Encyclopaedia Britannica [21, 14 ed.]

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Title
Initials of Contributors
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SOU
SOU
SOU
SOU
SOV
SPA
SPA
SPA
SPE
SPE
SPI
SPI
SPO
STA
STA
STA
STA
STE
STE
STE
STO
STO
STR
STR
SUB
SUF
SUL
SUM
SUP
SUR
SUS
SWE
SWE
SWI
SYL
SYR
TAC
TAK
TAN
TAP
TAR
TAX
TEA
TEL
TEL
TEM
TEN
TER
TET
TEX

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THE

ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA

FOURTEENTH

EDITION

a

THE

ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA FIRST

EDITION

SECOND

THIRD

FIFTH

|

1768

EDITION

EDITION

FOURTH

: er

EDITION

1777

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1788

as

1801

EDITION

1815

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nS7 k4 SIXTH

EDITION

SEVENTH EIGHTH

EDITION

1830

EDITION

NINTH

EDITION

1875

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1902

ELEVENTH

EDITION

FOURTEENTH

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1922

EDITION EDITION

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1910

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THIRTEENTH

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1853

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1823

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1926

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1929,1932

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FOURTEENTH EDITION

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THE ENYCLOPÆDIA BRITANNICA COMPANY, LTD. LONDON

NCYCLOPÆDIA BRITANNICA, INC. NEW YORK

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COPYRIGHT IN ALL COUNTRIES TO

THE

BERNE

SUBSCRIBINC CONVENTION

BY THE

ENCYCLOPAEDIA

BRITANNICA

COMPANY,

LTD.

COPYRIGHT

IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA,

1929, ‘930, 1932

BY THE ENCYCLOPAEDIA

BRITANNICA,

INC

INITIALS AND NAMES OF CONTRIBUTORS IN VOLUME XXI WITH THE ARTICLES WRITTEN BY THEM. ALEXANDER A. ADAMS. Commercial Secretary,

A. A. Ad.

} Spain (i11 part). } Spain (in part).

British Embal8y, Madrid.

A.B.

AvH��rh�;�cfl:r��:al�!rL�he Portuguese; etc.

A . Be .

AucusTrN BERNARD. Professor of Geography

Sudan French.

and of the Colonization of the Peo ples of N or th Africa at} Tanp the Sorbonne, Paris. Au tho r of Le�· NIUurelles del Algerie; etc.

A. B. G.

·.:r

Regions

ALFRJW BRADLEY Goucu, M.A., PH.D. Sometime Casberd Scholar of St. John's University of Kiel, 1�96-1905·

College,

Oxford.

English Lector in

. par't) (m ·

}

·

·

the Swabian League.

J

A. B. WooD. Sound Admiralty Laboratory, Teddington, Middlesex. A. D. MITCHJU.L, D.Sc., F.I.C. }Stoicheiometry·' Assi!ltant Editor, Journal of the Chemical Society: Assi stant Examiner in Chemistry, SulPhur. University of London and Institute of C emist ry . A. E. HouGHTON. . Spam' (in part) Author of of the Bourbons in Spairz. ALBERT EJNSTEJN, l)H.D. Director of the Kaiser-Wilhelm I nst itu te for P ysics , Berlin. N o bel Prizeman for (in part) Physics, r921. Professor of Physics, Akademie der Wissenschaften, Berlin. Author Space-Time of Relativity, the Special atJd the General Theory. ALBERT FRANK KENDRICK, F.R.S.A. Keeper in the Vir.toria and Albert Museum, South Kensington, of Textiles, 1 ��}7- Tapes try '

A.B. W.

Research

A. D. M.

h

A. E. Ho.

}

RestoriUion

A. Ei.

h

A. F. K.

•

·

} }

·

·

·

1924, Ceramics, 1899-1902, and Woodwork, 1904-8. Author of English EmbroUJery,· Oriental Ct�rpets; etc.

ALFRJW FowLER, D.Sc., F.R.S.

A. Fow.

Yarn>w Research Professor of the Royal Society since 1923. Line Spectra.

A. G. Ch.

ARTUUR G. CHATER. Translator of many

A. I. D.

A.].G.

books from

Author

Swedish, Dan i sh and N orw egian

of

}

Series in

l Swedish Language and f Literature (in part).

.

ARTIJUR IRWIN DASENT. Clerk of the Parliaments of Northern Ireland 11ince 1921; Clerk of the J ourna ls , House Speaker. of Commons, 1919-21. Autho r of The Speakers of the House of Commons; etc. REv. ALEXANDER }AMES GRIEVE, M.A., D.D. }swedenborg' Emanuel Principal of Lancashire Independent College, Manchester. Lect urer in Early Church part) History at the V i c toria Umversity, Manchester.

}

·

·

Spectroscopy.

(in

·

A. L. A.L.H. A.M.-Fa A. N.G.

A. R. P.

·

ANDRF.W LANG. l Tale (i11 part) Journalist, poet, critic and historian. See the biographical article: LANG, ANDKEW. I ALEXANDER L. HowARD. Teak (in part). Of W. W. Howard Bros. and Co. {Hardwoods), Teak merchants, London. l Spanish Language and ALFRED MoREL-f"ATIO. f Literature (in part). Formerly Professor of Romance Languages at the College de France, Paris. ALFRED N. GOLDSMITH, B.S., PH.D. A!lsociate Professor of Electrical Engineering, The College of the C i ty of New York. Sound Motion Pictures. Vice-President, Radio Corporation of America. Author of Radio Telephony; etc. A. R. PAsTo», PH.D., B.Ln-r. Head of the Department of Spanish Studies, King's College, London. Cervantes Spanish Language and Literature (i11 part). Reader of Spanish La ng uage and Literature in the University of London. Author of ·

·

}

}

'

Contemporary

Spanish Literature; etc.

A. R. SMYTHE, F.R.C.V.S., D.V.S.M: Professor of Materia Medica and Therapeutics, Royal Veterinary College, London. REv. ARCHIBALD R. S. KENNEDY, D.D. A. R. S. K. Professor of Hebrew and Semitic Languages in the University of Edinburgh. ALAN S. CoLE, C.B. A. S.C. Assistant-Secretary, Board of Education, South Kensington, 19Q0-8. Assistant Director for Art, 1!198. Author of Ancient Needle Point an4 Pillow Lace; etc. ARTHUR STANLEY EDDINGTON, D.Sc., F.R.S. A. S. E.·· Plumian Professor of Astronomy , Ca mbridge University. Director of the Observatory, Cambridge. Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge. Editor of the Ast ron omy section, 14th Edition, Britannica. A utho r of The Nature of the PhysicaJ Space, Time and Grarntation; etc. ARTHl!R SIDNEY EtLYAT, O.B.E. A. S. El. Of Messrs. Tate and Lyle, Ltd., London. - AR1'HUR SHADWELL, M.7\., M.D., LL.D., F.R.C.P. A. Sl. Writer on scientific, sociological and industrial que.tiona. Author of Drink, Temperance and Legislation; etc. A. Va. AURELIO VALLS. London Manarer, Bank of Spain. A.R. S.

Encyclof'IJ>dia.

Swine Fever

} Tabernacle

} ,

·

World;

}}

.

•

'

.

. Textile Printing (til part).

}}

.

.

Space-Time (t.n pt1rt); Star; Telescope (in part).

}

(in part) Smrar Temperance.

Jg

r.. .._ , .,. ....

Bank 0f

•

·

A. We.

ALICE WERNER, L.L.A., D.Litt.

A. W.F.

ArrrRED Wirum Frox, C.B., M.A.

OF CONTRIBUTORS

NAMES

AND

INITIALS

a

pi

f

Swahili Language.

Sometime Scholar and Fellow of Newham College, Cambridge. Professor of Swahili

and Bantu Languages at the School of Oriental Studies, London. Assistant Secretary, Statistical

Department,

— Statistics.

Formerly

Board of Trade, London.

William Dow Professor of Political Economy at McGill University, Montreal.

A. W. Ma.

ALEXANDER W. Marr, Litr.D.

ce

lTerence.

A. Wo.

Late Professor of Greek, Edinburgh University. Apranam Worr, M.A., D.Lirt.

A. W. Po.

ALFRED W. Porter, D.Sc., F.R.S.

A. Yo.

I

B. F. C. A.

Attyn Youne, Pu.D. Late Professor of Political Economy in the University of London. BERNARD CHARLES TOLVER Pacet, D.S.0., M.C. Bt. Lieutenant-Colonel. Served "European War, 1914-8. B. F. C. ATKINSON, Pu.D.

B. H. L. H.

CAPTAIN B. H. LipperLL Hart, F.R.His.S.

}

B. J. O.

and ‘Military History section, 14th Edition, Encyclopedia Britannica. Captain B. J. Owen, M.A., M.ENG.

B. C. T. P.

B. Mi.

Professor of Logic and Scientific Method in the University of London. Author of Spinoza, Benedictus de. The Oldest Biography of Spinoza. Editor of the Philosophy and Psychology section, 14th Edition, Encyclopedia Britannica. Surface Tension.

Co-author of Foster and Emeritus Professor of Physics, University of London. Porter’s Elemeniary Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism; etc.

Supply and Demand.

i

sys

Staff, Military (in part). LT

Under Librarian, University Library, Cambridge.

`

Military Correspondent to The Daily Telegraph, London.

Strategy.

Editor of the Military

}Spraying Machinery (in part). }

Director of the Institute of Agricultural Engineering, Oxford. Broabus MITCHELL, A.B., PH.D. Associate Professor of Political Economy, Johns Hopkins University.

Author of pSouth, The (2m part).

BAILEY TOWNSHEND, B.S., Sc.D.

a

The Rise of Cotton Mulls in the South; Frederick Law Olmsted, A Cratoc of the Old South.

Physicist, Johns-Manville, Incorporated. Formerly Secretary of Engineering, International Business Machines Corporation.

>Tabulating Machines.

C. A. M.

Basir Wrams, O.B.E. Professor of History at Edinburgh University. The Times (London) in South Africa. SARTE esas oe Riad weet

C. Co.

CARLOS CONTRERAS, B.ARCH.

C. C. P.

Carr C. PLEHN, A.B., LL.D., PH.D. Formerly President, National Tax Association and American Statistical Association. Taxation, Local (in part).

C. E. A.

C. E. ALLRED, M.S.A., Pa.D.

C. E. T.

Czci Epcar Trtrey, B.Sc., Pu.D.

C. F. A.

CHARLES FRANCIS ATKINSON. Major, late East Surrey Regiment.

C. F. Cl.

COLONEL SIR CHARLES FREDERICK Crosser, K.B.E., C.B., C.M.G., FRS.

B. Wi.

Sometime Special Correspondent to

, i -South Africa (in part).

EEE

cholar of Trinity College, Cambridge. H.B.M. Acting Vice-Consul for Austria, 1921-6. Passport Control Officer for Austria, 1922-5. Intelligence Officer, League of Successor State. Nations Union, 1926.

Author of The Social Revolution in Austria.

Professor of City Planning in School of Fine Arts; National University of Mexico. | Spanish American Planning Consultant in Department of Communications and Public Works of { Architecture. Mexican Government. Author of Revenue Systems of State and Local Governments; Government Finance.

C.F. H.

Head of Department and Professor of Agricultural Economics, University of Tennessee. Author of Economic and Social Study of Tennessee; etc.

T

Demonstrator in Petrology, University of Cambridge.

Author of The Wilderness and Cold Harbour.

CHARLES FREDERICK HUGHES.

Admiral, United States Navy, Washington.

C. F. M.

CHARLES FREDERICK Marvin, M.E.

C. F. R.

CHARLES FERNAND REY. Commander of the Star of Ethiopia.

C. H.

C. J. C. J.G.

Chief of Naval Operations since 1927.

C. L. T. B. C. McK.

(in part).

Surveying (in part). iStaff,

Naval (in pari). .

|Sunshine (in part).

Formerly Assistant Secretary, Ministry of -Tana.

Author of Unconquered Abyssinia as it is To-day; etc.

CHARLES Host, F.R.G.S., E.R.C.I., F.R.S.A. Hon. Fellow, Jesus College, Cambridge. Formerly in service of Rajah of Sarawak

Member of the Sarawak State Advisory Council at Westminster (1919).

CuarLES James, Hon. D.Sc. Professor of Chemistry, New Hampshire University, Durham, New Hampshire.

C. J. GApp, M.A. Fellow of the Society of Antiquaries.

C. J. Mi.

}South African War,1899-1902

,

Chief of United States Weather Bureau, Washington,

(1904).

Saite:

Tachyly wy Telttite.

Head of the Geographical Section, General Staff, 1905-11. Director-General, Ordnance Survey, 1911-22. President, Royal Geographical Society. Author of Textbook of Topographical Surveying; The Early Years of the Ordnance Survey; etc.

Labour, London.

»Tennessee..-

Courtenay J. Mitt.

City Editor of The Times, London.

C, L. T. BEECHING. | Secretary, İnstitute of Certified Grocers, London. CHARLES McKenny, A.M., LL.D. President, Michigan State Normal College, Ypsilanti, Mich. sonality of the Teacher.

Editor of The American Schoolmaster.

Sumatra (in part). }Terbium.

Sumerian Language.

Stock Exchange or Bourse (in part). Tea: Consumption and Trade. Author of The Per- Teachers, Training of (in part).

INITIALS C. M. P.

CHARLES Max Pace, D.S.O., M.C., F.R.C.S.

C. P. Su.

CHARLES PELOT SUMMERALL, LL.D.

C. S. I.

Surgeon to St. Thomas's Hospital. Surgeon to the Victoria Hospital for Children. Consulting Surgeon to the Metropolitan Police. Hunterian Professor, Royal College of Surgeons of England. Author of The Treatment of Fractures im General Practice.

Chief of Staff since 1926.

Major-General, United States Army, Washington. C. S. IMIsoN.

y

CONTRIBUTORS

OF

NAMES

AND

Surgery.

iStaff, Military (in part).

}Sulphuric Acid.

United Alkali Co. Ltd., Widnes.

O.M., G.B.E., M.A., M.D., D.Sc., F.R.C.P.,

C. S. S.

Str CHARLES Scorr SHERRINGTON, ; ; F.R.C.S., F.R.S. Fullerian Professor of (Spinal Cord (in part); Waynflete Professor of Physiology, University of Oxford. System. Sympathetic { Physiology, of Physiology, Royal Institution of Great Britain, 1914-7. Professor University of Liverpool, 1895-1913. Member of Medical Research Council of Privy

C. Str.

C. W. C. O.

CARL STRIPE. Publicity Manager, Combustion Engineering Corporation, New York. C. T. CARR. Editor of Statutory Rules and Orders. Str CHARLES W. C. Oman, K.B.E., F.S.A., Hon.D.C.L., Hon.LL.D., F.B.A.

D.A. R.

Davıp A. RosErTSON, A.B., LL.D.

D. D. P.

Davip D. Prarr, M.A., PH.D.

D.D. W.

Davip Duncan WALLACE, Pu.D., Litt.D., LL.D. Professor of History and Economics, Wofford College, Spartanburg, South Carolina.

Council.

C. T.C.

Fellow of All Souls College, Oxford, and

Chichele

Professor of Modern

s ; : } Steam Generation (in pari ee (in part); Statutory Rules and Orde Swiss Wais x

History.

,

Summer Schools (in part)

Assistant Director, American Council on Education. Formerly Dean of the Colleges , of Arts, Literature and Science, University of Chicago.

}

Tars, Low Temperature.

Middlesex.

Teddington,

Chemical Research Laboratory,

>South Carolina.

Author of Constitutional History of South Carolina; etc.

Davip EvGENE Suitu, PH.D.

Donatp Francis Tovey, M.A., Mus.Doc. Reid Professor of Music in Edinburgh

D. G. H.

tion, 14th Edition, Encyclopedia Britannica. Davip GEorcEe Hocartu, M.A., C.M.G., D.Litt. Late Keeper of the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford. cratis, 1889 and 1903;

D. Gi.

SIR r .M.

Ephesus,

K.C.B., TEN Astronomer at the

PRD

Excavated at Paphos, 1888, Nau-

ope,

1879-1907.

Survey of Egypt, and on the expedition to Ascension Parallax by observations of Mars. Davip HANNAY.

Formerly British Vice-Consul at Barcelona.

Symphonic Poem;

erved

Syria (in part).

Sei

MPE

F.R.S.

a

Goo

sec-

Symphony.

1904-5; Assiut, 1906-7.

Cape of

Symp \

Editorial Adviser, Music

University.

Taylor’s Theorem.

Editor

Professor Emeritus of Mathematics, Teachers College, Columbia University. of the Mathematics section, 14th Edition, Encyclopedia Britannica.

on

Geodetic

Island to determine the Solar

Author of Short History of the Royal

Navy, 1217-1688; Life of Don Emtlio Castelar, Doris Mary STENTON,.B.A. Lecturer in History in the University of Reading. Hon. Secretary and Editor of the Pipe Rolls Society. Author of The Earliest Lincolnshire Anise Rolls; etc. D. O. Woopsury, A.B., M.S. Formerly special writer for General Electric Editorial Staff of Power, New York.

.

Telescope (in part).

Spinola, Ambrose. Tallage. Test Pit.

Company. DEXTER S. Krupart, A.B., LL.D,

Technical Education (in

E. A.

CAPTAIN EDWARD AŁLTHAM, C.B., R.N.

Spain (in part);

E. A. F.

Sweden (in part). section, 14th Edition, Encyclopedia Britannica. EDWARD AUGUSTUS FREEMAN, LL.D. Syracuse (in part). Author of History of the Norman Conquest. See biographical article: FREEMAN, E, A.

E. B. N.

Evan BAILLIE NOEL.

E. B. W.

E. B. WILsoN.

E. Cn.

EMIL CARLSEN

E. Cr.

ERNST CASSIRER.

D. S.K.

part).

Dean, The College of Engineering, Cornell University.

i

Secretary and Chief Executive Officer, Royal United Service Institution since 1927. Staff, Naval (in part); Senior Naval Officer, Archangel River Expedition, 1918-9. Editor of the Naval [|Submarine (in part);

Squash Rackets.

Late Secretary of Queen’s Club, London.

Assistant Director, Department of Public Relations. Acting Director, Department of Retail Merchandising, Institute of American Meat Packers, Chicago. Member of National Academy of Design and of Institute of Art and Letters.

Stockyards.

|Still-Life Painting.

[Substance Professor of Philosophy, University of Hamburg. Author of Kants Leben und Lale;

Substansbegraf und Funktionsbegrif; etc.

Epwarp E. Lone, C.B.E.

Sula Islands;

Formerly Director of Eastern Propaganda.

Department, Foreign Office, 1918-21.

Officer in charge, Eastern Section News|

Correspondent in Northern India of The

Formerly Editor of The Indien Daily Telegraph and of The| Times (London). Rangoon Times; also on the staff of the Singapore Free Press.

E. E.T,

E. E. THUM.

; etc. Associate Editor of The Iron Age, New York. Author of Elementary Metallurgy

Sumatra

(in part);

Sumba; Sumbawa;

Surabaya (Port); Surakarta; Ternate.

j

i

Stainless Steel.

Vill

INITIALS

AND

NAMES

OF CONTRIBUTORS Stevenson, Robert Louis (in part);

Sır EpmunDn Gosse, M.A., C.B., LL.D., Hon.Lrrr.D.

Style (in part);

E. G. Bow.

E. G. Bowen, M.A.

Tennyson, Alfred Tennyson, Lord. nes

E. Gi.

| Eric GILL. Sculptor and Engraver. Chief works: Stations of the Cross, Westminster Cathedral;

>Stone Carving.

E. Hea.

Epwarpb Hrawoop, M.A.

Tanganyika Territory (in

E. H. H. S.

E. H. H. SIMMONS.

E.

G.

Librarian, House of Lords, 1904-14. Sometime Assistant Librarian, British Museum. | Swedish Language and Clark Lecturer in English Literature, Trinity College, Cambridge, 1884-90. Author> Literature (in part); of History of Eighteenth Century Literature; Collected Poems; Books on the Table; | Swinburne, Algernon etc. See the biographical article: Gosse, SIR EDMUND. Charles (in part);

Formerly Cecil Prosser Post Graduate Scholar of the University of Wales. The Money Changers, Leeds University.

E. Hi.

Author of The Criterion in Art; etc.

Librarian to Royal Geographical Society, London. Author of Geography of Africa. part). E. H. Hespert, A.M., Pa.D. ? Spanish American Literature Assistant Professor of Spanish, New York University. Associate Editor of Hispania.§ (in part).

R

Formerly University Lecturer in Palaeography, Cambridge.

E. L.

P. R. Ersa Lewxowrrtscu, Pu.D., B.Sc.Hons., A.R.C.S.

E.

Epwin Mrws, A.M., Pu.D.

E. S.

F. A. B.

Author of

>South 7 outh, The (tn part).

E. RayMonp TURNER, Pu.D., F.R.Hist.S.

Professor of European History, Johns Hopkins University, since 1925. Author of The Privy Council of England in the Seventeenth and Ezghteenth Centuries.

+Star Ch

Editor of United Empire, journal of the Royal Empire Society; formerly

+Sumatra

EDWARD SALMON, O.B.E.

of The Saturday Review.

F. A.

Tauti.

}Soya Bean Oil (in part).

Head of English Department, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tenn. The Advancing South; Southern Prose and Poetry.

E. R.T.

Exchange or Bourse

President, New York Stock Exchange. (in part). Eva HIBBERT, M.Sc.TECH. Assistant Lecturer in Applied Chemistry, Faculty of Technology, University of }Textile Printing (in part). Manchester.

Errrs HovELL Minns, Lirrr.D., F.S.A., F.B.A. Disney Professor of Archaeology, and Fellow of Pembroke College, Cambridge.

Mi.

Syria (tn part).

Author of Life of General Wolfe; etc.

,

on the staff

FRED ATKINSON.

Of Messrs. Brown Bayley’s Steelworks, Ltd., Sheffield. FRANCIS ARTHUR BaTHER, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S.

aii

(7

a (in pari).

Steel, Alloys.

F. A. E.C.

Keeper, Department of Geology, British Museum (Natural History), 1924-8.Author|StarFish of “Echinoderma” in Lankester’s Treatise on Zoology. F. A. E. Crew, M.D., P.D., D.Sc., F.R.S.E. Professor of Animal Genetics and Director, Animal Breeding Research Department, Sterility

F. C. B.

Francıs CRAWFORD BURKITT, F.B.A., D.D., D.THEOL.

Edinburgh University.

Co-editor of the British Journal of Experimental Biology.

F. E. D.

Norrisian Professor of Divinity in the University of Cambridge. F. E. Drury, M.Sc.Tecr., M.I.Struct.E., F.R.San.I.

F. G. H. T.

Francis G. H. Tate, F.C.S.

F. G. M. B.

FREDERICK GEORGE MErEson Becx, M.A.

F. G. P.

F. H. F. J. H.

l

Syriac Language. Structural Engingineering i } (in part).

Principal, London County Council School of Building, London.

Pa

First Class Chemist, Government

Laboratory,

London.

Spitits.

F. Ke.

F. LI. G.

F. R.C.

Strathclyde; Sussex, Kingdom of.

Formerly Fellow and Lecturer in Classics, Clare College, Cambridge. FREDERICK GYMER Parsons, F.R.C.S., F.S.A.

Professor of Anatomy, University of London. President, Anatomical Society of ‘tai and Ireland. Lecturer on Anatomy at St. Thomas's Hospital Great Britain

Spinal Cord (in part);;

ospital and the / Teeth.

London School of Medicine for Women.

FRED HORNER. Consulting Engineer. Contributor to The Times Engineering Supplement; etc. ERANO Joan,a e aa M.A., LL.D., F.S.A. ate Camden Professor of Ancient History in the University of Oxford. monographs on Roman History, especially Roman Britain. í

F. J. S.

i

Auth Henny On

Steam-Hammer: Steam a ii Navvy

j

in (4 (aaa, ae al).

F. J. SCHLINK. E ene Mechanical Engineer and Physicist, New York. Co-author of Your Money's Worth. iStandardization (in part). Kerrey, B.Litt., LL.B.

PN

ormerly Secretary, United States Board of Control of Labor Standards f ndards for Army Clothing. Author of Modern Industry.

F. LLEWELLYN GREFITH, M.A., PH.D., F.S.A., F.B.A. Professor of and Reader in Egyptology, University of Oxford. Editor of the Archaeological Survey and Archaeological Reports of the Egypt Exploration Fund. e ArchaeoFRANK RICHARDSON Cana, F.R.G.S Gore Staff, Encyclopædia a .

.

ndon)

a

since 1916.

Author of

*

=

Sou

Great War in Europe; The Peace Settlement.

903-11 ee gorgs

rıca

from t

f

a

i j -Sweating System (in pari). i ; part). (in pSphinx

South Africa, Union of (in part); South-West Afri j Staff of The Times | Stanley, Sir ear Ma

t Trek t

=

LON;

ul

i

I

;

c

Ga ee om

.

Tanganyika Territory (in part).

,

:

INITIALS F. Ro.

AND

NAMES

OF CONTRIBUTORS

FRANK Roscor, M.A. Secretary, Teachers Registration Council. Head of Training College for Men and

1X

pSummer Schools (21 part).

Lecturer on Education, University of Birmingham, 1900-13. F. We.

F. W. O.

F. W.T.

G. A. R.C. G. C. R. G. C.-T.

;

FRANCIS WHITE, PH.B. . . }Tacna-Arica Question. Assistant Secretary of State, Washington, 1927. Francis Warr Orrver, M.A., D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S. Quain Professor of Botany, University of London. Author of papers on morphological pSpartina. and fossil botany. Editor of Kerner’s Natural History of Plants; etc. FRANK Wiitr1Am Taussic, Pu.D., Litt.D. Professor of Economics, Harvard University. Author of Principles of Economics; >Tarifis. Tariff History of the United States; Free Trade, the Taraff and Reciprocity. 7eachers Registration RoNALD GoRELL BARNES, 3RD BARON GORELL, C.B.E., M.C., M.A. Chairman, Teachers Registration Council since 1922; Imperial Education Committee, 1918-22. GEOFFREY A. R. CALLENDER, M.A., F.S.A., F.R.Hiısrt.S. Secretary to the Society for Nautical Research and Professor at the Royal Naval

Council

. ; Spanish Succession, War

(in part). [ones (in pari);

College, Greenwich. Guy Corwin Rosson, M.A.

Squid.

Assistant Keeper in the Department of Zoology, British Museum.

Miss G. Caton-THOMPSON. British School of Archaeology in Egypt, 1921-6.

Director of Excavations in the Stratigraph. Fayum for the Royal Anthropological Institute, 1927-8. GEORGE ELLERY Hate, Sc.D., LL.D., PH.D. Professor of Astrophysics in the University of Chicago. Inventor of the spectrohsio- Spectroheliograph. graph. See the biographical article: HALE, GEORGE ELLERY.

MAJOR-GENERAL SIR GEORGE G. Aston, K.C.B.

Lecturer on Naval History, University College, London. Fortification at the Royal Naval College, Greenwich.

Strategy; Memories of a Marine; The Navy of To-day;

fe

Formerly Professor of |

Africa, Union of (in

part); Spain (im part);

Author of Sea, Land and Air ( Sweden

(in part);

Editor of The Study of War. J Switzerland

G. G. H.

G. G. Henperson, M.A., D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S.

G. H. B.

Rev. GEORGE HERBERT Box, M.A., Hon.D.D.

G. H. Ga.

GENERAL GEORGE HENRY GATER, C.M.G., D.S.O.

G. H. L. G. H. W.

G. H. Locket, M.A. Demonstrator at the Royal College of Science, London. GEORGE H. WARBURTON.

G. J.

G. Jerrerson, F.R.C.S., L.R.C.P.

G. K. B.

GEoRGE Kimpatt Burcess, B.S., Sc.D.

G. le Q. M.

Major G. LE Q. MarTtEL, D.S.O., M.C.

Rector of Sutton, Beds., and Hon. Canon of St. Albans. Old Testament Studies in the University of London.

(in part)

Terpenes.

Regius Professor of Chemistry, University of Glasgow.

Davidson

Professor of }Tabernacles, Feast of.

Technical Education (in part).

Education Officer, London County Council.

Spiders. } Editor of the Sixth edition of Oils, Fats and Waxes by E. Lewkowitsch, and chief Soya Bean Oil (in part).

chemist of the Lewkowitsch Laboratories.

Surgeon, Salford Royal Hospital. Neurological Surgeon, Manchester Royal Infirmary. Hunterian Professor of Surgery, Royal College of Surgeons of England, 1924.

Director, National Bureau of Standards, Washington. Deputy Assistant Director of Fortification, War Office, London. Officer, Tanks Corps Headquarters, B. E. F., France, 1916-8.

General

Staff

Str GEORGE MACDONALD, K.C.B., M.A., Hon.LL.D., Hon.D.Lirt., F.B.A.

Permanent Secretary, Scottish Education Department, 1922-8. Hon. Curator of Hunterian Coin Cabinet. Hon. Curator of Coins to the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland. Author of numerous works on coinage and on Roman Britain.

Spinal Column, Surgery of.

Standards, National Bureau of. >Tanks. }

Spain (in part).

GisELA M. A. Ricuter, Litt.D. Curator of Classical Art, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. Author of Greek,

pTerra-Cotta (im part).

G. M. H.

G. Monracu Harris, O.B.E.

Taxation, Local (in part).

G. N. W.

GrorcrE NEVILLE Watson, Sc.D., F.R.S. -SphericalHarmonics. Professor of Mathematics, University of Birmingham. Author of The Theory of Bes-

G. P. B.

G. P. Bipper, D.Sc. President of the Zoology Section of the British Association for the Advancement

G. M. A. R-

of

Roman and Etruscan Bronzes; etc.

Head of Foreign Intelligence Branch, Ministry of Health, London. sel Functions.

G. S. G. S. W. E.

pSponges. of Science. Í ! GRANT SHOWERMAN, Pu.D. Professor of Latin, University of Wisconsin. Author of The Great Mother of the Gods. Syncretism. : | GEORGE S. W. Epps, C.B.E., B.A., F.LA. ; Sup erannuation. Deputy Actuary, Government Actuary’s Department, London.

GILBERT T. Morcan, O.B.E., D.Sc., F.I.C., F.R.S.

Stilbene; Styrene or Styrolene (in part);

Director, Chemical Research Laboratory, Department of Scientific and Industrial Succinic Acid; Research, London. Author of Organic Compounds of Arsenic and Antimony. Editor | Sulphonic Acids; Tantalum; Tartar; Tartaric Acid; of the Chemistry section, 14th Edition, Encyclopædia Britannica.

Tellurium.

G. W. B. M. G. W. Wi.

G. W. B. McLeop, C.B.E.

|Taxation, Local (zn part).

GEORGE WoopWARD WICKERSHAM, LL.D. Attorney-General of the United States, 1909-13. Of the firm of Cadwalader, Wicker-Haft,Wiliam Howard. sham and Taft.

INITIALS

X

AND

OF CONTRIBUTORS

NAMES

H. A. B.

H. A. Baytiis, D.Sc.

H. A. Wa.

Str HERBERT ASHCOMBE WALKER, K.C.B.

H. B. Wa.

Henry BeaucHamMp WALTERS, O.B.E., M.A., F.S.A.

H. C. N.

H. C. Norcutt, Pu.D. Professor of English, University of Stellenbosch, South Africa.

H. D.

HERBERT Drnctz, A.R.C.S., B.Sc., F.R.A.I.

H. E. Da.

H. E. DALTON.

Assistant, Department of Zoology, British Museum

(Natural History).

Keeper of Greek and Roman Antiquities in the British Museum. of Roman Pottery; Catalogue of Terra-Cotias; etc.

Author of Catalogue

H. E. S.

HORACE ELISHA SCUDDER.

|

Corporation.

H. G. R. H. Her.

HarotD HERON, F.C.S.

Analytical and consulting Chemist. Lecturer on Malting and Brewing Chemistry, Sir John Cass Technical Institute, London.

Henry Harotp Scott, M.D., M.B., M.R.C.S., L-R.C.P., D.P.H., F.R.S.E.

Formerly Milner Research Fellow in Comparative Pathology, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine. Lecturer in Tropical Diseases, Westminster Hos-

H. I.

H. Je.

H. J. R.

pital Medical School. Captain H. Hotine, R.E. Geographical section, General Staff, War Office, London. H. INWARDS. Formerly President of Luton Chamber. Author of Straw Hats. HILARY JENKINSON, M.A., F.S.A. Assistant Keeper of the Public Records, London.

iStudebaker Corporation,

Harriet Elizabeth. fStowe, fSpraying Machinery (in part).

Starch. Sprue

{Stereophotogrammetry. eel and Straw Manufactures.

Maitland Lecturer, University of

Cambridge and Reader in Diplomatic and English Archives, University of London. HERBERT JENNINGS Rose, M.A. Professor of Greek, University of St. Andrews, Fife, since 1927. Professor of Latin,

University College of Wales, Aberystwyth, 1919-27.

Sun.

The. Pa Television.

Author of Life of James Russell Lowell; History of the United States; etc. H. G. Ricwarpson, M.A., B.Sc. Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries, London.

H. Hte.

Terra-Cotta (in part). South African Literature (in part).

Assistant Professor of Astrophysics, Imperial College of Science and Technology, London. Director of the South Kensington Observatory.

H. E. I.

:

Southern Railway.

General Manager, Southern Railway, London.

Secretary and General Auditor, Studebaker HERBERT E. Ives, PH.D., Sc.D. Past President, Optical Society of America.

Tapeworms.

}

Tally.

Author of Primitive Culture ( Superstition.

in Greece; Primitwe Culture in Italy; A Handbook of Greek Mythology.

H. L. Mo.

H. L. MORROW.

H. M.C.

Hector Munro Cuapwick, M.A., Hon.D.Lirt., Hon.Lu.D.,

H. N. Br.

HENRY NOEL BRAILSFORD, M.A. ? Soviet System.’ Editor of The New Leader, 1922-6. Author of How the Soviet Works. § HENRY Norris Russet, Pu.D., D.Sc. Research Professor of Astronomy since 1927, and Director of the Observatory since pStellar Evolution. 1912, Princeton University. Author of Determination of Siellar Parallax; etc. Hitpa PHOEBE Hupson, O.B.E., M.A., Sc.D. Formerly Lecturer and Fellow of Newnham College, Cambridge. Author of Ruler Surface.

H. N.R.

H. P. Hu.

Assistant Editor of John O’ London's Weekly. of The Daily News, London,

Formerly Assistant Literary Editor

F.B.A.

Elrington and Bosworth Professor of Anglo-Saxon, Cambridge University.

}Street Cries.

:

.

|Teutonic Peoples (in part).

and Compasses; Cremona Transformations in Plane and Space.

H. Rd.

HERBERT READ, D.S.O., M.C. a Keeper, Victoria and Albert Museum, London. Author of English Stained} StainedGlass (in part).

H. R. H.

Harry Recinatp Horranp Hatt, M.A., D.Lirt., F.B.A., F.S.A.

H. Sha.

H. SHaPLeY, A.M., LL.D., Pu.D.

H. S. L.

HERBERT SIDNEY LANGFELD, Pu.D.

ass; etc.

H. St. J. W.

H. W. B. J.

Keeper of Egyptian and Assyrian Antiquities in the British Museum. Professor of Astronomy, Harvard University, and Director of the Observatory.

Professor and Director of Psychology Laboratory, Princeton University. BRIGADIER HAROLD ST. JOHN WINTERBOTHAM, C.M.G., D.S.O., R.E. Geographical N General Staff, War Office, London. `

H. W. B. Joseps, M.A.

:

.

{Sphinx (in part).

>

fStar Cluster.

i Stumpf. Carl

f PHNP

SARS ° . |Surveying (in part).

Species (in part).

H. W. C. D.

Lecturer in Philosophy in the University of Oxford. \ HENRY WILLIAM Caress Davis, M.A. Late Director, Dictionary of National Biography, Regius Professor of Modern History, }Stephen. and Fellow and Tutor of Balliol College, Oxford. Fellow of All Souls, 1895-1902. \

H. W. Sm.

HARRY WORCESTER SMITH. Founder of the Masters of Foxhound Association of America.

Author of A Sporting}Steeplechasing.

Tour in Ireland; The True American Foxhound; The Cubbing Season.

H. W. W. Wil. HERBERT WILLIAM W. WILBERFORCE. } ummary Jurisdiction (in Barrister-at-law. Deputy Chairman of the County of London Sessions. Metropolitan 5 part) Police Magistrate. Formerly Stipendiary Magistrate for Bradford. ISRAEL ABRAHAMS, M.A. IA. Tam, Jacob Ben Meir. Formerly Reader in Talmudic and Rabbinic Literature, University Cambridge; etc.

L F. D. M.

Jan F. D. Morrow, Pu.D.

LM.

Sır law Matcorm, K.C.M.G., D.L., J.P.

Formerly Senior Moderator of Trinity College, Dublin. British Government Representative on the Suez Canal Board.

j |Straits Question, The. jSuez Canal (in part).

AND

INITIALS J. A. E.

NAMES

Xl

OF CONTRIBUTORS

Sır (James) ALFRED Ewrnc, K.C.B., LL.D., D.Sc., M.Inst.C.E., F.R.S. Principal and Vice-Chancellor, Edinburgh University. Director of (British) Naval

on Steam Engine

J. A. Ed.

CAPTAIN J. A. EDGELL, R.N.

Souncirg.

J. A.S.

Joun ADDINGTON Symonps, LL.D. Author of Renaissance in Italy; Studies of the Greek Poets; etc,

J. A. Th. J. B.C. J. Br.

J. Bt.

Education,

1903-16.

Assistant Hydrographer to the Navy, Admiralty, London.

Srr Joun Artur Tuomson, M.A., LL.D. Symbiosis. Regius Professor of Natural History in the University of Aberdeen. Author of The Study of Animal Life; Outlines of Zoology; Heredity; Darwinism and Human Life.

J. B. CRANE, B.S.

}Steam Generation (in part).

High Pressure Specialist, Combustion Engineering Corporation, New York. } CoLONEL Jonn Browny, C.B., C.B.E., D.S.O., T.D. Commanded 162nd Infantry Brigade, Territorial Army, 1924~8. Appointed to com- Territorial Army. mand 4th Battalion, Northamptonshire Regiment on re-formation Territorial Army. JAMES BARTLETT. Late Lecturer on Construction, Architecture, Sanitation, Quantities, etc., King’s Stone.

College, London. J. B. TREND, M.A.

J. C. Os.

Jonn CLYDE OSWALD.

J. D. B.

J.F. C.F.

Author of Quantities.

Author of A Picture of Modern Spain; Alfonso the Sage; Spain from the South; The Madrid Stage in the 17th Century (in Spanish); etc.

Coronet JOHN FREDERICK CHARLES FULLER, C.B.E., D.S.O.

Military Assistant to the Chief of the Imperial General Staff.

lTeletypesetter.

Corps,

1917-8.

.

8° ics; Taginae, Battle of; Teutoburger Wald, Battle of.

Spanish Language and Literature (in part). Spitteler, Carl;

James Fitzmavrice-Ketty, Litt.D., F.R.HIsT.S. Late Gilmour Professor of Spanish Language and Literature, University of Liverpool, James Futtarton Mourrgeap, LL.D.

Swiss Literature (én part). Tar

Editor of many of Baedeker’s Guide Books. J. F. STENNING, M.A., C.B., C.B.E.

eet

Warden of Wadham College, Oxford, and University Reader in Aramaic. and

York; etc.

¢Talbot (Family) (in part).

Author of The Houses of Lancasier

See the biographical article: GAIRDNER, JAMES.

CAPTAIN J, G. DOLLMAN.

J. Gi.

J. Grnspurc, M.A. Associate, Department of Mathematics, Teachers College, Columbia University,

J. Gir. J.G.R.

JEAN GIRAUD. Of the Fondation Emile et Louise Deutsch de la Meurthe, University of Paris. Joun Grorce Rosertson, M.A., Pu.D., Lirt.D.

J. H.

Josx HILTON.

J. Har.

Jiro HARADA.

Assistant Keeper, Department of Zoology, Natural History Museum, New York.

?Taxidermy.

London.

Ss Stirling Numbers.

Professor of Mathematics, Yeshiva College, New York.

Professor of German language and literature, University of London, Department of Scandinavian Studies since I924.

Stendhal. tary

Swedish Language and Literature (in part).

Director of the

Strikes and Lock-outs (in

Director of Statistics, Ministry of Labour, London,

Of the Imperial Household Museums, Japan.

mw

Formerly Professor in the Nagoya

College of Technology and in the 8th Higher School.

J. H. B.

Josers H. BONNEVILLE, A.M.

J. H. H.

J. H. Hurrox, D.Sc., C.I.E.

J. H. Mo.

J. H. Morcan, K.C.

,

Department of Banking and Science, New York University School of Commerce, Accounts and Finance, New York. Author of Elements of Business Finance.

Director of Ethnology, Assam.

part).

Tea Ceremony.

Stock (in part).

Talaing.

Deputy Commissioner, Naga Hills,

Professor of Constitutional Law, University of London.

Brigadier-General,

late

State. Act of

:

Reader in Constitutional Law to the Inns of Court. Deputy-Adjutant-General. Editor of the Law section, 14th Edition, Encyclopedia Britannica. } oun Horace Rovunp, M.A., LL.D.

J. H.R. J

Late Historical Adviser

:

;

(in part).

\r

Vere-Harmsworth Professor of Naval History,

University of Cambridge.

Formerly

Reader in Modern History. Author of Life of Napoleon; Napoleonic Studies; etc.

J. J. C.

BRIGADIER-GENERAL JOHN J, Cotzyer, C.B., C.M.G., D.§,0. (retired).

J. J. M.

James JoserH Marion, M.A.

Formerly Chief of the General Staff, Union of South Africa.

X] Warden; of Toynbee Hall, London.

:

Talbot (Family)

to the Crown.

Joun Hotranp Ross, M.A., D.Litt.

ouncii.

y

a

Author of oe

Formerly Chief Instructor, Camberley.

Tanks in the Great War; The Reformation of War; Sir John Moore's System of Train-| ing; etc.

JAMES GAIRDNER, LL.D., C.B. Late Assistant Keeper of the Public Records.

(in part);

Chief General ate

J. G. D.

J. H. Ro.

pa Language and Literature (in part).

Managing Director, The New York Employing Printers’ Association since 1925. J. C. Suits, C.B.E., Litt.D. H. M. Senior Inspector of Schools in Scotland. Editor of Spenser’s Fazrze Queen and +Spenser, Edmund. (with Prof. E. de Selincourt) of Spenser’s Poetical Works. } James Davip Bourcuter, M.A., F.R.G.S. Stambolov, Stefan (in part). Late Correspondent of The Times (London) in South Eastern Europe. Officer, Tank

J. F.-K. J. F. M. J. F. S. J. Gai.

Tasso, Torquato (in part).

See the biographical

article: SYMONDS, JOHN ADDINGTON.

J.B. T.

J. C. Sm.

Author of The Steam Engine and other Heat Engines, etc.

alleyrand-Périgord,

Charles Maurice de.

agile

Africa,

Campaign in.

Hon. Secretary of Trade Boards Advisory[Sweating System (im part).

Secretary National Anti-Sweating League,

1906.

AND

INITIALS

XU Si

J. J. S. J. L. M. J. Mac.

CONTRIBUTORS

OF

NAMES

een African Literature (in part). ; ‘ :

J. J. Smiru, B.A. Professor in Africaans, University of Stellenbosch, South Africa. J. Leask Manson, B.Sc., M.I.STRUCT.E. M.R.San.I. ae ondon.

Technical Officer, Department

of Scientific and

Industrial

Editor of State Trials; Cwil Judicial Statistics; etc.

J. M. de N.

J. M. pE Navarro, M.A.

J. M. La.

J. M. Lanois, A.B., LL.B., S.J-D. Professor of Legislation, Harvard Law School. Court of the United States.

}Teutonic Peoples (in part).

Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge.

Statute (in part);

Jonn Matcotm Mircuett, O.B.E., M.C., M.A., F.S.A. Secretary, Carnegie United Kingdom Trust. Assistant editor in Classics, Archaeology and Ancient History, 11th Edition, Encyclopedia Britannica.

J. M. Re.

Joun Morcan Ress, M.A.

J. P. E. J. Per.

JANET PERRY. Lecturer in the Department of Spanish Studies, King’s College, University of Lon-

J. R. Co.

don. Editor of Juan de Valdes’ Dtalogo de las lenguas. Joun R. Commons, A.M., LL.D.

J. S.

Labor Problems. Co-author of History of Labor in the United States. Sir JosraH CHARLES Stamp, G.B.E., D.Sc., LL.D., F.B.A.

Professor of Economics, University of Wisconsin.

K. A. K. Hi.

Sphinx (in part).

e Par

\ Spanish Language and Literature (in part). }

Author of Trade

Umonism

Strikes and Lock-outs (in

and

Member of the Committee on Taxation and National Debt, 1924. British Representative on the Reparation Commission’s Committee on German Currency and Finance, 1924, and Member of the Committee of Experts, Paris, 1929.

Sır Joun Suite Frett, K.B.E.,

part)

Taille (in

part).

Chairman and President of the Executive, London, Midland and Scottish Railway.

D.Sc., F.R.S.

Director Geological Survey of Great Britain and Museum

of Practical

Taxation.

i

.

Spherulites.

Geology.

Publius Papinius P James Smite Rep, M.A., Litr.D., LL.D. (in part) Formerly Professor of Ancient History in the University of Cambridge and Fellow and Tutor of Gonville and Caius College. Editor of editions of Cicero’s Academia. Joun THomas BEALBY. Joint author of Stanford’s Europe. Formerly editor of the Scottish Cengrpical|Sy Dasys (in part). Magazine,

J. V. B. J. Wil.

part); Sunday (in part).

|Syndicalism (in part).

Lecturer in Economics and Political Science, University College of Wales. JEAN PAUL HIPPOLYTE EMMANUEL ADHEMAR ESMEIN. Late Professor of Law in the University of Paris, and Membre de1’Institut.

J. Van Br.

Summary Jurisdiction (in

Author of The Business of the Supreme

J.M. M.

J. T. Be.

(in

°

Srr Joun Macpone tt, C.B., LL.D. Sovereignty (in part). Late Master of the Supreme Court. Sometime Quain Professor of Comparative Law, | University College, London.

J. S. F. J.S. R.

Engineering

2e

Research,

Translator of Sven Hedin’s Through Asra, Central Asia and Tibet.

Joun VAN BRUNT. Steam Generation Chief Engineer, Vice-President and Consulting Engineer, Combustion Enginering} Corporation, New York. }Ste bei James VERNON BARTLET, M.A., D.D. pagis

Professor Emeritus of Church History, Mansfield College, Oxford.

AMES Wrirrrams, M.A.,

:

D.C.L., LL.D.

}Statute (in pari). i

Late All Souls Reader in Roman Law in the University of Oxford. J Karu AMARK, D.PH. Secretary of the National Economic Society, Stockholm.

Sweden (in part).

KARL HILDEBRAND, D.PHIL.

President of the Swedish National Debt Board. Editor of the Stockholm Dagblad, 1904—13. Member of Swedish Parliament, 1907-18.

) Sweden (in part).

K. P. M.

K. P. MEHTA. Managing Director, Tata Sons, Limited.

Tata Sons, Limited.

L. C. M.

Srr Leo Cu10zza Money, F.R.Stat.S., F.R.G.S., F.Z.S. Author and Journalist. Member of the War Trade Advisory Committee, 1915-8.

Company; Sudan Plantations

South Metropolitan Gas

Parliamentary Secretary to the Ministry of Shipping,

Tonnage Priority Committee, 1917-8.

(in part).

1916-8.

Chairman

of the

Syndicate, Ltd.;

Editor of the Economics, Engineering and | Swan, Hunter and Wigham Richardson, Limited;

Industries section, 14th Edition, Encyclopedia Britannica.

Syndicate (in part).

L. de B. H.

L. DE B. HANDLEY.

Swimming (i part).

L. D. S.

LAURENCE DupiEy Stamp, B.A., D.Sc., F.G.S., M.I.P.T.

Tertiary.

L. Fo.

LAUREN ForREMAN, Pu.B.

Southern Railway System.

L. F. O.

Suez, Compagnie Universelle du Canal Maritime de.

L. H.

LEON Francois OZANNE. Chief of the London Office, Compagnie Universelle du Canal Maritime de Suez. L. F. SWIFT. President, Swift and Company, Chicago. Lewis Hopovs, M.A., D.D.

L. J.

MAJOR-GENERAL

L. F. Sw.

Author of Swimming and Watermanship; Swimming for Women, etc.

Sir Ernest Cassel Reader in Economic Geography in the University of London. Of the Southern Railway System.

Head of the Chinese Department of the Kennedy School of Missions, Hartford Semindry Foundation. Formerly President of Foochow Theological Seminary.

Sır Lours

CHARLES

Jackson,

K.B.E.,

C.B.,

C.M.G.,

R.E.

Instructor in Fortification and Military Engineering, School of Military Engineering, Chatham, 1895-1902. Assistant Director of Fortifications and Works, War Office, 1907-10; reappointed, 1914.

Swift and Company. Taoism.

South African War, 18991902 (in part).

INITIALS

OF

NAMES

AND

Xill

CONTRIBUTORS

L. J. Spencer, M.A., Sc D., F.G.S., F.C.S., F.R.S.

Stannite; Staurolite;

Keeper Mineralogy Den-rtminit, Nrtural History Museum, South Kensington. Stibnite; Sylvite; Formerly Scholar of > 110 œn:sex College, Cambridge, and Harkness Scholar. | Tetradymite; Editor of The Mineralozse:. Vagus re. Tetrahedrite.

L. of F.

ARTHUR HAMILTON LEE, 1st Viscount LEr oF Fareuay, P.C., G.C.S.1., G.B.E., K.C.B., F.S.A., E.R.I.B.A. Chairman of the Board of Governors, Lord of the Admiralty, 1921-2.

Sulgrave Manor, Northamptonshire.

First

Sulgrave Manor.

LAWRENCE R. Dicxsrer, M.Com., F.C.A. Head of Sellars, Dicksee and Co. Emeritus Professor of Accountancy and Business

rStock-Taking.

Organisation in the University of London.

Louis SEGAL, M.A., Pa.D.

Author of The Somet Union Birmingham University.

Year-Book.

REPIN

Formerly head of Russian

Si.

LEE SIMONSON,

Sn.

LUDWICK SILBERSTEIN, PH.D.

S. R.

lSo apean L. S. RICHARDSON, B.S. Assistant Chief, Press Service, United States Department of Agriculture, Washington, y ` sa LEONARD STEIN.

St. os Re Pet

A.B.

Soviet Trade Organizations.

Department,

Director of "Theatre Guild, Incorporated, New York.

Formerly Editor, Creative Art.

l

:

.

Stage Design (in part).

:

Matheinatical Physicist, Research Laboratory, Eastman Kodak Co., Rochester, N. Y.

Tensor Analysis.

Political Secretary to the World Zionist Executive. Staff-Captain Palestine Military Administration and subsequently on Political Staf, E. E. F. in Jerusalem.

Syria (in part).

Lurcir VILLARI.

Italian Vice-Consul in New Orleans, 1906; Philadelphia, 1907. Acting Consul, Sturzo. Luigi Boston, 1907-10. On the Secretariat of the League of Nations, 1920-3. Author of 3 Sl. Italian Life in Town and Country; The Awakening of Italy; etc.

Winc-COMMANDER Hon. MauricE Barine, O.B.E., F.R.S.L. English Diplomat. Sometime Correspondent for the Morning Post (London)

in | Taine, Hippolyte Adolphe

Manchuria, Russia and Constantinople, and for The Times, London, in the Balkans. See the biographical article: BARING, MAURICE.

(in part).

,

MALCOLM CHARLES SALAMAN.

Hon. Fellow, Royal Society of Painter-Etchers, London. Formerly Dramatic and Art Critic of The Sunday Times (London). Author of Old English Colour-Prints.

eee ee Crayon & £-

Moses GASTER, Pu.D.

Chief Rabbi of the Sephardic Communities of England. Vice-President of the Zionist Congress, 1898, 1899 and 1900. Vice-President, Jewish Historical Society of England. Author of A New Hebrew Fragment of Ben-Sira; The Samaritans; etc. M. M. Hovseg, D.D.S.

Sturdza

Research and development S. S. White Dental Manufacturing Company, Phila- Teeth. Artificial delphia. Formerly, Extension Course Division, Dental Department, University of Minnesota. 3

M. N.T.

Marcus Niesvear Top, M.A.

M. Si.

Max SILBERSCHMIDT, PH.D.

M. Sie.

MANNE SIEGBAHN.

N.C. N. E.C.

N. O. O. O.

Mi. G. S. H. T. R. J. L.

Sparta.

Fellow and Tutor of Oriel College, Oxford, and University Reader in Greek Epigraphy. Joint author of Catalogue of the Sparta Museum.

Switzerland (in part).

Assistant Professor, Cantonal Technical School, Winterthur, Switzerland.

Professor of Physics, University of Uppsala. NEwcoĮmB CARLTON, M.E., A.M. President of the Western Union Telegraph Company. NORMAN E. CRUMP. Statistical Correspondent to the Financial Times, London. A. B.C. of the Foreign Exchanges.

}

Spectroscopy (in part). } Telegraph. Joint author of Clare's

\ Stock (in part); Tael

.

Norman M'Lean, M.A.

Master of Christ’s College, Cambridge, and University Lecturer in Aramaic.

ORRIN G. SHERMAN.

Policyholders Service Bureau, Metropolitan Life Insurance Company, New York.

O. H. T. RisgsBETEH, M.A., F.R.G.S.

Professor and Head, Geography Department,

University College, Southampton.

Sır OrLrvErR Loper, D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S.

President of the Society for Principal of the University of Birmingham, 1900-19. Psychical Research, 1901-4. Author of Ether and Reality; Raymond, or Life and

l Stagger Plan.

e

lTasmania (im part).

(Spiritualism d P

:

Russian geographer, author and revolutionary. Editor for the Jura Federation of La Révolte. See the biographical article: KROPOTKIN, P. A.

P. M. H.

PRIMROSE MCCONNELL, B.Sc., F.G.S.

Member of the Royal Agricultural Society. P. M. Herr, B.E.E.

i

}Syriac Literature.

Death; etc.

PRINCE PETER ÅLEXEIVITCH KROPOTKIN. P. McC

+

Author of Diary of a Working Farmer.

Syr-Darya (in part).

}Sowing.

Engineering Editor, Automotive Industries. Author of The Gasoline Automobile: its Speedometers.

Design and Construction.

|

P. P. Cr.

PAUL PHILLIPPE CRET.

P. Q.

PHILIP QUAYLE, B.S. Chief Physicist, Peters Cartridge Company, King’s Mills, Ohio. Author of Spark

Professor of Architectural Design, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia. Architect of Pan-American Union Building, Washington; Valley Forge Memorial Arch, Philadelphia. Photography Applied to Small Arms; The Importance of Shot Strings; etc.

Stadium (in part). Spark Photography.

XIV

P. Z. C.

INITIALS

AND

OF CONTRIBUTORS

MAJOR-GENERAL SIR Percy Z. Cox, G.C.M.G., G.C.LE.

Vinai

Acting British Minister to Persia, 1918-20. High Commissioner in Mesopotamia, 1920-3. Secretary, Foreign Department, Government of India, 1914.

R. Al.

RAFAEL ALTAMIRA Y CREVEA.

R. A. L.

R. A. LANGWORTHY.

R. B. D.

NAMES

Tehran

Professor of History of Political and Civil Institutions of America, University of Spain (in part) Madrid. Member of the Real Academia de la Historia and the Real Academia de | p : Ciencias Morales y Politicas, Madrid.

Vice-President and General Manager of Ruths Accumulator Company, Inc., New York.

Roran B. Drxon, Pu.D. Professor of Anthropology at Harvard University. Ractal History of Man; The Building of Culture. Ruys CARPENTER, M.A., PH.D.

Director, American School of Classical Studies at Athens. Professor of Classical Archaeology at Bryn Mawr College, Pennsylvania. Hon. Corresponding Member of the Hispanic Society of America. Author of The Greeks in Spain; etc.

R. C. C. C.

R. C. C. Cray, M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P., F.S.A., F.RAL

R. C. Co.

ROBERT C. COTTON.

R. D. Hi.

RosBERT Drew Hicxs, M.A.

R. F.N.

Roya F. Nıcuors, A.M., Pu.D.

R. Fr. v. R.

Rocuus FREIHERR VON RHEINBABEN.

R. G.

RICHARD GARNETT, C.B., LL.D. Late Superintendent of the Reading

Major, United States Army.

Steam Accumulators.

America Author of Oceanic Mythology; ive Tapuyan

Spain (in part)

|Stonehenge.

Historical Section, Army War College, Washington

Supply and Transport, Military (in part).

ee

Formerly Fellow and Classical Tutor, Trinity College, Cambridge.

Professor of History, University of Pennsylvania. 1850-185 4.

R. H. B. R. H. Ch.

š

Author of Democratic Machine| Taylor,Zachary.

lStresemann, Gustav.

Author of Stresemann, der Mensch und der Staatsmann. Printed

Books.

(i part);

Room, British Museum,

See the biographical article; GARNETT, RICHARD.

and

Keeper of the Swit Jonathan (in part).

LIEUTENANT-COLONEL RoGER HaMMET BEapoN, C.B.E., R.A.S.C. }Supply and Transport, Employed under Colonial Office in ‘Iraq, 1925. Military (in part). REV. ROBERT HENRY CHARLES, M.A., D.D., Litr.D., F.B.A. Archdeacon of Westminster. Late Grinfield Lecturer and Lecturer in Biblical Studies,Testaments of the Twelve

Oxford. Professor of Biblical Greek at Trinity College, Dublin, 1898-1906.

atriarchs.

RAP.

REGINALD INNES Pocock, F.L.S., F.Z.S., F.R.A.L, F.R.S. Natural History Editor of The Field and Temporary Assistant in the Zoologica! Tardigrada.

R. Lev.

REUBEN Levy, M.A.

Department of the British Museum since 1923.

R. L. F.

R. M.F.

Lecturer in Persian, Cambridge University. R. Lourse Fitcu, A.B., M.A. Dean of Women, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y. Miss R. M. FLEMING. E ; ieee Librarian, The Geographical Association, Aberystwyth. Many Lands; Stories from the Early World.

}Susa. sg lSororities. \ Author of Ancient Tales from

Tajik Republic; Tatar Republic.

>

Ray M. Hupson, M.E.

Assistant Director for Commercial Standards, United States Department of Com- -Standardization (in part). merce. ; ROBERT NISB ET BAIN. I — (in part); Assistant Librarian, British Museum, 1883-1909. Author of Scandinavia: The PolitiSweyn I. (in part). cal History of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, 1513-1900; etc.

R. N. Ba.

VicE-ADMIRAL ROBERT NESHAM Bax, C.B., R.N. (retired).

Director of the Mobilization Department at the Admiralty, 1924-6.

War in Channel Squadron, Dardanelles Operations; etc.

R. N. R. B.

Served WorldbSubmarine Campaign.

R. N. RupMosE Brown, D.Sc. Head of the Department of Geography, University of Sheffield. Member of the Scottish Antarctic Expedition, 1902-4, and of the Scottish Arctic Expeditions to

Spitsbergen, 1909, 1914 and 1919.

R. R. M.

Spitsbergen (in part).

Author of Spitsbergen; The Polar Regions; etc.

ROBERT Ranutpa Maretr, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.A.L.

Spell;

Rector of Exeter College, Oxford, University Reader in Social Anthropology.

Supernaturalism.

R. R. P.

Rave R. Pratt, A.B. Head of Department of Hispanic American Research, American Geographical SocietySouthAmerica (in part).

R. Rt.

REINHOLD Rost, C.L.E., LL.D. eee of Wilson’s Essays on the Religions of the Hindus; Hodgson’s Essays on I ndianTamils (in part).

R. S. CI.

R. S$. Cray, B.A., D.Sc., F.DIyst.P. Principal, Northern Polytechnic, London.

of New York.

Author of numerous articles on South America.

ubjects.

R. U. S.

:

R. U. Saver, M.A.

ee ne Union of (in

Lecturer in Material Culture and Physical Anthropology in the University

S. A. C.

?Spectacles.

President of the Optical Society. of Cam-

OTUs:

;

bridge. Formerly Lecturer in Geology, and Geography, University Collee, Natal, |South-West Africa (in part); Swaziland (in part). STANLEY AEE Coox, Litt.D. University

Lecturer in Hebrew and Aramaic;

Lecturer in Hebrew and Syriac and . Fellow of Gonville and Cains College, Cambridge. Editor for Palestine Exploration f &mud (én part). Fund. Co-editor, Cambridge Ancient History.

Author of Religion of Ancient Palestine

INITIALS

AND

NAMES

OF CONTRIBUTORS

S. Ch.

STUART CHASE, S.B. President and Director, Labor Bureau, Incorporated, New York.

S. De J.

S. DE JASTRZEBSKI, F.S.S.

S. de M.

S. DE MADARIAGA, M.A.

Author of The

XV

beast : Standardization (im part).

Tragedy of Waste; Your Money's Worth; etc.

Member American Academy of Social and Political Science. Registrar-General, Great Britain.

Formerly Assistant

Spain (in pari);

King Alfonso XIII. Professor of Spanish Studies, University of Oxford and Fellow

of Exeter College. Author of Shelley and Calderon; etc. S. E. CHANDLER, D.Sc.

S. E. C.

ae

-Suicide. -Spanish Language and

Literature (im pari).

Chief Assistant, Imperial Institute, London. Joint author of Tea, Its Cultivation,

pTea (in part).

Manufacture and Commerce.

S. F.

SIMON FLEXNER, M.D., LL.D. Director of the Laboratories of the Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research,New}SpinalMeningitis.

S. H.

S. HERBERT, M.A.

S. L F.

S. I. FRANZ,

York, since 1903. Lecturer in International Politics, University College of South Wales, Aberystwyth. P.D., LL.D.

Professor of Psychology, University of California.

Po

A

S. L.

STEPHEN HERBERT LANGDON, M.A., P.D.

S. L. R.

SAMUEL L. ROTHAFEL.

S. R. B.

Sona Rosa BURSTEIN, M.A.

!

ali

S ae

Syndicalism (i part). Sub

Author of Nervous and Mental

eno

al

d Feeble~

Bee

minded, Education of.

Professor of Assyriology, Oxford, since 1919. Director of the Weld-Blundell and F ld Tammuz, Museum Expedition to Mesopotamia since 1922.

l

` ; Stage Design (in part).

Executive Director, Roxy Theatre, New York.

S. S. K.

Diplomée in Anthropology (Oxon). Research Assistant at the Wellcome Historical pTabu. Medical Museum. Member of the Folk-Lore Society. S. S. KATZENELLENBAUM. Professor of Financial Science at the University of Moscow. Member of the Board ofSovietBanking System. Directors of the State Bank.

S. T.H. W.

Captain S. T. H. Witton, R. N. (retired).

oe

Formerly Assistant Director of Naval Ordnance, Admiralty, London.

T. A.

Tuomas Asuey, D.Lirr., F.B.A., F.S.A., Hoxn.A.R.I.B.A.

T. A. C.

SIR THEODORE ANDREA COOK.

T. A. J.

THomas ATHot Joyce, M.A., O.B.E. Deputy-Keeper, Department of Ethnography, British Museum.

Africa, Union of (in

part).

Subiaco; Sutri;

Formerly Director of the British School at Rome. Revised and completed for press pSyracuse (in part); a Topographical Dictionary of Ancient Rome (by the late Professor J. B. Plattner). j Taranto; Terracina.

Late Editor-in-Chief of The Field (London). Edition, Encyclopedia Britannica.

'

Editor of the Sports section, 14th

,

Stadium (żin part).

Author of Sous | SouthAmerica (i part).

American Archaeology; Maya and Mexican Art; etc.

Le Ce

LIEUTENANT-GENERAL Str TRAVERS EDWARDS CLARKE,

G.B.E., K.C.M.G.,

C.B.

Quartermaster-General to the British Armies in France, 1917-9 and to the Forces and Member of the Army Council, 1919-23.

T.C. P

T. C. Porteus, M.A. ”

T. F. H.

l

Author of History of the Parish of Standish; Captain Miles Standish; etc.

T. J.E.

i

:

Spire; Stair;

of The Enjoyment of Architecture; The American Spirit in Architecture. T. H. P. Hemor, F.I.C. Lecturer on Sugar Manufacturing, Royal Technical College, Glasgow. Major T. J. EDWARDS. Secretary to the Honours and Distinctions Committee, The War Office. The Non-Commisstoned Officer’s Guide to Promotion in the Infantry.

THomas Nrxon Carver, A.B., Pu.D., LL.D.

T. P. N.

Sır T. Percy Nunn, M.A., D.Sc.

T. W. F.

Tromas W. M. Fox Late Professor of Textiles in the University of Manchester.

T. Wi.

Tuomas WILFRED.

V.C.C.C.

Muss V. C. C. Corru.

W.A.B.C.

Rev. Wrttram Aucustus Brevoort CoormncE, M.A., F.R.G.S., Hon.Px.D.

Professor of Political Economy, Harvard University. Principal of the London Day Training College. of London.

Author

>Staircase; Strap Work;

Swastika; Temple. l . Sugar (in part).

Author of

T. N.C.

pStripe.

l

s

f etence oie

T

Professor of Education, University| aa ts, Tr f

Founder of the Clavilux Laboratory, New York. Inventor of the Clavilux. Fellow of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland. Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford.

.

f Standish, Miles.

Tarsor F. HAMLIN, B.A., B.ARCH. Instructor in the History of Architecture, Columbia University, New York.

T.H. P.H.

Peay,”

ainin

g of (in

ee Spinning.

|Stage Design (in part). stone Monuments, Primitive,

aa

(in part);

Editor of The Alpine Journal, 1880-9; etc. J Tell, William (in part).

W. A. Be.

W. A. BETTESWoRTH, B.A. Late Sports Editor of The Field.

Stoolball

W. A. P.

W. Arison Purrires, M.A.

Spain (in part);

W. A. St.

W. A. STARRETT, B.S.ın C.E.

Lecky Profėssor of Modern History, Dublin University.

f

Templars (in part).

President, The Starrett Corporation and Vice-President of Starrett Brothers, Incor- Structural Engineering (in porated, New York.

Author of Skyscrapers and the Men Who Build Them

part).

Xvi

W. B. H. W. B. P.

AND

INITIALS

NAMES

2

,

WALTER B. Harris, F.R.G.S., F.S.A.

(in part). Traveller, Explorer and Author. Correspondent of The Times (London) in Morocco. }Tangier etc. Rif; the and Spain France, was; that Morocco of Author WILLIAM BELMONT PARKER, A.B. }Sucre, Antonio José de. Editor of South Americans of To-day.

jSprings.

W. B. R. K.

W.B.R. Kine, M.A., F.G.S.

W. C. B.

Wiriram C. Bactey, ‘Px.D.

W. C. B. T. W. E. Co.

W. C. B. TUNSTALL, M.A. Civilian Lecturer, Royal Naval College, Greenwich. Rr. Rev. Wirram EpwarDd Cors, D.D.

W. E. CX.

WARREN E. Cox.

W. E. I.

OF CONTRIBUTORS

Sedgwick Museum, Cambridge.

sess

'

Professor of Education, Teachers College, Columbia University.

}Teaching, Methods of. Spanish Succession, War of f (in part). .

Formerly Professor of Ecclesiastical History, King’s College, London, and Lecturer, St. John’s and Selwyn Colleges, Cambridge.

Testamentum Domini.

eee be in Art;

Terra-Cotta (in pari).

Art Editor of the 14th Edition, Encyclopedia Britannica. Mayjor-GENERAL Sir Wittram Epmunp Ironsipe, K.C.B., C.M.G., D.S.O.

W. E.R.

Commandant, Staff College, Camberley, Surrey, G.O.C. Meerut District, India. Author of Tannen1922-6. Commander-in-Chief, British Forces in Russia, 1918-9. berg: the first thirty days in East Prussia. W. E. RAPPARD.

W. E. S.

WALTER E. SPARR, M.A., PH.D.

Tannenberg, Battle of.

Rector of the University of Geneva and Professor of Economic History and PublicSwitzerland (in part). Finance.

,

,

Stockbroker (in part).

Professor of Economics, School of Commerce, Accounts and Finance, and Chairman

of the Department of Economics, New York University.

(in part);

roa

E

W. E. WHITEHOUSE, M.Sc.

Lecturer and Demonstrator in Geography. University College of Wales.

Switzerland (in part).

,

-

?

M.A., D.Sc.

W.F. G.S.

W. F. G. Swany,

W. G. B.

WALTER GEORGE BELL, F.S.A., F.R.A.S. }Tewkesbury, Battle of. Author of The Great Fire of London in 1666; The Great Plague in London in 1665. }Sulphur, Special WiiiraMm H. KOBBÉ. Applications of. Consulting Engineer for Texas Gulf Sulphur Company. Wiırrram Hosson Mirris, M.A., Sc.D., F.R.S. Stereochemistry. Lecturer in Organic Chemistry, and Fellow of Jesus College, Cambridge University. Sır Wium Henry Wittcox, K.C.LE., C.M.G., C.B., M.D., B.Sc., F.R.C.P Sulphona Group, The. | Physician and Lecturer on Chemical Pathology and on Forensic Medicine, Mary’s Hospital, London. Medical Adviser to Home Office, 1919. Sir WILLIAM JOHN Berry, K.C.B.

W. H.K. W. H. Mi. W. H. Wi.

W. J.B. W. J. Br.

Terrestrial Magnetism.

Director Bartol Research Foundation, The Franklin Institute, Philadelphia.

Director 1917-23.

of Naval Construction, Admiralty. Director of Warship Vice-President of Institution of Naval Architects.

Submarine (in part).

Production,

Rev. WILLIAM JACKSON Bropriss, M.A.

Tacitus, Cornelius

(in part).

W. J. Don.

Formerly Fellow of St. John’s College, Cambridge. Wiıuiam J. Donovan, A.B., LL.D. Formerly Assistant to Attorney-General of the United States,

Supreme Courtof the United States, The.

W. L.

WALTER LANDELLS.

Stockbroker (in part).

W. La.

London Stock Exchange. WILLIAM LATEY. ` Of the Middle Temple, Barrister-at-Law and of the Probate and Divorce Courts.

W. L. De B.

Wurm L. De BAvFRE, E.E., M.E., M.S. Technical Adviser, Combustion Engineering Corporation, New York.

lSteam Generation (77 purt).

W. Ma.

W. MARTIN.

iSwitzerland (in part).

W. McD.

Writrm McDovucatt,

W. S.G.

WALTER S. GIFFORD, A.B., LL.D.

W. S. Hi.

WALTER SANDERS Hart.

W. S. L.

W. S. Lewis, M.Sc., F.R.G.S.

W. S. L.-B.

WALTER SYDNEY LAZARUS-BARLOW, B.A., M.D., F.R.C.P.

Foreign Editor, Journal de Genéve, Switzerland.

M.A., M.B., F.R.S.

Professor of Psychology in Duke University, N. C. W. M. Marston, A.B., LL.B., Pa.D.

Sunday (in part).

|

(

Lecturer in Psychology, Columbia University.

W. Spr.

W.T.C. Y. A.

Telephone.

President, American Telephone and Telegraph Company, New York. Newspaper and Magazine Writer. Europe and Asia.

Formerly correspondent for Associated Press

} Syndicate (in part).

Professor of Geography, University College, Exeter.

Member of the Cancer Committee, Ministry of Health. Formerly Professor of _ Experimental Pathology, Middlesex Hospital Medical School, London University. W. SPROULE.

Director and President of the Southern Pacific Company.

Witiram THomas Cartman, D.Sc., F.R.S. Keeper of the Department of Zoology, British Museum (Natural History). YARNALL ABBOTT. Artist, Painter.

Fellowship, Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts, Philadelphia.

Initial used for anonymous contributors.

;

fSUBRESUHON: Synapse.

Styria; Tatra Mountains.

Sunlight Treatment.

}Southern Pacific Company. Teredo.

Tempera.

THE BRITAN NI EDITION

FOURTEENTH VOLUME SORDELLO

TO TEXTILE

ORDELLO, a 13th-century Italian trouba-

dour, born at Mantua, who is praised by Dante in the De vulgari eloquentia, and in the Purgatorio is made the type of patriotic pride. He is the hero of a well-known poem by Robert Browning. The real Sordello was the most famous of the Italian troubadours. About 1220 he appeared at Florence in a tavern brawl; and in 1226, P Fa while at the court of Richard of Bonifazio at Verona, he abducted his master’s wife, Cunizza, at the instigation of her brother, Ezzelino da Romano. The scandal resulted in his flight (1229) to Provence, where he seems to have been for some time. He entered the

service of Charles of Anjou. and prob-

ably accompanied him (1265) on his Naples expedition; in 1266 he was a prisoner in Naples. The last documentary

mention of him is in 1269, and he is supposed to have died in Provence. His didactic poem, L’Ensenhamen donor, and his love songs and satirical pieces have little in common with Dante’s presentation, but the invective against negligent princes which Dante puts into his mouth in the 7th canto of the Purgatorio is more adequately paralleled in his Serventese (1237) on the death of his patron Blacatz, where he invites all Christian princes to feed on the heart of the hero.

For Sordello’s life and works see the edition

of Cesare de Lollis (Halle, 1896).

SORDINO,

SORDONI,

SOR-

DUN, musical terms somewhat promis-

cuously applied (1) to contrivances for damping or muting wind, string and percussion instruments (Sordint); (2) to a family of obsolete wind instruments blown by means of a double reed (Sordont or

Sordun);

(3) to a stringed instrument.

To these must also be added the Surdellina or Sordellina, a kind of musette invented (see Bacprpe) in Naples in the 17th century.

21

=

PRINTING

SOREL, AGNES

(c. 1422-1450), mistress of King Charles

VII. of France, was born of a family of the lesser nobility at Fromenteau in Touraine. She was attached to the service of Isabel of Lorraine, queen of Sicily, wife of René of Anjou, the brother-in-law of Charles VII. From 1444 until her death in 1450 she was the acknowledged mistress of the king, the first woman to hold that semi-official position which was to be of such great importance in the subsequent history of the old régime. Her ascendancy dated from the festivals at Nancy in 1444, the first brilliant court of Charles VII. Her sudden death from

dysentery, shortly after the birth of her fourth child in 1450, was attributed, apparently without foundation, to poison.

See A. Vallet de Viriville’s articles in Bibliothéque de lEcole des chartes (3rd series, tom. i.) ; and R. Duquesne, Vie et aventures galantes de la belle Sorel (1909).

SOREL,

ALBERT

(1842-1906), French historian, was

born at Honfleur on Aug. 13, 1842. He was of a characteristically Norman type, and remained all his life a lover of his native province and its glories. He studied law in Paris, and after a prolonged stay in Germany entered the foreign office (1866). In 1870 he was chosen as secretary by M. de Chaudordy, who had been sent to Tours as a delegate in charge of the diplomatic side of the problem of national defence; in these affairs he proved himself a most valuable collaborator. After the war of 1870-71, when Boutmy founded the Ecole libre des sciences politiques, Sorel was appointed to teach diplomatic history (1872), a post in which he achieved great success. Some of his courses have formed books: Le Traité de Paris du 20 novembre 1815 (1873); Histoire diplomatique de la guerre franco-allemande (1875); also the Précis du droit des gens which he published (1877) in collabora| tion with his colleague Théodore Funck-Brentano. In 1875 Sorel left the foreign office and became general secretary to the newlycreated office of the Présidence du sénat. His duties left him sufficient leisure for the great work of his life, L'Europe et la révolution française (8 vols., 1885-1904). His object was to do over again the work already done by Sybel, but from a less restricted point of view and with a clearer and more calm understanding of the chess-board of Europe. He spent almost 30 years in the preparation of this history; the analysis of the documents, mostly unpublished, on French diplomacy during the BY COURTESY OF MESSRS. HOOPER first years of the Revolution, which he published in the Revue AND JACKSON what scrupulous care SORDINO, AN OBSOLETE | historique (vol. v.-vii., xi—xiii.), shows with | he read the innumerable despatches which passed under his notice. STRING INSTRUMENT

SOREL—SORORATE

2

He was also, and above all things, an artist. He drew men from the point of view of a psychologist as much as of a historian. Sorel was elected a member of the Académie des sciences morales

et politiques

(Dec. 18, 1889) and of the Académie

francaise

(1894). He died in Paris on June 29, 1906.

Sorel’s other works include: La Question d’Orient au XVIIIe siècle, les origines de la triple alliance (1878); Montesquieu (1887); and e Mme. de Staél (1891) in the Grands écrivains series; Bonapart et

Hoche en 1797 (1896); and Recueil des instructions données aux ambassadeurs vol. i. only (1884). Most of his essays and articles contributed to various reviews and to the Temps have been collected

hisJ into volumes: Essais @ histoire et de critique (1883); Lectures (1898); toriques (1894); Nouveaux essais a’histoire et de critique

Etudes de littérature et @histoire (1901).

SOREL,

CHARLES,

Sieur DE Sovuvicny

ture land. The climate is cold and dry, and the scenery grand, but austere. Between 1887 and 1900 the population decreased by nearly 7,000; it is now stationary.

SORIA, the capital of the Spanish province of Soria; on the river Duero (Douro). Pop. (1920) 7,619. The churches of Santo Domingo

and San Nicolas, the collegiate church of San

Pedro, the cloisters of the other ecclesiastical buildings work of the rath and 13th ruins of the old citadel, and seen.

(1597-1674),

French novelist, was born in Paris about 1397. In 1635 he was historiographer of France. He tried to supersede the pastoral romance by the novel of adventure, the Histoire comique de Francion (1622). He also wrote Le Berger extravagant (1627), Polyandre (1648) and La Connaissance des bons livres (1673). He died on March 8, 1674.

convent of San Juan, and several are fine specimens of Romanesque centuries. Near the Duero are the the 13th century walls may still be

SORITES, in logic, means a series of connected syllogisms,

in which the conclusion of one syllogism is used, as a premise in

another. See Locic, and the bibliography given there.

SORMOVO, a town of Russia, in the Nizhegorod province,

oh the Volga. It was a village of about 6,000 inhabitants in 1897,

but has grown since the provision of electric power to a population (1926) of 40,071. It manufactures machinery and refines crude Baku naphtha brought up the Volga river.

SOREL, a town of Quebec, Canada, at the confluence of the

Richelieu and St. Lawrence rivers. Pop. (1931) 10,320. It occupies the site of a fort built in 1665 by A. de Tracy to guard the route by way of the Richelieu to Lake Champlain and the Hudson, and

is named after the first commandant.

SORGHUM, aterm applied to a number of varieties of a

small-grained cereal grown largely in warm countries, and known

botanically as S. vulgare, Andropogon Sorghum, or Holcus Sorghum. It includes one of the most important tropical grains, great millet, Indian millet, or Guinea corn. In India it is known as jawari (Hindustani), jowart (Bengali), cholum (Tamil), and

SOROCA,

a frontier town of Bessarabia, Rumania, capital

of the department of Soroca, situated on the right bank of the Dniester, 81 m. north-north-west of Kishinev. Pop (1928) 27,000 including many Jews. Corn, wool, fruit, wine and cattle are exported. Soroca was the old Genoese colony of Olchiona, and still has the ruins of a 13th century Genoese castle. The Moldavians erected a fortress in the rsth century. Soroca changed hands many times between Poland, Russia and Turkey. (1863-1923), JOAQUIN Y BASTIDA, SOROLLA Spanish painter, was born in Valencia, and received his art education first in his native town and under F. Pradilla, and then in Italy and Paris. His first striking success he achieved with “Another Margaret,” which was awarded a gold medal in Madrid and was bought for the St. Louis Gallery. He soon became thé

acknowledged head of the modern Spanish school of painting:

His “Fishermen’s Return” was acquired fot the Luxembourg Museum. His exhibit at the Paris Universal Exposition of 1900 won him a medal of honour and his nomination as Knight of the Legion of Honour. Between 1910 and 1920 he contributed to the Hispanic Society of America, a series of portraits of Spanish writers and a “Panorama of the Forty-nine Provinces of Spain,” consisting of 49 compositions with views and costumes. He died at Madrid on Aug. 10, 1923. He is represented at the Berlin National Gallery, at the Venice and Madrid Museums and in Buenos Aires.

jonna (Telugu) and in the West

Indies as Negro or Guinea corn It is a strong grass, growing to a height of from 4 to 8 or even 16 ft.; the leaves are sheathing, solitary, and about 2 in. broad and 24 ft. in length; the panicles are contracted ‘and dense, and the grains, which are enclosed in husks and protected by awns, are round, hard, smooth, shining, brownish-red, and somewhat larger’ than mustard seeds. The plant is cultivated in Asia, in the United States, and in the south of Europe. E. Hackel (in Die natitrlichen Pflanzenfamilien) says the culture probably had its origin in Africa, where a variety known as durra has become the most important cereal; the natives

See Hispanic Society of America, Hight Essays on J oaquin Sorolia y Bastida (1909); A. de Beruete y Moret, Sorolla y Bastida, 1920.

SORORATE.

This term was introduced by Sir James Frazer

to designate all marriages with a wife’s sister, whether in the lifetime of the first wife or after her death. In his view it is complementary to the custom of the levirate and both “are offshoots from one common root, a system of group marriage in which all the husbands were brothers and all the wives were sisters to each other, though not to their husbands; and that system in its turn originated in a simple desire to get wives as easily and cheaply as possible.” (Folklore of the Old Testament, vol. ii., p. 317.) also chew the stem, which conIt is to be noted that in cases where fraternal polyandry is CORN (30i tains sugar. The sweet sorghums Ha PE e the wife of the eldest brother is the common wife while permitted, are grown in China, north India, (A) Shoot, (B) Flowering stem (in- the wife of the youngest brother belongs to him alone, and that in Africa and America for the manu- florescence), (C) Pistil, (D) Fruit, societies where a definite relation as the cross-cousin, is prescribed facture of syrup and for forage. (E) Single flower, (C & E) Enlarged for the eldest son, the youngest son is free to marry whom he will A full account of the cultivation and use of the species in India will

be found in Sir G. Watt’s Dictionary

of the Economic

Products of

India (1893). See also W. W. Robbins, Botany of Crop Plants (Philadelphia, 1924).

