s issue of a proclamation defining the status of the other countries liberated from Turkish rule by the War. When his proposal that he and some representative Nationalists should visit London to press their views was refused by the Government, he became discontented, and his attitude was so hostile that he and three othcrs were arrested on March 8 1919 and deported to Malta. This was the signal fora murderous outbreak in Egypt in which British officers and others were killed and the country became much disturbed. Zaghlul and his friends were later released by Lord Allenby, and freedom of travel, which War measures had hitherto restricted, was permitted to all. A special mission under the chairmanship of Viscount Milner was sent to Egypt in Nov. 1919 to inquire into matters and make representations. Zaghlul eventually came to London and discussions between him, Adly Pasha and Lord Milner took place, the results of which were published in the “ Milner Report. ” Zaghlul returned to Egypt early in 1921, where he represented the extreme Nationalist party in opposition to the more moderate ministry under the presidency of Adly Pasha. At the end of the year, when the trouble again broke out in Egypt, Zaghlul was arrested once more and deported, first to Aden and then to the Seychelles. In Sept. 1922 he was transferred to Gibraltar, whence he was released on April 4 1923, on the grounds of ill-

health. After the promulgation of the new constitution, martial law was abolished and Zaghlul was free to return to Egypt. An enthusiastic reception was accorded to him on his landing at Alexandria and in the elections of Jan. 1924 his supporters gained an overwhelming majority. Yehia Ibrahim Pasha resigned and Zaghlul formed a ministry. The question of the evacuation of the Sudan now became prominent and conversations took place in London (Sept. 25—Oct. 3) between the Egyptian and British prime ministers; Zaghlul refused to modify his intransigent attitude and returned to Egypt. On Nov. 19 1924 Sir Lee Stack, the Sirdar, was assassinated and Zaghlul was forced to resign. (See Ecyrt.) ZAGREB, Yugoslavia (see 1.382).—Zagreb or Agram has increased largely in population (79,083 in 1910; 108,338 in 1921), as the influx of officials and business men since the formation of the state of Yugoslavia has outweighed the exodus of Magyars

and Germans.

1135

Zagreb is the second city of the kingdom and its

financial and commercial centre. It is also the home of an aristocracy and a seat of culture on a level with more famous European centres. Previously the centre of the Yugoslav movement, it is now particularist and Croat in sympathy. The modern part of the town, with tall buildings, wide streets and large open spaces, stands in a long narrow tract between the levels along the river Sava and the ridge on which the old town, with its narrow winding streets, is situated. An exchange was opened in 1919, and additions have been made to the buildings of the medical faculty at the university, but little building is in progress. A hydroelectric station has been planned, but sufficient capital was not forthcoming in 1925. The chief industries are the manufacture of linen, leather and tobacco, A trade fair is held twice yearly, and a motor exhibition was instituted in 1924 and is intended to be annual. Work is in progress on a railway to unite Zagreb with Spalato (Spljet) and Sebenico (Sibenik). There were nationalist disturbances in the town in 1912, and the two military courts of justice which sat here during the World War were considered too strongly Croat in sympathy by the authorities at Vienna and Budapest, so that in 1918 prisoners on trial for treason or military offences were sent to Bratislava (Pressburg). In that year, when the Austrian empire was breaking up, an independent nationalist body assembled at Zagreb. In 1924 there was serious rioting between the Croat Nationalists and the Yugoslav Sokols at a meeting of these patriotic athletic societies in the town.

ZAIMIS, ALEXANDER

(18ss~

__), Greek statesman,

was

born in Athens Oct. 28 1855, and came of a family of politicians.

Entering public life rather from duty than ambition, Zaimis became the “utility man ” of Greek politics; thus he was first appointed Prime Minister in Oct. 1897, to clear up the aftermath of the disastrous Greco-Turkish War. Resigning in 1899, after having accomplished that task, he again became Premier after the “‘ Gospel Riots”? had caused the fall of Theotokes in Nov. 1901, but succumbed to the majority which supported his uncle, Deliyannes, in 1902. In Sept. 1906 he was appointed high commissioner of the Powers in Crete, a post which he held until 1911. In 1913 he was appointed governor of the National Bank. He became Premier for the third time in Oct. 1915, but returned to the Bank after a month’s office, emerging, however, to resume the premiership in June 1916. He became for the fifth time premier tn 1917, and announced to King Constantine the decision of the three Protecting Powers that he must abdicate. He then retired again to the National Bank, but was removed on the restoration of King Constantine. After the King’s second abdication, Sept. 1922, Zaimis refused a sixth premiership, and was talked of as a possible president.

ZANGWILL, ISRAEL, (1864-1926) English man of letters, (sce 28.956) died Aug. 1 1926. ZANZIBAR (see 28.958) had a population (1921) of 221,925, including 295 Europeans and 18,965 Asiatics, mostly British Indians. In 1924 the population had fallen to 203,265 (Zanzibar island 115,616; Pemba island 87,649). With the development of trade direct between Mombasa and Dar-es-Salaam and oversea ports, Zanzibar has lost its pre-eminence as the entrepôt for the commerce of East Africa, but Zanzibar and Pemba islands continued to provide the greater part of the world’s supply of cloves. The port, too, still commands the coastwise trade with the mainland, and the very considerable dhow trafic with Arabia and Persia. History.—The Sultan (Sayyid) Ali bin Hamud, a young man educated at Harrow and fond of travel, abdicated in īọrır. (He died in Paris in 1918). His successor, Sayýid Khalifa bin Harud (born 1879) was a great nephew of Sultan Bargash. Sayyid Khalifa showed the greatest loyalty to the British connection, and, as the leading Moslem prince in East Africa his moderating influence did much to steady Moslem opinion in

1136

ZEEBRUGGE,

that part of Africa during the World War. The most dramatic incident of the War, for Zanzibar, was the sinking of the ancient

British cruiser “ Pegasus ” by the German

cruiser ‘“ Königs-

berg’ on Sept. 20 1914, the “ Pegasus ” being at the time at anchor in Zanzibar roadstead, undergoing repairs. In July 1913 the control of the protectorate was transferred from the Forcign to the Colonial Office. The governor of British East Africa (Kenya Colony) was appointed High Commissioner of Zanzibar, the local administration being in the hands of a British Resident. The High Commissioner had, however, little time to spare from Kenya to supervise the affairs of Zanzibar, where local feeling was also against centralisation. In Sept. 1925 the High Commissionership was abolished and the British Resident became directly responsible to the Colonial Office. In 1926 the purely advisory council which had existed for some years was superseded by a nominated legislative council, with six unofficial members, holding their seats for three years. Of this council the British Resident is president, and has a casting vote. Economic Conditions —Trade is largely dependent on the clove harvest, the only other important industry, apart from

trans-shipment of goods, being the production of copra from the coco-nut palm. In poor seasons profits are precarious, for the

ATTACK

ON

ft. draught) armed with ro 6-in. guns and specially equipped with one 1r-in. and two 7-5—-in. howitzers, Stokes’ mortars, tlame throwers, Lewis guns and pom-poms. She was commanded by Capt. Alfred B. Carpenter (awarded V.C.); she carried a storming party of 1,030 sailors under Capt. Henry Halahan and 750 Royal Marines under Lt.-Col. Bertram Elliott; she was supported by two Liverpool ferry boats, the “ Iris II.” (Comm. Valentine Gibbs) and “ Daffodil?” (Lt. Harold G. Campbell).

Her task was to storm the mole. The blocking ships were the old cruisers “ Thetis” (Comm. R. S. Sneyd}, “ Intrepid ? (Lt. Stuart Bonham-Carter) and “ Iphigenia ” (Lt. E. W. BillyardLeake). Behind them were 13 destroyers under Capt. Wilfred ‘Tomkinson, 18 coastal motor boats (55 ft. long, 3 ft. draught, 35 knots, two 18-in. torpedoes) under Lt. Arthur Welman, and 33 motor launches for smoke screens and inshore rescue work. Submarine C. 3 (Lt. Richard Sandford) was to blow up the viaduct. In command was Rear-Adml. Roger Keyes with his flag

in the destroyer ‘* Warwick.” At Ostend the blocking attempt was to be made by two old cruisers, the “ Brilliant ” (Comm. Alfred E. Godsal) and “ Sirius ” (Lt. Comm. H. N. Hardy) supported by five bombarding monitors, cight British and six French destroyers with 18 motor launches under Comm. Hamilton Benn.

islands are dependent upon the free immigration of labour from

the mainland and rates of pay are high.

Many of the Arabs,

who own the large clove plantations, are backward in the syste-

ZEEBRUGGE

intende

DA FFODIL

TT

bLighthouse

3 3.5950 (10H ib)

APRIL 22-23 1918 low weler IN NDI matic planting of new trees—the only means of indefinitely Scale — one —S Barges maintaining supplies, all land suitable for cloves being under Aged< —Shed$3 = z cultivation. The average clove crop for the 20 years ending 1924 was 512,000 fraslas; the crop for 1924-5 was over 700,000 fraslas. (A frasla equals 35 Ib. avoirdupois.) For copra the average yield for ro years ending 1923 was 534,000 fraslas; in 1924 the yield was the highest recorded, being 988,000 fraslas. The copra, however, is generally of poor quality. During 1920-5 improvements at Zanzibar harbour included the building of a concrete wharf 800 ft. long, and the erection of a clove depdét and goods sheds. The loss of part of its transit -E Depth m entronce fow water 20r HE afte 2pm. lift{anprox) trade was shown in the shipping returns. The tonnage of shipAW ipm. ping using the port was 1,503,000 in 1913 and 1,068,000 in 1924. The trade returns, with the rise in the price of commodities, i ATREPID 22ce tetween phigena 8Per about0P showed an increase. Imports were valued at £1,103,000 in 1913 q Atih Goeben Battery and at £2,223,000 in 1924. Exports in 1913 were valued at $59 ri760yds.towestward 4 82:n(2icm) {1,048,000 and in 1924 at £2,286,000. Trade is mostly with India, Tanganyika and Great Britain. The chief source of revenuc is the customs. Revenue increased from £275,000 in 1913 to The Attack.—The force started at 4:53 P.M. on Monday, April £589,000 in 1923 and was £498,000 in 1924. Expenditure in 22; the bombardment was to open at 11:20 P.M.; the smoke screen was to start at 11:40 P.M.; the “Vindictive” was to reach Zee1913 was £248,000, in 1923 £480,000 and in 1924 £452,000. brugge mole at midnight; the first blocking ship was to pass the _ BrpLtiocrapiy—Annual Reports issued by the Colonial Office, lighthouse at 12:25 A.M. Twelve miles from Zeebrugge, the force London, and the East African Red Book (Nairobi, periodically); took up its formation for attack. The night was overcast with J. E. Craster, Pemba, the Spice Island of Zanzibar (1913); Major F. B. Pearce (sometime British Resident) Zanzibar, the Island a light wind from the northeast; the small craft dispersed and Metropolis of Eastern Africa (1920); Zanzibar: an account of tts soon a thick cloud of smoke began to roll down the coast, shroudpeople, industries and history (Zanzibar, 1924). (F. R. C.) ing everything from sight. But as the “ Vindictive ’’ neared the ZEEBRUGGE, ATTACK ON.-—-On April 22-3 1918, an attack shore, the wind shifted to the southward and the smoke screen was made by British forces on the German submarine bases at drifted back. A glare of searchlights fastened on her and under a Zeebrugge and Ostend in order to block the entrance to the tornado of fire the storming party drawn up ready to rush ashore Bruges ship canal and bar all passage to the Flanders flotilla of suffered heavily and lost both its leaders. The intention was to submarines. At both Zeebrugge and Ostend the entrances are run alongside the mole close to the battery, but a sluicing tide narrow (about 300 ft. wide) running between two piers. At carried the ship about 300 yd. farther on. The Storming of the Mole—It was one minute past midnight Zeebrugge on the west side of the entrance a great mole sweeps out for 13 m. to a lighthouse at the end where the Germans had when the “ Vindictive ” ran alongside the mole. This was a critical moment, for the rush of the three-knot tide created a heavy erected a battery of three 5-9-in. and six 4-in. guns. British Plan of Attack.—The general plan of attack was simple. swell which threw the ship off the mole, but the little ‘‘ Daffodil” came up and, butting the ship bodily into the mole, enabled the Supported by the fire of two monitors, a cruiser was to assault ‘the mole on its outer side and divert the German fire from three storming party to get ashore. They got ashore but a mass of blocking ships which were to dash in and be scuttled in the en- barbed wire lay between them and the battery. As they were trance. A short viaduct joining the mole to the shore was to be gathering for the assault, a great sheet of flame rose with a roar blown up by a submarine. Ostend was to be blocked simultane- into the sky. The viaduct had gone up. Lt. Sandford had jammed C.3 with 54 tons of amatol successfully into it. It was 12:20A. M. ously by two blocking ships. The whole coast bristled with guns and the chance of success depended largely on an effective There was fighting on the mole and here Captain Bamford and able seaman Mackenzie won V.Cs. By 12:50 the blocking smoke screen. The Attacking Forces.—The attacking force consisted of the old ships were in and the “‘ Daffodil’s ” siren blared out the order to cruiser ‘“ Vindictive ” (5,750 tons displacement, 320 ft. long, 24 retire.