SORIA,

a province of Spain, formed in 1833 out of Old

Castile. Pop. (1920) 151,595; area, 3,983 sq.m. Soria is a bleak and lofty region, bounded on three sides by mountains. A range of sierras culminating in the peaks of Urbion (7,389 ft.) and Cebollera (7,139 ft.) on the north, and the great Sierra del Moncayo (7,707 ft.) on the east, separate the valley of the Duero from the Ebro. Almost the whole of the provincé belongs to the region watered by the Duero and its affluents. There are extensive forests of pine, oak and beech and large tracts of pas-

or can, within the more general rules of exogamy, so that the wives of the younger brothers in such cases do not or may not possess the status required for the wife of the eldest brother, while the younger sister of the late wife would possess that status. In the case of the matrilineal Garos, marriage with a prescribed relative, the cross-cousin, the son of the woman’s mother’s brother, is binding only on the youngest daughter. No rights are conferred by

marriage with the elder daughters. It is further to be noted that as with the Ba-Ila (The Ila speaking peoples, vol. i., p. 391) a woman though married may be called to leave her husband and her children to become the wife of her late sister’s husband under the

sororate regulation. In India it is generally the wife’s younger sister

3

SORORITIES—SOTHERN who is taken as a second wife when the first wife is barren or suffers from an incurable disease. In advanced communities marriage with the deceased wife’s sister occurs for practical reasons when there are young children to be brought up. In primitive communi-

ties the relationship created by the first marriage between the two families is marked by a series of obligations of an economic, religious and social nature so that there is clearly an advantage in maintaining the existing mode of relationship over the creation of a new series of analogous obligations. Thus in Ashanti “in the case of chiefs when a wife dies, the wife’s family are expected to replace the deceased woman by giving her sister in marriage to the chief” (R. S. Rattray, Ashanti, p. 34, 1923). In the case of societies ), each moiety organized on the dual basis (see DUAL ORGANIZATION acts as a reservoir of spouses for the other moiety and is obliged

round the sun, which is referred to by Cicero, and was also heid by the Egyptians. He was the tutor of Alexander of Aphrodisias, the most famous of the commentators on Aristotle. He wrote a work on Revolving Spheres, from which some important extracts are preserved in Simplicius’s commentary on Aristotle’s De caelo.

SOSITHEUS (c. 280 B.C.), Greek tragic poet, of Alexandria Troas, a member of the Alexandrian “pleiad.” He must have

resided at some time in Athens, since Diogenes Laértius tells us (vii. 5, 4) that he attacked the Stoic Cleanthes on the stage, and was hissed off by the audience. Suidas calls him a Syracusan. According to an epigram of Dioscorides in the Greek Anthology (Anth. Pal. vii. 707) he restored the satyric drama in its original form. Part of his pastoral play, Daphnis or Lityerses is extant

to find mates.

See Frazer, Folklore of the Old Testament, vol. ii. (1918); Wester-

marck, History of Human Marriage, vol. iii. (1921).

|

SORORITIES, organizations of women distinctive to colleges etu-

and universities in the United States. Sororities are self-perp ating, secret in nature chiefly as to initiation ritual, having each a characteristic badge, and various symbolic insignia—colours, flower, tree, flag, patron, motto and pledge pin. The first Greek letter sorority, Kappa Alpha Theta, was founded at De Pauw university in Jan. 1870. In 1928 there were in the United States 1,037 chapters and about 175,000 members. Government and Activities——The governments of all are similar—a council of three to nine members to carry out legislation enacted at national or district conventions. Many sororities have accumulated endowment funds. Practically all sororities publish quarterly magazines, song books, catalogues and bulletins of various kinds. Because of inadequate living conditions in many institutions, each sorority has sanctioned the establishment of lodges by its chapters. Fifty per cent of the chapters are so equipped, this property being worth about $5,090,000. A large Panhellenic hotel has been built in New York city. The National Panhellenic Congress was formed in Chicago in 1902. Sororities have made valuable surveys of collegiate conditions as they per-

tain to women and have done much to improve them, Extraneous

philanthropic work has been undertaken, and many sororities assist

their members

with scholarships, loan funds, vocational

and

employment bureaux.

See William Raimond Baird, Manual of Fraternities (1927) ; Ida S.

Martin, The Sorority Handbook (1oth ed., 1928).

SORREL

ò

(R. L, E.)

(Rumex acetosa) (family Polygonaceae), a hardy

perennial, native to Great Britain and found throughout the north temperate zone. The leayes are used in soups, salads and sauces. Sorrel grows freely in any good garden soil, and is increased by dividing the roots during the early part of spring. They should be planted in rows 15 to 18 in. apart. The leaves, when fully grown,

are gathered singly. The common garden sorrel is much superior

to the wild plant; French sorrel (Rumex scutatus) is a hardy perennial, distributed through Europe but not native in Great Britain,

See O. Crusius s.v. Lityerses in Roscher’s Lexikon der griechischen und römischen Mythologie. The fragment in Nauck’s Tragicorum

graecorum fragmenta apparently contains the beginning of the drama.

SOSNOWIEC, a town of Poland, in the province of Kielce.

Pop. (1921) 86,700.

It owes its rapid rise to its position in the

centre of the Dambrowa coalfield, between Bendzin, Dambrowa and Katowice. The towns of this region are almost continuous, extending from Kielce into the provinces of Cracow and Silesia.

Sosnowiec is also a great railway junction. Situated on the Warsaw-Vienna railway, it is a junction for the Kielce and Radom, Cracow and Lemberg, and Katowice and Breslau lines. Electric power stations have been established, sending a cable as far as Czenstochowa, while an electric tram system is being extended to the other towns in the basin. Iron foundries and same textile factories, as well as coal mines, employ large numbers of workmen,

Sosnowiec is, after Lodz, the largest Polish industrial town.

SOSTENUTO, musical term signifying that the passage so

marked is to be played in a “sustained” manner. SOTADES, Greek satirist, of Maronea in Thrace (or of Crete), chief representative of the writers of coarse satirical poems, called xivacdor, composed in the Ionic dialect and in a

metre named after him “sotadic.” He lived in Alexandria during the reign of Ptolemy II. Philadelphus (285-247 B.C.). Sotades was imprisoned for a satire on Ptolemy, escaped to Caunus, was

captured, shut up in a leaden chest and thrown into the sea.

Only a few genuine fragments of Sotades have been preserved (see J. G. Hermann, Elementa doctrinae meiricae, 1816).

SOTER, pope from about 167 to 174. He wrote to the Church

of Corinth and sent it aid. His letter is mentioned in the reply given by Dionysius, bishop of Corinth, and Harnack thinks it

can be identified with the second so-called epistle of Clement. SOTHERN, EDWARD ASKEW (1826-1881), English

actor, was born in Liverpool on April 1, 1826, the son of a merchant. After acting in the English provinces, he went to the United States in 1852. There he made a great success in New

York in 1858 as Lord Dundreary in Tom Taylor’s Our American Cousin. He gradually worked up the humour of this part so that

it became the heart of the play. He created the title role in T. W. Robertson’s David Garrick (1864). Sothern also made a

as Sam Slingsby in Oxenford’s Brother Sam (1865). Sothern SORRENTO, a city of Campania, Italy (anc. Surrentum, hit a born comedian, and off the stage had a passion for pracwas stands It g.v.). Pop. (1921), 7,121 (town); 9,783 (commune). He died in London Jan. 21, 188r. on cliffs about 160 ft. high, between the Bay of Naples and the tical joking. N, EDWARD HUGH (1859-7 ), American SOTHER y northerl its resort, Bay of Salerno. It is a summer and winter aspect rendering it comparatively cool. At Sorrento Bernardo

a Tasso wrote his Amadigi; and Torquato Tasso, to whom marble statue has been erected in the Piazza, was born in the town in 1544.

SORSOGON, a municipality (with administration centre and of

47 barrios or districts), capital and port of the province

Sorsogon, Luzon, Philippine Islands, on the Gulf of Sorsogon, 279

m. from Manila, Pop. (1918), 16,694. It lies in a rich agricultural region, abaca being its chief product; and is a busy commercial place. The language is Bikol. SOSIGENES, Greek astronomer and mathematician, probably of Alexandria, flourished in the rst century B.c. According to Pliny (Nat. Hist. xviii. 25), he was employed by Julius Caesar in the reform of the Roman calendar (46 B,c.), and wrote three

actor, was born at New Orleans on Dec. 6, 1859, the son of Edward Askew Sothern, noted English comedian, His first stage appearance was in a small part with his father’s company at the Park theatre in New York city in 1879. He toured England in 1882-83, became leading comedian in McCullough’s company in 1883, and under Daniel Frohman was leading man at the Lyceum theatre in New York city. He married Virginia Harned in 1896, and in 1899 formed his own company with her as his leading lady. In 1900 he appeared in the title réle of Hamlet, in 1901 in that of Richard Lovelace and in 1902-03 as Villon in Zf J Were King, three of his greatest rôles. In 1904 he entered intọ combination with Julia Marlowe, the twọ first appearing together in Rameo and Juliet at Chicago. Except for two years, 1907-99, they played together almost continuously until their retirement

from the stage. They were married in 1911, Besides Rameo and treatises, From another passage of Pliny (ii. 8) it is inferred that Juliet they have co-operated in Much Adg Abaut Nothing, Taming Mercury of mation the of s maintained the doctrine

Sosigene

4

SOTHIC PERIOD—SOULT

of the Shrew, Merchant of Venice, Jeanne D’Arc, John the Baptist, When and The Sunken Bell. Although noted actor, Sothern has a repertory of over

Twelfth Night, Macbeth, Kmghthood was in Flower chiefly as a Shakespearian 125 diverse parts.

See his autobiography, The Melancholy Tale of Me (1916); and W. x Winter, “The Art of E. H. Sothern,” Century Magazine (May, I9I5).

SOTHIC

PERIOD,

in ancient Egyptian chronology, the

period in which the year of 365 days circled in succession through all the seasons. The tropical year, determined as it was in Egypt

by the heliacal rising of Sirius (Sothis), was almost exactly the Julian year of precisely 3654 days (differing from the true solar year, which was rr minutes less than this). The sothic period was thus 1,461 years. (See Ecypt: Ancient.)

SOTHO, a powerful nation of Bantu-speaking peoples, num-

SOUBISE, BENJAMIN DE ROHAN, Duc be (?15891642), Huguenot leader, younger brother of Henri de Rohan, inherited his title through his mother Catherine de Parthenay. He served his apprenticeship as a soldier under Prince Maurice of Orange-Nassau in the Low Countries. In the religious wars from 1621 onwards his elder brother chiefly commanded on land and in the south, Soubise in the west and along the sea-coast. Soubise’s chief exploit was a singularly bold and well-conducted attack (in 1625) on the Royalist fleet in the river Blavet (which included the cutting of a boom in the face of superior numbers) and the occupation of Oléron. He commanded at Rochelle during the famous siege. When surrender became inevitable he fled to England, which he had previously visited in quest of succour. He died in 1642 in London.

SOUBISE,

CHARLES

DE ROHAN

(1715-1787), peer

and marshal of France, the grandson of the princesse de Soubise known to history as one of the mistresses of Louis XIV. He accompanied Louis XV. in the campaign of 1744-48. Soon after the beginning of the Seven Years’ War, through the influence of Mme. de Pompadour, he was put in command of a corps of 24,000 See E. Casalis, The Basutos (1861); E. A. T. Dutton, The Basuto of men, and was defeated at Rossbach (1757). He continued in the Basutoland (1923). service until the peace of 1763. He died in Paris on July 4, 1787.

bering some 500,000, which inhabits the Crown colony of Basutoland in South Africa. It is made up of a large number of different tribes, which were welded together early last century by the great chief Moshesh. Culturally they belong to the central division of southern Bantu (see Sour Arrica: Ethnology).

SOTO,

FERDINANDO

[Fernando,

or Hernando]

DE

SOUHAM,

JOSEPH, Count (1760-1837), French soldier,

(1496?-1542), Spanish captain and explorer, born at Jeréz de los was born at Lubersac on April 30, 1760, and became a general of Caballeros, in Estremadura. In 1519 he accompanied d’Avila on division in 1793. He was disgraced with Moreau and Pichegru his second expedition to Darien. In 1528 he explored the coast for alleged participation in the conspiracy of Cadoudal. He of Guatemala and Yucatan, and in 1532 he led 300 volunteers to regained his rank in 1809, took a notable part in Gouvion St. Cyr’s reinforce Pizarro in Peru. He played a prominent part in the operations in Catalonia, and won the title of count. In 1812 conquest of the Inca kingdom (helping to seize and guard Masséna, in declining the command of Marmont’s army recomAtahualpa, discovering a pass through the mountains to Cuzco, mended Souham for the post. The latter was thus pitted against etc.), and returned to Spain with a fortune of 180,000 ducats, Wellington, and by his skilful manoeuvres regained the ground which enabled him to marry the daughter of his old patron d’Avila. lost at Salamanca. At the fall of the First Empire he deserted the Excited by reports as to the wealth of Florida (a term then com- emperor, and was well received by Louis XVIII., who gave him monly used in a much wider extension than subsequently), he high commands. He retired in 1832, and died on April 28, 1837. sold part of his property, gathered a force of 620 foot and 123 SOULT, NICOLAS JEAN DE DIEU, Duke of Dalmatia horse, armed four ships, and obtained from Charles V. a com(1769-1851), marshal of France, was born at Saint-Amans-lamission as ‘“‘adelantado of the Lands of Florida” and governor of Bastide (now in department of the Tarn) on March 29, 176ọ, Cuba. Sailing from San Lucar in 1538, he first went to Havana, the son of a notary. He was intended for the bar, but on his his advanced base of operations; starting thence on May 12, 1539 father’s death in 1785 he enlisted as a private in the French inhe landed in the same month in Espiritu Santo bay, on the west fantry, and rose rapidly in the army. He laid the foundations of coast of the present State of Florida. For nearly four years he his military fame by his conduct in Masséna’s great Swiss camsearched for gold. He probably passed north into Georgia as far paign (1799), and especially at the battle of Zürich. He acted as 35’ N., then south to the neighbourhood of Mobile, and finally as Masséna’s principal lieutenant through the protracted siege north-west towards the Mississippi, which was reached in 1541; of Genoa, and after many successful actions he was wounded and the following winter was spent on the Ouachita, in modern taken prisoner at Monte Cretto on April 13, 1800. The victory Arkansas and Louisiana, west of the Mississippi. As they were of Marengo restoring his freedom, he received the command returning in 1542 along the Mississippi, De Soto died. De Soto’s of the southern part of the kingdom of Naples, and in 1802 he men, under Luis Moscoso de Alvarado, descended the Mississippi was appointed one of the four generals commanding the consular to the sea in 19 days from a point close to the junction of the guard. Despising Napoleon, Soult affected devotion, being apArkansas with the great river, and thence coasted along the Gulf pointed in 1803 to the command at Boulogne and in 1804 to be of Mexico to Panuco. one of the first marshals of France. He commanded a corps at Three narratives of this expedition are extant, of seemingly inde- Ulm, and at Austerlitz (g.v.) he led the decisive attack. After pendent origin. (1) Relacam ... (Evora 1557) professing to be the work of a Portuguese of Elvas, who had accompanied the expedition, was published in an English translation by Hakluyt in 1609 (reprinted from the 1611 edition by the Hakluyt Society [London, 1851]). (2) The famous history of Florida by Garcilasso de la Vega; it was completed in 1591, and first appeared at Lisbon in 1605 under the title of La Florida del Ynca, and has since passed through many editions in vari-

the peace of Tilsit he was created (1808) duke of Dalmatia.

In

the following year he was given a command in Spain after the battle of Gamonal and he pursued Sir John Moore to Corunna. For the next four years Soult remained in Spain, and his military history is that of the Peninsular War (q.v.). In 1812 he ous languages. (3) A report presented to Charles V. of Spain in his was obliged, after Wellington’s victory of Salamanca, to evacuCouncil of the Indies in 1544, by Luis Hernandez de Biedma; it is ate Andalusia, and was soon after recalled from Spain at the printed in Ternaux-Compans’ “Recueil de piéces sur la Floride” in the request of Joseph Bonaparte, with whom he had always disHistorical Collections of Lowtsiana (Philadelphia, 1850) and in W. B. agreed. In March 1813 he assumed the command of the IV. Rye’s reprint for the Hakluyt Society of Hakluyt’s translation of the Portuguese narrative (The Discovery and Conquest of Terra Florida, corps of the Grande Armée, but he was soon sent to the south of France to repair the damage done by the defeat of Vittoria. London, 1851). See also Bancroft’s History of the United States, vol. i.; J. H. His campaign there is the finest proof of his genius as a general, . M’Culloch, Researches ... concerning the aboriginal history of although he was repeatedly defeated by Wellington, for his soldiers America (Baltimore, 1829); Albert Gallatin, “Synopsis of the Indian Tribes,” in Archaeologia americana, vol. ii. (Cambridge, Mass., 1836) ; were raw conscripts, facing Wellington’s veterans. E. G.. Bourne (ed.), Narratives of the Career of Hernando de Soto in the Conquest of Florida (2 v., New York, 1904); J. W. Monette,

History of the Discovery and Settlement of the Valley of the Missis-

Sippi (New York, 1846, 2 vols.).

!

SOTTO VOCE (it.), lit. “under the voice,” that is, an un-

dertone. Term applied both to music and speech.

Marshal Soult’s political career was less creditable, and it has been said of him that he had character only in front of the enemy. After the first abdication of Napoleon he declared himself a Royalist, received the order of St. Louis, and‘acted as minister for war (Dec. 3, 1814—March 11, 1815). When Napoleon returned from Elba Soult declared himself a Bonapartist, was

SOUND made staff) At 1819 peer.

a peer of France and acted as major-general (chief of to the emperor in the Waterloo campaign. the Second Restoration he was exiled, but was recalled in

and in 1820 again made a marshal of France and in 1827 a After the revolution of 1830 he made out that he was a partisan of Louis Philippe, who revived for him the title of marshal-general. He was minister for war, 1830-34 and 1840-44, and ambassador extraordinary to London for the coronation of Queen Victoria in 1838. In 1848, when Louis Philippe was overthrown, Soult again declared himself a republican. He died at his castle of Soultberg, near his birthplace, on Nov. 26, 1851. Soult published a memoir justifying his adhesion to Napoleon during the Hundred Days, and his notes and journals were arranged by his son Napoleon Hector (1801-1857), who published the first part (Mémoires du maréchal-général Soult) in 1854. Le Noble’s Mémoires sur les opérations des Français em Galicie are supposed to have been written from Soult papers. See A. Sallé, Vie politique du maréchal Soult (1834) ; A. de Grozelier, Le Maréchal Soult (Castres, 1851); A. Combes, Histoire anecdotique

du maréchal Soult (Castres, 1869).

SOUND.

The definition of the word sound depends upon the

point of view adopted. Subjectively it may be regarded as thesense impression of the organ of hearing; objectively, the vibratory motion which produces the sensation. The physiological and

psychical aspects of sound are treated in the article on HEARING. In what follows we shall deal mainly with the physical aspects of sound, that is, with the phenomena which occur outside the ear. Just as it is customary to regard “light” as including invisible radiations in the ultra-violet and infra-red, so we shall regard sound as including mechanical vibrations of all frequencies audible or otherwise. It may, in fact, be regarded as a branch of mechanics which deals with alternating or vibratory motion. As we shall see, the study of alternating mechanical motions is closely analogous to that of alternating electrical currents; the mathematical theory of one is often of much assistance in the

consideration of the other. Alternating currents provide also a convenient means of exciting the corresponding mechanical vibrations, of whatever frequency. Recent developments in the production of alternating currents of very high frequency have cheir counterpart in the production of corresponding mechanical vibrations. Sound Due to Vibratory Motion.—It is common observation that all sounding bodies are in a state of vibration. In the more obvious cases (¢.g., a vibrating stretched string) the vibrations can be seen directly as a blurred outline, or optical magnification may be necessary to reveal their existence. The vibrations of a body which is emitting sound can sometimes be felt if the finger touches the surface lightly; any appreciable pressure by the finger is often sufficient to stop the sound and the vibration instantly. The simple experiment with a lightly suspended pithball brought into contact with the surface of the body emitting sound, proves in a convincing manner that the body is in vibration—a resonant glass or metal vessel, or a tuning fork, serve excellently as a source of sound for this experiment. Medium

Necessary

for

Sound

Transmission.—When

a

body, e.g., a tuning fork, vibrates in an elastic medium such as

air, the latter is compressed and rarefied by the “to and fro”

motions of the vibrating body. These compressions and rarefactions are passed on from one layer of the medium to the next and in this manner the vibrations of the body are transmitted through the medium to a distant point. The necessity for an elastic medium to transmit the sound from the source is best illustrated by an experiment first performed effectively by Boyle and later by Hawksbee (1705). In this experiment a bell is suspended by a silk thread inside a glass globe connected to a vacuum pump. When the globe is full of air and the bell is excited, the sound can be heard clearly. As the air is withdrawn

by the pump, however, the sound weakens and ultimately, when the vacuum is very good, the bell becomes inaudible. The experiment is more effective when an electric bell is set ringing continuously in an atmosphere of hydrogen reduced to an extremely low pressure by an efficient quick-acting vacuum pump.

z

We are naturally inclined to regard the atmosphere as the universal medium for the transmission of sound. Speech, music, and all the familiar noises of every day life are conveyed to the ear through the surrounding air. Solids and liquids are, however, excellent media for sound transmission as may be observed in numerous ways. The water-pipes in the house often carry the

“singing” and “hammer” sounds which travel along the pipes from

one room to another. The “‘string-telephone”’ exemplifies the passage of sound through a long wire tightly stretched. Certain “deaf cases” have been made to hear via the bones of the head, hy holding one end of a stiff rod between the teeth, the other end being pressed into contact with the vibrating source, ¢.g., a clock or a piano. Listening near the hull in a ship’s cabin below the water line, the sound of the propeller of a neighbouring ship can be heard clearly—exemplifying the transmission of sound through the sea. If further proof is desired submersion of the observer’s head in the water will be even more convincing. Velocity of Sound.—The sound of thunder is not heard until some time after the lightning flash; the flash of a gun is seen before the report is heard; the puff of “white” steam from the whistle of a distant engine is observed before the sound arrives. These, and many other examples might be quoted as evidence that sound takes time to travel and that its velocity is small

compared with the velocity of light (186,000 miles per second). In air, sound takes nearly five seconds to travel a mile, in water about one second, and in iron or steel about a third of a second, i.e., it travels about fifteen times as fast in iron as in air. The experiment is easily tried on a long stretch of iron railing or piping—an observer at one end, listening to the sound of a blow on the other end, hears two blows, the first through the iron, the second through the air. All kinds of sounds, high and low, loud and weak (with certain limited exceptions) travel with the same velocity in the same medium,—otherwise the music of a distant band would become confused on arrival at the listener’s ears. Just as ripples spread outwards in two dimensions from a stone thrown into a pond, so waves of sound spread, in three dimensions, from a simple vibrating body through the surrounding medium. The movement of any particle of the medium, is, however, purely local, each particle making small to and fro excursions in a manner similar to that of the vibrating body itself. The local motion of the particles must be clearly distinguished from the motion of the disturbance which travels forward from layer to layer of the medium with an ever-increasing radius. It is the state of the minute to and fro motion which advances, the medium as a whole, after the disturbance has passed, being practically in its initial position. In this respect the motion is well exemplified by the ripples on a water surface. The sound waves, however, differ from the ripples in one important respect, viz. the vibra-

tory motion takes place in the same line as the direction of advance of the wave, whereas in the case of the ripples the to-andfro motion is at right angles to the direction of propagation of the wave. The former type of motion, as in the sound wave, is termed longitudinal; the latter, transverse. The general character of longitudinal wave motion may be demonstrated by means of a long helical spring (¢.g., 6 ft. long 4 inches dia. of wire -06 in. thick) supported horizontally at frequent intervals by strong threads. If one end be moved to and fro longitudinally a corresponding motion will travel, like a wave, to the other end. Various effects of reflection, etc., with which we are not immediately concerned may also be demonstrated with this simple apparatus. It is a commonplace observation that any number of sound waves may cross the same airspace at the same time. No confusion arises due to this overlapping of the waves. Receivers of Sound—-To complete the natural sequence of events a suitable receiver is required to collect the sound energy after transmission through the intervening elastic medium. When the sound travels through the atmosphere the ear forms a natural, though not always the most convenient, receiver. When liquids or solids transmit the sound other forms of receiver are

generally to be preferred.

|

SOUND

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6

Order of Treatment.—From what has already been said it will appear that the physical basis of the theory of sound involves three fundamental considerations. First a vibrating body is essential to the production of sound; second, an elastic medium in contact with the vibrating body is required to transmit the vibrations to a distant point; and third, some form of receiver is necessary to absorb the energy from the medium and to reconvert it into a form of vibratory motion convenient for observation. We shall follow this order of treatment as far as practicable.

[SOURCES

factor m and decreases with the “stiffness” or “elastic factor” s (s being the force required to produce unit displacement). Thus in the case of a simple pendulum of length J, s= mg/l, whence

the periodic time of an oscillation is T=27V(i/g).

The period of

vibration of a mass 7m on a helical spring of strength s is expressed

directly by (3), viz. T=24V(m/s).

We also obtain from (2), for

the energy of the vibrating particle

Mean kinetic energy = Mean potential energy = ma?n?/4

Maximum energy = ma?n?/ 2. (4)

The energy is a maximum at the mid-point and at the two turning points of the vibration. In the former case it is all kinetic Vibrating Systems.—A fundamental advance in the theory and in the latter all potential energy. When a single particle is acted on by a number of distinct of sound was made in 1843 when Ohm proved that the simplest corwhich that is sensation sound forces, each of which would cause it to perform S.H.M., the and most fundamental type of responds to a simple harmonic motion, t.e., to the simplest mathe- question arises as to the resultant motion. A number of impormatical form of periodic function. (See HARMONIC MOTION.) tant cases require consideration:—I. Vibrations of the Same FreSuch motions may vary in period and amplitude but in no other quency and in the same straight line. It may be shown that such manner; they are consequently ideal for the production of “sim- a system of vibrations is reduced to a single resultant by means ple” or “pure” tones. Another important feature of this form of of a vector polygon, the angles representing relative phases, in motion is the possibility of transmission from one medium to exactly the same manner as a system of forces acting at a point, another without change of form. Again, it has been proved by Il. Two Vibrations of nearly the same frequency and acting in the Fourier that the most complex form of periodic motion can be same straight line: beats. This case has very important applicaanalysed (or synthesised) into a series of simple harmonic mo- tions in sound and is of frequent occurrence. Lf two vibrations of tions having frequencies which are multiples of that of the com- the same amplitude and nearly equal frequency act together the plex motion. The vibrations of a tuning fork may approximate resultant amplitude will at first be dowble the single amplitude, closely to a simple harmonic motion, the resulting sensation As the higher frequency vibration gains on the lower, however, i being described as a “pure tone.” thereby changing the relative phase, a point will be reached when by typified is Motion) Simple Harmonic Motion (see Wave they are in opposition and will neutralize each other (amplitude are the oscillations of a particle attracted towards a fixed point O zero). This cyclic process goes on so long as both vibrations rethe N-+0N, and force N the be are s If ies O. from x frequenc distance two the with a force varying as maintained. If the at unit distance from O, then at x it will be —sx, the sign of the sultant amplitude will vary between 2a and 0, the time interval force being always opposite to that of the displacement. Thus between two successive maxima being 277/ON, i.e., the frequency, if m is the mass of the particle of the beats will be ON, the difference between the two, nearly equal, frequencies. The phenomenon of beats is observed when SOURCES OF SOUND

mox/ab=—sx

or, writing 2=s/m,

Ox/dP+n?x=o0

of which the solution is

two notes nearly in tune are heard together—a periodic rise and fall of intensity being noticed. As the beats between two notes

(2) increase in frequency a sensation of roughness or discord (dis-

x= acos (nt-+ €) the constants a and e are arbitrary.

(1)

The motion is therefore

periodic, the values of the displacement x, and the velocity

ðx/ðt of the particle recurring whenever nt increases by 2r.

The periodic time of the oscillation is therefore

sonance) sets in, and ultimately two independent notes of the diatonic scale are recognised. The beat effect has direct applicaa tion in the comparison of one sound frequency (e.g., that of vibrating string) with a standard of frequency such as a tuning

fork. The well-known heterodyne of radio-telegraphy or telephony is a beat effect between two sets of radio-frequency (e.g., 108 mistuned. The beat-note a quantity independent of a. The type of vibration indicated by cycles per second) oscillations, slightly periods per second, T = 27/n= 2T V(m/s)

(3)

equation (2) is of fundamental importance.

The equation shows

is adjusted to have any frequency, say 500 which falls within the audible range. III. Vibrations at right-

that the particle oscillates between two points at a distance a with the motion of a particle on opposite sides of O. This distance a is called the Amplitude angles. In this case we are dealing vibrations have the same imposed the When surface. plane a on of the vibration. The quantity e represents the initial Phase of traces an elliptical particle the that shown the vibration when f=o. By simple differentiation of equation (2) frequency, it is readily the phases

line, when we obtain the velocity of the particle dx/dt=—ansin (nt+ €) path, which may vary from a straight differ by 90° and the phases the when circle a to 180°, and the acceleration 0?x/d2=—n*x as postulated in equation (1). differ by equal. In this case The meaning of equation (2) for S.H.M. is often expressed | amplitudes are equal. (a). Frequencies nearly

the particle follows a path which slowly changes through the due to the slowly point moving uniformly, with constant angular velocity ona| various forms, straight line, ellipse, circle, etc.,of performance of y frequenc The e. differenc phase revolution) changing one (for time circular path of radius a, the periodic be ON, the differbeing T=2r/n. The reciprocal of the Period T, viz., n/ar, is a complete cycle of figures will, of course, termed the Frequency. The quantity n is sometimes called the ence between the two nearly equal frequencies. (b). Frequencies Commensurate. 2:1, 3:1, 4:1, etc. Here again the particle traces pulsatance. Practical demonstration of the relation between a simple out a curve having a certain number of loops—this number being freharmonic motion and the corresponding circular motion, may be equal to the ratio of frequencies. For nearly commensurate varies. e differenc phase the as seen in any type of reciprocating engine; the motion of the piston quencies the curve slowly changes drawing in the cylinder is approximately simple harmonic whilst that of Numerous mechanical devices have been designed for by obtained curves ic” “harmon various the the flywheel is circular with uniform velocity. A simple pendulum, automatically generally These s. vibration c harmoni more or two ding compoun tuning wire, vibrating rapidly a spring, a weight suspended on a fork, or diaphragm all illustrate, approximately, simple har- consist of two compound pendulums controlling a common c monic motion; any differences in their motion arising from dif- writing point, and each capable of performing simple harmoni Beaueously. simultan s direction two possibly or one in motion ferences in frequency and amplitude only.

graphically as the projection on a diameter of the motion of a

The relationship (3) for the periodic time of vibration is of very wide application in the theory of sound, It indicates the general principle that the period T increases with the “inertia” or mass

tiful and fascinating designs may be traced in this way.

An optical method of exhibiting a small difference of frequency

between two tuning forks was devised by J. A. Lissajous (1822—

SOUND

SOURCES]

7

1880). Asmall mirror is attached to one prong of each fork, one of which vibrates in a vertical plane and the other horizontally. A narrow pencil of light is reflected successively from the two mirrors and falls on a screen. When the forks vibrate together the spot of light on the screen traces out the “resultant” curve of the two vibrations. If the two forks have the same frequency the figure is a stationary ellipse; if they differ slightly in frequency, the ellipse assumes successively the various forms including a straight line and a circle. These figures are known as Lissajous figures. The same principle may, of course, be applied to any two systems vibrating at right angles with approximately equal, or commensurate, frequencies. Recently Dye has employed the cathode-ray oscillograph for the harmonic comparison of very

necessary to produce a just perceptible increase of sensation is proportional to the pre-existing stimulus.” This law indicates a rapid diminution of sensitiveness of the ear with increase of total intensity of the sound. (ii) Pzich and Frequency.— The frequency of a regular or periodic vibration is the number of vibrations performed per second. Musical sounds arrange themselves in a natural order according to pitch. The latter depends solely on the predominant frequency of the vibrations—the greater this frequency the higher the pitch—and on the number of these vibrations reaching the ear per second. The latter stipulation is made to include sounds received from sources of sound in motion. This relation between pitch and frequency is simply verified by means of a revolving toothed wheel striking the edge of a card which produces a sound high electrical frequencies (of the order 108 p.p.s.). Fourier’s Theorem.—Summation of any number of simple whose predominant frequency is proportional to the product of harmonic-vibrations of commensurate frequencies. Synthesis and speed (revolutions per second) and the number of teeth on the analysis of complex wave-forms of vibration. This very important wheel. For a given note the predominant frequency is the same theorem due to J. B. J. Fourier (Theorie de la Chaleur. Paris, whatever the source of the note, and the ratio of the frequencies 1822) asserts that any single-valued periodic function whatever can of two notes forming a given musical interval is the same in be expressed as a summation of simple harmonic terms having whatever part of the musical range the two notes are situated. frequencies which are multiples of that of the given function. (See The more important consonant intervals with their frequency Harmonic ANALYSIS.) The theorem not only deals with the eatios are Unison 1:1, Major Third 5:4, Fifth 3:2, Major Sixth synthesis of a complex form of vibration, but also indicates a 8:5, Minor Third 6:5, Fourth 4:3, Minor Sixth 5:3, Octave 2:1. method of analysis of such a vibration into its component simple Notes whose frequencies are multiples of that of a given one, the vibrations or harmonics. Thus if x is the resultant displacement fundamenial, are called harmonics. The frequency ratios defining each note of the diatonic musical scale are at a time’f, in a complex vibration of frequency n/27, x=f(nt) = Ao+Arcosni+A,cosant+ ... +A-cos(rnt) +B; sinni+ B, sinenit+ ...+B,sin(rnt).

(6)

By suitable choice of the amplitude-values Ao, A1, etc., Bi, Ba, etc., it is possible to analyse or synthesise any form of singlevalued periodic vibration. Thus the displacement curve represented by fig. r (a), may be obtained by adding a sufficient number of odd terms of a sine series. In fig. x (b) the first, third and fifth terms are added, in fig. x (c) the first fifteen odd sine terms are added. It will be seen that (c) approximates closely to (a), the more terms taken the more nearly does the synthesised curve approach the ideal. The mathematical analysis or synthesis of complex wave-forms may become very laborious. In order to simplify the process various mechanical ‘‘ harmonic

C r

D 0/8

E 5/4

F 4/3

G 3/2

A 3/3

B 15/8

È 2

The same series of ratios applies to any octave which may be chosen. (ii) Quality and Wave-Form.—Sounds of the same pitch and loudness, but produced by different means, are distinguished by their quality. Thus the same note produced by a voice, a piano, or a violin, would have distinct characteristics which are at once recognisable by the ear. Very few sounds can be regarded as

“pure,” that is, free from overtones.

The presence or absence of

these overtones decides the guality of the sound.

A tuning fork

emits almost a pure tone whereas a violin note is rich in overtones characteristic of the instrument. Quality depends there-

analysers’? have been constructed (see Millar’s ‘‘Science of fore on wave-form. Fourier’s analysis of the wave-form of the Musical Sounds’’) which perform the necessary mathematical sound emitted by a particular instrument tells us which harintegrations, by a direct mechanical process. Fourier’s theorem monics are present and their relative importance. Forced Vibrations, Damping, Resonance.—On account of and harmonic analysis have a wide field of application not only in the study of sound-vibrations, but in astronomy, meteorology, the dissipation of energy by forces of a frictional nature, a vibrating body if left to itself, is gradually brought to rest. Its vibratide prediction, mechanical and electrical engineering. Loudness, Pitch and Quality. Intensity, Frequency and tions may be maintained, however, by the application of a suitWave-form.—Sounds differ from one another in three respects. able periodic force, which supplies the energy dissipated by (i) Loudness and Intenstty.—These two terms refer to the sub- friction and sound radiation. It is important to consider the jective and physical aspects respectively. The intensity of a relation between the frequency of such a force and the frequency sound refers to a definite physical quantity which determines the of the free or natural vibration of the body. It is generally rate of supply of vibrational energy (proportional to [ampli- assumed that for small oscillations the frictional forces are protude]). Loudness corresponds to the degree of sensation, being portional to the velocity of the particle. Consequently the equation of forces becomes

Ox

"op

FIG.

1

dependent both on the intensity of the sound and the sensitiveness of the ear under the particular conditions. Near the limits of audibility loudness may be very feeble although the intensity be very great. The sensation of loudness varies over a relatively small range for enormous variations of intensity. An ear which can detect a feeble watch tick remains undamaged by a neigh-

Ox Tt ay +sx=F cospt

(7)

where F cos/ represents the external periodic force of maximum value F and frequency p/27, 7 is the resistance per unit velocity and s the restoring force per unit displacement. Writing s/m=n?, F/m=f and r/2m=k it can be shown that the displacement x is given by =

fsine

2kp

cos(pi—e)

where

tane=

2kp

-~z

(n? —p*)

(8)

representing the forced vibration of period p/2m and amplitude fsine/2kp. In the case where there is no friction, the damping bouring explosion—although the range of intensity involved in constant k=0o, sine=tane=o, €=o or 7, and these examples may be greater than 16" to 1. The relation begos tween sensation (loudness) and stimulus (intensity or amplitude) (9) a (n2— $2) -cospt is generally expressed by Weber’s law—‘‘ The increase of stimulus

SOUND

8

W

Amplitude of Forced Vibrations ~In the steady state of maintained oscillations, equations (8) and (9) represent the resultant forced motion. A

2kp = fine

;

2kp

:

aR py siné=T Ca n p)?-L a

:

(ro) This expression is of fundamental importance.

The amplitude

A is a maximum when the denominator of the expression is a minimum, i.e., when p?=n?— 2k (provided u?> 2k”); the maximum value being then A max. = f/2kn. (11) In the case where there is no damping (k=o), and the free

frequency

W wax:

The amplitude A of the motion, is given by

J e po

[SOURCES

O

TY

4k?

EA E€ aa =pRIND Lhe )-+4k?

[from (4)]

(x4)

p a relation indicating how the power required to maintain vibrations against frictional and radiation losses varies near resonance. It will be seen from (14) that the energy dissipated at a frequency p/2m, near resonance, is half the resonance value when

=

2 £2

2a 4 R?,

that is when

is the same as the forced frequency p, it will be

seen that the amplitude A becomes infinite. Such a case of course never occurs in practice, for the damping & is never zero. For moderate values of damping (n?>2k*), the forced amplitude

Amax. (equation [r1]) is greatest when the forced frequency

coincides with that of the free vibration, and may become very large when k is small. This condition is known as resonance.

When dealing with sources of sound, we shall have occasion to refer frequently to resonant vibrations.

(n—p) =k

(approx.)

or Parts,

(x5)

i.e., when the frequency of the force differs from that of the resonator

by the fraction k/n. This ratio k/n therefore constitutes a measure

of the sharpness of resonance. The reciprocal of the ratio, t.e., nfk is sometimes referred to as the “persistence” of the vibrations. The smaller the damping & and the higher the natural frequency n, the sharper will be the tuning, and the greater the persistence of the vibrations. This principle has many striking and important applications. Thus in frequency standardisation, e.g., of tuning

_Phase of Forced Vibrations.—The force and the resultant forced forks or quartz resonators, very great accuracy of tuning is essenvibrations are not necessarily in phase. From equation (8) we tial, and the damping must be extremely small. In other cases, see that tane is always positive when p is less than n, that is e.g., the faithful reception or reproduction of sound vibrations e lies between o and 7/2 when the forced frequency is less than over a range of frequencies, resonance is distinctly undesirable, the free frequency, and tane is always negative when # is greater and the system must have a natural frequency (#/27) removed than n, that is, e lies between m/2 and m when the forced fre- as far as convenient from any possible values of the forced quency is greater than the free frequency. At resonance, when frequency (p/2r), or, alternatively, the system must be heavily n=pþ, tane=% and e= 1/2, t.¢., the force and the displacement damped (k large). are “in quadrature” whilst the force and velocity are “in phase.” The damping constant k of a vibrating system is determined Away from resonance, if the damping is small, the phase difference by direct measurement of the rate of decay of its free oscillae will, in general, be nearly equal to o or to r, that is, the dis- tions (from Az=4A10™*", or log4ı/Az=kr where Aı and A2 placement will be in phase or out of phase with the force according are successive amplitudes on the same side and r is the periodic as the frequency of the force is less or greater than the frequency of time —kr is known as the logarithmic decrement of the oscillathe free vibrations. These phase effects are beautifully demon- tions). The damping coefficient k may be determined alterstrated by means of a frequency meter of the vibrating reed natively from observations of the sharpness of resonance. Electrical Oscillations—aAlternating electrical and magnetic type, viewed intermittently at, or very near, the frequency of excitation. The graduated series of reeds appear as in fig. 2 (a) effects provide a very convenient means of exciting the corwhen viewed in the ordinary way, but as in fig. 2 (b) when viewed responding mechanical vibrations. The advent of the therintermittently. In accordance with the theory, the reeds on mionic three-electrode valve, as a simple means of producing opposite sides of the resonant one are seen to be in opposite electrical oscillations over a wide range of frequency and power, phase, with the resonant reed intermediate. has greatly assisted in the rapid development in the design of Power Dissipation.—In order to maintain vibrations against electrical sound sources, and in electrical methods of receiving damping forces, a certain rate of energy supply is necessary. and recording sound waves. There is a close analogy between This is measured by the product of the force fcospt and the electrical and mechanical oscillations. If we replace inertia

(mass) m in the mechanical system by inductance L in the elec-

trical system, mechanical resistance r by electrical resistance X, spring factor (or stiffness) s by t/capacity G/C), displacement

x by quantity Q, velocity x/d¢ by current i=00/ðt, acceleration @x/d2 by rate of change of current 0°Q/d/—the electrical

equations become identical with the corresponding mechanical equations. Thus the electrical equation for the forced oscillations of a circuit containing inductance L, capacity C, and

FIG. 2

particle velocity dx/dt (obtained by differentiating equation [2] resistance R, is with respect to #). The mean power required to maintain vibrations is thus found to be

ab sin?’ e W= =~

(12)

This reduces to zero when e=o or 7 i.e. when k=o (see equation

IO ). In the case of damped vibrations at resonance the power dissipation is a maximum for

e=m/2,

whence

Wmax.=f?/4k

(13)

F

pI

Lae tka, tom

Ecospt

(16)

which is analogous to equation (7) for a mechanical system.

With the substitutions mentioned above (with k=L/2R and

f=E/L) the solution of this equation is similar to equation (8) and the subsequent remarks relative to resonance and damping apply also to the electrical system. The frequency of free vibra-

I ; tion of a mechanical system is N= aN (m/s) (see equation [3]),

Sharpness of Resonance-—The effect of damping becomes relatively more and more important as resonance is approached. At resonance the amplitude and power dissipation reach a maximum. The ratio of power dissipation W under specified

and the corresponding

conditions to that at resonance is given by

case of forced vibrations provided the damping k and resistance

I = zz VLC.

frequency

of electrical oscillations is

This is also the frequency at resonance in the

+

SOUND

SOURCES]

R are not excessive. For the various methods of generating alternating currents, (e.g., by valve oscillators, interrupters, alternators, etc.) the reader should consult the article on WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY.

Motional Impedance.—On

account of the extensive use

of electrical forms of sound generators and receivers it is very important in design to have a knowledge of their characteristics.

9

If the displacement y varies sinusoidally with a frequency n/2r, we have y=acosn(t—x/c)—acosn(t+x/c) which reduces to y= 2asinnd - sin(nx/c) (18) At any point x on the string the amplitude is therefore 2asinni, varying sinusoidally with time between zero and 2a. The amplitude of successive particles is also varying with « according

In any form of machine which converts electrical energy into motion the moving mechanism reacts on the electrical circuit. Thus the revolving armature of an ordinary electric motor

generates what is called a “back e.m.f.” in opposition to the applied voltage. This back e.m.f. may alternatively be regarded

as an increased resistance to current flow in the armature, the efficiency of the motor being measured by the ratio of this resistance R relative to the total resistance (R+7) in the circuit; the net power used in the motor being a maximum when R=r, in which case the efficiency is 50 per cent. In a similar manner the mechanical vibrating element of an electrical sound generator or receiver reacts on the electrical circuit, the back e.m.f. due to the vibration appearing as a change of impedance of the circuit. The change of impedance due to this cause is termed motional impedance and, relative to the total impedance, is a measure of

the efficiency of the sound generator. Transverse Vibrations of Strings—When any point of a thin flexible wire stretched between two fixed clamps or bridges is displaced transversely and released, the wire commences to vibrate. This vibration results from transverse motions travelling in opposite directions along the string and successive reflec-

FIG.

3

to a sine law. The result is a series of loops on the string of amplitude o to 2a. The condition for the formation of loops on a string of finite length / is clearly that in which / is a whole multiple of the length of a loop, i.e., provided the number of loops is I, 2,3,°°:etc. The fundamental frequency n of the string is given by (17), the various possible overtones are simple multiples of n, ¢.e., they form a harmonic series. The modes of vibration of a string vibrating with 1, 2, 3 loops is shown in fig. 3. The points marked n which are permanently at rest during the vibrations, are called nodes, whilst the points marked a where the amplitude is a maximum are called anti-nodes or loops. It will be evident that the string could be clamped at the nodes n without affecting the motion of the remainder of the string. Denoting the wave-length of the vibration by \ we must have

tions of these motions from the fixed ends. In order to visualise N’\=c= V(T/m) whence the frequency such reflection of a transverse motion it is well to make a few s1/T simple experiments on waves travelling along a stretched rope, (x9) one end of which is held in the hand whilst the other end is fixed. It will be observed that the movement of each particle s being the number of loops, t.e., half wave-lengths, into which of the rope when forming part of the reflected wave is in the the string of length 7 is divided. opposite direction to its motion in the original wave. The rope The string may vibrate with any of the frequencies given by assumes the form of a sine wave if the end is moved up and down equation (19) at the same time, t.e., a note may be produced which harmonically. Before we can deduce the modes of vibration of a is made up of the fundamental and a number of harmonics. The stretched string it is necessary to know the velocity with which laws of a vibrating string indicated by equation (19) may easily a wave of displacement travels along the string and also the be verified by means of a monochord or sonometer, which consists manner in which the direct and reflected waves affect each other essentially of a thin metallic wire (e¢.g., steel piano wire) stretched to produce what are called stationary waves. over two bridges by means of a weight hanging over a pulley, or Velocity of a Transverse Wave Along a Siring.—The following by a spring tensioning device. A movable bridge provides a method is due to Tait. The string is supposed to be drawn convenient means of varying the vibrating length of the wire. through an imaginary smooth tube with velocity c. The tube The monochord is a very useful means of comparing frequencies— is straight except for an isolated curved portion which represents the frequency of the string being inversely proportional to the the wave on the string. If R is the radius of curvature at any vibrating length. Exact tuning is indicated by the “beats” point of the tube, the force acting in the direction of the normal between the monochord note and the note compared with it.

Va)

to an element 6s is Tés/R where T is the tension.in the string.

Now the centrifugal force of the element ôs, of mass m per unit

The various

overtones

m

of a string may

also be very simply

demonstrated by means of the monochord, the string being length, and velocity c will be môs-¢/R, and this must balance lightly damped at any point corresponding to a node and the force Tés/R if there is to be no reaction on the tube. Thus plucked or bowed at a point corresponding to an antinode of the if Tés/R=més-2/R, then c=~V(T/m) and there is no reaction overtone required to be excited. The positions of the antinodes on the tube, z.¢., the tube may be regarded as absent and the wave are easily determined by means of little paper riders. travelling along the string with the velocity c=V(T/m). Stiffness of Strings and Yielding of Supports—-When the Reflection. Formation of Stationary Waves. (See Wave Mo- thickness of the string becomes appreciable in relation to the TION.)—If both ends of the string of length / are fixed, the wave is length of a loop, the stiffness may have a perceptible effect on reflected successively from end to end, and the resultant motion the frequency of vibration—this effect becoming more and more is determined by the superposition of the direct, or incident wave, important the higher the overtone excited (7.e., the greater the and the reflected wave. The resultant displacement y at the instant number of loops). Where great accuracy is required a modificat of a point distant x from one end will be y=f(ct—x) —f(ct+z) tion of equation (19) is necessary, viz. where f indicates “a function of.” Since y=o when x=/ we 4 Tinn have also f(ct—l)) =f(ct+l), or f()=f(zt2l) where z=(ci—l), Ne s/t AY mU 3PT which indicates that z is a periodic function repeating at intervals of 21. Consequently the displacement at any point of the string where r is the radius of the circular section of the wire and £ is periodic, the period T=2l/c being the time taken for a wave Young’s modulus of elasticity for the material. Yielding of the to travel along the full length of the string and back again. The “bridges” supporting the wire may have the effect of increasing frequency of this form of vibration is consequently N=c/a2l or decreasing the frequency according as the supports have (a) where c= v(T/m), i.¢.,. very large mass M but small spring factor or (b) very large spring factor u and negligible mass. The effects of (a) and (b) are 1 1/T equivalent to a change of length of the string in the ratios (17) 1:(t~2T}/Me’s?x?) and 1:(1+2T/pl) respectively.

N-am

SOUND

Io

[VIBRATIONS

Methods of Producing Vibration in Strings. Quality.—A in direction at one end and free at the other. In the case of the free-free bar the constant C in equation (20) stretched string may be set in vibration by numerous methods. Plucking, bowing and striking are the more familiar; exemplified in the harp, the violin, and the piano, respectively. A string may for the frequency is equal to 5(4st 1)? where s may be 1, 2, 3, also be set in vibration by forced oscillation of a point of support, etc. t.e., the possible frequencies are proportional to the squares e.g., if one end is attached to the prong of a vibrating tuning fork of the successive odd numbers commencing at 3. For a clamped(Melde’s experiment). Electromagnetic methods may also be free bar the constant C in equation (20) is approximately equal used to excite a metallic string. In one of these methods a light T metal wire is attached at right angles to the vibrating wire and to zet 1)? where s may be o, r, 2, 3, etc. More accurate arranged to dip in a small cup of mercury at each downward values for (4s+ x) in the case of the fundamental (s=o) and the movement. A current passing through this intermittent contact first overtone (s=1) are 1-1937 and 2-9884 respectively. The actuates a small electromagnet which maintains the wire in vibration in the same manner as an electric bell is operated. In another method the vibrating wire itself carries an alternating electric current and lies in a permanent magnetic field. When the frequency of the current and position of the magnet are suitably chosen one of the numerous possible overtones of the wire will

be readily excited. It will be appreciated that the method of excitation has a very important influence on the form of the wave which travels along the string. The quality of the note is of course dependent on this wave form, t.e., on the relative amplitudes

of the various overtones present in the vibration.

It is just this

addition of overtones to the fundamental which makes it possible for the ear to distinguish between the sounds of a piano, a violin, and a harp, emitting the same fundamental note,

Strings as a Source of Sound: The Sounding Board.—A vibrat-

ing wire rigidly supported would radiate extremely little sound energy to the surrounding air on account of the local reciprocating flow of air between opposite sides of the vibrating wire. It is necessary in an efficient stringed sound source that the bridges should yield and communicate the vibrations to a surface of large area, ĉe., to a sound board, in contact with the medium. This sound board is therefore a vital part of all stringed musical instruments—it is important, however, in a good instrument, that the sounding board should have no predominant resonance frequencies of its own, otherwise these would reinforce disproportionately the corresponding frequencies of the strings. Transverse Vibrations of Elastic Rods.—The vibrations of a stretched wire are controlled by the tension whilst the stiffness of the wire may generally be disregarded. In the case of a relatively thick wire or rod the stiffness may become all-important and tension may ultimately be disregarded. Even when simplified as far as possible the theory of transverse vibrations of elastic rods is very complex in comparison with the theory of strings. In the case of strings, harmonic waves travel with a velocity independent of wave-length but in the case of rods or bars this is not so. It is shown in textbooks of sound (see Bibliography) that the velocity of a transverse elastic wave in a rod is proportional to t V(E/p)-/ where ¢ is the thickness in the direc-

tion of displacement, Æ elasticity, p density, and à the wavelength.

The velocity is thus dependent

on the wavelength,

a fact which makes the theory much more complex.

It may be

FIG.

4

frequencies of the first three tones relative to the fundamental are consequently 1, 6-25 and 17-6 approximately. The relation Ne«k-V(E/p)/? has been experimentally verified by a number of physicists, both in the case of the free-free and the clamped-free bar. Applications and Methods of Excitation.—As in the case of strings the transverse vibrations of a bar may be excited by striking, plucking, bowing, or by electromagnetic means, the partials present, and consequently the quality of the note being dependent on the method of excitation. The only method of supporting a bar which yields “harmonic partials” is the freefree method, which has application in a musical instrument known as the “harmonicon” or “dulcimer” in which freely supported bars of graded lengths are struck by a hammer, thus pro-

ducing an agreeable succession of musical tones.

Thin rods or

reeds, clamped at one end and excited by plucking, are used in the “musical box” so well known. Used in combination with suitable air cavity resonators, clamped-free reeds are fitted in various musical instruments, notably the clarinet group. The combined action of an air blast and a vibrating reed is illustrated in the concertina and the harmonium, whilst in the reed pipes of an organ the reed is combined with a resonant air column. The reed of the telephone earpiece designed by S. G. Brown is operated electromagnetically. It is used in an almost unstable condition,

the pull of a permanent magnet being nearly sufficient to over-

come the stiffness of the reed. This results in a large increase of sensitiveness to the superposed alternating magnetic field. Frequency Meters form a good example of the electro-magnetic or direct mechanical excitation of reeds. The frequency meter RV/E (20) consists essentially of a graded series of clamped steel reeds actuated by a common electro-magnet supplied with alternating where & is the radius of gyration of the section of the bar about current of which the frequency is required. Such instruments the neutral plane, and / is the length of the bar (#?=£/12 for a have been made covering various ranges from 1 or 2 to 1,500 rectangular bar of thickness #). The value of the constant C cycles per second. The frequency of a clamped-free bar may be depends on the method of supporting or clamping the bar and lowered either by loading the free end or by reducing the cross on the overtone to be excited. The frequency is therefore propor- section near the clamped end. The frequency may be raised tional to the velocity of longitudinal waves \N(E/p)| in the material either by shortening the bar or reducing the cross section near of the bar. It also varies as the thickness (or radius) and inversely the free end. as the square of the length of the bar. As in the case of strings, Tuning Forks.—On account of its great purity of tone and stationary waves are set up in rods by the combined effects of constancy of frequency the tuning fork is generally regarded the direct and reflected waves. The possible forms of these as a standard of frequency and pitch. During recent years stationary waves depend on the method of supporting the rod. it has increased enormously in importance as a frequency Some of the modes of vibration of a free-free rod, i.e., entirely standard for controlling electrical circuits, in such a manner as free or supported at two nodes, are shown in fig. 4a; whilst to form an electrical standard of great accuracy and of extensive fig. 4b illustrates those for a clamped-free bar, i.e., a bar fixed range.

shown that the possible frequencies of transverse vibration of a bar are given by

N=C “\/2

SOUND

TUNING FORKS]

The tuning fork may be regarded either as a development from

a free-free bar bent into the form of a U, or as consisting of a pair of symmetrical clamped-free bars attached to a common block of metal.

Numerous patterns are in existence approximat-

ing to one or other of these two forms. It will be sufficient here to regard each prong as a clamped-free bar. In consequence of the oscillation of the centre of gravity of the two bars as they vibrate there will be communication of vibration to the block to which they are clamped. To reduce the amplitude of this vibration, which is in the direction of the prongs, the block must be firm and massive. The frequency of a fork of this construction with

prongs of rectangular section of thickness ¢ will therefore be

N =(1-1937)*- =

h7

(21)

that is, N=8-24X104/2? if the prongs are of steel in which V (B/p)=51 X10! cms /sec. The frequency of a fork will therefore vary directly as the thickness of the prongs and as the velocity of sound in the material, and inversely as the square of the length of the prongs. The first and second overtones of a fork will have frequencies 6-25N and 17-6N respectively. These overtones may easily be excited in a large fork by bowing at suitable points. The fundamental tone of a tuning fork may be selectively reinforced by attaching the stem to a resonance box of the same frequency—the overtones of the fork and the air cavity are widely different and do not reinforce each other. Two forks of nearly the same pitch may be compared by the method of beats, which

gives in a very quencies. This temperature on under standard

II

sections vibrate to and fro in the direction of the axis of the rod. The quantities involved are the density of the material and its elastic properties. Consider a rod of cross section A and an elementary slice of it bounded by two planes at « and «+6 at right angles to the axis x of the rod. If the plane at x is displaced at the time ¢ to x+é the plane at x+ôx will be displaced to

x+dx+é+dé/dx-6x, that is, the actual elongation of the slice is d&/dx-8< and its fractional elongation dé/dx. This change in thickness of the slice implies a difference in the forces acting on its

faces.

The total force acting on the face at x will be EAdé/dx

where E is Young’s Modulus of elasticity. Similarly at the opposite face of the slice the force will be in the opposite sense and

equal to HA (dé/dx+6x-d*é/dx®). Consequently the resultant force acting on the slice will be HA-6x-d?E/dx?. Now the mass of the slice is equal to pAdéx, where p is the density of the material,

and the acceleration is d/d. We have therefore dé

paon ga A

dE

Ia

E

bx

E œ$

de ~ p da

ee

an equation of the same form as that obtained for the transverse motion of a string, indicating a wave travelling along the rod with

velocity c= ~V(E/p).

The above treatment is approximate only,

since it ignores lateral bulging or contracting of the sides of the rod. The result is, however, sufficiently true provided the wave length \ is great compared with the width or thickness of the rod. As in the case of vibrating strings the direct and endreflected waves in a rod of finite length form stationary waves with nodes and antinodes in accordance with the relation

simple and direct manner the difference in fremethod is also useful in studying the effect of c=Nv\=V(E/p) or N= ~-V(E/p). In the fundamental mode of the frequency of a fork—the one fork is kept conditions whilst the temperature of another is vibration of a free bar A=2/ and the various partials require varied. The temperature coefficient of frequency for a steel fork s\=2l. Consequently the expression for the frequencies of the determined in this way is approximately —10~* per degree C partial tones is rise of temperature. The temperature coefficient of a fork made sLT/E of elinvar steel is about one tenth of this. 2ly p (23) Zn

=

mg,

Elecivically Maintained Forks.—The vibrations of a lowfrequency fork may readily be maintained by means of electrical

which is similar to equation (19) for strings, the tension T being now replaced by the elasticity E. When the bar is clamped at the mid point, an important practical case, all partials requiring an antinode ai that point are suppressed, consequently only the odd partials are present. It will be seen that the partials given by (23), form a harmonic series—provided d/2 is always large compared with the diameter or thickness of the rod and that lateral known as phonic motors (see Figures 7 and 8 on Plate), the bulging and shrinking may be neglected. The frequency of longitudinal vibrations In bars is usually vibratory motion of the fork being thereby converted into a rotary motion of combined accuracy and constant speed. Elec- very high compared with that of the transverse modes, the ratio trically maintained forks and phonic motors, with their applica- increasing rapidly as the diameter or thickness diminishes tions in standard frequency determinations, are described in relative to the length. The nodes of a bar vibrating longitudiA. B. Wood’s Textbook of Sound. Forks are now in common use nally are points of maximum stress, whereas the antinodes are as sub-standards of time. The period of a fork is a very constant points of zero stress. Biot and Tyndall demonstrated this fact quantity and serves as a convenient sub-division of a second when to a large audience by means of passing polarised light through time intervals have to be measured with accuracy. As a con- the node of a vibrating strip of plate glass. The analyser was sequence of the increased application of the tuning fork for this set at extinction before the rod was set in vibration so that purpose, methods have been devised for increasing the accuracy no light was seen on the screen. On stroking the rod with a and perfection of electrically maintained forks. Low-frequency resined cloth vigorous vibrations were set up and intermittent forks of this character giving an accuracy greater than 1 in 10,000 light was passed on to the screen. No such effects were observare in common use. If particular care is taken with the choice of able at the antinodes where there is no stress. Methods of Exctiation.— Rods of metal, wood, or glass, clamped material, design, and control of the fork, an accuracy of I in 10° at the midpoint or at one end, are readily set in vibration by the or even I in a million is possible. Electrically maintained forks of this nature are used to control steady frictional drag of a resined cloth drawn, with a moderate electrical “multi-vibrator” circuits which serve as frequency pressure, along the rod towards an antinode. Another method, standards for all frequencies which are multiples of that of the more suitable for relatively short stiff rods, is to strike the end a fork, e.g., in steps of 1,000 cycles, up to 1-5 million cycles per sharp blow with a hammer. This method usually results in a second. The tuning fork thus functions as a standard of radio- complex sound due to both transverse and longitudinal vibra-

contacts controlled by the prongs and an electro-magnet situated between them. The mode of operation is similar to that of an electric bell. Forks of higher frequency (of the order of 1,000 p.p.s.) are maintained by means of electromagnets arranged in a special form of 3-electrode valve circuit devised by Eccles. Electrically maintained forks may be used to drive what are

frequencies. It is possible to maintain an electrically driven fork

tions—the one or the other may be rapidly damped out by

by means of the “seconds” contacts of a standard pendulum

clamping at a suitable point.

clock. Such clock controlled forks are not subject to temperature variations, etc., and remain accurately in step with the standard

Electrical Methods of Excitation.—Powertul longitudinal vibrations may be set up in bars of magnetic material by acting on

clock over relatively long periods of time.

them with alternating magnetic fields of the resonating frequency. Using a small alternating current magnet (with iron

Longitudinal Vibrations of Rods.—When a rod is set into longitudinal vibration its axis remains undisplaced whilst cross-

wire core) mounted close to the end of a steel bar, the funda-

SOUND

I2

[MEMBRANES

mental and harmonics can readily be excited as almost pure tones. The resonance is extremely sharp (indicating very small internal damping) and careful tuning is required. Vibrations have been obtained in non-magnetic rods by electrostatic meth-

circular, a warping is liable to take place and the analysis is very complex. Consider a tube of radius y and thickness ôr and let 0 be the angular displacement of any section distant « from the

ods (J. H. Vincent, Nature. Dec. 31, 1927) the end of the vibrating rod forming one plate of a condenser supplied with high

opposing elastic force per unit area is wrd6/dx where u is the

frequency

is Young’s modulus and a is Poisson’s ratio). Since the area of section of the tube is 2mrdr the moment of this force round the

alternating

current

from

a valve

oscillator!

(See

THERMIONIC VALVE.) Longitudinal Vibrations

of High Frequency

in Piezo-

Electric Crystals.—Certain crystals, notably quartz and rochelle salt, have the property of changing their linear dimensions when subjected to electrostatic stress, and conversely they develop electrical charges on their faces when mechanically strained. The phenomenon is known as piezo-electricity (discovered by P. Curie, 1880). The best effects are obtained when slices or rods of the crystal are cut in certain specified directions relative to the optic axis. Voltage applied to the faces at the ends of the electric axis produces a change of thickness and length of the crystal. If alternating voltage is applied, the thickness and length fluctuate accordingly, the maximum effects being produced when the frequency of the electrical alternations coincides with the natural frequency of longitudinal elastic vibration. W. G. Cady (Phys. Rev., 19, p. 1, 1922) has made use of this property of a quartz crystal in the construction of standards of high frequency, with particular application to radio-frequency standardisation. A special electrical circuit which we need not consider here was employed to detect the resonance in the quartz. Thus Cady found that a quartz resonator 30x4x1 -4 m.ms. vibrating longitudinally in the direction of its length had a fundamental frequency of 89,870 cycles per second. The tuning was so sharp that a change of frequency of 1 cycle per second was measurable. The overtones were also excited and found to approximate to harmonics of the fundamental. G W. Pierce (Proc. Amer. Acad., Vol. 59, Oct. 1923 and Vol. 60, Oct. 1925) has succeeded in controlling the frequency of an oscillating valve by means of such a crystal. In this manner a guariz oscillator may be used as a frequency stabiliser for radio purposes. Quartz plates vibrating longitudinally in the direction of their

thickness (the electric axis) have been employed by Langevin, Boyle, and others as a source of super-sonic vibrations, more particularly for use under water. The same apparatus is used in the converse process of reception, for the alternating pressure of the arriving sound waves produces corresponding electrical effects which, when suitably amplified and heterodyned, can be heard in telephones. Langevin and Boyle have employed this apparatus for the detection by an echo method of submerged objects (wrecks, icebergs, etc.), the sound emitted from a large disc of quartz being. sharply directional and therefore suitable for such purposes. (See numerous papers by R. W. Boyle in Proc. Roy. Soc. of Canada 1922-28.) R. W. Wood and A. L. Loomis, using a piezo-electric quartz crystal vibrating at frequencies of the order 5xro® cycles per second have obtained striking effects of a physical and biological nature (Phil. Mag., Sept. 1927). With the crystal vibrating under oil, they estimated the pressure of the sound radiation to be equal to 150 grams weight—the free surface of the oil being raised into a mound 7 cm. high! The uses of Rochelle sali as a sound generator and receiver have been demonstrated by Nicholson (Amer. Inst. Elect. Eng. Proc., Nov. 1919) who in one application used the crystal to replace a gramophone sound-box, the amplified e.m.f.s produced in the crystal being sufficient to operate loud-speakers or telephones. The elasticity of Rochelle salt is very small, E=3X 108 as com-

pared with 8X zo! for quartz and 2X10" for steel. (An excellent

bibliography on piezo-electricity and its applications is given by W. G. Cady in the Proc. Inst. Radio Engineers, April 1928.) Torsional Vibrations of Rods.—aA solid rod or tube of circular section may be twisted in such a way that each transverse section remains in its own plane. If the section is not A. W. Pierce andJ. H. Vincent have excited rods of nickel (and

alloys of nickel-iron) into resonant vibration by magnetostriction.

origin. The “shear” of the material of the tube is r-060/d«x. The

coefficient of rigidity of the material (u=E/2(¢+1) in which E

axis is 2u-mr?-57-00/0x and the restoring force acting on the slice of thickness 6% has the moment 2umr?6r-6x-026/0x2. Now

the moment of inertia of the slice is 27rér-5x-pr* (p is the density of the material) whence the equation of motion is 020 026 076 020 u Pap

Mas

or

op

l gg

where

c=|/4

(24)

which is independent of r, and therefore equally applicable to tubes of all radii and to a solid rod. The velocity of torsional wave transmission is c=~V(u/p).

The ratio of this velocity to the

corresponding longitudinal velocity is V(u/E)=1:v[2(o+n)]. Taking o=o0-25 for a steel rod the ratio of velocities becomes 1-58. The possible frequencies of torsional vibration of a rod will be

i1

_sy/u v== /:

(25)

analogous to the harmonic series for the longitudinal vibrations. Torsional vibrations are readily set wp by applying tangential forces of a frictional character, e.g., by means of a resined cloth, to the free end of a rod clamped at a suitable point. Vibrations of Membranes.—The transverse vibrations of stretched membranes are related to those of diaphragms and plates in a manner analogous to the transverse vibrations of stretched strings and elastic bars. In the former case the vibrations are conditioned by the applied tension and are independent of elastic forces, whereas in the latter the elastic forces are allimportant and tension almost negligible.

By analogy with the case of wave motion in one dimension (a stretched string) it may be shown that the equation

OF op (SE | WE

ae

Ox? = ay’?

(26)

represents the motion of a stretched, two-dimensional-membrane where T is the tension m the mass per unit area (pX thickness) and & the transverse displacement at a point xy. The velocity of

wave motion is c=V(T'/m) as in the case of strings. The complete

mathematical analysis for stretched membranes of various shapes is given in Rayleigh and Lamb’s treatises on Sound. In the case of a circular membrane of radius a the fundamental frequency is shown to be

ye

/z. 2a

m

(26a)

In the higher partials the diaphragm becomes divided into nodal rings and diameters. Membranes approximating to the ideal type have been made from soap films, or films of thin collodion, stretched on a metal ring, the vibrations of such thin films being examined by optical methods. Sheets of parchment or of thin metal (steel) are more suitable when it is required to examine the effects of tension.

Wente’s condenser microphone (see fig. 16a) (see MICROPHONE)

has a highly tensioned steel membrane of fundamental frequency about 10,000 cycles per second. The various modes of vibration of a steel membrane are conveniently studied by means of a small electro-magnet (the magnet system of any ordinary telephone receiver will serve the purpose) and a valve oscillator with a suitable range of frequency-control. As a rule, the agreement between theory and observation is only approximate, for the theory generally given takes no account of the serious damping and loading of the diaphragm due to the medium (air) in contact with it. The stiffness of the membrane is not always negligible as assumed in the theory. Examples of membranes as sources of sound are to be found in various forms of drums, tamborines, etc.

SOUND

AIR CAVITIES]

In the drum, the vibrations of the membrane are reinforced by the vibrations of an air cavity in resonance with it.

Vibration of Diaphragms.—When

elastic restoring forces

are called into play and tension is of secondary importance we

come to the case of the diaphragm. Rayleigh has calculated the periods and motions in vacuo, of a thin circular elastic plate rigidly clamped at the edge. By means of a complex analysis he found that the fundamental frequency of vibration is given by 2:06 , 4/2 k ->

2m

æy

pi~?)

(27)

where / is the thickness and a the radius of the diaphragm, E Young’s modulus, p the density and o Poisson’s ratio for the

material.

More recently, Lamb (Roy. Soc. Proc. A., Vol. 98,

1920) has calculated the frequency and damping of circular diaphragms in air and in water, the value of the frequency in air agreeing closely with Rayleigh’s estimate. Thus for a steel diaphragm E= 2X 108, p= 7-8, o = 0-28, whence

c= VIE/p(1—0%)|=5-27 X10 cms./sec., and N=2-5x105-h/a@

cycles per second. If h=o-r cm. and a=5 cms., N will be 1,000 cycles per second in air. The addition of a load m to the centre of a diaphragm of mass M has the effect of lowering the frequency

given by (27) in the ratio r/V(r-+-5m/M).

Diaphragm Vibrating in Contact with Water or Other Medium.— The presence of an extensive medium, say water, in contact with the diaphragm has two effects, (1) the frequency is lowered on account of the loading due to the added mass of water vibrating with the diaphragm, and (2) the vibrations aredamped owing to the energy radiated as sound waves into the water. Lamb has shown in the case of a diaphragm with one side only in water, that the inertia of the diaphragm is increased in the ratio (1+) where

B=0-6680p1a/ ph (py*being the density of the water, p the density

of the material of the diaphragm, a the radius and # the thickness). The frequency given by (27) must therefore be divided

by V(z-+ 8) in this case. When both sides of the diaphragm are

I3

smaller intensity than that observed with one side of the diaphragm completely screened (in which case it is non-directional). The directional properties of an unscreened diaphragm may be

simply demonstrated as a receiver of sound by means of a “but-

ton” granular microphone attached at the centre. The microphone gives maximum and zero response in the “broadside-on” and “edge-on” positions respectively, relative to a fixed source of sound. Vibration of Plates.—We have already referred to the case of a quartz plate vibrating with equal amplitude and phase over its whole surface, this being treated as a special example of longitudinal vibration. We have also dealt with a circular plate clamped at the edge (7.e., a circular diaphragm), the frequency of

the fundamental being 0o-47hc/a?, and the overtones 1-006hc/a and 1-827hc/a? for one nodal diameter and one nodal circle

respectively. When the plate is free at the edge the mathematical treatment becomes very complex. Near the edge, a peculiar state of strain exists sometimes resulting in abnormally large shearing forces on sections perpendicular to the edge. The experimental study of the vibrations of such plates, free at the edge and clamped at the centre of symmetry, begins with Chladni (1787). The method of producing Chladnw’s figures by bowing and touching certain points on the edge of the plate covered with fine sand, is well known. The nodal figures are

very striking in their appearance and wonderful variety—nothing further is needed to testify to the complexity of the problem. Chladni preferred to use glass plates, as their transparency permits of the fingers being used to damp points underneath which are shown to be nodal by the sand above. Simple figures correspond to low frequency tones, and the more complicated figures to the higher tones. Chladni obtained 52 different figures with a square plate and 43 with a circular plate. Metal plates of moderate thickness when struck with a hammer are sometimes used as gongs. The Submarine Signalling Company have used

such a gong under the sea, describing it as a “disc-bell” for life-

The persistence of boats. Curved Plates, Cylinders and Bells-—-The complex problem the vibrations is given by N/k=0-385(1+8)?c1/pic, where cr of the flat plate is still further complicated when the plate is is the velocity of sound in the medium and c in the material of the diaphragm. Thus, in the above example where the frequency, curved—for it becomes increasingly difficult to separate the us modified by the water, is about 550, the range over which the various possible modes of vibration. Rayleigh has calculated energy will exceed half the maximum (indicating sharpness of the fundamental frequency NV of vibration of a thin cylindrical EA hy/e ; ; ; resonance, see page 8) lies between 530 and 570 p.p.s. The per- shell, obtaining Mæ— ļ|/—~ where e is an elastic modulus ina sistence is increased, and the resonance is sharpened, the thinner volving bulk modulus and rigidity, #4 the thickness, a the radius, the diaphragm and the greater the load. Diaphragms form one of the most convenient means of pro- and p the density of the cylinder. A bell may be regarded as a progressive development of a ducing and receiving sounds in air or in water. Numerous forms of diaphragm telephone receivers and microphone transmitters curved plate or, in certain forms, it may be treated as a cylindrical are in daily use. Large diaphragms are used as sources of sound- shell with one end closed. The possible variety of forms is far too power for signalling over large distances in air or under water. numerous even to mention here. In practically all cases the bell A diaphragm operated at resonance by electro-magnetic methods is supported at the centre of symmetry and is excited by striking may become an efficient generator of sound. By suitably choos- near the free edge. Rayleigh made a particular study of the ing its dimensions the frequency of the sound may have any value vibrations of church bells, and distinguished five characteristic up to the limits of audibility. A thick diaphragm of small tones: Lowest tone (4 nodal meridians, no nodal circle), second

immersed the value of 8 must be doubled.

diameter excited by an electro-magnet provides a very con- tone (4 nodal meridians, one nodal circle), third tone (6 nodal venient source of high frequency sound as an alternative to a meridians, sound best produced when the clapper strikes the bell on the lower thick part termed the “sound bow”), fourth bird call, etc., in experimental work. Directional property of Membranes and Diaphragms.—lf a mem- tone (6 nodal meridians, best elicited by striking half way up), brane or a diaphragm be mounted on an annular ring it will fifth and highest tone (8 nodal meridians). Bell founders in possess definite directional properties used either as a transmitter England recognise five chief tones in a church bell, reckoning or receiver of sound. Regarding it as a transmitter, the sound from the highest they are termed the “nominal,” “fifth,” “tierce,” emitted from opposite sides will be of the same intensity but in “fundamental,” and “‘hum-note.” By suitable distribution of exactly opposite phase. Consequently an observer ‘‘edge-on”’ to metal in the bell the founder aims at making the hum-note, the diaphragm will hear nothing at all, for the sounds proceeding fundamental and nominal successive octaves—but seldom sucfrom opposite sides of the disc will exactly neutralize each other. ceeds. Massive bronze bells are used in charted positions, e.g., In the “broadside-on’’ position, however, the sound from the back lightships and buoys, under the sea as a means of signalling to of the diaphragm will be partially screened by the annular ring ships suitably fitted with hydrophones (underwater microphones) and by the diaphragm itself, whereas the sound from the front to receive the sound. Sound travels for long distances under will reach the observer unobstructed. As the transmitter is water and these bells can be heard many miles away, if the rotated through 360° therefore, the observer will hear two dis- conditions are favourable. Vibrations of Air Cavities.—Columns of Air: Organ pipes. tinct maxima, 180° apart, separated by two corresponding minima, or zero positions. The maxima will, of course, be of The simplest case of a vibrating mass of air in a solid enclosure

SOUND

14

[AIR CAVITIES

is that of a parallel cylindrical pipe the ends of which may be in the length of the air column with a corresponding lowering of closed or open. The vibrations of such a column are analogous pitch. Rayleigh has shown that this effective increase of length to the longitudinal vibrations of a solid rod. Provided diameter of the pipe is not too small, so that viscous drag at boundary is unimportant, and not too great compared with length of the pipe and the wave-length of the sound, we

the the the can

assume at any instant, the motion of particles in any particular cross section to be the same. That is, we are dealing with plane waves of sound in the pipe. As in the case of transverse vibrations of strings and longitudinal vibrations of rods, stationary waves are produced in the air column due to the combined effects of the direct and end-reflected waves. Thus the equation of wave

motion in the pipe is 0°¢/d?2=E/p-d°E/dx2, indicating a wave

travelling with a velocity V(E/p) where E and p are the appropriate values of adiabatic elasticity and density of the gas con-

tained in the pipe. Assuming a simple harmonic wave =a cosnt

the solution becomes £=[4 cos(nax/c)+B sin(nx/c)| cosnt.

With the appropriate end conditions £=o at a node (a solid end) and 0é/dx=o0 at an antinode (an open end) the various modes of

vibration are readily determined.

Remembering that a pulse of compression is reflected as a rarefaction at an open end and as a compression at a closed end, it will be evident that a wave must travel twice the length of a pipe open at both ends, and four times the length of a pipe closed at one end, before the wave repeats itself, z.e., in one period. If is the wave length and W the frequency in the stationary wave then N=c/y. For a pipe open at both ends each open end must

be an antinode and the length of the pipe a multiple of 4/2, that is, 2=s\/2 where s=1, 2, 3, etc. We have in this case therefore a complete harmonic series of partials whose frequencies are E R : given by N= a » the corresponding wave-lengths being

proportional to 1, 1/2, 1/3, 1/4, etc. For a pipe closed at one end the closed end must be a node and

the length of the pipe an odd multiple of d/4, that is l=sh/4

where s=1, 3, 5, etc. The partials therefore form an odd har; s ; ; s]/E , monic series the frequencies being N = i|/— where sis an p

odd integer. The corresponding wave-lengths are proportional to t, 1/3, 1/5, etc. A closed pipe resonates to the same fundamental frequency as an open pipe of twice the length. The position of the nodes » and antinodes a for a few of the

partials of “open’’ and “closed” pipes are indicated in fig. 5.

Correction at Open End.—The approximate theory indicated above (due to Bernouilli) assumes an antinode at the open end.

approximates to o-6 times the radius y of the tube if the latter is unflanged. This correction applies at each open end, and is therefore 1-27 for an open tube, and o-6r for a closed one. It should be observed also, as in the case of rods, that the simple theory only applies when the diameter of the tube is small relative to

the length of a loop /2.

Resonating Liquids in Metal Tubes——Columns of liquid enclosed in metal tubes may also be set into resonant vibration. On account of the yielding of the walls of the tube, however, the

velocity V(E/p) of the wave is slightly modified since the coeffi-

cient of elasticity involved is dependent on the extent of such yielding. The subject has been examined theoretically by Lamb (Sound, p. 174) and by Green (Phil. Mag., 45, May 1923) who has also determined experimentally the change of velocity produced in various liquids by this yielding. Organ Pipes.—One of the most important applications of the vibration of air columns is found in the organ pipe. This usually

takes the form of a cylindrical metal tube or a wooden pipe of square section. One end of the tube is specially constructed so that a suitable blast of air will set up resonant vibrations in the column of air. In the open “flue” organ pipe the blast of air impinges on a thin lip which forms the upper edge of a narrow slit opening into the tube. When the blast is correctly adjusted the

pipe “speaks” and the air column resonates. The fundamental tone is sounded when the blast is moderate, and by increasing the power of the blast the harmonics can successively be produced. In another form, known as the “reed” pipe, the blast of air impinges on a reed which controls the amount of air entering the pipe. The reed is set in vibration and puffs of air are admitted to the pipe which resonates under the correct conditions. The reed cannot be regarded as a freely vibrating spring for it is affected by the air blast and the resonance in the pipe. “Organ” pipes have been made covering a range of frequencies 8 to 16,000 cycles per second, corresponding to lengths of 64 feet to 4 inch respectively. Fifes, flutes, oboes, etc. are other examples of musical instruments employing resonant air columns.

Small Air Cavities:

Helmholtz Resonators—The vibrations

of air cavities almost completely enclosed were first studied by Helmholtz and have considerable practical importance. A vol-

ume of enclosed air having only a small “neck” connecting with the external air radiates very little energy when set into resonant vibration. The damping is therefore very small and the tuning is very exact. The device is therefore very sensitive to a narrow range of frequencies. The motion of the air in the cavity is almost negligible compared with that m the narrow neck. Consequently we may regard the air in the neck as a piston having mass m=plS (p density, / length, and S area of neck), whilst the

air in the cavity functions as a spring of “strength” f= ES?/v

where E is the elasticity (=yp) of the gas and v the volume of the

cavity. The frequency NV of such a mass and spring is Vf/m/27 ie.,

C< CLOSED

FIG.

5

A true antinode is a point of zero pressure-variation and maximum displacement-amplitude. At the open end of a tube the stationary plane waves inside ate changing to spherical progressive waves outside. In other words, the tube radiates sound energy in all directions from the end of the tube. On account of this radiation, the intensity of the reflected waves from the open end is somewhat less than that of the incident waves, which explains the rapid damping of the vibrations when the forcing ceases.

The body of air at the open end has the effect of adding inertia to the air in the tube.

Consequently there is a virtual increase

N=

IEE ary

v-plS

w

Vs

2m y ly

since

c= VE/p.

The ratio

S/lis called the “conductivity” of the neck. For a circular aperture in a thin wall, Rayleigh shows that this quantity is

equal to the diameter (2a) whence 2trN=cv(2a/v).

The fre-

quency is independent of the shape of the cavity provided its linear dimensions are not comparable with a wave length of the sound to which it resonates. A “spherical” Helmholtz resonator is shown in fig. 6. A series of resonators of graduated frequencies (i.e., of varying volume or area of mouth) may be used in the frequency analysis of complex sounds. Resonance may be detected by the ear or by means of a sensitive manometric capsule applied to the small pipe at the base of the resonator, or by means of a

Tucker hot-wire microphone (see p. 31) placed in the mouth. Resonators of large volume, and correspondingly low frequency, fitted with hot-wire microphones were employed in the detection and location of guns during the war. (See SounD Rancine.) Large resonant microphones are also used in the detection of aircraft. 1

SOUND

SIRENS]

Recently, E. G. Richardson (Proc. Phys. Soc., May 1928) by using acoustic impedance methods, has developed a theory of vibration of air cavities which covers the extreme cases of pipes and resonant cavities, and avoids the necessity for a special

open-end correction. He obtains the formula tankL=x/kA where k=27N/c, x is the conductivity of the neck and A is the area of section of the cavity, assumed cylindrical. leads to the recognised values of N for | pipes and resonators. Double Resonators.—In certain circumstances, where an increased sensitivity is |

This formula

F

™%

desired, double resonators, consisting, for example, of a resonator of the closed pipe variety combined with one of the Helmholtz type, are usually employed.

Helmholtz Resonator Combined with Tuned Reed —E. E. Fournier d'Albe has employed a sharply tuned reed (clamped free) with a small mirror attached, to indicate resonance in an air cavity. The resonant vibrations in the air cavity agitate the tuned reed, which lies across the mouth, and cause a spot of

light, reflected from the mirror, to oscillate.

The combination

to one frequency

only, for

the overtones of the cavity do not correspond to those of the reed. The Voice and Speech.—The kuman voice is an excellent example ot a combination of vibrating reeds (the vocal cords) and resonant air cavities (the front and back parts of the mouth, separated by the tongue, and the upper or nasal cavity). The analysis and synthesis of speech sounds was commenced by Helmholtz. More recently Paget has shown that ‘‘every series of sung or spoken vowels is in fact a trio performed by three instruments, a reed and two resonators—soprano and alto—of which the soprano is in close harmonic relation with the reed.” In a series of important papers (Proc. Roy. Soc., 1923, 1924, 1927) Paget has analysed and synthesised the vowel and consonant sounds. Observations on breathed vowel sounds indiDISTRIBUTION OF ENERGY IN SPEECH cated that in every case the oral cavity as a whole, ‘from larynx to lips, actually gives two simultaneous resonances for each vowel sound. In certain cases,

more frequent in American “ac{he upper or nasal cavity may be introduced. By means of plasticine models Paget successfully reproduced the various vowel and more important consonant sounds, as well as combinations of these in well recognised words. Crandall and Mackenzie (Phys. Rev., March 1922) have deter.

distribution

in speech

as

a

extend over an area of the order \?2/a where N is the wave length of the incident sound (A=c/N). Quincke (1866) employed resonators to stop tones of definite pitch from reaching the ear (see Rayleigh, Sound, vol. ii., p. 210)—the arrangement acting as a sound-filter. A complex sound passing through a pipe could have any particular tone removed, by fitting a suitable side tube to the pipe. This side tube of length / was closed by. a sliding

(Phys. Rev., 1923-26)

has greatly extended

the possibilities

of sound filters by introducing the analogy of electrical filter circuits and the conception of acoustic impedance. On such a basis it is possible to design “acoustic circuits” functioning as

“low-pass,” “high-pass” and ““band-filters” as in the correspond-

ing electrical cases. The “low-pass” filter transmits only those frequencies below a certain limit, the “high-pass” above a certain

limit, and the “band-pass” only within a certain range or ranges. Filters of this nature are used in the laboratory for purifying sounds, e.g., removing harmonics from a complex wave-form to obtain a pure tone; and in connection with speaking devices. Measurements of Sound Intensity; Using Aw Resonators.— The amplitudes at various points in a vibrating air column or cavity may be examined qualitatively by means of small manometric capsules (fitted with tube to a sensitive flame) or by sensitive membranes carrying fine particles or small mirrors. Quantitative results have been obtained by means of a Rayleigh disc which, when inclined at 45° to the axis of a neck of a double resonator, forms a very sensitive detector—the disc tending to set itself at right angles to the vibrating air current in the neck

of the resonator (see p. 14.) Alternatively the hot-wire ‘‘microphone” (see p. 31) may be used. Kundt’s Dust Figures.—To exhibit the nodes and antinodes in a resonating air column contained in a glass tube, Kundt devised the method of spreading fine powder (lycopodium seed or fine dry cork dust) along the inside of the tube. The dust is immediately thrown into a pattern indicating the positions of nodes and loops along the tube. The experiment is capable of a number of variations yielding valuable data relative to the velocity of sound in gases and solid rods. The wave length ^g in the

gas contained in the tube is at once obtained from twice the nodal separation—the wave length ^, in the rod which excites the vibrations in the air column being, for the fundamental

longitudinal vibration, equal to twice the length of the rod. These values give at once the relative velocities in the gas and the rod (See p. 21.) Sirens.—The sources of sound to which we have hitherto referred are dependent on the principle of resonance for their efficient action. We shall now deal briefly with an entirely dif-

cent” a third resonance due to

.

Absorption of Sound by Resonators: Sound Fiiters.— A well tuned resonator absorbs energy of corresponding frequency from the sound-field in which it is placed. This absorption may

quency NV it was desired to absorb from the main pipe. Using a succession of such tuned side tubes a corresponding number of tones could be filtered out of the direct sound. G. W. Stewart

By this method, which was first sug-

mined experimentally the energy

Sabine (Phys. Rev., 21, 1923) as 125 ergs/sec and for public

speech about 2,500 ergs/sec.

piston which served to “tune” the tube (4J=c/N) to any fre-

gested by Boys, a large increase in ampliFIG. 6 tude may, as a rule, be obtained. The theory of such compound resonators was given by Rayleigh, and has been considerably extended recently by E. T. Paris, who uses them in conjunction with the hot-wire microphone.

of reed and air cavity responds

15

1000 BY

COURTESY

sournat

2000 3000 FREQUENCY

OF THE

BELL

Fig. 7

4000

SYSTEM

5000 TECHNICAL

ferent type of sound generator. In the earliest form of siren a revolving disc perforated with a ring of equally spaced holes interrupted a jet of air from the nozzle of a tube mounted opposite the ring of holes. The fundamental frequency of the note produced by the successive puffs of air emerging beyond the

disc is clearly equal to the product of the number of holes and

function of frequency. (See curve fig. 7.) The maximum energy the revolutions per second of the disc. This primitive form is of the male voice occurs at a frequency near 120 p.p.s., the female known as Seebeck’s Siren (1805~1849).' In later forms of siren voice having a maximum about an octave higher. In spite of the (C. de la Tour’s form) the holes were drilled obliquely to the fact that the energy of the voice is mostly of low pitch it is the surface of the disc so that the blast of air also produced the high pitched sounds which are essential to intelligibility of necessary rotation of the disc. In this form the intensity of the speech. The clearness of speech is unimpaired if all sounds up to note increased with frequency—the sound amplitude being goo frequency are “filtered” out (60% of the sound energy being roughly proportional to the pressure of the air supply. In recent thereby removed). We shall see later that the ear is most sen- laboratory forms the siren is motor driven, means being provided sitive in the region 1,000 to 4,000 frequency. The rate of emission for indicating the speed of the revolving disc and consequently of sound energy in conversational speech has been estimated by the frequency of the sound. A motor driven siren forms a very

SOUND

16

convenient means of determining, by a direct method, the pitch of a note. With a circular nozzle and equal circular holes the siren note is generally impure—containing a plentiful supply of harmonics in addition to the fundamental. Milne and Fowler (Roy. Soc., 98, 414, 1921) describe a special form of siren which gives comparatively pure tones. The holes in the rotating disc are specially shaped so that the uncovered area of the nozzle varies sinusoidally. Dove and Helmholtz produced sirens having several rings of holes provided with corresponding nozzles, so that one or more tones could be produced simultaneously. Sirens driven by compressed air or steam are in common use as sources of sound. Similar devices modified to suit the special conditions have been used for signalling under water—the air supply of the ordinary siren being replaced in this case by a jet of water which causes rotation of the disc and gives the necessary vibratory impulses to the surrounding water. The Diaphone, a powerful long range signalling device for use in air, is essentially a siren of the same group as those of Seebeck and La Tour since it differs from them only in the fact that the opening and closing of the ports is effected by a reciprocating instead of a rotary motion—this reciprocation being produced directly by means of the compressed air supply. The Centrifugal Siven—This device consists of a radiallyvaned cylindrical rotor revolving in a stationary casing in which ports are cut. The vanes are connected in pairs at their outer edges by cylindrical segments, so that rotation causes opening and closing of the fixed ports. Air is drawn through an axial aperture where the vanes are cut away. The sound is produced

cordite which burns relatively slowly when compared with the rate of detonation of the T N.T. in the shell. Consequently the gun-wave has a wave-front which is much less abrupt than that of the shell detonation. This appears to the ear as the difference

between a “boom” and a “crack.”

reflected pulses from objects along the track of the primary pulse. Such reverberations may last several seconds. Similar effects are observed under water on the explosion of a mine or a depth charge. The explosion of a few ounces of guncotton under

water can be detected and recorded 30 or 40 miles away. A rapid succession of explosions at equal intervals of time may result in a noise of a more or less musical character. This is exemplified in high speed gas or petrol engines, particularly those with several cylinders operating in succession. The note is harsh and the fundamental is accompanied by a long train of harmonics. The musical noise of a high frequency Wehnelt electrolytic interrupter (used in X-ray work) is also due to a regular succession

action of the rotor which may be driven by an electric motor or internal combustion engine. Sirens of this type constitute very powerful and efficient sources of sound for long distance trans-

mission in air, e.g., for use on light-vessels or shore stations as a

means of signalling to ships at night or in foggy weather.

Sounds Produced by Rotating Propellers.—The hum of an

electric fan which increases in pitch with increase of speed can be heard only at a short distance. The noise produced by the propeller (airscrew) of an aeroplane may, under favourable conditions, be heard several miles away. The sound emitted in both these cases arises, in the absence of excessive vibration,

from the rotation of the ‘‘source and sink system” associated with

the pressure differences on the rotating blades. A. Fage (Roy. Soc. Proc., 107, 1925) has analysed the sounds emitted from various types of airscrews by means of a resonator, of continuously variable tuning, fitted with a Tucker hot wire micro-

He found that the sound of rotation consists of a large

number of harmonics having as fundamental a note of frequency equal to the product of the number of blades and the rotational

speed. In addition to these sounds, “‘tearing sounds ” associated

with the shedding of eddies from the blades were also observed but the frequencies were not determined. Sounds arising from the flexural vibrations of the airscrew blades and the shaft were found to have frequencies in agreement with calculation. Propellers Under Water —Most of the under-water noise from a moving ship comes from the screw propeller. As it revolves, ‘“‘cavitations” are formed just behind the blades. When these cavitations collapse either on themselves or on the blades, a noise is produced. This noise has no predominant frequency, although it is to some extent characterised by the beat of the

engines or the rush of the turbines which drive the propeller.

If the latter revolves slowly the cavitations are not formed and

An observer of such pressure

waves at a distant point receives what appears to be a continuous train of waves, i.e.,a reverberation effect, due to the numerous

by the expulsion of air through the ports by the centrifugal

phone.

[EXPLOSIVE SOUNDS

of explosive impulses, arising from the sudden generation of gas under the liquid. The wave-form of such a series of impulses

recorded on a cathode-ray oscillograph indicates the extremely abrupt nature of detonations. A single impulse is often sufficient

to set a resonator into vibration, thereby producing, indirectly, a

musical note. A single impulse of an explosive nature, produced by a powerful electric spark has been employed in the study of the progress of a sound-wave under controlled conditions—particularly in connection with the complex reflections of sound-waves in auditoriums. (See ACOUSTICS OF BUILDINGS.) Sounds Maintained by Heat.—Most bodies on being heated will expand and in so doing perform a certain amount of mechanical work. If the phases of the forces thus called into play are favourable, a vibration may be set up and maintained. Trevelyan’s rocker is a good example of such a maintained vibration. It consists of a prism of brass or copper almost triangular in section with one edge grooved to form two adjacent parallel ridges. The prism rests with its groove downwards on a block of lead with a rounded top, the end of the prism terminating in a ball which rests on a smooth surface. When the prism is heated and placed on the lead block it begins to vibrate, the weight being carried alternately on one or the other of the two ridges. The cause of these vibrations was ascribed by Leslie to the expansion of the cold block at the point of contact with the hot metal. The effect can be obtained also by a local heating of the points of contact by means of an electric current. Singing Flames——Under certain circumstances a small gas flame inserted into a resonant chamber of air or other gas, will emit a musical sound. If heat be given to the air in a vibrating column at the instant of greatest condensation the vibration will be encouraged. If the phase of the heat supply be reversed the vibration will be discouraged. An essential feature of the maintenance of the vibration is the presence of stationary waves

in the gas supply tube as well as in the singing tube. The jet must be a node to correspond with a node in the singing tube where the maximum pressure-amplitude occurs. For most satis-

factory operation therefore it is necessary (a) that the gas jet should be at or near a node in the singing tube and (b) that the

length of the gas supply tube should be an odd multiple of r/4

(where \ is the wave-length, in the gas, of the note sounded). The tube will not sing at all if the length of the supply tube lies

between 4/4 and \/2, 3\/4 and A, and so on. Spherical resona-

tors, large globes, may also be employed, and bulbous chimneys as used for paraffin lamps give satisfactory results. The intermittent character of a singing flame is easily demonstrated by means of a revolving mirror, from which it appears that at one Explosive Sounds.—The ejection of a shell from a gun and phase the flame may withdraw itself entirely within the gas the subsequent explosion of the shell are both accompanied by a supply tube. The vibrations sometimes reach sufficient intensity pressure-wave of large amplitude which can be detected at long to extinguish the flame completely. For a complete discussion ranges. This pressure-wave has, however, a different character in of the phenomena of singing flames Rayleigh’s Sound, vol. ii., the two cases—the explosion at the gun is due to the ignition of p. 224, should be consulted.

there is very little noise. With suitable receivers (hydrophones) the noise of a ship proceeding at a moderate speed, say 10 or 15 knots, can be heard several miles away. (See Bragg, World of Sound.)

PLars

SOUND

1b

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essoldatLait athe ree ah HENA

RS RE REI TD UD t

17 41a She

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genaam eea

aigan Saah a

inainnatatanrnttiiernta

tne Aaa

deeseh ESS aahaT

AAAA

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RECORD OF GUN LIRING K- L SCCON -=--> ee genetag oe ea ee AS aa ic al a e a Ea

iaiia anaren

E aapinen aiianpar ataei

am

mentreaneeseyarsesegavin ditimelmtonnintene DAN

RECORD OF EXPLOSION UNDER WATER

6b

da PR

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ERT PR

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SET DS ERP,

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Fig. 1.

Fig. 2. Fig. 3.

OES SafBET

and Spark-Shadow Photographs illustrating reflection from plane h are comparacurved surfaces. (Figs. a to f by A. L. Foley; g & 11.) page See Davis. H. A. by s tive spark and ripple photograph

Spark Photograph of 8 m.m. bullet in flight.

(Cranz.

See page

22.) Under-water

2

we AAG

a

a

o

o

2

we

Yo VA etnR

See page 30.)

Fig. 4. Fig 5. f

Fessenden Dtrectional

Oscillator.

(See page 34.) (See page 32.)

Hydrophone.

Fig. 6.

(See pages 35 & 36.) Sound-ranging records (a) Army, (b) Navy.

Fig. 7.

Phonic

Fig. 8

Electrically-maintained

Motor

(a) assembled,

(Hahnemann. s may be found) (The references are to pages in the article where particular

Sound Transmitter.

(b) in parts.

Tuning Fork.

(See page 29.)

(See page 29.)

DIRECTIONAL

SOUND

SOURCES]

Gauze Tones.—Rijke in 1859 made the discovery that a sound of considerable power may be produced by a heated piece of fine

metal gauze stretched across the lower part of a vertical open tube containing air. In the earlier experiments the gauze was heated by a gas flame and the sound was observed immediately

after the removal of the flame. Keeping the gauze hot by means of an electric current the sound may be maintained indefinitely. The maintenance depends on the variable transfer of heat due to the motion of air through the gauze, this motion being a uniform

ee

axis the intensity is less, diminishing steadily to a minimum when the difference in distance to the nearest and the furthest points of the piston is rather more than half a wave-length. In this case, the effect of the further portion of the disc is just neutralised by the effect of the nearer portion. In directions still more inclined, the sound increases again to an intensity equal to o-o17 of that along the axis. This is succeeded by another minimum value and further maxima of small intensity—corresponding to the various diffraction rings in the optical analogue. The

upward convection current with a superposed alternating motion angle a at which the first silence occurs is sin“(o-610A/R). Thus due to the resonant vibration of the air in the tube. In the lower the central “beam” of sound will be confined to a cone of small angle half of the tube the alternating flow assists the direct flow a when the radius R of the piston is many times the wave-length. The quarter period before the phase of greatest condensation and polar distribution of amplitude is somewhat similar to that shown opposes it a quarter period after this phase. Bosscha and Reiss in figure 8 for a line of small nondirectional sources. When the (1859) demonstrated the complementary phenomenon. If a radius R does not exceed /4 the elementary disturbances from current of hot air fall on a cold gauze, sound is produced—in this the piston combine without much opposition in phase, and the case the phase relationship requires the gauze to be in the upper intensity is nearly the same in all directions—the case of a nonhalf of the tube, preferably about a quarter the length of the tube from the top. The Thermophone. Fine Wires or Strips Heated by Alternating Currents.— When an alternating current 7 sinvé is passed through a fine wire of resistance R the heat developed is proportional to

RPsin2nt =4R2(1—cos2nt). Consequently the heat developed will vary between o and £R? at a frequency 2n/27, that is, at twice the frequency of the current.

If a sufficiently large initial

direct current i, be passed through the wire the double frequency term in R(iptisinnt)? or {R(ie?+32) +2Rigi sinnt—4R2 cosant} may be made negligible—the fluctuations of heating effect then

vary with the frequency ”/27 of the current.

directional source of sound. Rayleigh obtained general verification of this theory by means of a speaking trumpet and high pitched sounds—a considerable concentration of sound on the axis being obtained. Boyle, using a Langevin type of piezo-electric quartz disc (see p. 12) showed that the sound distribution (the polar diagram) in water was in good agreement with theory. In one example R=7-65 cm.,

N=135,000

p.p.sec., c=1-5X10° cm/sec. for water, A=1-11

cms. whence a=5° approximately. This angle was verified The application of such a high frequency experimentally. directional sound beam has already been mentioned. Double Sources-——The “piston” radiator to which

we have Using very fine platinum wires (ro~‘cm. thick), P. de Lange referred is a single source of sound—it radiates from one face only, A vibrating dia(Roy. Soc. Proc., 91, Ap. 1, 1915) demonstrated that the decrease the anterior face being suitably screened. and increase of heat took place synchronously with the A.C. phragm mounted on a ring radiates from both faces, the radiation supply. The air surrounding the wire was thereby rapidly heated from one face being at any instant in opposite phase to that from and cooled, the corresponding expansions and contractions ap- the other face. Such a vibrator is described as a double source. As pearing as sound. Ordinary telephonic currents, of speech fre- we have seen (see p. 13) a double source, such as a diaphragm quency, were shown to be sufficient to produce easily audible on a ring, situated in an open space, air or water, is inaudible sounds in a small earpiece containing the fine wire heater and a from any point in its equatorial plane, maximum sound being small volume of air. This device is known as a Thermophone. received at right angles to this plane. Nondirectional Source Used with Mirrors, Trumpets, Zone The reproduction is of good quality, but somewhat feeble relative to the response of electro-magnet telephone receivers. Provided Plates, etc-—As in the case of piston sources of large area, a the frequency is not too high, the thermophone has a possible “directed” source, employing for example a mirror or a trumpet, can exhibit good directional properties only if the dimensions of application as a metrical source of sound. Directional Sources of Sound.—It is evident that a greater the mirror, etc., are not small compared with the wave-length of range of transmission will result if a given amount of sound the sound. This condition involves bulky apparatus if the waveenergy is confined to a cone with a small angle of divergence length is appreciable, the alternative being the use of high freinstead of spreading uniformly in all directions. Other advantages quency sounds of short wave-length. If the beam is to be narrow, of a directional transmitter will be equally apparent. Certain it is also desirable that the area of the source at the focus of a sources of sound exhibit inherent “directional” properties, due to mirror for example should not be large. This involves a further the fact that their dimensions are considerably greater than a difficulty when a large sound-output is required, for the source wave length of the sound they emit. Other sources may show no must then have a very large amplitude, a condition which leads inherent directional property but may be made directional by to inefficient transmission both in air and in water. In air, the use of some attachment such as a trumpet or a mirror. A serious degradation of energy may take place at large amplitudes line or an area of equally spaced non-directional sources vibrating (see Hart, Roy. Soc. Proc., A. 105, 1924, p. 80) and in water “cavitation” troubles arise (see Boyle, Roy. Soc. Proc., Canada, in phase may act as a directional compound source. Sources of Large Area.—The linear dimensions not small com- III, 1022, p. 157). The use of mirrors, trumpets, zone plates, etc., pared with a wave-length. Rayleigh (vol. ii., p. 138) refers to the are consequently more suited to the directional recepizon of high directional properties of a speaking trumpet when used to trans- frequency sounds—where such troubles do not arise. Concave mit high pitched sounds, such as a whisper or a hiss. An instruc- mirrors of say 1 to 2 feet diameter and 6 to 12 inches focal length tive example of this nature is the case of radiation of high fre- are fairly efficient reflectors of high pitched sounds like a watch quency sound waves from one face of a quartz piezo-electric tick or the notes from a Galton’s whistle.

Multiple Sources.—As in the case of a large piston vibrator, “piston” oscillating with uniform amplitude and phase at all points of its surface (see R. W. Boyle, Proc. Roy. Soc. Canada, a line of small “point,” sources, suitably arranged, will have III, 1925, p. 167). The sound-distribution round such a source definite directional properties. Suppose we have “m” equidistant is analogous to that of plane waves of monochromatic light falling on an aperture and forming a diffraction pattern beyond. Consider the case of a circular piston source of radius a radiating

waves of length \ (\=c/N where cis the velocity of sound in the

medium and W the frequency of vibration). As in the optical case, the sound is a maximum along the axis of the piston where all the elementary disturbances from the various points of the piston arrive in the same phase. In directions inclined to the

sources in a straight line vibrating with the same phase, amplitude, and frequency. We require to know the polar distribution of amplitude in any plane passing through the line of m sources. (See fig. 8a.) It is readily proved that the resultant amplitude 7 at a distant point P is given by

_ sin(mrd/\: cosa)

~ msinlrd/^: cosa)

SOUND

18

[TRANSMISSION

etc. ude pressure reducers or “silencers” for exhaust gases, if d is the spacing-distance of the sources each of amplit be ascribed may water rushing or waves breaking of The noise to the 1/m, and « is the orientation of the point P with respect cavities enclosed momentarily air of ns vibratio resonant the to the when i.e., line source. An important case arises when d=)/2, by the water. sources are spaced half a wave-length apart. Then SOUND i _ (Tt y= sin (1/2-mcosa)/m sin (=‘cosa ).

er This is zero whenever sin (m/2-mcosa) is zero, i.e., whenev sources

are 6 cosa-m/2 is an integer. Suppose, for example there 3, whence OF 2, I, be may /2 m-cosa: spaced d/2 apart, then

ama=70° 48’, 48° 42’ and © giving the directions OP of zero secondand 90° g= when occurs um maxim y primar plitude. The ution ary maxima at a=60° and 30° approx. The polar distrib radiplotted being r of value the 8b fig. in shown is 7 to from o ally from O in the direction a.

TRANSMISSION

OF

It is important now to consider what takes place in an ex-

tended elastic medium (solid, liquid or gas) containing a source

of sound.

Sound waves are the inevitable result when vibratory

stresses are set up by any means at any point of an elastic medium. Such sound waves consist of alternations of condensation

and rarefaction, corresponding to the successive forward and backward movements of the source. The state of compression is passed on from layer to layer of the medium, with the velocity

This distribution is the same in

all planes which include the line of sources. When d has other which values, the polar distribution includes secondary maxima may approach the primary in magnitude (see paper by H. Stenzel,

of sound; this Leing followed in turn by a rarefaction, another compression, and so on, as long as the source continues to vibrate. The phenomena of propagation of such waves of condensation of a and rarefaction may be demonstrated very simply by means

long helical spring supported at suitable intervals by thin threads.

pp. 239- Simple harmonic longitudinal displacement of one end of such a Elechtrische Nachrichten Technik, Band 4, Heft 6, 1927, \/2 spring results in the generation of waves which travel along the spaced sources of line 253). It will be seen that a vertical tal spring at a definite speed. In such waves, as in sound-waves, the horizon a in energy of ration concent definite a give apart will ration concent a Such sources. of displacements of individual particles are in the direction of propagaplane at right angles to the line ng tion of the wave—the motion is consequently termed longitudinal, is, for example, of considerable importance in a fog signalli d in a as distinct from transverse wave motion in which the displacedevice, where a maximum energy concentration is require y be ments are at right angles to the direction in which the wave similarl may horizontal plane surrounding a light-vessel. It circle a on d arrange sources tant equidis of travels (¢.g., ripples on water, or waves travelling along a stretched shown that a number intenof um maxim y string). Tf the condensational wave travels with a uniform and vibrating in phase will give a primar maxima ry seconda and zero of number a velocity ccms./sec and the source of sound has a frequency of with axis, the sity on that disc. N periods per second, it will be clear, without formal proof, positions as in the case of a in the distance c Aeolian Tones.—The “singing” of telegraph wires and the there are N condensation and N rarefactions Now the distance, by which “whistling” of the wind through tall grass and trees are very covered by the wave in one second.next, is called the wave-length N wire the of one condensation is ahead familiar sounds. The “thrumming” of a tightly stretched consequently we have VA=c. When in a stream of water is evidently due to a similar cause. Aeolian of the sound in the medium; is transmitted through the medium wire, vibration stretched a simple harmonic tones are produced when wind rushes past a or their state of compression or vortex particles, the unstable of of n density formatio linear the the on g their excitation dependin ed by a simple harmonic represent double a instant wire, any a at is passes , expansion sheets. When wind of sufficient velocity intervals of a wave-length. reregular set at one itself it, repeats behind ely which curve immediat up set are vortices series of is that of

volving in the opposite direction to the other and the flow of air past the wire wavers from side to side. In this manner vibrations are set up in the surrounding air which, under the right conditions, will be audible. Strouhal investigated the effect by revolving a vertical stretched wire about a parallel axis. He found that

the the frequency was expressed by N=o-185 v/d where v is such is speed the When wire. the of diameter the d and velocity

that N corresponds with one of the natural frequencies of the wire the sound is greatly increased. Rayleigh showed that the vibrations of the wire are transverse to the direction of the wind. This is readily explained on the vortex theory; the oscillations of air flow behind the wire reacting on the wire itself. The Aeolian harp consists of a number of wires, all of the same low pitch but of different thicknesses stretched on a sounding-board and exposed to the wind. The varying thicknesses of the strings results in a series of different notes. Noises in General.—In addition to the various sources of

sound to which we have referred there are innumerable others. Almost every material object in motion is a source of sound vibration. In all parts of the world there has been a steady increase in trafic noise during recent years, the problem of the reduction of such noise becoming increasingly acute. Relative

motion and intermittent contact between solid bodies, such as a vehicle on a road, results in a shock excitation of the numerous resonant vibrations which are possible in a complex structure. A heavy vehicle fitted with solid tyres and having many loose parts is an irritating example of this when it runs over a somewhat irregular road surface. The complex noise issuing from such a vehicle may be analysed into the simpler forms which we have considered above. The prevention of such noises involves many considerations, but obvious improvements may be ob-

tained by (x) use of pneumatic tyres, (2) tightening of all loose

Plane Waves.—The problem in its simplest form

transmission of a plane (or non-spreading) simple harmonic wave in a positive direction along the axis of x. The particle displace be will x is position mean whose ment £ at any time ż of a point given by (x) =a sinan(t/T—2/d) (2) =a sin2r(Nt—x/N) or where a is the amplitude, 7 and N the period and frequency anc

A the wave-length of the vibration.

Writing c=4 A=A/T we

obtain other forms of these equations, viz., and

g=a sin[ar/d-(ct—x)] g=a sinn(t—x/c)

(3 (4

where n has the usual significance and is equal to 27N. Thes four alternative expressions for the particle displacement

in a progressive plane wave are convenient for most purposes Comparison of these relations shows that the phases, in the cas of progressive waves, may be expressed in terms of fractions of wave length \ which corresponds to a phase-angle of 27. Tht the difference of phase between the vibrations of two particles
c the reflected amplitude iis zero when ¿=o or a multiple of ae 2 and reaches its maximum value when /is a multiple of h/ 4. quarter wave-plate consequently reflects a maximum and aS mits a minimum of the incident sound-energy. These relationships for the reflection of plane-waves from flat plates have been verified by Boyle and Taylor and Boyle and Lehmann in the case of high frequency sound-waves passing through water in which the plate was submerged. Equations (26) (27) and (28) indicate that solid media in air are practically perfect reflectors, whereas in water they are relatively good transmitters of sound. An air film in water or in a solid mass constitutes a perfect reflector, with a reversal of phase at reflection. The practical application of such deductions is dealt with by H. Brillié (Le Génie Civil, Aug. and Sept. 1919) in relation to the problem of sound-reception under water. Stationary Waves.—Reflection and Absorption Coefficients of Materials. It has been shown in the case of strings that the resultant displacement y at a point in the stationary-wave formed by combining the direct and reflected-waves is given by y=acosn(t—x/c) —a cosn (t-+-x/c) = 2a sinnt sin(nx/c). |

The same relation applies to longitudinal-waves of condensation reflected normally from a plane perfectly reflecting obstacle. If, however, the obstacle is not a perfect reflector some of the incident sound energy is absorbed or transmitted. Consequently the reflected-amplitude y is less than a. The expression for y

and second (transmitting) media and frand @, are the angles of now becomes incidence and refraction. The/aw of sines of optical refraction holds y= (a+r) sinni sinl(ns/c)+(a—r) cosnt cos(nx/c) (29) in this case also, and we have sin6,/sin@.=c1/c2, where c and cz in the case of perfect reflection (r=a) we obtain the ordinary are the velocities i in the first and second media. Consequently expression for stationary-waves. The general expression (29) (25) may be written is applicable to all cases, and is represented by fig. 11. The P &cosh incident energy is proportional to a? and the reflected energy to ¥, Pı &COS 0i r*, The reflection coefficient of the obstacle is defined as the ee (26) a EN pe, et acos ratio r?/a?, Equation (29) represents two superimposed stationarywaves of maximum-amplitudes (a+r) and (a—r) respectively, pı Ca COS 0i

and displaced z/2 in phase. Consequently the maximum and

which becomes

at ‘‘normal” incidence

r

pola prer

GQ.

pole

(when

pits

6,=6@.=0).

(27)

If the velocity in

medium (2) be greater than in medium (1), the incident waves being in the slower velocity medium, there will be a critical angle of incidence (sin6:=c1/c2) which, if exceeded, will result in total r ` the wave-length of the sound in it, picy and. pec: being the respective radiation resistances

a

69)3

This expression for the reflection coefficient, in terms of the ratio min./max. amplitude in the stationary-wave, serves as a basis

for experimental methods of measuring the reflecting properties of materials and, of course, their absorption or transmission properties. The absorption coefficient (which is generally assumed to include transmission) is given by

(@—r)/e=4/(2+e/B8+B/a). This method

of determining sound absorption coefficients of

24

SOUND

materials was developed by Tuma (1902), Weisbach (1910) and Hawley Taylor (1913). More recently Paris (Roy. Soc., 1927 and Phys. Soc. Proc., 1927) has refined the experimental procedure by using the hot-wire microphone to obtain accurate values of the ratio B/a, and consequently of the reflection were and absorption coefficients. The plane stationary-waves. produced in a tube closed at one end by the reflector under test. The absorption coefficient was found to increase with increasing thickness of the absorber (¢.g., felt) and with in-

Such measurements crease in the frequency of the sound. have an important application in the acoustics of buildings g.v. Stationary waves may readily be demonstrated when a high pitched sound, from a bird call or Galton’s whistle, is reflected normally from a plane solid obstacle. A sensitive flame flares

[REFRACTION

Whispering Gallery Effects--The well known whispering gallery of St. Paul’s Cathedral, London, owes its. peculiar acoustical properties to the reflection of sound by the walls, The gallery takes the form of a circle around the base of the dome. The exact mode of action is still a moot point. Rayleigh (Sound, vol. ii., p. 126) pointed out that the sound tends to

creep round the inside of a curved wall, being continuously reflected by the wall, without ever getting far from it. “A whisper seems to creep round the gallery horizontally, not necessarily along the shorter arc, but rather along that arc towards

which the whisperer faces.

This is a consequence of the very

unequal audibility of a whisper in front of, and behind, the speaker. The abnormal loudness with which a whisper is heard is not confined to the position diametrically opposite to that occupied by the whisperer and therefore, it would appear, does nodes. the at except wave the of path the in points at all not depend materially on the symmetry of the dome.” It'should duration short of sound a Echoes.—The direct reflection of contain a higher proportion of high from a surface of large area such asa wall ora cliff results in what is be noted that whispers speech, and whispering is heard ordinary than sounds pitched initiathe between ¢ familiarly known as “echo”. The time-interval conversation especially if the ordinary than distinctly more tion of a sound-impulse and the reception of the echo at the same the gallery towards the listener. C. V. Raman point of observation is given by t= 2d/c where d is the distance speaker looks along Sci. Proc., 1922) describes an investigation of 5 of the reflector and c is the velocity of sound in the intervening (Ind. Assoc. in India which confirm a view held by galleries whispering medium. Measurements of ¢ will therefore lead to a value of the of the inward slope of the wall of the importance the of Sabine two these of which to according d distance the or c velocity effects, and the concentration by a best the giving for gallery important has quantities is previously known. The principle sound at the opposite end of a maximum a of dome spherical practical applications (¢.g., see Echo Depth Sounding, p. 3 5) in diameter. Multiple sounds which are observed are shown not to the measurement of distance. travelling circumferentially round Harmonic Echoes.—If the primary sound has a complex wave- be echoes, but sound-waves times before they are appreciably diminished form, containing high harmonics of a fundamental tone, the the gallery several component tones will be scattered or diffusely reflected in un- in intensity. Rayleigh suggests that the propagation of earthquake disThe amplitude of the secondary-waves equal proportions. affected by the curvature of the surface varies inversely as the square of the wave-length (and intensity turbances is probably a whispering gallery. It is not imlike acting earth the of wave complex the of harmonics higher the as 1/4), consequently travelling long distances in the sea sounds that also probable are scattered back in far greater proportion than the fundamenaction, and on repeated reflection at tal. To an observer near the source, therefore, the returning are dependent on a similar the depth of a sea as uniformly Taking bottom. and surface the according octaves more or one pitch echo appears to be raised in possible distance of direct maximum the ft.) (144 fathoms 24 to the nature of the primary sound. 29-3 miles approximately Reflectors as Sound Screens-—To produce shadows comparable propagation of a sound-wave in it will be have actually been obvalue this times 3 or 2 ranges —whereas be should reflector the that with optical shadows, it is essential a curved path due to of possibility The sea. North the in served large compared with the wave-length of the sound employed. be considered in seeking an also must gradients temperature by screened effectively be may watch a of tick pitched The high a relatively small reflector but the sound of a man’s voice or of a explanation of these long ranges in the sea. Refraction of Sound-Waves.—The optical analogy which motor horn requires a much larger screen. The wave-lengths in to reflection of sound may, as we have already seen, the and applies feet, several to inches few a from vary cases the two refraction also. When plane-waves of sound cross the in to vary apply consequently linear dimensions of the reflector must different the same proportion to produce the same degree of screening. bounding surface between two different media having is changed propagation of direction the cz and c, changed wave-velocities have to found generally is sound the reflector the Behind in quality, the high frequency components being more perfectly in accordance with the sine law, viz., sin @:/sin@2=c1/cz where screened than the lower frequencies—on this account the sound 6, and 6, are the angles of incidence and refraction respectively. Hence the sound “‘rays” in passing from one medium to another appears to be “purified.” Musical Echoes from Palings. Echelon Reflectors. (Gratings).— ate bent towards or away from the normal according as the If a sharp sound is made near one end of a row of palings, or velocity of the wave in the first medium is greater or less than in Thus, for example, sound is refracted similar-“‘stepped” structure, the echo takes the form of a musical the second medium. The note. The successive palings each reflect the impulse (or, selec- towards the normal when passing from air into CQ. tively, its higher harmonics) and the observer receives a succes- ‘critical angle’, when the sound is totally reflected, and there The critical| sion of reflections which, if sufficiently rapid, blend into a is no refracted beam, is given by sin@i=c/c. musical note. The time intervals ôt are equal to 26x/c, where 6x angle from air to water, c1=1I,100 ft./sec. and c=4760 ft./sec., is the path difference to the successive reflectors, consequently is therefore 134° approximately; above this angle no sound whatthe frequency N of the note will approximate to C/2éx or some ever can enter the water (we have already shown, p. 23, that higher harmonic. If, for example, near a row of palings da=4 even at normal incidence the reflected amplitude is 0-99943 of inches, and c= 1100 ft./sec., N will be a multiple of 1650 cycles/sec. the incident amplitude). From air to solid materials (steel, 'i.e., a high pitched note. An echelon structure of this kind serves glass, wood, etc.) a/ce= 0-065 approx. whence the critical as the equivalent of a “grating” by which complex high frequency angle is 33°. Sondhauss (1852) demonstrated the refraction of sound through prisms containing various gases, and determined sounds might be analysed (see p. 26). ‘Reflection at Curved Surfaces. Spherical Mirrors—lIt is the refractive index p relative to air, p= sin6,/sinOe= a/c.

shown in books on Optics that a parallel beam (plane-waves) of He was also successful in demonstrating the focusing action light when incident on a spherical mirror will be brought to a of a convex lens of carbon dioxide enclosed in a thin envelope

| focus at a distance from the pole of the mirror equal to half the of collodion. Refraction by Wind and Temperature Gradients.—It is well radius of curvature, and conversely a parallel beam of light emerges from such a mirror when a small source is placed at known that sound travels better with the wind than against it. the focus. Similar results are observed with sound-waves of This effect is due to the increase of velocity of the wind from the The effective velocity of sound is earth’s surface upwards. high frequency and reflectors of moderate dimensions.

SOUND

SOUND-SHADOWS]

25

equal to its normal velocity V(yp/p) plus or minus the velocity of the medium. In still air the wave-front of a sound-beam will travel over the earth’s surface parallel to its initial direction, say at right angles to the ground. If, however, a wind is blowing

in horizontal layers of the sea. Such a temperature gradient may cause a sound “ray” to curve upwards to the surface where it is reflected down again, only to rise once more. In this way it

in the same direction, the upper part of the wave where the wind velocity is greater, travels faster than that part near the

temperature gradient of opposite sign causes a bending downwards with analogous effects at the sea bed. Surface and bottom reflections play an important part in the long-range transmission of sound in the sea. With a particular sound-transmitter Lichte and Barkhausen (Ann. d. Physik, 62, July 1920) noted a change from to km. in summer to 20 km. in winter in the Baltic sea.

ground, with the result that the wave-front tends to bend downwards towards the ground.

direct ray which

An observer therefore hears by a

starts with a slightly upward

inclination.

Similarly a horizontal ray travelling against the wind is bent upwards and, at a moderate distance, passes over the head of an observer. A similar effect may be noticed when there is a gradual change in the temperature of the air from the ground upwards. The warmer the air, the greater the velocity of sound. If the

temperature increases upwards, the wave-front will be bent downwards towards the ground; conversely, when the temperature diminishes upwards the sound-beam will be deflected upwards into the higher atmosphere and lost. The curvature

of the ray is given by 1/R=—1/c-dc/dy where ðc/ðy is the velocity gradient with respect to height—this gradient may be positive or negative. Audibility of Fog Signals. Tyndall (Phil. Trans., 1874) made extensive researches on the audibility of fog signals across the Channel from South Foreland, and came to the

conclusion that “temperature refraction” and a “‘flocculent” condition of the atmosphere, arising from unequal heating or moisture, were responsible for large fluctuations in the observed ranges of audibility. Contrary to general opinion at the time Tyndall found that the presence of fog favoured the transmission of sound signals—the atmosphere being then in a more homogeneous condition, particularly in regard to temperature gradients The problem of long-distance transmission of signals has recently been studied by King, Tucker, Paris and others.

Using a doubly-resonated hot-wire

microphone, Tucker and

Paris have made intensity measurements at varying distances. and orientations with respect to diaphones and sirens mounted in light-houses at sea. In a particular experiment it was found that the ratio of sound intensities at two miles from the source, with the wind and against it was 25 to 1. The effects of temperature refraction were also partly responsible for this high value of the ratio at such a short range. Certain fluctuations of

intensity were ascribed to moving eddies in the atmosphere. Player, however, as a result of recent observations of a similar nature, reached the conclusion that humidity is the only factor in which the variations are at all comparable with the large and sudden variations in the range of audible transmission. Zones of Silence. The sound of a large explosion is sometimes observed at very great distances, whilst at intermediate distances nothing at allis heard. Thus the explosion of a large ammunition dump in Holland (Jan. 1923) was recorded at a distance of 850 km. whereas at roo to 180 km. no sound could be detected. These intermediate zones of silence are not uncommon in such cases: They doubtless arise as a result of peculiar meteorological conditions at the time of the explosion. As we have seen, the action of temperature and wind gradients may cause upward or

downward refraction of the sound. Esclangon (Comptes Rendus, 1924) has shown that these two factors are sufficient to account for one or a succession of zones of silence, with reinforcement of

sound in particular directions. Zones of silence are in certain cases due to the interference between sound-waves reaching the observer by different paths. (See Interference above.) Effect of Temperature Gradients on Sound Propagation Under W ater.—The sea is a much more homogeneous medium for soundtransmission than the atmosphere. Sounds of moderate power may be heard at:long ranges, 40 or 50 miles, without the corresponding fluctuations of intensity which are so troublesome in air.

The effects of tidal currents (analogous to “wind”), say 1oft./sec.,

are in’most cases negligible, the velocity of sound in water being about 5,000 ft./sec. Seasonal variations in range of signals have been observed (see H. Lichte, Phys. Zeits., Sept. 1919) these being ascribed to refraction produced by temperature gradients

travels forward along a cycloidal or “festoon” type of track.

A

Interference.—The passage of sound-waves through a medium is in no way affected by the passage of other sound-waves through the same part of the medium. This important principle involving the independence of separate trains of waves is known as the Principle of Superposition and was first propounded by Huyghens in dealing with light-waves. The resultant displacement of a particle of the medium is obtained by adding the separate displacements vectorically (see p. 20). Thus two periodic motions of the same frequency, of amplitudes ai, and dz, and phase difference e combine to form a periodic motion having an amplitude whose square is (a;*+-ds’+2a1d2 cose). The principle of superposition applied to the squares of amplitudes (i.e., energies) would account for the first two terms only and the results would be erroneous. It is found under certain conditions that two trains of sound-waves may, at certain points in the medium, neutralize each other’s effects and produce silence where previously there was a definite sound due to either of the trains of waves. Thus in the above case, if e= 180°, i.e., the two independent sets of vibrations of the particle are in opposite phase cose=—1, and the resultant amplitude is (a;—a2), which becomes zero when a=; if e€=360° or o”, cose=-+x and the resultant-amplitude is (ai-+ae) or 2a, when

&ı=4, When the observed sound-distribution due to two or more wave-trains of sound is not found to be equal to the sum of the separate wave-trains, the latter are said to have interfered with each other and the phenomenon is described as interference. Interference is a direct result of the principle of superposition. The phenomena of interference may be observed in any smooth water surface which is disturbed simultaneously

at two different points. J. H. Vincent has obtained very photographs of such effects on the surface of mercury Mag., 1897, 8 and 9). The crests and troughs of the of ripples in certain places reinforce each other, whilst

beautiful (see Phil. two sets in others

they neutralize; the result is a definite “interference pattern”

superposed on the ordinary wave systems. When sounds of the same frequency and amplitude reach the ear by different paths,

or originate with different phases, interference effects may readily be observed. Thus the waves sent out from the prongs of an ordinary tuning fork interfere, producing approximate silence in certain directions and increased intensity in others—the rise and fall of intensity, four times per revolution, as a vibrating fork is rotated near the ear is easily demonstrated. Any “doublesource’ of sound, such as a vibrating diaphragm exposed on both sides, shows these effects. If sound is led from its source to a receiver by two tubes of equal diameter and length the two sets of waves will arrive together, 7.¢.;in phase. If the length of one tube is gradually varied relatively to the other the path difference will be successively 4/2, A, 34/2, 24, and so on; the resultant effect at the receiver alternating between zero, and maximum. These phenomena can be demonstrated by means of a tuning fork and two tubes of adjustable length, with a common exit placed to the ear. Stationary-waves to which we have already referred (p. 23) form a good example of the interference between a primary and a reflected train of waves. Interference between the waves from two sources of sound of nearly equal frequency appears as an increase and decrease of intensity with time—known as the phenomenon of beats (see p. 6) and exemplified by two tuning forks of nearly equal pitch. In certain cases the zones of silence observed by Tyndall when listening on a ship to the sound of a fog siren on a neighbouring cliff, were ascribed to the interference between the direct sound

26

SOUND

beam with that reflected from the surface of the sea—if these paths differ by any odd multiple of half a wave-length the two trains of waves neutralize each other and the siren is not heard. Wood and Young (Proc. Roy. Soc., 100, 1921) observed interference zones under water due to a similar cause. Such effects are of considerable importance in the case of long distance sound transmission in the sea. The sound-wave is reflected with reversal of phase when it reaches the water-air surface. At a considerable distance from the source,.the path difference between the direct and surface-reflected wave may become very small compared with the wave-length, resulting in almost complete neutralization. Fortunately, however, the surface of the sea is never smooth and the sea-bed reflects sound very efficiently. The bottom-reflected-wave may therefore, in certain cases, be solely responsible for the sound heard at long ranges. Diffraction. Sound-Shadows—The bending of sound-waves round the edges of obstacles is one of the most familiar of everyday observations. If it were not for this effect, short distance intercommunication by means of sound would be much more dificult. Fast: motor trafic on our roads is vitally dependent upon such a possibility at turnings and crossings. This bending of sound “round the corner” may be regarded as evidence of its nature as a form of wave motion; the effect being similar to that of “diffraction” in the case of light-waves. The sound-shadow and the geometrical shadow of an obstacle are therefore not coincident. The study of diffraction effects is greatly assisted by the use of a principle which is due to Huyghens:— The wave-front of a disturbance may at any instant be obtained as ithe envelope of the secondary-waves praceeding from all points of the wave-front at some preceding instant. A disturbance diverging from a point source with velocity c may at any time % be represented by a thin spherical shell. This shell may therefore be regarded as the disturbed region, and the disturbance at a subsequent time /,

[SOUND-SHADOWS

the effect of the first zone, t.e., the same as if no obstacle at all were interposed This is true whatever the size of the disc relative to the wave-length of the sound. Immediately surrounding the central spot there is a ring of almost complete silence and beyond that a further increase of intensity, and so on. These effects can be demonstrated in the manner suggested above for a Straight edge. This case is analogous to that of the bright spot at the central point of the optical shadow of a circular disc~ one of the “‘classical proofs” of the wave theory of light. It finds an important application in the directional reception of sound (see p. 28). Scattering by Small Obstacles;—Rayleigh has shown that the intensity of the sound scattered in all directions by an obstacle is directly proportional to the volume of the obstacle and inversely proportional to the fourth power of the wave-length of the sound. This law also applies to the scattering of light and is used to explain the blue colour of the sky. We have already referred to an illustration in sound, viz., harmonic echoes, in

which the higher constituents of a complex sound are scattered more readily than the fundamental, with the result that the scattered or diffusely reflected sound appears raised in pitch by one or more octaves.

Circular A perture-—The transmission of sound through a circular opening in an extended wall has already been considered in the analogous case of sound radiation from a piston (such as a Langevin quartz oscillator), the sound distribution beyond the opening consisting of a primary beam and a number of secondaries separated by silent regions. An experiment showing the antagonism between the parts of a wave corresponding to the first and second Fresnel zones is described by Rayleigh (Sound, Vol. IL., p. 141). Sound-waves from a high pitched source fall on a screen with a circular opening of variable diameter. A sensitive flame is situated on the axis on the opposite side of the screen. determined by drawing spheres of radii c(f—t) round each The flame is unaffected by the sound which gets through a point of the shell. The outer spherical envelope of these spheres large opening, comprising two opposed Fresnel zones but flares will be the new wave-front at the instant 4%. By this construction violently when the area is reduced to one zone. it will be found that the direction of advance of the wave is Zone Plates—Let circles be drawn, on a plane reflector, with normal to the wave-front. Huyghens’ principle of secondary- radi, 1 re 73, etc., given by r.2=n\d wheren=1, 2, 3, etc., and dis waves is directly applicable to diffraction problems provided the distance of the centre O from a point P on the axis normal that due allowance is made for the contribution of each surface to the reflector. The circles divide the surface of the reflector element of the wave-front to the amplitude at the point P under into Fresnel half-wave zones with respect to the point P. It consideration. This estimation of amplitude involves the use of will be seen that these annular zones are of equal area. If altera device due to Fresnel—in which the initial wave-surface is nate zones are cut away, a plane sound-wave falling on the plate divided into “half-wave zones” (see text-books on Optics). These and passing, through the annular openings will arrive in phase at zones are such that their resultant effects at some distant point P, resulting in a considerable increase of intensity at that point. P are alternately in opposite directions (being \/2 different in A zone plate of this kind therefore acts like a convex lens of focal path length measured from P). Two successive zones therefore length OP =f=r,2/my, rn being the radius of the nth zone and \ neutralize each other’s effects at P. the wave-length of the sound. The focusing propertiess of such Plane-Waves of Sound Passing a Straight Edge.-—Employing the zone plates were demonstrated by Rayleigh by means of high Huyghens-Fresnel principle the distribution of sound beyond the pitched sounds and sensitive flames. edge of a totally reflecting wall may be determined. Outside the Diffraction Gratings. Reflection from Stepped or Corrugated geometrical shadow there is a fluctuation of intensity which Surfaces.—The diffraction grating, so familiar in optics, has its settles down, after a few oscillations, to the normal value in counterpart in sound. When sound-waves are reflected from a the absence of the wall. Inside the geometrical shadow the in- regular periodic structure, such as a row of palings or a cortensity steadily falls off from one quarter its normal value at rugated surface, the reflected-waves may assist or neutralize the edge to zero at some distance inside the geometrical shadow. each other in certain directions depending on the wave-length A The relatively feeble diffracted sound behind the wall is easily of the sound and the spacing d of the reflectors. The diffractedobserved by the ear if the incident sound-wave is of audible waves have maxima in directions. 0 given by sind=-tn)/d frequency and of moderate intensity. With high pitched sounds where #=1, 2, 3, etc. When d is smaller than X there are no dif(e.g., from a Galton’s whistle or a high frequency diaphragm fracted waves and the incident beam is reflected in the ordinary excited electro-magnetically) and a sensitive receiver the varia- way. Thus a row of palings or a rough wall reflects sounds of tions of intensity at a diffracting edge can be observed experi- moderate pitch like a perfectly smooth surface, little or no mentally. A sensitive flame may be used as the indicator of sound being returned towards the source, except in the case of sound intensity or alternatively, if the sound is in the audible normal incidence. When the sound is high pitched, however, A Tange, a stethoscope tube with a small funnel opening may being less than d, it is thrown back in all directions reinforcing be used to listen directly. The gradual fading away of sound along certain lines and neutralizing in others. A regular row of within the geometrical shadow is a common observation at all palings may serve as a “reflection” or a “transmission” grating. frequencies. W. Altberg (Ann. d. Physik, 23, 1907) demonstrated a diffraction Circular Obstacle. Scattering of S ound-W aves.—Constructing grating of this nature by means of glass rods r cm. apart, using Fresnel zones outside the edge of a circular obstacle, it will be a concave reflector to produce plane-waves of sound incident on found that the total effect at a point on the axis is equal to half the grating. The sound was produced by means of a high

SOUND

ENERGY LOSS]

frequency electric spark emitting waves only a few millimetres in length. A second concave mirror received the diffracted sound and brought it to a focus at a sensitive detector. The sound spectrum was obtained by rotation of the grating with respect to the source and receiver. Wave-lengths of the order o-2 mm., corresponding to a frequency 1-5 million per second, were measured in this way. Experimental Study of Wave Transmission.—Many of the “‘optical” characteristics of sound which we have mentioned may be studied on a laboratory scale by the following methods: (a) Spark Photography. The progress of a sound pulse may be ob-

served either by the “Schlieren Method” (due to Tépler 1867) or the “Shadow Method” (due to Dvořák 1880). In the latter

case, the sound pulse is produced by an electric spark (the sound spark), followed by a second spark (the light spark, between magnesium electrodes) at a known short interval of time. The highly compressed region forming the envelope of the sound pulse casts a shadow, when illuminated by the light spark, on a screen or a photographic plate. A succession of photographs at varying time-intervals after production of the sound-spark indicates the progress of the sound-pulse. The various phenomena of reflection, refraction and diffraction have been demon-

strated in this way (see for example, Foley and Souder, Phys. Rev., 35. 373. 1912).

Photographs

of this nature are shown in the

Plate, figs. 1a to f. (b) Ripple Photography. Results of a similar character may be obtained more easily by means of the ripple tank. This method is based on the fact that impulsive ripples on the surface of a liquid, e.g., water or mercury in a small tank, bear a striking resemblance to impulsive soundwaves. The ripples are reflected, refracted and diffracted from objects placed in the liquid, as shown in the Plate, Fig. 12. The

method was first used by Vincent (Phil. Mag., 43. 17. 1897) to demonstrate interference phenomena, but more recently it has received a wider application in the study of complex reflections

occurring in models of buildings (see Article on Acoustics oF Buiipincs; and Davis, Proc. Phys. Soc., 38. 234. 1926). (c) Bullet photography.

The “bow” wave from a high speed bullet

(see Plate I., fig. 2) has been utilised to demonstrate the reflec-

tion and diffraction of a sound-pulse. Thus in C. V. Boys photographs of a bullet in flight (Nature, 47. 415. 440. 1893) the pulse is seen to be reflected according to optical laws. Cranz (Handbuch der Physik, Vol. VIII, Geiger and Scheele) has photographed the track of a bullet passing between two parallel plates, and the multiple reflections of the bow-waves are beautifully shown. The method is not so convenient as the spark and ripple methods, but it possesses certain novel features, Doppler’s Principle—Moving Sources and Receivers-—The pitch of a sound is liable to be modified when the source and receiver are in relative motion. Thus an observer approaching the source with velocity v will encounter more sound-waves per second than if he had remained at rest, the number of sound waves per second (the pitch of the note) being increased in the ratio (c+v)/c where c is the normal velocity of sound in the medium. Similarly when the observer is at rest and the source moving, the change of pitch will be in the ratio c/cŒv according as the source is approaching or receding. The whistle of a locomotive is raised in pitch as it approaches, and falls in pitch as it recedes from an observer. The principle of change of pitch by relative motion is due to Doppler, who first enunciated it in connection with the change of colour of certain stars moving in the line of sight of an observer. If the medium is also in

motion (e.g., wind) with velocity w in the direction of the soundwave, the observed pitch NM? relative to the actual pitch NV will be NY/N=(ctwtv)/(ckw). When v=o, N'=N irrespective of the velocity of the medium. The latter velocity w only affects the ratio N1/N slightly when the source and observer are in relative motion also. The Doppler effect can be produced in the laboratory by the simple expedient of rotating a maintained source of sound at the end of a bar or cord. Preferably the source

should be maintained in vibration by virtue of the rotation. The observer in the plane of rotation hears a note which rises

27

and falls in pitch once per revolution. The observed pitch of the sound from an aeroplane may vary by 20% according to the speed and direction of flight. Attenuation of Sound-Waves. Viscosity and Heat Conduction.—We have hitherto considered plane or spherical waves travelling through various media without loss of energy. Apart from other considerations it will be evident that energy loss must take place wherever there is relative motion between the various particles comprising the medium, such loss being due to ordinary viscous forces which tend to degrade the sound energy into heat. In addition to this viscous loss there must be energy loss due to thermal conduction and radiation consequent on the compression and rarefaction of the medium. If the compressions and rarefactions succeed each other with sufficient. rapidity the process will be strictly adiabatic, that is, there will be no transfer of heat between compressed and rarefied regions or to the parts of the medium unaffected by the sound-wave. Sound-waves of small amplitude in air are propagated under almost perfectly adiabatic conditions. Otherwise, as Stokes proved in 1851, the sound would be rapidly stifled, which is contrary to experience. In the case of sounds of very large-amplitude however (an explosion impulse, or the sound-wave emerging from a very powerful source), it is conceivable that the large temperature fluctuations in each cycle of pressure may be such as to involve appreciable temperature losses due to conduction and radiation even in a very short time interval. This would result in a more rapid decrease of sound-energy with distance than the inverse square law requires, the effect becoming increasingly serious the lower the frequency and the greater the amplitude of the sound waves. With regard to energy loss due to viscosity, Maxwell pointed

out that the factor involved is the “kinematic viscosity coeffcient” y, which is equal to the ordinary “static” coefficient u divided by the density p. Thus for air y=o-132 and for water y=o-013 at 10°C. The amplitude & of the progressive wave therefore diminishes exponentially on account of energy loss on the way. In the case of plane-waves we have

£=ae*!! cos n(t—x/c) where 7 is the distance travelled by the wave before the amplitude falls to r/e of its initial value. In this expression l=(3c/83r)X, indicating a rapid increase of attenuation with diminishing wave-length X (z.e., with increase of frequency). To include the losses due to heat conduction also Maxwell multiplied y in the above expression by 2-5, the effect being therefore equivalent to a marked increase (to v') of kinematic viscosity. On the above grounds there is clearly a physical upper limit to the frequency of vibration which can be transmitted an appreciable distancel. Rayleigh (Vol. 11, p. 28) concludes that the effects of energy losses of the above nature are to be sought for in the damping of the vibration rather than in the altered velocity of propagation. It should be mentioned that changes of velocity with frequency have actually been observed by Pierce in air and CO, and by Boyle and Taylor in water, although no such change could be detected by Lang in the case of steel bars. With regard to attenuation there is ample evidence confirming the above theory which indicates a rapid decrease of range with increasing frequency. For example in air, for sound-waves of frequency 1000, A=33 cms., we find /=4o kilometres since yl = 2-cy=0-33 for air. The value of / at a frequency 100,000 is consequently 4 metres only. In sea water y=o-or3 that is

vi=o.0325, and c=1.5X10° cms./sec., whence 1=3-9X 10% kilo-

metres at a frequency of 1000 (A=150 cms.), and /=3-9 kilometres at a frequency of 100,000 (A=1.5 cms.). It is thus evident the attenuation of sownd-waves in sea water due to viscosity and heat losses is almost negligible compared with the atienuation at corresponding frequencies in air. This accounts to some extent for the relatively large ranges of transmission observed under the sea compared with those in air for the same amount of sound energy at the source. A small charge (9 0z.) of guncotton ex1G. W. Pierce has shown experimentally that CO, becomes opapic to sound-waves at a frequency of 210° p.p.s.

SOUND

28

[RECEPTION

into another type of vibration or into some other form of energy. For example, longitudinal sound-waves passing through the air from the mouth of a speaker fall on the diaphragm of a telephone transmitter which is set into transverse vibration. This transrough nature, for the wave form and the initial ‘‘amplitudes” verse vibration controls electrical energy which is transmitted would not be the same in the two cases. There is ample evidence to a distant diaphragm receiver and reconverted into mechanical to show, however, that the attenuation of bell sounds and other energy in a form suitable for transmission to the ear. Many well noises under water is less than in air. On account of other factors known forms of sound-recording apparatus (e.g., Webster’s (nature of sound sources, homogeneity of medium, etc.) a strict Phonomeicr, Millar’s Phonedetk, and the Hilger Audiometer) comparison is somewhat difficult. Attenuation by scattering in a employ a diaphragm receiver with some optical means of indiheterogeneous medium may be a Serious factor in regard to loss of cating and recording the transverse vibrations. Other forms, range in signalling by sound-waves. Tyndall found that a homo- exemplified by magnetophones, microphones, piezo-electric regeneous atmosphere, clear or uniformly foggy, transmitted a ceivers, condenser microphones, etc., involve the conversion of sound signal to far greater distances than a “patchy” atmosphere mechanical into electrical energy. Sound-vibrations may also containing masses of air at different temperatures, wind eddies, be observed by means of such devices as optical interferometry etc. Similarly when sound travels through water it may be and sound shadow photography or by means of manometric and seriously interrupted if it meets with a mass of bubbles. The sensitive flames. Metrical forms of receiver such as the Rayleigh sound of a ship’s propeller does not pass very well through the disc and the sound-radiometer (measuring radiation pressure of bubbly water in the wake. Air bubbles in the sea may therefore sound-waves) form another class, which might also include the be a serious cause of attenuation, the effects of viscosity and heat various “phonometers,” the hot-wire microphone, and piezoelectric receivers. The amplification of received sounds by conduction being relatively small. Sound Absorption in Narrow Tubes and Cavities. parses mechanical devices, ‘‘mechanical transformers,”’ mirrors, trumpets Bodies.—When sound-waves fall on certain bodies which may be and resonators, or by electrical means, microphone and valve In certain cases special regarded as a mixture of solid and gas, e.g., cork or felt, it is amplifiers, must also be considered. found that a large proportion of the incident energy is absorbed devices are required, as in sound-reception under water (hydro-

ploded under water can be detected (and recorded by an Einthoven galvanometer) at 40 miles (see Wood and Browne, Phys. Soc. Proc., 1923). It is extremely improbable that such a range could be obtained in air. This comparison is of course only of a

due to viscosity and heat conduction. The influence of these phones) or in the detection of sounds travelling through the ground factors is enormously increased on account of the large surface (geophones). The above remarks will be sufficient to show the of solid matter in contact with the vibrating gas particles. difficulty of attempting a comprehensive classification of soundViscous forces are increased at the surface of the solid, and the receivers. In what follows we shall deal with the more imporlatter serves also as an effective means of reducing the temper- tant types, some of which have already been mentioned. The Ear.—Sensitivity and Audible Limits ——By far the most ature fluctuations in the compressed gas, t.e., the compressions and rarefactions ‘are no longer adiabatic. ‘Rayleigh has. shown important and most universal receiver of sound is the ear. This theoretically (Sound, Vol. II, p. 331) that the attenuation of “Corgan of hearing” has a marvellous range of frequency and sensound-waves in a narrow tube of circular section is proportional sitivity; it can perceive vibrations of frequency varying from 20 to the square root of kinematic viscosity v', and the frequency N, to 30,000 cycles/sec., and can detect a sound of amplitude less and inversely proportional to the radius of the tube. Porous than ro™ cm. whilst it is not destroyed by a vibration having materials like felt, wool, cork, etc., are effective sound absorbers, an amplitude a million times as great. The ear with its associated nerve endings has also remarkable powers of analysis. It and are used to reduce reverberations in auditoriums. RECEPTION OF SOUND

can distinguish one complex sound from another and can “listen

intelligently” to a number of different sounds at the same time. The manner in which sound-energy is abstracted from the For a complete description of the complicated structure of the medium carrying the sound-waves is dependent on a wide va- ear, reference should be made to text books of physiology or riety of circumstances and each case must be treated accordingly. anatomy. Briefly, it consists of a device which brings the waves In the first place the choice of a receiver must depend on the of sound to act on a terminal expansion of the auditory nerve. medium of transmission—a receiver suitable for air being gen- This device is divided anatomically into three parts, the external erally quite unsuitable ‘under ‘water or in a solid medium. ear with the auditory meatus, the tympanum and the internal Again the selection of a receiver will depend on the frequency ear. The external ear in the case of the lower animals is very and wave form of the vibration—sounds of frequencies 500 or movable, presumably to assist in sound-location. This function §0,000, or a single explosion impulse, requiring entirely different in man is rudimentary so that he can hear almost normally with treatment. If the sound-wave is employed in long-range sig- his ears cut off. The external ear is separated from the tympanum nalling it is important that the receiver should be efficiently by the “drum” of the ear or membrane tympani, which is set in designed and tuned to the incoming sound, in order to obtain vibration when sound-waves fall upon it. These vibrations are maximum response to weak signals! Distortion of wave-form transmitted with diminishing amplitude but increased pressure in this case may be of secondary importance. On the other by a chain of bones (malleus, incus and stapes) acting as a system hand, if it is required to obtain a faithful record or reproduction of levers, to the fluid (perilymph) in the internal ear. The vibraof the sound-wave, energy considerations are relatively unim- tions travel through the perilymph from the vestibule and the portant whereas an accurate reproduction of the wave-form is “oval window” up the turns of the cochlea and ultimately to the vital. In this connection we have to distinguish between resonant basilar membrane thus affecting the haircells and the ends of Many theories, notably the resonance and non-resonant receivers. As a general rule a resonant re- the auditory nerve. ceiver is employed where maximum sensitivity and efficiency Theory of Helmholtz, have been proposed to explain the funcare required, whilst a non-resonant receiver is used for econ tion of the various parts of the ear, in particular the cochlea and the basilar membrane (with the “rods of Corti” and the haircells), recording or reproduction of the sound. ‘All forms of sound-receivers involve the introduction of some but none appears to be really satisfactory. Itis certain, however, obstacle into the path of the sound-waves, this obstacle either that the more highly developed the cochlea the more perfect is partaking of, or otherwise influencing, the motion of the particles the hearing of an animal. This is shown in birds and mammals of the medium, or responding in some way to the pressure varia- which have a far more perfect Eocuce than is found in reptiles tions on its surface. Energy may be lost due to reflection and re- and fishes. radiation from this obstacle, but in a good receiver a moderate Sensitivity of the Eor to: Intensity and Frequency Variation. — amount of sound-energy is transferred from the medium and The relation between sensation (loudness) and stimulus (intensity) converted into a form convenient for observation. It is often applicable to all sensations, is. generally expressed by Weber’s desirable to transform the mechanical vibrations of the medium law—“The increase of stimulus necessary to produce the mini-

SOUND

RECEPTION]

mum

perceptible increase of sensation is proportional to the

pre-existing stimulus.”

From this law Fechner derived the rela-

tion S=k log E or 0S/OE=k/E, where S is the magnitude of the sensation, £ the intensity of the stimulus and k a constant.

The

“law” obviously approximates to the truth, for the sensitiveness

of the ear 0S/0E diminishes rapidly with increase of the total intensity Æ of the sound. Feeble sounds which are easily heard at night when E is small, cannot be distinguished from the

general noise in the daytime when Æ is much greater. Wood and Young (Proc. Roy. Soc., A. 100, p. 264 and p. 266, 1921), in judging equality of two sounds of the same pitch, remark that under favourable conditions it was possible to distinguish a difference of intensity of 10%. A similar conclusion was reached by V. O. Knudsen (Phys. Rev., 21 Jan. 1923). Measuring the

‘intensity sensitivity’ of the ear 6E/E where 6E is the least perceptible difference of energy and E the total energy of the tone,

Knudsen found 6E/E to be about o-10 for moderate and large intensities Æ, but increased to the limiting value of unity as the intensity decreased to the threshold value FE, (the minimum energy of audibility). To include this region of very feeble intensities Knudsen proposed a modification of the Weber-

Fechner law, namely, 6E/E=k+(1—k) app. and n varies somewhat

(E,/E)" where k=o0-10

with frequency,

being 1-65 for

200 cycles/sec. and 1-05 for 1,000 cycles/sec., nevertheless at the

same loudness level e.g., 10E., E/E is nearly independent of frequency. More recently R. R. Reisz (Phys. Rev., 31, May,

1928) has found that 6E/E lies between 0-05 and o-15 according

to frequency.

He found

also that 6Z/E is a minimum

at

2,500 p.p.s.—this minimum being more sharply defined at the smaller sound-intensities. This frequency corresponds to the region of greatest absolute sensitivity of the ear. Fig. 12 indicates the range of the average human ear with regard to both intensity and frequency. The upper curve gives the sound-pressures (root

mean square) which produce a sensation of feeling, and serves as a practical upper limit to the range of auditory sensation (Wegel, Bell System. Tech. Journ., 1, Nov. 1922) whilst the lower curve indicates the pressures at the threshold of audibility. It will be seen that the ear is most sensitive in the region of frequency 500 to 5,000 p.p.sec. The range of intensity (proportional to square of pressure) appreciated by the ear in this range is of the order 10%, The smallest detectable pressure-amplitude is of the

order 1073 dyne/cm.2, t.e., 10™° of atmospheric pressure, corres-

ponding to a displacement-amplitude of the order of 107% cm. Knudsen, Fletcher and Reisz independently conclude that near a frequency of 2,000 the ear can distinguish, under favourable

conditions, from 300 to 400 gradations of loudness between the threshold of audibility and the threshold of feeling (a painful intensity 10” times as great)—-each step being recognisable by the ear as just perceptibly louder than the one before it. w Audible Limits of Frequency.— za B= = The lower and upper limits of a>» © 6 frequency for tones audible to =a N un the human ear vary according N

Lil

ut

ud

A very of fre-

= a.

quency may be taken as 20 to

ct

to different observers. good average range

20,000

cycles/sec.

Very high

a =

2 DYNES/CM4 PRESS 32

128 512 2048 8192 32768 FREQUENCY

FIG. 12

and very low pitched sounds of great intensity are felt rather than heard. The ear loses its power to discriminate variations of pitch at very high frequency. The frequency range employed in music extends from about 40 to 4,000 cycles/sec. When two notes within the range 500 to 4,000 cycles/sec. are sounded alternately, the ear can detect a difference of frequency of about r in 300. When the two notes are sounded together the discrimination is greatly improved—a frequency difference of one in 20,000 being readily

discernible by “beats” (see p. 6). Kohlrausch demonstrated experimentally that the sensation of pitch may be excited even

29

a sound proceeding from the right or the left is readily determined with fair accuracy, but there is little difference observable between a sound approaching from behind or ahead. For high pitched sounds of short wave-length these directional effects might be explained by the difference of intensity of the sound reaching the two ears, since the head acts to some extent as a screen to the ear which is more remote from the source of sound. When the wave-length of the sound exceeds the perimeter of the head, however, the intensity difference must be very slight and we must look for another explanation of the directional effect. Rayleigh (Sound, Vol. IL., p. 440) who has examined this question carefully, arrived at the conclusion that the perception of direction is dependent on the relative phase of the sounds as they reach the two ears, a small difference of phase being sufficient to indicate the required direction. He found that if the same tone be led by different paths to the two ears, the sound could be made to appear to come from the right or the left at will, by adjusting the path-lengths and consequently the relative phase. The origin of the sound was always attributed to that side on which the phase is in advance (by less than half a period). No explanation of this effect has yet been given. Pressure of Sound-Waves.—Radiometers —Sound-waves, like light-waves, exert a slight pressure on any surface upon which they fall; and radiometers for measuring sound-intensity have been constructed on this principle. Rayleigh (Phil. Mag., 10, 1905) has determined this pressure on theoretical grounds, but a more simple treatment due to Larmor will suffice here. Planewaves are incident on a perfectly reflecting wall free to move, the wall being pushed with velocity v to meet the advancing sound-waves of velocity c and mean energy density E (see p. 28). The total energy density in front of the wall, if stationary, would be 2E due to the incident and reflected trains of waves. The length of the wave-train incident per second on the advancing wall is (c-++v) this being compressed during transmission into a length (¢c—v) due to the approach of the wall. The energy density in the reflected-wave is therefore increased in the ratio (E+6E)/E=(c+v)/(c—v) =1+20/c,

that is,

6E=E-20/c.

The increase in the total energy in the region of length c in front of the moving wall is consequently c-d#, and this must inevitably be due to the work done by the wall in compressing the radiation. If P is the radiation pressure, the work done by the wall per second is Pv, whence Pu=c-6H=E- 22, that is, P= 2K, the mean radiation pressure being equal to the energy density in the medium in front of the wall. If the wall is a perfect absorber there will be no reflected-wave and P=. Now the intensity of the sound is equal to the energy density Xthe wave-velocity c (see page 22). Provided therefore that the radiation pressure can be measured, and the reflection characteristics of the wall can be determined, we have here an absolute method of measuring sound-intensity. Radiometers for measuring the intensity of high frequency soundwaves under water have been constructed on the above principle by Langevin, Wills, Boyle and others. Boyle (Proc. Roy. Soc., Canada, 1925) constructed torsion pendulums for use with high frequency quartz oscillators under water. The pressure of the

“ultra sonic” radiation on the pendulum vane causes a deflection

which is reduced to zero by a torsion head. This gives a measure of the twisting moment and consequently the radiation pressure. Comparative measurements with such radiometers confirm the theoretical deduction that the radiation pressure is proportional to the energy density. All absolute measurements of radiation pressure must, of course, make allowance for diffraction at the edge of the reflecting vane. Using the radiometer method, Boyle measured the energy output of high frequency quartz oscillators

and the reflection and transmission coefficients of various materials under water. Torsion radiometers have similarly been used to

measure sound-intensity in air (Altberg, Ann. d. Phys., 11, 1903).

They are only of value, however, in cases where the sound-inwith so few as two vibrations. | | tensity is very great. Rayleigh Disc.—A device which is often used in sound-inPerception of Direction. Binaural Audition.—The direction of

30

SOUND

tensity measurements is due to Rayleigh (Sound, Vol. II., p. 44). A delicately suspended disc (a small mirror about 4-in. diameter) will tend to face a stream of air (or other medium) flowing past it, whether the flow be direct or alternating. The torque M on the disc tending to diminish 6, the angle which the normal of the disc makes with the stream, is given by M=%-po'*e* sin 20, “a” being the radius of the disc, p the density of the medium and M SUSPENDED Disc (MIRROR) Rı R2 TUNED RESONATORS

[RECEIVERS

energy is obtained, the main advantage of tuning being lost. The most efficient receiver lies between these extremes, 2.¢., the energy absorbed is equal to the energy re-radiated. In other words, in an efficient tuned receiver the damping due to the medium must be equal to the internal damping in the receiver. It is of course, equally important that the internal damping

must be useful damping, i.e., the absorbed energy must be used efficiently. Thus if the receiver is electro-magnetic (a telephone receiver) it is important that the ratio of motional impedance (measured electrically) to total electrical impedance should be as great as possible. A solid resonator such as a tuned metal

diaphragm in air is necessarily inefficient, for a large proportion of the incident energy is reflected or scattered from its surface as from a rigid obstacle. The energy re-radiated to the medium due to the vibration of the diaphragm is extremely small.

Mechanical Transformers.—It is sometimes desirable to convert an oscillation of large displacement and low pressure to one of small displacement and high pressure; a mechanical process analogous to the electrical transformation of a large FIG. 13 alternating current at low voltage to a small current at high Hahneman (Inst. Radio Eng. Proc., II., Feb. 1923) has voltage. v the velocity of the stream. If the stream be alternating instead this principle in the design of sound-transmitters and employed of steady, it is only necessary to employ the mean value of v. use under water. As a rule, in such apparatus, one for receivers gallight A 0=45°. when obtained is The marimum torque system is actuated in air whilst another, vibrating a of part vanometer mirror suspended on a fine quartz fibre provides a vibrates in contact with water. In transferring very sensitive arrangement, particularly when used inside coupled to it, from air to water a “step-up” pressure transa double resonator (see fig. 13) tuned to the frequency of the vibratory pressure and conversely. For this purpose Hahneman required, is former sound it is desired to measure. When accurately tuned to the lever of a novel type, the ordinary pivoted mechanical a employs instruthe R, resonator the of end sound falling upon the open useless at even moderate frequencies. being system link and lever ment can be used to compare the intensities of sounds of the to separate the same frequency. The sensitiveness is comparable with that of He also considers it desirable, as far as possible, system, like a weight on vibrating the of factors spring and mass the ear. The deflections, if small, are proportional to the square spring as in the prong of the particle velocity in the undisturbed field. It is important a spring, rather than a combined mass and as follows: Two masses is principle lever The fork. tuning a of that the diameter of the disc should be small compared with the by a spring of stiffness wave-length of the incident sound. As the double resonator and mand M are connected as in fig. 14a the system will disc system is very sharply tuned, a large number of instruments s. At resonance, neglecting energy radiated, a and A of amplitudes the gravity, of centre its about vibrate would be required to cover a moderate range of frequency and i.e., a/A = intensity. A disc mounted in the mouth of a single resonator of m and M being inversely proportional to the masses, gravity of of centre the at undisplaced be will spring The M/m. continuously variable tuning is more generally useful, but is less that Im/ly~=M/m= a

te od O

>

-=

=l

r

© 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 EREQUENCY (CYCLES PER SEC.)

FIG. 16

ments and is used extensively in analysis and recording of waveforms of sounds lying within the frequency ranges of speech and music. The microphone, shown in diagram fig. 16a, consists essentially of a tightly stretched thin steel diaphragm (-oor in. thick) separated from a parallel back-plate by an air gap of o-oo1 in. approximately. The diaphragm shown with its back-plate form

an electrical condenser, the capacity of which is varied when vibration takes place. When 200 volts are applied through a high resistance to the condenser, the vibration results in a

fluctuating electromotive.force.

cm.? is fairly constant over a frequency range 500 to 5,000 cycles/ sec. The microphone is very insensitive when compared with other, more familiar, types (granular and electro-magnetic) but its freedom from resonance over a wide range of frequency renders it most valuable for purposes of sound analysis. The lack of sensitiveness can easily be remedied by the use of a “distortionless” valve-amplifier (resistance-capacity coupled valves). Crandall (Bell. Syst. Tech. Jour., 4. 1925, p. 587) employed Wente’s condenser microphone in conjunction with such a valve amplifier to record speech sounds. A well designed amplifier will give practically constant amplification over the range of speech frequencies and will give an output proportional to input. The amplified e.m.f. is recorded by means of an oscillograph which must itself be non-resonant over the range of frequencies to be recorded. With certain limitations a high frequency Duddell strip well damped may serve the purpose, or alternatively an Einthoven oscillograph with a critically damped fibre of silvered quartz may be used. Perhaps the most perfect form of sound recording system is one proposed by Sir J. J. Thomson, namely a piezo-electric crystal receiver used in conjunction with a cathode ray oscillograph. Such a combination was used by Keys (Phil. Mag., Vol. 42, 1921) in recording the pressure-time curve of an explosion-wave under water. The piezo-electric receiver has a very high natural frequency and is consequently non-resonant over a very wide frequency-interval which includes the audible range. The cathode ray oscillograph (see A. B. Wood, Proc. Inst. Elect. Eng., Nov., 1925) is a perfect nonresonant recorder of electrical oscillations, having the same sen-

sitivity at all frequencies from zero to the highest “radio” frequency. The combination may therefore be regarded as distortionless. The sensitivity for sounds of moderate intensity is, however, very small and amplification is necessary. The faithfulness of reproduction is ultimately dependent on limitations of the amplifier.

Measurement of the Amplitude of a Vibrating Body.—

W. H. Bragg has described a very simple and ingenious method of measuring the amplitude of a vibrating surface (e.g., of a diaphragm). A small mass supported by a spring is brought into contact with the vibrating surface and the fixed end of the spring displaced through a distance A until there is no longer

“chattering” between the mass and the diaphragm. At the point

where chattering ceases, the maximum acceleration of the diaphragm is just equal to that of the mass attached to the spring. Thus if a and n and A and N represent the maximum amplitude and the frequency of the diaphragm and the spring

respectively, we must have an? =ANŅN? or a=AN?/n?.

Con-

sequently if NV is very small compared with n, A will be very large compared with a, in this way yielding a large ‘magnifica-

course to observe that the measuring device is sufficiently light so as not to interfere with the motion of the vibrating surface

x w a

J

of such a microphone with frequency is indicated in fig. 16 b.

It will be seen that the output in milli volts (1073 volt) per dyne/

tion” of the amplitude to be measured. As an example, if n=1,000 p.p.s. V=1 p.p.s. and A=1cm., then a=107§cm. The method permits of the measurement of very small amplitudes, the chattering being observed electrically. It is important of

D

DIAPHRAGM .O01 FROM BACK PLATE

33

The variation of sensitiveness

whose amplitude is required. Measurements of the amplitude of vibration of a diaphragm have also been made by making it

one of the reflecting surfaces of a Michelson interferometer

(Webster, Nat. Acad. Sct., 5, p. 179, 1919). The displacement of the interference fringes, photographed in vibration as a wavy line, gives a measure of the amplitude in terms of the wavelength of light. Such a diaphragm then forms a standard source of sound. Known amplitudes of vibration may also be obtained by applying measured alternating voltages to piezo-electric

crystals, provided resonance-frequencies (usually extremely high) are avoided. Rankine has described (Proc. Phys. Soc., Aug. 1919, and Feb. 1920) a method of recording sound vibrations by means of variations in the intensity of a beam of light, the resulting film, of varying transparency, forming a convenient means for reproducing the original sound, using selenium or

SOUND

34

other photoelectric cells. When a wave-form has been recorded by any of the methods indicated above, it may be analysed into a Fourier series (see p. 7) which gives the frequencies and relative amplitudes of the tones of which the sound is composed. TECHNICAL APPLICATIONS

The past ten or fifteen years mark a period of considerable progress in the technical application of the principles of sound. It is proposed in what follows to deal with the more outstanding of these applications apart from those already mentioned in the foregoing sections. The exigencies of war stimulated the development of apparatus for detecting, identifying, and locating sounds at long ranges. Numerous forms of directional sound-receivers, sound-ranging and sound-signalling devices were realised and applied to urgent problems on land and sea. Since the war, the growth of radio-telephony and “broadcasting” has resulted in improved methods of reproducing sounds of audible frequency.

The phenomena of piezo-electricity, discovered by Curie in 1880, have in the hands of Cady and others developed into a means of standardising mechanical and electrical frequencies over a range extending up to millions of vibrations per second. In this respect also improvements in tuning fork design have played an important part. A further application of piezo-electricity, initiated by Langevin and developed by Boyle, employs the supersonic oscillations of quartz in depth sounding at sea and in the echo detection of icebergs. At the other end of the frequency scale, Constantinesco has developed a system of

power transmission through water-filled pipes, employing generators, motors, transformers and transmission lines closely analogous to the corresponding electrical devices. Such alter-

nating mechanical systems are capable of dealing with large amounts of power in the form of low frequency pressure-waves. The elimination of objectionable resonance from gramophones and loud-speakers represents a marked degree of progress in the development of apparatus for reproducing speech and music. The study of the characteristics of speech and hearing, notably the work of the staff of the Bell Telephone Laboratory U.S.A.,

operated

[APPLICATIONS

electro-magnetically.