1137

ZEPPELIN, FERDINAND—ZING The Retirement.—The storming party retired in perfect order, bringing their wounded with them. Capt. T. M. Palmer refused to leave the shore and was subsequently numbered among the missing men for whom he had waited. The ‘ Daffodil ” pulled the ‘ Vindictive’s ” bows off the mole. The “ Iris II.’’ came under a heavy fire; and her commander and Maj. Chas. Eagle were mortally wounded, but Licutenant Spencer, himself seriously wounded, steered her clear, while motor-launch 558 hid her in a friendly cloud. Action of the Blocking Ships.-Meanwhile the three blocking ships had passed in under a storm of shell. The ‘ Thetis ” fouled a net and ran aground. The “ Intrepid ” ran right into the canal and Lt. Bonham Carter blew the explosive charges, then with six others got on board a Carley raft and was picked up by M. L. 282 (Lt. Percy Dean, awarded the V.C.). The captain of the “‘ Iphigenia ” found himself heading for the western pier, but going hard astern managed to make the entrance, drove into the gap between the “ Intrepid ”’ and eastern bank, and blew the charges. The crews were saved by the motor launches. By 1:30 A.M. it was all over and the ships were on their way back. The destroyer “ Morning Star ” had come under a heavy fire and had to be abandoned and sunk. The Ostend Operations.—At Ostend things had gone badly. The smoke cloud was blown back; the mark buoy had been moved and both blocking ships ran ashore three-quarter mile east of the entrance. On May 9-1oanother attempt was made by Commander Godsalin the “ Vindictive.” Under a heavy fire in which the commander was killed, the ship under Lt. Victor Crutchly just made the entrance and grounded. The crew was saved by two motor launches, under Lt. Geoff. Drummond and Lt. Rowland Bourke, both of whom were awarded the V.C. The casualties in these two attempts amounted to 637 (killed 197, wounded 413, missing 27). Zeebrugge was closed for a time, the Flanders submarines received a check, and the measure of the enterprise lies in the nine ¥.Cs. which were awarded for it. BipLioGRAPeHyY.—P. Hislam, How we Twisted the Dragon's Tail (1918); Keble Howard, The Glory of Zeebrugge (1918); A. H. Pollen,

The Navy in Battle (1918); C. S. Terry, Zeebrugge and Ostend Dispatches (1919). (See also WORLD WAR: BIBLIOGRAPHY.) (A.C. D.)

ZEPPELIN, FERDINAND, Count von (1838-1917), German airship inventor, was born at Constance, Baden, July 8 1838. He was educated for the army and received a commission at the age of 20. He served, as a volunteer, in the Federal army during the American Civil War and whilst in America made his first balloon ascent. Returning to Germany he saw active service in the Austrian War of 1866 and in the Franco-German War of 1870. In 1891 he retired from the army with the rank of general and thenceforth devoted his energies to the study of aeronautics. In r900 he built an airship, which rose from the ground and remained in the air for 20 minutes, but was wrecked in landing. In 1906 he made two successful flights at a speed of 30m. an hour, and in 1907 attained a speed of 36 miles. From that time onwards his airship construction made steady progress, and the success he had achieved was evidenced by the exploits of the Zeppelin airship in the World War (see Arrsuip). He died at Charlottenburg March 8 1917. ZEROMSKI, STEPHEN (1864-1025), Polish novelist, poet

and dramatist, was born at Strawczyn

Nov. 14 1864.

Ban-

ished from Poland by the Russian Govt. carly in his life, he first attracted attention by a collection of tragic tales entitled The Ravens and the Crows are Picking us to Pieces (1895, Eng. tr. 1906). In the publication of The Homeless (1900) Zeromski supplied a generic name for all his Polish heroes. His philosophy, full of symbolic pessimism, is clearly expounded in the novel Aryman takes Revenge (1904), while the triumph of evil over good is vividly treated in The Story of Sin (1906, 2 vol.) describing the slow and terrible downfall of a woman of culture. In his epic poem Asses (1904, 2 vol.) he delineates the minds of the Polish people after the Partition and their efforts to liberate their country by serving in the Napoleonic legions. During the World War Zeromski published his great trilogy The Fight with Satan—The Conversion of Judas (1916), The Blizzard (1918),

Charitas (1919)—a kind of epilogue and synthesis of his previous work and at the same time an autobiography of his own life. After the Polish achievement of national independence, Zeromski turned to the drama, finally producing The Broken Spell (1924) in which the hero dedicates himself to the services of a resuscitated Poland. He died Nov. 20 1925. See S. Brzozowski, O Stefan Zeromski (Warsaw, 1905); W. Jampolski, Stefan Zeromski, the Spiritual Leader of the Race (Lwów, I9I8).

ZICHY,

l

EUGEN

Count

(1837-1906),

Hungarian

traveller

(see 28.979), died at Merano, Italy, on Dec. 26 r906.

ZIEM, FÉLIX FRANÇOIS GEORGE PHILIBERT (1821-1911),

French painter (see 28.979), died in Paris Nov. 11 1911. ZIMMERMANN, ARTHUR (1859),German diplomat

was born May 8 1859 at Frankenstein.

After having been vice-

consul at Shanghai and acting consul in 1900 at Tientsin, he entered the Foreign Office in 1902 and rose by roto tobe a director of the political section. In tort he was appointed under-secretary, and in Nov. ro16 secretary of state in succession to Von Jagow. In this capacity he addressed to America the note of Jan. 31 1917 on the subject of U-boat warfare. He was also the author of the invitation of Jan. 19 1917 to Mexico to enter into alliance with Germany and to sound Japan as to her willingness to co-operate. For Mexico the price of this alliance was to be the American States of New Mexico, Texas and Arizona. This

proposal, which was sent through the medium of Von Eckhardt the German minister to Mexico, was intercepted in America and President Wilson was in a position to publish it on March 1 1917. The disclosure was one of the primary causes resulting in America’s declaration of war upon Germany. Zimmermann rctired on Aug. 5 1917, shortly after the resignation of Bethmann Hollweg. ZINC (sce 28.981).—The United States is the principal producer of both zinc ore and spelter. The Goplin area in Missouri is the principal region, but large deposits are worked in the Upper Mississippi region, Franklin Furnace (New Jersey) and, since the application of improved methods of zinc concentration, in the western States. Australia is next to the United States as a zinc produccr, most of the ore being obtained from the Broken Hill district (New South Wales). Tasmania also has important deposits and occurrences are known in Queensland and Western Australia. In Canada, the most important deposits of the metal occur in British Columbia and Quebec, these two provinces sharing practically the whole of the Canadian production in the proportions of four-fifths and one-fifth respectively. The principal countries in Europe participating in the zinc industry are Germany, Italy, Poland and Spain. For many years Germany ranked second only to the United States. [ler most important deposits were in Upper Silesia, which yielded about three-fourths of the total German production. Before the War the European industry was almost wholly controlled by the German zinc convention, a widespread organisation for the control of production and selling prices. In Italy the chief mines now worked are in Sardinia, though occurrences of ore are found in Lombardy, Piedmont and Tuscany. During the post-War period Poland produced more zinc ore than any other European country, her richest mines being situated in Silesia; her exports in 1923 amounted to 80,000 long tons. In Spain the chief zinc-mining centres are in the provinces of Santander and Murcia. The ores of Santander are mainly calamine, while those of Murcia are principally blende and galena. Mention should be made of the zinc-ores mined in the United Kingdom. These are almost invariably blende associated with galena, and occur chiefly in North Wales, the north of England, the Isle of Man and at Dumfries in Scotland. The ores occur in veins traversing the paleozoic rocks of those regions. The number of producing mines is considerable, but the output is small. In the table on the following page the production of zinc in the principal countries of the world is set out for the three years, 1913, 1918 and 1923, f

ZINOVIEV—ZIONISM

1138 Long Tons

United States

Australia Canada Germany Italy . oaan

Spa

United Kingdom Belgium

France

Japan .

I9I3

1918

1923

309,532

462,435

455,745

4,121 ei 279,000 a 10,331

9,444 11,227 232,000 1,169 -

66,000 200,938

50,000 9,096

27,530 144,677

18,052

48,541

5,907

66,799

in

15,644

39,203

41,153 26,972 39,400 3,622 90,000

10,746 13,671

BıBLIOGRAPHY.— L. C. Ball, “The Etheridge Mineral Field,” Queensland Geological Survey, No. 245 (191 5);; J. C.Moulden, “ Zinc; Its production and industrial applications,” Jour. Roy. Soc. Arts, vol. 64, pp. 495-513, 517-529 (1916); A. Stansfield, ‘‘ Canadian Zinc Resources,’ Canadian Mining Institute Bull. 52 (1916); W.L.

Uglow, ‘‘ Lead and Zinc Deposits in Ontario and in Eastern Canada, Rep, Ontario Bur.Mines, vol. 25, pt. 2 (1916); J. C. Brown,* ‘ Geology and ore deposits of the Bawdwin Mines,” Records Geol. Surv. India, vol. 48 (1917); Zinc Ores, Imperial Institute Monographs on

ZIONISM (sce 28.986).—When the Zionist Organisation was founded in 1897, it set to work with a clear-cut programme. With the consent of the Powers, a charter for the colonisation of Palesto be obtained from the Sultan. The charter once ee the Jews were to be systematically settled in Palestine en masse. Till then, the Zionist Organisation was to hold its hand and keep its resources intact. The Porte was duly ap-

proached and desultory negotiations followed.