In

takes place in the reverse order, some

reproduction the process form

of horn,

cone

or

diaphragm being utilised to couple the vibrations of the soundbox or electrical ‘‘pick up” with the external body of air. The present practice in design is to regard the complex mechanical system, ¢.g., of a gramophone, as analogous to a corresponding electrical system. In this respect the analogy with electrical filter circuits, as stated by G. W. Stewart, has proved an extremely

fruitful one.

S. T. Wiliams and A. Whitaker have both ap-

plied this principle with considerable success in designing gramoBy suitably choosing the phone recorders and reproducers. inertia, stiffness and damping of the various elements of the sound-box and horn, a moderately good response-curve is obtained free from pronounced resonance within the speech-music range 1so-4;000 p.p.sec. Electrical methods of recording and reproducing have recently yielded even better results. The desirable features in gramophones and loud-speakers are dealt with in a number of papers by various authorities in Proc. The practical considInst. Electrical Engineers, Nov. 1923. erations are far too numerous to mention here but the essence of the problem of faithful reproduction lies in the avoidance of predominant resonances in the electrical and mechanical systems. This result may be achieved in some degree (a) by arranging that the natural frequencies of all elements of the system are far removed from any frequency it is desired to reproduce, (b) by the use of heavy damping, or (c) by making use of multiple resonance, 7.¢., arranging the various resonance peaks to overlap in such a way as to give a fairly uniform response. (See Rothwell, Nature, Feb. 24, 1923, and Porter, Phys. Soc., Feb. 1924.) Mention has already been made of the recording of sounds on a film by means of light of variable intensity (Rankine, loc. cit p. 33). When a beam of light, after passing through such a film moving at the recording rate, falls on a sensitive cell (selenium, thalofide or photoelectric) the original sounds may be reproduced in a telephone or loud-speaker connected in circuit with the cell

has greatly increased our knowledge of these subjects. The results have proved of great value in the improvement of tele-

phone apparatus, microphones, electro-magnetic receivers, transmission lines, etc., and in the design of all forms of apparatus for

recording or reproducing speech and music. In this connection also the introduction of the conception of acoustic impedance, as the analogue of electrical impedance, in dealing with complex acoustical systems has proved of great value. In a recent discourse before the Royal Aeronautical Society, Tucker has dealt

with the problem of noise-reduction in aircraft, the deafening roar in the cabins of civil aircraft being a serious hindrance to

commercial development. The general question of reduction of traffic noise is becoming increasingly insistent as an urgent prac-

tical problem still awaiting solution. Reproduction of Sound.—The telephone (q.v.), the gramo-

phone (g.v.) and the radio loud-speaker are among the most familiar types of reproducers of the sounds of speech and music. Any practicable device of this character for reproducing sound must necessarily have its limitations, for the faithful reproduction of even the simplest sounds is very difficult. As we have seen (p. 32), however, the ear is sufficiently accommodating to ignore fairly large defects in reproduction. Thus a ro% error in intensity, or possibly more than this, may pass unnoticed; the accuracy of intensity reproduction therefore need not be very great to conform with such a standard. Frequency reproduction, however, must be much more accurate to satisfy the ear, and it is indeed fortunate that the practical difficulties in this case are relatively small. Reproduction of sounds involves reception, and possibly transmission and amplification, as a preliminary. The process is well illustrated in the gramophone with either mechanical or electrical recording and reproduction. The recording system involves the direct mechanical action of sound-waves on a diaphragm, lever system, and engraving stylus, or alternatively on a system employing a microphone and a recorder

and a suitable amplifier. “Speaking films” have been produced

successfully on this principle, the speech record being made on the edge of the film simultaneously with the cinema pictures. (See SELENIUM CELL.) Numerous other optical methods have been employed, with more or less success, to modulate a beam of light as a means of sound-reproduction, ¢.g., use has been made of the Kerr electro-optical and the Faraday magneto-optical effects, and of the luminous electric discharge in rarefied gases. Musical Instruments.—To deal adequately with the technical application of sound to the design and construction of musical instruments would require a very lengthy article in itself. Occasional references to such applications will be found above (section on Sources of Sound), but for detailed information the reader is referred to treatises such as The Dictionary of Applied Physics or Millar’s Science of Musical Sounds. The Acoustics of Buildings.—This subject is discussed-in a separate article under that title.

Sound-Signalling—In the section on sources of sound, reference has been made to various types of siren and the

diaphone (p. 15) for producing powerful sounds in air, mainly

for use in fog-signalling from light-houses and light-ships. Under the sea, large bells are used for a similar purpose. A more powerful under-water signalling device, due to Fessenden, employs a large diaphragm forced into resonant vibration under water. The apparatus consists essentially of a transformer, the secondary of which is free to move in a strong radial magnetic field. The primary is supplied with alternating current, and the resulting periodic motion of the secondary (a copper cylinder) is communicated to the submerged steel diaphragm which gives rise to sound waves in the water. The Fessenden oscillator is illustrated on the Plate, figure 4. The same device operates, conversely, as a receiver of sound-waves, these being converted ‘into electrical oscillations by the vibration of the copper cylinder in the magnetic field, the induced currents in the primary coil being amplified and passed through telephones. Fessenden has used the apparatus to transmit signals through water to dis-

SOUND

APPLICATIONS]

tances exceeding 30 miles and has even used it to transmit speech for a distance of half a mile. The oscillator has also been applied to detect icebergs and to take continuous depth soundings by echo methods

(see below).

In another form of oscillator, which

is manufactured by the Signal Gesellschaft. Kiel, Hahneman has obtained powerful signals by means of a diaphragm excited in a different way. The diaphragm forms one member of a coupled system of two masses connected bya stiff spring (metal tubes). A powerful alternating current magnet causes periodic stretching of these tubes with corresponding vibrations of the diaphragm. A transmitter of this type weighing about 5 cwts. and having a diaphragm 18 inches diameter, gives a sound output of 300 to 400 watts, the mechanical efficiency being about 50%. Reference to supersonic directional transmitters of the Langevin type, and to directional receivers, has already been made (see pp. 31 and 32 respectively).

Echo Depth Sounding.—Since the war considerable progress has been made in the development of new systems of sounding at sea. These new methods all employ, most appropriately, sound-waves as a means of measuring depths. The saving of time and labour is enormous and such methods are steadily replacing the old lead and wire systems which have survived so long. A sounding in 4,000 fathoms can be made in about ro seconds by

the new “echo” methods, whereas many hours labour are involved to obtain a somewhat uncertain value by the old “wire” system. An additional advantage lies also in the fact that observations of depth can be made whilst the ship is in motion, up to speeds of 15 or 20 knots. The echo method involves the measurement of distance in terms of the time interval between the initiation of a sound impulse and the reception of an echo. This requires a knowledge of the velocity c of the sound waves in the medium, water or air; and depends on the fact that sound is reflected from the sea-bed in the same way that it is reflected in air from buildings and cliffs. The distance travelled by the

wave in the time ¢ is 2D, the depth D is therefore equal to c/2i.

Various systems have been devised in America, France, Germany, and Great Britain, differing in the manner of producing and receiving the sound impulse and in the measurement of the time interval. In the Behm system, a small detonator is fired under water thereby operating a microphone and relay and setting a graduated disc in motion; the arrival of the echo stops the disc

which is engraved in “depths.”

The angle through which the

disc has revolved is a measure of the time interval ¢ and consequently of the depth D. The system developed by the British Admiralty depends on the indirect measurement of the time interval. The transmitter consists essentially of a steel diaphragm which is struck a powerful blow by an electro-magnetic hammer, thereby emitting a heavily damped sound-wave of about 2,000

p.p.s.

The receiver is an ordinary “button” carbon granule

microphone mounted on a small diaphragm and enclosed in a watertight container. The transmitter and receiver are mounted

in water-filled tanks fitted inside the ship’s plates at points

screened by the hull. A small motor drives two commutator switches at constant speed. One of these commutators actuates the hammer three times per second whilst the other short circuits a pair of brushes across the listening telephones except at

one particular moment during which they can “listen.”

The

position of these brushes may be displaced by hand relative to the corresponding brushes in the transmitter circuit, so that a short time interval, proportional to the angular displacement of the brushes, separates the initial sound impulse and the moment

when the telephones listen. Nothing is heard therefore unless this moment coincides with the moment of arrival of the echo. The angular displacement of the brushes measures the time interval (360°=4 second). The dial attached to the rotatable telephone brushes is graduated in feet, or fathoms, and depths may be taken continuously whilst the ship is in motion. Two types of apparatus have been developed, (a) The shallow water set (described above), up to 150 fathoms, and (b) Oceanic depth apparatus, up to 4,000 fathoms or so. Both types are in regular service in numerous British and foreign commercial vessels and

35

in the survey ships of the British Navy.

Fessenden (U.S.A.)

has devised a depth sounding system similar to the above, using his “oscillator” for the purpose of generating the short sound impulses. He claims in addition to depth sounding, to have used the apparatus to detect icebergs at distances up to 24 miles, a somewhat remarkable and surprising result, in view of the dimensions of icebergs, the wave-length of thesound (xo ft. approx.) employed, and the poor reflecting properties of ice under water. Boyle and Reid, using a Langevin directional quartz oscillator at supersonic frequencies could not detect an iceberg beyond 200 yards. The echo from ice was found to be very feeble compared with that from a rocky shore. The supersonic method has also been employed by Langevin and by Boyle in depth sounding; a good echo from the bed of the sea being easily distinguishable at considerable depths. Sound-Ranging.—The location of hostile guns on land, and of submarine explosions at sea, constitutes one of the most important practical applications of sound during the war. Ordinary directional receiving devices such as those already considered are of little service when the sound consists of a sudden impulse or shock. The location of the explosion originating the impulse requires a special technique which is generally called soundranging. We shall deal first of all with the war-method or mulliple-point sound-ranging. In this method three or more receivers are mounted at known positions on surveyed base lines. The spherical explosion wave WF passes over, say, four receivers, 0, I, 2, 3, in succession, the times of passage being recorded at instants t fe ts respectively. The construction shown in fig. 17 indicates in a simple manner how the explosion £ is located. If we draw circles of radii ct cle and cfs with centres at 1, 2, 3, respectively, c being the appropriate velocity of sound, then a circle WF which passes through the receiver o and is tangential to the three small circles will have the point of the explosion E at its centre. The accurate mathematical method of determining E from the values f; f, and #g depends on the fact that this point lies at

the intersection of hyperbolae having the various receivers o, 1, 2, 3, as foci. Army Sound-Ranging.—Six microphones were generally used, spaced along a base about 9,000 yards long and 4,000 yards behind the front line, a central recording station, to which the microphone leads were brought, being situated 5,000 or6,000 yards from the front line. For hostile gun-ranging a special type of microphone, particularly sensitive to the low frequency disturb-

ance of the sound of discharge of the gun, was devised.

This

microphone, known as the resonant hot-wire microphone, invented by Tucker, has already been described (see p. 31). The hot-wire

grid was mounted in the opening of a large Helmholtz resonator of about 16 litres capacity; the system responding only to very low frequency gun-sounds, whilst ignoring shell-wave (onde de choc), detonation of shell, and noises such as speech, traffic, or rifle fire. The resonance set up by a gun-sound produced cooling of the grid with consequent variation of the electrical current flowing through it. This currentFIG. 17 change was photographically recorded at the central station by means of an Einthoven string galvanometer fitted with six strings, one for each microphone. The resulting record, which was automatically developed and fixed, showed the six gun “signatures” on lines running parallel tothe film. Across these lines, 7.¢., at right angles to the film, were a series of time marks every hundredth and tenth of a second,

providing a direct means of measuring the time intervals with an accuracy of o-oor

the Plate, fig. 6a).

second, if required

The record was

(see the illustration

on

started when a forward

observer, or a “sentry”? microphone, heard the gun, że., a few

36

SOUND—SOUNDING

seconds before the sound-wave reached the first receiver on the

base. The measured time intervals were corrected for temperature and wind, which have a considerable influence on the

been made to safeguard ships in fog, by application of radioacoustic methods (see Joly “Scientific Signalling and Safety at

Sea,” Phil. Mag. July 1918).

velocity of sound (see p. 5). Variation of these factors with height results in troublesome refraction corrections, and under certain conditions of wind gradient, sound-ranging became impossible. The sound-ranging method could, under certain conditions, be employed to locate both an enemy gun and the answering shell-burst, in which case the comparative records eliminate uncertainties arising from atmospheric conditions. Navy Sound-Ranging—The method employed at sea during the war was based on the same principles, but the receivers were essentially different. Under water, the sound of an explosion was received on a steel diaphragm on which was mounted a sensitive granular microphone. The diaphragm formed the cover of a watertight case mounted on a large tripod which rested on the

BrsriocRapHy.—Lord Rayleigh, Theory of Sound, 2 vols., and Collected Papers; H. Lamb, Dynamical Theory of Sound; H. von Helmholtz, On the Sensations of Tone (1885); John Tyndall, On Sound; E. H. Barton, Text-book on Sound; D. C. Millar, Science of Musical Sounds; W. H. Bragg, The World of Sound; W. C. Sabme, Collected Papers on Acoustics; Davis and Kaye, Acoustics of Buildings; I. B. Crandall, Vibrating Systems and Sound; Collective, Mechanical Properties of Fluids; A. B. Wood; Sound—a text-book; H. Bouasse, Acoustique; E. G. Richardson, Sound—a text-book; Geiger and Scheele, Handbuch der Physik, Bd. VIII. Akustik; Glazebrook, Dic-

accurately surveyed positions on a 12 mile base line. They were

Zealand and Sweden (Danish Oresund). Its extreme length from the promontory of Kullen to that of Falsterbo is 70 m. Its narrowest point is between Helsingör in Denmark and Helsingborg in Sweden, which are 3 m. apart. Its extreme width, 30 m., is where Kjöge Bay indents the coast of Zealand Three islands lie in it— Hven, belonging to Sweden, and Saltholm and Amager, belonging

tionary

of Applied Physics; F. Aigner, Unterwasserschalltecknik; Review, Monaco. Vols. 1, 2, 3. Recent Papers in Proceedings of Royal Society and Physical Society, Physical Review, Royal Society of Canada, Philosophical Magazine, Bell System Techn. (A. B. W.) Journal, Journal of the Franklin Institute, etc.

Hydrographical

SOUND, THE, the easternmost of the straits giving entrance

sea bed. Four or more of such “tripod hydrophones’’ were laid in to the Baltic Sea from the Cattegat, between the Danish island of connected by means of cables to a six-stringed Einthoven galvanometer in the recording station on shore, the subsequent procedure to obtain photographic records of an explosion being essentially the same as outlined above. Specimen records are illustrated on the Plate, figure 6b. During the war, explosions of mines, depth charges and torpedoes could be located with great accuracy at distances of 50 or 60 miles from the base line of hydrophones. Since the war the method has been applied to the accurate location of buoys and light-vessels, a small charge being fired under water in the vicinity of the point to be surveyed. For such purposes it was necessary to know the velocity of sound in sea water at different temperatures and salinities, with great accuracy (see p. 20).As an alternative to the Einthoven photographic recorder system of measuring time intervals, A. B. Wood and J. M. Ford (see Jour. Sct. Instr., Mar. 1924) have devised

a “Phonic Chronometer.” This consists essentially of an electro-

magnetically operated stop-watch with, three sets of dials for measuring three independent time intervals. The speed of the chronometer is governed by a tuning fork and phonic motor giving an accuracy of y in 10,000. Time intervals are indicated directly on the dials to o-coz second. Special diaphragm shock receivers were designed for use with the chronometer, which was started and stopped as the explosion-wave passed the various receivers, the time intervals being read directly on the dials. Radio-Acoustic Sound-Ranging.—This method which for ob-

vious reasons could not be used in war time, was first proposed by Joly, and has recently been developed by A. B. Wood and H. E. Browne for the British Admiralty (Proc. Phys. Soc., April 1923).

It consists in the simultaneous emission of a “‘wireless’’ signal and

to Denmark. The strait between Amager and Saltholm is called Drogden, and is used by large vessels passing through the Sound. The extreme depth of the Sound is about 14 fathoms. Navigation is open in winter, though three instances are recorded of the Sound being frozen over: in 1306, 1830 and 1836.

SOUNDING.

The determination of the depth of the sea

has been practised from very early times for purposes of navigation, but it is only since the introduction of submarine telegraphy that extensive efforts have been made to obtain a complete knowl-

edge of the contour of the ocean-bed (see OcEAN). For depths over 20 fathoms sounding machines are often employed and wire has entirely superseded hemp gear. Its smooth surface and minute section, reducing friction to a minimum, give a rate of descent of about roo fathoms per minute. Reeling in may be accomplished at nearly the same rate. Such soundings can be obtained in any weather short of a fresh gale. A sounding of 1,000 fathoms may be obtained in 25 minutes and 3,000 fathoms in 75 minutes. But beyond that depth, great caution is required,

the time occupied is increased,

and reeling in must be done

very deliberately. A sounding of 5,269 fathoms was obtained near

the island of Guam by the U.S. cable-surveying ship ‘‘Nero.” Soundings at such depths may occupy a period of time lasting

as long as five or six hours.

eS

Lucas Machine.—Among the sounding machines in general an explosion impulse. The former travels with the velocity of use the Lucas carries nearly 6,000 fathoms of 20-gauge wire, and light (186,000 miles/sec.) the latter with a velocity about 1 mile a is fitted with two brakes—one a screw brake for holding the reel second in water. If, therefore, one string of the Einthoven gal- when required, the other an automatic brake for stopping the vanometer on shore records the radio-signal whilst the others reel when the weights strike the bottom. A guider for winding record.the arrival of the explosion wave at the various hydro- the wire uniformly is also attached. After leaving the reel the phones, we have a very simple and direct means of locating the wire passes over a registering wheel, the dial of which indicates explosion. The distance of the explosion from the hydrophones the length of wire run out. Smaller machines are used m boats. Sounding Rods and Sinkers.—Under 1,000 fathoms a lead is given by ct ct, ci, etc., where c is the velocity of the sound in the sea and ġ f t are the time-intervals between the arrival of of 30 to 40 Ib. weight canbe recovered, and no detaching rod is the wireless signal and the explosion-wave at the respective necessary. For greater depths the “Baillie rod” is the best aphydrophones. Ag oz. charge of guncotton can be located in this paratus. It is a tube about 2 ft. long, having a rounded coniway at 40 miles, whilst larger charges have been located up to 80 cal top, through which passes a movable steel rod. The lower At 80 miles the sound-wave through the sea part of the tube screws on and off, and contains a double flap miles or more. arrives 14 minutes after the wireless signal which denotes the valve to retain the bottom specimen. The sinkers, each 25 lb. in instant of firing the charge: ' The method permits of very great weight, conical in form, and pierced with a cylindrical hole through accuracy and has important. applications in navigation and which the Baillie rod passes loosely, are slung by wire or cod line hydrographical survey. For navigational purposes great accuracy secured to a flat ring and passing over a projection on a movable is sacrificed to speed, it being possible to give a ship in fog 4o rod to which the sounding wire is attached. The weight of the miles away a position within a radius of half a mile in less than apparatus being taken by the sounding wire, the sinkers remain ro minutes of receiving her request for a location. In hydro- suspended; but on striking the bottom, the wire slackens, and the

weight of the sinkers drags the movable rod to fix accurately the positions of buoys and light-vessels out’ of tion bears against the curved surface at the sight of land. The method is accurate in rough or foggy weather wire sling is forced clear of the projection and at all seasons of the year. Various ingenious proposals have slipped. In descending, the valves opening

graphical survey work the method has been used successfully

down till the projectop of the rod. The and the sinkers are

upwards, allow the

SOUND

MOTION

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PHOTO

SPANISH 1. A wall and two of the many towers of the Alhambra, magnificent palace of ancient

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SERVICE

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cities of Spain as well as in other countries of Europe 5. Looking across the bay toward Gibraltar from the city of Algeciras. The big rock may be seen in the distance

113

SPAIN and extends southward and westward into a Cretaceous isthmus in the northern side of Miocene “Straits of Burgos.” An upfold brings it to the surface again in the island-like Sierra de Atapuerca on the south side of the “straits” toward the Montes de Oca. From the scarp of the Urbión the Cretaceous dips gently southward and Upper Cretaceous

limestones

form small, bare, fault-

bounded plateaux sharply contrasting with the pine-clad slopes of the lower Cretaceous and appearing at the surface not only on the margin of the zone but in the upfolds of small radius among

the Tertiaries of the Domo, at Burgo de Osma, Sovia and elsewhere. South of the Jalom river beyond the Paramess de Molina the border of the Meseta is formed principally of Jurassic limestones and marl commonly capped by horizontal limestones of the Cretaceous and forming a series of high plains rather than mountains

in which the muela, or molar-tooth, summit is typical. The different alineations, however, are known as the Serrania de Cuenca, Montes Universales, and Sierra de Albarracin. Tertiary.—Deposits of Tertiary age cover rather more than a third of Spain. On the Meseta the Tertiary formations were laid down in the basins of Old and New Castile and in the minor systems of Castello Branco (Beira Baixa), Badajoz, and others of the Tagus and Guadiana valleys. In the west arkose grits of Lutetian date from a broad, monotonous plain in the provinces of Zamora and Salamanca and the old Tertiary (Palaeogene) beds appear also in the east near Lerma and in the plateau of Sovia. Elsewhere the outer deposits of Palaeogene are insignificant. The continental Miocene, unconformable on the Palaeogene, consists of fine-grained materials laid down within the basins of the Palaeogene, and the Cretaceous to which it is unconformable had been tolded in the margins of the basins, by rivers (Tartonian), brackish ponds (Sarmatian) and in marshy ponds (Pontian). In spite of stratigraphic discontinuity the forms of the Miocene relief are constant and characteristic. The type form is the tableland (mesa), with its flat upper surface of the limestone cap (paramo), its slope of marl (cuesta), and its sands or clays of the lower slopes forming plains (elanuras, canapinas, campos). As the erosion advances the worn table-lands appear as truncated pyramids or form low mesas capped by the beds of harder marl. Finally great stretches of plain are formed on the level of the Tortonian on lower Sarmatian. Space will not permit a full description of the Tertiary formations elsewhere. The Eocene marine strata are developed in the basin of the Ebro and Miocene deposits occupy some small tracts especially on the coast of Valencia although most of the sandy Tertiary rocks of the latter district are Phocene. In the Baetic depression the marl of the Tertiary rocks of whatever level are of great importance, supplying the rich soil of the Cijarafe olive groves west of Seville and of the vineyards of Jerez. Quaternary deposits spread over about a tenth of the country. The largest tract of them is to be seen to the south of the Cantabrian mountains, although another but little smaller flanks the Sierra de Guadarrama and spreads out over the great plain from Madrid to Caceres. From the rivers Douro, Tagus, Guadalquivir and Ebro, E. H. Pacheco has described recently four fundamental terraces at heights of 30, 100, 200 and 330 ft., which are fairly constant within limits of 4-33 ft. from the higher terraces, and he has commented on the absence of terraces on the Spanish section of

the Guadiana river. The highest terrace is of late Pliocene date and to it are referred the famous rafas, extensive platforms of coarse detritus high on the northern front of the Montes de Toledo. The others seem to be related to the terminal moraines of the Pleistocene glaciation with which, in some cases at least, they are continuous. There moraines are found as low at 2,300 ft. on the Sierra de Estrella (one of the westernmost sierras of the central cordillera); and the topography of the Picos de Europa (of the

Cantabrian mountains), the Sierra de Guadarrama and the Sierra de Gredos (of the central cordilleras), the Sierra Nevada, and the Iberian ranges from the Demanda to Moncaya has been modified to some degree by glaciation. But the centres of glaciation in each of these cases were relatively small, and the action local.

Only in the Pyrenees are the glacial phenomena of real topographical importance. The terraces, on the other hand, are of first importance, making irrigation possible in areas otherwise arid. CLIMATE

AND

SOILS

Looking at Spain as a whole, for the year as a whole, we can distinguish, in respect of temperature, the very different climates of the equable Biscayan and north Atlantic coasts; of the interior, with extremes of temperature always, but with a winter which varies from the traditional nine months of the higher parts of Old Castile to the short two-months winter of the lowlands of Extremadura; of the Mediterranean coast with its very short winter and rather hot summer; and of the subtropical south and south-east, where winter, in the popular sense, hardly exists. More important is the distinction in respect of rainfall between Spain of the north-west and north (roughly as far south as the line Leén-Pamplona-Huesca), with a mean annual rainfall of 24 in. and over, fairly well distributed over the year, and the rest of the country, arid Spain, with rains insufficient in quantity, or badly distributed, or, more commonly, both. There is a general decline in the mean annual rainfall from north-west (Santiago, 66 in.) to south-east (Almeria, c. 10 in.), but this is interrupted by the minimal rainfall of the basin of Old Castile, where Salamanca and Zamora, like Zaragoza in the Ebro basin, lie within an isohyet of 12 in., and by the orographic rainfalls, which are sometimes remarkable; thus, in the Baetic calcareous zone, in spite of a rainless summer season, the annual rainfall may be of 80 in. on the outskirts of the Serrania de Ronda. The rains of arid Spain are spasmodic, Mediterranean rains falling in large drops for a few hours of a few days of the year. They are also irregular in amount from year to year; the rainfall records of 95 years for San Fernando, near Cadiz, for example, show a mean deviation, from the mean, of 26%. Longterm data are accordingly necessary for the construction of satisfactory maps of rainfall, while the number of long-term stations is limited (contrast France, 31-3 in.; Portugal, 31-6 in.). Irregularity of the seasonal rain-supply, and the entrenched courses of the rivers of the interior, prevent much use being made of their waters for the partial relief, by irrigation, of the prevailing aridity. Both of these difficulties are’ now being overcome for the rivers of the Ebro system by the provision of immense engineering works. (See ARacon.) On the lower courses of the rivers of the short eastern slope the relief is, by exception, highly favourable to the establishment of important irrigation systems. (See VALENCIA.) | Properly conserved, arid soils, although they are inevitably exposed to the sterility resulting from sequences of years of drought, have, nevertheless, certain advantages of chemical composition, due to the smaller degree to which plant foods are lost by leaching, which enable them to maintain a standard of productivity lower than that of more humid regions and requiring a greater output of labour, but more independent of artificial fertilization, especially if natural manure is supplied by pasturing. Dry-farming, the cultivo de secano, is the third and most widespread of the geographical institutions of arid Spain. Subsoils include the Andalusian “black-earths” and new soils, chestnut or red in colour. An extreme type is the calvero soils, for which the Castilian name seems likely to become internationalized. In the calveros, which arise commonly from past or present attempts to extend cultivation beyond its proper limits, the soil cap is discontinuous and the native rock conspicuous on the surface; tufts of permanent vegetation depend on, and protect, the small patches of soil; in the open spaces lichens are the chief covering, with occasionally transitory grasses. Saline soils occur locally, in the more arid parts of Old and, especially, of New Castile and of the Ebro basin, and elsewhere, but the extension of the saline area is greatly modified by human agency. In east Spain, in general, and in Andalusia, red soils, the “Mediterranean red earths,” are commoner than chestnut, and in the dry south-eastern corner tawny or grey soils are commoner

than red; the precise significance of the colour is not known.

SPAIN

II4

[POPULATION

FLORA

FAUNA

The Northern, humid area is dominated by mesophytic formations of the Central European and North Atlantic type, while the rest of Spain is characterized by xerophytic formations distinctly Mediterranean in type. Increasing aridity and proximity to the African continent are reflected in marked African features in the vegetation of the south-east. Further, owing to its extraordinary variety of climates, altitudes, exposures and soils, Spain is richer in botanic species than any other European district of the same size, and endemic species are particularly numerous. These are not only characteristic of the higher parts of the Pyrenees and of the Cantabrian and Central ranges, but they also occur in great numbers in the central plateaux of the interior. Of the 5,660 vascular species which have been identified, about one-third are Central European or Alpine in character, one-quarter are ‘endemic, one-fifth are Mediterranean and one-twelfth are African and Atlantic. At the present day less than 5% of Spain is under forest. Of this over one-third is pinewood. Deciduous forests are practically confined to the humid north, where Central European formations of oak, beech, chestnut, birch, ash and lime, with meadows and heath-moors, are dominant. In arid Spain the vegetation, eminently xerophytic, is mainly evergreen. Conifers, such as the Spanish pine (Pinus halepensis), the pinaster (P. pinaster), the Corsican pine (P. larico), the stone-pine (P. pinea) and the Pinsapo fir (Abies pinsapo) and junipers, typically Juniperus thurifera, are common, especially on the upper slopes of the main ranges, but by far the most typical trees of dry Spain are the two species of oak, Quercus ilex, the evergreen or holm-oak, and Quercus suber, the cork oak. Quercus ilex is the most widespread tree in Spain. Deciduous species are not entirely absent from arid Spain, but they are, however, very largely confined to the vegas, with their black poplar groves, and the higher, more humid valleys of the northern ranges bordering and crossing the central Mesetas. Here beech, birch and lime occur, but even many of these show drought-resisting features. Sweet chestnut woods are characteristic of siliceous mountain soils in the south. In central Spain, woodland formations are practically confined to the mountain slopes, and the predominating vegetation over the Mesetas is a scrub of evergreen bushes and large herbaceous plants of the Cistaceae and Labiatae families. Areas dominated by Cistus scrub are known to the Spaniards as jarales, and are particularly extensive over the Middle Tagus and Guadiana basins and on the slopes of the Sierra Morena, where the ladanum bush (Cistus ledaniferus) is particularly abundant. Areas, on the other hand, which are characterized by the aromatic Labiatae, such plants as thyme, lavender, sage and rosemary, are known as tomillares (from tomillo, thyme) and occur chiefly in the La Mancha (q.v.) region. Leguminosae, particularly Spanish broom (Spartium junceum) and furze are also common in the interior. In the past a far greater proportion of Spain was forested than is so at the present day. The pinewoods of the Iberic and Carpetanian ranges, the important cork oak-woods of the south and of

_ Cut off from Europe by the Pyrenees and in recent geological

Catalonia, and the many scattered stretches’ of evergreen oak are

clearly relics of far greater forests, which have been destroyed by ruthless clearing and exploitation by man. As a result, in many of the uncultivated stretches of arid Spain there now exist formations which can only be regarded as degenerate forms of vegetation, due to the destruction of the original forests. Large areas in Murcia, in parts of La Mancha and on the plateaux of Guadix and

Huescar in Granada, are covered with esparto grass (qg.v.). In the south-east of the peninsula the extreme aridity of much

of the area, combined with the high temperatures, has given rise to semi-desert conditions, with a distinctly African type of vegetation. The dwarf palm (Chamerops Humilis) grows in this n but is nowhere a very important feature of the vegetaion. The eastern districts, from Catalonia southward to Cape Nao, have a distinctly Mediterranean type of vegetation, evergreen shrubs, including many aromatics, of the class known French as maquis and described by the Spaniards as monteto the bajo to distinguish it from monte alto—the forest.

touch with Africa, Spain has European

with marked varieties.

African

Of mammals

fauna of special types,

affinities in the South

which come

under this head

and many

local

the most impor.

tant are the common genet (Genetta genetta), which extends into south-west France, and a species of ichneumon (Herpestes wid. dringtonii), which is restricted to the peninsula. Both the above constitute the only European representatives of the tropical Old

World family of Viverridae or civets. The Barbary ape (Macacys sylvanus), which inhabits the peninsula of Gibraltar and is the only species existing in a wild state in Europe, is generally believed to have been introduced from Africa at a very early date. Of the mammals peculiar to the peninsula, but showing greater affinities with the fauna of Northem and Central Europe, the

most typical are the Spanish lynx (Lynx pardellus), a purely Iberian species; the Andalusian wild cat (Felis sylvestris tartes. sia); the Spanish wolf (Canis lupus signatus), peculiar to central Spain; the Spanish fox (Vulpes vulpes silaceus); the Iberian weasel (Mustela iberica), the Spanish red deer (Cervus elaphus), the Iberian hare (Lepus granatensis), the large Guadarrama squir-

rel (Sciurus vulgaris infuscatus), several voles and various smaller forms, such as the Andalusian dormouse. The birds of Spain are very numerous, partly owing to the position. of the peninsula on the route of bird migration between North Europe and Africa, by way of the Strait of Gibraltar. Spain is visited by groups migrating south in winter and others moving north in spring. Thus the guillemot and gannet appear on the Cantabrian coast in winter, while the flamingo nests in the

Quadalquivir marshes in May.

A feature of Spanish ornithology is the large number and variety

of the birds of prey. These include the bearded vulture (Gypaétus

barbatus grandis), still common in the mountains of central and northern Spain, though dying out elsewhere, and two special forms, the Spanish eagle-owl (Bubo bubo hispanus), confined to the peninsula, and the Spanish Imperial eagle (4 quila heliaca adal-

bertt), which is also found in North Africa. Other peculiar sub- | species are the royal cuckoo (Cuculus canorus minor), and the Iberian green woodpecker (Picus viridis sharpei). The azurewinged magpie (Cyanopica cyanus cooki) is remarkable in that it represents a genus which only occurs elsewhere in Eastern Asia. . The red-legged partridge (Alectoris rufa) and two species of sandgrouse (Pterocles orientalis and P. alchata), though not peculiar to the peninsula, are common in the so-called steppe areas and, besides the flamingo (Phoentcopterus ruber), the southern shrike (Lanius excubitor), two quails, the Andalusian hemipode (Turnis sylvatica), and other water birds, are characteristic of the south. | Though a large number of reptiles occur in Spain, only the viper (Pelias berus), which is not abundant, is deadly toman. The great Coelopeltis monspessulanus, sometimes 5 ft. long, is the largest Spanish lizard, while Lacerta ocellata is a large species abundant in central and southern Spain. The common Iberian

land-tortoise (Testudo iberica) and the European pond-tortoise

(Emys orbicularis) are also typical. The chameleon (Chamoeleon vulgaris), a rare African form, is sometimes found in southern » Spain. The amphibians exhibit many autochthonous forms, notably Chioglossa lusitanica, a species of salamander, while the repulsive “gallipato” (Pleurodeles waltli), is abundant in tanks and pools. Insect life is remarkably rich, and many of the numerous species of beetles and butterflies are endemic. Trout abound in the. mountain streams and lakes, and barbel, carp and tench are other

common fresh-water fish.

POPULATION

The Iberian peninsula has such important remains of most of the phases of civilization, from the later Palaeolithic age onwards, | that the racial make-up of its population is, doubtless, highly com- | plex. It is said that, as in the Dordogne in France, and on the |

Welsh moorlands

and elsewhere, very long-headed

dark types -

which were characteristic of Western Europe in the Aurignacian period of the Palaeolithic, still occur among the people of the Basque Provinces and Tras-os-Montes. The peninsula, generally,

P Provinces

Area in ‘ sq. miles

| New Castile:

Madrid .

3,084

Guadalajara Toledo Cuenca... Citidad Real

Pop. in 1900

Pop. in | Density 1925 sqm. PN (esti@) |P.per i T

775,034 | 1,136,760 |

368-5

4,676 5,919 6,636 7,620

200,186 376,814 249,606 321,580 |

206,004 463,826 292,650 464,365

44°0 78:3 44°1 60-9

Burgos .

5,480

338,828

340,355

62-1

Santander Avila

2,108 3,042

276,003 | 200,457

343,295 213,666

162-8 70:2

Soria

3:983

150,462 | 154,534

38-7

278,561

283,897

97I

Old Casttle:

Logroño

1,946

Segovia.

2,635

Palencia

3,256

Valladolid Asturias: Oviedo .

2,922

189,376 | 193,529 159,243 | 171,481

192,473 | 193,403

99°4 65-0 50°4

4,205

627,069

7775395

184°8

Leon: Salamanca

4,829

320,765 |

328,368

68-0

Zamora .

4,097

275,545

267,464

65:2

814" 56:0

Leon Estremadura: Badajoz. Cáceres . Galicia:

Corunna

Lugo Orense . Pontevedra

.

.

Cadiz (with Ceuta

Seville.

Huelva . Valencia: Castellon Plana Valencia

5,936

386,083

417,380

8,451 7,667

520,246 362,164 |

688,359 429,719

3,051

Andalusia: Almeria. Granada Malaga . Cordova

Jan

.

463,386 | 404,311 457,202

473,514 416,142 555,195

I24'I 154°4 327°5

3,360 4,928 2,812 5,299

359,013 492,460 511,989 455,859 |

368,732 590,980 560,450 591,275

109°7 II9Q°9 199°3 II3°5

2,834

452,659 |

558,277

1969

260,880 |

360,r01

92:0

312,456 970,004

t2572 233°7

5,428

3,913

de la

474,490 | 624,044 |

19-9

555,256 | 729,752 | 134°4 :

310,828 806,556

5:737 4,453

237:877 | 397,858 577,987 | 658,826 |

53'6 1479

4,690 2,264,

274,590 | 299,287 |

320,563 336,529

68:3 148-6

Teruel . Navarre: Navarre Basque Provinces: Biscay (Vizcaya). Guipúzcoa

5,848 6,726 5,720

244,867 421,843 246,001

252,237 510,218 256,913

43°I 75°8 44:9

4,055

307,669 |

332,313

81-9

836 728

311,362 | 195,850 |

434,170 278,166

51Q%3 382°0

Balearic Islands Canary Islands

1,935 2,807

' 341,649 358,564 |

346,620 509,287

I7Ọ'I 181-4

}|18,618,086 |22,127,699

113°5

Alicante

a

653,550 | 721,103 | 2363

3,814 2,604 1,695

5,203

.

70°3

2,405 4,150

2,185

470,149 | 526,034 |

24I°5

Murcia:

Albacete Murcia . Catalonia: Lérida .

Gerona .

Barcelona Tarragona

Aragon: Huesca . Saragossa

Alava Total

.

II5

SPAIN

POPULATION]

2,968 | 1,054,542 | 1,403,057 | 473°0 2,505 337,964 | 355,423 | 1418

1,175

194,800

96,385

99,074

843

is inhabited by long-headed peoples without any of the large blocks of broad-heads which characterize, for example, France and Italy. The Basque language (g.v.) is a mysterious survival in the western Pyrenees (Navarre), and in regions to the west of these, which are thence called the Basque Provinces. The Catalan language, widely spoken in north-east Spain and French Roussillon, is allied to Balearic speech and Provencal, and differs in many ways from Castilian Spanish, though both are derived, in the main, from Latin. The Galician dialect is akin to Portuguese. It was usually the east, south, and west coasts of the peninsula that were mostly in contact with ancient Mediterranean civilizations,

and the contrast in culture, and in political relations between Galicia and the Asturias, on the one hand, and the rest of Spain has been marked in different ways at many different periods, but

the natural differences between “pluviose” and “arid” Spain have played their parts here. The great regions of Spain, ftalicized in the table in the preceding column, all have bases in physical features. It has often been said that Roman Spain had a large population, and estimates up to 40 or 50 millions have been ventured, but little is known save that Tarraco (Tarragona) was a very large place and that there were large garrisons. The first Spanish census was taken in 1594 and, if an estimate be added for parts not then included, a figure of 8,200,000 is reached. In 1787 the total was 10,268,150, in 1857 it was 15,464,340, in 1897 it had risen only to 18,132,475. Starting, therefore, with a relatively high figure in the 16th century, Spain fell behind other lands in the roth century, when these developed industry. The Spanish empire in the New World was a severe drain upon the manhood. It will be noted that there has been an increase in population in all the provinces since 1900. The towns with a population (estimated) over 100,000 in Dec. 1925 were:— Town

Madrid Barcelona Valencia Seville

Malaga

Pop. 1925

791,511 745,702

262,647 212,326 5572259

Town

Pop. 1925

Saragossa

I50,O51

Murcia . Bilbao . Granada

149,485 144,985 106,461

Madrid and Barcelona show the greatest increase in population. In 1877 Madrid had only 397,816 inhabitants; this had risen to 539,835 in 1900, and the subsequent quarter of a century has brought it to 791,511. Barcelona had 277,000 inhabitants in 1877; they had increased to 533,000 in 1900, and reached 745,711 in

1925. Religion.—Roman Catholicism is the established religion, and, with the exception of a small number of Protestants, Jews, etc., claims the adherence of the whole population. The relations between Church and State were defined by concordat in 1851, and this has remained in force, except for the admission of more religious orders than those mentioned in the document, until the present time, The Constitution requires the State to support the clergy, the church buildings, etc. There are nine metropolitan

sees and 51 suffragan sees. The archbishop of Toledo is primate, and the other archbishops reign at Burgos, Granada, Compostella, Saragossa, Seville, Tarragona, Valencia and Valladolid. Difficulties arose for the Roman Church during the Revolution from 1868 to 1877, especially in Catalonia and Andalusia, which were centres of Republicanism. But, with the Restoration and the great favour shown to the Church by the new monarchs, there came a marked revival in ecclesiastical and monastic life. The religious orders are very influential In education. There were 4,497 religious houses in 1924, 948 for men and 3,549 for women. Of those for the men, eight were technical schools, 215 were given over to preparation for the priesthood, 103 to charity and go to the simple meditative monastic life, while 532 were devoted to education. Charity, education (1,309 establishments) and meditation are the chief functions of the orders for women. The total number of monks would be (1924) about 12,000, and nuns 42,000. Spain possesses 66 cathedrals, 22 collegiate churches, 20,440 parishes and 15,107 chapels. Liberty of worship is allowed.

Constitution and Government.—Spain is an hereditary monarchy, the Constitution of which was voted by the Cortes

and became law in 1876. The sovereign is inviolable, but his ministers are responsible to the Cortes, and none of his decrees is valid unless countersigned by a minister. The legislative authority is exercised by the sovereign in conjunction with the Cortes, a body composed of two houses—a senate and a chamber of deputies. The Senate is composed of members of three classes: (1) Members by right of birth or office—princes; nobles (with a certain annual income) and holding the rank of grandee (grande) ; captains-general of the army; admirals of the navy; the patri-

116

SPAIN

[DEFENCE

arch of the Indies; archbishops; cardinals; the presidents of i. (Madrid, 1915), especially topographical introductions to monographs the Council of State and of the Supreme Court and other high by E. H.-Pacheco and J. Royo Gomez, El Mioceno continental ibérico officials, all of whom must have retained their appointments for y su fauna malacológica (30) ; E. H. del Villar, Archivo Geográfico de two years; (2) members nominated by the sovereign for life; and (3) members elected by the provinces, academies, universities, dioceses and State corporations. The members belonging to the first two classes must not exceed 180 in number, and there may

be the same number of members of the third class. The lower house of the Cortes has 417 deputies, who cannot take State office pensions or salaries; but the ministers and State officials of a salary higher than 15,000 pesetas are exempted from this law. Both Congress (Chamber of Deputies) and Senate are supposed to meet every year. The executive is vested under the monarch in a council of ministers. The ministerial departments are Foreign Affairs, Justice and Worship, War, Marine, Finance, Interior, Public Instruction, Public Works and Labour. In 1923 a decree appoinied Gen. Primo de Rivera chief of the Government and president of a military directory. This was superseded by a civil Government in 1925 under Gen. de Rivera. composed of members of the new political party Union Patriotica, All the former ministerial departments have been set up again, but really everything continues much as before. Martial law was proclaimed from Sept. 1926 to Jan. 1927, and thereafter a general assemb:y was called. Local Government.—Since 1918 every commune has its own Ayuntamiento, consisting of from five to so Regidores or Concejales. The Ayuntamientos have charge of the entire local government. Half the members are elected every second year, and the body appoints its own executive. Each Spanish province has its Diputacion Provincial, elected by the constituencies. This assembly meets annually and is permanently represented by the Comision Provincial, appointed annually. The State executive and the Cortes have little power to interfere with local government. The Basque Provinces have lost a former large measure of selfgovernment, but though they are governed like the rest of Spain, certain fueros, or exemptions, are given them, a new statute of exemptions coming into force in 1925. All mayors and municipal councils in Spain were dismissed by decree in 1923 and replaced by members of the Associated Council of Householders. In 1924 a royal decree made possible a law establishing the Estatuto Municipal, governing the future municipal organization and administration. More freedom is granted to the Ayuntamiento, especially in drawing up its own organization. Women have been given the suffrage, and the voting age for males and females has been reduced to 23 years, and special representation was given to

guilds and other corporations.

Spanish law is founded on Roman law, Gothic common law, and the national code proclaimed at the meeting of the Cortes at Toro in 1501 (the Leyes de Toro). The present civil code was put into force on May 1, 1889, for the whole kingdom. The penal code dates from 1870 and was modified in 1877. The commercial code was put into force on Aug. 22, 1885, the code of civil procedure on April 1, 1881, and the code of criminal procedure on June 22, 1882. In addition to courts held by justices of the peace, there are 522 courts of first instance (in the Partidos judiciales), above these come 50 provincial high courts, with appeal to the 15 divisional high courts, while there is a supreme high court at Madrid. Justices of the peace deal only with petty offences and small civil cases. A court of minors has been established.

BrariocrarHy.—Physical Geography and Geology: (Real) Sociedad Espanola de Historia Natural, Memorias, Actas, Anales, Boletin (Madrid, 1872); Instituto geológico de España (formerly Comisión del Mapa Geológico de España) Boletin, i. (Madrid, 1874) Index in vol. xl.) and Memorias, especially L. Mallada, Explicaci (latest Mapa Geológico de España, 7 vols. (1895-1911); Th. Fischer,ón del Die Iberische Halbinsel, Landerkunde von Europa (Leipzig, 1803); R. Douvillé, La Péninsule Ibérique. Espagne (Handbuch der Regional Geologie, Heidelberg, rg1z, bibl.); Trabajos del Museo Nacional en de Ciencias Naturales, Serie Geológica (Madrid, x912); especially E. Hernández-Pacheco, Ensayo de Sintesis Geológica del Norte de la Peninsula Ibérica (3) and Los Cinco Rios principales de España y sus terrazas (35); J. Dantin Cereceda, Resumen fistografi Peninsula I bérica (4); H. Obermaiér, J. Carandell, J. co de la Llarena, studies of the glaciation of various areas (9, I4, I7,Gómez de 19, 22); Comisión de Investigaciones Paleontológicas y Prehistóricas, Memorias,

la Peninsula Ibérica (Barcelona, 1916); Real Academia de Ciencias Exactas, Físicas y Naturales; E. H.-Pacheco, Discurso leido . . . acto . - recepción (Madrid, 1922), the most recent résumé of Peninsular tectonics; España (Madrid, 1925), articles by various authors, specially for stratigraphıcal tables; Comptes Rendus du XIVe Congrès Géologique (Madr.d, 1926), especially M. Gignoux et P. Fallot, Contributions à la connaissance des Terrains Néogènes et Quaternaires

Marins sur les Côtes Méditerranéennes d'Espagne, vol. ii.; J. Royo Gómez, Tectónica del Terciario Continental Ibérica, vol. ii. The livret-guides to the excursions are most valuable. R. Staub, Gedanken zur Tektonik Spaniens (Vierteljahrsschr d. Naturi. Gesellsch. in Zürich,

Ixxi., 1926). Report of the Commission on Pliocene and Pleistocene

Terraces, International Geographical

Congress

(Cambridge, 1928):

E. H.-Pacheco, Report on marine and river terraces of Spain. Maps: Spain: Instituto Geográfico y Catastral, Mapa topográfico nacional, 1:50,000 (contoured; about 30% of sheets published) ; Mapa General de Espafia, 1:500,000 (contoured; all sheets published); Deposito de la Guerra, Mapa militar itinerario de Espana, I:200,000 (nearly complete) ; Instituto geclógico de España, Mapa geológico de España, 1.400,000 (complete); 1:1,500,000 (in one sheet); Catalonia: Servei geogràfic de Catalunya: topographical map, 1:100,000 (contoured, six sheets published) ; Servei geològic de Catalunya: geological map, I1.100,000 (four sheets published, each with explanatory mond graph). Portugal: Direccão geral dos Trabalhos Geodesicos e Topographicos: topographical maps, 1:50,000 (about 30% of sheets published); 1:200,000 (in progress). Commissão do Serviço Geologico; Carta Hypsometrica, 1:500,000 (2 sheets), published also in geological edition. i Climate: The Instituto geográfico y catastral publishes for the Oficina (formerly Instituto and later Observatorio) Central Meteorológica, an annual Resumen of meteorological observations, wıth Memorias (formerly Anuarios, vide in particular apéndices to the resúmenes

stations.

of 1909-12,

G. Hellmann,

which

discuss

means

(35 years)

Die Regenverhdltnisse

, `

`

` |

for certain

der Iber. Halbinsel

—

(Zeitsch. d. Ges. f. Erdk. zu. Berlin, xxiii., 1888); A. Angot, Régime. `

des pluies de la Péninsule Ibérique (Ann. Bur. Centr. Météorol. de

France, 1893, vol. i.); W. R. Eckhardt, Uber die Ursachen d. jahreszeit, Regenfalle i. d. westl. Mittelmeerlindern (Ann. d. Hydrogr. u. Mar, | Meteor., April, 1916) ; M. Gonzalez Quijano, La Lluvia en la Pen. Ibér, dur. el, quing. de 1916-20 (Revista de Obras Publ 2,428, 1925) Soils: J. Dantin Cereceda, Dry-farming Ibérico (Guadalajara, 1916); E. H. del Villar, España en el Mapa Internacional de Suelos

(Ministerio d. fomento, Madrid, 1927). Transhumance: J. Klein, The Mesta (Cambridge, Map; 1916). Irrigation: C. R. Markham, Report on the Irrigation of East Spain (1867) ; J. Brunhes, L’Irrigation (Paris, 1902) and the report by the Junta consultiva agronómica (r918). Flora: Willkomm, Grundziige der Pflanzen-verbreitung auf der Iberischen Halbinsel (Leipzig, 1896) ; E. Reyes Présper, Las estepas de Espana y su vegetación (Madrid, 1915) ; E. H. del Villar, Avance geo-

botánico sobre la pretendida estepa central de Espana, “Iberica,” xxii. (Tortosa, 1925).

Fauna: M. Lecumberri, Distribución geográfica de los vertedrados de la fauna ibérica (Madrid, 1912) ; A. Cabrera Latorre, Fauna ibérica, Mamiferos (Museo de Ciencias Naturales, Madrid, 1914). See also Economic section. General: E. H. del Villar, Archivo geográfico (see above) and Æl valor geográfico de España (Madrid, 1921); Nueva Geografia Uni-

versal, vol. iii.; J. Dantin Cereceda, Peninsula Ibérica (Madrid, 1929);

España (Madrid, 1925). ‘Towns and cities: O. Juergens, Spanische Stadte (Hamburg, 1926). The Spanish Series, edit. by A. F. Calvert, contains many excellent architectural illustrations. Maps: The best for general use are in Stieler’s Hand Atlas (Gotha, 1928) and Schrader's

Atlas Universel de Géographie

(Paris, 1923).

DEFENCE

Historical—The feudal sovereignties of mediaeval Spain differed but little, in their military organization, from other feudal states (see Army). Mercenaries were the only forces on which reliance was placed for foreign wars. These troops called almugdvares (Arabic=scouts) won a great reputation on Italian and Greek battlefields of the 13th century, and with many transformations in name and character appeared from time to time up to the Peninsular War. Castile, however, had a military system very different from the rest. The forces of the kingdom were composed of local contingents similar to the English fyrd, professional sol- ' diers who were paid followers of the great lords, and the heavy . cavalry of the military orders. The groups of cities called Hermandades, while they existed, also had permanent forces in their pay. At the union of Castile and Aragon the Castilian methods received a more general application. The new Hermandad was partly a light cavalry, partly a police, and was organized in the

ECONOMIC

CONDITIONS]

SPAIN

ratio of one soldier to every hundred families. In the conquest of Grenada (1482-92) mesnadas or contingents were furnished by the crown, the nobles and the cities, and permanently kept in the field. The Hermandad served throughout the war as a matter of course. From the veterans of this war was drawn the army which in the Italian wars won its reputation as the first army in Europe. With the Italian wars of the early 16th century came the development of the regular army (see Army). Discipline, the feeling

117

and the Canary Islands (headquarters Santa Cruz, Teneriffe), each under a captain-general, form separate commands. The training centres for officers include a staff college, central musketry school, riding school, army medical academy and schools for infantry, cavalry, artillery, engineers and administrative (sup-

ply and transport) officers. There is also a central physical training school. Non-commissioned officers of 3 years service are given special facilities for obtaining commissions through the military of comradeship and soldierly honour were the qualities which academies. Points for special notice are the embodiment of heavy marked out the Spanish army as the model for others to follow, tank units in the artillery, in Morocco (Ceuta and Melilla areas), and for more than a century the Spanish army maintained its the light tank units with the infantry (Larache and Melilla areas) prestige as the first in Europe. The oldest regiments of the pres- and the employment of motor transport in Africa, specially in ent Spanish army claiming descent from the tercios date from the engineer, transport and medical services, and for wireless 1535. An officer whose regiment was reduced commonly took a telegraphy. Reliance is placed upon fortifications, mostly of old pike in some other corps (¢.g., Tilly), the señor soldado was type, for defence of the principal harbours and naval bases. Army Air Forces——The army air forces include an indecounted as a gentleman, and his wife and family received state allowances. Nor was this army open only to Spaniards. Walloons, pendent flying branch and a branch attached to army units. A Italians, Burgundians and other nationalities ruled over by the squadron contains 3 groups, each of 2 flights of 3 sections of 3 Habsburgs all contributed their quotas. But the career of the old machines in flying condition. The total force includes 3 fighter army came to an end at Rocroi (1643), and after this the forces groups (6 flights), 9 reconnaissance groups (18 flights) and 2 seabegan more and more to conform to the French model. plane groups (4 flights). The army air force is distributed in the There were never less than three Irish regiments in the army. peninsula in a training squadron, Madrid, Seville and Leon squadIn 1808 the Jrlanda, Ultonia (=Ulster) and Hibernia regiments ron and Granada group, and sea-plane group. The above-menhad come to consist largely of native soldiers. At that time the tioned air force in Morocco is included in the total specified. In total forces numbered 137,000 men, but the part played by the addition to the aeroplane and sea-plane units, there is a balloon Spanish standing army in the Peninsular War was certainly insig- branch with headquarters, regiment and balloon battalion. nificant relatively to these figures. But the result of this war and See also the League of Nations Armaments Year-Book (Gethe continued civil wars of the 19th century was the destruction of neva, 1928). (G.G. A.) the old army, and the present army of Spain still bears traces of Navy.—The Spanish navy is small, but contains representative the confusion out of which it arose. In 1870, when conscription types of ships to be found in the fleets of greater sea powers. was introduced, and in 1872, universal service was proposed in These include:—2 “Dreadnought” battleships, the “Alfonso ` its place. (X.) Trece” and the “Jamie Primero,” armed with 8 12” guns; 1 AirRecruitment and Service.—Recruiting i is on a national basis craft carrier of 10,800 tons, attached to the Flying School for and military service, to which liability is universal, must be per- training purposes; rz Cruisers and light cruisers, the most modern formed in person, with certain postponements for family, residen- of which are the ‘Principe Alfonso,” the “Almirante Cervera” tial or educational reasons. Reduction of the period of service and the “Miguel de Cervantes” of 7,850 tons, armed with eight with the colours to nine months is permitted for those who can 6” and four 4” guns and having a speed of 33 knots; 29 de afford to pay for the privilege. The compulsory system is supple- stroyers and torpedo boats; 12 submarines; 13 miscellaneous mented by volunteering between the ages of 18 and 21, the age at craft. which compulsion is applied. Military service is for 18 years. Three cruisers of about 10,000 tons are to be built to replace Recruits spend two years with the colours. Of about 47,800 re- the old ships. The seagoing fleet was reorganised early in 1928 and cruits in 1927, about 38,700 were posted to the combatant arms, placed under the command of a Vice Admiral. Personnel for the including 830 to the air force. ships’ companies is recruited by conscription. Strength and Organization.—The budget effective strength A Council of National Defence which includes a Minister of of the army in 1927 numbered 113,434, including 13,434 officers. Marine and a newly-constituted General Directorate of OperaThe organization in the peninsula is in 16 mixed divisions, and the tions with a staff of naval officers under a vice admiral is responsiBalearic and Canary Islands each have an infantry brigade with ble for the general direction of naval and military policy. See garrison troops of the other arms in addition. The largest cavalry Brassey’s Naval and Shipping Annual; F. Jane, Jane’s Fighting formation is the brigade, of which there are five in the mixed Skips (annual) and H. W. Wilson, Battleships in Action (2 vols., divisions, which vary in their composition. 1926). (E. A.) Forces in Africa.—Recruits in the peninsula and islands for ECONOMIC AND INDUSTRIAL CONDITIONS service in Africa (Morocco) number about 11,500 annually. The budget effectives of the army in Africa in 1927 numbered about Economic Policy.—The most significant feature in the eco88,300, Including about 3,100 officers. There is a High Commis- nomic life of Spain is the marked movement towards nationalizasioner in chief command of the army in Morocco, with generals tion. The beginning dates back to 1907, when a tentative step in command of the troops in Ceuta, Melilla, Larache and Tetuan. was taken towards the protection of national industries. A Auxiliary forces include civil guards, carabiniers, etc., in the stronger and more purely Spanish colour was shown in the Law towns of the Morocco Protectorate. The military air force in on taxation of profits, which gave the first legal definition of a Morocco contains workshops, 3 groups of reconnaissance flights at. Spanish company. This Law (of April 25, rg1z) ruled that Tetuan, Melilla and Larache, and a hydroplane base with two companies registered and domiciled in Spain were to be considsea-plane flights at Melilla. ered as foreign companies when: (a) a sufficient number of the Higher Command.—The king is the supreme head of the directors to form a quorum, and take decisions by themselves, army. He also presides over the council of national defence. The were not Spanish; (b) when the legal managers of the business central administrative office of the army contains (a) a ministry depend upon a foreign corporation or firm, either as employees of war with the usual departments and a special war archives or by contract and agreement; (c) when either from the name office, (b) the general staff, responsible for training and prepara- of the company or its advertisements or business negotiations tion for war, (c) a supreme naval and military board, and (d) a it may be recognized that it acts under the instructions of a forcentral board (junta) to mobilize civil industries. Under captains- eign corporation; (d) when the Spanish Administration receives general or other senior army officers there are 7 military com- authentic information that sufficient of the shares are in the hands mands in the peninsula (x) Madrid (2) Seville (3) Valencia (4) of a foreign corporation to enable this latter to impose its will Barcelona (5) Saragossa (6) Burgos and (7) Corunna. The gar- upon general meetings of the shareholders and in the management risons of the Balearic Islands (headquarters Palma de Mallorca) of the company.

[ECONOMIC CONDITIONS

SPAIN

118

In 1917 another law for the protection of national industries

while after that date, and provided there is no extension to the

The movement towards high tariff pro-

is provided under the Extraordinary Budget. It is certainly the hope of the Spanish Government that these

was passed. In rọrọ a revision of the Customs Tariff was ordered, and this began in 1920.

tection had commenced. In 1922 a new tariff was promulgated, which afforded very high protection indeed to Spanish industry. A further move was made in 1924 by the Railroad Statute of July 13, which in some of its measures seems to be specifically directed against foreign comas panies. Statute,

Under this Railroad transport rates are to

railroad fund, an expenditure of about 350,000,000 pesetas yearly

large sums will be provided by the Spanish money market on a

low interest basis, and this expectation seems on the way to being realized. The successful issue of some thousands of millions of 3% tax-free bonds, at the price of 80 per hundred, made at the

conversion of the Perpetual 4% Internal Loan in April, 1928 seems to show that the Spanish Government can secure money

receive the assent of the Superior

in Madrid for 4% and, so long as this is the case, it seems likely

Railway Council so that, in effect, the railroads now work under close Government supervision. The march towards a more complete form of economic nationalization received a great 1m-

improvement. Progress was helped by the political situation of the country, which evidenced a reaffirmation of assent to the

that the borrowing programme will be continued in order to provide for large expenditures on public works.

Conditions in Spain during the last few years have shown an

present Government.

petus by the formation of the Primo de Rivera Government in Sept. 1923. This Government forged the nationalistic conceptions of the moment into a weapon for the nationalizing of industry in Spain. They received the BY COURTESY OF GEERLINGS willing aid of the industrial prov- A CHESTNUT VENDOR OF RONDA, inces, i.e., Catalonia

and Vizcaya,

AND

A SPANISH

GYPSY

OF

GRANADA

for Spanish economic nationalization is really a child of Catalonia and Vizcaya. Thus the present Government of Spain, by taking the lead in the nationalisation of industry and its protection by means of subsidies and high customs tariffs, has really applied a

unifying force to the provinces to which more especially were attributed Separatist tendencies. The Tariff Revision of 1928 is dictated by the same trend. To clear the way for a more complete revision the Spanish-British Commercial Treaty of 1922 was first amended, and by agreement between the two countries many consolidated customs schedules were abrogated,

The declared policy of the Government is to revise all existing commercial treaties which contain fixed or consolidated tariff rates, with the intention of replacing these rates by mutual mostfavoured-nation clauses.

It is undoubted that the general policy formulated above has recelved the wholehearted support of the manufacturing and banking classes of the community. One instance where this satisfaction with the existing state of affairs is perhaps best evidenced

is to be found in the prices of Government securities during the year 1927, the funds in general rising during the course of the year

from 1 to 3 points, Under a Decree of July 9, 1926, an Extraordinary Budget was instituted for public works, over a period of just over ten years, terminating at the end of 1936. The amount of money provided in this Extraordinary Budget was 3,538,000,000 of pesetas. Of

this total 878,000,000 were to be devoted to naval constructional work, 632,000,000 to the Army, including aviation, while no less

a sum than 1,600,000,000 pesetas was to be spent by the Ministry

in Spain’s progress since the war.

The ordinary budget estimates for 1927 were as follows: Million pesetas Total expenditure . Less revenue . Estimated deficit

of approximately 500,000,000 pesetas a year must be added for

expenditure on railroads, and about 350,000,000 for expenditures on public works construction. Thus, during the first years, an extraordinary expenditure of 850,000,000 must be reckoned with,

66

.

might reach 200,000,000, The reality has proved to be much better than was expected, for, according to a provisional statement issued on April 8, 1928, the results were as follows: Million pesetas Total revenue.

.

.

.

i

i

Total expenditure on the ordinary budget

:

3,218 3,242

24 312+5

Deficit . ee a a Extraordinary expenditure . Total deficit for the year 1927

336:5

The reason for the excess of actual revenue over the estimates is to be found in the increases in taxation yield. The elasticity of thé revenue from taxation is shown in the following table giving

to the nearest million of pesetas the collections in 1925-26, the estimates for 1927, and the provisional returns of collections in 1927:

of Public Works on port and hydraulic works, roads and re-affor-

means that, if an average be cut across the two funds during the next five years after the institution of the Railway Fund, the sum

32139 3:073

The Minister of Finance, when publishing these estimates, admitted the possibility that the deficit on the ordinary budget

estation. The sum of 200,000,000 pesetas for expenditure on schools and other buildings was allotted to the Ministry of

Education. It must, therefore, be borne in mind in considering the public finances of Spain that, concurrently with the Ordinary Budget, there is going on an expenditure, over ten years, of 3,538,000,000 of pesetas on a public works constructional programme, while, in addition, there is in existence a five-year programme for the expenditure of sums up to 2,600,000,000 pesetas on railroads. This

The country has had the advantage of

good crops in general, and the policy of industrial nationalisation has been carried a step further without any manifestation of ill effects. In 1927 the olive crop may perhaps be signalled as the best, and the wine output was very satisfactory, Finance.—The conservatism of the Government in the matter of finances, in so far as regards the ordinary budget, coupled with the elasticity of the revenues, brought about a tremendous reduction in the deficit for the year 1927. The deficit was the very small one of approximately 24,000,000 pesetas, but it is the nearest approach to a balanced budget shown by Spain since the year 1909, and for that reason may be looked upon as a turning point

Profits tax Industrial tax .

Royal dues Land tax . Sugar

Stamp tax

Actual revenue 1927

Collected in 1925-26

Estimates

358

357 ISI 176

394

313

336

157 146 285 Q2

251

1927

177 202

go

IOI

300

313

The total revenue of 3,218,000,000 pesetas compares favourably with that of 2,964,000,000 pesetas for the completed year 1925~26. The expenditure of 3,242,000,000 pesetas is an excess of less than 3% over the estimates. This has been brought about partly by the decline in expenditure in Morocco, where only 74,000,000

pesetas were spent, in comparison with 176,500,000 pesetas in 1925-26.

ECONOMIC

SPAIN

CONDITIONS]

The deficit for 1927 may be looked upon as a definite turn for

the better in comparison with previous deficits, which were:— Million pesetas 1922-23 1923-24 1924-25 1925-26

. . . .

920

576 570

House Committee sees cause for regret in this fact, and appeals for concerted propaganda to convince commercial firms of the advantages of cheque payments. Prices.—The general course of wholesale prices in 1927 was downwards, in agreement with the increase in the value of the peseta, as is shown in the following index numbers for foodstuffs and raw materials, compiled on a basis of roo for the year 1913:

608

Budget Estimates for 1928.—The expenditure was estimated at 3,257 million pesetas, made up of :— Million pesetas Permanent services A

Temporary services

a

a

Liabilities and accounts

x?

;

e

&

y

:

;

3:035

216 6

31257

Revenue is estimated at 3,258,000,000 pesetas, which leaves an estimated surplus on the ordinary budget of 1,000,000 pesetas. This is an increase of only 40,000,000 pesetas over the revenues actually collected in 1927, so it seems probable that the 1928 estimates are on the conservative side. The expenditure of 3,258,000,000 pesetas is an increase of 16,000,000 over the amount spent during 1927 under ordinary budget headings.

Public Debt.—The following table gives the different categories of the Spanish National Debt after the recent conversion of 4% Perpetual Internal Debt: In Millions of Pesetas, Nominal In circula-

Internal 4% External 4% Redeemable Redeemable Redeemable Redeemable Redeemable Redeemable Redeemable Redeemable Redeemable

IIQ

4%, 5%, 5%, 5%, 5%, 5%,

.

. 1908 19x17 . . r920 . . 1926, tax-free 1927, tax-free 1927, subject to tax

1927 1926 I1925

s .

. :

I72 II I88

1924 3920. 1913

E

` ‘

;

183 -< 22I I00

Spain’s Foreign Trade.—Statistics published by the Council of National Economy show that the total volume of Spain’s foreign trade during 1927 reached 4,481,000,000 pesetas, of which 2,586,000,000 are represented by imports and 1,895 millions by exports. The following table shows the relation to the trade of 1926 and 1925:— Totals to Nearest Million of Pesetas

Imports Exports Total Inc. or Decr. in total trade Adverse trade balance

The imports of manufactured articles show by value and volume continuous Increases over the three years, and an important increase is to be recorded in coal shipments to Spain, the bulk of the latter being of British origin. Of the 6,247 tons of ferromanganese imported, Great Britain shipped 3,874 tons, followed by Norway with 2,244 tons. Scrap iron and steel entered Spain to the extent of over 100,000 tons, which compares with 57,000 and 94,000 tons in 1926 and 1925 respectively, Great Britain retaining the lead. Imports of fine

carbon steels show a progressive Increase since 1925, the 1927 figures being 1,721 tons, of which British firms supplied 610 tons. 1,267 Seven thousand three hundred tons of tinplates, or double the 225 amount of 1926, were absorbed by the Spanish market; the United 3:547 2,071 Kingdom, as usual, shipped the bulk, viz.: 6,837 tons. 43%, 1928, tax-free 500 In the machine tool section Germany is again at the head of 4%, 1928, tax-free 1,098 the suppliers, the imports from Great Britain being on the same 3%, 1928, tax-free 2,034 level as those of the preceding year. Textile machinery shows a 18,010 slight falling off, the figures being 3,568 tons in 1927, 3,715 tons The annual service of interest and sinking fund is estimated in 1926, and 3,903 in 1925. Great Britain’s share has dwindled at 846,000,000. Taking the revenues as estimated for 1928 at from 1,540 tons in 1926 to 1,116 tons in 1927. In motor-cycles 3,258,000,000, it will be seen that debt services absorb 26% of Great Britain retains the lead, with 128 tons, followed by France, with 97 tons. The total imports wére 238 tons in 1927, 129 tons the revenues. Note Circulation.—The following figures give the note cir- in 1926, and 94 tons in 1925, thus indicating a progressive improvement in the market for motor-cycles in Spain. In the motorculation and reserves at the close of the last three years :— car section the United States and France continue to be the chief Millions of Pesetas suppliers. In comparison with previous years, the imports of cotton piece Gold Note Silver bullion goods have slightly declined, although the United Kingdom rereserve circulation and specie tains the lead in their supply. The same remark applies to the 2,566-6 652°4 4,439°5 other textiles made of vegetable fibres, and to woollen piece 675-2 4,339°2 2,59270 goods. 2,6406 685-r 4,202°4 Exports of iron ore show an advance at 4,800,000 tons, as In the course of two years the notes in circulation have de- against 1,900,000 and 3,600,000 tons in 1926 and 1925 respeccreased by 237,000,000, while the gold and silver reserves have tively. Great Britain absorbed 2,400,000 tons. Transport.—In July 1925 a railroad fund of 2,600,000,000 Increased by 84,000,000 and 33,000,000 respectively. It is not surprising, therefore, that the peseta exchange showed improve- pesetas was sanctioned. The railroads may secure advances from the State for the purpose of providing for capital expenditure. ment. Bank Clearings.—The settlements effected through the Mad- The advances made from the fund are a charge upon the earnings rid Clearing House showed a large increase in 1927 over previous of the company in the sense that a part of the earnings proportionate to the amount of capital advanced by the State is returned years. The figures in millions of pesetas are:— as its participation. 1924 . ; ; . I2,779 1926. . 18,119 The total extent of the Spanish railway lines at the end of I925. e. a . I4,136 1927. . 54494 1926 was 16,200 km. of which 11,750 km. were broad gauge, The increase in the total clearings has not carried with it a 4,224 narrow gauge and 16 km. funicular railways. wider diffusion of the system of payment by cheque. The number The general advance in transport facilities in the interior of of cheques dealt with in 1927 was less than in 1926. The Clearing Spain is reflected in the following short table:—

SPAIN Years |

Tonnage

Locomotives

transported

2,765

32,772,803 39,910,285 35,848,217 43,302,632

5 fy1

[ECONOMIC

CONDITIONS

g

r

Export bonuses were granted in June, 1927, on rice exported during any one year up to a quantity of 20,000 tons. In this multitude of measures for the protection and develop. |

ment of agriculture, the wine trade was not forgotten, anda.

Decree-Law of May 7, 1928, authorised credits on Spanish wines 3,238 at s% interest, up to 60% of the value. 35325 Cotton-growing is still in an experimental stage, but results 41,489,060 33348 41,869,668 have been most marked, the crop rising from 860 tons in 1924 to 3,519 5,364 tons in 1926. This increase also is partially due to the Agriculture.—The agriculturally productive area of Spain is encouragement of the Government. To this summary of the legislative and other measures taken officially estimated at 94% of the total, but a large part of this is not cultivated. The area under cultivation is approximately for the protection of agriculture during the last three years may 46% of the total, while about 48% is pasturage and mountain be added that the Spanish Government earmarked 100,000,000 land. The remaining 6% is classified as unproductive for agri- pesetas for re-afforestation in the Extraordinary Budget of 1926, and has recently created an Institute of Agronomic and Forestry cultural purposes. The crop taking the largest acreage is wheat, followed by barley Research and Experiment. The following table gives the totals of Spanish agricultural and other cereals. These occupy about 20,000,000 acres, being approximately 16% of the total area. About 6% of the total production, to the nearest thousand of metric tons and hectolitres, for the years indicated :— area is devoted to olives and the vine. The mainstay of Spain’s economic existence is its agricultural SPANISH AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION production. This fact has not been lost sight of by the Govern(In thousands of metric tons or hectolitres) ment inaugurated in 1923 by General Primo de Rivera. A vast number of proposals for stimulating agricultural production have been brought forward and put into execution. Wheat, m.t. Some of the legislation is interesting. For instance, on May 4, Barley ,, 1926, a tax of 10 pesetas to 100 kg. was levied on all oil manuRye » factured from ground nut and sesame seeds, while the previous Oats z month imports of these seeds had been limited to 40,000 tons. Maize ,, Rice J Later on in the year importation was prohibited altogether. The Grapes ,, idea in this case was to protect Spanish olive oil. Wine, hectolitres Legislation in the same year (May 12-29) instituted a fund of Olives, m.t. i 25,000,000 pesetas for credits to wheat growers. On July 6, a Oil, hectolitres . minimum price for wheat was fixed. This had already been done Sugar, Beet, m.t. in 1925. These two measures having proved inadequate, on ? Cane, ,, Oranges, m.t. July 9, 1926, the importation of wheat was again prohibited. As a consequence of the resolutions passed at a conference held Mining and Minerals.—Second to agriculture is the mineral in Oct., 1926, a Royal Order of Dec. 11, 1926, established an Orange Committee whose mission was to develop the orange- wealth of Spain which yields millions of tons of ore, principally growing industry. Later on, in April 1928, an attempt was made for export. Tron Ore output sank over 7,500,000 tons from 1913 to 1926, to form a syndicate of all the orange producers and exporters, but the movement did not meet with anything like unanimous although the 1926 figures are hardly comparable because during adherence, and at the moment the proposal is in the air. On that year the smelting works in Great Britain were obliged to reduce purchases. The general cause of the decrease in iron ore Jan. 7, 1927, a Royal Order prooutput is the gradual exhaustion of the principal mines yielding vided for the inspection of orthe better class of ores, whilst the industry in general is somewhat anges prior to shipment. This hampered by high costs of production. was a valuable move in the atThe output of Copper shows a steady increase, the production tempt to standardize fruit shipin 1927 being nearly double the 1913 output. ments from Spain, and should unThe following table shows the Spanish Coal output in metric doubtedly lead to great benefits tons for the last few years, and a comparison is made with 1913, for growers and exporters if the the year preceding the outbreak of the World War:— system can be extended and applied to all shipments. (In Thousands of Metric Tons) In October, 1926, a Royal Decree established a Silk Commission for the purpose of developAnthracite. ing silk worm culture in Spain. Pitcoal Poultry farming also formed one Lignite of the objects of Government Total solicitude, and a Royal Order of The figures show an extremely rapid rise in production, the January 18, 1927, promulgated BY COURTESY OF YORK & SONS, LONDON measures for its development. WELL-TO-DO CASTILIAN VILLAGERS apex being attained in 1926, the year of the British coal strike. On Feb. 18, 1927, a Royal IN FETE cosTUME In 1924 the Railway Statute was promulgated (July 12), and Order was published providing for the grant of credits against the Government took advantage of this law to revert to the subcrops of wheat, oil, wine, rice and wool. The underlying inten- ject of the consumption of Spanish coal. The policy of subsidies tion of this Order was to facilitate credits to small growers, and was codified and regularised in October, 1925. These somewhat the maximum amount of credit to be granted to any one grower tentative movements culminated in February, 1926, in legislation was raised from 5,000 to 10,000 pesetas. made with the idea of supporting the Spanish coal-mining indusA Raisin Committee was formed in June, 1927, with a central try, and helping it to expand still further by enforcing the use office at Denia. The duties of this Chamber are to promote pro- of Spanish coal up to a very high percentage of the total conduction, export, and consumption of Muscatel grapes and raisins. sumption on the railroads A Grape Committee was established at Almeria, whose duties are centage to which Spanish and in subsidized ‘industries. The percoal must be: used in the case of railthe protection of the trade in fresh grapes. roads running express passenger lines is 8 5% of the total con3,220

4

b

ECONOMIC

SPAIN

CONDITIONS]

T21

sumption, whilst in the case of other railroads coming under the | Railroad Statute the proportion is 90%.

|

classified in various ways, and upon them have been imposed cer-

tain proportions for the use of Spanish coal, which, however, |

=S af

do not reach the percentages enforced upon the railroads. exports In 1927 were very much

IQI3

1926 exports being 785,000 tons,

361,000 tons. The agitation on the part of the Spanish coal owners in the early part of 1928 was directly due to the very large im-

composed

Ys

8l

5

5

J

O

B]

gjN

a

512

6

I'O

667:

199

1,081

186

31

1925; 0,159) 1920 | 1,100|

154 I50

E549

` 723 |

39

t

2 ;

ee

whilst the 1927 figures were 2,-

is

oS

zs. 5

1924 | 1,128, 142 | 1,475 | 696 | 36

tion between the 1926 and 1927 figures was extremely great, the

Consortium

a

3 A

a

,

page in Great Britain the varia- |

ports of 1927. The output of lead ore has been affected by the drop in the price of the metal, but both miners and smelters have managed to maintain their production, and lead, on the basis of its value, occupies the second place in ore production. A Consortium of Lead Producers was created by a Royal Decree of March 9, 1928. The

j:

3 | SE | P53] O

©

British

in excess of that figure, and as a consequence of the coal stop-

an

a a, !

The annual average imports of British coal into Spain before

1925 was something over one and a half million tons.

sm

B—MINERAL AND METAL OUTPUT (In thousands of metric tons)

Industries have been

BY COURTESY OF YORK & SONS, LONDON A MAN AND WOMAN OF THE PROV.

of INCE OF LEON, SPAIN, IN CHARAC.-

the Arrayanes Minè, the lead- TERISTIC DRESS

mmr en ePaper PS ne a a m m a

mining Syndicates of Linares-Caroline and Cartagena-Mazarrón, and such other concerns engaged in the mining, smelting and working of lead as may apply for admission. It controls the purchase and sale in Spain of all the lead in bars, tubes and sheets required by the national market. The production of copper ore and of ferro-cupreous pyrites has been steadily improving during the last three years, and the output of electrolytic copper and blister has likewise increased. Zinc ore was produced in increased quantities in 1926, and the quantity of zinc smelted has increased. A similar movement in mercury and metallic quicksilver is also to be recorded. The production of superphosphates is becoming more im-

portant in Spain, rising from 185,000 tons in 1913 to 828,000 tons in 1926. This increase in production marks the progressive

rise in Spanish demand. Hitherto the production of potassium salts in Spain has been insignificant, but in 1926 it occupied the sixth place, in so far as regards value, amongst all the minerals produced in Spain. The Government has reserved for itself 378,335 hectares of land bearing these salts, some 93,675 having been registered by private individuals. Report states that the layers are from two to five metres thick. The production in 1926 was 80,598 tons.

There is an increasing tendency to legislate with a view to restricting the exploitation of the mineral wealth of the country to Spaniards.

Figures giving the ore output for the last three years available (1924-26), together with those for-1913 as a basis for comparison, are given below :— A—ORE OUTPUT (In thousands of metric tons)

Industries.—Every department of Spain’s economic life shows the effects of the World War period. Impetus was given to the formation of industries which were either non-existent before the war or In an embryonic state. These were put through a hothouse forcing period with the idea of supplying the Spanish market as well as the Allies. With the return to conditions in which industry was obliged to compete in Spain itself with the foreign industries which had catered for Spain before the war, there spread a “malaise” which affected the whole industrial structure of the country, and manufacturers assisted in bringing into being a thorough-going campaign for the protection of industry. Notwithstanding this campaign, many Spanish industries feel that they are not yet sufficiently secure from foreign competition in their own market, and there seems every likelihood that the protective movement will be carried even further. The movement in the rate of exchange since the war has adversely affected the ability of local industry to compete, both at home and abroad. The fall in the value of the peseta, and its more recent return to a figure of about 29 pesetas to the pound

sterling has increased the gold cost. The above explains from the economic side the force of the campaign for higher customs duties in Spain today. It also shows that, upon the whole, there seems little likelihood of any slackening in the movement. Hydro-electric Development.—A convention between Spain and Portugal, delimiting their respective rights in the falls of the River Douro, was signed on Aug. 11, 1927, and ratifications were exchanged in Lisbon on Aug. 22. A company called the “Sociedad Hispano-Portuguesa de Transportes Eléctricos” has been awarded the concession for the exploitation of the Falls. No official Spanish statistics dealing with the production of electric energy are available, and it is therefore difficult to indicate with any degree of certainty the actual waterpower utilized. Nevertheless, it is possible to estimate the power derived from waterfalls in exploitation at about 1,300,000 h.p., and the production of electric energy at over 1,000,000 k.w., while according to expert opinion the total power latent in Spanish waterfalls is about 7,500,000 h.p. The production of electric energy has extended to the whole of Spain, facilitating the conversion of steam-driven railways into lines worked by electricity. Small industries are springing up in villages where previously motive power was not available. It appears that in the near future a scheme of national distribution of electric energy is to be introduced. Metallurgical.—_No statistics are published with regard to industrial production, save in the case of the metallurgical indus-

tries. It is not, therefore, possible to make a detailed study of

the general advance which is taking place in Spanish industry, but it is beyond doubt that such progress is constant. The value of the output of the metallurgical industries in 1913 was 302,600,000 pesetas. In 1918, a year of prosperity and high prices, it reached the sum of 841,100,000, and in 1926 it attained

918,900,000 pesetas.

lignite ing Coal includ-

tiferousCopper ing argenandpyrites Lead includ-

The manufacture of fine steels has improved considerably, and

Manganese in 1927, with the collaboration of foreign experts, the production

of certain alloys of special steels was begun. The construction of rolling stock for railways has assumed larger proportions than previously in Spain, and this industry shows positive prosperity. Electrolytic copper and aluminium are

Mma e R a aaa, a a R e a a

SPAIN

I22

lengthens out immeasurably and we step back, not by centuries but by thousands of years, through neolithic into palaeolithic times, when some type of men—we cannot guess what blood they were of or what form of language they knew—hunted the beasts of those early days and decorated with marvellously fine likenesses of these animals the inner walls and roofs of deep caverns.