Opinion in the

movement became sharply divided. The “ practical ” Zionists, who included most of the Zionist leaders in Russia, pressed for an immediate start to be made in Palestine. The “ political” Zionists whose strength was in Western and Central Europe, still clung to the charter as an essential prerequisite, protesting that Zionist resources should not be dissi-

pated on petty colonisation.

The “ practical”? Zionists won

their first important success in 1908, when a Zionist agency was established at Jaffa. At the Tenth Zionist Congress, which met at Basle in rg11, they came for the first time into control, and they maintained their ascendancy at the Eleventh Congress— the last before the War—which met at Vienna in 1913. The political field was not abandoned, but the movement now threw

Mineral Resources (1917); A. M. Sen, “‘ Notes on the occurrence of Lead, Zinc and Antimony ores in Mysore,” Dept. Mines and Geology, Mysore State, pp. 9-20 (1917); T. E. Lones, Zinc and its Alloys (1919); W. Versfeld, “The base metal resources of the Union of 5. Africa, " Dept. Mines and Industry of Union of S. Africa (1919). For full bibliography see Imperial Mineral Resources Bureau, The Mineral Industry of the British Empire and Foreign a 101320, pp. 91-104 (1921). M. Pe.)

itself more and more vigorously into the actual settlement of Jews on the soil of Palestine. For this purpose its main financial instrument was the Jewish National Fund, which in 1914 owned property in Palestine to the value of £144,000, as compared with £35,000 in 1909 and £11,000 in 1907, when its active operations began, The marked quickening of the pace which dates from Toro reflects the change in the direction of Zionist policy, though

ZINOVIEV, GRIGORY EVSEEVICH (1883), Russian politician, was born in Sept. 1883 at Elisavetgrad (Zinovievsk).

the resources of the movement were still small in comparison with those which were lavished upon the Jewish settlements in

He studied chemistry and later law at Bern University, Switzer-

Palestine by Baron Edmond de Rothschild.

land.

He was active as a revolutionary before he was 20 and in

1903 met Lenin. He joined the Left or Bolshevik wing of the Russian Social Democratic party, of which Lenin was head.

He was head of the Bolshevik party in Bern and during 1903~4 started Bolshevik propaganda in South Russia. Apart from his activitics abroad, he came into prominence in Russia during 1906-8 as a member of the Bolshevik St. Petersburg committee

of the R.S.D.P., by his organisation of the attempted Kronstadt rising after the dispersal of the first Duma, his editorship of the Bolshevik paper Vpered (Forward), and of The Social Democrat,

the central organ of the party. In roo8 he was arrested and imprisoned but was released, the authorities being unaware of his identity.

Hethen went abroad and did not return until the

revolution in March 1917. During these nine years Zinoviev did not cease to work for his party. He was a member of the central committee, coeditor of the principal Bolshevik publications, and representative of the party at the Copenhagen congress of the International. In r912 he went with Lenin to Galicia to control from the nearest possible point the growing labour movement in Russia. In Galicia he founded the foreign bureau of the central committee, which guided the party work in Russia and the activities of the Bolshevik group in the Duma. During the World War the conflict between the Bolshevik party and the Social Democrats

increased.

Zinoviev edited with Lenin Against the Tide, a work

of propaganda against the imperialist war; and at the Zimmerwald conference (1915) they began to organise the Communist

International. On the outbreak of the March revolution (1917) they returned to Russia and at once set to work to prepare the way for the Nov. revolution. Zinoviev was co-editor of The Pravda and, after its suppression, of The Proletarian and The Worker. He thus became one of the leading figures in the Union of Socialist Soviet Republics. In rọrọ he was elected president of the Communist International, and after the death

of Lenin in 1924 was one of the most jealous upholders of pure ‘ Leninism. ’ His influence lasted until 1926, but in June of that year he was expelled from the political bureau. A prolific writer, he published many volumes of collected essays and speeches, which form a comprehensive guide to the problems of the revolution and of the reconstruction of Soviet Russia. CZ. VO

I. FROM

1910 TO THE

BRITISH

MANDATE

Practical Zionism was at first inclined to concern itself solely with colonisation. But between 1910 and 1914 other aspects of the movement were beginning to come into the foreground. In 1913 the Eleventh Zionist Congress, while approving an ambitious programme of rural colonisation, resolved at the same time that steps should be taken towards the early establishment in Jerusalem of a Hebrew University. Almost immediately afterwards, the Zionist Organisation found itself drawn into the conflict precipitated by the policy of the Hilfsverein der Deutschen Juden, a German-Jewish body which controlled a number of educational institutions in Palestine. The Hilfsverein laid itself open to the charge of favouring German at the expense of Hebrew as the language of instruction. The teachers rebelled, and many of the schools had to close. At this point the Zionist Organisation stepped into the breach by opening Hebrew schools of its own, and on the eve of the War, the maintenance of these schools was the principal rallying-point of Zionist enthusiasm. Between roro and rọr4 the Organisation considerably enlarged its commitments in Palestine, and its influence was much extended. The War Period.—The outbreak of the World War in 19014, followed almost immediately by the intervention of Turkey on the side of the Central Powers, brought Zionist work in Palestine to a standstill and threatened the integrity of the Zionist Organisation itself. Fhe movement was essentially international, and its complicated constitution was unworkable in a world at war. At the end of 1914, a Zionist Bureau was established on neutral soil at Copenhagen. Meanwhile, the American Zionists, acting on their own initiative, had already set up a “ Provisional Executive Committee for General Zionist Affairs’ under the chairmanship of Mr. (ater Supreme Court Justice) L. D. Brandeis. This body remained active throughout the War and played a part of growing importance in the direction of Zionist policy. Other groups organised themselves as best they could elsewhere, but though the Organisation was thus kept in being, its machinery was thrown out of gear, and at the close of the War, it found that in the interval the balance of forces within the movement. had completely changed. A new world was in the making, and it was now at least conceivable that the Zionists might secure something like the charter

ZIONISM on which they had originally staked their hopes.

Political Zion-

ism was again in the ascendant. The initiative was taken by a group of Zionists in Great Britain, headed by Dr. Chaim Weizmann of Manchester University. Dr. Weizmann was soon to become the foremost figure in the Zionist movement and the president of the Zionist Organisation, but in 1914, though already prominent, he was not within the inner circle. Not long after the outbreak of war, Dr. Weizmann and his friends were

brought into touch with a number of influential public men, including Mr. Lloyd George, Mr. Herbert Samuel, Mr. Balfour and Mr. C. P. Scott of the Manchester Guardian. What the Zionists proposed was, in effect, that Great Britain should make it an avowed part of her policy to provide in the peace settlement for the establishment in Palestine of a national home for the Jews. Their desire was that the national home should be under British protection. Palestine was still in Turkish hands, and Great Britain could not in any case think of moving in the matter without consultation with her Allies. There was, however, even at this early stage, a growing body of British opinion which was sympathetically interested in the Zionist view of the Jewish problem and of the part which Great Britain might play in solving it. l By the beginning of 1916 the British Govt. had come to the conclusion that there were other and more practical reasons for taking Zionism seriously. In a memorandum dated March 13 1916, the British Ambassador in Leningrad (Petrograd) informed the then Foreign Minister, M. Sazonov, that “ the attention of His Majesty’s Govt. had recently been drawn to the question of Jewish colonisation in Palestine ” and that ‘‘ a numerous and most intluential section of Jewry in all countries would highly appreciate the proposal of an agreement concerning Palestine which would fully satisfy Jewish aspirations.” This memoran-

dum has, up to the present, only been published in an official collection of documents from the archives of the Russian Foreign Office, but there is no reason to doubt its authenticity. This was on the eve of the Anglo-French accord defining the sphere of interest of the two Powers in the Middle East. In the SykesPicot agreement, as it is commonly called, Zionist interests were disregarded, and when the Zionist leaders in England formally laid their proposals before the British Govt. in Oct. 1916, there was no immediate response. Lhe Balfour Decluration—Meanwhile, a new situation was developing in the Eastern theatre of war, and a British conquest of Palestine was becoming a possibility of the near future. At the same time, the hour of decision was approaching in the United States, where there was a Jewish population of over 3,000,000, while Russia, where the Jews were still more numerous, was steadily drifting into chaos. A declaration in favour of Zionism would help to rally Jewish opinion throughout the world to the side of the Allies. Further, the settlement in Palestine of a Jewish population attached to Great Britain by ties of interest and sentiment might well be of value in guaranteeing the permanent security of the approaches to the Suez Canal. To these practical motives was added a genuine desire to contribute towards the solution of the Jewish problem, in which British statesmen had shown themselves sympathetically interested long before the War. All these considerations played their part in bringing the British Govt. into closer relations with the Zionist leaders. With Sir Mark Sykes as the principal intermediary, an exchange of views began in Feb. 1917, with the result that on Nov. 2 the Foreign Secretary, Mr. Balfour, wrote to Lord Rothschild:— Dear Lord Rothschild—I have much pleasure in conveying to you on behalf of His Majesty's Government the following declaration of sympathy with Jewish Zionist aspirations, which has been submitted to and approved by the Cabinet: ‘‘ His Majesty's Government view with favour the establishment in Palestine of a national home for the Jewish people, and will use their best endeavours to facilitate the achievement of this object, it being clearly understood that nothing shall be done whicn may prejudice the civil and religious rights of existing non-Jewish communities in Palestine or the rights and political status enjoyed by Jews in any other country.” I should be grateful if you would bring this Declaration to the knowledge of the Zionist Federation.

1139

The Balfour Declaration, as it has come to be called, was the act of Great Britain, but it was issued with the knowledge and concurrence of the Allied Powers. The French Govt. had actually anticipated the Balfour Declaration by publicly expressing its general sympathy with Zionist aims as early as June 1017. France formally associated herself with the Declaration in Feb. 1918, and Italy in the following May. As for the United States, President Wilson had personally intervened to make it clear that he would welcome a British pronouncement in favour of Zionism, and soon after the Declaration was issued, he publicly expressed his satisfaction. In 1922 resolutions associating the United States with the policy embodied in the Declaration were unanimously adopted by both Houses of Congress. At the instance of Great Britain, a Zionist delegation was given a hearing by the Peace Conference in Paris on Feb. 27 ro19, but it was not until April 24 1920 that the Supreme Council of the Allies, at its meeting at San Remo, formally agreed that Palestine should be

placed under a British mandate and that Great Britain should be responsible for carrying the Balfour Declaration into effect. British Mandate for Palestine —In Dec. 1920, the proposed terms of the Palestine mandate were submitted by the British Govt. to the League of Nations for confirmation by the Council. There was a succession of unforeseen delays, but a slightly modified draft was eventually approved by the Council at its meeting in London on July 24 1922. A few weeks earlier, the British Govt. had issued a statement of British policy in Palestine, in which it interpreted the Balfour Declaration as meaning, ‘‘ not the imposition of a Jewish nationality upon the inhabitants of Palestine as a whole, but the further development of the existing Jewish community, in order that it may become a centre in which the Jewish people, as a whole, may take, on grounds of

religion and race, an interest and a pride.” The mandate came into full operation on Sept. 29 1923. In its final form, it recites the Balfour Declaration in the preamble, and includes among its provisions various articles dealing with Jewish immigration, the settlement of Jews on State and waste lands, the use of Hebrew as one of the official languages, and the status of the Zionist Organisation, which is recognised as a public body entitled to advise and co-operate with the mandatory government in matters affecting Jewish interests. The Organisation is, at the same time, required to take steps to secure the co-operation of all Jews who are willing to associate themselves with it in the establishment of the Jewish national home. With this end in view, the Organisation has opened negotiations with representative Jewish bodies in Great Britain, the United States and elsewhere, and in 1925 the Fourteenth Zionist Congress resolved that an immediate effort should be made to build up a Jewish agency for Palestine on the broadest possible basis. When the Balfour Declaration was issued, it was acclaimed with enthusiasm in almost every part of the Jewish world, but it caused some anxicty among a minority who feared that the establishment of a Jewish national home in Palestine might impair their status as citizens of their respective countries. These fears cannot be said to have been completely dispelled, but though there are still many Jews who hesitate to call themselves Zionists, there is a growing tendency among Jews of all shades of opinion to unite in the practical work which is being done in Palestine under Zionist auspices.