Palaeolithic Spain.—These cave-paintings rank among our

most impressive discoveries from the past. There can be no doubt

of their vast antiquity, since they certainly represent animals of

the late quaternary geological period and are engraved upon bones

which are surely identifiable as those of animals now long extinct,

Nor can there be much dispute about the extraordinary veracity and vivacity with which wild horse and bison, hind and stag, ibex

Sirtkes Workers

affected

Workers on strike

No. of days lost

1,060

264,080

244,084

7,201,762

373 484 465 165

98,615 167,123 159,784 40,639

23,091 119,417 120,568 28,744

2,802,299 2,672,567 3,027,026 604,512

96

31,508

24,851

247,223

181

71,323

60,120

|

839,934

The public works undertaken by the Government under the extraordinary budget have given rise to an unusual demand for road rollers, cranes, excavators, and other machinery, keeping the iron and steel industries and the cement works fully occupied. So long as the expenditure on public works of several hundred million pesetas annually continues, the prosperity of these branches of Spanish industry is assured. BrBLioGRAPHY.—lInstituto Geografico Estadistico, Reseña Geográfica y Estadistica de Espana, rọr2-rọr4; Dalmau, España, mi Patria; Rafael Altamira, España y la Civilización Española; Anuario Estadistico de Espafa

|

the advent of the Greek ships there had been Phoenicians, mainly | the from Tyre and Sidon, who had maintained trading-posts along southern shore of Spain and had sailed through the Gibraltar Straits to Cadiz on the Atlantic. Then the perspective of years

also being produced in considerable quantities. Chemical.—The manufacture of chemicals shows notable progress. Pharmaceutical specialities are placed on the market which compete with those from abroad, and dyestuffs of Spanish manufacture are every day more current. Aeroplanes.—The branch of industry which perhaps has made the greatest progress is the building of aeroplanes and hydroplanes. The firms “La Hispano” of Guadalajara; “Construcciones Aeronauticas, S.A.,” of Getafe and Cadiz; Loring of Carabanchel Bajo, and “La Hispano-Suiza” and “Elizalde” of Barcelona, hold licences for the construction in Spain of Aeroplanes and Hydroplanes, both metal and ordinary types, of the marks Breguet, Dornier, Fokker, DeHavilland, Hispano-Suiza, Loring, Lorraine, Neuport and Potern, and are capable of constructing more than 600 machines annually. Labour.—The following table regarding strikes shows clearly the improvement in the industrial situation since the present Government came into power in September, 1923: No, of strikes

[ARCHAEOLOGY

(Population, Agriculture, Industry, Commerce, etc.),

1925-1926; Department of Overseas Trade (London)—Reports on Economic Conditions in Spain, Bi-annually; Telesforo Aranzadi y Unamuno, Etnografia, sus Bases, Métodos, en Espana; Gay, Estudio sobre la Etnografia y Psicología de las Razas de España; Ministry of Labour, Commerce and Industry (Madrid)—Anuario de Legislación Social; Juan Dantin, Agricultura Elemental Española; Angel Carrera, La Repoblacidn Forestal—un año en Galicia, 1920; Marqués de Toca, La Viticultura Española y sus Necesidades de Nuevo Régimen Aduanero y Comercial; Ministry of Fomento (Madrid)—Boletin de Agricultura Técnica y Económica, Monthly ; Salvador Calderon, Los Minerales de Espana; National Fuel Council—23 publications, edited by Ruiz Hermanos, Madrid; Ministry of Fomento (Madrid)—Boletin Oficial de Minos y Metalurgia, Monthly; Ministry of Fomento (Madrid)— Estadistica Minera de Espana, Annually; José Marva y Mayer, Ligero Bosquejo de las Industrias en España; Fernando Lacarr y Rodriguez, La Producción Española, —principales industrias españolas; Anuario de Mineria, Metalurgia, Electricidad é Industrias de Espana, 1927; Council of National Economy, Estadistica de Comercio Exterior: Enrique Lisbon Jebrat, Los Bancos de Emisión de Europa—el Banco de España; Francisco Cambó, La Crisis Económica y Financiera y la Conferencia de Génova; Banco Urquijo, La Riqueza y el Progreso de

and ox and boar are delineated with little save their outline and with no visible hesitation of stroke. The best. known of the Spanish caverns and one of the first to be discovered is Altamira near Santander. The publication of its contents by Cartailhac and the abbé Breuil (Monaco, 1906) is the best introduction to the study of palaeolithic Spanish archaeology. Other important sites are Hornos de la Peña, Pasiega, and Castillo in the province of Santander; Basondo in the province of Biscay; and Pindal, Buxu and La Pefia in Asturias. Palaeolithic decorated caverns are largely confined to the small mountainous area in the north which extends from the westernmost Pyrenees through the coastal hills beyond Santander. They may therefore be justly termed Cantabrian. Elsewhere, however, beyond the Spanish border, the same type recurs, chiefly on the northern slopes of the Pyrenees and in the region of the Dordogne in southwestern France. These three districts—the one in northern Spain, the two others in southern France—are inseparably allied and were products of contemporary cultures. In other parts of Spain, where caves are little more than open rock-shelters, there has been found a distinctively different art. Prehistorians therefore speak of “cave art” and “rock-shelter art,” and distinguish sharply between Cantabrian and East-Spanish palaeolithic. During. the last 20 years there has been great activity in the exploration and elucidation of this second group. Except that the fauna of the paintings here implies a slightly warmer climate, much the same series of animals are rendered in much the same style; but intimately combined with them appear weirdly represented men and women—a subject almost completely neglected by the Cantabrian cave artists. Often the men are armed with bow and arrow and shown in pursuit of their quarry; but whereas the beasts are naturalistically correct in the surprising palaeolithic manner, some of the huntsmen with threadlike limbs more nearly resemble the praying mantis, while others with sudden protuberances of calf or thigh suggest unevenly inflated rubber toys. The women, in long flounced petticoats very remotely sug-

gestive of the elegant ladies of Minoan Crete, seem to take part

in dances and conversations, poorly visualized and crudely rendered. This striking combination of a naturalistic animal art with geometrically conventionalized, highly primitive human representations is a phenomenon of great significance, since the groupings Espana, 1924; Publications of the “Consorcio Bancario,” Bank of Spain, Memoria Anual del Banco de España; Navarro Reverter, and actions of the men and women are almost as clearly allied to Estudios Financieros; Viada, La Economia y las Finanzas Españolas palaeolithic rock-drawings in north Africa as the ibexes and stags, en la Postguerra, 1924; Revista Nacional de Economia; Casa Editorial horses and oxen and bulls are allied to the cave-paintings of CanGóngora, Contribución Industrial, and other books on legislation and jurisprudence edited by the same firm; Publications of the Ministry of Finance (Madrid). (A. A. Ap.)

ARCHAEOLOGY It is still impossible to introduce any accurate chronology into the prehistory of Spain. Before the Roman pacification in the 2nd century B.C, with its certain dates and events lie a couple of centuries of Punic penetration from Carthage; still earlier we know of the coasting voyages of Greek traders along the Mediterranean shore, and catch some glimpse of the Iberian civilization with, which these Greeks came into contact; but all this brings us only into the 7th century B.c. Perhaps for several hundred years before

tabria. As in historic, so in prehistoric times, the destiny of Spain must have been a succession of invasions, now from the north, pouring round or ever the Pyrenees, now from the south out of

Morocco and Algeria. The most important sites of the East Spanish group are Cogul by Lerida, Valltorta in Castellén, Albarracin by Teruel, Alpera and Mortaja in Albacete, and Cantos de la Visera in Murcia—all characteristically within two or three days’ journey afoot from the sea. Neolithic and Bronze Age Spain.—The Neolithic Age in Spain testifies to a wholly different condition of mankind. Perhaps it is too ingeniously simple to ascribe the naturalism of

palaeolithic art to a race of hunters and the geometric conven-

ARCHAEOLOGY]

SPAIN

tionalism of the neolithic to a race that tilled the soil. A fairly uniform culture spread over the entire peninsula; for the rock-shelters with neolithic drawings have a very wide distribution and show a striking similarity. They have almost no pictorial attraction and

often more resemble picture script than actual illustration, The pottery finds are the great archaeological aid to neolithic chronology; and the occurrence of some of the conventionalized devices of the rock-paintings upon pottery which can with certainty be assigned to the transition from neolithic to the Early Bronze Age puts the general epoch of this culture beyond doubt. A closer comparison of ceramic types shows that beneath this superficial uniformity there lies sufficient diversity to warrant many subdivisions. Chief among these is the clear distinction between the more indigenous central and the south-eastern or ‘‘Al-

meria” culture which was probably under African influence and may actually have been the nucleus from which the true Iberian culture developed. In late neolithic times the more extensive cen-

tral culture exhibits a distinctive and striking bell-shaped (the socalled “campaniform”) pottery. At this time it is likely that there was some exportation of copper and silver from Spain to the nearest of the Mediterranean islands, since there are ceramic

affinities with finds of the “aéneolithic” period (or Stone-andCopper Age, lasting in Spain from about 3000 to 2500 B.c.) in the Balearics and in Sardinia and Sicily. The peculiar megalithic structures in these parts, such as the talayots of the Balearics (g.v.), the nuraghi of Sardinia (g.v.), the underground chambers of Malta, are fairly well paralleled by megalithic grave structures in Portugal and Spain. But there is as yet no certain proof of intercourse between the eastern and the western basins of the Mediterranean for these early times. Somewhat after 2500 B.c. the Bronze Age displaced the aéneolithic without apparent interruption; but still the Aegean influence, which can be proved to have reached Sicily and southern Italy, failed to extend as far as Spain. If anything, the Bronze Age marks a retrogression in the civilization of Spain, where there has yet been no archaeological discovery to indicate a powerful or wealthy Bronze Age culture even remotely comparable to that of Crete or the eastern Mediterranean lands.

Tartessos.—Herodotus (iv. 152) narrates the adventurous voyage of a Greek sailing-ship from Samos, which was driven by storm past the pillars of Herakles and “at last reached Tartessos. This trading-town was in those days a virgin port unfrequented by merchants, and the Samians in consequence made a greater profit than any Greeks before their day.” This event supposedly took place about 630 B.c. During the century thereafter, Tartessos was certainly frequented by trading vessels of the Ionian Greeks of Phocaea in the Bay of Smyrna. It has been maintained that this rich Spanish city on the Atlantic was the Tarshish of the Old Testament, which “with silver, iron, tin and lead” traded in the

fairs of Tyre (Ezekial xxvii. 12). Yet the modern search for Tarshish-Tarsis-Tartessos has failed. The German archaeologist Adolf Schulten after several campaigns regretfully admitted in 1926 that the mysterious city must lie deep under river and below the groundwater level. The Iberians.—The whole of the peninsula was sometimes called Iberia by ancient writers; but the true focus of the Iberian civilization was the south-eastern corner of the land. Here a stock out of north-east Africa (Oran?) and therefore probably Hamitic (Berber?) may have been infiltrating ever since the aéneolithic days of the Almeria culture (c. 3000 B.c.). They were probably racially akin to the Tartessians, who must therefore have also been African invaders. We become completely certain of their presence towards the end of the Bronze Age and, some centuries later, can trace the diffusion and inland penetration of their culture until it was finally absorbed by the Roman civilization

almost as late as the time of Christ. Roman writers describe the

typical Iberians as dark complexioned, with unkempt hair, small of face but with the cheekbones emphasized and the lower lip prominent, small-framed, alert and wiry. Iberian bronzes display them as riders of horses, and we know what their swords and daggers, spears and other weapons were like. The women are represented sometimes as wearing a singlepiece cloak drawn up

123

over the head from the shoulders like a mantilla or shawl, and sometimes with a short, hooded garment which flares out below the waist and often has swallowtail sleeves. We may judge of their jewellery and their headdresses from the famous sculptured bust, the “Lady of Elche,” now in the Louvre. Iberian art was rude but vigorous, with a leaning toward sculptured animals of stone and human figurines in bronze. The pottery was decorated with simple linear themes, artistically of no particular distinction. until Greek examples offered more sophisticated decorative motives to copy. The best Iberian art comes from the provinces of Murcia and Albacete in the south-east, where the Greek influence was strongest. The Iberians lived in walled towns. The cyclopean masonry in the bottom courses of the great walls of Tarragon is indubitably a remnant of an old Iberian stronghold. Tartessos and Massia (now Cartagena) were similarly enclosed; but the Carthaginians completely destroyed both of these cities, making Gades (now Cadiz) take the commercial place of the former and refounding the latter as Carthago Nova. Behind this seaboard fringe of Tartesso-Iberians the high-lying interior was in the possession of a variety of indigenous peoples of whom we have no clear knowledge except that, along with Catalonia, they passed through an Early Iron Age (or “Hallstadt” phase) and were at last completely submerged during the 6th century B.c. by an invasion of Celtic tribes who poured through the Pyrenees by the Pass of Roncesvalles and took possession of Castile. This Celtic invasion may with full justice be called an historical event. We can date its occurrence within a few decades, define its source, follow its spread, and perceive its results. In the extreme northern mountain lands the earlier inhabitants managed to preserve their individuality in the face of this Celtic irruption. It has even been argued that the Basques, who maintain customs and a language whose isolation is a mark of extreme antiquity, are ultimate descendants of the palaeolithic Cantabrian folk which produced the cave-art so many thousand years earlier. Elsewhere, during the pre-Roman times, we find Celtic tribes (Beribraces, Sefes, Cempsos) in possession of the land. Such is the ethnic picture during the 6th and 5th centuries B.c. With such a Spain the Ionic Greek traders now came into contact, in rivalry with the Carthaginians who had fallen heirs to the century-old Phoenician exploitation of these western marts. Neither the Phoenicians nor the Carthaginians left any permanent mark upon the land, while the Greeks influenced it profoundly. Ships from Tyre and Sidon may have traded beyond the Straits and in Cadiz at least as early as the oth century B.c.; yet modem archaeology, which has located and excavated Greek and Iberian and Roman towns, has not laid bare a single Phoenician settlement or found more important Phoenician remains than the odds and ends of trinkets and jewels and similar articles of barter The inference is clear that, except perhaps at Cadiz, the Phoenicians built no towns, but had mere trading-posts and points of call. The Greeks in Spain.—The Greeks, on the other hand, founded true colonies along the east and south coasts, where unmistakable traces of their settlements have survived. The sites of Hemeroskopeion (at the modern Calpe) and Mainake (at the mouth of the Rio de Velez near Malaga) have been identified, though not yet excavated; and Emporion (now Ampurias, on the Pyrenean east coast near the French frontier) has been systematically dug, revealing a fortified town with strong gates and walls, streets more or less at right angles, remains of houses, and a shrine of Asklepios with a cult statue of the god. While there is almost nothing in Iberian art ascribable to Phoenician or Punic influence, the art of the Greeks had indisputably a revolutionary effect. A collection of sculptures found at Cerro de los Santos in the province of Murcia, and now in the Madrid Archaeological Museum, is a hybrid of archaic Greek and Iberian art. Fragments of Ibericized Ionic Greek architectural mouldings have been discovered in the same region; and the

pottery from Elche and the surrounding districts is full of unmistakable borrowings from the ornamental repertoire of Greek vases. The earliest Iberian money was coined in direct imitation of

Greek types of the 4th century p.c. Archaic Greek bronzes discovered in many parts of Murcia and Alicante, and the actual

SPAIN

124

[HISTORY |

HISTORY TO A.D. 406 Primitive Inhabitants.—The origin and character of the early inhabitants of the Peninsula are obscure. We must await written chronicles of the ancient historians; but the records for the result of further excavations of prehistoric sites and further Spain are extraordinarily meagre. We hear no more about Tar- inquiries into the native inscriptions before we can hope for tessos after the 6th century Bc. Instead, Greek sources of the sth much certainty. The Romans mention three races: Iberians (in century begin to speak of the whole Tartesso-Iberian region as the east, north and south), Celts (north-west) and Celtiberians Iberia; and recent archaeological exploration has confirmed this (centre). The use to-day of the strange and ancient Basque

material traces of the Phocaean colonies tell us that the Greeks were once in this part of Spain. Elsewhere in the Mediterranean this period is covered by the

emphasis upon the Iberians and established them as the great civilizing force of that time in ancient Spain. Spain Under the Carthaginians——During the 4th century B.C. the Carthaginian encroachment reached most of the Iberian homeland, the Greek contact was broken, and the Greco-Iberian culture in Murcia waned. But in recompense, and probably under the pressure of this Punic expansion, the Iberian penetration of the interior gathered great headway. During the 3rd century B.C. the most flourishing Iberian centre in Spain is the valley of the Ebro, where in the sth century there had been no Iberian settlements whatever; and Greek writers of the time no longer refer to the Castilian uplands as Celtic but as “Celtiberian.”” Recent excavation has confirmed this gradual Iberianization of almost the whole of pre-Roman Spain. Particularly of Numantia, and largely as a result of the careful and systematic work of Prof. Schulten in laying bare the sites of the Roman and Celtiberian encampments there, an extensive insight into this Iberianized Celtic culture of the 3rd and 2nd centuries B.C. has been gained. The Romanization of Spain.—When the Romans began their efforts to Latinize the land after the close of the Second Punic War (201 B.c.) they found not a Celtic civilization like that of Gaul, but an Iberian culture of the general type which the Greeks had encountered and influenced before them. The dramatic story of Scipio and the capture of Numantia in 133 B.c. indicates with how much bloodshed and violence this Roman pacification was attended. However, the archaeological in contrast to the historical evidence shows that the two civilizations must have endured side by side for more than a century and suggests a more tolerant penetration and absorption. The latest sculptures from Cerro de los Santos, though still Iberian in style, borrow Roman statuary motives. In other regions true Iberian pottery is often found mixed with thoroughly Roman ware (terra sigillata). Iberian jewellery and gold have been found amid Roman surroundings; and most of the coinage bearing in Iberian script the names of Iberian towns dates from after the Roman conquest. The archaeological remains of fully Romanized Spain are abundant, but show the monotony of a provincial art which has nothing to stimulate it into new forms of its own. There is no obviously and distinctively “Spanish” flavour in the architecture and sculpture of these times. The spirit which seems to distinguish mediaeval or modern Spain from the rest of Europe may or may not contain a recrudescence of Tartessian or Iberian or Celtiberian mentality. Wıth the final Romanization of the land these older cultures were supplanted completely.

tongue on the western slopes of the Pyrenees and in Vizcaya (Biscay) suggests that the Iberians may have been an older

people than the Celts and alien from them in race.

On the other

hand, numerous place-names show that parts of the Peninsula

were once held by the Celtic-speaking tribes who probably also inhabited the greater part of the area which is now France for several millenniums before the current era.

Earliest: Historic Period.—The

Phoenicians

had possibly

reached Spain by the rıth century B.C. One of their earlier foundations, Gades (now Cadiz), has been called the oldest town in the world (or in Europe) which has kept a continuity of life and name from its first ongin. But their exploitation of the Peninsula dates principally from after the rise of Carthage (q.v.). Carthaginian “factories” were planted on many Spanish coasts;

a Nova Carthago (New Carthage, mod. Cartagena) formed a Carthaginian fortress with the best harbour of south-eastern Spain. The expansion is attributed chiefly to the second half of the 3rd century B.c., and to the genius of Hamilcar Barca, who, seeing his country deprived by Rome of Sicily and Sardinia, used Spain, not only as a source of commercial wealth, but as an inexhaustible reservoir of recruits for the Carthaginian armies, But Rome too needed the Spanish men and mines, and, in the second Punic War, drove Carthage finally and completely out of the Peninsula (201 B.c.). i Roman Spain.—The Romans divided Spain into two grovinciae, Hispania Citerior, that is, the northern districts which were nearer to Italy, and Hispania Ulterior, the south. To each province was sent yearly a governor, often with the title proconsul. The commands were full of military activity. The south, indeed, notably the fertile valley of Andalusia, the region of the

Guadalquivir (Baetis), then called Baetica, was from the first fairly peaceful. Italian veterans or Spanish soldiers who had served for Rome were settled at Hispalis (Seville) and at Carteia

near Gibraltar, and a beginning was made of a Romanized pro-

vincial population. But in the north, on the high plateau and amidst the hills, there was incessant fighting throughout the greater part of the 2nd century B.c., and indeed in some quarters right down to the establishment of the empire. In the long struggle many Roman armies were defeated, many commanders disgraced, many Spanish leaders won undying fame as patriot chiefs

(see NUMANTIA).

But the struggle could not be given up without

risk to the lands already won. So the war went on to its inevitable

issue. Numantia, the centre of the fiercest resistance, fell in 133 B.C. (see Scrpro), and even northern Spain began to accept Roman Brsriocraruy—Palaeolithic Spain: E. A. Parkyn, Introduction to rule and Roman civilization. When in 80-70 B.c. the Roman the Study ‘af Prehistoric Art (1915); H. Obermaier, Fossil Man in Sertorius (g.v.) attempted to make head in Spain against his Spain, Seti Soc. of Amer. (trans. by C. D. Matthew, 1924); political enemies in Rome, the Spaniards who supported him were M. C. Burkitt, Prehistory (2nd ed. 1925); schichie der bildenden

Kunst

in Europa

M. Hoernes, Die Urge-

(3rd ed. Vienna,

1925).

Neolithic and Bronze Age in Spain: H. and L. Siret, Les premières Ages du Métal dans le sud-est de PEspagne (Antwerp and Louvain, 1887); P. Bosch-Gimpera, “L’Arqueglogia preromana hispánica,” an

appendix to A. Schulten’s Hispania (Barcelona, 1920), trans. into Spanish by A. Schulten from his article in A. F. von Pauly’s Realencyklopädie der classischen Altertumswissenschaft (ed. by G. Wissowa, Stuttgart, 1913). Tartessos: A. Schulten, Tartessos. Ham-

already half Romanized.

_

There remained only small groups of unconquered tribes in the northern hills and on the western coast. Some of these were dealt with by Julius Caesar, governor here in 61 B.c. Others, especially the hill tribes of the Basque and Asturian moun-

tains, were

still unquiet under

Augustus.

By the days of

Cicero and Caesar (70-44 B.c.) the southern districts, at least, burgische Universitit. Abhandlungen aus deta Gebiet der Ausland- had become practically Roman: their speech, their literature, skunde. Bd. 8. (Hamburg, 1922). The Iberians: P. Paris, Essai sur Part et Vindustrie de VEspagne primitive (1903204), and Promenades their gods were wholly or almost wholly Italian. Gades was the

archéologiques en Espagne (vol. i. 1910, vol. ii. 1921); P. Boschfirst city outside of Italy which obtained a municipal charter a: Gimpera, Ensayo de una reconstrucción de la etnologia prehistórica municipium, without the usual implantation of Roman citizens. de la peninsula ibérica. Boletin de la Biblioteca Menéndez y Pelayo Imperial Spain—Under Augustus (or possibly Tiberius) (Santander, 1922). Greek Colonization and Influence: R. Carpenter, The Greeks in Spain, Bryn Mawr Notes and Monographs, No. 6 there Was a reorganization. Henceforward there were three prov: (1925); see also the works of P. Paris previously cited. Spain under inces: (a) the north and north-west, the central tableland ant the Carthaginians: S. Gsell, Histoire ancienne de PAfrique du nord the east coast as far south as New Carthage, that is, all th (1913). The Romanization of Spain: A. Schulten, Numantia (Munich, thinly-populated and unquiet hill country, formed the province o 1914-27). Tarraconensis with a capital at Tarraco (Tarragona) under i (R. C.

HISTORY]

SPAIN

legatus Augusti pro praetore with a legion (VII. Gemina) at Leon and some other troops at his disposal; (b) the fertile and peaceful west formed the province of Lusitania, very roughly the modern Portugal, also under a legatus Augusti pro praetore, but with very few troops; (c) the fertile and peaceful south formed the province of Baetica, under a pro-consul nominated by the senate, with no troops. These divisions (it will be observed) exactly coincide with the geographical features of the Peninsula. Substantially, they remained till the end of the empire, though Tarraconensis was broken up at diferent dates into smaller and more manageable areas. Augustus also accelerated the Romaniza-

tion of the land by planting in it many municipalities (coloniae) of time-expired veterans (e-meriti) such as Augusta Emerita (mod. Mérida), which still possesses extensive Roman ruins. About this time imperial finance agents (procuratores) were ap-

pointed to control the revenues and look after the mines, which became Imperial property, while a special praefectus administered the Balearic Islands. The iron and also the copper, silver and lead

of Spain were well known: it was also (according to the elder Pliny) the chief source whence the Roman world obtained its tin. Its olive-oil was superior to that of Italy. But commercial prosperity characterized many districts of the empire during the first two centuries of our era. Spain can boast that she supplied Rome with almost her whole literature in the silver age. The Augustan writers had been Italians. Their successors were Spaniards—the younger Seneca, Lucan, Martial, Quintilian, besides a host of lesser lights. By-and-by the impulse of the opening empire died away and with the 2nd century the great RomanSpanish literature ceased. Of statesmen the Peninsula was less prolific. Though the emperor Trajan and his relative and successor Hadrian, were born in Spain, both were of Roman stock and Roman training. The 3rd and 4th centuries saw a decline in prosperity. The confiscations of Septimius Severus and the ravages of barbarians in the middle of the grd century have been adduced as causes. But, though we need not doubt that the decline occurred, we can hardly determine either its date or its intensity without careful examination of the Roman remains of Spain. While many of the best Roman ruins—such as the aqueduct of Segovia or the bridge of Alcantara—are older than 200 A.D. others are probably later, and indicate that prosperity continued here, as it did on the other side of the Pyrenees, till the later days of the ath century—perhaps indeed till the fatal winter’s night in 406-7 when the barbarians burst the Rhine frontier and flooded Gaul and even Spain with a deluge from which there was no recovery. (E. J. H.; G. M.)

FROM A.D. 406 TO THE CONQUEST OF GRANADA The Barbarian Invasion.—With the irruption of the Vandals, the Suevi and the Alans, the history of Spain enters on a long period of division and confusion which did not end even with the union of the chief kingdoms by the marriage of Isabella and Ferdinand at the close of the 15th century. The function of the barbarians everywhere was to cut the communications of commerce, and the nerves of the imperial administration. This function was effectually discharged in Spain by the Vandals and their associates, who plundered far and wide, and then by the Visigoths, who appeared as the foederati, or duly commissioned defenders of the Romans. The first-comers were not numerous enough to establish a rule of thelr own. When in 428 Gaiseric, king of the Vandals (qg.v.), accepted the invitation of Bonifacius, the count of Africa, and passed out of Spain to found the Vandal kingdom of Carthage, his whole horde numbered only 80,000 persons, including old men, women and children, and runaway slaves who had joined him. There is probably some truth in the assertion of Salvian that many of the subjects of the em-

pire preferred poverty among the barbarians to the tyranny of the imperial tax collectors. This would be pre-eminently the case with the smaller landowners who formed the curiales, and who

were in reality serfs of the fisc, for on them fell the main weight of taxation, and they were confined to their position by oppressive laws. The great landowners who formed the ordo senatorius had almost as much to fear from the agrarian insurgents known as

t25

bagaudae, who are indeed found acting with the Suevi, as from the barbarians. In the north the Asturians and Basques, the least Romanized part of the population, appear from the beginning of the age of barbarization as acting for themselves. In the mountain country of Cuenca, Albacete, and the Sierra Nevada the natives known as the Orospedans were entirely independent in the middle of the 6th century. But if there lay in this revival of energy and character the germs of a vigorous national life, for the time being Spain was thrown back into the state of division from which it had been drawn by the Romans—with the vital difference that the race now possessed the tradition of the Roman law, the municipalities, and one great organization in the Christian Church. No help was to be expected from the empire. Unable to aid itself it had recourse to the Visigoths (see Gotus). Ataulphus (q.v.) the successor of Alaric, and husband of Placidia, daughter of the emperor Theodosius, whom he had married against the wish of her brother Honorius, entered Spain in 412, as the ally of the empire. He was murdered in 415, but after the speedily ensuing murder of his murderer and successor Sigeric, Wallia (415419), who was elected to the kingdom, continued his work. He destroyed the Alans, and drove the Vandals and Suevi into the north-west. Then he handed Spain back to the imperial officials, that is to say, to weakness and corruption, and marched with all his people into the Second Aquitaine, the south-west of modern France, which had been assigned to them by Honorius as a home and a reward. From this date till the very end of the reign of Amalaric (511~531), the seat of the Visigothic kings was at Bordeaux, or Toulouse or Narbonne, and their main interests were in Gaul. Southern Spain was overrun and plundered by the Vandals before their departure for Africa. In 456 Theodoric II. (453—466) entered Spain as ally of Avitus, whom he had himself raised to the empire in Gaul. He defeated the Roman senators of the Tarraconensis and the Suevi, putting their king to death, and advanced as far as Mérida. Majorian (457—461), the last capable emperor of the West, proposed to make Spain the basis of his attack on the Vandals at Carthage till his fleet was destroyed by them in the harbour of Carthagena. The fratricidal murderer and successor of Theodoric, Euric (466-485), followed his brother’s policy in Spain. With the extinction of the Western empire (476 or 479) the kings of the Visigoths became more and more the representatives of authority, which they exercised on Roman lines, and with an implied or formal deference to the distant emperor at Constantinople. After the defeat and death of Alaric II. (485-507) at Vouillé the shattered Visigoth power was preserved from destruction at the hands of the Frankish king Clovis (g.v.) by Theodoric, the Gothic king of Italy. But on his death the advance of the Franks began again. Amalaric (507—531) fied from Narbonne, to meet the usual violent end of a Visigothic king at Barcelona. The Visigothic Kingdom.—The line of the Visigothic kings of Spain begins, strictly speaking, with his successor Theudis (531-548), an Ostrogoth appointed by Theodoric to act as guardian of Amalaric. He had acquired great possessions in the valley of the Ebro by marriage with a Roman lady. It was a Government, and not a people, which was established in Spain with Theudis. The Visigoths had been much Romanized during their establishment in Gaul. Their monarchy was elective. Until the death of Amalaric the choice was confined to one family, but he was the last of his line. The kings tried to make the Crown hereditary, and the nobles, Visigothic semiores, and Roman senatores seized every opportunity to keep it elective. Of the 23 kings between Theudis and Roderic five were certainly murdered, one was deposed, and three were tonsured by tricks or open force. The administration which these kings of unstable authority had to direct was essentially the Roman system. The great owners, whether nominally Visigoth or nominally Roman—seniores or senatores—continued to enjoy all the privileges and exemptions ° of the ordo senatorius in the last days of the empire. They lived surrounded by multitudes of semi-servile coloni, or farmers, bound to the soil, of actual slaves, and of buccelarei, who were free swordsmen to whom they gave rations (buccelatum, soldiers’ bread, or buccella, a portion). The curiales remained as before

126

SPAIN

and continued their invasions of Gaul till they met the solid power

the victims of the fisc.

Theudis, who made his headquarters at Seville, endeavoured

to complete his mastery of the diocese of Spain by occupying

Mauritania Tingitana, but he was defeated by the imperial officers at Ceuta. He was in due course murdered at Seville by Theudigisel (548-549) who was himself promptly slain. The reigns of his two successors, Agila (549-554)

[HISTORY

and Athanagild

of the Austrasian Franks at Poitiers 732 (see CHARLES MARTEL and CALIPHATE). The great landowners south of the Pyrenees, to whom patriotism was unknown and whose religious faith was tepid, -were as ready to pay tribute to the caliph as to render sery-

ice to one of their own body who had become king by violence or intrigue. On the part of the Arabs, who, though a small minor-

were the ruling element, there was a marked (354-567), coincided with the reign of Justinian and the tempo- ity of the invaders, zeal. They treated the occupation of proselytizing of absence the on called ld rary revival of the Eastern empire. Athanagi more than as a war for the faith. speculation financial imperial officers to help him against Agila, and paid for their assis- Spain as a accustomed as he was to comVisigoth, and Roman Spanish The death his On Baetica. of province tance by the surrender of the saw nothing dishonourable another, after master one with pound by there was an obscure interregnum of five months, which ended the election of Liuva (567-572), the governor of Narbonne, the surviving remnant of the Visigoth power to the north of the Pyrenees. Liuva did not come to Spain, but associated his brother Leovigild (567-586) with him. The reigns of Leovigild and of his son Reccared are the greatest in the list of the Visigoth kingdom in Spain. The father was the first Visigothic king who wore the crown, and it would appear that he threw off all pretence of allegiance to the empire. The series of the Visigothic gold coins begins with him, and it is to be noted that while the earliest are struck in the name of the emperor Justinian, the imperial superscription disappears in the later. Leovigild drove the imperial officers from Seville and Cordova, though they still retained control of the coast. The reign of Reccared (586—601) is famous in Spanish history for the establishment of Catholicism as the religion of the State. He made the change at the Third Council of Toledo. If Reccared hoped to secure the perpetuance of his dynasty he was mistaken. His son Liuva II. (601-603) was murdered by an Arian reaction headed by Witteric (603-610). The Catholics regained power by his overthrow, but they could not give stability to the State. A succession of obscure “priests kings,” who are but names, followed: Gunthemar (610~612), Sisebut (612-620), Reccared II.

(620-621), Swintilla, associated with his son Reccimer (621-631), Sisinand (631-636), Chintila (636-640), Tulga (640-641), Chindaswinth (641-652), Recceswinth (649-672). The growing weakness of the Merovingians saved them from serious attack, though not from occasional invasion on the north. The prostration of the empire in the East by Avar and Persian invasions enabled them to drive the imperial officers from the coast towns. But the kingdom was growing internally weaker. Wamba (672-680) is credited with an attempt to reform the State, but he was tonsured while unconscious from illness or poison, and disappeared into a religious house. His successors again are but names, Euric (680-687) and Egica (687-701). Witiza (697-710) has more substance. With Roderic, whose “tumultuous” election was the work of Witiza’s enemies, the line of the Visigoth kings is considered to have ended. The Mohammedan Conquest.—During the reign of Witiza the Muslim masters of northern Africa had pressed the town of Ceuta, the last remnant of the Byzantine possessions, very closely.

in making such an arrangement.

In Murcia the duke whom the

Arabs knew as Tadmir became a tributary prince, and his family retained the principality for generations. The family of Witiza

obtained possession of an immense stretch of the land of the State

in Andalusia on condition of paying tribute.

One of them, by

name Ardabast, was deprived of his holding at a later date on

the ground that he held more land than could be safely left in the hands of a Christian. Everywhere landowners made the bargain, and the monasteries and the cities followed their example. Many professed themselves converts to Mohammedanism. In the north one great Visigoth family not only accepted Islam, but founded a dynasty, with its capital at Saragossa, which played a stirring part in the 8th and goth centuries, the Beni-Casi, or Beni-Lope. To the mass of the population the conquest was, for the present, a pure gain. The Jews, escaped from brutal persecution, were the eager allies of the Arabs. The serfs acquired personal freedom and relief from the Roman fiscal system. Add to this that a slave

who professed Islam could secure his freedom, at least from slavery to a Christian master, that Arianism had not been quite rooted out, that the country districts were still largely pagan, and it will not appear wonderful that within a generation Mohammedan

Spain was full of renegades. The Arabs at first were content to take a fifth of the land to constitute the public domain, or khoms, out of which fiefs held on military tenure were provided for the chiefs of the conquering army.

The invaders were a coalition of Arabs, Syrians and Berbers.

The Arabs, incurably anarchical, with no political idea except the tribal one, looked down on the Syrian; they thought the Berber a lout and a plebeian, they scorned the renegade, and called him a slave and son of a slave. They fought out the old tribal rivalries of Arabia on the banks of the Guadalquivir and on the Vega of Granada. They planted the Berber down on the bleak, ill-watered and wind-swept central plateau. He revolted, and they strove to subdue him by the sword. He deserted his poor share of the conquered land, and in many cases returned to Africa. The conflict for the caliphate (g.v.) between Omayyad and Abbasid removed all shadow of control by the head of the Mohammedan world, and Spain was given up to mere anarchy. The treaties made with the It seems to be certain that Julian, the imperial count or governor Christians were soon violated, and it seemed as if Islam would of Ceuta, acting in concert with the family and faction of Witiza, destroy itself. From that fate it was preserved by the arrival in who sought his help against Roderic, provided vessels to transport Spain of Abdurrahman (Abdarrahman b. Moawiya) the Omayyad the Berber Tarik (Tariq) across the straits. Tarik, the general of (758), one of the few princes of his house who escaped massacre the caliph’s governor in northern Africa, Misa b. Nosair, came at the hands of the Abbasides. With the help of his clansmen with a small force, but with the certainty of finding allies, and on among the Arabs, and to a large extent of the renegades who being joined by another detachment of Berbers marched inland. counted as his clients, by craft, by the sword, by keeping down the On July 19, 711, he met Roderic near the Lago de la Janda be- fanatical Berber element, and by forming a mercenary army of tween Medina Sidonia and Vejer de la Frontera. He had perhaps African negroes, and after 30 years of blood and battle, Abduralready been joined by Spanish allies. It is at least certain that in rahman founded the independent amirate, which in the roth centhe battle the enemies of Roderic passed over to the invader. The tury became the caliphate of Cordova. The real basis of its power Visigoth king was routed and disappears from authentic history. was the slave army of negroes, or of Christian slaves, largely There is some probability that he did not perish in the battle, but Slavonians sold by their German captors to the Jew slave traders escaped to fall two years later, at Seguyjuela near Salamanca, in of Verdun, and by them brought to Spain. These janissaries at action with Merwan the son of Misa. Before the end of 711 first gave them victory, and then destroyed them. Tarik had advanced as far north as Alcala. Cordova fell to a deChristian States of the North.—The Christian enemies of ’ tachment of his army. In 712 Misa joined his lieutenant, and the the Mohammedans were for long weak and no less anarchical than conquest of the south was completed. Mérida was the only town themselves, but they were never altogether wanting, and they had, which offered an honourable resistance. During 713 and 714 the what the Arab and Berber had not, a tradition of law and a capacnorth was subdued to the foot of the mountains, and when Misa ity for forming an organized polity and a State. In the centre were and Tarik were recalled to Damascus by the caliph the progress of the Basques, dwelling on both sides of the Pyrenees, who kept the Muslims was not delayed. In 718 they crossed the Pyrenees, against the Mohammedan the independence they had vindicated

HISTORY]

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127

against the Visigoth. On the east were the roots of the kingdom

beyond them the little free territories of the central Pyrenees were advancing, in subordination to the Navarrese king at Pamplona. most pressing foe was not the Arab or Berber so much as the Caro- The Arab called them the Christians of Al Frank, and distinlingian. It was at their hands that Charlemagne (g.v.), while re- guished them from the Galicians. The Mohammedan Amirate.—The roth century and the turning from his expedition to Saragossa, suffered that disaster to his rearguard at Roncesvalles which is more famous in poetry than first years of the 11th saw a great set-back of the Christian reimportant in history. With the aid of the Spanish Muslim Beni- vival. Dissensions among themselves coincided with an energetic Casi the Basques drove off the counts and wardens of the marches rally of the Muslim power. From the foundation of the amirate of the Carolingians. On the eastern extremity of the Pyrenees by Abdurrahman I. (758-790) to the beginning of the reign of the Franks found no native free population. Here, mainly under Abdurrahman III. (912~961) Mohammedan Spain had shared the the leadership of Louis the Pious, they formed the Marca Hispan- usual fortunes of an oriental monarchy. A strong amir, such as ica, where Frankish counts and wardens of the marches gradually Abdurrahman I. or his grandson Hakam I. (796-822), could engained ground. By the reign of Charles the Fat a principality had force obedience by arms, or by murder. On the upper frontier, been founded. Wilfred the Hairy—the Comes Vellosus, so called which is now Aragon, the “Visigoth” Beni-Casi ruled, doing hombecause his countship was poor and covered with scrub wood— age and paying tribute intermittently, supported by a loyal population of native Mohammedans, whose Christian or nominally became the founder of the countship of Barcelona. The greatest destiny was reserved for the Christian remnant Christian fathers had been their followers before the conquest. which stood out to the west of the Basques, in the mountains of The “Moors,” sa called, who afterwards filled the kingdom of Asturias. Pelayo, whom they chose for king, and his victory of Aragon, were of native blood. Toledo, relying on the immense Covadonga, are legendary and obscure. It is with the warning military strength of its position, was more often in rebellion than that the dates can only be given as probably correct that the three in subordination. The massacre which Hakam I. effected by a first Christian kings can be said to have reigned from 718 to 757. lavish use of fraud cowed it only for a time. Abdurrahman III. Pelayo (718-737), his brother Favila (737-739)—of whom we found it independent again when he came to the throne, and had only know that he is said to have been killed by a bear while to besiege it for two years before it yielded. The renegades grew hunting—and Alphonso I., the Catholic (739-757), stand as little in numbers, and in faith. Under the influence of orthodox Berber more than names. While the Muslim invasion of Gaul was still teachers their fanaticism was turned against the amir himself. going on, Manuza, the chief of the Berbers settled in north- Hakam, a winebibber much suspected of heterodoxy, had to expel western Spain, had revolted against the caliph’s lieutenants. In thousands from his capital. Part went to people the town of Fez, “Ao came the great general revolt of the Berbers. In 750 plague, newly founded in Morocco by the Idrisites: part wandered eastfollowing on drought and famine, swept away thousands of con- ward to found a Mohammedan State in Crete. Under the stimulus quered and conquerors alike. Amid the general desolation Alphon- of Berber fanaticism the toleration first shown to the Christians so I., duke of Cantabria and son-in-law of Pelayo, constituted was turned to persecution. A counter fanaticism was aroused in the kingdom which the Arabs called Galicia. It answered closely them, and for years the “Martyrs of Cordova” continued to force to the old Roman province of the same name—extending from the often reluctant cadis to hehead them, by blaspheming the the Bay of Biscay to the line of the Duero, from the ocean to the Prophet. Under Abdurrahman II. (822-852), who spent his life foot of the mountains of Navarre. Alphonso swept all through listening to a favourite and highly accomplished Persian tenor and that region, already more than half depopulated, slaying the lin- in the company of dancing girls, and under Mohammed I. (852gering remnants of the Berbers, and carrying back the surviving 886), the niggardly Mondhir (886-888), whose time was short, and Christians to the north. Behind that shield of waste the Christian Abdalla (888-912), who was feeble, the amirate was torn to kingdom developed; from the death of Alphonso I. to the reign of fragments. From this state of anarchy the amirate was saved by AbdurRamiro II. (931-950) it was subject to no serious attack, though raids on the frontier never ceased. Norse pirates appeared on rahman III. (912-961), the Akbar of his race. He came to the the coast in the 9th century, but made no permanent settlements. throne when half a century of war and murder had produced As the population grew, it pushed down to the plain of Leon and exhaustion, The country was swarming with brigands, and the Castile. The advance is marked by the removals of the capital communications were so dangerous that seven years had been forward from Cangas de Ona to Oviedo, from Oviedo to Leon, known to pass during which no caravan travelled from Cordova, and by the settlement of adventurous. frontier men in the ancient to Saragossa. Abdurrahman III., an oriental ruler of the great Bardulia, which from their “peels,” and towers of strength, gained type, industrious, resolute, capable of justice, magnificent, and the name of Castilla—the castles. Burgos became its centre. The free-handed without profusion, was eminently qualified to give Montaña (hill country) of Burgos, and in particular the district all that his people wanted, The splendour of his reign is a comcalled the Alfoz of Lara, was the cradle of the heroes of the Cas- monplace. He restored order even in the Sierra de Ronda, and tilian share in the reconquest. As the Marca Hispanica on the then he took the field against the Christians, Hakam IT. (961-976), Abdurrahman’s son, ascended the throne east became the county of Barcelona, so the chiefs of Bardulia became the counts of Castile, then the count of Castile, the rival in mature years, and continued his father’s policy. A lover of of the king at Leon, and in time the king of Castile, and head of books, he gave protection to writers and thinkers who were not strictly orthodox, The anarchy which broke out in the north-west, Christian Spain. There is much in the internal history of that kingdom which the kingdom now called Leon, on the death of Ramiro I.—whose of Navarre, of Sobrarbe and Aragon.

In the earliest times their

sons fought among themselves—and the endless conflicts between Leon and Castile, rendered the only formidable Christian kingRamiro II. only one event occurred which had much tendency dom powerless. In Hakam’s old age, one of his wives Sobh (the to bring the Christians of the north-west into close relations with Daybreak), a Basque, bore him the first son born in his harem, their neighbours of the same faith north of the Pyrenees. This who became Hisham II, and in all his long life was nothing but was the discovery of the body of St. James the Apostle in the a puppet. The administration of his chamberlain or kajib, Moreign of Alphonso II. the Chaste (789-842). The shrine at San- hammed ben Abdallah, who took the royal name al-Mansur Billah tiago in Galicia attracted pilgrims, who brought trade. The chief (“the victorious through God”) and is generally known as Manwho had to “people” a new and exposed township had to tempt sur (g.v.), is counted among the glories of the caliphate of Cormen by freedom and secure rights to follow his banner. The in- dova. It was the rule of a strong man who made, and kept under fluences which by the 13th century had abolished serfdom in west- his own control, a janissary army of slaves from all nations, ern Spain were all at work before the reign of Ramiro II. In spite Christian mercenaries from the north, Berbers and negroes from of revolts and of fratricidal struggles a State was formed. To the Africa. With that host he made 5o invasions into the Christian east of it, the Navarrese, having rid themselves of the Carolingian territory, but he left his enemies in a position to regain all they counts and marchers, had made a kingdom in their mountains, and had lost. It mattered little that he desolated in 997 the shrine of

stands apart from the general development of western Europe,

from which it was shut out. In all the long period from Pelayo to

SPAIN

128

St. James at Santiago da Compostela, the monastery of Cardena in Castile, took Leon, Pamplona and Barcelona, if at the end he left the roots of the Christian States firm in the soil, and to his son and successor as hajib only a mercenary army without loyalty. He died in roo2 undefeated, but racked by anxiety for the permanence of the prosperity of his house. His son Mozaffar kept tke authority as %ajib, always in the name of Hisham Il., who was hidden away in a second palace suburb of Cordova, Zahira. But Mozaffar lasted for a short time, and then died, poisoned, as it was said, by his brother Abdurrahman, called Sanchol, the son of Mansur by a Christian lady. Abdurrahman Sanchol was vain and feather-headed. He extorted from the feeble caliph the title of successor, thereby deeply offending the princes of the Omayyad house and the populace of Cordova. He lost his hold on his slaves and mercenaries, whose chiefs had begun to think it would be more to their interest to divide the country among themselves. A palace revolution, headed by Mohammed, of the Omayyad family, who called himself Al Mahdi Billah (guided by God), and a street riot, upset the power of the hajib at Cordova while he was absent on a raid against Castile. His soldiers deserted him, and he was speedily slaughtered. Then in the twinkling of an eye the whole edifice went into ruin. The end of Hisham II. is unknown, and the other princes perished in a frantic scramble for the throne in which they were the puppets of military adventurers. A score of shifting principalities, each ready to help the Christians to destroy the others, took the place of the caliphate. Development

of the

Christian

Kingdoms.—The

funda-

mental difference between the Muslim, who know only the despot and the Koran, and a Christian people who have the Church, a body of law and a Latin speech, was well seen in the contrast between the end of the greatness of Mansur, and the end of the weakness of his Christian contemporaries. The first left no trace. The second attained, after much fratricidal strife, to the foundation of a kingdom and of institutions. The interval between the death of Ramiro IT. in 950 and the establishment of the kingdom of Castile by Fernando I. in 1037 is on the surface as anarchical as the Mohammedan confusion of any time. The personages are not anywise heroic, even when like Alphonso V. (999-1027) they were loyal to their duty. Sancho the Fat, and Bermudo II. the Gouty, with their shameless feuds in the presence of the common enemy, and their appeals to the caliph, were miserable enough. But the emancipation of the serfs made progress. Charters began to be given to the towns, and a class of burghers, endowed with rights and armed to defend them, was formed; while the council of the magnates was beginning to develop into a cortes. The council over which Alphonso V. of Leon and his wife Geloria (ie., Elvira) presided in 1020, conferred the great model charter of Leon, and passed laws for the whole kingdom. The monarchy became thoroughly hereditary, and one main source of anarchy was closed. By the beginning of the 11th century the leading place among the Christian kings had been taken by Sancho El Mayor {the Great) of Navarre. He was married to a sister of Garcia, the last count of Castile. Garcia was murdered by the sons of Count Vela of Alava whom he had despoiled, and Sancho took possession of Castile, giving the government of it to his son Fernando (Ferdinand I.), with the title of king, and taking the name of “king of the Spains” for himself. Fernando was married toa daughter of Alphonso V. of Leon. Her brother Bermudo, the last of his line, could not live in peace with the new king, and lost his life in the battle of Tamaron, in a war which he had himself

[HISTORY

on the south-east. They began to close round Toledo, the shield

of Andalusia. The feeble Andalusian princes were terrified into paying tribute, and Fernando reached the very gates of Seville

without finding an enemy to meet him in the field. His death in

106s brought about a pause for a time. He left his three kingdoms to his three sons Sancho, Alphonso and Garcia. Alphonso, to

whom

Leon had fallen as his share, remained master after the

murder of Sancho at Zamora, which he was endeavouring to take. from his sister, and the imprisonment of Garcia of Galicia. The

reign of Alphonso VI., which lasted till t109, is one of the fullest

in the annals of Spain. His marriage with Constance, daughter of Robert, duke of Burgundy, brought a powerful foreign influ-

ence into play in Castile. Constance favoured the monks of Cluny, and obtained her husband’s favour for them. Under their leadership measures were taken to reform the Church. Castile ceased to be an isolated kingdom, and became an advance guard of

Europe in not the least vital part of the crusades.

Alphonso,

who during his exile owed some good services to the Moham-

medan king of Toledo, spared that city while his friend lived. In 1082 he swept all through the valley of the Guadalquivir to Tarifa, where he rode his horse into the sea and claimed possession of the “last land in Spain.” In 1086, his friend being dead, he made himself master of Toledo. The fall of the city resounded throughout Islam, and the Mohammedan princes of Andalusia began to look to Africa, where Yusuf ben Techufin was ruling the newly founded empire of the Almoravides. Al-Motamid, amir of Seville, a brilliant cavalier, an accomplished Arab poet, and one of the most amiably spendthrift of princes, thought it better to lead camels in Africa than to tend pigs in Castile. Yusuf came, and in 1086 inflicted a terrible defeat on Alphonso VI. at Zalaca near Badajoz. The immediate results of the stricken field were, however, but small. Yusuf was called back to Africa, and in his absence the Christians resumed the advance. When he returned he was chiefly employed in suppressing the Mohammedan princes. Alphonso was compelled to withdraw a garrison he had placed in Murcia, and Valencia was, by his decision, given up by the widow

of the Cid (qg.v.). But he kept his hold on Toledo, and though his

last days were darkened by the death of his only son in the lost battle of Ucles (1108), he died in 1109 with the security that his work would last. ‘The Almoravides.—The Almoravides, who were Berbers and were largely mingled with pure negroes, added to corruption a dull bigotry and a hatred of thought and knowledge from which the Arab, anarchical and politically incapable as he was, was free. In Aragon the successors of Ramiro Sanchez had begun to press close on Saragossa when the Almordvide invasion took place. The battle of Zalaca gave pause to the Aragonese, as it did for a short space to the Castilians. The interval of advance in the reconquest would have been shorter than it was but for the results of a most unfortunate attempt on the part of Alphonso VI. to unite the Crowns of Aragon and Castile by the marriage of Alphonso I. (1104-34) of Aragon with his daughter Urraca. Urraca (the name is a form of Maria) was dissolute and Alphonso was arbitrary. They came to open war, in which he claimed to be king of Castile by right of his marriage and his election by the nobles. The confusion was increased by the fact that Alphonso, Urraca’s son by her first marriage with Raymond of Burgundy, was recognized as king in Galicia, was bred up there by the able bishop Diego Gelmirez, and took an active part in the feuds of his mother and stepfather. The death of Urraca in 1126 allowed her son to reunite the dominions of his grandfather. In the meantime his provoked. Fernando now united all the north-west of Spain into quarrels with Urraca had not deterred Alphonso, who is surnamed the kingdom of Castile and Leon with Galicia. Navarre was left the Battler in Aragonese history, from taking Saragossa in 1118, hy Sancho to another son, Garcia, while the small Christian States and from defeating the Almoravides at the decisive battle of of the central Pyrenees, Aragon and Sobrarbe with the Ribagorza Cutanda in 1120. In 1125 he carried out a great raid through went to his other sons, Ramiro Sanchez and Gonzalo. Fernando, Mohammedan Spain, camping in its midst for months, and returnas the elder, called himself emperor, and asserted a general supe- ing with many thousands of the Christian rayahs, who, under the tiority over his brothers. When he had united his kingdom, he name of Mozarabes, had hitherto continued to live under Muslim took the field against the Mohammedans; and the period of the rule. After his death his brother, Ramiro, having been first exgreat reconquest began. claustrated by the pope, married Agnes of Aquitaine, and on the Beginning of the Christian Reconquest.—The Christians birth of his daughter Petronilla affianced her to Ramon Berenguer advanced to the banks of the Tagus in the south, and into Valencia (Raymond Berenger), count of Barcelona, and then retired to his

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The close of the period of the great reconquest, five centuries sell at Narbonne. This marriage united Aragon and Catalonia for | aver, and marks a great step forward in the constitution of a of struggle, left Spain divided between two States of different national unity in Spain. Navarre, indeed, which had been united character. On the west of the Iberian range and south of the with Aragon since the fratricidal murder of its king Sancho in Guadarrama was the kingdom called, for short, Castile and Leon. 1076, preferred to remain independent under a new ruler of its In fact its sovereign was also king of Galicia, Asturias, Extremachoice. It was henceforth a small State lying across the Pyrenees, dura, Jaen, Cordova and Seville. On the eastern slope of the Iberian hills and the great central dependent on France, and doomed inevitably to be partitioned table-land was the kingdom called, again for short, Aragon. Its between its great neighbours to north and south. Alphonso VII., the son of Urraca, was, during the 20 years be- king was also a ruler of many titles—king in Aragon, in Valencia tween his mother’s death and his own in 1157, the dominating and the Balearic Isles (with one interval of separation), count of sovereign of Spain. In 1135 he was crowned at Leon, in the Barcelona, and in Provence. Marriage and inheritance had given presence of the new king of Navarre, of the counts of Barcelona him territorial rights in the south-east of France. Thus he came in contact with the crusaders of Simon de Montfort and the exand Toulouse, and of other princes, Christian and Mohammedan, “emperor in Spain, and king of the men of the two religions.” pansion of the French monarchy. Another marriage, that of He took Cordova and conquered as far as Almeria, but left vassal Peter, the son and successor of James the Conqueror, with CosMuslim princes in possession. At his death Sancho, his eldest son, tanza, the daughter of Manfred of Beneventum, gave him claims succeeded him in Castile and Fernando in Leon. Portugal had on the Neapolitan and Sicilian inheritance of the Hohenstaufen. From the date of the Sicilian Vespers (1283) Aragon is found already become a semi-independent State. The Almohades.—Alphonso VIII. married Leonora, daughter mixed in the politics of Italy. The commercial activity of Barof Henry II. of England, who, as duke of Aquitaine, by right of celona brought it into collision with Genoa and alliance with his marriage with the duchess Eleanor, had a strong direct interest Venice. The curious double position of the king of Aragon is fully in Spanish politics. In Andalusia the downfall of the Almoravides illustrated by the career of that king Peter who was the father of had opened the way to the Almohades, or followers of the Mahdi, James the Conqueror. He fought as a crusader at Las Navas de an even more bigoted religious sect. Alphonso had conquered Tolosa, he went to Rome to be crowned, and did voluntary homCuenca, in the hill country between Castile and Valencia, in 1177, age to the pope. Yet his interests as a prince of southern France with the help of the king of Aragon, also an Alphonso, the son compelled him to draw the sword in defence of the Albigenses, of Petronilla and of Ramon Berenguer of Barcelona, and rewarded and, orthodox as he was in creed, he fell fighting for them at his ally by resigning all claim to feudal superiority over Aragon. Muret in 1213. The distinction of classes was far sharper in Aragon than in At a later period the two kingdoms defined their respective spheres .of influence by a treaty. Aragon was left free to conquer the Bal- non-feudal Castile and Leon. Predial slavery, which had disapearic islands and Valencia, while Murcia and Andalusia were to peared in Castile and Leon in the 13th century, existed unmodified fall to Castile. The Almohádes took the field against Alphonso in Aragon, and in its worst form, down to the Bourbon dynasty. in force, and as his fellow Christian sovereigns failed him in the Freedom was confined to the citizens of the towns which had hour of need, he was defeated at Alarcos (1195). To this age charters—called in Aragon the Universidades—the nobles, the belongs the formation of the great monastic military orders of gentry and the Church. The Catalans attained emancipation from Calatrava, Santiago and Alcántara. They supplied the Crown with feudal subjection by a succession of savage peasant revolts in the a strong force of well-disciplined and well-appointed cavalry. To 15th and 16th centuries. In Valencia emancipation was finally tighten the bond with Leon, Alphonso of Castile married his brought by a measure which in itself was cruel—the expulsion of daughter Berengaria to its king Alphonso (1188—1230), the son of the Moriscos in the 17th century. The landlords were compelled his uncle Fernando. The marriage was dissolved by the pope as to replace them by free tenants. The prevalence of predial slavery being within the prohibited degrees, but the son born of it was in Aragon and Valencia can be largely explained by the number of recognized as legitimate. Berengaria, a woman of very noble Mudéjares, that is Mohammedans living under Christian rule, character and eminent ability, deserved a better husband than and of Moriscos—converted Mohammedans. her cousin of Leon, who was nicknamed El Baboso—the SlobChristianization of Spain.—The Jews, who had suffered berer—and who appears to have been epileptic. In 1212 the king cruelly from the brutal fanaticism of the Almohades, had done a of Castile reaped the reward of long years of patience. The Al- great deal to forward the conquest of Andalusia. They were remohades threatened an invasion in force, and he organized a cru- paid by the confidence of the king, and the period which includes sade against them. Aragon was represented by its king Peter II., the reign of Fernando and lasts till the end of the rth century Navarre by its king Sancho, and Portugal by a strong contingent was the golden age of their history in Spain. In 1391 the preachof Templars and other knights. At Las Navas de Tolosa, just ‘ing of a priest of Seville, Fernando Martinez, led to the first gensouth of the Sierra Morena, the Almohades received (1212) the eral massacre of the Jews, who were envied for their prosperity final overthrow which laid Mohammedan Spain at the feet of the and hated because they were the king’s tax collectors. But the Christians. Alphonso died in 1214. His son Enrique (Henry) history of the persecution and expulsion of the Jews is the same was killed by the fall of a tile three years later; and Berengaria, everywhere except in date. The story of the Mudéjares and to whom the Crown came, sent to Leon for her son Fernando, and Moriscos is peculiarly Spanish. Forced conversion prepared the abdicated in his favour. way for expulsion, which came in the reign of Philip III. (1598Reconquest of Spain Except Granada speeds (Ferdi- 1621). In the majority of cases the conversion had occurred so nand III.) continued the advance into Andalusia: The Almohades long ago that the memory of the time when they were Mohamwere in swifter decline than the Almoravides. One of them, al- medans was lost, and multitudes of the children of Mudéjares reMamun, even sought Fernando’s help to regain his throne in mained. The Mozarabes again—the Christians who had always Morocco, and ceded a suburb of the city to his Christian allies. lived under Mohammedan rule—were an element of importance In 1230 the death of Alphonso of Leon opened the way to a final in mediaeval Spain. They had learnt to write in Arabic, and used union of the Crowns of Castile and Leon. The work of the recon- Arabic letters even when writing Latin, or the corrupt dialect of quest was now completed with swift steps. In 1236 Cordova was Latin which they spoke. The Mozarabes were treated under the conquered, and Seville fell in 1248 with the help of a fleet from kings of the reconquest as separate bodies with their own judges the Basque coast and of the Moorish king of Granada, who was and law, which they had been allowed to keep by the Muslim

Fernando’s vassal, paying tribute and attending cortes when summoned. Fernando died in May 1252. The Aragonese share of the reconquest was completed by James the Conqueror

(1213-76).

He conquered the Balearic islands in 1229 and Valencia in 1238. Mohammedan Spain was reduced to Granada anda line of ports round to Cadiz.

rulers. That code was the forum judicum of the Visigoths, the fuero juzgo, as it was called in the “romance” of later times and in Castilian. The Mozárabes brought in the large Arabic element, which is one of the features of the Castilian language.` Problem of the Unification of Spain.—The work of political unification was essentially more difficult than the christianiza-

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tion of Spain. The Galician who spoke, and still speaks, a language of his own, was profoundly separated from the Andalusian. The Basque, who till much later times practically included the Navarrese, was a man of another nationality and another speech from the Castilian. And what is true of Castile and Leon applies equally to Aragon. Aragonese, Catalans and Valencians were as different as Galicians, Basques, Castilians and Andalusians. Aragon spoke a dialect of Castilian. Catalonia and Valencia, together with the Balearic islands, spoke, and speak, dialects of the southern French, the so-called Limosé, though it was not the language of the Limousin. High mountain barriers and deep river courses had separated the Spaniards locally. They were more subtly and incurably separated by traditional and legal status. Under the Crown of Castile all the territory was either abadengo, realengo, salariego, behetria, or it belonged to some town, big or little, which

had its carta pueblo or town charter, its own fuero (forum) or law. Abadengo was land of the Church, realengo domain of the

Crown, salariego land of the nobles. Behetria is less easy to translate. The word is the romance form of benefactoria. Behetrias, called “plebian lordships,” were districts and townships of peasants who were bound to have a lord, and to make him payments in money or in kind, but who had a varying freedom of choice in electing their lord. Some were described as “from sea to sea, and seven times a day,” that is to say they could take him anywhere

in the king’s dominions from the Bay of Biscay to the Straits of Gibraltar, and change him as often as they pleased. Others were de linage, that is to say, bound to take their lord from certain lineages Their origin must probably be sought in the action of communities of Mozarabes, Christians living under Muslim rule

as rayahs, who put themselves under Christian chiefs of the early days of the reconquest for the benejice of their protection. They were mainly in old Castile. By the end of the middle ages they

had disappeared.

The chartered towns, in Spain east and west,

were practically republics living under their own carta pueblo with their own fuero or law. All charters were not granted by the king. Many of them were given by nobles or ecclesiastics, but required the confirmation of the king. And in this country, where all was local law usage and privilege, where uniformity was unknown, all charters were not held by towns. In many cases the serfs in the course of their struggle for freedom extorted charters

and fueros. The greater chartered towns had their surrounding comarcas, answering to the “county” of an Italian city, over which

[HISTORY |

nando de la Cerda, in virtue of a doctrine that the younger son, being nearer to the father than the grandson, had a right to suc-

’

ceed in preference to the children of an elder brother who had died before the succession was

open.

Alphonso,

after first ac

cepting Sancho’s claim, repudiated it, and made a will by which he not only left the Crown of Castile to the eldest son of Fernando de la Cerda, but cut vassal kingdoms out of the southern parts of Spain for Sancho’s younger brothers. The reign of Sancho IV., surnamed El Bravo, or the Fierce (1284-96), was

one constant struggle with the very nobles who had helped him

against his father, with his younger brothers, and with the sons of Fernando de Ja Cerda. Murder and massacre were his familiar methods. He was succeeded by his infant son Fernando (Ferdinand IV.) whose long minority was an anarchy, tempered by the courage and the tact of his mother, Maria de Molina. Fernando,

ungrateful to his mother and incapable as a king, died in 1312,

leaving a son of less than a year old, Alphonso XI. (1312—50), After another minority of confusion, Alphonso, surnamed “of the Rio Salado,” from the great victory he won over an invading host

from Africa, ruled with energy and real political capacity. He did something to found the judicial and administrative unity of

the country. His death at the age of 38, during the great plague,

and while he was besieging Gibraltar, was a misfortune to Spain. His successor, Peter, called the Cruel (1350-68) was destined to show the Castilians exactly what the constant use by “the prince” of the reserved rights of the sovereign authority could be made to mean, when they were exercised by a passionate man maddened by suspicion of all about him. Administering the civil side of his Government through Jewish tax-gatherers and farmers of the taxes, and surrounded by the Mudéjar guard, who were the

executors of his justice, his path is marked by one long succession of murders. With all his appearance of energy, he shrank from action at the critical moment of his wars out of utter want of

trust in all about him. His expulsion by his brother, Henry of Trastamara, the eldest son of Leonora de Guzman, his restoration by the Black Prince (g.v.), his treachery to him, and his final defeat and murder at Montiel, are famous episodes. Henry of Trastamara, the beginner of the “new kings” (1368-79), reigned by election. In his reign and those of his immediate successors the cortes flourished, although it failed to establish checks on the

absolute power of the king. Henry was on the whole a successful

ruler. He forced his neighbours of Portugal to make peace, his fleet defeated an English squadron off Rochelle, and he restored internal order. The civic hermandades, or brotherhoods, enforced — and in many cases won, emancipation, which they then sought to respect from the nobles. John I, (1379-90), Henry’s son and suchave confirmed by the king and proceeded to symbolize by setting cessor, had to contend with John of Gaunt, son of Edward III, up their own gallows in the market-place. The Church had won of England, who had married the eldest daughter of Peter the exemption from the payment of taxes by no general law, but by Cruel, and claimed the Crown of Castile in her name, John particular privilege to this or that chapter, bishopric or monastery. averted the danger by arranging a marriage between his son Henry The nobles claimed, and were allowed, exemption from taxation. and Constance, the eldest daughter of John of Gaunt, an alliance Church and nobles alike were for ever extending their borders by which united the two equally illegitimate lines representing Alpurchase, or trying to do so by force. They conferred their ex- phonso XI,, and so closed the dispute as to the succession. He was emptions on the land they acquired, thus throwing the burden of less fortunate in his efforts to vindicate the rights of his wife taxation on the towns and the non-nobles with increasing weight. Beatriz to the throne of Portugal. The defeat of the Castilians But there was in reality no sharp division except in the smaller and at the battle of Aljubarrota (1385) compelled the king to refeudal portion—called Aragon for convenience—and save as be- nounce his pretensions. The minority of his son, Henry III. tween Christian and non-Christian, noble and non-noble. The (1390-1406) was long, and his effective reign short, but in the necessities of the reconquest made it obligatory that all the brief space allowed him the king, a weakly man surnamed El dwellers on the frontier should be garrison. Hence they were not Doliente (the sufferer) did something to establish order. He reonly encouraged but required to possess arms. Those of them who covered all the immense grants of Crown lands and rents, imcould provide themselves with a charger, a mail shirt, a spear and pounded by the nobles during his minority. The first years of the

they exercised jurisdiction. In time the villages dependent on a chartered city, as they grew to be towns themselves, fought for,

sword were ranked as mélites—-and the miles was a caballero.

The Kings of Castile.—Alphonso X. of Castile (1252-84) was a writer, and a man of keen intelligent interest in science and law. As a ruler he was at once weak, unstable and obstinate. He wasted much time and great sums of money in endeavouring to secure his election as emperor—not in Spain, but in the Holy Roman empire. He did indeed add the town of Cadiz to his posSessions with the help of his vassal, the Moorish king of Granada,

but his reign is filled with quarrels between himself and his nobles. He ended his life in a war with his son Sancho, who claimed the succession in preference to the children of his elder brother, Fer-

minority of his infant son, John II, (1406-54), were by a rare

exception peaceful. The young king’s uncle Ferdinand acted as regent,

Ferdinand was able and honest.

His succession to the

throne of Aragon is an event of capital importance. The Kings of Aragon.—The kings of Aragon from the death of James the Conqueror in 1276 to the death of Martin I. in 1410 were so largely concerned in the struggle with the Angevin Party in Naples and Sicily, that their history belongs rather to Italy than to their Peninsular kingdom. They were six in number:

Peter IIT. (1276-85), Alphonso IIT, (1385-91), James IT. (1291-

1327), Alphonso IV. (1327-36), Peter IV. (1336-87), John I

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HISTORY]

(1387-95), and Martin to reunite the Balearic Conqueror had left by Aragon, and to reduce

I. (1395-1410). Their islands and Roussillon, will to a younger son, their turbulent barons,

double task was which James the to the Crown of in Aragon, Cata-

lonia and Valencia alike, to the position of obedient subjects. In both tasks Peter IV. ultimately achieved success. The barons of

Aragon and Valencia had extorted from his weak father the charter known as the “Union,” an instrument which was incompatible with the monarchical or any other form of government. The object of the life of Peter IV. was to force the barons to surrender their charter. After years of struggle and preliminary failures, Peter IV. defeated the “Union” utterly at the decisive battle of Epila (1348). He was a typical king of the 15th century, immeasurably false, and unspeakably ferocious, but he was not a mere bloodthirsty sultan like his enemy, Peter the Cruel of Castile. When he won he took, indeed, a brutal vengeance on individuals, and he extorted the surrender of the charter and destroyed it with his dagger in the presence of the cortes at Sara-

gossa. He cut his hand in his eagerness, and declared that the blood of a king was well shed in securing the destruction of such an instrument—whence

his popular nickname

of Peter

of the

Dagger (del Punyalet). But his use of the victory was statesmanlike. He fully confirmed the right of the nobles to trial by law and security against arbitrary punishment;

he left the franchises of

the city untouched, and respected the independence of the justicia. The result of his victory was to give Aragon and his other dominions a measure of internal peace unknown in Castile. The reigns of his sons and successors, John and Martin, were insignificant and tranquil. The death of Martin without children in 1410 left the succession open. The cortes was able to administer in peace, and the question of the succession was debated as if it had been in a suit between private persons. The judges finally decided in favour of Ferdinand, on the ground that his mother, Eleanor, was the daughter of Peter IV., and that though a woman could not reign as a “proprietary queen” in Aragon, she could convey

131

the death of her husband Ferdinand in 1516, was carried, not to completion, but to the stopping place at which it was destined to rest for two centuries. The voyage of Columbus in 1492, and the intervention of Ferdinand in the great conflict of France, the empire and the papacy for predominance in Italy, bad, simultaneously, the effect of opening to her the world of conquest and adventure in America, and of committing her to incessant wars in

the Italian peninsula. The death of John, the only son of Ferdinand and Isabella, the worst misfortune which ever happened to Spain, opened the succession to all the crowns and coronets worn by the Catholic sovereigns to Charles of Habsburg—the emperor Charles V. From that day Spain became a part—the leader, then the paymaster, then the dupe—of the international monarchical confederation called “the illustrious House of Austria.” The Spaniard became the swordsman and executioner of the counterReformation, because the power of the House of Austria depended on the imposition of religious unity in Europe. The decision of Charles V., king of Spain and emperor, to leave the Netherlands to his son Philip IT , committed the Spaniards to conflict on the sea with England, and to the insane attempt to secure a safe road for their armies across Europe from the shores of the Mediterranean to the North sea. Meanwhile the Spaniards were endeavouring to check the advance of the Turks in the Mediterranean, and to exclude all Europe from the waters of the New World.

Ferdinand and Isabella.—Ferdinand and Isabella were pro-

claimed king and queen of Castile together, although the Crown was hers alone, and although she never consented to part with her sovereign authority. In the purely internal affairs of Castile it was always she who decided on questions of administration. They immediately began the work of establishing order and obedience in their dominions. The line of policy followed by the Catholic sovereigns was to keep the old forms, but draw the substance of power to themselves. This course was followed with the cortes. It continued to be summoned by the Catholic sovereigns and their the right to her husband or transmit it to her son. successors of the Habsburg line, but it was needed only to grant The years 1412-79 marked a growing approximation between money. The nobles and the clergy, who as exempt from taxation the two States whose interests touched one another so closely. In had no vote, became purely ornamental parts of the cortes. Thè Castile John II. (1406-54), a man of amiable but indolent char- representatives of the third estate were confined by the indifferacter and of literary tastes, was governed by his favourite, Alvaro ence of the Castilians to 18 towns, whose procurators were named de Luna, and harassed by his nobles. At the end of his life he sacri- by the councils either from among themselves in rotation, or from ficed his favourite at the instigation of his second wife. Of his particular families. The Catholic sovereigns provided themselves son, Henry IV. (1454-74) it is enough to say that he was called with a revenue by the customary wholesale resumptions of grants “the Impotent,” and that there is every reason to believe that he made during the reigns of John IJ. and Henry IV., and by the deserved the description in all the senses of the word. His reign suppression or reduction of the pensions they had granted with was an inferior copy of his father’s. As the legitimacy of his profusion. Encouragement of industry was not wanting; the alleged daughter Juana was disputed, his sister Isabella claimed State undertook to develop the herds of merino sheep, by issuing the succession, and married her cousin, Ferdinand of Aragon, son prohibitions against inclosures, which proved the ruin of agriof John II., in 1469 in defiance of her brother. In Aragon, Ferdi- culture, and gave premiums for large merchant ships, which ruined nand I. “of Antequera” (1412-16) was succeeded by Alphonso the owners of small vessels and reduced the merchant navy of V. (1416-58) the Magnanimous, whose brilliant life belongs to Spain to a handful of galleons. Tasas, xed prices, were placed Italy. In Aragon he was represented by his brother John, who ad- on everything. The weaver, the fuller, the armourer, the potter, ministered as lieutenant-general, and who reigned in his own right the shoemaker were told exactly how to do their own work. (1458-79) when Alphonso V. died without legitimate heirs, leaving All this did not bear its full fruit during the reign of the CathoNaples by will to a bastard son. John II., a man of indomitable lic sovereigns, but by the end of the 16th century it had reduced energy and considerable capacity, spent most of his life in endeav- Spain to a state of Byzantine regulation in which every kind of ouring to enforce his claims to the kingdom of Navarre as the work had to be done under the eye and subject to the interference husband and heir of its queen Blanche. His conflict with his son of a vast swarm of Government officials, all ill paid, and often by his frst marriage, Charles, prince of Viana, was settled in his not paid, all corrupt. All this also did not bear its full fruit till favour by the death of the prince. A national revolt was sup- later times, but by the 17th century it had made Spain one of the pressed in Catalonia. At the age of over 8o, the blind old king two “most beggarly nations in Europe’’—the other being Portugal. The Spanish Inquisition.—The policy of the Catholic sovertransmitted his kingdom to Ferdinand, his son by his second marriage, with Juana Enriquez, of the family of the hereditary eigns towards the Church was of essentially the same character admirals of Castile. Navarre went to a daughter, and Roussillon as their treatment of the nobles or the cities. They aimed at using was somewhat fraudulently retained by Louis XI. as security for it as an instrument of government. One of the first measures a debt. Ferdinand conquered the Spanish half of Navarre later, adopted by them in Castile, before the union with Aragon, was to and recovered Roussillon from Charles VIII., the successor of stop the nomination of foreigners to Spanish benefices by the pope. But the most characteristic part of their ecclesiastical Louis XI. With the death of Jobn II. of Aragon in 1479 the history of policy was the establishment of the Spanish Inquisition (g.v.). By Spain enters on an entirely new period. Hitherto it has been the bull of Sixtus IV. of 1478 they obtained authority to appoint the story of a national development. The process did not cease, three inquisitors, whom they were empowered to remove or rebut, during the reign of Isabella the Catholic (1474-1504) ‘until place, and who were independent of, and superior to, the inquisi-

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torial courts of the bishops. The Inquisition was at first estabit was exlished (in 1480) in the dominions of Castile only, but in spite of Aragon, to 1487 in and Catalonia to tended in 1486 strong protests. The first duties of the Inquisition were to deal with the converted Jews and Mohammedans, respectively known as Marranos and Moriscos. Professed Jews were expelled in 1492, and the Mohammedans or Mudéjares in 1502. Both were industrious classes, and the loss of their services was disastrous to Spain —ihe first of a long series of similar measures which culminated in the final expulsion of the Moriscos in 1610. The converted Jews and Mohammedans presented greater difficulties to the Inquisition. Many of the higher ecclesiastics and of the nobility were of Jewish, or partially Jewish, descent. Conquest of Granada.—Between 1481 and 1492 the Catholic sovereigns completed the work of the reconquest by subjugating the one surviving Mohammedan State of Granada. Their task was materially facilitated by dissensions among the Moors. The surrender of Granada on Jan. 2, 1492, was partly secured by promises of toleration, which were soon violated. A revolt had to be suppressed in 1y0r. Having secured the unity of their territory in the peninsula, the Catholic sovereigns were free to begin the work of expansion. In 1492 Columbus (g.v.) sailed on his first voyage to the west. In 1493 Ferdinand secured the restoration of Roussillon from Charles VIII. of France by the fallacious

treaty in which he undertook to remain neutral during the king’s expedition to Italy. The voyage of Columbus had unforeseen consequences which led to diplomatic difficulties with Portugal, and the Treaty of Tordesillas in 1494, which defined the respective spheres of influence of the two Powers in the New World and in Asia. In 1497 Ferdinand, with the support of his wife, entered on those wars of Italy in which the Spanish regular soldiers first gained their reputation, and which made Spain for a time the dominant Power in the Italian peninsula (see CORDOBA, GONZALO F. De). They endeavoured to strengthen themselves against France by marriages with the royal family of England (see

CATHERINE oF ARAGON) and the Habsburgs.

The marriage of

Juana, called the Mad, with Philip of Habsburg, son of the emperor Maximilian (g.v.), brought a new dynasty to Spain. On the death of Queen Isabella in 1504 her son-in-law claimed the regency, and was supported by the Castilian nobles. His death in 1506 and the insanity of his widow left the Castilians no choice but to restore Ferdinand as regent. During the next ten years Ferdinand governed with the very able assistance of the archbishop of Toledo, Jimenez de Cisneros (g.v.). He annexed the southern part of Navarre, which was held by the representatives of his half-sister. The archbishop organized and directed the expedition which conquered Oran, Tripoli and other points on the African coast. Here beyond all doubt lay the proper field for the _ expansion of Spain. She was drawn from it on the death of Ferdinand in 1516. He was succeeded by his grandson Charles of

Habsburg, and when Charles was elected to the empire in 1519 Spain was dragged into the wars and politics of Central Europe. (A. E. Ho.; A. B.) THE AUSTRIAN HOUSE The Emperor Charles V.—Only the smaller part of the reign of Charles was spent in Spain. He came to it from Flanders, where he had received his education, unable to speak the Spanish language and surrounded by Flemish favourites. Furthermore, and this was the chief cause of his misunderstandings with the Spanjlards, his mind was mainly preoccupied with the international policy of the house of Burgundy and the empire, a foreign policy which could arouse no interest and was not even understood in Spain. Charles knew nothing either of Spanish ideas or of the national tradition of the new States to which he had succeeded, To him and his favourites the new country was only a source of

supply from which money was to be obtained in order to bribe the German electors.

[HISTORY

its connection with the empire, gave to the nation a great Euro.

pean position and to the Spanish soldiers of the time many op. portunities to win renown. The capture of the French king (Francis I.) at Pavia and his imprisonment at Madrid gratified for a moment the pride of the Spaniards, and did much to recon. cile some of them to the sacrifices which the policy of the em, peror imposed on them. But the cortes begged Charles many times to make an end of the European wars, as did the nobles assembled in 1538. Except in the case of the successful attack on Tunis in 1535, and the attempt to take Algiers in 1541, the actions of Charles were not inspired by any regard for the interests of his Spanish kingdoms. He treated them simply as ip. struments to promote the grandeur of his house. His indifference to their good, or his utter inability to see where it lay, was con. spicuously shown when, on his abdication in 1556, he left his hereditary Flemish possessions to his son Philip, and not to his brother Ferdinand.

Philip I1—In foreign policy the reign of Philip IT. (1556~98) was a prolongation of the reign of his father, and in it the vices of this policy were displayed to the fullest extent. Philip’s mar. riage with Mary Tudor in 1554 having proved barren, and her

death in 1558 having placed Elizabeth on the throne of England, he was left without the support against France which this union was meant to secure. At the same time his inheritance of the

Netherlands brought him into collision with their inhabitants, | who feared his absolutist tendencies, and with the Reformation

(q.v.). The revolt in the Low Countries was inevitably favoured by both France and England. Philip was consequently drawn into intervention in the religious wars of France (g.v.) and into war

with England, which culminated in the great Armada (g.v.) of 1588. His relations with England were further complicated by the

extension of English maritime enterprise to the New World (see HAWKINS, JOHN; and Drake, Francis). In the Mediterranean he was equally forced by his position and the tradition of the Crown of Castile to take part in resisting the Turks (see MALTA: and LEPANTO, BATTLE oF). But his relations with his Flemish subjects formed the centre of his policy. With his absolutist tendencies, which did not however differ from those of other European monarchs, he was bound to wish to govern them as he did Castile, and the principle of religious toleration, which was not understood by any prince in Europe with the exception of the prince.of Orange, William I., the Silent (g.v.), was peculiarly impossible for him. His reign was therefore one long struggle with forces which he was unable to master. The burden of the struggle fell with crushing effect on his Spanish. dominions and particularly on Castile. Aragon, which was poor and tenacious of its rights, would give little; Catalonia and Valencia afforded small help. The Flemish revenue was destroyed by the revolt. The Italian states barely paid their expenses. Resources for the incessant wars of the reign had been sought in the taxation of Castile and the revenue from the mines of America.

They were wholly inadequate, and the result of the

attempt to dominate all western Europe ruptcy and exhaustion. In his internal fully absolute, but he was at the same good administration, public integrity and

was to produce bankgovernment Philip was time careful to ensure justice.

Foreign Policy of Philip Il.—The first years of the reign of

Philip IT. were occupied in concluding the last of his father’s wars with France, to which was added a very unwelcome quarrel with the pope, arising out of his position as duke of Milan. He was unable to avoid sending an army under Alva against Paul IV., and was glad to avail himself of the services of Venice to. patch up a peace. On the Flemish frontier, with the help of an English

contingent and by the good generalship of Philibert of Savoy he defeated a French army at St. Quentin on Aug. 1o, 1557, and again at Gravelines on July 13, 1558.