II. THE

NEW

REGIME

IN PALESTINE

Although a Zionist commission was sent to Palestine, with the approval of the British Govt., in the spring of 1918, little practical work could be done until well after the close of the War. The foundation stone of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem was laid on Mount Scopus in July 19138, but the Zionist Commission was mainly pre-occupied with relief work in the liberated

areas, where the Jewish settlements had suffered severely from the direct and indirect effects of the War. Zionism at Work.—The return to normal conditions was marked by the San Remo decision of April 1920, which was followed by the establishment in Palestine of a civil administration in the following July. Subject to the general control of the

ZOBEIR

1140 Government,

RAHAMA— ZOOLOGY

the Zionist Organisation was now for the first

time in a position to bring in immigrants and to purchase land. Between the close of the War and Sept. 30 1925, about 67,000 Jewish immigrants have entered Palestine, including 8,517 in 1921, 7,844 in 1922, 7,421 in 1923, 12,856 in 1924 and about 21,000 in the first nine months of 1925. During the same period there have been about 10,000 Jewish emigrants, of whom about two-fifths were pre-War settlers, leaving a net immigration of 37,000. The Jewish population, which was about 90,000 in 1914, was reduced during the War to about 55,000. It was found to be 84,000 at the census of Oct. 1922, was officially estimated at 108,000 in March 1925 and must have risen by the end of the year to close on 130,000 or nearly 16% of the total population. In March 1925 the number of Jews on the land was estimated at 23,000 or 21% of the Jewish population, as compared with 15,000 or 18° in Oct. 1922.

At the same date the total area of

land in Jewish possession was 319 sq. m. as compared with 177 sq. m. in 1914.

With the exception of about 20 sq. m. of State

and waste lands, all the land acquired since the War has been bought, often at inflated prices, in the open market, and in additión to the heavy expenditure in which they have thus been involved, the Jewish National Fund and other Jewish bodies

have had to sink large amounts of capital in improvements, including in particular the drainage of marshes. At the same time there has been considerable increase, which has been particularly marked since 1924, in the Jewish population of the

three leading towns, Jerusalem, Jaffa and Haifa. In the neighbourhood of Jaffa, the Jews have built up the separate township of Tel Aviv, which had in Aug. 1925, a population of 34,000 as compared with 13,000 in Dec. 1922, and 2,000 in Aug. 1914. The rapid growth of the towns is connected with the industrial development of Palestine, which in turn is largely due to the influx of private Jewish capital. In March 1925, it was officially estimated that since the War 150 industrial enterprises had been established in Palestine, representing in the aggregate an investment of £1,200,000, of which more than 90°% was Jewish. An important factor in the industrial and general development of Palestine is the Palestine Electric Corporation, whìch has been financed from Zionist and other Jewish sources and which is already supplying Jaffa with electric light and power. Education—Since the War, the Zionist Organisation has largely extended the scope of its educational work in Palestine. At the end of 1924 it controlled 132 schools of various grades, with 550 teachers and 13,000 pupils. A Jewish technical institute was opened at Haifa in Feb. 1925 and the Zionist Organisation also maintains an agricultural institute at Tel Aviv. In April 1925, Lord Balfour formally inaugurated the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, which consists at present of three research institutes, devoted respectively to chemistry, microbiology and tropical medicine and Jewish and Oriental studies. In all these institutions the language of instruction is Hebrew, which has already become the Jewish vernacular in Palestine and is the mother-tongue of the whole of the new generation. An important branch of Zionist work in Palestine is that represented by the Hadassah Medical Organisation, which at the end of 1924 maintained five hospitals and 39 clinics, five Jaboratories and a Röntgen Institute, with a total staff of 63 physicians and bacteriologists. In its maternity and infant welfare work, which forms an important part of its activities, the Hadassah co-operates with the Women’s International Zionist Organisation. The entire expenditure of the Zionist Organisation is defrayed by voluntary contributions from Jews in all parts of the world. On Nov. 30 1925 its total receipts since 1917 amounted to £3,000,002. During approximately the same period, the Jewish National Fund, which exists for the purchase of land in Palestine, raised independently a further £1,026,286, making a total of £4,026,288. Including the expenditure of other Jewish bodies, such as the Palestine Jewish Colonisation Association, and the investments of private individuals, the Jewish capital brought

into Palestine since the War was officially estimated at the

beginning of 1925 at a total of at least £6,000,000, to which about {2,000,000 must have been added in the course of the year.

Though substantial progress has thus been made, there are Zionists who consider that the pace is too slow and who divide the blame between the Zionist executive and the British Government. Disappointment on this score was expressed at the first two post-War Congresses in 1921 and 1923, and came to a head at the Fourteenth Congress in 1925, when the Zionist executive, headed by Dr. Weizmann, felt obliged to retire from office. There was, however, an immediate revulsion of feeling. Dr. Weizmann’s leadership, though freely criticised, was felt to be indispensable, and his re-election by an almost unanimous vote implied acceptance of the cautious policy for which he had always stood. Caution is essential, if only in view of the presence of the Arabs,

who still form more than 80° of the population of Palestine. The Arabs did not take kindly to the Balfour Declaration, which they not altogether unnaturally misconstrued, and for some time after the War there was a tense situation which might easily have become dangerous. There were anti-Jewish demonstrations in Jerusalem in 1920, and 95 Jewish and Arab lives were lost in six days’ rioting in and near Jaffa in 1921. Since then, however, there has up to the present (1925) been no serious disturbance of the peace. Anti-Zionist agitation has continued, but even this has shown a tendency to die down. BIBLIOGRAPITY.—R. Gottheil, Zionism (1914); H. Sacher, ed., Zionism and the Jewish Future (1917); N. Sokolow, History of Zionism, 2 vol. (1919); Zionism, Handbook prepared under the Historical Section of the Foreign Office, No. 162 (1920); II. M. Kallen, Zionism and World Politics (1921); Afemorunda subnitited to the League of Nations by the Zionist Organisation (1922, 1924, 1925); L. Simon and L. Stein, ed., Awakening Palestine (1923); Report of the High Commissioner on the Administration of Palestine 1920-5 (White Paper, Colonial No. 15, 1925); L. Stein, Zionism (1925). (L. ST.)

ZOBEIR RAHAMA

(1830-1013), Egyptian pasha (see 28.992),

died at Geil, near Khartoum, Jan. 5 1913. ZOOLOGY (see 28.1022).—The scheme of classification proposed in roro requires but little modification except in the Vertebrata; in this group considerable advances have been made. (See DISTRIBUTION OF ANIMALS.) The biological exploration of the continents and oceans has been carried on in all parts of the world, and the great museums have been enriched with enormous collections of both recent and extinct animals. Thus the zoological specimens in the British Museum (Natural Ilistory) increased from 1,300,000 in 1882 to 3,000,000 In 1904, and in 1926 number more than 6,000,000, of which 4,000,000 are insects. The systematist not only has to study much larger collections than formerly, but he has also to master a vastly greater literature; in addition, a more detailed and critical analysis is now expected. Thus the tendency is towards an ever-increasing specialisation. Particular attention has been paid to certain groups that directly affect man’s welfare, e.g., as pests of crops or carriers of disease; thus protozoology (q.v.), parasitology (g.v.) and entomology (q.v.) have become independent branches. Marine biology also has made great strides, following the recognition of the fact that fishery development and fishery legislation must depend on knowledge of the conditions of life in the sea. Other branches that have attracted many workers in recent ycars are the experimental study of heredity (q.v.) and variation, cytology (q.v.) the physiology of development and animal behaviour. The specialisation which is so characteristic of modern zoology cannot be avoided, but makes it difficult for a worker to keep in touch with the results obtained in other fields, and is partly re-

sponsible for the output of hypotheses without application. CLASSIFICATION

OF

VERTEBRATA

New methods, such as the study of the microscopic structure of scales and of teeth, have revealed unexpected relationships; the more detailed study of anatomy and the discovery of a multitude of extinct types hitherto unknown have made the lines of evolution more certain, but have shown that parallelism and convergence are much more widespread than had been supposed; as a result classification is more complex, and there is an increas-

ing tendency to subdivision.

ZOOLOGY Sir Ray Lankester recognised (see 28.1022) five classes of craniate vertebrates, but was careful to say that the classification was that of the specialist contributors and did not always express his own views; elsewhere he has left us in no doubt as to his opinion that the Marsipobranchii (or Cyclostomata) form a class apart, and may be regarded as constituting a separate branch, the Monorhina, opposed to the remaining classes, which may be

collectively termed Diplorhina.

For some years the Selachians

have been recognised as a class distinct from the bony fishes, since the differences between them are more fundamental than those that separate the bony fishes from the Batrachians. ‘The arrangement of the Diplorhina in five classes only is wanting in balance; it would be more reasonable to place all the four-footed vertebrates in one class than to treat the fishes in this way. If we wished to emphasise the principal evolutionary steps we should divide the Diplorhina into two main groups, Selachians and Bony Vertebrates, and the latter again into two, Pisces and Tetrapoda. The acquisition of a bony exoskeleton, including dentigerous praemaxillaries and maxillaries forming a secondary upper jaw, paired frontal and parietal bones, etc., and the development of an air-bladder or lung, distinguish the Pisces from the Selachians and indicate their affinity to the Tetrapoda, which originated from the Pisces by the transformation of the

paired fins into pentadactyle limbs.

Recent detailed work on the palaeozoic fish-like vertebrates by Kiaer and Stensio has cleared up their relationships, so that the systematic position of Palaeospondylus alone remains In doubt. The Anaspida and Cephalaspida are Monorhina, the Arthrodira and Antiarcha may either be included in the Selachii, the definition of which would then have to be modified, or may constitute a class apart, and the Heterostraci, as the only Diplorhina with gill-pouches, may also rank as a class. Thus nine classes of Craniate Vertebrates may be recognised, namely Monorhina, Heterostraci, Selachii, Placodermi, Pisces, Batrachia, Reptilia, Aves and Mammalia. Monorhina.—The most important recent contribution to our knowledge of this group is that of Kiaer (1924), who made an elaborate study of the Silurian and Devonian Anaspida and has shown that these, and also the Cephalaspida, agree with the modern lampreys and hagfishes in having an unpaired nostril, and in the form and number of the branchial openings (see fig. 1).