But he did not follow up

his successes, and the: war was ended by the signing of the peace

of Cateau Cambrésis on April 2, rs 59. The exhaustion of his resources made peace necessary ‘to him, and it was no less desir: by Hernan Cortes (g.v.) and of Peru by Francisco Pizarro (g.v.) able to the French Government. Philip’s marriage with Elizabelong to this reign. These conquests and the incessant wars beth, the daughter of Henry II. and of Catherine de’ Medici, tointo which Spain was drawn by the Aragonese claims in Italy, and gether with their common fear of the Reformation, bound him European

Policy of Charles V.—The

conquest of Mexico

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from thence to the German ecclesiastical states, which allowed a free passage to the Spanish troops. War with France ensued. The failure of the treaty of marriage with England (see BUCKINGHAM, GEORGE VILLIERS, first duke of) also led to war, for the king, which repeated the terms of another decree of Charles English ‘court was offended by the Spanish refusal to aid in the (1526) regarding the Catholic education of Moriscoes and the restoration of the count palatine, son-in-law of James I., to his prohibition of the use of Arabic, led to a revolt which desolated dominions. In Flanders the town of Breda was taken after a Granada from 1568 to 1570. The Moriscoes had looked for help famous siege. The French conducted their campaign badly. The from the Turks, who were engaged in conquering Cyprus from Dutch were expelled from Bahia in Brazil, which they had seized. Venice. The danger to Spain and to the Spanish possessions in An English attack on Cadiz in 1625 was repulsed. Decadence of the Spanish Empire.—But by 1640 the feebleItaly stimulated the king to join in the Holy League formed by the pope and Venice against the Turks; and Spanish ships and ness of the political power of the Spanish European empire was notorious. In that year Portugal fell away without needing to soldiers had a great share in the splendid victory at Lepanto. In 1581 Philip annexed Portugal, as heir to King Henry, the strike a blow. Then followed the revolt of Naples (see MASANaged successor of Dom Sebastian. Philip endeavoured to placate IELLO) and of the Catalans, who were bitterly angered by the the Portuguese by the fullest recognition of their constitutional excesses of the troops sent to operate against the French in rights, and in particular by favouring the fidalgos or gentry. The Roussillon. They called in the French, and the Spanish Governduke of Braganza, whose claims were better than Philip’s, was ment was compelled to neglect Portugal. Olivares, who was debought off by immense grants. Outwardly at the zenith of its nounced by the nation as the cause of all its misfortunes, was powers, the country in reality was internally exhausted, and its dismissed, and the king made a brief effort to rule for himself. weakness was shown when open war began with England in 1585. But he soon fell back under the control of less capable favourWhile a vast armament was being slowly collected for the in- ites than Olivares. In 1643 the prestige of the Spanish infantry vasion of England, Drake swept the West Indies, and in 1587 was rumed by the battle of Rocroy. At the Peace of Münster, burnt a number of Spanish ships in their own harbour of Cadiz. which ended the Thirty Years’ War in 1648, Spam was cynically The ruinous failure of the great Armada in 1588 demonstrated thrown over by the German Habsburgs for whom she had sacrithe incapacity of Spain to maintain her pretensions. In 1591 the ficed so much. Aided by the disorders in the minority of Louis support given by the Aragonese to Antonio Perez (q.v.) led to XIV., she struggled on till the Peace of the Pyrenees in 1659, by the invasion of their country by a Castilian army. The constitu- which Roussillon was ceded to France. An attempt was now tional rights of Aragon were not entirely suppressed, but they made to subdue Portugal, but the battle of Montesclaros in 1665 were diminished, and the kingdom was reduced to a greater proved the futility of the effort. The news of the disaster was measure of submission. In his later years Philp added to all his followed by the death of the king on Sept. 17, 1665. Catalonia other burdens a costly intervention in France to support the was saved by the reaction produced by excesses of the French League and resist the succession of Henry IV. to the throne. He troops, and in Naples the revolt had collapsed; but Portugal was was compelled to acknowledge himself beaten before his death lost forever. on Sept. 13, 1598. He left the war with England and with the Charles II. 1665-1700.—During the whole of the reign of Netherlands as an inheritance to his son. Charles YI., the son of the second marriage of Philip IV. with his Philip IMI. 1598-1621.—The period of 102 years covered by niece Mariana of Austria, the Spanish monarchy was saved from the reigns of Philip III., Philip IV. and Charles II., was one dismemberment only by the intervention of England and Holland. of gradual decadence, mainly in the spheres of politics and The wars of 1667—68, 1672—78, 1683-84, and the war of the economics. On the other hand and until the end of the reign of League of Augsburg, 1689—96, were some of them fought wholly, Philp IV. it was the golden age of Spanish literature, art and and all of them partly, because the French king wished to obtain science. The dynasty continued to make the maintenance of the one or another portion of the dominions of the Spanish Habsrights and interests of the house of Austria its main object. The burgs. But Spain took a subordinate and often a merely passive policy of James I. of England, the civil wars of Charles I., the part in these wars. The king was imbecile. During his minority assassination of Henry IV. of France, the troubles of the minor- the Government was directed by his mother and her successive ity and reign of Louis XIII. and the Fronde (g.v.), preserved favourites, the German Jesuit Nithard and the Granadine adSpain from concerted and persistent foreign attack. After a futile venturer Fernando de Valenzuela. In 1677 the king’s bastard attempt to injure England by giving support to the earl of Tyrone brother, the younger Don John of Austria, defeated the queen’s in Ireland (see Tyrone, EARLS oF) peace was made between the factıon, which was entirely Austrian in sentiment, and obtained powers ‘in 1604. In 1609 a 12 years’ truce was made with the power for a short time. By him the king was married in 1679 to Dutch. But the temporary cessation of foreign wars brought no Marie Louise of Orleans, in the interest of France. When she real peace to Spain. died in 1689, he was married by the Austrian party to Mariana of Philip IV. 1621-65.—The death of Philip ITT. (March 21, Neuburg. At last the French party, which hoped to save the 1621) brought no real change. His son, Philip IV., was an abler monarchy from partition by securing the support of France, perman and even gave indications of a wish to qualify himself to suaded the dying king to leave his kingdom by will to the duke discharge his duties as king. But he was young, pleasure-loving, of Anjou, the grandson of Louis XIV., and of Maria Teresa, and wanted the strength of will to make his good intentions effec- daughter of Philip IV. by his first marriage. On the death of tive. For 20 years the administration was really directed by his Charles IT., on Nov. 1, 1700, the duke of Anjou became king. favourite the count of Olivares (g.v.) and the duke of San Lucar, THE BOURBON DYNASTY known as the “Conde-Duque,” the count-duke. Olivares possessed The decision of Louis XIV. to accept the inheritance left to the sense of the national unity of Spain as opposed to the particularism of the old kingdoms, which was a source of certain his grandson by Charles IT. led to a war (see SPANISH Succesweakness in international disputes. But he could only keep his SION, WAR OF THE), which was only ended in 1713 by the peace place by supplying his master with the means of dissipation and of Utrecht, and resulted in the loss of Gibraltar and the island by conforming to his dynastic sentiments. The truce concluded of Minorca, which remained in the hands of England, and of all in 1609 with Holland ended in 1621, and was not renewed. The the Spanish dominions in Italy and Flanders. Philip V. 1700-—46.—In internal affairs the years of the war commercial classes, particularly in Portugal, complained that it subjected them to Dutch competition. War was renewed, and were of capital rmportance in Spanish history. The general politithe Dutch invaded Brazil. As their fleets made it dangerous to cal and administrative nullity of the upper Spanish class of this send troops by sea to Flanders, Spain had to secure a safe road generation and the political views of the French monarchy led to overland. Therefore she endeavoured to obtain full control of the assumption of all real power by the French or Italian servants the Valtellina, the valley leading from Lombardy to Tirol, and and advisers of the king. Under their direction important finan-

to the French royal house, but for a brief period only. By 1567 the revolt in the Netherlands was flagrant, and the duke of Alva was sent with a picked army, and at the expense of Spain, to put it down. In the same year, a decree of the

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ist and on Spain in the end of the 17th century was lifted. cial and administrative reforms were begun. The absolut Charles IV. 1788-1808—Charles III. was succeeded in 1788 the sepcentralizing nature of some of these innovations revived his son Charles IV. The father, though “enlightened,” had by which la peninsu aratist tendencies of the eastern portion of the the Bour- been a thorough despot; the son was sluggish and stupid to the had embraced the cause of the Austrian party against oe verge of imbecility, but the despotism remained. The new king , Aragon bon dynasty. Philip V. was forced to reduce e was much under the influence of his wife, Maria Luisa of Parma, and Valencia by arms. Barcelona was only taken in 1714, the a coarse, passionate and narrow-minded woman; but he continued year after the signing of the Treaty of Utrecht. Most of to repose confidence in his father’s ministers. Floridablanca was, privileges of these once independent kingdoms, which ) had with red. however, unable to continue his earlier policy, in view of the conrare exceptions been respected by the Austrian kings, disappea temporaneous outbreak of the Revolution in France. The revival Philip of death the Elizabeth Farnese and Alberoni—On of Spain depended on the restoration of her colonial and naval V.’s wife, Maria Luisa Gabriella of Savoy, in 1714, the king ascendancy at the expense of Great Britain, and for this the him ruled who Parma, of was married at once to Elizabeth Farnese of France was needed. But the “Family Compact,” on support adof and used her whole influence to drag Spain into a series French alliance depended, ceased to exist when Louis ventures in order to obtain Italian dominions for her sons. Her which the of power by his subjects. Of this conclusive deprived was XVL favour whose first agent was the Italian priest Alberoni (g.v.), 1791. Some English merchants had violated in given was lasted from 1714 to 1719. Alberoni could not, and perhaps did evidence the whole west coast of America by foundto Spain of claim the plunging from king and queen not sincerely wish to, prevent the Sound. The Spanish Government Nootka at t settlemen a ing into an attempt to recover Sardinia and Sicily, which provoked but the French National Assembly protest, vigorous a lodged the to led and England and France of ion the armed intervent any assistance, and Floridablanca was forced to destruction of the rising Spanish navy off Cape Passaro (see Tor- refused to lend ng treaty and give up all hope of opposing humiliati a conclude the secured Elizabeth 1731 In . Viscount) BYNG, GEORGE RINGTON, progress the Britain. of Great of III. Charles afterwards succession of her eldest son, Charles, The French Revolution.—This failure was attributed by the Spain, to the duchy of Parma, by arrangement with England and of which he became the uncomprothe empire. Apart from the Italian intrigues, the most important minister to the Revolution, negotiations with the émigrés, urged opened He opponent. mising of foreign affairs of the reign were connected with the relations on behalf of legitimacy, and crusade a to Powers European the was Gibraltar regain to attempt feeble A England. Spain with to the head of his family. IV. Charles of devotion the paraded resolute the by averted made in 1733, and a serious war was only him into collision with the peace policy of Walpole. The king, who had become almost This bellicose policy, however, brought and his friends, and Floridablanca that result the with queen entirely mad, died on July 9, 1746. set aside and the were also, Aranda veteran the afterwards shortly Ferdinand VI. 1746-59.—His successor, Ferdinand VI., the the favourite of affairs, Emmanuel direction obtained Godoy man, modest and retiring a was marriage, first his of son second of Alcudia, who adopted a policy of peace with England. His ministers were Godoy, who had recently received the title of duke favourite mainly Spaniards, well qualified for political and administrative and who was at once the queen’s lover and the personal tasks (which indicates a very rapid recovery), intermingled with of the king, had no experience of the routine of office, and no a few foreigners: the most notable of the Spaniards was Zenon settled policy: but the course to be pursued was decided for him. de Somadevila, marquis of Ensenada, and of the foreigners, The execution of Louis XVI. (Jan. 21, 1793) made a profound Richard Wall, an Irish Jacobite. The advance of the country in impression in Spain. Charles IV. was roused to demand vengeance for the insult to his family, and the Spanish monarchy became material prosperity was considerable. Charles III. 1759-88.—Charles IIT. was one of the most sin- an enthusiastic member of the first coalition against France. But cere, and the most successful, of the “enlightened despots” of the the campaign undertaken mainly in Roussillon was a failure; the 18th century. He had had a long apprenticeship in Naples, and Spaniards were driven from the strong fortresses that guarded the was a man of 43 when he came to Spain in 1759. Until his death Pyrenees, whilst the French advanced almost to the Ebro. The queen and Godoy hastened to follow the example set by he laboured to advance the material prosperity of Spain. His foreign policy was less wise. He had a deep dislike of England, Prussia, and concluded the Treaty of Basle with France (1795). not only because of the late wars in Europe, but also because of But the moderation of this treaty was only a flimsy disguise of the covetous eyes which England turned on America; and a the disgrace that it involved. Spain found’herself tied hand and strong and justified desire to recover Minorca and Gibraltar. foot to the French republic. Godoy had to satisfy his allies by All this added to a natural family feeling, induced him the encouragement of reforms which both he and his mistress to enter into the “Family Compact” with his French cousins. In loathed, and in 1796 the veil was removed by the conclusion of 1770 he came to the verge of war with England over the Falk- the Treaty of San Ildefonso. This was a virtual renewal of the land islands. In 1778 he joined France in supporting the insurgent “Family Compact” of 1761, but with terms far more disadvanEnglish colonists in America. The most statesmanlike of his for- tageous to Spain. The real object of the treaty was cynically eign enterprises, the attempt to take the piratical city of Algiers avowed in the 18th article, by which, during the present war, the in 1775, was made with insufficient forces and ended in defeat. Spanish obligations were only to apply to the quarrel between Yet he was able to recover Minorca and Florida in the War of Great Britain and France. A scheme was prepared for a joint American Independence, and he finally extorted a treaty with attack on the English coast, but it was foiled by the battle of Algiers which put a stop to piratical raids on the Spanish coast. St. Vincent (g.v.), in which Jervis and Nelson forced the SpanThe king’s domestic policy was almost wholly fruitful of good. ish fleet to retire to Cadiz. Great Britain seized the opportunity Under his direction many useful public works were carried out— to encourage discontent in the Spanish colonies. It was in vain that Godoy sought to secure the friendship of roads, bridges and large schemes of drainage. The first reforms undertaken had provoked a disturbance in Madrid directed against the reforming party by giving office to two of its most prominent the king’s favourite minister, the Sicilian marquis of Squillacci. members, Jovellanos and Saavedra. Spanish pride and religious Charles, who believed that the Jesuits had promoted the out- sentiment were offended by the French occupation of Rome and break, and also that they had organized a murder plot against the erection of a republic in the place of the papal Government. him, allowed his minister Aranda (qg.v.), the correspondent of The treatment of the duke of Parma by the Directory was keenly Voltaire, to expel the order in 1766, and exerted his whole in- resented by the queen. Godoy found himself between two parties fluence to secure its entire suppression. The new spirit was also who agreed only in their hatred of him, and in March 17098 he was shown by the restrictions imposed on the numbers of the religious compelled to resign his office. Godoy’s office was entrusted to orders and on the Inquisition. On the other hand the shipping Saavedra, but the reformers did not obtain the advantages which and the industry of Spain increased greatly. The population made they expected from the change. During Napoleon’s absence in a considerable advance, and, under the enlightened bureaucratic Egypt the second coalition gained successes in 1799 which had rule of Florida-blanca, the sloth and ignorance which had settled seemed impossible since 1793. |

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Napoleon and Spain.—But the return of Bonaparte, followed as it was by the fall of the directory and the establishment of the consulate, commenced a new epoch for Spain. As soon as the first consul had time to turn his attention to the peninsula, he determined to restore Godoy, who had already regained the affec-

of pitiful degradation. Struck and otherwise insulted, he was forced to restore the crown to his father, who laid it at the feet of Napoleon. The old king and queen, pensioned by the French Government, retired to Rome; Ferdinand was kept for six years under strict military guard at Talleyrand’s chateau of Valencay (see FERDINAND VII., King of Spain). On May 13 Murat antion of the queen, and to make him the tool of his policy. Maria Luisa was easily gained over by playing on her devotion to the nounced to an improvised “junta of regency” at Madrid that house of Parma, and on Oct. 1, 1800 a secret treaty was concluded Napoleon desired them to accept Joseph Bonaparte as their king. The War of Independence.—But Spanish loyalty and sentiat San Ildefonso. Spain undertook to cede Louisiana and to aid France in all her wars, while Bonaparte promised to raise the ments of independence were too profound to be daunted. For the duke of Parma to the rank of king and to increase his territories first time Napoleon found himself confronted, not by terrified by the addition either of Tuscany or of the Roman legations. and selfish rulers, but by an infuriated people who rose against This was followed by Godoy’s return to power. Spain was now the French on that memorable day, May 2, 1808. The rising in more servile to France than ever, and in 1801 was compelled to Spain began the movement which ultimately proved fatal to Naattack Portugal in the French interests. The Spanish invasion, poleon’s power. At first he treated the novel phenomenon with commanded by Godoy in person, met with no resistance, and the contempt, and thought it sufficient to send his less prominent prince ventured to conclude a peace on his own authority by which generals against the rebels. Madrid was easily taken, but the Portugal promised to observe a strict neutrality on condition that Spaniards showed great capacity for the guerrilla warfare (g.v.) its territories were left undiminished. But Bonaparte resented in the provinces. The French were repulsed from Valencia; and this show of independence, and compelled Charles IV. to refuse Dupont, who had advanced into the heart of Andalusia, was comhis ratification of the treaty. In the preliminary treaty with pelled, by a force entirely composed of Spanish troops and volunGreat Britain, Bonaparte ceded the Spanish colony of Trinidad teers, to retreat and ultimately to capitulate with all bis army at without even consulting the court of Madrid, while he sold Baylen (July 10). The Spaniards now advanced upon Madrid, Louisiana to the United States in spite of his promise not to and drove Joseph from the capital, which he had just entered. alienate it except to Spain. As soon as he saw himself involved The Spanish nation, deprived of its kings and former statesin a new war with England, he turned to Spain for assistance and men and even of the support of a large part of the higher nobilextorted a new treaty (Oct. 9, 1803), which was more burden- ity, sought to build up a provisional political organization based some still than that of 1796. Spain had to pay a monthly sub- on the old provincial and regional committees (juntas). It was sidy of 6,000,000 fr., and to enforce strict neutrality upon Portu- a remarkable effort, and in spite of its many defects the admiragal, this involving war with England. The last remnants of its ble bourgeoisie and the provincial yeomanry succeeded in creatmaritime power were shattered in the battles of Cape Finisterre ing a system which proved capable of resisting French dominaand Trafalgar, and the English seized Buenos Aires. tion. The military superiority of the French was so great that an Treaty of Fontainebleau.—In Oct. 1807 Spain accepted the immediate victory was impossible; but Napoleon himself was Treaty of Fontainebleau. The treaty was hardly concluded when a compelled to come to Spain to direct operations. In less than a French army under Junot marched through Spain to Portugal and week the Spanish army was broken through and scattered, and the royal family of that country fled to Brazil. Ferdinand, whose Napoleon restored his brother in Madrid. Sir John Moore, who wife had died in 1806, determined to imitate his rival Godoy by had advanced with an English army to the relief of the capital, bidding for French support. He entered into secret relations with retired when he found he was too late, and an obstinate battle, Eugène Beauharnais, Napoleon’s envoy at Madrid, and went so in which the gallant general lost his life, had to be fought before far as to demand the hand of a Bonaparte princess. Godoy, who the troops could secure their embarkation at Corunna, Napoleon, discovered the intrigue, induced Charles IV. to order his son’s thinking the work accomplished, had quitted the peninsula, and arrest (Oct. 27, 1807), on the charge of plotting to dethrone his Soult and Victor were left to complete the reduction of the father and to murder his mother and Godoy. The prince indeed provinces. The capture of Seville resulted in the dissolution of was soon released and solemnly pardoned; but, meanwhile, Na- the central junta, but the patriots took refuge in Cadiz, which poleon had seized the opportunity afforded by this public scandal became the capital of independent Spain. The peninsula was only in lowering the prestige of the royal family to pour his troops saved from final submission by the obstinate resistance of Wellinto Spain, under pretext of reinforcing Junot in Portugal. Even ington in Portugal, the heroic conduct of many Spanish towns, this excuse was soon dropped, and by Jan. and Feb., 1808 the such as Saragossa and Gerona, the continuous activity of the French invasion had become clearly revealed as one of conquest. guerrillas, and by dissensions among the French. The Cortes of 1810 and the Constitution of 1812.—The Charles IV. and his minister determined to fight. The news of this intention, however, excited a rising at Aranjuez, whither the king Spanish cortes had never been so entirely suspended as the and the queen had gone from Madrid. A raging mob, instigated States-General of France. They had been encouraged to a certain by highly placed people, surrounded the palace, clamouring for extent during the 18th century to play a more important political

Godoy’s head; and the favourite’s life was only saved by Charles IV,’s announcement of his abdication in favour of Ferdinand (March 17). Murat, however, who commanded the French, refused to be turned aside by this change of circumstances. He obtained from Charles IV. a declaration that his abdication had been involuntary, and occupied Madrid (March 23, 1808). Napoleon Attacks Spain.—Meanwhile Napoleon had advanced to Bayonne on the frontier, whither, at his orders, Murat

despatched the old king and queen and their favourite Godoy. The emperor had already made up his mind to place one of his brothers on the Spanish throne; but in order to achieve this it was necessary to cajole the young king Ferdinand VII. and get him

into his power,

Ferdinand, instead of retiring to Andalusia and making himself the rallying point of national resistance, had gone

réle. The reformist patriots of Cadiz, influenced by the ideas of

revolutionary France, then conceived the plan of re-establishing the old Spanish parliaments on a more democratic and national basis. In 1810 the new cortes in which the colonies were represented was convened. The third estate of the commons secured 184 representatives, who were sufficient to swamp the nobles and the clergy. In theory the members of the third estate had been chosen by a process of double election. In fact, however, since

much of the country was held by the French, they were often returned by such natives of the regions so occupied as happened to be present in Cadiz at the time. The suppression of the Inquisition and other measures relating to the privileges of the

Church and the aristocracy passed together with much else. But even before the new constitution was published and sworn, on March ig, 1812, large numbers of Spaniards had made up their

to Madrid, where he was at the mercy of Murat’s troops and whence he wrote grovelling letters to Napoleon. It was no difñcult matter for the emperor’s envoy, General Savary, to lure him

minds that after the invaders were driven out the cortes must be

by specious promises to the frontier, and across to Bayonne, where he was confronted with his parents and Godoy in a scene

from the military domination of France, owed very much to the

suppressed.

Expulsion of the French.—Spain, in achieving her liberation

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[HISTORY

7, 1823 the duke of Angoulême, at the head of a powerful army, assistance of Great Britain (see PENINSULAR War). In 1812 the Bidassoa. The result was a startling proof of the crossed of Wellington determined on a great effort. He secured his base of Spanish Liberalism. What the genius of Na. structure flimsy and Badajoz, and Rodrigo Ciudad of operations by the capture to accomplish in years, Angouléme seemed to failed had poleon Marof at Salamanca he completely routed the opposing army in a few weeks. But the difference of their task mont. This victory enabled the English generai to enter Madrid have achieved Napoleon had sought to impose upon Spain l. fundamenta was adfurther But (Aug. 12), and Joseph retreated to Valencia. came to restore the Spanish king vance was prevented by the concentration of the French forces an alien dynasty; Angouléme support of some Spaniards and active the found and own,” his “to the for retire to e advisabl it in the east, and Wellington found The cortes, carrying the majority. the of on co-operati tacit was the It third time to winter quarters on the Portuguese frontier. surrendered with no siege, a after and to Cadiz, during this winter that Napoleon suffered his first and greatest king with it, fled Ferdinand solemnly which to amnesty, an of that save conditions his of ion destruct reverse in the retreat from Moscow and the into the French lines. As was to grand army. The “war of liberation” in Germany followed, and swore before he was sent over oath taken “under compulsion” by such a man French troops had to be withdrawn from Spain to central Europe. be expected, an and the French troops were compelled to binding; little For the first time Wellington found himself opposed by fairly was indignation, the orgy of cruel reaction which helpless with witness, Ciudad from advanced he 1813 of spring the equal forces. In the protection of their bayonets. under began y immediatel finally which battle Rodrigo and defeated Jourdan at Vittoria, the The Spanish Colonies.—If anything could have recalled the his from altogether retired Joseph War. Peninsular the decided order, it would have been the kingdom, and Wellington, eager to take his part in the great distracted country to harmony and the loss of all its colonies on the European contest, fought his way through the Pyrenees into object-lesson presented by had lost France. Napoleon, who had suffered a crushing defeat at Leipzig, continent of America, just as at an earlier date England Some of them had hastened to recognize the impossibility of retaining Spain by re- a great part of her American dominions. 1810 and many more after leasing Ferdinand VII., who returned to Madrid in March 1814. already become de facto independent in the ten years following, and the recognition of their indepenSpain entering VII.—Before Restoration of Ferdinand Ferdinand had undertaken to maintain the constitution of 1812, dence de jure was, for Great Britain at least, merely a question of and when on March 22, 1814 he reached Figueras, he was met by time. When the Angouléme invasion of Spain was seen to be ina demand on the part of the cortes that he must accept all the evitable, Canning had informed the French Government that terms of the constitution as a condition of his recognition as a king. But Ferdinand had convincing proof of the true temper of the nation. He refused to recognize the constitution, and was supported in his refusal not only by the army and the Church, but by the masses. There can be no doubt that Ferdinand VII. could have ruled despotically if he had been able to govern well. But, although possessed of some sardonic humour and a large measure of cunning, he was base, and had no real capacity. He changed his ministers incessantly, and on mere caprice. Governed by a camarilla of low. favourites, he was by nature cruel as well as cowardly, and the persecution of the “Jberales” was ferocious.

Great Britain would not tolerate the subjugation of the Spanish

colonies by foreign force. A disposition of the powers of the Grand Alliance to come to the aid of Spain in this matter was countered by the famous message of President Monroe (Dec. 2, 1823, see Monroe Doctrine), laying the veto of the United States on any interference of concerted Europe in the affairs of the American continent. The republics of Mexico and Colombia were recognized by Great Britain in the following year; the recognition of the other states was only postponed until they should have given proof of. their stability. The Succession Question.—In Spain itself, tutored by misRevolution of 1820.—Partial revolts took place, but were fortune, the efforts of the king’s ministers, in the latter part of easily crushed. The revolt which overpowered him in 1820 began his reign, were directed to restoring order in the finances and by a military mutiny. During the war the American colonies had reviving agriculture and industry in the country. The king’s chiet rebelled, and soldiers had been sent to suppress them. No progress difficulties lay in the attitude of the extreme monarchists (Aposhad been made,+the service was dreadfully costly in life, and it télicos) who found leaders in the king’s brother Don Carlos and became intensely unpopular among the troops. Meanwhile the bis wifé Maria Francisca of Braganza. Yet the absolute monarchy brutality of the king and his ministers had begun to produce a would probably have lasted for long if a dispute on the succession reaction. Not a few of the officers held Liberal opinions, espe- had not thrown one of the monarchical parties on the support of cially those who had been prisoners in France during the war and the Liberals. The king had no surviving children by his first three had been inoculated with foreign doctrines. These men, of whom marriages. By his fourth marriage (1829) with Maria Cristina of the most conspicuous was Colonel Rafael Riego, worked on Naples he had two daughters. According to the ancient law of the discontent of the soldiers, and in Jan. 1820 brought about Castile and Leon women could rule in their own right, as is shown a mutiny at Cadiz, which became a revolution. Until 1823 the by the examples of Urraca, Berengaria and Isabella the Catholic. king was a prisoner in the hands of a section of his subjects, who When he died on Sept. 29, 1833, his daughter Isabella II. was restored the constitution of 1812 and had the support of the army. proclaimed queen, with her mother Maria Cristina as regent. But the Liberals were divided into sub-sections; any sign of The Regency of Cristina.—Maria Cristina would have ruled moderation on the part of the ministers chosen from one of them despotically if she could, and began by announcing that material was enough to secure him the name of “Servile” from the others. changes would not be made in the method of government. But the The “Serviles” or absolutists proper took up arms in the north. Conservatives preferred to support the late king’s brother Don Ferdinand appealed for help to the monarchies.of the Holy. Alli- Carlos, and they had the active aid of the Basques, who feared for ance. As early as 1820 the Emperor Alexander I. of Russia had their local franchises, and of the mountaineers of Navarre, Aragon, suggested a joint intervention of the powers of the Grand Alli- Catalonia and Valencia. Maria Cristina had the support of the ance to restore order in the peninsula, and had offered to place his army, and the control of the machinery of government. The own army at their disposal for the purpose. The project had come regent soon found that this was not enough to enable her to resist to nothing owing to the opposition of the British Government the active hostility of the Carlists and the intrigues of their and the strenuous objection of Prince Metternich to a course clerical allies. She was eventually driven by the necessities of her which would have inyolved the march of a powerful Russian force position to accept parliamentary institutions. l through the Austrian dominions. In 1822 the question was again The Carlist Wars.—The first civil war, which for the Crown raised at the congress assembled at Verona (see Verona, Con- was a dynastic war, and for the nation a struggle between two GRESS OF). The French Government asked to be allowed to march opposed political principles, was terminated in Aug. 1839 by the into Spain, as Austria had marched into Naples. convention (convenio) of Vergara between the Carlist general

French Intervention, 1823.—In spite of the vigorous protest of Great Britain, which saw in this demand only a pretext for reviving the traditional Bourbon ambitions in the peninsula, the mandate was granted by the majority of the powers; and on April

Maroto and the Liberal general Espartero. The Carlist general Cabrera, the most famous of the guerrilleros of his party, left the country. The political struggle was then for some years confined

to Government circles; but already a part of the common people

HISTORY]

had been won over to the cause of Liberalism.

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137

In 1841 a crisis

use him as a tool, and every man of honest principles, royalist or

arose, the immediate cause of which was a law depriving the towns of a great part of their autonomy. Queen Cristina resigned and fled to France, and General Espartero was declared regent.

republican, looked upon him as an intruder. The Carlists began to collect in the mountains. Republican agitation went on in the towns. At last a dispute in regard to the officering of the artillery gave the king an honourable excuse for resigning the throne.

He held office till 1843, during an agitated period, in which the Carlists reappeared in the north, mutinies were common, and an unsuccessful attempt was made on the part of the enemies of Espartero to kidnap the young queen in her palace on the night of Oct. 7, 1841. In 1843 Espartero, a man of much personal cour-

age and of fitful energy, but of no political capacity, was expelled by a military rising, promoted by a combination of discontented Liberals and the Moderates. The queen, though only 13 years

old, was declared of age.

Republican Interlude.—The Republicans entered the place

he left vacant simply because there was nobody to oppose them. Until Jan. 1874 the country was given up to anarchy. The Carlists increased rapidly, and were joined by many Royalists, who looked upon them as the last resource. A new cortes was collected and a new constitution discussed. Three presidents succeeded one another within a year, Pi y Margall, Salmeron and Castelar: ministries changed every few days. As the republic was to be federal when finally organized, many parts of Spain proceeded to act independently. One party went beyond federalism and proposed to split Spain into cantons. The Cantonalists seized the important harbour of Carthagena and the ships in it. The ships were taken

Isabella IL—tThe reign of Queen Isabella, from 1843 till her expulsion in 1868, was no more than a prolongation of her mother’s regency. It was a confused conflict between the attempts of the court to rule despotically, with a mere pretence of a cortes, and the growing wish of the Spaniards for a parliamentary Govern- out of their hands by the British and German squadrons. The ment, or at least the honest and capable Government which they spectacle of anarchy, and the stoppage in payment of taxes frighthoped that a parliament would give them. During this period a ened the Republican deputies into some approach to sanity. series of political changes, revolutions and amendments to the Salmeron allowed General Pavia to restore order in Andalusia. constitution took place, a detailed account of which is unnecessary. When he gave place to Castelar, the eloquent Republican deputy The party leaders were almost always generals: Espartero, Nar- threw all his most eagerly avowed principles to the wind, raised vaez (leader of the Moderates, who were conservatives of almost a great conscription, and provided the means of reducing Carthaabsolutist ideas), O’Donnell and Prim. The only event which gena and pushing the war against the Carlists with vigour. When diverted public interest from questions of domestic politics was the cortes met again in Jan. 1874, the extreme parties voted against the war in Morocco in 1859, in which the armies of Spain were Castelar on the 3rd of the month. Hereupon General Pavia, the victorious, but which led to but meagre results in North Africa governor of Madrid, turned the cortes into the streets. Serrano owing to the intrigues of other European Powers whose interests was appointed as head of the executive, and was mainly employed were involved. Another event of international importance was the during the year in efforts to save Bilbao from falling into the queen’s marriage in 1846. Louis Philippe, perceiving a chance of hands of the Carlists. It had now become clear that the restoration reviving the family alliance between Bourbon France and Bour- of the Bourbons in the person of Don Alphonso, Isabella’s son, bon Spain, with the aid of the queen-mother succeeded in forcing was the only way of securing a final settlement. On Dec. 29, 1874, Isabella to accept the hand of Don Francisco d’Assisi, her cousin, General Martinez Campos caused him to be proclaimed king at who was notoriously incapable of having heirs; and on the same Murviedro (Sagunto) by a brigade of troops, and the example day the younger sister was married to the duke of Montpensier, there set was followed everywhere. Don Alphonso XII. landed son of Louis Philippe. Palmerston had agreed to this union—but in Barcelona on Jan. 10, 1875. not until an heir to the Spanish Crown should have obviated the THE RESTORED MONARCHY possibility of the French prince again inheriting the throne of Spain. The affair broke the entente between France and England, Alphonso XII.—The first act of Alphonso was a royal decree and was a contributory cause of the downfall of Louis Philippe. confirming the appointment of Cánovas del Castillo (the most In Sept. 1868 the squadron at Cadiz under the command of prominent leader of the Alfonsins) as prime minister. A strong Admiral Topete mutinied, and its action was the signal for a administration was formed, which gave its attention for 15 months general secession. One gallant fight was made for the queen, at to the pacification of the peninsula, adopting a Conservative and the bridge of Alcolea in Andalusia by General Pavia, but it was an Catholic policy which contributed quite as much as the great exception. Gonzales Brabo deserted her in a panic. She went into display of military resources to lose the Carlists adherents and exile, and her reign ended. The revolution of 1868 was the first prestige. The Church, the nobility and the middle classes soon openly and avowedly directed against the dynasty. It became a pronounced for the new state of things. The Alphonsist armies, familiar saying that the “spurious race af Bourbon” had disap- led by Marshals Campos and Jovellar, swept the Carlist bands peared forever, and the country was called upon to make a new from the right bank of the Ebro to the Pyrenees, and took their and a better Government. last strongholds in the east of Spain, Cantavieja and Seo de Urgel. Contending Parties—The mass of the Spaniards, however, Some of the Carlist leaders accepted bribes to go abroad, and were not prepared for a republic. There were also the various others put their swords at the disposal of the Government for monarchical parties: the Alfonsins who wished for the restoration employment against the Cuban rebels. Then all the forces of of the queen’s son with a regency; the partisans of the widower King Alphonso under Marshal Quesada closed round the reking consort of Portugal; those of the duke of Montpensier; the mainder of the Carlist army in Navarre and in the Basque ProvCarlists; and a few purely fantastic dreamers who would have inces at the beginning of 1876. That was the end of the Carlist given the crown to the aged Espartero. The real power was in the Wars. hands of the military politicians, Francisco Serrano (g.v.) and The Cuban Insurrection.—Directly this internal strife was Juan Prim (g.v.), who kept order by means of the army. A con- over, the government used part of the large army at its disposal to stituent cortes was assembled in 1869, and decided in favour of reinforce the troops which had been fighting the Cuban insura monarchy. The constitution of 1869 was the first in the consti- gents since 1869. Marshal Jovellar was sent out to Havana as tutional history of Spain since 1812, which clearly set forth the governor-general, with Marshal Martinez Campos as commanderentire programme of the liberalism of the period. Serrano was in-chief of the forces. In about 18 months they managed to drive declared regent until a king could be found. the rebels into the eastern districts of the island, Puerto Principe Amadeo of Savoy.—aAt last, in Aug. 1870, Prince Amadeo of and Santiago de Cuba, and induced all but a few irreconcilable Savoy, second son of Victor Emmanuel II., consented to become chiefs to accept a convention that became famous under the name candidate. He was elected on Nov. 3. On Dec. 27, 1870, the day of the Peace Treaty of Zanjon. Marshal Campos, who succeeded on which the new king reached Carthagena, Prim was murdered Jovellar as governor-general, held out to the loyalists of the by assassins who were never discovered. The nominal reign of island the prospect of reforms, fairer treatment at the hands of Amadeo lasted till Feb. 1873. It was a pitiful episode. He had the mother country; a more liberal tariff to promote their trade, put himself into a false position. Intriguing politicians sought to and self-government as the crowning stage of the new policy.

138

[HISTORY

SPAIN

energies Internal Changes.—Though much of his time and and in home at peace of nt blishme re-esta had been devoted to the ed considerthe colonies from 1875 to 1880, Canovas had display the monarchy. able activity and resolution in the reorganization of

e, he ruled Until he felt sure of the early termination of the struggl ent. Royal in a dictatorial manner without the assistance of parliam of the Spanish decrees set aside most of the legislation and reforms for a while ed respect was revolution. Universal suffrage alone Restoration the of cortes first the ce existen into call to used and the constiwas ment parlia this of result in 1876. The principal ution tution of 1376, which was a compromise between the constit demothe of les princip the and a Isabell of reign the of 1845 in was cratic constitution of the revolution in 1869. Canovas, who time endowed with great political qualities, sought at the same to win over to the new régime some of the old Liberals of the Revolution, and the least recalcitrant of the old Carlists. The latter (including Don Alejandro Pidal and his followers) eventually joined the ranks of the Conservative Party adding to it a: leaven which, however, was not always in harmony with the views of the prime minister. The Liberals succeeded in forming a dynastic Liberal Party whose name of Fusiomsta was indicative of the great heterogeneity of its component elements. After a short-lived marriage with his cousin Mercedes, third daughter of the duke of Montpensier, Alphonso listened to the advice of his council and married the Austrian archduchess Maria Cristina of Habsburg. The Liberal Government.—In 1881 the Fusionista Party, swelled by the addition of a number of Liberal and Conservative

generals who disapproved of Canovas’ policy, showed unmistak-

able signs of agitation. Cánovas himself thought that the time had come to slacken somewhat the reins of conservative hegemony and

to allow effective expression to the support given to the dynasty by the so called Liberal Party whose leader was Sagasta, the former minister of King Amadeo. In this way the latter party came into power. The policy of Sagasta in domestic affairs resembled that of Cánovas. Several treaties of commerce were concluded with European and Spanish American Governments. They reformed the tariff in harmony with the treaties, and with a view to the reduction of the import duties by quinquennial stages to a fiscal maximum of 15% ad valorem. A general conversion of the consolidated external and internal debts was promoted by a considerable reduction of capital and interest, to which the bondholders assented. The floating debt proper was consolidated in the shape of a 4% stock redeemable in 40 years, of which £70,000,000 was issued in 1882 by Sefior Camacho, the greatest Spanish financier of the period. Sagasta was not so fortunate in his dealings with the anti-dynastic parties, and the Republicans gave him much trouble in Aug. 1883. This had the effect of gaining him the support of many Democrats and Radicals who broke away from Ruiz Zorrilla the leader of the revolutionary republicans. But Sagasta himself had to abandon the premiership. A new cabinet formed by members of the “Fusionist” left wing did

not last long. In 1884 Canovas returned to power. The last Conservative cabinet of this reign was neither popular nor successful. In the cortes the tension in the relations between the Government and the Opposition was growing daily more serious. Outside, the Republicans and Carlists were getting troublesome, and the tone of their press vied with that of the Liberals in their attacks on the Conservative cabinet.

Regency of Queen Cristina.—The declining health of the

announce that fact until three months after the demise of the sovereign.

On May

17, 1886, six months

after the death of

Alphonso XII., his posthumous son, Alphonso XIII. was bom at the palace of Madrid. The political situation was difficult, C4novas assured the queen-regent that he was ready to undertake the Government if it was thought wise to continue the Conserva.

tive policy of the late king, but in the circumstances he frankly

advised that Sefior Sagasta should be asked to take the reins of government, with a view to inaugurating the regency under 4 progressive and conciliatory policy.

Sagasta.—Sagasta took for colleagues for the first Liberal

cabinet some of the strongest and most popular statesmen of the party, virtually representing the three important groups of men

of the Revolution united under his leadership—veteran Liberals

like Camacho and Venancio Gonzalez;

Moderates like Alonzo

Martinez, Gamazo and Marshal Jovellar; and Democrats like Moret, Montero Rios and Admiral Beranger. The new cabinet convoked the cortes elected under the administration of Cánovas in 1884; and supplies and other bills were voted to enable the government to be carried on until another parliament could be ` elected in the following year, 1886. The field was thus fairly clear for an accentuation

of the

Catholic policy which the queen mother had at heart. She became regent when Spain had felt the consequences of the expul-

sion of the Jesuits and other religious orders from France after the famous Jules Ferry laws, which aimed at placing these orders once more under State control, to which they declined to submit. They selected Spain as an excellent field of enterprise; and all the Governments of the regency showed so much indulgence towards the Catholic revival thus started, that in less than a decade the kingdom was studded with convents and monasteries, Progress.—The prime minister conducted the first general elec.

tion in 1886 much after the usual precedents. The long parlia ment of the regency was composed of considerable Liberal majorities in both houses, though Sagasta had allowed a larger share

than Cánovas was wont to do to the minorities; on the Opposition benches Republicans of various shades were represented by their most eminent leaders, the Carlists had a respectable group, and | the Conservatives a strong muster, flanked by a group of dis sentients. The first cortes of the regency in five sessions did really good and substantial work. A civil code was carefully drawn up by Alonzo Martinez, in order to consolidate the heterogeneous ancient legislation of the monarchy, especially in the |

old kingdom of Castile; while at the same time measures were taken to ensure respect for the local civil laws of many provinces, especially Catalonia, Aragon, Valencia, Navarre and the Basque territory. Trial by jury was re-established for most crimes and offences. The laws regulating the rights of association and public meeting, the liberty of the press and other rights of the subject were reformed on liberal and more tolerant lines. Republican

Movement

Fails.—In

these

circumstances, a

Republican movement which was suddenly launched in Sept. 1886 by the partisans of Ruiz Zorrilla collapsed at its very outset. Very shortly afterwards the war minister, General Castillo, attempted to strike at the root of military insubordination, and simultaneously in every garrison of the kingdom the senior sergeants, more than 1,000 in all, were given their discharge and ordered to their homes at once. No trace of revolutionary work is visible among non-commissioned officers after 1886. As time

wore on, Sagasta found it difficult to maintain discipline in the

king had been kept as secret as possible, and in the ten months before his death the Conservative cabinet displayed unprecedented rigour against the newspapers of every shade: in 60 days 1,260 prosecutions were ordered against Madrid and provincial papers. But at last, on Nov. 24, 1885, the truth had to be admitted and on the morning of the 25th the end came. It was no wonder that the death of the king should have made Spaniards and foreigners extremely anxious about the prospects of the monarchy. Alphonso

ranks of the Liberal Party.

XII. left no male issue. He had two daughters, the princess of the Asturias, born in 1880 and the Infanta Maria Theresa, born in 1882. At the time of his death it had not been officially inti-

and most of the Republicans in the last session of the long parliament. The suffrage bill was carried through the senate and congress in the spring of 1890 after protracted debates, in which the Conservatives and many military politicians did their best to

mated that the queen was enceinte.

The Official Gazette did not

Señor Martos and the Democrats

almost brought about a political crisis in 1889. Sagasta cleverly affected to resign and stand aside, but without him 4 Liberal Government was impossible. On his return to power, Sagasta reconstructed his ministry for the last time, and announced his intention to make the re-establishment of universal

suffrage the crowning act of the Liberal policy, knowing very well that he would thus rally round him all the Liberals, Democrats

SPAIN

HISTORY]

obstruct the measure. The increasingly violent opposition of the

Conservatives was supported by the regency and accordingly Sagasta, after having secured the promulgation of the law of universal suffrage, resigned at the first hint given him by the queen (July 1890). A Protectionist Regime.—Canovas once more returned to power and gathered round him most of the prominent Conservative and Catholic statesmen. The first step of the new cabinet

and by their representatives in Madrid. The latter at the last moment recorded their votes in favour of the Abarzuza bill when they perceived that a strange sort of eleventh-hour presentiment was about to make all the Spanish parties vote this insufficient

was to adopt protection. Sagasta to please Señor Gamazo and the Liberal representatives of agricultural interests, had allowed

his parliament to empower the Government to revise and increase all tariff duties not covered by the then existing treaties of commerce. This touched most of the products of agriculture and live stock, so Cánovas and his fnance minister, by royal decree, enormously increased the duties on these imports,

and particularly on breadstuffs. Then, in 1891, they denounced

all the treaties of commerce which contained clauses stipulating most-favoured-nation treatment, and put in force in Feb. 1892

a protectionist tariff which completely reversed the moderate free-trade policy which had been so beneficial to the foreign commerce of Spain from 1868 to 1892,

The effects of this policy

verging upon prohibition were soon sharply felt. Foreign ex-

changes rose, exports decreased, the railway traffic declined, and the commercial classes and consumers of foreign goods and

products were loud in their protests.

Industrial interests alone

reform. Before it could be promulgated, the tidings came of a separatist rising in the old haunts of Creole disaffection near Santiago de Cuba (1895). Sagasta then sent about 12,000 men

to reinforce the 15,000 soldiers in Cuba under General Calleja, and was preparing more when a sudden attack made by offcers of the Madrid garrison upon the offices of the radical paper El Resumen raised a question of discipline with which the authorities were unable to deal in the manner required by law. The impotence of the authorities on this occasion, which was the forerunner of many others, resulted in the return to power of the Conservatives. Cánovas devoted his attention to the Cuban question, and sent out General Martinez Campos who had been so successful in 1878. He allowed him much liberty of action, but dissented on the expediency of offering the loyalists of Cuba as much home rule as would not clash with the supremacy of Spain. The prime minister declared that the Cubans must submit first, and then the mother country would be generous, This policy rendered inevitable the failure of the efforts of Campos, who took an entirely different view of the question. Weyler in Cuba.—Cadnovas then sent to the island General

benefited, and imported more raw materials, chemicals and coal and coke, which naturally influenced the exchanges adversely.

But political divisions also began to show themselves in an acute form within the Conservative Party, chiefly owing to the rivalry between Cánovas’ two lieutenants, Romero Robledo and Silvela

(Francisco). Once more Cánovas had to resign and Sagasta, with great reluctance, succeeded him. The two most important events of this new period of “fusionist” Government took place outside the peninsula. The scene of one was the Spanish zone in Morocco bordering the Riff, the tribes inhabiting which had never submitted to the authority of the sultan and had always been very bad neighbours. An incursion by these tribes into Spanish territory and an attack upon Spanish troops resulted in the defeat of the latter and the death of General Margallo who was in command. Public opinion was instantly fired, and the press called so loudly for revenge that the Government sent to Melilla no less a personage than Marshal Campos, at the head of 29 generals and 25,000 men. The sultan of Morocco lost no time in censuring the behaviour of the Riff

tribes, and in promising that he would chastise them. Marshal Campos was sent to Fez to make a treaty, in which he obtained

ample redress and the promise of an indemnity of £800,000 which Morocco punctually paid. The Cuban Question.—Colonial affairs gave Sagasta much to do. Señor Antonio Maura, the colonial minister, and Senor Gamazo, the finance minister, two moderate Liberals, attempted

together to grapple with colonial questions, which in 1894 had assumed a very serious aspect.

Marshal Campos, on returning

from Cuba in 1870, had advocated some concessions to satisfy

the legitimate aspirations of the majority of the colonists. In 1886, in the first parliament of the regency, Cuban autonomist deputies (who had issued their first political programme in Aug.

1878) divided the house on a motion in favour of home rule

and of an extension of the franchise in Cuba.

139

This motion was

Weyler, who

favoured

purely military measures,

sternly and

harshly applied. He certainly cleared two-thirds of the island of Creole bands, and stamped out disaffection by vigorous military operations and by obliging all the non-combatants who sympathized with the rebels in arms to elect between joining them in the bush (Ja Manigua) or residing within the Spanish lines. This system, which was disavowed in Spain by most Liberals, might

probably have succeeded if American supplies had not reached the rebels in considerable quantities, and if American diplomacy had not again and again made representations against Weyler’s ruthless policy of repression in the island. Cánovas so fully comprehended the necessity of averting American intervention that he listened to the pressing demands of secretary Olney and of the American minister in Madrid, Hannis Taylor, and laid before the cortes a bill introducing home rule in Cuba on a more liberal scale than Maura, Abarzuza and Sagasta had dared to suggest two years before. Cánovas did not live to see his scheme put into practice, as he was assassinated

by an anarchist at the baths of Santa Agueda, in the Basque Provinces, on Aug. 9, 1897. The queen-regent appointed General Azcárraga, the war minister, as successor to Cánovas; and a few weeks later President McKinley sent General Woodford as representative of the United States at the court of Madrid. At the end of Sept. 1897 the American minister placed on record, in a note handed by him at San Sebastian to the minister for foreign

affairs, the duke of Tetuan, a strongly-worded protest against the state of things in Cuba, and demanded in substance that a stop should be put to Weyler’s proceedings, and some measures taken to pacify the island and prevent disturbances which, he said, grievously affected American interests, Less than a fortnight after this note had been delivered, the Conservative cabinet resigned, and the queen-regent asked Sagasta to form a new administration.

Weyler Recalled.—The Liberal Government recalled Weyler,

cortes, and even the Liberal Party, that his very moderate Cuban Home Rule bill was indispensable. In succession to Maura, Sefior Abarzuza framed a Cuban Reform bill (1895) so much short of what his predecessor had

and sent out, as governor-general of Cuba, Marshal Blanco, a conciliatory and prudent officer who agreed to carry out the home-rule policy, concerted by Sefior Moret and by Sagasta. Had things not already gone too far in Cuba, and if public opinion in the United States had not exercised irresistible pressure on both Congress and President, the Moret Home-Rule Act (Nov. 1897) would probably have sufficed. All through the winter of 1897—98 the Madrid Government took steps to propitiate the United States, even offering a treaty of commerce which would have allowed American commerce to compete on equal terms with Spanish imports in the West Indies and defeat all European

censured in Havana by all the colonial Liberals and home rulers,

in the port of Havana added fuel to the agitation in the United

negatived by all the Conservatives, by most of the Dynastic

Liberals and by some

of the Republicans.

The maj ority of

Spaniards were prevented by the Government and the press from learning of the disaffection in Cuba, so that they were

loath to listen to the few men, courageous enough to raise the

note of alarm during the ten years before the final catastrophe.

For no other reason did Maura, in 1893, fail to convince the

thought

an irreducible minimum

of concessions,

that it was

competition. But the blowing up of the American cruiser “Maine”

SPAIN

140

States against Spanish rule in Cuba, and war followed. When Congress met in Washington the final crisis was hurried on. Spain appealed to European mediation, to the pope, to courts and Governments, but none were disposed to go beyond purely platonic representations at Washington.

War with the United States.—At last, on April 20, 1898, when the Spanish Government learned that the United States minister, General Woodford, had been instructed by telegraph to present an ultimatum demanding the cessation of hostilities in Cuba, with a view to prepare for the evacuation of the island by the Spanish forces, Sagasta decided to give General Woodford

his passports and to break off official relations with the United States. It was an open secret that this grave decision was not taken at the cabinet council presided over by the queen without a solemn protest by Moret and the ministers of war and marine that the resources of Spain were totally inadequate for a struggle with the United States. These protests were overruled by the majority of the ministers, who invoked dynastic and monarchical considerations in favour of a desperate stand, in defence of the last remnants of the colonial empire of Spain. The sequel is soon told. The Spanish fleet in the Far East was defeated in Manila bay by Admiral Dewey. Admiral Cervera’s squadron was destroyed outside the bay of Santiago de Cuba by the United States fleet under Admirals Sampson and Schley. All communication between Spain and her colonies was thus cut off. A U.S. expedition landed near Santiago, and the Spanish garrison surrendered after a fortnight’s show of resistance. Shortly afterwards, at the end of July, Spain sued for peace through the mediation of French diplomacy. End of New World Rule—tThe agreement of Aug. 9, signed by M. Cambon, the French ambassador in Washington, in the name of Spain, clearly stipulated that her rule in the New World must be considered at an end, and that the fate of the Philippines would be settled at the Paris negotiations. Spain could not help assenting to a treaty by which she renounced unconditionally all her rights of sovereignty over Cuba and Porto Rico and ceded the Philippine islands and Sulu islands and the largest of the Marianne islands in consideration of the payment of twenty million dollars by America. Thus ended a struggle which only left Spain the Carolines and a few other islands in the Pacific, which she sold to Germany in 1899 for £800,000, and a couple of islands omitted in the delimitation made by the Paris peace treaty of Dec. 12, 1898, and purchased by the United States in 1go0. After the War.—The Liberal Government was held responsible for the débdcle, but the seeds had been sown long before by many and widely diffused mistakes and by hostile influences outside Spain; the cabinet. of 1898, moreover, had sought to avert it by every means in its power. The result was that a call was again made upon the Conservatives, then led by Silvela, who was far from possessing the qualities necessary to control the situation and to stem the pessimism which overwhelmed the maj ority of Spaniards. His one real success was achieved for him by the economic policy of his minister of finance, Villaverde, who succeeded in less than 18 months in giving a decisive and vigorous impulse to the reorganization of the budget, and of the home and colonial debts. He resolutely reformed all existing taxation, as well as the system of assessment and collection, and before he left office he was able to record an increase of close upon three millions sterling in the ordinary sources of revenue. His reorganization of the national debt was very complete; in fact, he exacted even more sacrifices from the bondholders than from other taxpayers. The amortization of the home and colonial debts was suppressed, and the redeemable debts of both classes were converted into 4% internal consols. The interest on all colonial debts ceased to be paid in gold, and was paid only in pesetas, like the rest of the internal debts, and like the external debt held by Spaniards. Alone, the external debt held by for€igners continued to enjoy exemption from taxation, and its coupons were paid in gold; but the Government consented to a conversion of the 4% external debt into a 33% stock redeemable

in 61 years. Growth

(A. E. Ho.; R. Az.)

of Religious Orders.—The failure of Silvela com-

[HISTORY ’

pelled the queen once more to summon Sagasta (March 1901), He was at once faced with two problems, very opposite in their nature, which were destined to play a very conspicuous part in | Spanish politics.

The first was that presented by the growth of

the religious orders and congregations, which continued to in. crease in number and power and had ignored the law of associa. tions of June 1887, which ordered congregations to register their

members, and required all except three orders admitted under the concordat to apply for authorization.

The queen-regent, on July

19, 1901, issued a decree, countersigned by Sagasta, for enforcing

the law. Industrial Unrest.—Meanwhile, however, a second and more pressing peril distracted the attention of the Government. The industrial unrest, fomented by Socialist agitation, culminated in

Jan. 1902 in serious riots at Barcelona and Saragossa, and on Feb. 16 in the proclamation of a general strike in the forme city. The government sent General Weyler to deal with the

situation; and order was restored.

The methods by which this

result had. been achieved were the subject of violent attacks o the Government in the cortes, and on March 13 Sagasta resigned, but only to resume office five days later. He now returned to the question of the religious orders, and on April 9g issued 4

decree proclaiming his intention of enforcing that of July 19, 1901. The attitude of the Church was practically one of defiance, The nuncio, indeed, announced that the papacy would be pre. pared to discuss the question of authorization, but only on con. dition that all demands for such authorization should be granted,

To avoid a crisis at the time when the young king was about to. come of age, the Government yielded; and on May 20, Sagasta | announced that a modus vivendi had been established. .

Alphonso XITI.—King Alphonso XIII., whose enthronement

took place with all the antique ceremonial on May 17 was himself at the outset under clerical and reactionary influences, and his contemptuous treatment of ministers—who at the cerernonial |

functions were placed wholly in the background—seemed to argue an intention of ruling personally under the advice of the court camarilla. This impression, due doubtless to the king’ youth and inexperience, was belied in the event; but it served still further to discredit the Liberal Government. On Nov. 7 Sagasta resigned, resumed office temporarily on the 14th, and handed in his final resignation on Dec. 3. On Dec. 6 a Conserva- |

tive cabinet was formed under Silvela, the portfolio of finance being taken by Villaverde. | The first years of the new reign saw a renewal of the rivalries between the leaders of both parties, Conservative and Libera | alike, the latter temporarily breaking up when, on Jan. 5, 1903, Sagasta died. The result was a period of frequent changes of Government: the conservative Governments of Villaverde and Maura, and the clerical-conservative Government of Azcarraga, in 1904, the Liberal Governments of Montero Rios and Moret ` in 1905. The country meanwhile was in a ferment, the old antagonisms, due to the conflict of interests between the industrial north and the agricultural south and to the traditional regional,

social and religious conflicts, being now complicated by socialist

and anarchist agitation. The king’s marriage with Princess Victoria Eugénie, which took place on May 31, was in many respects significant. In spite of the young queen’s “conversion” and the singular distinction conferred on her by the papal gift of the golden rose, the “‘Protestant” alliance marked a further stage in Alphonso XIII.’s emancipation from the tutelage of the Clerical-Conservative coutt, which looked with disfavour on the marriage. The king was, indeed, showing an increasing tendency to think and act for himself, which, though not as yet overstepping constitutional limits, was disconcerting to all parties. Ecclesiastical Controversies.—The political situation soon

assumed a serious aspect when the new cabinet presided over by General

Lopez Dominguez, a democrat, obtained the king’s signature to an ordinance giving, in conf ormity with the spirit of the law, legal validity to the civil marriages of Catholics. This aroused a furious agitation among the clergy, to which bounds

were only set by the threat of the Government to prosecute the

HISTORY]

L41

SPAIN

bishop of Tuy and the chapter of Cordova. In the session 1906o7 the most burning subject of debate was the new Associations

ares. The necessity for strengthening the Spanish forces in Africa had for some time been apparent; but Maura had not dared

Law, drawn up by the minister Sefior Davila. Even in the Liberal ranks the question aroused furious differences of opinion; Sefior Montero Rios, the president of the senate, denounced the “infamous attacks on the church”; the Government itself showed a wavering temper in entering on long and futile negotiations with the Vatican; while in Jan. 1907 the cardinal archbishop of Toledo presented a united protest of the Spanish epis-

to face the cortes with a demand for the necessary estimates, for which, now that the crisis had become acute, he had to rely on the authorization of the council of State. The spark was put to the powder by the action of the war minister, General Linares, in proposing to organize a new field force by calling out the reserves. This summoned up too vivid memories of the useless miseries of former over-sea expeditions. On July 26 a general strike was copate against the proposed law. This and other issues produced proclaimed at Barcelona, and a movement directed at first against complete disunion in the Liberal party. Already, on Nov. 27, “conscription” rapidly developed into a revolutionary attack on Lopez Dominguez had resigned; his successur, Moret, had at the established order in Church and State. The city, a colluvies once suffered defeat in the house and been succeeded in his turn gentium, was seething with dangerous elements, its native proon Dec. 4 by the marquis de la Vega de Armijo. The question letariat being reinforced by a cosmopolitan company of refugees was now mooted in the cabinet of dropping the Associations from other lands. The mob, directed by the revolutionary eleLaw; but on Jan. 21, 1907 Sefior Canalejas, president of the ments, attacked more especially the convents and churches. From lower house, who was credited with having inspired the bill, the city the revolutionary movement spread to the whole province. publicly declared that in that event he would cease to support In Barcelona the rising was suppressed after three days’ street the Government. By the 24th the cabinet resigned, and a Con- fighting (July 27-29). On the 28th martial law was proclaimed servative Government was in office under Sefior Maura as premier. throughout Spain, and a military reign of terror continued until Maura’s Ministry 1907-1909.—During his second period of the end of September. In the fortress of Monjuich in Barcelona political power Maura gave a clear indication of his qualities and were collected, not only rioters caught red-handed, but many aims, which were to exercise a powerful influence upon affairs. others—notably journalists—whose opinions were disliked. The Though a sincere Catholic, he was no Clerical, as was proved by greatest sensation was caused by the arrest on Aug. 31 of Señor his refusal to withdraw the ordinance on civil marriage. The Ferrer, a theoretical anarchist well known in many countries for main objects that he set before himself were, firstly, the mainte- his anti-clerical educational work and in Spain especially as the nance of order; secondly, the reform of local government, so as founder of “lay schools.” Sefior Ferrer was tried by court martial to destroy the power of the caciques and educate the people in (Oct. 11-13), and shot. This tragedy, which rightly or wrongly their privileges and responsibilities. The local administration aroused the most widespread indignation throughout Europe, reform bill was submitted to the cortes in Oct. 1907. It contained produced a ministerial crisis in Spain: The opening of the October 429 clauses, largely increased the responsibility of the local session of the cortes was signalized by a funous attack by Moret elected bodies, made it compulsory for every elector to vote, and on Maura and La Cierva, who were accused of having sacrificed did away with official interference at the polls. The bill met with Ferrer to the resentment of their clerical task-masters. The Govstrenuous opposition, and on Dec. 23, 1907 the cortes adjourned ernment had been already weakened by the news of Marshal Marina’s reverse in Morocco (Sept. 30); to this new attack it without its having been advanced.

Political Tension Renewed.—But in the following year the struggle between the antagonistic forces in Spain once more produced a perilous crisis. The Local Administration bill, after being debated for two sessions, passed the lower house on Feb. 13, 1909, having at the last moment received the support of the Liberal Señor Moret, though the Radicals as a whole opposed it as a sop to Sehor Cambò, the Regionalist leader, and tending to disintegration. It was however evident that the method of Señor Maura, who ruled in the spirit of an enlightened despotism rather than in that of a constitutional government, could not meet with the approval of Liberals: at all events it was inevitable that he should incur unpopularity in many quarters. His efforts to reconstruct the Spanish navy were attacked both by the apostles of retrenchment and by those who saw in the shipbuilding contracts an undue favouring of the foreigner; the Marine Industries Protection Act was denounced as favouring the large shipowners and exporters at the expense of the smaller men. The cabinet’s ecclesiastical policy also exposed him to the fate of those who take the middle way; the Liberals denounced the minister of education, Don F. Rodriguez San Pedro, for making concessions to the teaching orders, while the archbishops of Burgos and Santiago de Compostella fulminated against the Government for daring to tax the congregations. In his reforming work Maura had an active and efficient lieutenant in the minister of the interior, Señor La Cierva. Under his auspices laws were passed reforming and strengthening the police force, instituting industrial tribunals, regulating the work of women and children,

introducing Sunday rest, early closing and other reforms. In short, the position of the Government, when the cortes adjourned on June 6, 1909, seemed to be assured. Morocco Crisis and the Barcelona Rising.—Its downfall was ultimately due to the development of the crisis in Morocco

succumbed, Señor Maura resigning on Oct. 21, 19009. ' Moret Ministry, 1909-10.—On the 22nd the formation of a

new cabinet under Senor Moret was announced. It sent General Weyler to keep Barcelona in order, caused the release of most of the prisoners in Monjuich, reduced the forces in Morocco, reopened negotiations with Rome for a modification of the concordat, and on Dec. 31, the end of the financial year, was responsible for the issue of a royal decree stating that the budget would remain in force until the cortes could pass a new one. But, meanwhile, the municipal elections, under the new Local Administration law, had resulted in a triumph of the Liberals (Dec. 12). Moret therefore considered the time ripe for a dissolution; the king, however, refused to consent, and on Feb. 9, 1910 the ministry resigned. The new cabinet, with the radical Señor Canalejas as president of the council, included members of the various Liberal and Radical groups.

Canalejas Ministry, 1910-12.—Sefior Canalejas was regarded as a sincere Liberal who was determined to programme of the Left, especially with regard clerical question and that of the Jatzfundia of Spain. There was, however, in some quarters

carry out the to the so-called certain parts of a doubt as to whether he had force of character enough to overcome his difficulties. This doubt was dispelled. In the course of rg10 and rgor1 certain indications showed that his policy might be successful.

The Clerical Question.—As regards the clerical question, it

was not long before the Government showed that it was in earnest. On May 31 the official Gaceta published a decree setting forth the rules to which the religious associations would have to submit. It was pointed out that, ın conformity with the decree of April 9, 1902, it had become necessary to coerce those con-

gregations and associations which had not fulfilled the formalities prescribed by the law of 1887, and also those engaged in comIt is only here proposed to outline the effects of its merce and industry which had not taken out patents with a view

(g.v.). reaction upon the internal affairs of Spain.

The trouble, long

brewing, broke out in July, with the attack by the Riff tribesmen upon the workmen engaged on the railway being built to connect Melilla with the mines in the hills, held by Spanish concession-

to their taxation. In the speech from the throne at the opening of the new cortes

(June 16) the king declared that his Government would “strive to give expression to the public aspirations for the reduction and

142

SPAIN

control of the excessive number of orders and religious orders, without impairing their independence in spiritual matters,” and in introducing a bill for the amendment of the law of 1887. Señor Canalejas declared that the Government, “inspired by the universal spirit of liberty of conscience,” had given to article xi. of the constitution ‘the full sense of its text.” Religious Toleration.—“Liberty of conscience,” a principle condemned by the Syllabus of 1864 and discountenanced by the encyclical Pascendi gregis of 1905, was hardly a phrase calculated to conciliate the Spanish clergy, still less the Vatican. A cry went up that to allow dissident Churches to announce their presence was to insult and persecute the Catholic Church; at Rome the decree was attacked as unconstitutional, and as a breach of diplomatic propriety all the more reprehensible since negotiations for a revision of the concordat were actually pending. A

violent clerical agitation, encouraged by the Vatican, was started, 72 Spanish archbishops and bishops presenting a joint protest to the Government. Fuel was added to the fire by the introduction of a bill—known as the “‘Cadena’s bill’”—forbidding the settlement of further congregations in Spain until the negotiations with the Vatican should have heen completed. This was denounced at Rome as a unilateral assertion on the part of the Spanish Government of an authority which, under the concordat, belonged to the Holy See as well. As a preliminary to negotiation, the Government was required to rescind all the obnoxious measures. This demand broke the patience of the prime minister, and on July 30, Sefior de Ojeda, Spanish ambassador at the Vatican, was instructed to hand in his papers. In Vatican circles dark hints began to be dropped of a possible rapprochement with Don Jaime, who had succeeded his father Don Carlos, on July 18, 1909, as the representative of Spanish legitimacy and Catholic orthodoxy. The pretender, indeed, disclaimed any intention of stirring up civil war in Spain; his mission would be to restore order when the country should have wearied of the republican régime whose speedy advent he foresaw. The fulfilment of the first part of this prophecy seemed to some to be brought a step nearer by the overthrow of the monarchy in Portugal on Oct. 5, tgto. For Spain its immediate effect was to threaten a great increase of the difficulties of the Government, by the immigration of the whole mass of religious congregations expelled from Portugal by one of the first acts of the new régime.

(W. A. P.: R. AL.)

[HISTORY '

murder of Canalejas on Nov. 12, t912 by a fanatical anarchist,

an event which ended all the hopes placed in a statesman who, in

less than three years and in spite of all the difficulties which hag arisen, had given politics a distinctly liberal trend. The Romanones Ministry.—Sefor Canalejas was succeeded by Count de Romanones, one of his ministers, but the discipline

of the Liberal Party, which had been maintained by the strong hand of the murdered premier, subsequently relaxed. Señor Maura, who had hoped to be asked to form a government, pro-

tested against the continuation in power of the Liberals.

This

was the first sign of a determined opposition. Señor Alvarez on the other hand, took the opportunity to accentuate his evoly. tion towards the monarchy, helped by the king, who, at the moment, was seeking the advice of several prominent men know, for their advanced views. Count Romanones took a good share of whatever merit there was in this policy, as well as in the success of the king’s official visit to Paris on the conclusion of the Franco-Spanish treaty (May 6-9). He resigned on May 31, after a strong speech of opposition from Maura who restated his pos tion of “implacable hostility” to a policy of co-operation with the

parties of the anti-dynastic Left. The next day the king asked Romanones to return once more, after the crisis caused byasplit

in the Liberal Party on the question of the bill de Mancomunj. dades then before the Senate (June ir). But this time it was generally realized that this step was simply an expedient neces. sitated by the coming visit of the French president to Madrid The latent Liberal crisis broke out as soon as M. Poincaré left Spanish soil. On Oct. 25 the cabinet resigned, and the king, after attempting in vain to reconcile the parties, realized that the Liberal policy which he had constantly followed since r909 was at an end. He first summoned Maura but found his views on

policy choice party. law to t013),

so dangerous that he turned to Señor Dato (Oct. 27), a which initiated the disintegration of the Conservative The new Government granted a decree giving validity of the bill de Mancomunidades, dissolved thẹ cortes (Dec. 31, and came back after a general election with a sufficient

majority in both houses.

It met with considerable

opposition

owing to several royal decisions which were interpreted as acts of personal power in military matters. But its internal difficulties were soon to be merged into the all-absorbing preoccupation of the World War.

Morocco.—At the close of the year rgro Señor Canalejas resigned in order to reconstruct his cabinet. This second ministry lasted till April 3, rgzz, when it fell on the occasion of a debate on the Ferrer case. The attention of parliament was diverted towards Moroccan affairs. The French were preparing their advance on Fez, and Spain was forced to an active policy, the first signs of which were received with ill-humour by the French press. The Government, in the teeth of popular opposition, were sending troops to

THE WORLD WAR AND AFTER The international situation of Spain at the outbreak of war was defined by two sets of circumstances: official, and national ot popular. The official situation was ruled by an agreement between Spain, France and England, made at Cartagena in 1907, and com firmed by the conversations held there in 1913 between M. Poincaré and Count Romanones, which stipulated that “should new circumstances arise tending to alter the territorial status quo” in the Mediterranean or in the European and African coasts of

France was prevented from taking strong action by the Agadir incident (see Morocco; Evropg, etc.), but a certain tension prevailed between France and Spain during the summer. The Moroccan operation prepared as a consequence of the disembarkation in Larache began successfully on Dec. 6, but collapsed a few days later after a gallant attempt to force the

munication” in order to take any measures that might be neces

Morocco, and on June 9 a Spanish force landed at Larache.

the Atlantic, the three Powers concerned would “enter into com

sary.

The war was obviously a “circumstance” within the limits

of the above definition, yet France and England, the two Powers — most interested, made no sign. Señor Dato promptly declared for an absolute neutrality. Spain was the only European nation which had no stake in the war; the nation was divided in its feelings. The working classes, most of the intellectuals and the trading communities, were pro-Ally. The clergy, most of the

passage of the River Kert, not without leaving behind an atmosphere of ill-feeling due to the belief, current in the Spanish army, that the Moorish troops were provided with French arms and army and of the bureaucracy and the “idle rich,” were proammunition. Under such unfavourable conditions began the German. The division cut across the parties. On one definite negotiations for a Franco-Spanish agreement following upon the point everybody agreed. Spain was to keep out of the war. F ranco-German treaty on Morocco. After a reshufling of his A “committee of initiative” was created for the study and cocabinet (March 11) Canalejas adjourned parliament until May 1. ordination of efforts to deal with war problems. Parliament reWith the summer a period of strikes, culminating in a grave sumed its sittings on Oct. 30, 1924 and unanimously endorsed the railway strike, set in. Canalejas met it by applying article 221 of foreign policy of the Government. the Recruiting Law allowing the drafting into military service of A crisis caused by difficulties in connection with the launching all men of military age working in industries of public importance of a loan brought about the resignation of the Government (June in cases of danger or abnormal circumstances. On Oct. 14 the 22) quickly followed by a reinstatement of the same cabinet. autumn session began with a fresh discussion of the bill de The situation of the Treasury was by no means flourishing. At Mancomunidades, but the session was brought to a close by the the end of the year revenue remained at 1,202,000,000 pesetas

HISTORY]

SPAIN

while expenses, not including Government purchases of foodstuffs, rose to 1,556,000,000 pesetas. The Government had to fall back on Treasury bonds negotiated through the Bank of Spain. Yet the work of the country was in full swing under the stimulus of war orders. Profits in shipping rose high and sinkings by German torpedo boats increased accordingly. Sefior Dato’s Government fell on a debate on the Military Reform bills (Dec. 6, 1915). The crisis ended in the formation of a united Liberal ministry under Count Romanones.

Count Romanones wore his neutrality with a difference, and

did little to conceal his pro-Ally views. By Sept. 1916, Spain had lost more than 30,000 tons of shipping by torpedoing, and more than 50,000 in circumstances which were, to say the least, obscure. The shipping interests asked for Government help. On Jan. 31 Germany sent in a note establishing an “absolute block-

ade” of the Allied coasts. Count Romanones sent a firm answer on Feb. 6. But he realized that his firmness meant nothing unless backed with the will to fight if necessary and that public opinion would not follow him so far. He resolved to leave the Government there and then, at the top of the wave of his own policy. Committees of Defence.—lIn resigning (April 19) he took the easiest path. His fall, however, cost him the leadership of his party. The new ministry, under the premiership of Sefior Garcia Prieto, was frankly neutralist. It had moreover to concentrate on the situation created by the so-called committees of defence. Towards the middle of 1916, a system of infantry committees of defence appeared, which soon evinced a tendency to interfere with the Government in such a manner that, towards the end of

143

binations were tried and failed, until on March 21 at midnight, at a meeting of ex-prime-ministers called by the king in his study, King Alfonso, after, it is said, having threatened his abdication,

succeeded in forming a “ministry of all the talents.” It was but short-lived (resigned Nov. 6). The new Government, presided over by Garcia Prieto, was formed amid the sensation caused by the news of the Kaiser’s flight. It fell on Dec. 3, 1918, and Count Romanones formed a stop-gap cabinet. His first important act was his visit to President Wilson, then in Paris. The successive Governments which ruled Spain during this period had succeeded in steering clear of obstacles, home and foreign, overburdened as they were with home problems and foreign advice not always disinterested. Unwelcome visits of German submarines (1917), and the requirements of trade (Anglo-Spanish agreement Dec. 6) gradually brought Spain to apply to Germany the claim of ton for ton. Germany had agreed to the ton-for-ton

indemnity when the end of the war came. The Spanish merchant marine had lost 65 ships representing 140,000 tons. From the material point of view, the neutral attitude adopted by Spain contributed to accelerate the progress which was observable in her economic development in the pre-war years. Decay of the Party System.—A mixture of two political currents, a democratic, constitutional agitation, born of the Allied victory, and a revolutionary agitation traceable to the effect of the juntas’ pronunciamentos, brought about a violent conflict between the military and the civil authorities of Barcelona. The Government resigned, the military having expelled the civil authorities from the town. Maura took office on April 15, asked for a decree dissolving the cortes, and to the consternation of all

the year, Count Romanones, then in office, insisted on their dissolution. General Aguilera, the war secretary in Garcia Prieto’s parties, obtained it. This amounted almost to a coup d’état on administration, ordered the leaders to be arrested but, probably the part of the king. Maura, despite most objectionable methods, failed to bring owing to royal hints, the order was cancelled, the army officers having meanwhile faced the Government with an ultimatum to the new cortes more than about one-eighth of its total member(June 1). The Government resigned. Dato, called to office, capit- ship under his banner. His Government fell (July 20), and Sefior ulated before the juntas. This victory of a movement which, in Sanchez de Toca (Dato being ill) formed a Conservative cabinet. its essence, was revolutionary, stimulated the revolutionary fer- Two short-lived cabinets followed and a period of deep unrest, ment at work in the country. Political manifestos asking for a murders and mutinies (Saragossa, Valencia, Santander). The renovation in government and constitution followed each other king called Dato to power. But the general election at the end (Socialists June 12, Catalanists June 16, Left-Coalition June 16). of 1920 showed that the mainspring of the old system—the In the teeth of Government opposition, an assembly of sena- docility of the electorate to any kind of Government—could no tors and deputies met, voted resolutions asking for a reform of longer be counted upon. Dato failed to obtain a working majority, the constitution, and set up three commissions to prepare reports his supporters numbering 177 members out of gos. All his on reforms to be submitted to a second meeting to take place efforts were accordingly bent towards the reconciliation of the later. These men might have taken the lead of the revolutionary several factions within the Conservative party. While engaged spirit stirred by the army. But the mass of the assembly was too in this task he was assassinated by anarchists on March 8, r921. This murder accelerated the disintegration of the system of dull, and no real leader manifested himself. Thus two attempts, one military, one middle-class, both directed against the evils of rotation of the two political parties, which, as arranged by Canothe old régime, failed through lack of co-ordination and mutual vas and Sagasta at the death of Alfonso XII., had stood the understanding. A third failure was still to come. On Aug. Io the monarchy in good stead as a substitute for a real constitutional railwaymen of the Northern railway went on strike. On the 13th, practice on the lines of the English monarchy. While the old a general strike, clearly revolutionary, was suddenly launched in system deteriorated day by day owing to its own internal weakness, it was attacked from the outside by forces of three different the whole country. A state of war was declared, and the military crushed the re- kinds: first, the anti-dynastic elements, once heaped together bellion with a ruthless hand. By Aug. 19 the situation was well under the common name of republicans, now moving towards in hand. The net result was to prove that the only real force in Socialism on the one hand and on the other towards different the country was the army committee system. On Aug. to, the varieties of social revolutionaries such as syndicalists, anarchists council of ministers passed a special credit for military expenses. and even professional agitators without any political or philoThe committees attempted to deliver a message into the hands of sophic bias; secondly, the Catalan home-rulers, gradually evolvthe king. Dato had to resign on a “perfectly constitutional” hint ing from autonomy to separatism; finally the movement of what by the king. In point of fact he was expelled by the army com- might be called military syndicalism embodied in the juntas de mittees. The crisis was long and laborious, and in the midst of it, defensa. A Conservative Government under Allendesalazar took the parliamentary assembly met in Madrid (Oct. 30) in its sec- office at Dato’s death. Morocco.—The military disaster which the Spanish troops ond session. The cabinet was at last formed by Garcia Prieto. It was a coalition ministry composed of Maurists, Liberals and met in Morocco in July 1921, beginning with the fall of the Catalanists, in which, in order to give satisfaction to the new advanced post of Anual, entailed the withdrawal at heavy cost demand for an impartial general election, a non-political judge of the Spanish troops from all the zone previously occupied by was given the post of home secretary. Señor La Cierva, who took the commanding officer in Melilla, the suicide of General Sil the war office, was the real head of the cabinet. His policy con- vestre, and considerable moral effects both in Spain and in the sisted of ingratiating himself with the committees of defence, so Rif. It swept away the Allendesalazar Government. A stronge: as to become their leader and representative. But soon after the Conservative Government was constituted under Maura who general election (Feb. 24) the Government fell on a grave crisis backed by public opinion, sent 140,000 men to the rescue of thi brought about by a strike of telegraph officials. All possible com- troops in Morocco. But an energetic demand for an inquin

SPAIN

144 made itself opinion, the accusations the general

heard. As a set-off against this current of civilian juntas de defensa began a campaign of threats and for sil against parliament, which they held responsible disorganization leading to the Moroccan crisis. In-

judiciously met by the Government at first, this demand had to be satished, and the Government decided to appoint General

Picasso as an official investigator. General Picasso carried out his task with a high sense of duty and impartiality, and his report

was received by all parties alike as a fine example of patriotism. But this display of energy on the part of the Government increased the opposition of the military juntas de defensa. The cabinet sought a clumsy solution of this problem by a so-called “disbandment” of the juntas and their replacement by juntas

informativas publicly and legally recognized and placed, at least in theory, under the authority of the war minister. This solution satisfied nobody. Sefior Maura resigned in Jan. 1922, and though he continued in office by express wish of the king, had finally to disappear in March of the same year, leaving office to another Conservative cabinet under the leadership of Sanchez Guerra.

The Juntas.——The

new prime minister, an energetic man,

strongly opposed to the juntas, took office ment was exceedingly weak. The juntas fantry officers, authorized by the previous a number of resolutions, two of which are

general attitude:

(1) Every infantry

at a time when parliade defensa of the inwar minister, adopted an indication of their

officer to be bound

to

affiliate to the juntas, or otherwise to be prosecuted before a tribunal of his brother officers; (2) No promotion to be authorized in the army save by seniority. The army officers had thus set up a form of military syndicalism which, owing to the material strength that it wielded, was a State within the State, while in parliament the opposition grew more critical of military inefficiency. The Picasso report was submitted to a parliamentary commission on which all the parties were represented. Parlia-

ment and public opinion grew more insistent in their demands for a condign punishment of the Moroccan setback and the Government collapsed. Liberals and Morocco.—The Liberal coalition which, created in April of the same year, then took office (Dec. 1922) made it clear that it would uphold the parliamentary procedure adopted in regard to the conduct of the Moroccan campaign. Popular feeling backed the new Government. The election held in April 1923 led to a Liberal-Reformist majority, but its sensational feature was the success of five out

of eight Socialist candidates in securing election in the capital, attributed by the Socialist party to the strong line which they had taken against the war in Morocco. ; The burden which the Moroccan question imposed on the Treasury was aggravated by other problems which the nation was unable to put aside. The railways were face to face with a severe crisis. The economic situation had somewhat improved since 1920-21, when the tension between owners and men was at its highest, particularly in Catalonia, where professional agitators victimized both owners and men to such an extent that in the year rg21 there were in Catalonia alone 145 attempts on human life causing go deaths. Primo de Rivera—tIn Sept. 1923, the report of the parlia-

mentary commission on the disaster of 1921 was ready. Several politicians were stated to be deeply involved, some because they

[HISTORY

of Cadiz which he then occupied. At the time of the coup d'état General Primo de Rivera was captain-general of Catalonia, his

headquarters being in Barcelona. In the early morning of Sept. 13, the Government published the news that the captain-general of Catalonia had risen in arms, The king was in San Sebastian. The military authorities of Bilbao

and Saragossa had sided with the rebels and in Madrid, where the

captain-general, General Muñoz Cobos maintained a cautious, though dubious attitude, a council of military commanders were

acting for Primo de Rivera. A manifesto published the same day

by Primo de Rivera declared that it was indispensable to liberate the country “from the professional politicians, the men who, for one reason or another, are responsible for the period of misfortune and corruption which

began in 1898 and threatens to

bring Spain to a tragic and dishonourable end.” The general added ` that “the wide net of greedy politics has caught in its meshes and | imprisoned the royal will itself.” He announced the constitution | of a military directorate in Madrid which was to find for the problem of Morocco a “quick, dignified and sensible” solution and was to bring home responsibility “promptly and justly” by

the formation of “tribunals of recognized moral authority.” Immediately after the king’s arrival (delayed 24 hours) the prime minister called on his majesty and proposed strong action against the military rebels, but the king reflection and the Government resigned. deputation of generals was received at the requested Primo de Rivera, still in Barcelona, his arrival in Madrid on Sept. 15, Primo de

asked for time for Two hours later a palace and the king to take office Upon Rivera proceeded to transform the provisional military directorate both in its personnel and in its constitution in order to grant representation in it to all the branches and all the garrisons of the army.

From a constitutional and administrative point of view, .the directorate struck an original note. The only minister was Primo de Rivera himself and ministerial departments were left

in charge of permanent officials. The directors studied specific questions. The Home Office was entrusted to General Martinez Anido, with the rank of under-secretary of State. Public opinion | received the change in absolute silence, save for a protest from — the Socialist Party. The directorate declared the country in a state of war.