L141

exoskeleton of plates and scales, and the differences between them may be in great part due to the fact that the former were freeswimming, whereas the latter lived on the bottom; they parallel

the differences between the sharks and the rays.

It is probable

that the Anaspida had no jaws homologous with those of the

higher vertebrates, but some of them had the mouth margined above and below with paired plates, which must have functioned as jaws. Selachii —The Selachians (Regan, 1906) may be defined as follows: Craniate vertebrates with gills supported by visceral arches, one pair of which is modified into jaws. Nasal organs paired blind sacs; exoskelcton of dermal denticles, which are typically similar in structure to teeth; no dermal bones; endoskeleton cartilaginous; no air-bladder or lungs; fins with several layers of horny rays on each side; vertebral column with neural and haemal arches and intermuscular ribs; no supra-neural or infrahaemal arches. Of the fivesub-classes the palaeozoic Pleuropterygii and Acanthodii are more primitive than the rest in having no mixopterygia; the presence of these intromittent organs, which are paired appendages of the pelvic fins, indicates the derivation of the Ichthyotomi, Euselachii and Holocephali from a common stock. In the Holocephali the upper jaw is fused with the skull, but the hyoid arch has the same number of elements as the succeeding branchial arches, including a pharyngo-hyal; this primitive condition is a clear indication that in the common ancestor of the three sub-classes in which mixoptervgia are developed the hyoid arch was not modified for the suspension of the jaws, and consequently that the condition in the Euselachii, in which the pharyngo-hyal has been lost and the hyomandibular (epi-hyal) articulates with the skull and supports the jaws, has been acquired independently and does not indicate relationship to the Pisces. Some authorities have expressed the view that the old division of the Euselachii into sharks and rays is unnatural, and have tried to improve upon it by a classification based upon supposed differences in the calcification of the vertebral centra; but a detailed anatomical study has revealed that the sharks and rays are well defined and natural divisions, and that the only group in which the structure of the centra is distinctive is the Galeoidea, in which there are four uncalcified areas radiating to the bases of the arches. Euselachit.—The Euselachii may be classified as follows:— Order 1. PLEUROTREMATA.— Gill openings lateral. Pectoral fins relatively narrow based; propterygial margin free. Pectoral radials typically simple and of few segments. ‘lwo halves of pectoral arch well separated above. [Pterygo-quadrate attached to cranium, Ilyomandibular supporting first hemibranch; ceratohyal unsegmented. Sub-order I. NOTIDANOIDEA. Families Chlamydoselachidue, Hexanchidae.

Sub-order 2. GALEOIDEA, Families Odontaspididae, Lamnidae, Orectolobidae, Scyliorhinidae, Carchariidae. Sub-order 3. SQUALOIDEA. Families Cochliodontidae, Hybodontidae, Heterodontidae, Protospinacidae, Pristiophoridae, Squalidae, Squatinidae. The position of the Petalodontidae is uncertain; they may not belong to the Euselachii.

Fig. 1.—Upper view of head of Petromyzen. (a) compared with that of Rhyncolepsis (b). In both, the pineal organ is seen between the eyes, and the unpaired nostril in front of it. (From Kiaer, Vidensk. Skrift., Kristiania, 1924).

The similarity of the microscopic structure of the bony armour of the Cephalaspida to that of the diplorhinal Antiarcha and Arthrodira is an extraordinary example of convergence. Kiaer’s researches give a new conception of the antiquity and diversity of the Monorhina. In the Anaspida the mouth was a terminal fissure with a distinct lateral cleft,and it may be inferred that the rounded mouth and the toothed protrusible tongue of the modern Cyclostomes are specialised features peculiar to them. Both the Anaspida and Cephalaspida had a complete

Order 2, HYPOTREMATA.—Gill openings ventral. Pectorals broad-based; propterygial margin joined to side of body and head. Pectoral radials of many segments, distally bifurcated, extending to free edge of fin. Suprascapular cartilages united to vertebral column (Batoidea) or meeting above it (Narcobatoidea). Pterygo-quadrate not attached to cranium. IIlyomandibular purely suspensory; ceratohyal of two or three segments. Sub-order 1. NARCOBATOIDEA.—Family Torpedinidae. Sub-order

2,

Bartomerea.—Families

Rhinobatidae,

Raiidae, Trygonidae, Myliobatidae, Mobulidae.

Pristidae,

The Jurassic Protospinax, described by Smith Woodward (1918), appears to be ancestral to the Pristiophoridae, having the same relation to them that RAinobatus has to Pristis. It is interesting to see in both the sharks and the rays the development of a long flat snout leading to a still longer projection armed with teeth on each side. The Torpedinidae are a good example of correlated adaptations, the development of the paired electric organs entailing considerable modifications of structure of the rostral and pracorbital cartilages and of the pectoral arch. The soft

1142

ZOOLOGY

smooth skin of these electric rays contrasts with the tough spinate skin of the other members of the order; evidently their power of giving electric shocks renders other means of defence superfluous. The fact that in all three sub-orders of the Pleurotremata the pterygo-quadrate is as a rule only loosely attached by ligament to the cranium, but that in both the Notidanoidea and Squaloidea

there are families in which there is a direct postorbital articulation (Hexanchidae, Hybodontidae), and in the Squaloidea also

one (Heterodontidea) with a praeorbital pterygo-quadrate and skull, points to the Euselachii the purely hyostylic condition Placodermi.—Stensio (1925) has shown

articulation, between conclusion that in the is primitive. that in the Arthrodira

in those of the third type the ganoine increases in area, but not much in thickness. The relationship of Polypterus to the Palaeoniscidae, first indicated by Goodrich, becomes apparent when its other characters are studied; for example, Budgett’s researches on the development have shown that the pectoral fin is derived from the Palaeoniscid type; of great interest is the presence in Polypterus of an air-bladder which in structure, position and vascular supply is more primitive than that of any other fish. The close relationship of the Rhipidistia and Dipneusti was maintained by Dollo and his views are confirmed by Goodrich; from the work of Stensio (1923) it is clear that the Actinistia also are very near the Rhipidistia. We propose then to recognise only three sub-classes of the class Pisces, corresponding to the three types of scale-structure described by Goodrich, and to classify the Pisces as follows:— Sub-class 1. PALAEOPTERYGII.—Scales, when ganoid, with

the general characters of the neurocranium and brain are sharklike, and that although bony dermal plates are developed these fishes have no relationship to the Pisces, but are independently derived from primitive sharks. A thin layer of bone wholly or a cosmine layer covered by several layers of ganoine. Dorsal and anal fins (except the dorsal of Polypterus) with dermal rays paired, partly covers the inner and outer surface of the cartilaginous more numerous than and not definitely articulated with their cranium, but there are no dermal bones on the ventral surface endoskeletal supports. of the skull. Stensio regards the Antiarcha as rather closely Orders Archistia, Selachostomt, Belonorhynchit, Cladtstia, related to the Arthrodira. Sub-class 2. NEOPTERYGII.—Scales without cosmine layer. Dorsal and ana! fins with dermal rays united to form a median series Pisces.—This class must have originated in Silurian times from of rays, each of which has its own endoskeletal support and forms a primitive Selachians. Dermal ossification led to the formation on definite articulation with it. the body and tail of ganoid scales, rhombic plates arranged in Orders Protospondyli, Ginglymodt, Halecostomi, Isospondylt, parallel longitudinal and oblique series, and, where flexibility was Haplomi, Niomi, Lyomeri, Ostartophysi, Apodes, Heteromi, Synentognatht, Muicrocyprint, Salmopercae, Anacanthini, Allotriognathi, not a requirement, to the development of bones, including Solenichthyes, Berycomorphi, Zeomorphi, Percomorphi, Scleroparet, primarily paired nasals, frontals, parietals and supratemporals Hypostomides, [eterosomata, Discocephalt, Plectognathi, Xenopterygit, on top of the cranium and a parasphenoid below, praemaxillaries Haplodoct, Pediculatt, Opisthomi, Symbranchit, and maxillaries forming a secondary upper jaw, and on each side Sub-class 3. Crossopterygit.Scales, when ganoid, with a cosmine ectopterygoid and mesopterygoid on the primary upper jaw, layer covered by a single layer of ganoine. Orders Rhipidistia, Dipneusti, Actinistia. dentary, angular and praearticular sheathing the lower jaw, cirPalaeoniscoids.—The Archistia (Palaeoniscoids) are in many cumorbitals and praeoperculum covering the cheek, operculum, suboperculum and branchiostegals protecting the gill-chamber, respects the most generalised members of the class Pisces. The earliest fishes of this group were the Palaeoniscidae, swift-swimming and a series of bones overlying the pectoral arch and connecting it with the skull, post-temporal, supra-cleithrum, cletthrum and predaceous fishes, with fins like those of the modern Polyodontidae of the order Selachostomi. In these the long based pelvic fins clavicle. are essentially similar in structure to the dorsal and anal, being The fin-rays are ossified and segmented and form a single series supported bya series of pterygiophores, segmented into two princion each side of the fin; these dermal rays have exactly the same relation to the muscles and the endoskeletal supports as the pal pieces, basals and radials, the latter contained in the well-developed muscular lobe at the base of the fin; some of the anterior horny rays of the Selachians, and should be considered as homologous with them. Ossification also extended in some degree to basals maybe united to form a pelvis. The pectoral fins are the endoskeleton, for all bony fishes have a certain number of somewhat more specialised, the anterior basals forming a coracoscapular cartilage which is firmly rooted by dorsal and ventral cartilage bones that must have been developed in their common outgrowths, the posterior forming a metapterygium. The ancestor, ¢.g., articular, quadrate, metapterygoid. In addition to the ossified skeleton, the development of an air-bladder, or primitive structure of the paired fins in the Palaeoniscidae and lung, the reduction of the interbranchial septa, etc., there is Polyodontidae makes it impossible to derive the Palaeopterygil from any known group of fishes except the Pleuropterygian another very important feature that distinguishes the Pisces sharks. The relationship of the Belonorhynchii to the Palaeonisfrom the Selachii, namely the structure of the vertebral column, coids and Sturgeons has been insisted on by Stensio in his valuable the Pisces having not only neural and haemal arches, but supraaccount of the fishes of this order. neural and infra-haemal arches as well; the last named are repreNeopteryvgit.—The sub-class Neopterygii includes most living sented in the praecaudal region by pleural ribs. The typical structure may be obscured by union or loss of some of the fishes and its classification is a difficult matter; the different orders have been dealt with in a seaies of papers (Regan, 1902elements, but it is well seen in the Sturgeons and Dipnoans. 25), and only a general sketch is necessary here. The ProtoStructure of Scales ——The work of Goodrich (1908) on the spondyli, represented in the living fauna by Amia, began in the microscopic structure of the scales is of considerable importance in elucidating the relationships of the main divisions of the class upper Permian with the Semionotidae, probably derived from the Palaeoniscidae; these were small-mouthed slow-swimming fishes Pisces. It is generally recognised that the primitive scales were feeding at the bottom on small invertebrates and many of their thick rhombic juxtaposed bony plates—usually termed ganoid scales—and that thin rounded overlapping scales are more spe- differences from the Palaeoniscidae may be interpreted as recialised. Goodrich has shown that the ganoid scales belong to lated to their different habits. The Ginglymodi (Lepidosteus) and Halecostomi (Pholidopthree very distinct types. The first, found in the Palaeoniscidae and Polypterus, consists of parallel layers of ganoine, a glassy toridae, Oligopleuridae) are offshoots of the Protospondyli. In these three orders the hypurals supporting the upper lobe of the homogeneous substance, near the surface and of bone within, caudal fin are attached to the upturned end of the vertebrae separated by cosmine, a vascular layer with bunches of minute tubules arising from the outer channels. The second, found in column. The Halecostomi are distinguished by their mouth Lepidosteus, Lepidotus, Pholidophorus, etc., differs in that there structure, the jaws being delicate and feebly toothed and the praemaxillaries smal! and loosely attached, whereas in the Prois no layer of cosmine separating the layers of ganoine and bone. tospondyli and Ginglymodi the praemaxillaries are strong fixed The third type of scale, found in the Rhipidistia and Dipneusti, bones that extend backwards to join the frontals and are perresembles the first, except that the cosmine has a very specialised and definite structure and is covered by only a thin layer of forated for the olfactory nerves. The Halecostomi are herringganoine; whereas in scales of the first and second types growth is like fishes, and were evidently plankton-feeders like the herrings, whose place they occupied in Triassic and Jurassic times. At the accompanied by the formation of successive layers of ganoine,