The | press was put under a strict censorship and all public demon. strations of a political character were forbidden. A few drastic . measures enabled the new Government to gain control over the provincial and political machinery. In order to forestall possible — trouble in the lower ranks of the army, a substantial rise in pay was granted to non-commissioned officers. A heavy budget, amounting to 54,000,000 pesetas, was set aside for Morocco.

=m4

On Nov. 13, two months after the coup d’état, Count Roma |

nones and Don Melquiades Alvarez, the presidents respectively of the senate and of the congress of deputies, called on the king in order to remind him that the Crown was under a personal constitutional obligation to call the cortes together within three months of their dissolution. They were promptly dismissed by both king and prime minister. The king and his premier went on

an official visit to the court of Italy in Nov. 1923. Both recorded their approval of and good wishes for the success and methods of Fascismo. Thus the king declared to General Italo Balbo: “I admire Fascismo. You are happy here in being so near the end of your labours. We are just beginning.” In the Vatican, the

had accorded too much unconstitutional initiative to the king: other difficulties were raised owing to the ill-feeling with which the king read a sensational speech in which Spain was offered to His army received any parliamentary or civilian criticism of its Holiness in the event of a new crusade being necessary. General action in Morocco. While the nation was anxiously awaiting the Primo de Rivera held office until Jan. 30, 1930, when he re next development, a dramatic stroke brought suddenly to an end | signed. He died at Paris on March 16, 1930. Generál Damaso the system under which the country had lived since 1875. The Berenguer succeeded him as Premier. captain-general of Catalonia, Don Miguel Primo de Rivera (MarHome Affairs—The Government continued to repress al qués de Estella) rebelled against the Government, threatened its hostile expression of opinion. The agitation for an inquiry into members with gaol, and seized power first and office afterwards. the Moroccan campaign remained active and had for its cenue He had already once or twice appeared in the limelight owing to ` the Ateneo de Madrid. The directorate closed the club—the declarations on such questions as the surrender of Morocco, on first time since its creation in the second half of the roth cen which he held courageous if unorthodox views, and on the inter- | tury. Don Miguel de Unamuno (g.v.), the famous author and change of Gibraltar and Ceuta. This last expression of opinion professor of Salamanca university, whose strong stand against had caused his removal from the position of military governor the directorate, expressed in indignant and sometimes offensive

© . | ,

HISTORY]

SPAIN

145

of Martinez Anido, who became home secretary and vice-presiclent of the council. The other members of the cabinet were for the most part young and unknown men drawn from the extreme right of the old party system. Primo de Rivera however, in beorganizations working under several departments. It was divided coming president of the council, declared that he meant to repress was into six sections: tariffs, valuation of goods for tariff purposes, tain full powers as dictator, and in particular, that the word. In his to true was He censorship. strict under remain to production, of defence information, statistics, commercial espetreaties of commerce. The Treasury was heavily burdened with 1926 both the press and individuals were strictly censored, military and Moroccan expenditure. In April 1924, an internal cially in Catalonia, where one eminent professor was exiled. Foreign Affairs.—1926 was a year of diplomatic activity. In loan was floated (700,000,000 pesetas of four-year-term bonds at s% and 1% sinking-fund) in order to meet the Treasury January a Spanish aviator flew from Spain to Buenos Aires and republic. bonds issued by them in Oct. 1923. This loan was covered nearly received an enthusiastic welcome from the Argentine America eight times over. In 1923 a national railway council was organized The event had considerable moral effect in all Spanish which in order to co-ordinate the administration of the railway com- It was quickly followed by a flight to Manila (March) meaning definite a Spain of activities flying the to gave thus administration the in panies, the State and the companies sharing and the State participating in the financial liabilities and assets towards maintaining the moral connection with the lands which pressed by of the companies. The Government launched a railway loan once had belonged to the empire. Abd-el-Krim, hard (Oct. 1925) to the amount of 300,000,000 pesetas at 5% free the combined efforts of the French and the Spaniards, surrendered Spain had from tax, with a lesser success due to unfavourable economic to the French army commander (May). Meanwhile Nations the of the in claimed a permanent Council League seat of circumstances. New Phase in Morocco.—The problem of Morocco soon in fulfilment of repeated promises made by the French and the monopolized the attention of the president. The expenses con- English Governments. The position became confused, Brazil, tinued to increase. The budget of 1923-24 had to face a deficit Poland, China and Persia having also put forward similar claims, of 576,000,000 pesetas, compared with a deficit of 920,000,000 while Germany and the northern nations led by Sweden opposed The matter in the budget of 1922-3, and of 1,101,000,000 for 1921-2. The all such increases in the number of permanent seats. Spain’s usual decrease in the deficit in 1923-4 was not due to a reduction in had to be adjourned till the June Council when expenses, but to a considerable increase in receipts due to the representative, Sefior Quifiones de Leon, was ominously absent rise in the assessment of the tax on utilidades (a kind of tax On Aug. 9 the treaty with Italy was signed stipulating mutual in its actual on incomes) and to a better assessment of local and urban tax- neutrality in case of unprovoked aggression. If not wording, which is innocuous, the treaty as an “act” does embody papers financial while able property. As for the year 1924—25, estimated the deficit at 1,000,000,000, the directorate declared a new orientation in Spanish foreign policy and carried beyond internal that it did not go beyond 600,000,000. General Primo de Rivera the frontier the obvious conclusion to be drawn from the As tackled the problem of Morocco with characteristic courage. In policy adopted, not by the country, but by the men in power. de Rivera in the the summer of 1924 he decided to carry out a considerable with- if further to stress this independent mood Primo for. a drastic drawal and a reduction of military liabilities. Primo de Rivera same month announced his intention of asking the setting steadfastly resolved to carry out his policy and he deserves change in the Tangier Convention which amounted to of questions the Thus Tangier. in protectorate Spanish a of up the on views his imposing in first succeeded, credit for having Tangier in position Spanish the of and seat Council League the popularity, his of Spanish army in the field at the risk, not only the Council of but even sometimes of his life, and also in conducting a difficult became simultaneously acute. The Assembly and kind of special a up set to decided 1926, Dec. in League the Xauen. and Tetuan between military retreat covering all the zone it quite clear Later events, however, obliged him considerably to modify his Council seat of a semi-permanent character, making policy. The sudden attack launched in 1925 by Abd-el-Krim that it was meant to meet the case of Spain. The Government, of withagainst the French forces in the French protectorate, led to the however, refused such a compromise and gave notice combined action of the two countries. The French Government drawal (September). Three months later (Feb. 1927) the foreign sent to Spain M. Malvy, who negotiated with General Primo de secretary resigned and the prime minister took over the Foreign Rivera an agreement for military and political co-operation which Office. Home Affairs.——The year had been no less active in home led to the recovery of the French territory lost during the first onslaught of the Rifian troops, and to the occupation of Abd-el- affairs. The president spent the first part of the year in propaganwhich Krim’s headquarters, after a brilliant landing in Alhucemas Bay dist efforts to set up an organization, the Unión Patriótica, in his mind was to include all men of good will ready to accept by the Spanish troops (See further the special article on Mohis motto: “Country, Religion, Monarchy.” His ministers underROCCO.) Municipal Reform.—In 1925 the directorate undertook a took their several activities unfettered by any parliamentary or reorganization of the provincial and municipal administration of constitutional shackles. Good work was at once seen in the ministhe country in two decrees. The first establishes a system of try of labour led by a young yet experienced Catalan, Señor Aunós, municipal autonomy, delegating to municipalities the right to who tackled the organization of labour on a co-operative basis levy certain rates, thus enabling them to set up their municipal with effective vigour. The department of public works was ably treasuries; and establishing female and proportional suffrage in conducted by an expert, the Marqués of Guadalhorce. A welcome municipal institutions. The second deals with provincial admin- sign of economic revival came spontaneously from the nation. istration, incidentally abolishing the mancomunidad, a kind of The Confederación del Ebro, a free association of all the public Catalonian local parliament. In its Catalonian policy the direc- bodies interested in the river from its source to the sea, was torate soon reversed the pro-home-rule orientation which had founded in order to adjust the several requirements of irrigation, inspired the first utterances of Primo de Rivera evidently in- power, water supply and navigation as between all the regions on spired in the desire to ensure support from the Conservative the river and its tributaries. It proved a signal success and other home-rule elements of Catalonia for his pronunciamiento. But bodies of a similar nature have been created since on other rivers. Primo de Rivera found considerable opposition amongst the Ambitious schemes for the electrification of the railways and the military forces which surrounded him to any measures of Catalan repair and development of the roads (including the construction devolution, so that gradually the sympathies of the directorate of special roads for fast motor trafic) have been set on foot. In towards the Catalonian autonomist movement made way for a The main trouble comes from the censorship of the Press. régime described in Catalonia as one of systematic persecution. June 1926, a plot was discovered against the régime. It was led On Dec. 2, Primo de Rivera parted from his military team and by Marshal Weyler, General Aguilera and several politicians. The formed a ministry of which, apart from himself and the ministers Government settled the matter with commendable tact and even fine of war and marine, a fourth soldier was a member in the person with mischievous shrewdness as shown in the decision to

articles in the press of South America, had greatly incensed the directorate, was exiled to the Canary islands. In March 1924, the council of national economy was created in order to co-ordinate the activities of numerous economic

146

SPAIN

mirable vitality of the country responded with added wealth anda heavily the Liberal leader, Count Romanones. In September was finally balanced, at least so far as could be ascerthe president was faced with the gravest of the crises he had to budget the existing system. In 1927 there was an increase of under tained jealtradition the d abolishe meet. A decree (July 1926) having over the previous year’s receipts. The estipesetas 80,000,000 proously maintained by all the artillery officers never to accept provided for a balanced budget; but in reasonably 1928 for mates d, proteste officers artillery the seniority motion otherwise than by having for their background ap successes financial such of spite by at arrived and after delicate negotiations an arrangement was the political situation prosperous, whole the on economic situation system new the to principle in agreed officers which the artillery the far prevented not only was steady. censorship Though from officers The ism. favourit while submitting it to guarantees against the spreading of unfavourable news but particularly the possibility claimed that this arrangement was broken by Primo de Rivera. of any movement of opinion gathering momentum and reaching Whatever the merits of the case may be they were led to prepare action, numerous incidents revealed the vitala rebellion which the president nipped in the bud by abolishing the the field of political ity of the opposition. Now and then an outspoken speech was reamnesty an Though er). (Septemb decree by corps artillery cruelly—repressed, as in the case of Pro. stored all but a handful of them to their posts the incident left heavily—though never fessor Asua of Madrid university, whose unjustified punishment behind much ill feeling within the country and between the artilled to a unanimous protest from the Faculty of Law of the Uni. lery officers and the Government. The fact is that the Government has not tackled the chief prob- versity of Madrid and to a strike of students. The dictator, lem of the Spanish State—the reorganization of the army on an despite his evident good will and his successes in more than one objective basis and its insertion within the framework of a civil field of government, has been the prisoner of his political inex. society. The army is still mostly a nest of posts for the sons of perience. By gagging the nation he has deprived himself of ad. the middle classes and an instrument of political bullying. In the versaries, but by the same stroke he has deprived himself and the (S. DoE M.) 1925 reconstruction budget amounting to 3,747,000,000 pesetas Crown of any alternatives. no less than 1,508,000,000 were devoted to army and navy exThe Queen Mother, Maria Christina, died on Feb. 6, 192ọ. penses (barracks 140,000,000, aviation 160,000,000, naval bases BIBLIOGRAPHY —Sources. The minute and critical study of the sources 187,000,000). Vet expenses in Morocco began to diminish after of Spanish history (collections of documents and bibliography) has ren. the surrender of Abd-el Krim and the Spanish zone was thor- dered most of the earlier collections almost valueless. Even from the oint of view of the correctness of texts, some of these older collections oughly pacified and disarmed by the new high commissioner, have been in a large measure surpassed by more modern ones, among General Sanjurjo. A decree establishing an income tax was pre- which the following may be recommended: pared in Dec. 1926, and is gradually working its way into the Bibliographical Guides-—-B. Sanchez Alonso, Fuentes de la historia country’s finances. A successful funding of a short-term debt espanola e hispano-americana (1919, 2nd ed. 1927); R. Ballester, Bib(5,225,000,000 pesetas) led to a voluntary exchange of nearly all liografia de la historia de Espana (Gerona 1921), Las fuentes narrativas the outstanding Treasury bonds for long-term scrip, a trifling de la historia de Espata durante la Edad Media 417-1474 (Palma de Mallorca, 1908), and Las fuentes narrativas de la historia de Espana residue being refunded at par. durante la Edad Moderna, Part 1 (Valladolid 1927); R. Foulché-Del1927.—On Jan. 10, 1927, a sensational discovery was made in bosc and L. Barrau-Dihigo, Manuel de lHispanisant, 2 vols. (New France when Señor Maciá, a Catalan separatist, an ex-major in York 1920-25); Hispanic Society of America, Bibliographie Huthe Spanish army, tried to invade Catalonia with a small band of panique, 7 vols. (New York, 1905-17). As regards modern historians and confining ourselves, as the nature armed men. The matter was more discussed in France than in of this note requires, to general works, the first was J. F. de Masdeu, Spain owing to its ramifications in Italy, some of Sefor Macia’s Historia critica de Espana y de la cultura espanola, 20 vols. (1783accomplices being prominent Italian figures. The Government be- 1805). After him came D. Modesto Lafuente y Zamalloa, whose work, gan to put into shape its plans for an assembly. For the rest of the the Historia general de Espana, 30 vols. (1850-67) was for half a year the country was able to follow—through the chinks in the century the most widely read and consulted, but has now been superby more modern works. An edition of his work in 25 vols, censorship—the game of pull and push over the new-fangled seded continued by J. Valera, A. Borrego and A. Pirala was published at pseudo-parliamentary creation of General Primo de Rivera. The Barcelona (1877-90). strong man of the cabinet, General Anido, was understood to be At the beginning of the 2oth century the Historia de Espana y de la against it; the king, threatened by the leader of the Conservatives, civilización española, by R. Altamira y Crevea, 4 vols. (Barcelona, Senor Sanchez Guerra, with an open break if he consented to such 1900-11, 4th ed., 1928) to a large extent superseded that of Lafuente because it embodies the results of recent research and also because it a dispossession of the cortes, demurred. Finally the decree was presents the most complete picture of Spanish civilization so far pubsigned and the king himself opened the assembly on Oct. Io, lished and comprises the first selected bibliographical guide. The while Sanchez Guerra went into voluntary exile. The assembly Historia stops at the year 1808, but its continuation will be found in is a purely advisory organization, all the members of which are the Historia de la civilización española by the same author (1928 appointed by the Government, and as such it has raised no in- edition in his Obras completas, Historical Series vol. iv.). Another which treats the subject from a different point of view and is terest. The president had solicited the collaboration of numerous work accompanied by a modern and selected bibliography is the Epitome intellectuals and of the Socialist Party but in the nature of things de la Historia de Espana, also by Sefior Altamira (1927). See also A he was bound to meet with refusal in both these quarters and the Ballesteros y Beretta, Historia de España, su influencia en la Historio assembly is as mediocre in its personnel as it is in its organization universal, 4 vols. published (Barcelona, 1919, etc.), with an abundant and work. True political events occur outside. The president had bibliography; S. Aguado, Manual de historia de Espafia, 2 vols. (Bil 1927-28), which takes into account the most recent researches an interview with Sir Austen Chamberlain in Majorca (Oct. bao, and contains a well arranged and critical bibliography. The Historic 1927). In this month also the king was able to visit Morocco, now general de Espana, escrita por individuos de la Real Academia dela entirely pacified. The Tangier negotiations with France, led Historia, the publication of which was begun in 1892, has remained finally, 1f not to the satisfaction of the Spanish claim, at least to a incomplete. Its various volumes, by a great variety of authors, are number of French concessions which put the position of Spanish very unequal in quality and it is based on no general plan. Modern have also published fairly complete works on the separate hissafety in her zone on aslightly better basis than before (see writers tory of the old divisions of Spain. The best hitherto published are

TANGIER). These events paved the way for a change in Spain’s attitude towards the League.

Invited by the president of the

League Council to reconsider her position (March 1928), Spain announced her willingness to remain within the fold of the League, handsomely trusting the League itself with the task of fixing her status on its Council. The situation thus reached a condition of stable equilibrium. : The president more than once announced his intention now to retire, now to remain in office for an indefinite number of years. The best successes of the Government have been reaped in the financial field where, owing to a period of peace, the ad-

.

f ' ` | |

|

| —

' Sie sess)

°

those concerning Catalonia.

For the most recent period see El Afio Politico published yearly by

Fernando Soldevilla; El Anuario Financiero published yearly by Emilio Riu; A. N. Young, Spanish Finance and Trade (1920); Count Romanones El Ejército y la Politica (1921) and Las Responsabilidades del Antiguo Régimen (1924); F. de León y Castillo Mis Tiempos

(x921); Francisco Cambó En Torno del Fascismo Italiano (1925),

c oe Gamazo Historia critica del reinado de Don Alfonso XIII. 1925). Of works by non-Spanish authors the best are those of Martin A. S. Hume, Spain, its Greatness and Decay, 1479-1788 (1898), ‘Modern Spain, 1788-1898 (“Story of the Nations” Series, 1899) and The Sponish people

(1901); Butler Clarke Modern Spain, 1815-1898

(1906):

eS SE, ONE cee ae SN E ee See Ae

SPAIN, BANK OF—SPANDAU The Rise of the Spanish Empire in the Old

R. Bigelow Merriman,

World and in the New, 2 vols. (New York 1918), and Reflexiones acerca deb imperto espanol (in the Bulletin of the Academy of History

1923). Good summaries of Spanish history year by year are published

in the Annual Register. On the political history of the 19th century

see also the Spanish chapters in A. Stern, Geschichte Europas seit 1815 bis 1872, 10 vols. (Stuttgart, 1913-24).

SPAIN, BANK OF. The Banco de España, a successor to the Nuevo Banco Español de San Fernando, and the Banco de Isabel II., was raised to the category of the National Bank of Spain on March 19, 1874, by Don Jose Echegaray, then Minister of Finance. It was granted the exclusive privilege of issuing notes. Its capital, at that time 57,000,000 pesetas, was 177,000,000 pesetas on Dec. 29, 1921. In Dec. 1928 the reserves stood at 65,000,000 pesetas. The fiduciary issue is regulated by the law of Dec. 29, 1921, which stipulates that up to a total circulation of 4,000,000,000

pesetas, the metallic reserves shall be 45%, of which, at least, 40% must be in gold. Above 4,000,000,000 and up to a total maximum of 6,000,000,000 the metallic reserve shall be 60%, at least 50% being gold. As a consideration for privilege of note-issue, the Bank has to perform, free of charge, many services to the Treasury, and in addition to the ordinary taxes payable by all banks, the Treasury obtains from the Bank of Spain a percentage of the profits, varying from 10% to 50% according to the dividend. The Bank has 64 branches, 4 foreign agencies and nearly 6,000 correspondents

in Spain.

SPAIN, CODES

GrerMANiIc Laws.)

OF.

(A. Va.)

(For mediaeval codes, see FUERO;

The codes in force at the present time cover

a considerable part of the legislation of Spain. They are: (1) The Código fundamental, i.e., the Constitution of the State of 1876, which was preceded by the Constitution of Cadiz of 1812, and that of 1869. (2) The Código civil, comprising the law on status, rights and duties of persons (primarily Spaniards) considered as active members of society from birth to death. It came into force on May 1, 1889, and in the same year was applied to Cuba, Puerto Rico and the Philippine islands. As in the Code Napoleon, the Roman concepts were followed. The code in fact carried out the directions of the Ley de Bases of May 11, 1888. (3) The Código de comercio of 1885 which came into force on Jan 1, 1886, following the Code of 1829, was framed on the model of the French code of commerce with improvements taken from French jurisprudence and the previous local laws of Spain, such as the Novisima Recopilacion and the Ordinances of Bilbao. (4) The Cédigo de enjuiciamiento civil (civil procedure) of Feb. 3, 1881. (5) The Código de enjuiciamiento criminal of Dec. 22, 1872. (6) The Código penal of 1870. (7) The Ley Hipotecaria (mortgage law) of 1870. These have all been modifed by subsequent legislation.

47

papacy, but when the thing was done none was so ready to translate the book or to justify the act. On the death of Frederick the Wise in 1525 Spalatin no longer lived at the Saxon court. But he attended the imperial diets, and was the constant and valued adviser of the electors, John and John Frederick. During the later portion of his life, from 1526 onwards, he was chiefly engaged in the visitation of churches and schools in electoral Saxony, reporting on the confiscation and application of ecclesiastical revenues and he was asked to undertake the same work for Albertine Saxony. He was also permanent visitor of Wittenberg University. He died on Jan. 26, 1545, at Altenburg His writings include: Annales reformationis, edited by E. S. Cyprian (Leipzig, 1718); and “Das Leben und die Zeitgeschichte Friedrichs

des Weisen,” published in Georg Spalatins Historischer Nachlass und Briefe, edited by C. G. Neudecker and L. Preller (Jena, 1851). A list of them may be found in A Seelheim’s George Spalatin als sachs. Historiographer (1876). There is no good life of Spalatin, nor can there be until his letters have been collected and edited, a work still to be done. There is an excellent article on Spalatin, by T. Kolde, in Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopddie, Bd. xviii. (1906).

SPALATO or SPALATRO: see SPLIT or SPLJET. SPALDING, ALBERT (1888), American violinist, was born at Chicago (Ill.), on Aug. 15, 1888. At seven, he commenced his musical studies under Ulpiano Chiti in Florence, continuing them with Juan Buitrago in New York and Lefort in Paris. Spalding’s début was made in 1905 in Paris, where in 1906 he appeared again with Patti. His first American appearance was with the New York Symphony Orchestra in 1908. In 1917 he joined the U.S. Aviation Corps, and served as liaison officer with the Italian command. He played at La Scala, Milan, in rọrọ. His compositions include many works for the violin, a string quartet in E minor and an orchestral work entitled Alabama.

SPALDING, a market town in Lincolnshire, England. Pop. of urban district (1931) 12,592. The parish church of St. Mary

and St. Nicholas was built in 1284 and is of peculiar construction, having four aisles to the nave. It is mainly Decorated in style. The adjoining lady chapel was built in 1315. Although there are no traces of settlement at Spalding (Spaltnige) before late Saxon times there was probably a village here before Thorold the sheriff founded his cell of Crowland Abbey in 1051. In Domesday Book the manor is said to belong to Ivo de Taillebois, who possessed a market there worth 4os.

SPALLANZANI, LAZARO

(1729-1799), Italian man of

science, was born at Scandiano in Modena on Jan. 10, 1729. At the age of fifteen he was sent to the Jesuit college at Reggio di Modena, but soon went to the university of Bologna, where his kinswoman, Laura Bassi, was professor of physics, and it is to her influence that his scientific impulse has been usually attributed. He was professor at Reggio, Modena and, under Maria Theresa, at Pavia, where he enriched the museum by the collections from SPALATIN, GEORGE, the name taken by George Burk- journeys along the shores of the Mediterranean. In 1785 he was hardt (1484-1545), an important figure in the history of the invited to Padua, but his sovereign doubled his salary and allowed Reformation, who was born on Jan. 17, 1484, at Spalt (whence him leave of absence for a visit to Turkey, where he made many he assumed the name Spalatinus), near Nuremberg, where his observations. His integrity in the management of the museum was father was a tanner. He went to school at Nuremberg, and after- suspected, but an investigation cleared his honour. In 1788 he wards to the university of Erfurt, where he took his bachelor’s visited Vesuvius and Sicily, and embodied his researches in Vzaggz degree in 1499. There Nikolaus Marschalk, the most influential alle due Sicilie ed in alcune parti dell’ Apennino (1792). His main discoveries were in the field of physiology: he professor, made Spalatin his amanuensis and took him to the new university of Wittenberg in 1502. In 1505 Spalatin returned to wrote papers on respiration, on the senses of bats, etc., while he Erfurt to study jurisprudence, and was welcomed by the little made experiments (1768) to disprove the occurrence of sponband of German humanists of whom Mutianus was chief. He taneous generation, showing that animalcules did not develop in became a teacher in the monastery at Georgenthal, and in 1508 vegetable infusions which had been boiled and were kept in he was ordained priest by Bishop Johann von Laasphe, who had properly closed vessels. His great work is the Dissertation de ordained Luther. In 1509 Mutianus recommended him to Fred- fisica animale e vegetale (2 vols., 1780). Here he first interpreted erick III. the Wise, the elector of Saxony, who made him tutor to the process of digestion. He also carried out researches on fertihis nephew, the future elector, John Frederick. The elector sent lization in animals (1780). He died at Pavia on Feb. 12, 1799.

him to Wittenberg in 1511 and procured for him a canon’s stall in

SPANDAU, a suburb of Berlin, Germany. Pop. (1925) 110,-

459. Spandau is one of the oldest places in the Altmark, and reAltenburg. He managed all the elector’s correspondence. Spalatin’s letters to Luther have been lost, but Luther’s an- ceived civic rights in 1232. It afterwards became a favourite resiswers remain, and are extremely interesting. Spalatin read Luther’s dence of the Hohenzollern electors of Brandenburg, and was fortiwritings to the elector, and translated for his benefit those in fied in 1577~83. In 1635 it surrendered to the Swedes, and in 1806 Latin into German. He would have dissuaded Luther again and to the French. A short investment in 1813 restored it to Prussia. again from publishing books or engaging in overt acts against the Spandau was one of the chief garrison towns of the old German

148

SPANDRIL—SPANISH-AMERICAN

study of architecture in Spanish-America must include a glance g;

Empire and contained the Imperial war treasure.

SPANDRIL,

SPaANpREL, in architecture, a space between

any arch or arch-like form and the horizontal moulding or beam above it; also, in an arcade, the wall surface between two adjacent arches and any horizontal member above them. SPANGENBERG, AUGUST GOTTLIEB (1704-1792), German Moravian bishop, Count Zinzendorf’s successor, was born on July 15, 1704, at Klettenberg, on the south of the Harz Mountains, where his father, Georg Spangenberg, was court preacher and ecclesiastical inspector of the countship of Hohenstein. He was a student of law at Jena when he met Count Zinzendorf in 1728; in 1730 he visited the Moravian colony at Herrnhut. A “collegium pastorale practicum” for the care of the sick and poor was in consequence founded by him at Jena, which the authorities at once broke up as a “Zinzendorfian institution.” His free lectures in Jena led to an invitation from Gotthilf Francke to the post of assistant professor of theology and superintendent of schools connected with his orphanage at Halle. He started work there in September 1732. But differences between the Pietists of Halle and himself soon became apparent. Spangenberg’s participation in private observances of the Lord’s Supper and his intimate connection with Count Zinzendorf brought matters to a crisis. He was offered by the senate of the theological faculty of Halle the alternative of doing penance before God, submitting to his superiors, and separating himself from Zinzendorf, or leaving the matter to the decision of the king, unless he preferred to “leave Halle quietly.” The case came before the king, and, on April 8, 1733, Spangenberg was conducted by the military outside the gates of Halle. At first he went to Jena, but then to Herrnhut and found amongst the Moravians his life-work. For the first thirty years (1733-62) his work was mainly devoted to the superintendence and organization of the extensive missionary enterprises of the body in Germany, England, Denmark, Holland, Surinam, Georgia and elsewhere. It was on an island off Savannah that Spangenberg startled John Wesley with his questions and profoundly influenced his future career. One special endeavour of Spangenberg in Pennsylvania was to bring over the scattered Schwenkfeldians to his faith. In 1741-42 he was in England collecting for his mission and obtaining the sanction of the archbishop of Canterbury. During the second half of this missionary period of his life he superintended as bishop the churches of Pennsylvania, defended the Moravian colonies against the Indians at the time of war between France and England, became the apologist of his body against the attacks of the Lutherans and the Pietists, and did much to moderate the mystical extravagances of Zinzendorf, with which his simple, practical and healthy nature was out of sympathy. The second thirty years of his work (1762-92) were devoted to the consolidation of the German Moravian Church. Zinzendorf’s death (1760) had left room and need for his labours at home. At Herrnhut there were conflicting tendencies, doctrinal and practical extravagances, and the organization of the brethren was very defective. In 1777 Spangenberg was commissioned to draw up an idea fidei fratrum, or compendium of the Christian faith of the United Brethren, which became the accepted declaration of the Moravian belief.

As compared with Zinzendorf’s own writings, this book exhibits the finer balance and greater moderation of Spangenberg’s nature. In his last years Spangenberg devoted special attention to education. He died at Berthelsdorf, on Sept. 18, 1792. In addition to the Idea fidei fratrum, Spangenberg wrote, besides other apologetic books, a Declaration über die seither gegen uns ausgegangenen Beschuldigungen sonderlich die Person unseres Ordinarius

(Zinzendorf)

betreffend

(Leipzig,

1751),

an

Apologetische

Schlussschrift (1752), Leben des Grafen Zinzendorf (1772-75); i z Pen s well known beyond the Moravian circle.

n addition to his autobiography (Selbstbiographi i Leben § pangenbergs (Barby. ae :K. F. eD ee Spangenbergs (Heidelberg, 1846); Otto Frick, Beiträge zur Lebens-

geschichte A. G. Spangenbergs (Halle, 1884); Gerhard Reichel’s article in Herzog-Hauck’s Reclencyklopddie (ed. 1906), s.v. “Spangenberg”; the article by Ledderhose, in the Allgemeine deutsche Biog-

raphie; also Moravian

BRETHREN,

SPANISH-AMERICAN

ARCHITECTURE

ARCHITECTURE.

A brief

made` the monumental and impressive architecture of the Mayas

up of receding terraced pyramids flanked with stairways and sy. | mounted by temples of delicate proportions, of pure and refined í design, with richly carved ornament decorating their surfaces. Jy; Chichen Itzá the temples and buildings, 15 to 300 it. high, square : or rectangular in plan, were built of limestone, with walls, bases, ` cornices, doors and windows, typically Maya corbelled arches ` and rich ornament with sculptural carving. In the valley of’ Teotihuacan, about 20 m. from Mexico City, the Toltecs buit two pyramids of imposing height and grandeur: one dedicated |

to the sun and the other to the moon. that of Mycherinus in Egypt.

The former is larger than °

In Teotihuacan the structures ar:

symmetrically laid along the main axis of the city called the: Street of the Dead.

The outstanding characteristics in the build.

ings and in the decoration are the use of straight lines, geometric figures, balance of masses, repetition of the same colours and the » conventionalized design of plants and animals. The base of the“Ciudadela,” the citadel, was 1,300 ft. on the side. Spanish Colonization.—The outstanding and dominating feature of all architectural work in Spanish-America during the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries is the number, quality and character ; of the religious buildings that rose from the fertile land conquered ` by the Spaniards. At first the influence of the Italian Renaissance f (see RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE) is evident. Then, gradually | a fusion of the European arts, especially the Spanish and Italian Baroque, with the technique and the sentiment of the natives takes place. Finally, in the 18th century—and more so in Mexico than elsewhere—there springs the Ultra-Baroque of Spanish. , America. nn’

In Peru and Bolivia the native art, which had grown free from © all exotic influence and which was unknown to Spain, was wdoubtedly a fully developed art that, in spite of persecution and almost total destruction at the hands of the conquerors, had| enough vitality left to rise again to influence the architecture . and decorative arts of the Spaniards, and to leave in the archi. — tectural works of these centuries a trace of the lives and very souls of the natives. This is also true of Mexico, whose architecture has very marked

plastic and constructive characteristics which distinguish it from

its Italian and Spanish inspirations, and which give it individuality in its arbitrary and flighty but effective ornamentation based on polychromic work. In Mexico, native architecture did not in fluence the colonial religious architecture; on the other hand, decorative sculpture and carving, among the most vigorous ex pressions of the aboriginal art shown in the native motives, did. Monks of the Franciscan Order arrived in New Spain in 1523,

of the Dominican Order in 1526, and the Augustines in 1533. The first type of construction used by the missionaries for their churches, in 1564, is that of the basilica (g.v.). The principal part of the convent is the church, and the church’s exterior has the aspect of a fortress. This combination of temple and fortress in one building is a characteristic of 16th century religious arch: tecture in Mexico. Religious buildings in Mexico may be divided into five types: (1) primitive churches as provisional temples; (2) the basilica type; (3) open chapels; (4) great fortified churches with single nave and no crossing, Romanic buttressing, Gothic vaulting and Renaissance or Baroque ornamentation in the portals; (5) cathedrals. The Augustines excelled the Franciscans in magnificence. The perfect type of Augustine churches of the middle of the 16th century is the church and convent of St. Augustine Acolman (1539), which had a single nave, no towel, fine frescoes, a beautiful cloister and a Plateresque (g.v.) portal

that is the most notable example of this style in America.

The

Franciscans oriented their buildings from east to west. The cot vent of San Francisco in Mexico City was a monument of unusual grandeur and the most remarkable example of its type, covering originally an area of 33,000 square feet.

The Dominicans were

less sumptuous than the Augustines, but more so than the Francis-

cans in their buildings, and they tended to make their facades after the severe and sober Herrerian style of the Escorial. | Climax and Later Developments.—From the beginning of

SPANISH-AMERICAN

LITERATURE

149

the 17th century the prosperity of Spanish-America became so | Gonzalo Hernandez de Oviedo y Valdés (1478-1557) and La great that a wave of religious building swept over it. The 18th conquista de México y de la nueva España (1552) by Francisco century found a complete religious unity and the power and López de Gomara (1511-77?) soon followed. The oppressed Inwealth of the church reached an unsurpassed splendour, propitious dians found a champion in Fray Bartolomé de las Casas (1474to a great manifestation of the arts. The climax of all Spanish- 1566), whose Brevisima relación de la destrucción de las Indias American Colonial religious architecture, as far as magnitude appeared in 1552, but no one of their own blood rose to tell their and excellence are concerned, is reached when the cathedrals of story until the Inca, Garcilaso de la Vega (1540-1616), pubthe 17th century were built. Mexico alone has 35 cathedrals. lished his Comentarios reales (Pt. I. r609, Pt. II. 1616) and The first great cathedral of America was that of Santo Domingo, Fernando de Alva Ixtlilxochitl (1568-1648) his Historia Chibuilt in 1514. The first one in New Spain was that of Mérida in chimeca more than a century after the invasion. The colonizing Yucatan. The cathedral of Puebla was completed in 1649. That missionaries, notably Padre José de Anchieta (1530-97), in of Mexico City represents the work of three centuries—the maxi- Brazil, also produced grammars and lexicons of the Indian lanmum personal effort of Spanish colonial art. Its first stone was guages, as well as sermons and hymns. Before the end of the 16th century Mexico and Lima had belaid in 1563; it was dedicated in 1667 and completed in June 1813. It is undoubtedly the most remarkable monument that come centres of intellectual activity. A printing press was set Spanish-American architecture produced. In all small cities the up in Mexico in 1539 and charters for a university were granted church had its atrium (q.v.), which served not only for religious both cities in 1551. The extent to which letters were cultivated purposes, but as a centre of concentration and defence. The at the viceregal courts may be inferred from the fact that in a outside defensive wall of the atrium became later an ornamental contest held at Mexico in 1585 more than 300 poets took part. motif. A great part of the social life of the community, including In colonial poetry, as in that of Europe, Ariosto’s influence was dances and processions, took place in these centres. The parish dominant throughout the latter half of the century, but the epic, church and its atrium represent the most interesting factor of Mexican collective life for 300 years. In three centuries of

Arauco domado (Lima, 1594) by the Chilean Pedro de Ofta (b. c. 1560) and the long descriptive poem, Grandeza mexicana (Mex-

Spanish domination nearly 15,000 religious buildings were built in Mexico alone, and of these 8,o00 in the 18th century. There are more than 18,000 cupolas In Mexico. The Ultra-Baroque of Spanish-America has rhythmic symmetry, exuberance of decoration, pictorial beauty and vigorous, plastic sentiment coupled with clever and artistic use of polychromic effects. Besides these elements, the co-operation between the monks and the native labourers, masons, carvers and painters, their intuition and skilful use of building materials, and their spirit of improvisation to satisfy the requirements of construction as they presented themselves, made them successful in their search for effects in chiaroscuro through carving, or pictorial through the use of mass, outline and colour.

ico, 1604) by Bernardo de Balbuena (1568-1627), first bishop of Porto Rico, was constructed on native American themes. The cult of Góngora, which in the following century superseded that of the Italians, called forth the first important piece of literary criticism in America, the Apologético en favor de D. Luis de Géngora (Lima, 1694) by Juan de Espinosa Medrano, as well as the lyrics and prose selections of the anthology, Ramillete de varias flores poéticas (1675), collected by Jacinto de Evia (b. 1636), the Musica do parnaso of Manoel Botelho de Oliveira (1636-1711) and the poems of Gregorio de Mattos Guerra (163792). While the Mexican-born Juan Ruiz de Alarcón (c. 15801639)—generally counted among the great dramatists of Spain— is comparatively free from the affectations of this school, the mystical poems of his compatriot, Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz (1651-95), plainly show its influence. In the barren 18th century, except for the epic on national themes, represented in Mexico by the Hernandia (1755) of Francisco Ruíz de León and in Brazil by José Basilio da Gamma’s Uruguay (1769) and José de Santa Rita Durão’s Caramuru (1781), only the long Latin georgic, Rusticatio mexicana, by the Guatemalan Jesuit, Rafael Landivar (1731-93), the bucolic poems of the Mexican Manuel de Navarrete (1768-1809) and the writings of the group of scientists at Bogota led by José Celestino Mutis (1732—1808) and Francisco José Caldas (1741-1816) deserve mention. From this group of Colombian scientists came some of the first martyrs of Spanish-American independence. In Colombia, too, were first printed translations of the prohibited political pamphlets of the French Revolution. These were disseminated throughout the colonies and together with the writings of men like José Joaquin de Lizardi (1774-1827), who criticized Spanish misrule in his journal, El pensador mexicano, and in El periquillo sarmento, the first real American novel, encouraged the colonists to throw off the Spanish yoke. In all parts of Hispanic-America the revolutionary victories called forth patriotic verse. La victoria de Junin. Canto a Bolivar by José Joaquín Olmedo (1784-1847), of Ecuador, was the most successful of these occasional poems. Among the other distinguished poets who wrote in the cause of liberty were José María Heredia (1803-39) of Cuba, best known for his Himno del des-

In the roth century Spanish-American architecture underwent a period of stagnation and decline because of political activities and unrest. It is characterized by the works of European architects, principally French and Italian, which unquestionably affect the architecture of the period. The early zoth century records an initial movement toward the utilization of Spanish colonial types and motifs, chiefly in the solution of housing problems, which may lead to something worth while, provided there is a closer understanding of the changes that have taken place in the development of labour, industry, transportation and city planning, and a closer co-operation between architects, sculptors, painters and workers. Finally, the universal influence of the Exposition of Decorative Arts in Paris in 1925 has reached Spanish-America and its architecture shows once more the ill effects of hybrid im-

ported architecture lacking the expression of the lives and needs of its people. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—S.

Baxter, H. G. Peabody and B. G. Goodhue,

Spanish-Colonial Architecture in Mexico (Boston, 1901); W. R. Emerson, The Architecture and Furniture of the Spanish Colonies During the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries (1901); E. H. Morris, The House of the Great Kiva at the Aztec Ruin (1921); M. F. Alvarez, Las obras de arquitectura en la América latina y en los Estados Unidos de América (Mexico, 1921); A. C. Blossom, An

Architectural Pilgrimage in ald Mexico (1924) ;; A. Guido, Fusión hispano-indigena en la arquitectura colonial (Rosario, 1925); G. O. Totten, Maya Architecture (1926); W. H. Kilham, Mexican Architecture of the Vice-Regal Period (1927); A. Newcomb, The Spanish House for America (1927); R. W. Sexton, Spanish Influence on American Architecture and Decoration (1927); T. T. Waterman, “The Architecture of the American oe Amer. aT U.S. vol. Xxix.,

terrado and his ode to Niagara, José Fernández Madrid (1784-

1830) and Luis Vargas Tejado (1803—29) of Colombia, Juan Cruz Varela (1794—1839) of Argentina, José Bonifacio de Andrade e than 300 years after its discovery Hispanic America was cultur- Silva (1763-1838) of Brazil, and Andrés Bello (1781-1865) of ally as well as politically an Iberian colony. The conquistadores Venezuela. Bello, who was to become later one of Spanish Amerand the missionaries who accompanied them wrote the first ica’s greatest scholars, is, however, not remembered for his politiHispanic-American literature in the letters and reports which they cal verse but for his Silva a la agricultura de la zona tórrida. At the close of the revolutionary period the poets, imbued with sent back to Spain and Portugal telling of their victories with sword and cross. Longer accounts of the conquest like the a hatred of all things Spanish, turned for their inspiration to Sumario de la natural y general historia de las Indias (1526) by aboriginal themes. In “La cautiva” (Rimas, 1837) the Argentine

Pp. 210-230 (Menasha, 1927)

SPANISH-AMERICAN

LITERATURE.

(C. Co.)

For

more

150

SPANISH-AMERICAN

Esteban Echeverria (1805-51) wrote the first significant poem of the pampas, and in A conspiração dos Tamoyos (1834) the Brazilian Domingos José Gonçalves de Magalhães (1811-82) extolled the rebel Indians. Through the works of these men, who

had studied in Paris, French romanticism was introduced into America. It was carried from Argentina to Uruguay and Chile by political refugees who fled the tyranny of Rosas, among them

Juan Maria Gutiérrez (1809-78), compiler of the anthology América poética, and José Marmol (1818-81), author of El peregrino, a South American Childe Harold, and of the famous political novel Amalia (1851). In its later phases the movement is represented in Argentina by Olegario Victor Andrade (183883), author of Atlántida and the greatest poet of the republic. The type of romanticism which reached other sections of Latin

America came directly from Spain. In Mexico, Ignacio Rodriguez Galvin (1816-42) and Fernando Calderon y Beltran

WAR

OF 1898

na. enzo Marroquín (d. 1918) and Roberto Payro (1867-1928), of tional or local politics.

The short-story writers,

Luis Urbaneja

Achelpohl, Manuel Ugarte (b. 187 s), Javier de Viana (18721926), Horacio Quiroga (b. 1879) and Coelho Netto (b. 1864) ) show a preference for rural settings and local colour.

With the recent economic and industrial development of the Hispanic-American States the different nationalities have become

more individualized and their cultural lite more distinct. In the economically more advanced countries prose fiction is replacing poetry as the favourite vehicle of expression. The future literary

history of Spanish America will be more and more a history of the literature of the individual countries.

erican Bretrocrapay—A. Coester, “Bibliography of Spanish-Am y Pelayo, Literature,” Romanic Review vol. jii. (1912); M. Menéndez M. L. Historia de la poesia hispano-americana (Madnd, r913); Wagner, Die spanischamerikanische Literatur in ihren Hauptstrom ungen (Leipzig, 1924); A. Coester, The Literary History of Spanish America (2nd ed., 1928); Alberto Zum Felde, Critica de la literatura uruguaya (Montevideo, 1921); R. Rojas, La literatura argentin, (Buenos Aires, 1917-22); I. Goldberg, Brazilian Literature (1922), (E. H. H)

(1809-45), like their models Espronceda and Zorrilla, were both lyric poets and dramatists. The poetry of José Joaquin de Pesado (1801-61), author of Las Aztecas, and of Manuel Maria Flores (1840-85) and some of the work of the Colombian, José SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR OF 1898. On Feb. 1s, Eusebio Caro (1817-53), is romantic in tone. Although the romantic period is richest in lyric poetry, it also produced three 1898, the U.S. battleship “Maine” was destroyed in Havana harimportant novels: Marmol’s Amalia, the Maria of Jorge Isaacs bour by an explosion, with a loss of 266 lives. An American board (1837-98) and the Moreninha of the Brazilian Joaquim Manoel of inquiry made an extensive examination of the wreck, and reported to the navy department on March 21 that the explosion de Macedo (1820-82). eriHispanic-Am of development the in was caused by an exterior mine, the principal reason for this significance especial Of can literature is the appearance in the latter half of the 19th cen- decision being the upheaval of the ship’s bottom. On April 20 President McKinley approved a resolution demanding the with. tury of an indigenous phenomenon peculiar to the Argentine, the so-called “Gaucho poetry.” The gaucho’s life as literary drawal of Spain from Cuba and setting noon of April 23 as the material had been used in the dialogues of Chano y Contreras by latest date for a reply. Before this could be delivered by the Bartolomé Hidalgo (1787-2?) and in Domingo Faustino Sar- American minister in Madrid, the Spanish Government sent him miento’s Facundo (1845). Now it received epic treatment in his passports. On the 22nd the president declared a blockade of the popular idiom in Estanislao del Campo’s Fausto (1866) and Cuban ports; on the 24th the Spanish Government declared war; and on the 25th the United States Congress declared that war had José Hernandez’s Martin Fierro (1872). Another original literary genre, which appeared at about the existed since the 21st. The joint resolution of Congress of April 20 had declared that same time in Peru, is the creation of one man, Ricardo Palma (1833-1919), who in his famous Tradiciones peruanas (first relinquishment by Spain of authority in Cuba was the object of series 1872) elevated the historical anecdote to the realm of art. American action; the struggle thus naturally centred about the Two Modern Movements.—Within more recent times two island and all operations were thus at hand. The regular United forces have come to direct the course of Hispanic-American States army, the only available force until war was declared and letters. The first of these, the “modernista” movement, has been a volunteer force was authorized, had been assembled at Tampa, concerned chiefly with problems of literary form. It calls for the New Orleans and Chickamauga; but until the control of the sea enrichment of poetry by new rhythms and new words. Its spokes- was decided, the army could not prudently be moved across the man was Rubén Darío (1867—1916), a native of Nicaragua, but a Strait of Florida. The Spanish fleet under Cervera, which had left resident of most of the countries of South America at some time the Cape Verde islands for the West Indies, was the real objective of his life. Among its adherents have been counted poets from of the navy, and had to be settled with before any military action almost all the Latin American republics. The most eminent of could be undertaken. Accordingly Rear-Admiral Sampson lett them are the Colombian, José Asunción Silva (1860—96), the Key West early on April 22, and began the blockade of Havana — Uruguayan, Julio Herrera y Reissig (1875-1910), the Mexicans, and the north coast of Cuba. His North Atlantic squadron of 28 Manuel Gutiérrez Najera (1859-95), whose poems even before vessels of all kinds, of which the armoured cruiser “New York” the publication of Dario’s epoch-making Azul (1888) had been (flag), the battleships “Iowa” and “Indiana,” and the monitors modernistic in spirit, Salvador Diaz Mirón (1855-1928), and “Puritan,” “Terror” and “Amphitrite” were the most important, Amado Nervo (1870-1918), the Cuban, Julián del Casal (1863- and which included six torpedo-boats, was increased to 124 vessels 93), and the Bolivian, Ricardo Jaimes Freyre. Most of the pres- by July r. Battle of Manila Bay.—In the Pacific, the American squadent generation of lyric poets are still under the influence of the “modernista” tradition. | ron—the protected cruisers “Olympia” (flagship of Commodore

The second movement, “Americanismo”

or “Criollismo,” is George Dewey), “Baltimore,” “Raleigh” and “Boston,” the small unprotected cruiser “Concord,” the gunboat “Petrel,” the armed

concerned with the subject matter of literature. In its broadest aspects it is a gospel of nationalism and racial solidarity. Its prophet was the Uruguayan, José Enrique Rod6é (1872-1917), the “Latin Emerson,” who wrote his message in the essay Ariel

(1899). It was introduced into poetry by José (1867) and into the novel by Manuel (1865) in his Peonia (1890). It has found dramas of Florencio Sanchez (1875~1910) and

Santos Chocano Romero Garcia expression in the the lesser play-

wrights of the Argentine teatro criollo (creole theatre).

The

greater number of its followers are writers of prose fiction. Among the novelists Gonzalo Picón Febres (b. 1860), Carlos Reyles (b. 1870), Ricardo Güiraldes (1886—1927) and Enrique

Larreta (b. 1875) write of ranch life; Martin Aldao (b. 1879) and Manuel Galvaz (b, 1882) of urban society; Rufino Blanco Fombona (b. 1874), Manuel Diaz Rodriguez (1868-1927), Lor-

revenue cutter “Hugh M‘Culloch,” with a purchased collier “Nan-

shan” and a purchased supply ship “Zafiro”—left Hongkong at the request of the governor and went to Mirs bay, some miles

east on the Chinese coast. Ordered (April 25) to begin operations, particularly against the Spanish fleet, which he was directed to

capture or destroy, Dewey left Mirs bay on the 27th, and arrived off Luzon, in the Philippines, on April 30. The Spanish admiral

Montojo anchored to the eastward of the spit on which are the

village and arsenal of Cavite, in a general east and west line, keeping his broadside to the northward. . His force consisted of the “Reina Cristina,” the “Castilla” (an old wooden steamer which had to be towed), the “Isla de Cuba” and “Isla de Luzon” (protected cruisers of 1,050 tons), the “Don Juan de Austria” and

the “Don Antonio de Ulloa” (gunboats of about 1,150 tons) and

SPANISH-AMERICAN the “Marques del Duero” (of 500 tons). Dewey passed into the Boca Grande, paying no attention to rumours of torpedoes,

and at midnight passed El Fraile. When

he sighted the Spanish squadron to the southward he stood down

WAR

OF

18098

ISI

Volunteers), these troops were composed aimost wholly of regulars, most of whom had served on the plains against the Indians Soon afterwards more volunteers arrived. No opposition was made to the landing. The American troops (commanded by Major-General Joseph Wheeler until the 2ọth,

in column with the “Olympia,” “Baltimore,” “Raleigh,” “Petrel,” “Concord” and “Boston” at 400-yd. intervals. When within 5,000 when General Shafter landed) pushed forward, but the advance yds. he ported his helm, and at 5.41 a.m. opened fire. He stood | was slow and a week elapsed before Shafter was ready to fight a westwards along the Spanish line, using his port batteries, turned | battle in front of Santiago. Here the defenders, under General to starboard and stood back, gradually decreasing his distance to | Arsenio Linares, held two positions, the hill of San Juan, barring 2,000 yds. At 7.35 Dewey withdrew and gave his men breakfast. | the direct road to Santiago, and the village of El Caney, to the Before he re-engaged at 11.16 the “Cristina” and “Castilla” had | northward of the American position at El Pozo. The plan of broken into flames, so that the remainder of the action consisted |attack on July 1 was Shafter’s, but owing to illness the actual in silencing the Cavite batteries and completing the destruction |command was exercised by the subordinate generals, Joseph of the smaller Spanish ships. The victory was complete. All the | Wheeler, H W. Lawton and J. F. Kent. General Lawton’s diviSpanish ships were sunk or destroyed. The injury done the | sion was to attack and capture El Caney, and thence move against American ships was practically nil. The Spanish lost 167 killed | the flank and rear of the defenders of San Juan, which would then and 214 wounded, out of a total of 1,875. The Americans had 7 be attacked in front by Kent and Wheeler from El Pozo. But slightly wounded out of 1,748 men in action. Dewey took posses- Lawton for nine hours was checked by the garrison of El Caney, sion of Cavite, and awaited the arrival of a land force to capture in spite of his great superiority in numbers (4,500 to 520); at 3 P.M. the final assault on El Caney was successfully delivered by Manila. Santiago.—Cervera had left the Cape Verde islands on April |General A. R. Chaffee’s brigade. Only about 100 of the Spanish 29 with four armoured cruisers, the “Almirante Oquendo,” “‘In- |garrison escaped to Santiago; about 320 were killed or wounded, fanta Maria Teresa” and “Vizcaya” (sister ships of 7,000 tons) ; including General Vara del Rey, who was killed. In the meanand the “Cristobal Colon” (same size; differently equipped) and | time Wheeler and Kent had an equally stubborn contest opposite three torpedo-boat destroyers. On hearing (May 1) of Cervera’s San Juan hill, where, in the absence of the assistance of Lawton, departure, Sampson went east to San Juan, Porto Rico, with the the battle soon became a purely frontal-fire fight, and the rifles armoured cruiser “New York,” the battleships “Iowa” and “In- of the fring line had to prepare the attack unaided. The strong diana,” the cruisers “Montgomery” and “Detroit,” and one tor- | position of the Spaniards, gallantly defended by about 700 men, pedo-boat. He reached San Juan on the rath. Cervera’s was not held out until 12.30, when the whole line of the assailants sudpresent, and Sampson at once started back for Havana. Cervera denly advanced, without orders, and carried the crest of the reached Santiago de Cuba early on the 19th without being sighted Spanish position. On the American side over 1,500 men out of en route. It was not until the end of the month that the Ameri- 15,000 engaged, including several of the senior officers, were killed can fleet was assembled before the harbour. An attempt was made or wounded. On the Spanish side, out of the small numbers to sink the collier “Merrimac” in the entrance channel, which was engaged, over 50% were out of action. Linares himself was less than 200 ft. broad in parts available for ships. The prepara- severely wounded. Though victorious, the American army was in danger: after tions for a quick sinking were chiefly carried out by naval con-

structor Richmond P. Hobson, who went in, in the early morning | great fatigue under a tropical sun by day, the time spared at night

of June 3, with a crew of seven men. The steering-gear was dis- | from digging trenches was spent on a rain-soaked ground; the abled by a shell, and the ship drifted too far and was sunk in a| soldiers’ blankets and heavy clothing had been cast aside; and broad part of the channel where it did not block the egress of | there was insufficient food. Brisk firing was continued on July 2 and 3, with a considerable number of casualties to the Americans. Cervera’s squadron. On June 6 the batteries at the entrance were bombarded and; On the morning of the 3rd a demand was sent to the Spanish their weakness was ascertained. Sampson thereupon placed, every commander to surrender, with the alternative of a bombardment evening, a battleship close in, with a searchlight turned on the of the city to begin on the 4th. Naval Battle of Santiago.—On the morning of July 3 Sampchannel, making it impossible for the Spanish squadron to escape by night. The port of Guantanamo, 40 m. east of Santiago, was son, in his flagship the “New York,” left the fleet to confer with occupied and was used thereafter as a base and coaling station. General Shafter at Siboney with regard to combined operations at The Land Campaign.—When war was declared the total mili- the harbour entrance. At 9.31, when he had gone about 5 m., the tary forces of the United States consisted of 27,822 regulars and “Maria Teresa” was seen coming out. The ships in front of the 114,602 militia. An act of April 22 had authorized the president port were the yacht “Gloucester,” the battleships “Indiana,” to call upon the States and Territories for men in proportion to “Oregon,” “Iowa” and “Texas,” the armoured cruiser “Brooklyn” their population. A first call was made for 125,000 men, and a and yacht “Vixen.” The “Iowa” hoisted the signal “Enemy commonth later a second call for 75,000. On April 26 large additions ing out.” All at once stood in toward the Spanish ships, which to the regular army were sanctioned for the war. The quotas were were standing westwards along shore, and began a heavy fire. The filled with extraordinary rapidity, and in May 124,776 had volun- “Maria Teresa” (flagship) was followed at Soo-yd. intervals by teered. The troops were concentrated chiefly at Chickamauga, the “Vizcaya,” “Colon” and “Oquendo.” They were firing Ga., at Camp Alger, Va., and at Tampa, Fla., which was selected as vigorously, but most of their projectiles went far beyond the the point for the embarcation of the expeditionary force for Cuba, American ships. The “Brooklyn” (flag of Commodore Schley, and where Major-General W. R. Shafter was in command. After the senior officer present) made a turn to starboard, which seems the arrival of Cervera at Santiago, the blockade of his squadron to have caused the “Texas” to stop and back, and to have given and the request (June 7) of Admiral Sampson to send a land the “Colon” the opportunity of passing almost unscathed. The force for co-operation, the troops embarked on June 7 and 8, but “Maria Teresa” and “Oquendo” had taken fire almost at once, and a start was not made until the 14th. On the 29th the fleet of 32 were run ashore about 64 m. west of Santiago, burning fiercely. transports arrived off Santiago. The whole force consisted of The “Vizcaya” and “Colon” were still standing westwards. The about 17,000 officers and men, 16 light field guns, a train of “New York,” Sampson’s flagship, had passed, and stood on sigheavier pieces, and some 200 vehicles. On the 22nd—25th the army nalling the “Iowa” and “Indiana” to go back and watch the port, was landed at Daiquiri, 18 m. east of Santiago, on a rough coast lest an attack be made on the American transports. The “Vizwith scarcely any shelter from the sea; after the first day Siboney, caya” hauled down her colours off Aserraderos, 15 nautical miles 7 m. nearer Santiago, was used as well as Daiquiri. With the west of Santiago, and was there run ashore burning. The “Iowa” exception of three volunteer regiments (the 1st Volunteer Cavalry, was ordered to stop and rescue her men, and the “Oregon,” “Brookknown as the Rough Riders, of which Theodore Roosevelt was lyn” and “Texas” (and behind them the flagship) settled down to lieutenant-colonel; the znd Massachusetts and the 71st New York the chase of the “Colon,” some 6 m. ahead. She was, however,

152 SPANISH

BROOM—SPANISH

with her slacking her speed, and at 12.40 the “Oregon” opened Brooklyn, 13-in. guns at a range of 9,000 yds., as did also the the with her 8-in. When the “Oregon” had fired five shells, mouth “Colon” hauled down her colours, and was beached at the ed; of the Rio Turquino. The whole Spanish fleet was destroy were ds Spaniar 500 Over . prisoner taken was Admiral Cervera killed or wounded, and the survivors (except a few who escaped to Santiago) were prisoners. On the American side only one man

LANGUAGE

AND

LITERATURE

As nearly the whole of the service was in the tropics, and in the © summer or wet season, this is a convincing proof of the efficiency ;

» in sanitary administration. The army did not fare so well, losing | during May, June, July and August, 67 officers ang

by disease 1,872 men out of an average total of 227,494. Its larger propor. tion of illness must of course be ascribed, in part, to its greater ` hardships. The lack of proper preparation by the war department ° and the ignorance and thoughtlessness of the volunteers were the ^ reasons for the high death-rate in the army. principal was killed and ten were wounded, and no ship received serious For the terms of the peace and the results of the war see | injury. | UNITED STATES; PHILIPPINE IsLanps; Cupa; Porto Rico. After the naval victory combined operations were arranged for ‘ the See . voluminous is War erican Spanish-Am the The literature of attacking the batteries of the harbour, but little more fighting War Notes of the Office of Naval Intelligence, Washington, the | on signed was t agreemen ary occurred, and eventually a prelimin appendix to the report of the Bureau of Navigation and reports of ° the rsth, and the besiegers entered Santiago on the 17th. The other Government departments for 1898. F. E. Chadwick, The Span. . exposure of the campaign had begun to tell in the sickness of the ish-American War (2 vol., 1911) is the standard work. Good histories Spain (1899), and H. W. Wilson, The Americans: yellow fever had broken out to some extent; and no are H. C. Lodge, The War with of Spain (1900). See also W. A. M. Goode, With Sampson ' less than 50% were attacked by the milder forms of malarial Downfall through the War (1899); J. Wheeler, Santiago Campaign (18099); fever. The army, indeed, was so weakened by illness that the Theodore Roosevelt, The Rough Riders (1899); C. D. Sigsbee, PerCuba. from removal its general officers united in urging sonal Narratives of the Battleship Maine (1899); R. A. Alger, Spanish. Fall of Manila.—On May 7 a telegram had been received American War (1900); Gomez Nufiez, La Guerra hispano-americana (1900) ; John D. Long, The New American Navy (2 vols., 1903) ; and from Dewey at Manila: “I control bay completely, and can take George Dewey, Autobiography (1913). Majorhold.” to men sufficient not have city at any time, but I of command General Wesley Merritt, to whom was assigned the SPANISH BROOM, a handsome shrub with long switch-like the troops for the Philippines, first requested a force of 14,000, green, few-leaved or leafless branches and large yellow sweetand afterwards asked for 20,000 men. On May 25 the first troops, scented papilionaceous flowers. It is a member of the pea family 2,491 in number, under Brigadier-General T. M. Anderson, sailed (Leguminosae), and known botanically as Spartsum junceum. It from San Francisco. On June 20 possession was taken of the is a native of the Mediterranean region and the Canary Islands, island of Guam, and on June 30 the ships arrived in Manila bay. and is often cultivated, especially in California where it blooms A second detachment of troops, 3,586 in number, under Brigadier- almost throughout the year. The whole plant, but especially the General F. V. Greene arrived on July 17; on July 25 General flower shoots and seeds, has a bitter taste and tonic and diuretic | Merritt, who had been appointed governor-general, arrived; and properties, and was formerly used medicinally. The fibres of the on the 31st the five transports with which he had left San Fran- young stems were used in making nets, carpets, mats, baskets, etc.; cisco arrived with 4,847 men, making nearly 11,000 men at the flowers yield a yellow dye. Manila, with 5,000 more on the way. General Merritt moved his SPANISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. The forces from Cavite, and established an entrenched line within a Iberian Peninsula was, up to the fifteenth century, linguistically thousand yards of the Spanish position at Manila. On Aug. 7, a joint note from Dewey and Merritt, announcing that bombard- more diversified than at present. The chief languages and ment might begin at any time after forty-eight hours, was sent to dialects were Castilian, Asturian-Leonese, Navarro-Aragonese, the Spanish captain-general, Fermin Jaudenes, who replied that Mirandese, Catalan and Galician-Portuguese (Northern and he was surrounded by the insurgents, and that there was no place Southern Dialects). The Mirandese dialect acquired at an early of refuge for the sick and for the women and children. A second date Galician-Portuguese characteristics; Catalan is a Provencal joint note demanding surrender was declined by the Spanish com- dialect; Castilian absorbed the Asturian-Leonese and Navarromander. Preparations were made for an attack. There were Aragonese languages and in later years gave rise to a literature 13,000 troops within the city fortifications, but with the strong which was quantitativelyand qualitatively the most important fleet in front, and with the beleaguering force of Americans and amongst Peninsular literatures. Its authority gradually extended insurgents ashore, resistance was hopeless. When the combined beyond the geographical limits of Old and New Castile, even assault of army and navy was made on the 13th there was no great Catalan and Portuguese authors writing in Castellano. The resistance, and a white flag was hoisted at 1z o’clock. The total Spanish-speaking world has between 80 and 90 million inhabitants loss of the Americans during the whole campaign was 20 killed, (about twice as many as those speaking French and nearly three times as many as thosespeaking Italian). The Castilian language ros wounded. Porto Rico—Immediately after the surrender of Santiago has become identified with Spanish (Espanol). Spanish and Latin.—Romance languages in their morphology (July 17), preparations were made for the invasion of Porto Rico with 3,500 troops which had been sent as reinforcements to Santi- and syntax derive from spoken Latin, older than the written ago, but had not landed. They were largely reinforced and left Latin of the classical writers and probably differing from it in its , Guantanamo, under General Miles, on July 21. The towns on syntax, as the syntax of the Romance languages, which is more | the south side of the island were occupied, practically without closely akin to that of High German or of modern Greek than to resistance. The attitude of the population was exceedingly that of written Latin, tends to show. A definite Latin influence friendly, and opposition was not met until advance was begun is the Spanish use of the Subjunctive. Generally speaking Spannorthward. The troops were divided into four columns, advancing ish syntax is very elastic; thus the position of the subject is more from Guanica around the western end of the island to Mayaguez; variable than in French or even in English. The Peninsula befrom Arroyo at the eastern end to meet the San Juan road at gan to be latinised at the end of the third century B.C., long be Cayey; from Ponce by the fine military road, 70 m., to San Juan; fore Gaul and Northern Italy. But our knowledge of spoken and the fourth column by way of Adjuntas and Utuado, midway Latin is necessarily slight, and early latinisation alone does not of the island. The various movements involved several skirmishes. account for the characteristics of Spanish, as compared to the On Aug. 12 operations were begun by the “Newark” and other other Romance languages. vessels against Manzanillo. But during the night news arrived of The influence of pre-Roman Iberian languages is doubtful the signing of the peace protocol on the r2th, and of an armistice. There remain, besides place-names, vega (open plain, mead), _The total American loss was—in the navy, 1 officer, 17 men nava (plain surrounded by mountains) and the word paramo killed ; in the army, 29 officers, 440 men. The health of the (deserted plain, moor) which appears on a votive altar, dedicated American fleet was kept remarkably. Its average strength during to Diana and discovered in Leon, in an inscription according to the 114 days of hostilities was 26,102; the deaths from disease which Tullius offers Diana the antlers which he has hunted in during this time were 56, or at the rate of 7 per I,000 per year. parami aequore—on the desert plain. F kad

LANGUAGE]

SPANISH

LANGUAGE

The Phonetics of Modern Spanish.—The Spanish vowels are very close to the standard vowels of the phonetic scheme. The following points should be noticed: 1. The “a” is distinctly velar before back vowels like o and u, before J, and any velar consonant such as k, x, g, etc. This is particularly noticeable in caja= Kaye. 2. The difference between open and close e (e, e) is generally much less marked than in French for example, the most extreme cases of difference being seen in cielo and tierra.

The closed e

is more open than the French éin éżê. 3. The same remarks apply to the open and closed o (9, 0), the closed o being also more open than the French ô in tôt. 4. The closed vowels occur as a rule in open syllables and the open vowels in closed syllables or in contact with a double r, but the closed e also occursin a syllable closed by s or a nasal, as in cesta and atento. 5. The semi-vowels in such words as ley, soy are preceded by an open vowel. 6. The semi-vowel u velarises the preceding a in such words as causa. There is a general tendency in Spanish to combine groups of vowels into one syllable, so that we find tripthongs in which

AND

LITERATURE

153

gender of nouns derived from the third declension is generally the same as in Latin, the neuter nouns being distributed between the two groups according to no settled rule, thus for instance the Latin sal which appears in French as masculine (le

sel) is feminine in Spanish (la sal). Adjectives and Adverbs.—Adjectives follow the principles described in the development of the noun. The neuter has disappeared (except in the abstract use of the adjective as a noun: lo usual es—it is the custom), and therefore the Latin three and two endings are reduced to two and one respectively: inglés (-a), triste. There is however a tendency to supply a feminine form as in Superiora (Mother Superior), noticeable also in

adjectives ending in on, ol; e.g., the Spanish-speaking Jews of the Balkan peninsula still say la lengua español instead of the

modern feminine española; on the other hand the same Jews have added feminine endings to ilustre ilustra and joven, jovena (a young girl) while Peninsular Spanish preserves the old usage in one ending. Comparison: The classical comparative and superlative are rare in Spanish (bueno, mejor, óptimo) and are expressed by the use of the adverb magis>más in the case of the comparative and by the comparative preceded by the article to render the superlative: tonto, más tonto, el (la, lo)

the first vowel (x or ¢) has become a semi-consonant and the

mas tonto. The superlative in -dsstmus>-isimo is a latinism This blending of which was felt to be un-Spanish by the old writers like King vowels to form one syllable occurs also when the vowels are not Alfonso X (d. 1284), and, although accepted to-day, it has a contained In one word, thus Italiaha intervenidoen la guerra- pedantic and rhetorical flavour. europea. This, as spoken by a Spaniard at a normal pace, Regular adverbial usage differs from the Latin: (a) The adverb would contain twelve syllables, the last two vowels of “europea” is normally formed by the substantive mente appended to the forming two separate syllables. feminine form of the adjective: tonto, tonta, tontamente. (b) A The general smooth fluency of Spanish speech is seen in the great number of Latin adverbs were, however, preserved: adhuc historical development of consonants which have come down by >aun, quando > cuando, magis > mås, sic> si; also combinations oral tradition, and in the treatment of words derived from of prepositions and adverbs: de-intro> dentro, intuncce> enforeign sources or learned words of Latin origin which often con- tonces, de-ex-post> después, ad-illic>allí, etc. tain difficult consonant groups: Lat. nata>nada (6) Lat. parPronouns.—The Pronouns include Personal Pronouns (Nomiticiple ending in -atu >-ado. native: yo, tu, el, ella; Plur. nosotros, vosotros, ellos; Dative: The tendency towards assimilation is very noticeable: Ascen- le, lo, les, los; Accusative: me, te, se, nos, os; Emphatic forms sión in which ¢ often yields to influence of s, apto in which p used after prepositions: él, mi, ti; Note conmigo, contigo, conbecomes a mere implosive under influence of # In the case of sigo) with the closely connected Possessive or Adjective Prolearned words in modern speech, the pronunciation is a com- nouns (mi, tu, su; mio, tuyo, suyo); the Demonstrative Propromise between smoothness and an effort at correctness: nouns (este, ese, aquel) amongst which, historically speaking, accién (agfjon). should be classed the third person of the Personal Pronouns and Accent of intensity. This accent or stress is particularly im- the article, and finally the almost identical relatives and interportant in Spanish and requires greater muscular tension in its rogatives (que, quien, el cual; ¿qué? ¢quien? écudl?). production than is usual in English words, because the unstressed Numerals.—The cardinal numerals are: uno (-a), dos, trés, vowels are pronounced in Spanish with great care, as, though cuatro, cinco, seis, siete, ocho, nueve, diéz; veinte (20), treinta slightly weakened, they never lose their identity. In general the (30), cuarenta (40), cincuenta (50), sesenta (60), setenta (70), syllable which bore the aċcent in Latin retains it in Spanish. ochenta (80), noventa (ọo), cien, ciento, (roo), doscientos The Articles.—In spoken Latin the noun was preceded by the (200), quinientos (500) setecientos (700), novecientos (Qoo), demonstrative pronoun ille (illum, illu) and the indefinite pro- mil (1,000). The ordinals are primero (a), segundo (a), ternoun unus (una). From them derive the definite articles el, la, cero (a), cuarto (a), quinto (a), sexto (a), séptimo (a), octavo

last (u or 4) semi-vowel: averigit@is, cambiais.

lo, plural los, las, and the indefinite articles uno, una.

(a), noveno (a), décimo (a). The ordinals are learned in form and are not used in ordinary conversation beyond ten. never used to the same extent in the spoken langauge. In SpanVerbs.—In Spanish the four Latin conjugations are reduced to ish, there are strictly speaking no declensions though traces three, the infinitive endings being ar, er, ir, that is to say that survive in a few cases such as that of the personal pronoun yo, the second and third conjugations in čre, ēre have been amalme, mi; el, le; nosotros, nos. In spoken Latin the prepositions gamated. The only traces of original differences are seen in the indicated cases, e.g., Plautus says kunc ad carnificem dabo. In strong preterites and past participles of irregular verbs. The modern Spanish the preposition de corresponds to the genitive, Present Indicative and Subjunctive of regular verbs are very para and a to the dative, a or the absence of preposition to the close to the Latin originals: accusative, o to the vocative and con, en, por, sin, sobre, trás Pres. Ind. canto, cantas, canta, cantamos, cantãis, cantan to the ablative. But the remains of the classical declensions are Subj. cante, cantes, cante, cantemos, cantéis, canten seen in the grouping of the noun, the form of which in the great Pres. Ind. temo, temes, teme, tememos, teméis, temen majority of cases is traceable to that of the accusative case in Subj. tema, temas, tema, temamos, iemdis, teman singular or plural forms. Pres. Ind. parto, partes, parte, partimos, partis, parten The nouns belonging to the Latin third declension appear in Subj. parta, partas, parta, partamos, partáis, partan Spanish as words ending in e or in a consonant, the plural endBIBLIOGRAPHY.—-F. Diez, Grammaire des langues romanes, traduc. ing in es: par A. Brachet, 3 vols. (1874—1877) ; G. Gröber, Grundriss der romanischen Philologie, Vol. 1 (Strassburg, 1905); G. Baist, Die spanische S. patre-> padre Pl. patres> padres Sprache; W. Meyer-Lübke, /ntroduccidn al Estudio de la Lingüistica S. leone->león Pl. leones>leones

Nouns—The inflexions so characteristic of written Latin were

This group also absorbed words from other declensions, especially the filth as the accusative endings were similar.

The

Romance Traducción, revisada por el autor, de la segunda edición alemana por Américo Castro (Madrid, 1914); R. Menéndez Pidal, Origines del Español (Madrid, 1926); R. Menéndez Pidal, Manual

SPANISH

£54

LANGUAGE

Bello, de Gramática Histórica Española (Madrid, 1918); Andrés s Gramática de la Lengua Castellana destinada al uso de los Americano (Madrid, (Paris, 1908) ; Edición anotada por D. Felipe Robles Dégano Espanola de Pronunciacion 1921): T. Navarro Tomas, Manual with (Madrid, 1918); M. Montrose Ramsey, A Spanish Grammar Exercises: Appleton’s New Spanish-English and English-Spanish Dic(A. R. P.; J. PER.) nedery, by Arturo Cuyas (New York, 1924). GrundCaTALAN—A. Morel-Fatio, “Das Catalanische,” in G. Gröbers riss der romanischen Philologie (1888); E. Vogel, “Neucatalanische 1886); Studien,” in G Kérting’s Neuphilologische Studien (Heft 5, M Mila y Fontanals. Estudscs de lengua catalana (Barcelona, 1875)5 A. Mussafia's introduction to Die catalanische metrische Version der siehen weisen Meister (Vienna, 1876); A. Nonell y Mas, Análisis de la llènga catalana antiga comparada ab la moderna (Manresa, 1895); J. P. Ballot y Torres, Gramatica y apologia de la lengua catalana (Barcelona, 1815); A. de Bofarull, Estudios, sistema gramaticaly

crestomatia

de la lengua catalana

(Barcelona,

Fabra, Contribució á la gramatica de la lengua catalana 1898). For the Catalan dialect of Sardinia see G. Morosi, dialetto catalano di Alghero in Sardegna,” in the Miscellanea dedicata alla memoria dei Prof. Caix e Canello (Florence,

1864); P.

(Barcelona, “Odierno di filologia 1885), and

F. Romoni, Sardismi (Sassari, 1887). Casrittan—Conde de la Vifaza, Biblioteca histórica de la filologia castellana (Madrid, 1893) ; A. Bello, Gramatica de la lengua castellana (7th ed., with notes by R. J. Cuervo, Paris, 1902); R. J. Cuervo. 4pzntaciones coiticas sobre el lenguaje

bogotano (sth ed., Paris, 1907); G Bast, “Die spanische Sprache,” in G. Gröber's Grundriss der romanischen Philologie; P. Forster, S panische

Sprachlehre (Berlin, 1880); E. Gorra, Lingua e letteratura spagnuola delle origini (Milan, 1898); R. Menéndez Pidal, Manual elemental de eramática histórica española (Madrid, 1905) and Origenes del Español (Madrid, 1926); F. M Jossclyn, Études de phonétique espagnole (Paris, 1907); C. Michaëlis, Studien zur romanischen Wortschöpfung (Leipzig, 1876); A. Keller, Historische Formenlehre der spanischen Sprache (Murrhardt, 1894); P. de Mugica, Gramática del castellano antiguo (Berlin, 1891); S. Padilla, Gramática histórica de la lengua castellana (Madrid, 1903); J. D. M. Ford, “The Old Spanish Sibilants” in Studies and Notes in Philology (Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass., 1900). For Asturian, see A. de Rato y Hevia,

Vocabulario de las palabras y frases que se hablan en Asturias r8g1), and the Coleccidn de poesias en dialecto asturiano 1839); for Navarrese-Aragonese, see J: Borao, Diccionario aragonesas (2nd ed., Saragossa, 18385); for Andalusian, the H. Schuchardt in the Zeitschrift fur romanische Philologie,

(Madrid, (Oviedo, de voces study of vol. v.;

and for Leonese, R. Menéndez Pidal, “El Dialecto leonés,” in the Revista de archivos, bibliotecas, y museos (Madrid, 1906). R. J.

Cuervo’s Apuntaciones (noted above) is the leading authority on American Spanish. The following publications may be consulted, but with caution: L. Abeille, Idioma nacional de los Argentinos (Paris, 1900); D. Granada, Vocabulario rioplatense razonado (Montevideo, 1890); J. Fernández Ferraz, Nahuatlismos de Costa Rica (San José, r892) and C. Gagini. Diccionario de barbarismos de Costa Rica (San José, 1893); A. Membrefio, Hondurenismos (Tegucigalpa, 1897). See also C. C. Marden, The Phonology of the Spanish Dialect of Mexico City (Baltimore, 1896) ; J. Sanchez Somoano, Modismos, locuciones y

AND

LITERATURE

[LITERATURE

by named Rodrigo Díaz de Bivar (d. 1099) and usually known

his Arabic title, Sid (lord). The poem, as the brilliant re. searches of Menéndez Pidal have abundantly proved (see bibliography), dates from 1140; the only existing ms. is an imperfect copy made in 1307. It was first printed in 1779. The Cantar de mio Cid is a work of noble inspiration.

Apart from all questions

of originality—-whether it owes more to F rench or to Germanic

models, the poem is intensely Castilian in its directness of expression and unflinching realism. The assonant metre seems to be on the same principle as that of the other early Spanish epics which have partly survived—Los siete infantes de Lara,

reconstructed by Menéndez Pidal from a prose chronicle in which

it had been incorporated, and the Roncesvalles fragment, recently discovered in the cathedral at Pamplona. It is versificación irregu-

lar; that is, it depends not on the number of syllables (11~20)

in the line, but on a system of “pointing,” a regular number of accents or beats such as would naturally be made by a minstrel in the process of chanting. The frequent allusions in the chronicles to the narratives of the minstrels, or juglares, suggest that

Castilian heroic poetry was far richer than the scarcity of mss,

would lead us to believe. These poems were composed not only by minstrels, but also in monasteries in which a hero happened to be buried—a distinction which was considered worthy of advertisement. Thus the Poema de Fernán González (the first independent Count of Castile) is the work of a learned Benedictine in the monastery of San Pedro de Arlanza. Berceo.—The same form was used for the religious and didactic

poetry of the 13th century, the chief representative of which is Gonzalvo de Berceo (d. after 1246), the earliest Spanish poet whose name is known. Born at Berceo near Logroño at the end of the r2th century, he entered a Benedictine monastery in the

neighbourhood of Calahorra, where he put into poetical form the | lives of Spanish saints, the miracles of the Virgin Mary, and |

other devotional subjects; and his verse gives the impression of a child-like wonder which Spanish poetry was never able to re- > capture. Berceo called his poems prosa, decir or dictado, indicat-

ing that he intended them to be read or recited, and not sung like the cantares; yet he maintains the fiction that he is really a minstrel, singing in the language in which a man speaks to his neighbour and adds that his prosa should be worth a cup of good wine. The single-rhyme quatrain was also the form in which two

other 13th century poems were written: El Libro de Alixandre (the mediaeval legend of Alexander) and El Libro de Apolomo (Apollonius of Tyre), both of considerable length and derived términos mexicanos (Madrid, 1892), and F. Ramos i Duarte, Dic- from French and Latin sources. To the 13th century also are cionario de mejicanismos (Mexico, 1895) ; J. de Arona, Diccionario de assigned a life of Santa Maria Egipctaca, derived ultimately from peruanismos (Lima, 1883); J. Calcafio, El Castellano en Venezuela a poem attributed to Robert Grosseteste, Bishop of Lincoln (d. (Caracas, 1897). 1253); an Adoration of the Magi (Libro de los tres reyes de oriente) of Provençal origin, and a fragment of a Debate beSPANISH LITERATURE Spanish literature falls into three divisions: Castilian, Catalan, tween the Soul and the Body (Disputa del alma y cuerpo), Galician. Galician is included under Portuguese. It should not be closely related to an Anglo-Norman version of one of the meforgotten, however, that Spain, in the two Senecas, Lucan, Martial diaeval Latin poems, entitled Rixa animz et corporis. In the earlier epic period the influences from abroad were and Quintilian—as also in Prudentius—made a considerable contribution to Latin literature; while the writings of Spanish predominantly French. The second period is one in which the Muslims and Jews, both in prose and verse, form an important chief foreign influence was Arabic. The gates of Oriental learning and story were opened to Spain and to the whole of Europe branch of the literature of Arabic. by the capture of Toledo (1085), which became a school of 1. CASTILIAN LITERATURE translation from oriental languages. As early as 1120 Petrus By the time of the Muslim invasion (711) the Latin spoken Alfonsi, a Spanish Jew who had become a convert to Chrisin the peninsula was already in process of transformation into tianity, introduced Indian fable into Spain with the famous cola Romance patots which, from the few words that have come down lection of stories written in Latin and known as Disciplina clerito us (some of them preserved in jest by the Arabic-speaking calis. The Spanish translation of the “beast-fable” Kalila and conquerors), seems to have resembled the modern dialect of Dimna, made directly from an Arabic text, dates from 1251; Galicia rather than that of Castile. The earliest documents date it is the first attempt at story-telling in the Spanish language. from the roth century; while the revival of the study of Latin

‘in northern Spain in the 11th century led to the neglect of the vulgar tongue by the learned, and the complete separation between the spoken and the written language. Castilian, romance casteldano, became the official language for public documents under Ferdinand ITI. (1217~52) and Alfonso X. (1252-84). Heroic Poetry, 1050-1250.—Castilian literature begins with

the poem of the Cid (Cantar de mio Cid), an historical character

GSO aGRRs

The romance of the Seven Sages (or Sendebar), under the title of Libro de los engannos é asayamientos de las mujeres (book of the wiles and deceptions of women), was translated in 1253, and other collections of Eastern stories followed.