1143

ZOOLOGY end of the Jurassic they gave rise to the earliest Isospondyli, fishes almost identical with the modern Elopidae, larger and more active swimmers than the Halecostomi, with a more widely forked caudal fin, the upper lobe of which is supported by hypurals attached to a few paired bones—uroneurals—probably enlarged and displaced neural arches of posterior vertebrae, the centra of which have aborted; this caudal structure is characteristic of the remaining orders. The Isospondyli are physostomous, i.e., the air-bladder has a pneumatic duct; of other fishes that agree with them in this respect it is easy to separate off the

ship and pairing have been observed; viviparity has arisen independently three or fourtimes in tropical America, accompanied by quite different modifications of the anal fin of the males for purposes of internal fertilisation; but in the viviparous Phallostethinae of Johore the uro-genital openings are remote from the anal fin, and the males are provided with a priapium, an extraor-

12

Ostariophysi, in which certain elements of the anterior vertebrae form a chain of ossicles connecting the air-bladder with the ear; and the apodes, or eels, in which the praemaxillaries are fused with the mesethmoid.

But the limits and contents of the order Isospondyli are a difficult question. In the Clupeoids, which include the Elopidae, the vertebral column is primitive, the parapophyses, or at least those of the anterior vertebrae, being separate bones wedged into pits in the centra; the Salmonoids and Stomiatoids agree with them in this, but the more specialised families of both these groups have lost the mesocoracoid, which was formerly considered diagnostic. Other fishes that have retained the mesocoracoid (Osteoglossoids, Mormyroids, etc.) have strong parapophyses ankylosed to the centra; these are provisionally classed in the Isospondyli, but should perhaps be separated as orders. The Haplomi (Esocidae, Umbridae, Dalliidae) differ from the Clupeoids in the loss of the mesocoracoid and in having the mesethmoid replaced by a pair of large dermal bones. The Iniomi (Scopeloids) are a large and varied group, the most primitive members of which are near the Elopidae, but differ in that the praemaxillaries exclude the maxillaries from the oral border, the parapophyses are not autogenous, and the mesocoracoid is absent The Lyomeri (Saccopharynx, Gastrostomus) are perhaps an offshoot from the Iniomi. Of the physoclistic orders the first seven (Heteromi to Solenichthyes) are isolated groups that may have evolved independently from the Isospondyli or Iniomi; they agree in that the pelvic fins are formed of articulated rays and are abdominal in position, or if thoracic (Anacanthini, Allotriognathi) the pelvic bones are not directly attached to the cleithra. Jungersen (1908) has made a valuable contribution to our knowledge of the osteology and classification of the Solenichthyes. The Berycomorphi, which were abundant in Cretaceous seas, are evidently cerived from clupeoid Isospondyli; in this group we see acquired features that are characteristic of the remaining orders, the anterior dorsal and anal rays and the outermost pelvic ray modified into spines and the pelvic bones directly attached to the cleithra. The Zeomorphi are related to the Berycomorphi, from which the Percomorphi also are derived; these are unknown before the basal Eocene; they differ from the Berycomorphi in the loss of orbtosphenoid, the reduction in number of the pelvic rays (never more than six), etc.; they are the dominant benthic fishes in the coastal waters of tropical and warm temperate seas and have branched out in all directions, giving rise to a number of more specialised groups, some of which, e.g., Gobioids, Blennioids, are provisionally retained within the order, whereas ten others are given ordinal rank, including the Scleroparei, or mail-cheeked fishes; the Heterosomata, or Flatfishes; the Discocephali, or sucker-fishes; and the Pediculati, or angler-fishes. The position of the Hypostomides is somewhat uncertain, but Jungersen (1914) regards them as related to the Scleroparei. Special Orders —Some zoologists may be surprised at the large number of orders of the sub-class Neopterygii, if they have not realised that this group is much larger and more varied than either of the classes Aves or Mammalia. Attention may be called to three orders in which discoveries of special interest have been made, namely Microcyprini, Allotriognathi and Pediculati.

The Microcyprini include the brackish and fresh-water fishes viviparous forms; in most of marked differences between the

Cyprinodonts, a group of small that includes both oviparous and the oviparous species there are sexes, and in some of them court-

Y

©

Lp a Ve Cre

Spinous Rays Fin

19133

194

195 96 1917 Year Classes

138

1919

Fic. 2.—Fluctuation in average number of spinous rays in dorsal fin of Zoarces viviparus in successive year classes (excluding 1916) of two separate populations (after J. Schmidt).

dinary intromittent organ placed beneath the head and chest, with a special skeleton, muscles, glands and external appendages of its own, and involving remarkable modifications of the cleithra and of the anterior vertebrae and ribs for its attachment. The Allotriognathi, a small but isolated and particularly well defined group of oceanic fishes, are noteworthy for the difference in form and structure between the most generalised and the most specialised members of the order, the deep-bodied Lampris and the eel-shaped Stylephorous. In Sivlophorus the eyes are tclescopic that is to say they are large, cylindrical, placed close together and directed forwards; it may be inferred that Siilopherus uses binocular vision to find food; this would be captured by the sudden protrusion of the small toothless mouth, which is extraordinarily protractile. The very long lower jaw 1s articulated far behind the head, and by a downward movement of its anterior end pulls the upper jaw away from the head so that the mouth appears at the end of a long membranous pouch. The most interesting feature 1s that this protraction of the mouth would be downward, not forward, the direction in which the eyes have sighted something to be caught, were it not accompanied by an upward movement of the head, produced by the contraction of the muscles attached to the top of the skull; thus Stylephorius loses sight of its prey in the act of catching it. In the Pediculati, or angler-fishes, the first ray of the dorsal fin is placed on top of the head and is modified into a line and bait; there are three sub-orders, of which the Ceratioids are inhabitants of the middle depths of the ocean, from about 500 to 1,500 metres below the surface; they are uniformly pigmented and their bait is a luminous lure. It has been discovered that in the Ceratioids the males are dwarfed and parasitic on the females, to which they are attached by outgrowths of the snout and tongue that unite with the skin

1144

ZOOLOGY

of the female in such a way that it is impossible to say where the one fish begins and the other ends (see fig. 3); the blood systems of the two fishes appear to be continuous, and it seems that the male must receive nutriment from the blood of the female, as the small toothless mouth is closed in front and the alimentary

Fic. 3.—Edriolychnus schmidti, male, attached to inner face of praeoperculum of female, Four, times natural size. (From Proc.

Roy. Soc., (B), 97, 1925).

canal is vestigial. The evolution of males of this kind becomes intelligible when we consider that the Ceratioids are solitary, slow-swimming fishes that live in darkness and are necessarily few in number in comparison with the more active fishes on which they prey; in such circumstances the difficulty experienced by mature fishes in finding a mate may have led the males to form the habit of seeking for females as soon as they are hatched, when they are relatively numerous, and if they find one becoming attached to her. Crossopterygii.—The Rhipidistia, which flourished in Devonian and Carboniferous times, are the most generalised order of the sub-class Crossopterygii; in the structure of the pectoral fins they are more specialised than the Archistia, none of the radials articulating with the pectoral arch and the segmented metapterygium projecting outwards, so that the lobe of the fin tends to separate from the body and to become narrow based; the pelvic fins appear to have been somewhat similar. The scales may easily have been derived from the Palaeoniscid type by reduction of the ganoine and specialisation of the cosmine. The Dipneusti, distinguished by fusion of the pterygo-quadrate with the skull and the reduction of the hyomandibular, doubtless originated from unknown early Devonian or pre-Devonian Rhipidistia; they are the only order of the sub-class with living representatives. The Actinistia (Devonian to Cretaceous) appear to be highly specialised Rhipidistia in which the lobes of the paired finsare shortened, the pectorals having about four radiating radials (one probably representing the metapterygium) that articulate directly with the pectoral arch; the hyomandibular (epi-hyal) is small and does not support the jaws (cf. Stensio). The skeleton of the head of the Rhipidistia is almost identical with that of the earliest Batrachians, and the pectoral fins are of a type that might easily have been transformed into pentadactyle limbs; the origin of the Batrachia from fishes of this order seems certain. Batrachia.—Watson (1919) has made a detailed investigation of the structure of the Stegocephalia, from which he removes the Phyllospondyli (Branchiosauria) and Lepospondyli (Microsauria) as separate orders, and for the remainder uses the name Labyrinthodonta in an extended sense. Labyrinthodonts.—There is a complete gradation of structure between the rachitomous and stereospondylous forms, which merely mark evolutionary stages. Watson’s classification of the

Labyrinthodonta, is as follows:— Order LABYRINTHODONTA.

Grade 1. EMBOLOMERI. Families Anthracesauridae, Loxommidae, Cricotidae, ete. Grade 2. RaAciitomi1. Families Eryopidae, Rhinesuchidue, Dissorophidae, Trematopsidae, Micropholidae, etc. Grade 3. STEREOSPONDYLI. Families Captiosauridae, Trematosauridae, Brachyopidae, etc.

It has long been recognised that the current classification of the frogs and toads is unsatisfactory, but great progress towards a more natural arrangement has been made by Noble, who has followed up the work of Nicholls (1916) by a more extended

investigation of the structure of the vertebral column, and has tested his results by detailed research on the thigh musculature. Noble’s classification 1s as follows:— Sub-order Sub-order Sub-order cephalidae. Sub-order

Order SALIENTIA (Ecaudata). 1. OPISTHOCOELA. Families Discoglossidae, Pipidae. 2. ÅNOMOCOELA, Family Pelobatidae. Families Bufonidae, Hylidae, Brachy3. PROCOELA. 4. DipLasIocoELa.

Families Ranidae, Brevicrpitidae,

This scheme is perhaps not final, and the reduction in number of families which has followed the discovery that the characters supposed to be diagnostic were of little value may be replaced by an Increase In number when further work clears up the relationships of the genera and enables natural groups to be defined. The Bufonidae, for example, appear to be a somewhat heterogeneous assemblage. Repitlta—tin recent times our knowledge of extinct reptiles has been greatly advanced by a number of workers, especially Broom, Case, Williston and Watson; as a result many modifications of the classification have been proposed. There seems to be general agreement that the primary divisions should be termed sub-classes rather than orders, but none as to their number. The proposal to recognise only four or five sub-classes according to the number and position of the temporal vacuities has received considerable support, but appears to be open to the objections that apply to most classifications based on modifications of a single character—objections that are strengthened by the probability that the temporal vacuities are related to the jaw muscles in such a way that they either give exit to them upon the top of the skull or afford room for them at the sides (Gregory and Adams). We prefer for the present to retain the nine principal groups defined in 1910 (see 23.142), adding to them a tenth, the Cotylosauria, formed by the removal from the Anomodontia of those primitive reptiles in which the temporal region of the skull is completely roofed over. In the following scheme of classification of the Reptilia only those orders are included whose position seems assured; a comparison of the recent classifications of Watson (1917) and Williston (1925) will show that there is some difference of opirion as to the groups that should be given ordinal rank and as to the relationships of many incompletely known extinct forms. CLAss REPTILIA Sub-class 1. COTYLOSAURIA. Orders Sevmiouriamorpha, Diadectomorpha, Sub-class 2. ANOMODONTIA. Orders Pelycosauria, Therapsida.

Captorhinoniorpha.

Sub-class 3. CHELONIA,

Orders Pleurodira, Cryptodira. Sub-class 4. SAUROPTERYGIA. Orders Sub-class Sub-class Orders Sub-class Orders Sub-class Orders

Nothosauria, Plesiosauria, Placodonta. 5. ICHTHYOSAURIA. 6. SQUAMATA. Pythonomorpha, Lacertilia, Ophidia. 7. RHYNCHOCEPHALIA. Thecodonta, Sphenodontia. 8&. CROCODILIA. Eosuchia, Thalattosuchia.

Sub-class 9. DINOSAURIA.

Orders Theropoda, Sauropoda, topsia. PTEROSAURIA.

Ornithopoda,

Stegosauria,

Cera-

Sub-class 10.

The most important orders omitted are the Proganosauria and Thallatosauria, aquatic reptiles of uncertain relationships, but the former perhaps near the Ichthyosauria. Some of the Cotylosauria are not easily distinguished from the contemporary Labyrinthodonts, and the classes Batrachia and Reptilia are no longer definable by skeletal characters. Some of the Therapsida approach the Mammalia, which are evidently derived from this group. Chelonians.—The Chelonian genus Dermochelys was formerly isolated in a group Athecae, in opposition to the rest of the Chelonia, which were termed Thecophora; it is now included in the Cryptodira, the flattened ribs and modified vertebrae indicating its derivation from forms that possessed a carapace. Dollo pointed out that the chelonian carapace and plastron must have

ZOOLOGY originally been acquired as a protection by slow-moving terrestrial reptiles, and that in some late Cretaceous members of the group this armour was greatly reduced or was lost in relation toa pelagic life. If the descendants of such forms resorted to the coasts to breed they might have acquired a new armour not supported by the vertebrae and ribs, and if their descendants again became pelagic this also might have been reduced. He interpreted the numerous little smooth polygonal plates in the skin of the pelagic Dermochelys as the remnants of a secondary armour that was at one time strong and effective. In Psephophorus of the Oligocene and Miocene, related to Dermochelys, the plates were stronger than in that genus and were sculptured and Dollo considered that an Eocene genus must have existed in which they were larger and stronger than in Psephophorus; this has since been discovered in Eocene deposits of Nigeria and was described by C. W. Andrews as Cosmochelys, a leathery turtle with a strong epithecal shield with sculptured surface. It is of great interest that the soundness of Dollo’s method of reasoning should have been confirmed by the discovery of this link in the chain. Aves.—Little has been done since 19ro on the classification of birds, but the division of these into Ratitae and Carinatae is artificial and the grouping proposed by Pycraft (1899) is preferable. Pycraft showed that there are two types of palate, and he divided the Neornithes into two groups, the Palaeognathae

(Ratitae+ Tinamiformes) and the Neognathae.

In the Palaeog-

nathae the pterygoids are connected with the palatines by suture or ankylosis, in the Neognathae by means of opposed glenoid surfaces. The Tinamovs are the only modern birds with the primitive type of palate that have retained the keeled sternum. MAMMALIA

~The origin of the Mammalia from the Therapsid Reptiles is now generally accepted, and among these the Cynodonts make the nearest approach to the Mammals in skeletal structure. Broom

(1912) has shown that in Cynognathus a considerable part of the articular surface for the lower jaw is formed by the squamosal, and that the posterior end of the dentary nearly takes part in the joint; there is thus no longer any difficulty in understanding how the quadrate-articular joint of reptiles has given rise to the squamosal-dentary joint of mammals. As the direct articulation of the dentary on the squamosal became more firmly established, the quadrate, articular and angular degenerated, and according to Broom might have been lost had not the attachment of the stapes to the quadrate compelled them to take on an auditory function, the quadrate becoming the incus, the articular the malleus and the angular the tympanic bone. Thus the vexed question of the homology of the mammalian auditory ossicles may be regarded as settled, palaeontology confirming the conclusions derived from embryology. Another paper by Broom (1914) on the structure and affinities of the Multituberculata may be considered to have settled the

long controversy as to the systematic position of these animals, which are definitely shown to be Prototheria and not Marsupials. The resemblances to the living Monotremes are so close that it is suggested that these are specialised and degenerate descendants of Jurassic Multituberculates. Broom (1915, 1916) has studied the structure of the “ Organ of Jacobson,” and remarks:— ““ Changes in habit bring about the most marked alterations in teeth, bones and many viscera, but the delicate little cartilages in the nose are so little affected that we find almost the same type of

structure in forms so dissimilar as the sheep, cat, hedgehog, bat and lemur. And as the arrangement is an extremely complicated one we seem justified in assuming that the similarity indicates affinity and common origin of these types, rather than independent develop-

ments of this remarkable structure.”

So far as is known at present there are two types of structure

of this organ in the Mammalia, the primitive or Marsupial type, found in Dasypus, Orycteropus and Rodents; and the higher Eutherian type, found in Ungulates, Carnivores, Lemur and Procavia. Broom has investigated this organ in Insectivores, and has shown that in Macroscelides, Tupaia, etc., it is formed as in

1145

Polyprotodon Marsupials, whereas in Erinaceus, Gymnura, etc., it is of the higher Eutherian type. Consequently he regards the Insectivores as an artificial group, and separates from them Tupaia and its allies to form the order Menotyphla. Further, as Chrysochloris has the organ of Jacobson of the primitive type, but with peculiarities of its own, and as this genus differs widely from the Menotyphla in other characters, he places it in a separate order Chrysochloroidea. Centetes, which had been considered to be related to Chrysochloris, was found to be a true insectivore, the organ of Jacobson resembling that of Sorex and Talpa. The general result of other studies of the Mammalia has been to increase the number of orders; for example, giving ordinal rank to the groups formerly placed together under the headings “ Edentata ” and “ Ungulata.” Comparable in importance with Broom’s investigations on the organ of Jacobson are those of Carter (1917, 1922) on the microscopic structure of the teeth, which lead him to state that the enamel pattern, in conjunction, with tube penetration of the enamel, suifices to discriminate between Multituberculates, Marsupials and Placentals, and the different groups of Placentals. He has found that Marsupial teeth are characterised by tubular penetration of the enamel, and his demonstration that the teeth of Dasyurus and Thylacinus are precisely similar in structure accorded with Regan’s view (1914) of the close relationship of these genera, in opposition to American authorities (Gregory, Sinclair) who thought that Thylacinus was allied to that puzzling group of carnivorous mammals from the Miocene of Patagonia

known as Sparassodontia. Whether these are Marsupials or Creodonts is still uncertain, for although Carter found in them tubular penetration of the enamel, his later researches led him to the conclusion that enamel pattern is more important than tubular penetration in determining affinities, and the enamel pattern of the Sparassodonts is Creodont. A suggestion put forward by Wood-Jones that Tersius should

be regarded as more nearly allied than any other living animal to Man, led to a discussion at a meeting of the Zoological Society (1919) when the weight of opinion was against Wood-Jones, but seemed to favour the view that Tarsius was more nearly

related to monkeys than to lemurs. Had Carter’s results (1922) been available the debate would probably have run on quite different lines. He has shown that in the teeth of Primates the enamel pattern is of two distinct types—(1) In the Catarrhines and Mascarene Lemurs (and in the Eocene lemuroids Notharctus and Pelycodus) the prisms or rods of the enamel are of asomewhat granular structure, have straight, even margins and are separated by a slight amount of interstitial substance. (2) In the Platyrrhines, Yarsius (and the Eocene tarsioid Hemiacodon), Asiatic and African lemurs the prisms have undulating margins and are separated by a considerable amount of interstitial substance. From this it is evident that the classification of the Primates will have to be revised, and that the evolution of the Anthropoidea, or Catarrhines, from the Lemuroidea, has been to some

extent paralleled by the evolution of the Platyrrhines and Tarsioids from another group of Lemurs. There are plenty of comparable examples in other groups—for instance, the evolution in South America of the Litopterna, which show many resemblances to the Perissodactyla. Human Descent.—Tarsius is thus clearly seen to be nowhere near the line of descent of Man, whose affinities to the anthropoid Apes have been made more certain in recent vears by the discovery of extinct types of man possessing ape-like features that have been lost in modern man (Smith Woodward, 1925). Of these the most notable is the Piltdown Man, discovered in gravels of late Pliocene or early Pleistocene age at Piltdown in Sussex, combining a typically human skull with an ape-like lower jaw and large canine teeth that interlock in the true ape fashion. This find gave rise to a great deal of discussion, and some were ready to maintain that the skull was that of a man and the lower jaw that of an ape, and that their association was accidental; the discovery of fragments of another skull associated with another ape-like canine tooth may be considered to have disposed of this idea. The Rhodesian skull, from a cave in the Broken Hill Mine,

ZORN— ZURICH

1146

Rhodesia, is of unknown age; it is remarkable for the enormous brow-ridges, more prominent than in any other human skull. In spite of this ape-like feature Smith Woodward maintains that the relationships of Rhodesian Man are with the Australian race, and he compares it especially with the fossil Australian skull from Talgai in Queensland rather than with the more primitive Neanderthal Man, to which at first sight it seems to bear more resemblance (see EVOLUTION OF MAN). Vertebrate Classification. Publications: C. W. Andrews, “A Leathery Tortoise from the Eocene of Nigeria,” Proc. Zool. Soc. (1919); R. Broom, ‘‘ Mammalian Auditory Ossicles,’’ Proc. Zool. Soc. (1912); tbid., “ Organ of Jacobson in the Insectivora,” Proc. Zool.

Soc. (1915); ibid., “ Structure

and Affinities of the Multitu-

berculata,”’ Bull. Amer, Mus., vol. 33 (1914); “ Origin of Mammals,” Phil, Trans, R. Soc. (B) vol. 206, (1915); J. S. Budgett, ‘ Structure

of larval Polypterus,” Trans. Zool. Soc., vol. 16 (1902); J. T. Carter, “ Structure of Enamel in Marsupials,” Phil. Trans. R. Soc., Ser. (B) vol. 208, (1917), and J. Anat. (1919); ‘“‘ Structure of Enamel in Primates,” Proc. Zool. Soc. (1922); E. S. Goodrich, “Structure of Scales of Fish,” Proc. Zool. Soc. (1907); W. K. Gregory, *' Orders of

Mammalia,” Bull, Amer. Mus. vol. 27 (1910); W. K. Gregory and L. A. Adams, ‘‘ Temporal Fossae of Vertebrates,” Science, vol. 41 (1915); H. E. Jungersen, “ Ichthyotomica! Contributions,” Dansk. Vidensk. Selsk. Skrift, vol. 6 (1908); “ Anatomy of Pegasus,” Rep. Brit. Assn. (1914); J. Kiaer, “ Anaspida,” Vidensk. Skrift (Kristiania, 1924); G. K. Noble, “ Phylogeny of the Salientia,” Budil. A mer. Mus., vol. 46, (1922); W. P. Pycraft, “ Palaeognathae and Neognathae,” Trans. Zool. Soc., vol. 15 (1899); C. T. Regan, papers on Classification of Fishes in Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (1902-25 especially 1909-13); ‘* Classification of Selachians,’’ Proc. Zool. Soc., vol. 2 (1906); “ Allotriognathi,” Proc. Zool, Soc. (1908) and Proc. R. Soc., (B) vol. 96 (1924); ‘* Phallostethinae,”’ Proc. Zool. Soc. (1916); Lepidosteus and Lower Neopterygian Fishes, Proc. Zool. Soc. (1923); ‘‘ Dwarfed Males of Ceratioids,” Proc. R. Soc., (B) vol. 97 (1925); E. A. Stensio, Triassic Fishes from Spitsbergen, Pt. 1 (Vienna, Holzhausen, 1921): Pt. 2 in Svensk. Vet. Akad. Handi. (3) 2, (1925); “ The Head of the Macrope ee (Arthrodira). Field Mus. Publ. Geol. vol.4, No.4 (1925); . M. S. Watson, “ Evolution of Amphibia,” Phil. Trans. R. Soc., (B) vol. 209, (1919); ‘‘ Classification of Pre-Jurassic Tetrapoda,” Proc. Zool. Soc. (1917); S. W. Williston, Osteology of eee (1925); A. S. Woodward, ‘‘ New Elasmobranch Fishes from the Jurassic," Proc. Zool. Soc. (1918); “ The Origin of Man,” in Phases of Modern Science (Denny, 1925). (C. T. R)

ZORN, ANDERS (1860-1920), Swedish artist was born at Mora, Sweden, Feb. 18 1860, of a family of farmers. He began his artistic career as a water colour artist, later transferred his attention to oil painting, and made his first attempt at etching in London in 1882. He afterwards achieved distinction as a sculptor. From 1881 he travelled extensively abroad, and in 1888 settled down in Paris, where he stayed about 10 years. In 1893 he became the Swedish commissioner at the Chicago World Exhibition. Zorn is renowned for his extremely characteristic and picturesque portraits, in which, owing to his sensitive study of values, he gives proper play to light and half tones. He was not only a master of oil painting, but one of the foremost etchers of his time, attaining great effects by simple means. Zorn, whose production was particularly abundant, passed his last years in Sweden and died in his native town on Aug. 22 1920.

ZUBATÝ,

JOSEF

(1855-

})}, Czech

philologist,

studied

classical, Slavonic and especially Sanskrit philology and in 1891 was appointed professor of Sanskrit and comparative philology at the Czech University of Prague. His numerous publications, which deal with the most varied aspects (etymology, grammar, phonetics and metrics) of Indo-European philology with special reference to Sanskrit and Balto-Slavonic, include: On the Develo pment of metrical form (1886); Contributions to the interpretation of Oscan inscriptions (1886); On the development of the Indian drama and its relation to Greek drama (1887); On Vedic literature (1888); On the Mahabharata (1892); On alliteration in Lettish and Lithuanian folk-songs (1894). The above are all in Czech, but Zubaty wrote extensively in German, his most important work in this language being the etymological Lithuanian dictionary now in preparation (1926) for Streitberg’s Indo-Germanic text-

books.

He translated Kalidasa’s dramas into Czech.

ZULOAGA, IGNACIO (1870), Spanish painter (see 28.1049), had become by 1921 the head of a definite school of Basque and Castilian painters, whose work was marked bya realistic and decorative treatment of contemporary Spanish life, con-

sciously based on Velasquez, El Greco and Goya. His art showed increasing emphasis on silhouette, simplification of form and use of broad masses of sombre colour relieved by splashes of more vivid tints. In his figure compositions a low horizon and a panoramic background were favourite devices for obtaining a decorative monumental effect. Women and the nude figure played an important part in Zuloaga’s work. In his portraits, of which typical examples are “ Lucienne Bréval in Carmen,” “Cousin Candida,” “The Duke of Alba” and “ Countess Mathieu de Noailles,” emphasis is on the type rather than the individual, and the combination of realism and simplification tends towards caricature. This also appears in his genre paintings of Spanish types, peasants, dancers, bullfighters, priests and beggars, such as “Old Castile,” “The Bottleseller” and “Fhe Witches of San Millan.” His landscapes, mainly painted round Burgos, Salamanca and Segovia, have a similar bizarre, fantastic quality. His later work includes “My Uncle Danial and his Family” (1912), “A Cardinal” (1914), “Toreadors” (1914) and “Un Versolari” (1916). An important retrospective exhibition of his work was seen at the rorg International Exhibition at Bilbao, and he was represented by three portraits in the 1920-1 Exhibition of Spanish Paintings at Burlington House. see also: IL. Bénédite, Zgnacio Zuloaga (1912); Juan de la Encina,

El Arle de Ignacio Zuloaga (1916).

ZULULAND (see 28.1050),has an area of 10,427 square miles. In 1921 the natives numbered 250,829; the white inhabitants 3,985. Although incorporated in Natal most of Zululand is held as native reserves. Since 1907 the country has been peaceful. European influence has modified native life, but the tribal system continues and although there is no longer an official recognised paramount chief the Zulu sense of nationality remains strong. This was shown at the indaba held in June 1925 in honour of the Prince of Wales, when 40,000 warriors assembled at Eshowe. On that occasion Solomon Dinizulu, a grandson of Cetewayo, though officially of no higher rank than other chiefs, was selected to address the Prince as the spokesman of the nation. Dinizulu, Cetewayo’s son, had died in Oct. 1913. In r905 the coast belt was opened to white planters for the cultivation of sugar cane; by 1923 some 70,000 ac. were under cane. Cotton cultivation has been taken up since 1922, in which year the Union Govt. had a survey made for a rail-

way and harbour in Northern Zululand. See Oficial Year Book of the Union of South Africa (Pretoria, 1925); and The South and East African Year Book and Guide (London, annually).

ZURICH, Switzerland (see 28.1057), a busy industrial city, with large silk manufactures and the financial centre of Switzerland, had a population of 207,161 in 1920. New quarters, with broad streets and fine buildings, have developed round the old town, and Ziirich is now largely a modern city, with an admirable system of traffic control. The Pestalozzium, which contains educational exhibits and Pestalozzi’s study, has been moved to a new building on the left bank of the Limmat, near the Urania bridge. A central library on the right bank, in which the libraries of the town and canton, and those of the legal, medical and natural history societies have been combined, was finished in 1916; it contains also collections of prints and engravings. The Ziirich Society of Arts has thrown open the Kunsthaus, in the Heimplatz, with collections of pictures, sculpture and engravings; and in 1919 the Landolthaus, an interesting example of a nobleman’s house in the Hirschengraben, was arranged as a museum by the same society. New municipal offices have been built, and a site was chosen in 1923 on the left bank of the river for a town hall. The state archives of the town are now kept in the old Prediger Kirche in the Zahringer Platz. The Frau Munster church, near the bridge of the same name, was modernised in 1912. The university, which is noted for its medical school and for the large numbers of women students, has been moved to a site south of the city. The new buildings, finished in 1914, consist of two wings connected by a massive tower.

ZURICH, UNIVERSITY

OF—ZUYDER

ZEE

TI47

ZURICH, UNIVERSITY OF (see 27.769).—There are curious construction of this dike, a stupendous work of hydraulic but instructive fluctuations in the numbers of students at this engineering, is to be completed in 1934. In 1918 the cost of ancient university. From roro-4 there was a steady increase in this work was estimated by law at £5,500,000. The length of men students while the women decreased in numbers. The War the dike will be 29.3 kilometres and the height (presumably) brought students to the university, the highest number being six metres above the water level. The top will be only two rọr6 in the winter of 1916-7, including 289 women students. metres in width. On the inside berm, however, there will be Numbers diminished after the War but rose again to 1730 in room fora road 17 metres wide, over which a double-track 1924~5, the women students totalling 262. New chairs have railway will run. The dike will be equipped with 30 discharge been founded in veterinary pathology, bacteriology and hygiene, sluices, each ro metres wide and five metres deep. Further, mathematics, physical chemistry, art and living Oriental lanthere will be two locks, respectively 10 and six metres wide. guages and Islamic studies. Developm:nts of an important These sluices and locks will maintain communication between nature have taken place in view of the provision of new buildings | the Yssel Lake and the North Sea. It is hoped that the northfor general purposes, a central university library, clinics for western polder, covering an arca of 220 sq. km., will be completed diseases of the eyes, cars, nose and throat. A notable benefacat the same time as the dike and that all four polders will be in tion is the Julius Claus Foundation in rọrọ of Fr 1,274,052 for exploitation by 1058. social anthropology and racial hygiene. In tor8, the cost of the drainage proper (cost of the dike ZUYDER ZEE (see 28.10.19).—After numerous plans had been excluded) was estimated at almost £13,000,000. A committee drafted and various bills laid before the Dutch Chamber, Dr. C. appointed in 1922 considered it probable that the proceeds from Lely, Minister for Public Works, who for decades past had been the sale of the land would cover all costs, assuming the value to the motive force in this direction, succeeded in rọr8 in securing be about £25,000 per square kilometre. Among the advantages the passage of a Bill providing for the drainage of the Zuyder resulting from the scheme will be the improved water discharge

Zee at the expense of the State. The Zuyder Zee at present covers an area of about 3,570 square kilometres. When drained, there will remain a fresh-water lake covering 1,450 square kilometres. The reclaimed land, divided into four polders by the new lake (to be called Yssel Lake), and the mouths of the Amstel and the Yssel, will cover an area of almost 2,112 sq. km., or seven times the area of the County of London. Of this land, 1,950 sq. km. will consist of exceedingly fertile soil, so that the Netherlands by peaceable conquest will have added 6% to its territory.

To render this drainage possible, the Zuy-

er Zee must be separated from the North Sea by a dike.

The

for the provinces which are now situated on the shores of the Zuyder Zee and the alleviation of the shortage of land, with a concomitant decrease of dependence on imports for food supply. The drainage will exercise considerable intluence on the aspect of the numerous Zuyder Zee fishing villages and small ports. Harderwyk, which in the Middle Ages was one of Holland’s most important ports and one of the great Hansa towns, will be situated in the heart of the country. Assistance is to be provided by the State for that part of the population which the drainage will deprive of a means of livelihood. (See NETITERLANDS.) . (F.J.W.D.)