Alfonso the Sage.—Alfonso X., el Sabio (the Sage), king of Castile and Leén (1252-84), may justly be called the father

of Castilian prose. Under his patronage, and indeed under his editorship, a number of vast works were undertaken, including

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es

influence from Italy; it is the period of transition from the tion on Spanish life and customs of the time); together with middle ages to the Renaissance. There was a growing sense of valuable compilations from Arabic sources, such as the Libro de privacy, a craving for refinement on the part of a society still saber de astronomía, the “Alfonsine Tables,” the Lapidario and savage and blood-thirsty at heart and always on the verge of the Libro de los juegos—an illustrated book of games, including of civil war. The artificiality and exaggerated good manners the poetry of this epoch renders it dull and unattractive to moddice, draughts and several varieties of chess played on boards of different sizes. Alfonso X. was also the founder of Spanish his- ern readers; but it should never be forgotten that it was an toriography in the vulgar tongue. The Crónica general, begun attempt, on the part of the finer spirits among the great lords under his direction, gave rise to a whole series of chronicles in and the poets in their service, to soften the asperities and barthe vernacular. Alfonso X. was also responsible for one of the barities of daily life, and to provide collections of verse which greatest collections of mediaeval poetry and music; the illu- could be recited or sung on festal occasions. Examples of such minated mss. of the Cántigas de Santa María, but as the language collections are the Cancionero de Baena made for Juan II. of employed in them is Galician Portuguese, they have been con- Castile ca. 1445, and the Cancionero de Stúñiga compiled for use at the Neapolitan court of Alfonso V. of Aragon (1416-58), sidered under the literature of Portugal. The period of translation and compilation from oriental and while, after the invention of printing, the tradition was continued other sources represented by the school of Alfonso X. was suc- in the Cancionero general (1511) and the shameless Cancionero ceeded by a brilliant period of original work, in the prose of de obras de burlas (1519). Marqués de Santillana.—Early in the 15th century, howthe Infante Don Juan Manuel (1282-1349?) and the poetry of the archpriest of Hita (d. before 1351). Both had learnt from ever, longer didactic poems began to be written under the influEastern story not only how to employ fables for teaching moral ence of Dante. The Divina Commedia was introduced into Spain lessons, but also how to set them in a suitable frame. In Don by Francisco Imperial, the son of a Genoese who had settled at Juan Manuel’s Conde Lucanor the count asks the advice of his Seville; the works of Petrarch and Boccaccio began to be read, the great legal code, Las Siete partidas (a mine of curious informa-

councillor, Patronio, on certain questions of life and government, and Patronio replies in each case by telling a story to illustrate the point. Many of the 50 stories are admirably told, and are the first works of Spanish fiction which give evidence of an individual style. The moral tone is uniformly high, and the author is clearly conscious that he has a public duty to perform by writing. The Archpriest of Hita.—Juan Ruiz, archpriest of Hita, is a man of the people, with no sense of personal obligation to society and still less with any apparent religious vocation. Yet he is a true poet, and an artist to the tips of his fingers. His book of verse, generally known as Libro de buen amor (“the book of true love’-——buen amor, as contrasted with earthly love, loco amor), is, in form, a satirical autobiography in which he tells with disarming candour the story of his love-affairs. There is no possible chance of an allegorical interpretation. The love that leads the archpriest is earthly love, though he protests in lyrics of passionate sincerity his devotion to the Virgin Mary. Not all his desires end in fulfilment; but some of the ladies, e.g., Doña Endrina, are vividly and enchantingly portrayed, and the go-between, Trotaconventos (an ancestor of La Celestina), is the first great character in Spanish literature. Though the form of the work is to a certain extent oriental (a frame-work on which numerous apologues and fables are hung), the archpriest has also availed himself of forms and subjects from France. He employs every metre known to him in a masterly fashion. Contemporary with the Libro de buen amor, or perhaps, earlier, is the Poema de Yuçuf, a version of the legend of Joseph written in Aragonese dialect in single-rhymed quatrains. Its peculiarity is that though the words are Spanish, they are written in Arabic; and the entire poem is derived from the Koran and other Islamic sources. It shows how the Spanish Muslims clung to their handwriting, even after they had lost their language and their religion. Arthurian Romance.—14th century Spain had already begun to be acquainted with the romances of chivalry; and the oldest known Spanish example, El Caballero Cifar, was probably com-

and the Greek and Latin classics to be translated.

Juan de Mena

was the author of a fantastic allegorical poem El Laberinto de Fortuna (14442); but the great name in the literary history of the century is that of Don Iñigo López de Mendoza, frst Marqués de Santillana (1398-1458). Santillana, like Don Juan Manuel, was not only a soldier and a statesman, but also a scholar and a gentleman, with a keen sense of public duty and of the responsibilities placed upon him by his position in the world, both as a man and as a writer. The most illuminating of his works is the letter addressed to the Constable of Portugal, on the nature of poetry—the earliest piece of literary criticism in Spanish—in which the writer draws upon his reading in Italian, French, Provencal, Catalan, Galician and Portuguese, and upon such Greek and Latin classics as he had been able to obtain in translation. He was a great collector of manuscripts (many of which are still to be found in the Biblioteca Nacional at Madrid), and his Florentine bookseller bore witness to his intimate knowledge of the Italian tongue. He was the first to introduce the Italian sonnet into Spain, and the first to paraphrase Horace. But he is best remembered for his shorter canciones and decires, and above all for his delightfully musical serranillas, which give the impression of having come into his mind in the first instance during the long rides to which his active life as a great feudal lord led him. He also was the first to notice how rich in proverbial sayings the speech of the Spanish country-people can be, and he made a collection of “The wise saws (refranes) of old women who sit by the fire.” In the confusion and decadence of the following reign, that of Enrique IV. (1454-74), literature found expression in biting satire or in resignation and the contemplation of death. This was the attitude which produced one of the most justly famous

of all Spanish poems, the Coplas of Jorge Manrique (d. 1478) on

the death of his father. In prose, the r5th century saw the first appearance of Spanish books of travel, as represented by the journey to Samarkand (1403—06) of an ambassador of Enrique II., Ruy González de Clavijo; and the travels in Europe (1435-39) of Pero Tafur. In posed near the beginning of the 14th century. The “matter of biography, Fernán Pérez de Guzmán with his Generaciones y Britain,” also, was known to Spain even in the time of Don Juan Semblanzas (part of a larger work entitled, Mar de historias) Manuel (who, in a book on the chase, mentions the fact that and Hernando del Pulgar with his Claros varones de Castilla, hawks in his possession were called Lancelot and Gawaine), left admirable portraits of eminent Castilians of their time. The Spanish Humanists.—The Renaissance may be said to although the narratives now in existence belong almost exclusively to the 15th and 16th centuries. In spite of the numerous begin in Spain with the accession of Ferdinand and Isabella in versions and continuations of Amadis which followed printing, the 1474, the year in which the first Spanish printing press was set romances of chivalry were always importations from abroad; and up at Valencia. The revival of learning led in two opposite nothing is further from the unromantic, realistic Spanish spirit directions; it brought a taste for the antiquities of classical trathan the two distinguishing features of the Round Table: senti- dition and also for the antiquities of Spanish tradition, as pre-

mental devotion and supernatural adventure. The chivalry which Cervantes satirized was not Spanish at all. The 15th century shows the first effects in Spain of literary

served in the romances (ballads), refranes (proverbs), as well as in the chronicles and earlier prose works. New Spanish prose in a classical mould was printed side by side with the stories

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of González de of Don Juan Manuel (1575) and the travels the new forms Clavijo (1582); while in the poetry of the period, aso de la Garcil and 542) 1 (d. Boscán by Italy from introduced that the time same the at atized Vega (d. 1536) became acclim ico began to traditional Spanish forms of romance and villanc h humanattract the attention of men of letters. The first Spanis of the rs graphe lexico and rians ists were also the first gramma romance Spanish language; the Universal vocabulario en latin y la lengua of Alonso de Palencia (1490) and Nebrija’s Arte de h humancastellana (1492) are the first of their kind. Other Spanis s, were ists of distinction, who were also disciples of Erasmu Didlogo ble admira the of r (autho Valdés de Juan and Luis Vives, (1517V. s Charle of reign the to de la lengua) both belonging Sanchez 56); while Juan del Mal Lara, Arias Montano, Francisco perse“el Brocense” and Luis de Leén lived under the increasing ts to cution of thought in the reign of Philip Il. (Recent attemp should belittle or justify the repressive zeal of the Inquisition noblest be received with caution.) Many of the best brains and by minds in Spain at the time were followers of Erasmus, who, in his personal example and the example of his writings (printed in death his after ssion suppre their until 1520 Spanish from 1536), was the guiding light of the Spanish renaissance. The Romancero.—Romances are defined by Menéndez Pidal as short epic-lyric poems sung to an instrument, either in choral dances, at festal gatherings or during work in common. They were first printed in pliegos sueltos (not as “broadsides,” but as pamphlets), and then, about 1550, collected into the Cancionero de Romances, published at Antwerp. The older romances date from the century before, and one or two may go back even

farther than that. Many of them are fragments of epic poems, remembered and sung by the people themselves after the decay of minstrelsy in the second half of the 14th century, and the metre (16-syllable verses with uniform assonance) siggests an instinctive attempt to systematize the irregular versif cation of the epics. Another group of romances, novelesque rather than heroic, employed a stanza-form more appropriate to lyric poems. The poetical value of many romances is heightened by their fragmentary condition. This is well shown by the famous romance of Count Amaldos. The complete ballad has been collected from exiled Spanish Jews in Tangier, yet the curtailed version has transformed a ballad into an other-worldly poem of haunting beauty. This cutting-down of long romances by generations of singers has endowed them with a singular perfection of style; and those versions, worked out by some of the most cultured men of the time, are the versions in which the romances are now generally

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erization, and dramatic convention. In imagination, plot, charact uese conPortug his by sed surpas was he stage, a sense of the n entirely writte are plays temporary, Gil Vicente, II of whose 43 h poetry of the Spanis of gems the are lyrics His h. Spanis in forward period; his vivid, plastic representation of allegory looks ; to Calderón. The Barca da gloria (a ship in which all the pas. century, — 2oth the of play h Englis an s suggest dead) are sengers l interest unwhile the Auto da sibilla Cassandra has a psychologica surpassed by any play of its period: the heroine refused to marry, Bar. believing herself destined to become the mother of God. greater a had , Naples at settled tolomé de Torres Naharro, who que in the mansense of the stage than Enzina, and more techni . While his humour of sense a had also He e. agement of dialogu tion, his Comedia soldadesca (1517) satirizes an army of occupa of a Tinellaria is the comedy of the servants’ hall in the palace Roman

cardinal,

where

the mixture

of languages

must

have

howsounded irresistibly comic when brought on to the stage,

ever tiresome it may be to a modern reader. His Aquilana and Calamita (1520) look forward to the romantic, novelesque plays

of Lope de Vega; Seraphina and Imenea foreshadowed the comedy

of cloak and sword. Torres Naharro wrote for a private Italian stage and an audience of cardinals. The public stage in Spain is first known from the works of Lope de Rueda (d. 1565; not to be confused with Lope de Vega), a famous travelling showman who had been inspired by the vivid acting of a company of Italian players, touring Spain with Commedia dell’ arte. His longer plays (six in prose, three in verse) are mainly founded on Italian originals. His comic prose pasos (interludes performed during the pauses of other plays), though admirable as examples of the actual spoken Spanish of

the period, lose the reason for their existence without the tradi-

tional and often obscene comic business and “gag” with which they must inevitably have been presented. Lope de Rueda was, in his turn, an inspiration to Cervantes, who afterwards described his simple staging and properties, and whose own Interludes (entremeses) whether in verse or prose, are masterpieces in the style. The prose theatre in Spain developed no further until the r8th century. The first dramatist to realize what might be made of the Romancero in the theatre (although he never used the actual metre of the romances) was Juan de la Cueva, whose plays were printed in 1583. With Lope de Vega and his followers, however, the Romancero was brought bodily on to the public stage, and in Las Mocedades del Cid (1618) of Guillén de Castro, ballad-characters from the cycle of the Cid’s youth come on to the stage and recite the romances in which they occur. The plays

and, as he believed, a better prose they might have received deserve. the reign of Ferdinand and

known. The Stage.—Nowhere is the popularity of the romances better shown than in their capture of the public stage. The origin of drama in Spain is presumed to have been not very different from that in France and England. Direct evidence is lacking,

of Cervantes belong to an earlier tradition; had they been written in more of the attention which they Fiction.—The masterpiece of

de nuestro Señor, a 15th century nativity play by Gomez Manrique. There is, however, a constant tradition of religious performances in the vulgar tongue, supported by references in legal and other documents, and by the Mystery of Elche, still per-

through numerous editions in Spain and has been translated into most European languages (English, by James Mabbe 1631) while it has given rise to innumerable sequels and imitations. In con-

Isabella is a novel in dialogue form, the Tragicomedia de Calisto

between the Auto de los reyes magos, a 13th century fragment of a play on the three kings and the Representación del nacimiento

y Melibea generally known as the Celestina. The authorship is uncertain. First printed, it seems, in 1499, the Celestina ran

formed

ception, it is a tragedy worthy of Shakespeare, in execution admirable dialogue is one more example of the blending of the

on Aug.

14 and

15.

(See CATALAN

LITERATURE.)

The existence of a secular drama in the 13th century is proved popular with the erudite. Like Shakespeare, the author of the by a passage in the Siete partidas of Alfonso X. By the end of Celestina has fully developed the personalities of even the minor the rsth century the difference was not so much between sacred characters ; while the stark realism of the whole story, particularly and secular plays, as between plays in verse and plays in prose, in the surroundings of La Celestina herself, has had an influence on European literature which can hardly be exaggerated. Another and between the private stage and the public stage. Among the earliest examples in verse are the Representaciones work of fiction had a long line of successors and an English transand Eglogas of Juan del Enzina, many of which were written for lation; the Historia del Abencerrage y la hermosa Xarifa, a tale of performance before the duke of Alba and end with lyrical villan- Moors and Christians by an unknown writer of the time of Ferdicicos set to music by the author himself. The Cancionero con- nand and Isabella, which eventually found its way into the Diana taining most of his works was printed in 1496. Among his of Montemayor (d. 1561), the first Spanish example of the pas(J. B. T.) Nativity, Passion and Resurrection plays, the Auto del Repeldn toral novel introduced from Italy. Classic Age, 16th and 17th Centuries.—The golden age of stands in curious contrast, its subject being the relation between

“town” and “gown” in the University of Salamanca. His shep- Spanish literature belongs to the 16th and 17th centuries, extendherds and peasants have become comic characters, speaking a ing approximately from 1550 to 1650. Previous to the reign of definite rustic dialect (sayagués) which afterwards became a the Catholic sovereigns there exists, strictly speaking, only a Cas

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tilian literature, largely influenced by imitation first of France and then of Italy; the union of the two crowns of Aragon and Castile, and afterwards the advent of the house of Austria and the king of Spain’s election as emperor, achieved the political unity of

Spain and the unity of Spanish literature.

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of manners, half romance of adventure—of which the characteristic example appears to be the Marcos de Obregém (1618) of Vicente Martinez Espinel, one of the best written works of the 17th century.

To the same class belong almost all the novels of

After the death of Alonso Jerónimo de Salas Barbadillo, Luiz Vélez de Guevara and

Philip IV. (1665) the light went out; the nation, exhausted by wars and bad administration, produced nothing; it fell again under the influence of France. Poetry.—Lyric poetry, especially that of the more ambitious order, was generally inspired by the Italian masters. Juan Boscan, Garcilaso de la Vega and Diego Hurtado de Mendoza wrote al itálico modo. The defects of Boscán and Mendoza (such as certain faults of rhythmic accentuation) were corrected by their disciples Gutierre de Cetina, Gregorio Silvestre, Hernando de Acuña, by the poets of the so-called school of Seville, headed by Fernando de Herrera and also by those of the rival school of Sala-

manca, rendered famous mainly by the inspired poetry of Luis de León. Against these innovators the poets, faithful to the old Castilian manner, the rhymers of redondillas and romances, held their own; under the direction of Cristóbal de Castillejo, they carried on a fierce war against the “‘Petrarchists.” But by the last third of the 16th century the Italian school had triumphed. Almost all the poets of the 16th and 17th centuries tried their

powers in both kinds of versification. Thus Lope de Vega, first of all, who wrote La Dragontea (1598), La Hermosura de Angélica (1602), La Jerusalem conquistada (1609), in Italian verses and in octaves, composed his long narrative poem on Isidore, the patron of Madrid (1599), in gusntillas of octosyllabic verse, not to mention a great number of:romances. The 17th century is

characterized by a superabundance of lyric poetry.

Gdngora in-

troduced into Castilian poetry the baroque style, characterized

by sonorous diction, artificial arrangements of phrase and a system of inversions based on Latin syntax; but Góngora, a poet of really great powers, had begun with romances in which he found true poetic accents, ingenious ideas and felicitous expressions. Quevedo, much greater in prose than in verse, displays real power only in satire, epigram and parody. There is in some of his serious pieces the stuff of a Juvenal, and his satiric and burlesque romances, of which several are written in slang (germania), are in their way little masterpieces. Tasso’s epic was inspired by Gerusalemme ; when the author happens to have taken part in the events he narrates, it has a genuine historical interest. Alonso de

Ercilla’s Araucana was written less with a pen than with a pike. La Gatomaquia of Lope de Vega, and La Moschea of Villaviciosa (d. 1658) show witty invention. Fiction.—The departments of imaginative literature in which the genius of the new Spanish nation revealed itself with most vigour and originality are the novela and the drama. By novela must be understood the novel of manners, called picaresca (from picaro, a rogue or “picaroon’”) because of the social status of the heroes of those fictions; and this type of novel is a Spanish invention. The pastoral romance, on the other hand—the bestknown examples of which are the Diana of Jorge de Montemayor, continued by Alonso Pérez and Gaspar Gil Polo, the Galatea of Cervantes, and the Arcadia of Lope de Vega—as well as the novel of adventure begun by Cervantes in his Novelas exemplares, and cultivated after him by a host of writers, is directly derived from Italy. The Arcadia of Sannazaro is the source of the Diana

and of all its imitations, just as the Italian movelliert are the masters of most Spanish: novelistas of the 17th century. The picaresque novel starts in the middle of the 16th century with the Vida de Lazarillo de Tormes, sus fortunas y adversidades; the impetus was given, and the success of Lazarillo was so great that imitators soon appeared. In 1599 Mateo Alemán published the first part of the adventures of another picaroon, Guzman de Alfarache; before he could issue the sequel (1604) he was anticipated (1602) by an unscrupulous rival, whose continua-

tion was on a lower plane. Quite unlike that of the Lazarillo, the style of Mateo Aleman is eloquent, full, with long and learned periods, sometimes diffuse. (See P1caRESQUE NOVEL.) By degrees the picaresque romance was combined with the novel of Italian origin and gave rise to a new type—half novel

Francisco Santos’s popular pictures of life in Madrid, Dia y noche de Madrid (1663), Periquillo, el de las gallineras, etc. On the other hand, the novels of Tirso de Molina (Los Cigarrales de Toledo, 1624), Perez de Montalban (Para todos, 1632), Maria de Zayas (Novelas, 1635-1647), are more in the manner of the Novelas exemplares of Cervantes, and consequently of the Italian type. Among the so-called historical romances may be mentioned the Guerras civiles de Granada (1595-1604) by Ginés Pérez de Hita, which describes the last years of the kingdom of Granada. Don Quixote (1605-15), the masterpiece of Cervantes (g.v.), is too great a work to be treated with others. It is the social romance of 16th and 17th century Spain. The purpose was not to ridicule the books of chivalry, which were already out of fashion by his time, but to show by an example pushed to absurdity the danger of those prejudices of pure blood and nobler race with which three-fourths of the nation were imbued, and which, by the scorn of all useful labour which they involved, were destined to bring Spain to ruin. The lesson is all the more effective, as Cervantes’s hidalgo, although ridiculous, wins our sympathy. Drama of the 17th Century.—The stage in the 17th century in some measure took the place of the romances of the previous age; it is, as it were, the medium of all the memories, all the passions, and all the aspirations of the Spanish people. Its style, being that of the popular poetry, made it accessible to the most illiterate classes, and gave it an immense range of subject. The Bible, the lives of the martyrs, national traditions, the chronicles of Castile and Aragon, foreign histories and novels, even the daily incidents of contemporary Spanish life, the escapades and nightly brawls of students, the gallantries of the Calle Mayor and the Prado of Madrid, balcony escalades, sword-thrusts and dagger-stabs, duels and murders, fathers befooled, jealous ladies, pilfering and cowardly valets, inquisitive and sprightly waitingmaids, sly and tricky peasants, fresh country girls—all are turned to dramatic account. The enormous mass of plays with which the literature of this period is inundated may be divided into two great classes—secular and religious; the latter may be subdivided into (1) the liturgical

play, z.e., the auto either sacramental or al nacimiento, and (2) the comedia divina or the comedia de santos, which has no liturgical element, and differs from a secular play only in the fact that the subject is religious and frequently, as one of the names indicates, derived from the biography of a saint. In the secular drama, classification might be carried almost to any extent if the

nature of the subject be taken as the criterion. It will be sufficient to distinguish the comedia (t.e., any tragic or comic piece in three acts) according to the social types brought on the stage, the equipment of the actors, the artifices resorted to in the representation or the place of performance—public theatre or private stage. We have (1) the comedia de capa y espada, which represents everyday incident, the actors belonging to the middle class, simple caballeros, and consequently wearing the garb of ordinary town life, of which the chief items were the cloak and the sword; and (2) the comedia de teatro or de ruido, or again, de tramoya or de aparencias (ie., the theatrical, spectacular or scenic play), which has kings and princes for its dramatis personae and makes a great display of mechanical devices, decorations and music. Besides the comedia, the classic stage has also a series of little

pieces subsidiary to the play proper: the Joa, or prologue; the entremés, a kind of interlude which afterwards developed into the sainete; the baile, or ballet accompanied with singing; and the zarzuela, a sort of operetta thus named after the royal residence of La Zarzuela, where the kings of Spain had a theatre. As to the dramatic poets of the golden age, it is hard to group them. All are more or less pupils or imitators of the great chief of the new school, Lope Felix de Vega Carpio, described as “monster of Nature.” Among Lope’s contemporaries only a few poets of Valencia—including Guillén de Castro, the author of the

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Mocedades del Cid (from which Corneille derived his inspiration) ~—formed a small school, which could only win the applause of the public by copying as exactly as possible the manner of the great initiator. Lope’s most incontestable merit is to have given the Spanish stage a range and scope of which it had not been previously thought capable, and of having taught his contemporaries to invent dramatic situations and to carry on a plot. It is true he produced little that is perfect: his prodigious fecundity and facility allowed him no time to mature his work; he wrote negligently what he considered to be good for the vulgo. Lope’s first pupils exaggerated some of his defects, but at the same time, each, according to his own taste, widened the scope of the comedia. Antonio Mira de Amescua and Luis Vélez de Guevara were successful, especially in tragic histories and comedias divinas. Gabriel Téllez, better known under the pseudonym of Tirso de Molina displayed no less talent in the comedy of contemporary manners than in historical drama. El Burlador de Sevilla (Don Juan) is reckoned his masterpiece; but he showed himself a much

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[LITERATURE

are less refined, and more vivid. The accounts of transatlantic conquests are either by eyewitnesses, e.g., Bernal Díaz del Castillo

(1492-1581), one of the companions of Cortés, and Bartolomé de

las Casas, the apostle of the Indians; or by official historiographers, such as Francisco López de Gómara, who wrote in Spain second hand. Philosophy.—The Spanish thinkers of this epoch, whatever the school to which they belonged—scholastic, Platonic, Aristotelian or independent—wrote in Latin. Ascetic and mystical authors alone made use of the vulgar tongue for the readier dif. fusion of their doctrine among the illiterate, from whose ranks

many of their disciples were recruited. Luis de Granada (1 504-

1588), Luis de Leén (1528-1598), Santa Teresa (1515-1582)

Pedro Maldon de Chaide and St. John of the Cross are the brighter lights of this class of writers. Some of their books, like the Guia de pecadores of Luis de Granada, the autobiography of St. Teresa, and Malón de Chaide’s Conversion of the Magdalen

(1588), have much influenced the development of mysticism in better dramatist in EI Vergonzosa en palacio, Don Gil de las France. The Spanish mystics are not so remarkable for the depth Calzas Verdes and Marta la Piadosa. Finally Juan Ruiz de or subtlety of their thoughts as for the intensity of the divine

Alarcon the most serious and most observant of Spanish dramatic poets, successfully achieved the comedy of character in La Verdad sospechosa, closely followed by Corneille in his Menteur. The second epoch of the classical drama is represented mainly by Pedro Calderón de la Barca, the Spanish dramatist who has obtained most celebrity abroad. Calderón more than any other writer made honour, or more correctly the point of honour, an essential motive in the conduct of his personages (e.g., El Médico de su honra); itis he also who made the comedia de capa y espada uniform even to monotony, and gave the comic “part” of the

love with which they are inspired; many of them are masters of style, and some, like St. John of the Cross, have composed fluent

devotional verse inspired by the Song of Songs.

They profess

practical ideas in the matter of morality. Nothing is more sensible,

nothing less ecstatic, than the manual of domestic economy by Luis de León—ZLa Perfecta casada. Lay moralists are numerous in the 16th and 17th centuries, Some write long and heavy treatises on the art of governing, the education of princes, the duties of subjects, etc. But there js a kind of morality in which the Spaniard excels, namely, in social gracioso (confidential valet of the caballero) a rigidity which it satire, which, under all its forms—di alogue and dream in the never previously possessed. There is depth and poetry in Calderón, style of Lucian, epistle after the manner of Juvenal, or pamphlet and a great sense of the stage. Two contemporaries were Fran- —has produced several masterpie ces and a host of ingenious, cisco de Rojas Zorilla, author of the fine historic play Del Rey caustic and amusing compositions. Juan de Valdés (d. 1541), abajo ninguno, and Agustin Moreto, author of some pleasant the most celebrated of the Spanish Protestants, led the way with comedies. Luis Quiñones de Benavente was a skilful writer of his Didlogo de Mercurio y Carén—ad mirable in vigour. entremeses. The most eminent author in the department of social satire, History.—A new manner of writing appears with the revival of as in those of literary and political satire, is Quevedo. Nothing learning; the purely objective style of the old chroniclers, ac- escapes his scrutinizing spirit and pitiless irony. All the vices cumulating one fact after another, without showing the logical of contemporary society are remorselessly pilloried and cruelly connection or expressing any opinion on men or things, began to dissected in his Sueños and other short works. This great satirist be thought puerile. An attempt was made to treat the history is a disciple of Seneca. His phrases are charged with a double of Spain in the manner of Livy, Sallust and Tacitus, whose meaning (Conceptis m). This new school had its Boileau in Baltamethods of narration were directly adopted. The 16th century, sar Gracián, who published his Agudeza y arte de ingenio (1642), however, still presents certain chroniclers of the mediaeval type, in which all the subtleties of conceptism are reduced to an exact with more erudition, precision and the promise of a critical code. faculty. La Crónica general de España, by Ambrosio de Morales; Spanish thought as well as public spirit and all other forms of the Compendio historial of Estéban de Garibay; and the Historia national activity began to decline towards the close of the 17th general de las Indias occidentales, by Antonio de Herrera, are, century. The advent of the house of Bourbon, and the increasing so far as style is concerned, continuations of the last chronicles invasion of French influence in the domain of politics as well as of Castile. Jerónimo de Zurita is emphatically a scholar; no one in literature and science, frustrated the efforts of a few writers in the 16th century knew as he did how to turn to account docu- who had remained faithful to the pure Spanish tradition. The ments and records for the purpose of completing and correcting first symptoms, not of a revival, but of a certain resumption of the narratives of the ancient chronicles; his Anales de la corona intellectual production, appear in the department of linguistic de Aragén is a book of great value, written in a laboured style. study. In 1714 there was created, on the model of the French With Juan de Mariana history becomes a work of art. The academies, La Real Academia Espafiola, intended to maintain the Historia de España by the celebrated Jesuit, first written in purity of the language and to correct its abuses. This academy Latin (1592) in the interest especially of foreigners, was after- set itself at once to work, and in 1726 began the publication of wards rendered by its author into excellent Castilian; as a general its dictionary in six folio volumes, the best title of this association survey of its history, well planned, well written and well thought to the gratitude of men of letters. The Gramática de la lengua out, Spain possesses nothing that can be compared with it. castellana, drawn up by the academy, did not appear till 1771. Among works of less extent, there are the Guerra de Granada, Ignacio de Luzdn, well read in the literatures of Italy by Diego Hurtado de Mendoza (a history of the revolt and of the France, a disciple of Boileau and the French rhetoric ians, yet not Moors of the Alpujarras under Philip II), written about x 572, without some originality of his own, underto ok in his Poética immediately after the events, but not published till 1627; the (1737) to expound to his fellow countrymen the rules of the new narrative of the expedition of the Catalans in the Morea in the school, and, above all, the principle of the famous “unities” ac14th century, by Francisco de Moncada (d. 1635); that of the cepted by the French stage from Corneille’s day onward.. What revolt of the same Catalans during the reign of Philip IV., by Luzán had done for letters, Benito Feijóo, Francisco Manuel de Mello, a Portuguese by birth; a Benedictine of good and that of sense and great learning, did for the sciences. His Teatro critico the conquest of Mexico by Antonio de Solis. and Cartas erúditas y curiosas, collections of dissertations The historians of the wars of Flanders, such as Carlos in Coloma , almost every department of human knowledge, introduced Bernardino de Mendoza, Alonso Vazquez and Francis the co Verdugo, Spaniards to the leading scientific discover

ies of foreign countries,

19TH CENTURY]

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LANGUAGE

and helped to deliver them from many superstitions and absurd prejudices. The study of the ancient classics and the department of learned research in the domain of national histories and literatures had an eminent representative in Gregorio Mayáns y Siscar (1699-1781), who worthily carried on the great traditions of the

Renaissance; besides publishing good editions of old Spanish authors. Something of the old picaresque novel came to life again in the Fray Gerundio of the Jesuit Isla, a biographical romance which is also and above all a satire on the follies of the preachers of the day. One or two poets can be named.

At the head of the

new school is Meléndez Valdés, and with him are associated Diego González (1733-1794), José Iglesias de la Casa (1748-1791), known by his Jetrillas, Cienfuegos, and some others. Among the verse writers of the 18th century who produced odes and didactic poetry it is only necessary to mention Leandro Fernandez de Moratin and Quintana. The poverty in lyric poetry is even exceeded by that of the stage. The only dramatist who was really successful in composing on the French pattern some pleasant comedies, is Leandro Fernandez de Moratin. There was one writer of talent, Ramón de la Cruz; nothing helps us better to an acquaintance with the curious Spanish society of the reign of Charles IV. than the interludes of this genial and lighthearted author.

19th Century Literature.—The struggle of the War of Independence (1808—14), exerted no immediate influence on the litera-

ture of Spain. One might have expected as a consequence of the rising of the whole nation against Napoleon that Spanish writers would no longer seek their inspiration from France, and would resume the national traditions which had been broken at the end of the r7th century. But nothing of the sort occurred. Not only the afrancesados (as those were called who had accepted the new régime), but also the most ardent partisans of the patriotic cause, continued in literature to be the submissive disciples of France. It is true both of Quintana and of Martínez de la Rosa, who, though less impressive, had a greater independence of spirit and a more classical taste. The first decidedly romantic poet of the generation which flourished about 1830 was the duke of Rivas whose drama of Don Alvaro 6 la fuerza del sino inspired Verdi’s opera La Forza del Destino. Espronceda is a cosmopolitan romantic of the school of Byron. An exclusively lyric poet, he did not live long, but what he has left is often exquisite. Zorrilla has a more unequal talent; nevertheless, among hasty performances, his Don Juan Tenorio, a fantastic version of the legend treated by Tirso de Molina, Calderón, Molière, Zamora, Shadwell and Byron, is a curious specimen of Spanish romanticism. The play by García Gutiérrez, entitled El Trovador, inspired Verdi’s well-known opera. Bretón de los Herreros is the last of the dramatists who preserved the feeling of the ancient comedia. Marianc José de Larra,

a prose writer of the highest talent, must be placed beside Espronceda, with whom he has several features in common. Caustic in temper, he was specially successful in the political pamphlet, the article d’actualité, in which he ridicules the oddities of his contemporaries. Also, we have Mesonero Romanos, whose Escenas matritenses (1842), give pleasure by the curious details they furnish with regard to the contemporary society of Madrid. Estébanez Calderón in his Escenas andaluzas (1847) sought to revive the manner of the picaresque writers. Agustín Durán published

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the symbolic drama. Such pieces as El Gran Galeoto, El Hijo de Don Juan and El Loco dios indicate a careful study of the younger

Dumas and Ibsen. José Feliu y Codina (1843-1897), a Catalan wrote two vigorous plays entitled Za Dolores and Maria del Carmen; Joaquin Dicenta (b. 1860), showed daring talent in Juan José, while Jacinto Benavente (b. 1866), is a dramatist whose mordant vigour and knowledge of stage-effect was first manifested in Le Comida de las fieras and Rosas de otoño. Poetry.—Rivas, Espronceda and Zorrilla owed more to foreign models than either Campoamor or Núñez de Arce. Campoamor has been described as a disciple of Heine, but he in fact continued in his own semi-philosophic fashion a national tradition of immemorial antiquity—the tradition of expressing lyrical emotion in four or eight lines which finds its most homely manifestation in the five volumes of Cantos populares españoles edited by Francisco Rodriguez Marin. No less national a poet was Núñez de Arce, whose best performance is Gritos del combate (1875). Absorbed by commerce, Vicente Wenceslao Querol (d. 1889) is represented by a single volume of poems as remarkable for their self-restraint as for a deep tenderness which finds expression in the Cartas á María. A more powerful and interesting personality was Joaquín María Bartrina (1850—1880), who endeavoured to transplant the pessimistic spirit of Leconte de Lisle to Spanish soil. Salvador Rueda (b. 1857), in his Aires españoles, represents the vivid colouring and resonant emphasis of Andalucía; Vicente Medina (b. 1866) in Aires murcianos and La Canción de la huerta reproduces with vivid intensity the atmosphere of the Murcian orchard-country. José Maria Gabriel y Galan (d. 1905), was extremely unequal, and his range of subjects was limited, but in El Ama he produced a poem which is unsurpassed in the Spanish poetry of its time. But more truly a poet than any of these was Rosalía de Castro, whose one volume of poems not in the Galician dialect, Ex Ias orillas del Sar, was published in 1884. Fiction.—Since 1850 there has been a notable renaissance of the Spanish novel. Fernán Caballero is entitled to an honourable place in literary history as perhaps the first to revive the native realism which was temporarily checked by the romantic movement. In all that concerns truth and art she is superior to the once popular Manuel Fernández y González (d. 1888), of whom it has been said that Spain should erect a statue to him and should burn his novels at the foot of it. Antonio de Trueba followed Fernán Caballero in observing local customs. He had no gift of delineating character, and his plots are feeble; but he was not wanting in literary charm, and went his road of incorrigible optimism amid the applause of the crowd. His contemporary, Pedro Antonio de Alarcén, is remembered chiefly as the author of

El Sombrero de tres picos (the ful and peculiarly Spanish tale once translated into English. founder of the modern school

Three-Cornered Hat), a delightof picaresque malice, more than José Maria de Pereda is the

of realistic fiction in Spain, and

the boldness of his experiment startled a generation of readers accustomed to Fernan Caballero’s feminine reticence and Trueba’s deliberate conventionality. His rival, Juan Valera, is not, in the restricted sense of the word, realistic, but he is no less real in his own wider province; he has neither Pereda’s energy nor austerity of purpose, but has a more infallible tact, a larger experience of men and women, and his sceptical raillery is as effective a moral commentary as Pereda’s Christian pessimism. In Valera’s Pepita Jiménez and Dona highly esteemed collections of old Castilian literature. Drama.—Foreign influence is most clearly marked in the work Luz, and in Pereda’s Sotileza, we have a trio of Spanish heroines of Ventura de la Vega (1807-1865), whose relationship to the who deserve their fame. Benito Pérez Galdós gave a new life younger Moratin, and therefore to Moliére, is unmistakable in to the historical novel in his huge series entitled Episodios naEl Hombre de mundo (1845), a piece written after a long ap- cionales. The colouring is so brilliant, the incident is so varied prenticeship spent in translating French plays. A fusion of early and so full of interest, the spirit so stirring and patriotic, that and later methods is discernible in the plays of Tamayo y Baus. the born Spaniard easily forgives their frequent prolixity. Their Campoamor wrote dramas which, though curious as expressions appeal is irresistible; there is also a considerable public for the of a subtle intelligence cast in the form of dialogue, do not lend politico-religious novels such as Doña Perfecta, Gloria and León themselves to presentation, and were probably not intended for Roch, which have been published in English versions. The quick the stage. The successor of Tamayo y Baus in popular esteem response of Pérez Galdós to any external stimulus, his sensitive-

was José Echegaray, whose earlier plays—such as La Esposa del vengador and En el puño de la espada—are in the romantic style; in his later works he attempts the solution of social problems or

ness to every change in the literary atmosphere, made it inevitable that he should come under the influence of French naturalism as he does in Lo Prohibido and in Realidad; but his conversion was

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temporary, and two profound novels dealing with contemporary life—Fortunata y Jacinta and Angel Guerra—mark the third and culminating stage in the development of one of the greatest of Spanish novelists. The talent of Armando Palacio Valdés was first displayed in El Sefiorito Octavio. Two subsequent works—Marta y Maria and the delightful La Hermana San Sulpicio—raised hopes that Spain had, in Palacio Valdés, a novelist of the first order to succeed Valera; but in La Espuma and La Fe, two social studies which contained caricatures of well-known personages, the author ceased to be national and did not become cosmopolitan. Another novelist who for a time divided honours with Palacio Valdés was Emilia Pardo Bazán. The powerful, repellent pictures of peasant life and the ethical daring of Los Pazos de Ulloa and La Madre Naturaleza are set off by graphic passages of description; and the local patriotism which inspires Znsolación and De mi tierra is expressed in a style which secures Emilia Pardo Bazan a high place among her contemporaries. Leopoldo Alas (1851-1901), who used the pseudonym of “Clarín,” was better known as a ruthless critic than as a novelist; the interest of his shorter stories has evaporated, but his ambitious novel, La Regenta, lives as an original study of the relation between mysticism and passion. Jacinto Octavio Picón (b. 1852), who deserted novel writing for criticism, displayed much insight in Lázaro, the story of a priest who finds himself forced to lay down his orders; this work was naturally denounced by the clerical party, and orthodoxy declared equally against El Enemigo and Dulce y sabrosa; more impartial critics agree in admiring Picón’s power of awakening sympathy and interest, his gift of minute psychological analysis and his exquisite diction. Angel Ganivet (d. 1898) produced in Los Trabajos del infatigable creador Pio Cid a singular philosophical romance, rich in ideas and felicitous in expression, though lacking in narrative interest. Ramón del Valle Inclán (b. 1869) tends to preciosity in Corte de Amor and Flor de Santidad; but in his four Sonatas, Primavera, Estio, Otomo and Invierno (which have been translated into English), he has produced a masterpiece, and in the protagonist, the Marqués de

Bradomin, a great character.

(J. F.-K.; J. B. T.)

BrsrioGRaPHy.—Texts: Biblioteca de autores españoles (Madrid, 1845-80), 71 vols.; Nueva bibl. de autores espafioles (Madrid, 1905) 2§ vols. published; Clasicos castellanos (Madrid, 1910-_), 86 vols. published (cheap editions with good introductions and notes). Literary history and criticism: J. Fitzmaurice Kelly, A New History

AND

LITERATURE

[CONTEMPORARY

Sbanish and English Literature (Liverpool, 1910); M. Hume, Spanish ae on English Literature (London, 1905); J. G. Underhill, Spanish Literature in the England of the Tudors (1899). Language: R. Menéndez Pidal, Los Origines del espanol (Madrid, 1920). Lyrics: R. Menéndez Pidal, La Primitiva poesia lirica española

(Madrid, 1919); M. Menéndez y Pelayo, Antologia de poetas líricos castellanos (Madrid, 1890-1908, 13 vols.) (introductions much used by later writers); Origines de la Novela (Madrid, 1905-07, 3 vols.),

Oriental Influence: J. Ribera, Disertactones y opúsculos (Madrid, 1928,

2 vols.); A. González Palencia, Historia de la Literatura arábigoespañola (Madrid-Barcelona, 1928).

Picaresque Novel: F. W. Chandler, Romances of Roguery, Part 1

(New York, 1899). Prosody: P. Henriquez Ureña, La versificación irregular en la poesia castellana (Madrid, 1920). Renaissance: E, Foster-Watson, Luis Vives (Oxford, 1922, Hispanic Notes and Mono-

graphs) ; A. F. G. Bell, Luis de Léon: A Study of the Spanish Renais-

sance (Oxford, 1925) ; A. Castro, El Sentamento de Cervantes (Madrid, 1926). Travels: A. Farinelli, Viajes por Espana y Poriugal (Madrid, 1921); Ruy Gonzalez Clavijo, trans. and ed. G. le Strange (London,

1928), Pero Tafur, trans. and ed. Malcolm Letts (London, 1925).

Reviews: Revista de filologia espanola, Madrid, quarterly (the best review of Spanish studies, with admirable bibliographies) ; Revista de Archivos, Bibliotecas y Museos (Madrid), quarterly ; Boletin de la Real Academia Española (Madrid), Revue hispanique (Paris), Bulletin kispanique (Bordeaux) ; Spanish literary history is also dealt with in the following: Modern Language Review, M odern Language Notes,

Romanic

Review,

Romania,

Zeitschrift

für romanische

Romanische Studien, Archiv für das Studium und. Litteraturen.

CONTEMPORARY LITERATURE

Philologie,

der neueren Sprachen

(1910-1928)

The dominant feature of contemporary Spanish literature may be found in a more conscious realization of the creative element of the race by its critical element and in a tendency towards the fusion of both these elements into a complete whole. With the death of Galdós, the sceptre of Spanish literature passes to Miguel de Unamuno, who represents the modern version of the Spanish mystic writer. His main concern is the relation of man to creation. It is the subject of his masterpiece Del Sentimiento Trágico de la Vida (1913), a book of passionate meditation (of which an excellent translation exists in English, The Tragic Sense of Life, 1921), and as an attitude of mind it dominates his criticism: Ex torno al Casticismo (1902), Ensayos (1916), La

Agonia del Cristianismo (1926); his novels: Niebla (1914), Abel Sánchez (1917), Tres Novelas Ejemplares y un Prólogo (1920) and his play: Fedra.

In these works Unamuno

appears as the

apostle of an ideal of life more closely connected with spiritual of Spanish Literature (Oxford, 1926), Chapters on Spanish Literature (London, 1908), Some Masters of Spanish Verse (Oxford, 1924, His- Easternism than with the intellectual and social tenets of the panic Notes and Monographs); J. D. M. Ford, Main Currents of West. He thus fulfils in Spain much the same function as Spanish Literature (New York, 1919); G. T. Northup, An Introduction to Spanish Literature (Chicago, 1925); G. Ticknor, History of Dostoievsky did in Russia, for Spain like Russia is a transition between East and West. He aims at intensity rather than Spanish Literature (Boston, 1849, 6th ed. 1888) ; J. B. Trend, Alfonso the Sege and other Spanish Essays (London and New York, 1926); extension. His style is not unlike the style of Carlyle in that it J. Amador de los Rios, Historia critica de la Literatura española is written with the whole being of the man, body and soul. (Madrid, 1861—65), 7 vols., “Azorin,” Clásicos y modernos (Madrid, If, in order to complete the parallel with Russia, a Spanish 1913), Los valores Literarios (1913), Al Margen de los clásicos (1918), Lecturas españoles, London (n d.) ; C. Barja, Libros y autores clásicos western type of mind had to be opposed to Unamuno, as Tur(Brattleboro, 1922); J. Hurtado y A. González Palencia, Historia de genev could be opposed to Dostoievsky, a younger man, José la Literatura espanola (Madrid, 1921, 2nd ed. 1925); E. Mérimée, Ortega y Gasset, might be selected for this purpose. Ortega y Précis Œ histoire de la Littérature espagnole (Paris, 1908, 3rd ed., 1926) ; L. Pfandl, Spanische Literaturgeschichte (Leipzig-Berlin, vol. 1, Gasset is a refined humanist, strongly influenced by German contemporary Neo-Kantian schools of thought. His main work 1923; vol, ii., 1928); R. Wolf, Studien zur Geschichte der spanischen Nattonalliteratur (Berlin, 1859). is in the field of criticism and psychology—Meditaciones del Special studies—Allegory: C. R. Post, Medieval Spanish Allegory Quijote (1911), El Espectador (1917). In more recent books he (Cambridge, Mass., 1915, Harvard studies in comparative literature). ‘has endeavoured to draw philosophical and psychological conBibliography: R. Foulché-Delbose and L. Barrau Dihigo, Manuel de clusions from current events; for instance, in the field of politics Phispantsant (New York, 1920-26) ; H. Thomas, Short Title Catalogue of Spanish Books in the British Museum to 1600 (London, 1922), with his España invertebrada (1922) and in that of philosophy Bibliographie hispanique (New York, 1905-17), 13 vols. Chivalry: and science with El tema de nuestro tiempo (1923), a masterly H. Thomas, Spanish and Portuguese Romances of Chivalry (Cambridge, 1920) ; W. J. Entwistle, The Arthurian Legend in the Litera- commentary on the new vistas opened out to thought by the discoveries of Einstein. In this same school may be included tures of the Spanish Peninsula (London, 1925). Drama: A. Rennert, The Spanish Stage in the Time of Lope de Vega (New York, 1909) ; R. José Martínez Ruiz (b. 1876), better known under his literary Schevil, The Dramatic Art of Lope de Vega (Berkeley, 1918) ; J. P. W. name of “Azorín,” whose art has all the finish and exquisiteness, Crawford, The Spanish Drama before Lope de Vega (Philadelphia, and all the smallness as well, of miniature painting. He has the 1922), The Spanish Pastoral Drama (1915); A. F. v. Schack, Geschichte der dramatischen Literatur und Kunst in Spanien (Berlin, rarer merit of applying these gifts to the interpretation of national scenes and places, as in his Castilla (1920); Los Pueblos (1905); 1845-46) ; Nachträüge (Frankfürt, 1854) ; Spanish translation (Madrid 1885-87). Epic and ballad: R. Menéndez Pidal, L’Épopée castillane La Ruta de Don Quijote (1905), and has thus contributed in no (Paris, TOIC) ; Cantar de Mio Cid (Madrid, 1908-11); Poesia jug- small measure to the movement for national self-knowledge which laresca. y juglares (Madrid, 1924); Flor nueva de romances viejos (Madrid, 1928); M. Mila y Fontanals, De la poesia heróico popular castellana (Barcelona, 1874; reprinted, 1896). Influence on England: J. Fitzmaurice-Kelly, The Relations between

is noticeable in contemporary Spain.

Fiction.—In fiction, though belonging to an older generation, Vicente Blasco Ibáñez must be mentioned.

His war novel Los

CATALAN]

SPANISH

LANGUAGE

Cuatro Jinetes del Apocalipsis (1916, Eng. trans. 1918) made him famous with the English-speaking public. Older novels (and better ones) have been translated, such as La Barraca (1899), Sangre y Arena (1908), The Matador (1918) and The Cabin (1919). Blasco Ibanez represented an art which is Spanish only in its subject but not in its spirit, manner or style. Of a younger generation, Pio Baroja (b. 1872) is perhaps the most widely read. A Basque, with all the acuteness of mind of his race and not a little of its rustic independence and antago-

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school of France, which reaches Spain through South-American

poets, such as Rubén Dario, are still at work. Though the first is the more vigorous and conscious, the second widens so as to include all influences: D’Annunzio, Maeterlinck, Tagore. More typically national are Unamuno, Rosario de Sonetos Liricos (1911), El Cristo de Velázquez (1920); Antonio Machado (b. 1875), whose pessimistic serenity is in keeping with the landscape of central Spain (Soledades, Campos de Castilla) and Salvador de Madariaga (b. 1886), whose Romances de Ciego (1922) re-state nism to civilization, Baroja writes abundantly and carelessly with in a new form. the old Spanish theme of Jorge Manrique. Other more spirit than art. His best work is perhaps Jdilios Vascos, in poets produce under more complex influences. Thus Manuel which he has rendered the quaint charm of his own country. Machado (b. 1874), whose main inspiration is popular and southMany of his works have been published in English by Ameri- ern has, nevertheless, written excellent verse in which the influence can publishers. To this generation belongs also Ricardo León, of French elegant sensibility is discernible; Juan Ramón Jiménez who writes in a more consciously traditional vein and pays con- (b. 1881), remarkable rather for exquisite sensitiveness than for siderable attention to matters of style. His rhain work is power is led by his melancholy moods towards fluid rhythms Casta de Hidalgos (1908). Concha Espina, a brilliant woman which, though more settled, are reminiscent of Maeterlinck and, novelist, has distinguished herself by novels of psychological through him, of Rossetti. Ramón del Valle-Inclán (1870), perinsight and easy style, such as El Metal de los Muertos (1920). haps the most skilful musician among modern Spanish poets, has Ramón Pérez de Ayala (b. 1881) is perhaps the best novelist given in La Marquesa Rosalinda (1913) an admirable example of of the younger generation. A critic of great talent and a poet, the adaptability of the Spanish language to the most exquisite and he has written several novels, the best of which are Novelas complicated rhythms. Ramón Pérez de Ayala in his three volumes, Poeméticas de la Vida Española (1916, translated into English La Paz del Sendero (1916); El Sendero Innumerable (1916); under the title of Prometheus) and Belarmino y Apolonio (1921). and El Sendero Andante (1921), effects a happy union of He is a typical exponent of the fusion of the traditional Spanish thought with harmonious poetry in a work not wholly uninfluenced spirit with the conscious knowledge of its resources referred to by Francis Jammes, D’Annunzio and Walt Whitman. Among the above, as characteristic of contemporary literature in Spain. rising generation may be mentioned Pedro Salinas, Jorge Guillén, The same may be said of Gabriel Miró, whose delicate sensibility Garcia Lorca and Rafael Alberti. Miscellaneous—In the field of erudition and literary history and deep knowledge of the language make him one of the most richly endowed authors of contemporary Spain. Among his works the task of Menéndez y Pelayo is continued by Don Ramon are El Humo Dormido (1920); El Libro de Sigüenza (1921); Menéndez Pidal, whose works on the “Cantar de Mio Cid” (1911, Figuras de la Pasión del Señor (1916, this last translated into 1913, etc.) and on the Spanish Chronicles have thrown much English 1924). Of recent years several authors have cultivated light on the origin of Spanish epic poetry. Francisco Rodriguez the utopian and satirical variety of novel-writing. To this kind Marin (b. 1855), editor of Don Quijote, a specialist of Spanish belong El Archipiélago Maravilloso (1923) by Luis Araquistain, folk lore, has succeeded the Master as head of the National and La Girafa Sagrada by S. de Madariaga (originally written in Library. Father Asin has won world-wide fame by his illuminating English and published 1925). Among newcomers in novel-writing work on the Arabic origins of Dante. Of the younger generation Claudio de la Torre and Felix Urabayen, El Barrio Maldito Federico de Onis (b. 1885) has edited Fray Luis de León (1914) and Américo Castro (b. 1885) has worked on Lope de Vega (1925) must be singled out. Drama.—Jacinto Benavente still dominated the Spanish (1919). theatre during this period. His most famous play, Los Intereses BrBLioGRAPHY.—César Barja, Literatura Espanola, Libros y Autores Creados (1907), is not representative, for it illustrates but one Modernos (1924); E. L. Gomez de Baquero, El Renacimiento de la phase of the talent of this many-sided author. A more power- Novela Espanola en el Siglo XIX. (1924); Miguel de Unamuno, Ln torno al Casticisma (1902); W. Starkie, Jacinto Benavente (1924) ; ful tragedy, La Noche del Sdbade (1903), is of the same period. S. de Madariaga, The Genius of Spain (1923); A. F. G. Bell, ConIn more recent times he has given an intense drama of life in temporary Spanish Literature (1925). (S. oe M.) La Malquerida (1913). There is, however, a type of play in which CATALAN LITERATURE Benavente must yield the prize to the brothers Alvarez Quintero (Serafin, b. 1871; Joaquin, b. 1873). As authors of Comedias de Poetry in the Middle Ages.—Although the Catalan language Costumbres these two writers, who always work together, are is a branch of the southern Gallo-Roman, the literature, in its unsurpassed. The list of their comedies is long, and includes origin might be considered as supplementary to that of Provence. Las de Cain and Puebla de las Mujeres (1912). Other play- Until about the second half of the 13th century the poets of northwrights of note are Linares Rivas (b. 1866), remarkable for his eastern Spain used no other language than that of the troubadours. skill in the handling of dialogue; Martinez Sierra, a name which Guillem de Bergadan, Uc de Mataplana, Ramón Vidal de Besalú, stands for the collaboration of Don Gregorio Martinez Sierra Guillem de Cervera, Serveri de Gerona, were all genuine Provengal (b. 1881) and his wife, resulting in a happy blend of dramatic poets, in the same sense as are those of Limousin, Quercy or skill and delicate psychology; and Pinillos (Parmeno) (1875- Auvergne, since they wrote in the langue d’oc and made use of all 1923), a vigorous painter of social conflicts. The poetical theatre the forms of poetry cultivated by the troubadours north of the still lives in Spain, maintained by Valle-Inclán (b. 1870), Mar- Pyrenees. Ramon Vidal (end of the 12th century and beginning quina, Cata and Ardavin. In recent years a writer of unusual of 13th) was a grammarian as well as a poet; his Dreita manera power, Jacinto Grau, has conquered the foreign stage, particularly de trobar became the code for the Catalan poetry written in with his El Conde Alarcos (1917), El Hijo Prédigo (1918). But Provencal, which he called Lemosi. From the combination of drama and comedy are only one, and that not the most important, spoken Catalan with the literary language of the troubadours aspect of the Spanish theatre. Still more typical of the nation is there arose a composite idiom. Among the oldest examples of what is modestly known in Spain as Género chico (small genre), this Provencalized Catalan verse are the poetical works of Raya type of theatrical production consisting of plays generally“short mond Lully or Ramón Lull (1235-1315), and one has only to and accompanied by music and ranging from variety pieces akin read the fne piece entitled Lo Desconort (“Despair”), or some of to operettas to little masterpieces of musical drama. Its best- his stanzas on religious subjects, to apprehend at once the emiknown exponents are the brothers Quintero and Carlos Arniches nently composite nature of that language. Muntaner (12651336), whose prose is exactly that spoken by his contemporaries, (b. Alicante, 1866). Poetry.—The two main influences acting on Spanish poetry becomes a troubadour when he writes in verse; his Sermó on the

towards the close of the roth century, ze., national tradition and the example of foreign poetry, particularly that of the symbolist

conquest of Sardinia and Corsica (1323), introduced into his Chronicle of the kings of Aragon, exhibits linguistically the same

162

SPANISH

LANGUAGE

AND

LITERATURE

mixed character as is found in Lully. Catalan verse writers of the r4th century are not very numerous, nor are their works of any

the best ornament of mediaeval Catalan prose. Two of them—> that of James I., apparently reduced to writing a little after hisí

tion of a book on good breeding entitled Facetus, and certain tales where, by the choice of subjects, by various borrowings, and even occasionally by the wholesale introduction of pieces of French poetry, it is clearly evident that the writers of Catalonia understood and read the langue d’oui. Closely allied to the moves rimades is another analogous form of versification—that of the codolada, consisting of a series of verses of eight and four syllables, rhyming in pairs, still made use of in one portion of the

Froissart. The Doctor Illuminatus, Raymond Lully, who, though he knew Arabic, had a poor acquaintance with Latin—his philo. sophical works were done into that language by his disciples—

death (1276) with the help of memoirs dictated by himself during; his lifetime; and that of Ramon Muntaner (1265-1336), relating at length the expedition of the Catalan company to the More,' rhymed couplets. There exist poems of this class by Pere March, the conquest of Sardinia by James I., are distinguished alike by Torrella, by Bernat Metge (an author more celebrated for his and artistic skill of their narration and by the quality of their the by the prose), and by others whose names we do not know; among it would not be too much to liken these Catalan chronic- ` language; be to ought mention special category last this to works belonging Muntaner especially, to Villehardouin, Joinville and: and lers, translaa Sages, Seven made of a version of the romance of the

great merit. The majority of their compositions consist of what were called noves rimades, that is, stories in octosyllabic verse in

wrote in a somewhat Provençalized Catalan various moral and propagandist works—the romance Blanquerna, the Libre de les

maravelles, into which is introduced a “bestiary” taken by the author from “Kalilah and Dimnah, and the Lzbre del orde dẹ cavalleria, a manual of the perfect knight, besides a variety of other treatises and opuscula of minor importance. The majority Catalan domain (Majorca). in two versions—one in the ver. | 15th Century.—The 15th century is the golden age of Catalan of the writings of Lully exist which the in Latin, originating with his nacular, other own, his is poetry. At the instigation and under the auspices of John I.

(1387-1395), Martin I. (1395-1410), and Ferdinand I. (14101416), kings of Aragon, there was founded at Barcelona a consistory of the “Gay Saber,” on the model of that of Toulouse, and this official protection accorded to poetry was the beginning

of a new style much more emancipated from Provengal influence. The language begins to rid itself more and more of Provencalisms, and tends to become the same as that of prose and of ordinary conversation. With Pere and Jaume March, Jordi de Sant Jordi, Johan de Masdovelles, Francesch Ferrer, Pere Torrella, Pau de Bellviure, Antoni Vallmanya, and, above all, the Valencian Auzias March, there developed a new school, which flourished till the end of the rsth century, and which, as regards the form of its versification, is distinguished by its almost exclusive employment of eight-verse cobles of ten syllables, each with “crossed” or “chained” rhymes ending with a tornada of four verses. Auzias March (1379-1459), the most inspired, the most profound, but also the most obscure of the whole group, was printed in the 16th century; his Cants damor and Cants de mort contain the finest verses ever written in Catalan. He was admired by Santillane and translated into Castilian by Montemayor (1560). Of a wholly different class, and in quite another spirit, is the Spill des dones of Jaume Roig (d. 1478), a Valencian also, like March; this long poem is in quadrisyllabic instead of octosyllabic

verse. A bitter and caustic satire upon women, it purports to be

a true history—the history of the poet himself and of his three unhappy marriages in particular. Notwithstanding its author’s allegations, however, the SHl des dones is mostly fiction; but it derives a very piquant interest from its really authentic element, its vivid picture of the Valencia of the 15th century and the details of contemporary manners. Amongst other poets, Joan Roiç de Corella (1430-1500), was the author of the Tragedia de Caldesa and an Oració to the Virgin Mary. After this bright period of efflorescence, Catalan poetry rapidly faded, a decline due more to the force of circumstances than to any fault of the poets. The union of Aragon with Castile, and the resulting predominance of Castilian throughout Spain, inflicted a death-blow on Catalan literature, especially on its poetry. The fact that a Catalan, Juan Boscan, inaugurated in the Castilian language a new kind of

disciples, who desired to give currency throughout Christendom

to their master’s teachings. Recent research has proved that Lully’s peculiar method of exposition and many of his ideas were taken from Muslim Spanish mystics and sufis. Lully—who was very popular in the lay world, although the clergy had a low

opinion of him, and in the 15th century even set themselves to obtain a condemnation of his works by the Inquisition—had a rival in the person of Francesch Eximeni¢ (1340-1409). His Crestia (printed in 1483) is a vast encyclopaedia of theology,

morals and politics for the use of the laity. The Libre de les dones, which is at once a book of devotion and a manual of domestic economy, contains a number of curious details as to a Catalan woman’s manner of life and the luxury of the period. In the rsth century, Bernat

Metge, himself well versed in ;

es~

Italian literature, presents some of its great masters to his countrymen by translating Boccaccio’s story of Griselde from the Latin version made by Petrarch, and also by composing Lo Sompmni (“The Dream”), in which the influence of the Italy of the 13th and 14th centuries is very perceptible. The chivalrous romance, Tirant lo blanch (finished in 1460 and printed in 1490), one of the few books saved from the library of Don Quixote, was mainly the work of Johanot Martorell of Valencia. Curial y Guelfa is an anonymous romance of the end of the rs5th or beginning of the 16th century. The beginnings of the drama in Catalan are represented by The Mystery of Elche, a 15th century Assumption play based on an earlier Representacio. It is still performed every year at Elche, on Aug. 14 and 15, and is sung throughout to traditional music. 16th-18th Centuries——With the loss of political was bound to coincide that of literary independence in the Catalonian countries. Catalan fell to the rank of a patois. The 16th century, in fact, furnishes literary history with hardly more than a single poet at all worthy of the name—Pere Serafi, some of whose pieces, in the style of Auzias March, but less obscure, are grace ful enough and deserve to live; his poems were printed at Barcelona in 1565. Prose is somewhat better represented, but schol:

ars alone persisted in writing in Catalan—antiquaries and histor

ians like Miquel Carbonell (d. 1517), compiler of the Chromiques de Espanya (printed in 1347), Francesch Tarafa, author of the of a school, is important and characteristic; the date of the publi- Cronica de cavallers catalans, Anton Beuter and some others not cation of the works of Boscan (1543) marks the end of mediaeval so well known. In the 17th and 18th centuries the decadence Catalan poetry. became still more marked. Catalan had become the medium of Prose of 13th-15th Centuries—The earliest prose works in familiar conversation, the language of folk-songs and_ ballads, Catalan are later than the poems of the oldest Catalan troubadours printed in the Romancerillo catalán of Milá y Fontanals; but in of the Provençal school. Though the oldest Catalan document these“it lived on until the re-awakening at the beginning of the dates from between 1095 and r11o (the text of an oath imposed roth century. Revival of Catalan Language and Literature.—In 1814 on certain barons by a bishop of Urgell), and the Homilies @Organyd are believed to date from the 11th century, literary prose appeared the Gramática y apologia de la lengua cathalana of dates no further back than the close of the 13th century. It has Joseph Pau Ballot y Torres. The pioneers of reform, however, the advantage of being entirely original. The language is the very soon realized that ancient Catalan had fallen out of touch with language of the soil which we see appearing in charters from about their spiritual needs. They were living in an atmosphere the time of the accession of James J. (1213). Its chronicles are romantic mediaevalism, yet they found that a mediaeval literary

poetry, and that the Castilians themselves regard him as the head

SPANISH

MOSS—SPANISH

language was inadequate for their purpose. Again, the popularity of the satirical poems and farces of José Robrefio (1780-1838) was a serious obstacle, owing to the corruption of the language

in which they were written, while Federico Soler (1839-95) openly

advocated Catalá qwara es parla (“Catalan as she is spoke”) in opposition to the literary language. The development of modern Catalan, however, has been steadily in the direction of a refined means of expression for contemporary thought. Aribau’s patriotic Ode (1833), the poems of Victor Balaguer (1823-1901) led to the imagination and mysticism of Jacinte Verdaguer (1845-

1902), whose epic woven round the figure of Columbus (L’At-

léntida) is a noble conception and a great poem.

The Majorcan

poems of Toma Aguild, with their vague, fantastic charm, were

followed by those of Miguel Costai Llabera; while a strong formal sence was brought in by Juan Alcover (d. 1926) and Gabriel Alomar. Catalonia found its first modern poet of real greatness in Joan Maragall (1860~1g11). Contemporary poets have still further refined the language, so that it has become an exquisite instrument for the expression of poetry. The chief names are Josep Carner (b. 1884), J. M. López-Picò (b. 1886), and J. M. de Sagarra.

SUCCESSION

163

(1892); V. M. O. Denk, Einfuhrung in die Geschichte der altcatalanischen Literatur (Munich, 1893); J. Masso Forrents, Manuscrits catalans de la biblioteca nacional de Madrid (Barcelona, 1896). For the modern period see Joaquin Rubio y Ors, Breve resena del actual renacimiento de la lengua y literatura catalanas (2 vols., Barcelona, 1880) ; F. M. Tubino, Historia del renacimiento contemporaneo en Catalana, Baleares y Valencia (Madrid, 1880); A. de Molins, Dicczonario biografico y bibliográfico de escritores y artistas catalanes del siglo xix. (Barcelona, 1891-96); Ausias March, Obres, edit. A. Pagés, 2 vols. (Barcelona, 1912), Documents per Historia de la cultura catalana migeval (Barcelona: Institut d’Estudis catalans) ; E. Toda, La Poesta catalana á Sardenya (Barcelona, 1888) ; Nicolau d’Olwer, Literatura catalane (Barcelona, 1917); E. Curet, El teatro en el renacimiento de Catalava (Barcelona, 1920); A. Plana, Antologia de Poetes moderns Catalans (Barcelona, 1914); J. B. Trend, A Picture of Modern Spain (1921), pp. 80—156, and 213—231; Alfonso the Sage and other Spanish Essays (1926), pp. 162~174; also important articles in the Revue hispanique, Revista catalana, Quaderns d’Estudis, and other special periodicals. (J. F.-K.; A. M.-Fa; J. B. T.)

SPANISH MOSS

(Tillandsia usneoides), the name given to

a plant of the family Bromeliaceae which hangs in long festoons from the branches of trees in tropical and sub-tropical American forests, being especially conspicuous on the live oak in the southern United States. The whole plant is covered with scaly hairs The foundations of modern Catalan prose were laid by Joaquín for the absorption of water, giving it a grey colour. It is used like Rubio y Ors (1818-99), by José Torres i Bagés, archbishop of horse-hair. From its appearance, which resembles a lichen, it is Vich and author of La tradició catalana (1892). Francisco Pi i sometimes called old man’s beard. Margall, president of the Spanish republic of 1873, showed comSPANISH SUCCESSION, WAR OF THE, the name plete mastery over both Catalan and Castilian. Fiction was in- given to the general European war which began in 1701 and ended augurated by Narciso Oller with Papallona (1880). One of the with the Treaties of Utrecht and Rastatt in 1713-14. Its monotobest prose-writers of the Catalan movement was Eugeni d’Ors nous round of marches and sieges is often quickened by the genius (“Xenius”), part of whose Glosdri (1906-17), was translated of three great soldiers, Marlborough, Eugene and Villars, while into Castilian before the author abandoned Barcelona for Madrid Peterborough and Galway, Catinat and Vendôme, though less and began himself to write in Castilian. His exquisite philosophical highly gifted, were men of unusual and conspicuous ability. As tale, La Ben Plantada, is one of the most notable achievements usual in these wars, manoeuvres, threats and feints played the of the Catalan mind and the Catalan language. principal part in field warfare. The tangible assets, at the conIn the theatre, too, Catalan dramatists have produced work of clusion of peace, the effective seizure of fortresses and provinces considerable originality. Angel Guimera achieved European repu- was in most cases the principal object with which kings and tation with Terra baixa (1896), which was made into the opera princes made war. Nevertheless, the object of this war, at Tiefland by Eugen d’Albert and has been translated into English least in the case of England and Holland, was less to add a few as Martha of the Lowlands. Beginning with historical tragedy cities and districts to their own domains than to cripple the power (Gala Placidia, 1879; Judith de Welp, 1883), he turned to rural of Louis XIV. The ambition of the Grand Monarque by placing drama in La Boja (1890), comedy in La Baldirona and La Sala on the throne of Spain his grandson Philip, had brought into polidespera, and modern tragedy in Martha Rosa (1894), and La tics the fear not merely of a disturbance but of an entire overfesta del blat (1896). His last work, Jesus que torna, was brought throw of the “Balance of Power.” Thus the instrument of his out during the World War of 1914-18. Interesting dramatic work ambition, his magnificent army, was (above all for England) an was also produced by Ignacio Iglesias (d. 1928), whose long series object in itself and not merely an obstacle to the attainment of of social dramas—inspired originally by the early works of Ger- other objects. Many of the allies, however, had good reason to hardt Hauptmann—produced something of a masterpiece in Els fear for their own possessions, and others entered the alliance with Vells. For a time he fell under the influence of Maeterlinck (e.g., at least the hope of acquiring a few material gains at small exFocfollet, Cendres d'amor) and eventually turned to pure comedy, pense. On the side of the allies therefore, throughout the war, in Girassol. Adrián Gual is the author of several works of fancy there was a perpetual struggle between offensive activity and and originality, but his best work has been done as director of defensive passivity. Teatre Intim, an “art-theatre” in Barcelona, founded in 1898, The action of Louis XIV. in the matter of the Spanish succeswhich produced works of pioneer tendencies. Santiago Rusiñol, sion had been foreseen, and William III. of England devoted his a distinguished painter, achieved an unqualified success in a play last years to providing against the emergency by the formation with incidental music by Enric Morera, L’Alegria que passa, since of a coalition to deal with it, and the production of a claimant for when he has written a number of plays, including L’Herée, El the Spanish throne, the archduke Charles. The coalition naturally Mistic, El Indiano, etc. grew out of the Grand Alliance (see GRAND ALLIANCE, WAR OF The Catalan language is now used for valuable works in all THE), and consisted of Austria, some of the German states, Great branches of science and art, history and music. Linguistic studies Britain, Holland, Denmark and Portugal. On the other side Louis have received invaluable support from the Jmstitut d’Estudis XIV. was supported by Spain—where Philip, recognized as heir Catalans, with its fine library and numerous publications. by the dying Charles II., had been promptly installed—Bavaria BrBLiocRaPHy.—José Rodríguez, Biblioteca valentina (Valencia, and Cologne. A doubtful ally was the duke of Savoy, whose policy 1747); Vicente Ximeno, Escritores del reyno de Valencia (2 vols. was to secure and aggrandise himself by adhering at each moment Valencia, 1747-49) ; Justo Pastor Fuster, Biblioteca valenciana (2 vols., to the stronger party. Valencia, 1827—30); Felix Torres Amat, Memoiras para ayudar á Italy Chiari 1701.—The war began, to all intents and purformar un diccionario crítico de los escritores catalanes (Barcelona, poses, with the handing over of the fortresses in the Spanish 1836), with a supplement by J. Corominas (Burgos, 1849); F. R. Camboulin, Essai sur Vhistoire de la litterature catalane (Paris, 1858) ; Netherlands to the French in March 1701. England and Holland M. Milá y Fontanals, De los Trovadores en España (Barcelona, 1861), at once began their preparations, but neither state was able to put and studies included in his Obras completas; especially Romancerillo an army in the field in the year—England because her peace-time Catalan, Antichs poetes catalans, and Origenes del teatro catalan; army was absolutely insignificant, and Holland because she dared Churton’s Poetical Remains (1876) contain translations of traditional Catalan poems and ballads; E. Cardona, De la Antica literatura not act alone. In Italy, however, the emperor took the initiative, catalana (Naples, 1880) ; A. Morel-Fatio, “Katalanische Literatur,” in and an Austrian army under Prince Eugene, intended to overrun the 2nd volume of the Grundriss der romanischen Philologie, pt. ü. the Spanish possessions in the Peninsula, assembled in Tirol in

164

SPANISH

SUCCESSION

the early summer. The French army under Catinat blocked the defile of Rivoli, but Eugene reconnoitred passages over the mountains between Roveredo and the Vicenza district in neutral Venetian territory. On May 27, taking infinite precautions as to secrecy, and requesting the Venetian authorities to offer no opposition so long as his troops behaved well, Eugene began his march

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28th his army was on the plains. Catinat was surprised, for he had counted upon Venetian neutrality, and when, in the search for a passage over the lower Adige, Eugene’s army spread to Legnago and beyond, he made the mistake of supposing that the Austrians intended to invade the Spanish possessions south of the Po. He thinned out his line to cover all the front as far as that river. But Eugene found an unguarded spot. With the usual precautions of secrecy (deceiving even his own army), he crossed the lower Adige

in the night of July 8-9. Catinat at once concentrated his scattered army backwards on the Mincio, while Eugene turned northward and regained touch with his old line of supply, RoveredoRivoli. For some time Eugene was in great difficulties for supplies, as the Venetians would not allow his barges to descend the Adige. At last, however, he made his preparations to cross the

Besides the “lines of Brabant

Boufflers held all the Meuse fortresses below Huy except Maes. tricht. Marlborough concentrated 60,000 men (of whom 12,000 only were British) about Nijmwegen in June, and early in July

having made his preparations, he advanced directly by Hamont

on Diest. Boufflers hastily fell back, in order to regain the Brabant lines. Marlborough, with the positive object of bring. ing his opponent to battle at a disadvantage, won the race and

awaited the arrival of Boufflers’ tired army to strike it a paralysing

blow. But at the critical moment the Dutch deputies forbade the

battle, content to see the army that had threatened Holland with

invasion driven off to a safe distance without bloodshed (July 22), After this experience Marlborough thought it prudent to pacify the Dutch by besieging the Meuse fortresses, several of which fell jn rapid succession (September~October). Boufflers fell back with the defended area of the lines of Brabant, and the campaign

closed with the capture of Liége by the allies (Oct. 12). Marl. borough was created a duke on his return to England in November. He had checked the main enterprise of the French, and Mincio close to Peschiera and well beyond Catinat’s left. This every man in the army knew that but for the Dutch deputies the was executed on July 28. It seems that the marshal was well content to find that his opponent had no intention of attacking enemy would have been destroyed. _ Friedlingen.—On the Rhine the campaign was, except for the Spanish possessions in the Peninsula, at any rate he fell back two disconnected episodes, quite uneventful. The Imperialists quietly to the Oglio. But his army resented his retreat before the under a methodical general, the margrave Louis of Baden, much smaller force of the Austrians and, early in August, gathered ° his rival in the Neckar country and crossed the Rhine above Spire. Catinat, Tessé reported this to Paris, whereupon Marshal Villeroy, a now old and worn out, was sent to Strasbou rg to oppose the favourite of Louis, was sent to take command. The new com- threatened invasion of Alsace, and, like MacMah on in mander was the least competent of all the French senior officers. dared not assemble his whole force either on the Lauter 1870, he ; Ere long he attacked Eugene in a well entrenched position or on the at Chiari Ill. The margrave invested Landau (July 29) and with a covering (Sept. 1), and was thoroughly defeated, with a loss, it is said, of army occupied the lines of the Lauter about Weissenb urg, which | 3,000 to the Austrians’ 150. Catinat did not attack. Hence Landau, valiantly defended by As yet there was no declaration of war by either party. Prep- Melac, had to be surrendered on Sept. 12. But at the same time ` arations were made by both sides during the year, most vigor- the elector of Bavaria took the side of France, surprised Ulm, and ously of all by Louis, who set on foot no less than 450,000 regulars declared a local war on the house of Austria and embodied militia, and had always prided himsel and the “circles” of | f in the field. But the début was disheartening, and on being first Swabia and Franconia. The margrave then, in order to defend in the winter a his own country, hurried to Kehl with the fresh mishap befell the French. Eugene surpris greater part of his army, ed Cremona on the leaving a garrison in Landau and a corps of observation on the night of Feb. 1, 1702, and, after a confused fight, drew off, taking Lauter. To co-operate with the elector, Catinat had made up with him Villeroy as a prisoner. The rest of the French army corps out of every available battalion and squadron and placed tt thereupon retreated, while Eugene quietly resumed his winter under Lieut.-General Villars. This quarters and his blockade of Mantua. corps drew away into Upper Alsace and the margrave followed suit until the two armies Marlborough’s First Campaign.—Wi faced th the year 1702 the one another on opposite sides of the Rhine real struggle began. Villars and one or Huningen. Villars two others of Louis’s crossed the Rhine and won the first victorynear of his brilliant careet counsellors urged the king to concentrat e his attention on the at Friedlingen (opposite Huningen). Soon Rhine and the Danube, where, they afterwar ds he placed pointed out, was the centre his army in winter quarters in Alsace, and Louis of Baden ds of gravity of the coalition. This advic e was disregarded, and with posed his troops in two entrenched camps opposite Breisach and political aims, the largest French army was employed on the side Strasbourg respectively, In Italy Vendôme, superior in numbas of the Meuse, while the Rhine front was entrusted to smaller but handicapped by instructions forces acting on the defensive. In from Versailles and by the neces Italy the balance of power sity of looking to the Italian interests of King Philip, gained: remained unchanged, except that one of Louis’s best generals, few minor successes over Eugene. A very hard-fought and inde Vendéme, was sent to replace the captu red Villeroy. In the Low cisive battle took place at Luzzara on the Po on Aug. 15.

SOR Oe

bee Sheek

SPANISH

SUCCESSION

In the next two years Bavaria was the centre of gravity of the

French operations, and only campaigns of the methodical and non-committal kind were planned for Italy and the Low Countries.

In this year began the Camisard insurrection, in the Cevennes, which necessitated the detachment of a considerable body of troops from Vendéme’s army in Italy.

In the Netherlands the French field army was behind the lines

of Brabant, the Spanish troops in the lines of Flanders (AntwerpGhent-Aire). Together the two considerably outnumbered Marlborough (90,000 against 50,000), but the duke managed to be first in the field. After capturing Bonn in May, Marlborough’s plan was to break the immensely long line of defence of the French and Spaniards by the capture of Antwerp. One Dutch

corps under Coehoorn was to assemble in the Sluys-Hulst region, and another under Opdam at Bergen-op-Zoom while Marlborough, after manoeuvring Villeroy’s field army out of the way, was to join them before the fortress. Marlborough executed his own share of the movement with his usual skill, but the Dutch generals enabled the French to emerge from the manoeuvre with a handsome victory. Great projects were now enter-

tained by the French, nothing less than the capture of Vienna by a Franco-Bavarian-Hungarian army being the intention. The elector of Bavaria insisted that Villars should cross the Black Forest and join him, which Villars was unwilling to do thus early in the

year, as two-thirds of his officers were as usual on leave or de-

tached on recruiting duties. Courtier though he was, the marshal would not stir even in spite of the king’s orders until he was ready. At the end of April, leaving Tallard alone to defend Alsace against the margrave of Baden, Villars plunged into the defiles of the Black Forest and on May 8 joined the elector at Ebingen. All seemed favourable for the advance on Vienna, but at the last moment the elector half repented of his alliance with the enemies of Germany and proposed instead a junction with Vendéme in Italy by way of Tirol. This proposal came to nothing, the Tirolese were soon roused to revolt by the misconduct of the ill-disciplined Bavarians, and Vendéme, who, like Luxembourg, was a giant in battle and a sluggard in camp, would not stir. Hochstett, 1703.—Villars had posted a protective force at Ulm to contain the Margrave’s army should it turn back upon him, and this, after an engagement at Munderkingen (July 31) induced the cautious Louis to return to the Rhine. Five weeks later, however, the Margrave returned in full force, and moving by the right bank of the Danube reached Augsburg on Sept. 6. The elector, returning from his futile Tirol expedition, had already rejoined Villars at Dillingen, and the marshal persuaded him to attack the Austrian army that covered Vienna before the two imperial generals could join forces. The result was the battle of Hochstett (Sept. 20) in which the elector and Villars won a great victory, at a loss of only 1,000 men to the enemy’s 11,000. Rarely indeed had an 18thcentury general so great an opportunity of finishing a war at one blow. But even Villars saw no better use for the victory than the unimpeded junction of his own army and Tallard’s and winter quarters in Wiirttemberg. But Tallard remained on the Rhine, and Villars in disgust applied to be recalled. The Margrave, entrenched as usual, kept the field for another month and then retired to the Lake of Constance, where, in a still unexhausted district, he spent the winter. Tallard meanwhile invested Landau which surrendered on Nov. 12. Old Breisach, besieged by Vauban, capitulated on Sept. 6. Thus in Germany, though the grand advance on Vienna had come to nothing, the French had won important successes and established an army in Bavaria. In Italy, on the other hand, Vendéme, although no longer opposed by Eugene, achieved nothing. Rhine and Danube Campaign, 1704.—The campaign of 1704, though in the Low Countries and in Italy practically nothing was done, is memorable for what was perhaps the greatest strategical operation in the 18th century, Marlborough’s march to the Danube. At the outset the elector and Marsin (Villars’ successor)

were on the Iller, between Ulm and Memmingen, Tallard between Strasbourg and Landau, Villeroy as usual between the Brabant lines and the Meuse.

On the other side the Margrave Louis

was in the Stockach-Engen

region.

Responsible for guarding

165

the whole of the Middle Rhine as well as for opposing the elector he was weak everywhere, and his defence of the Rhine was practically limited to holding the “lines of Stollhofen,” a defensive position near Buhl in Baden. With Breisach and Kehl in their own hands, the French were more or less closely in touch with their comrades in Bavaria, and Tallard convoyed a large body of recruits for Marsin’s army through the Black Forest defiles. But in doing so he lost most of them by desertion, the Margrave’s army dogged his march, and in fact no regular line of communication was established. Marlborough’s purpose at any rate was quite definite—to transfer a large corps from the Low Countries to Bavaria and there in concert with the allies in that quarter to crush the elector decisively, but rather than be burdened with Dutch counsellors he chose to forgo the assistance of the Dutch troops. These were left under Overkirk to defend the Meuse, and English and English-paid troops alone took part in the venture. Marlborough’s Match to the Danube.—Marlborough calculated that as he progressed up the Rhine the French would collect to prevent his crossing, instead of themselves passing over to join the elector and Marsin. Thus the expedition would reach the Neckar mouth, without its true purpose being suspected, and once there Marlborough would vanish from the ken of the defenders of the Rhine, to reappear on the Danube where he was least expected. On May 12 the army crossed the Meuse at Ruremond, on the 23rd it reached Bonn, on the 29th Mainz. On June 1 the puzzled French noted preparations for bridging the Rhine at Philipsburg. But two days later the English had turned to their left into the valley of the Neckar. On June ro Prince Eugene and on the 13th the Margrave appeared at the duke’s headquarters to concert operations. It was arranged that the margrave was to join Marlborough and that Eugene should command the Stollhofen and other forces on the Rhine, for Tallard, it seemed, was about to be joined by Villeroy! and Marlborough knew that these marshals must be kept west of the Rhine for the six weeks he allowed himself for the Bavarian enterprise. The Margrave’s army duly joined Marlborough’s on June 22 at Ursprung, 12 m. north of Ulm, where the elector and Marsin were encamped. The endurance of Marlborough’s corps, as displayed in the long march from Ruremond, was not the least extraordinary feature of the operation. For 18thcentury troops such performances were generally provocative of desertion, and involved the ruin of the army that attempted it. But Prince Eugene, we are told, was astonished at the fine condition of the army. On the French side meantime all was perplexity, and it was not until a week after the Margrave and Marlborough had joined, that Villeroy’s main body from the Meuse started for Alsace to watch Eugene’s corps, or rather the Stollhofen-

Buhl position. This meant conceding both the initiative and the superiority in numbers to Marlborough. Campaign on the Danube, 1704.—The duke had now manoeuvred himself with brilliant success from one theatre of war to another, and had secured every advantage to himself. From before Ulm he sidled gradually along the north side of the Danube in the hope of finding an unguarded passage. He and the Margrave exercised the general command on alternate days, and when on his own day he arrived opposite Donauwörth, knowing Louis’s caution, he thought that direct attack was better than another two days’ extension to the east. Moreover he needed a walled town to serve as a magazine. In the late afternoon of July 2 the army was flung, regardless of losses, against the entrenched hill of the Schellenberg at Donauwörth, where the elector had posted a strong detachment. The attack cost 6,coo men, but it was successful, and of the 12,000 Bavarians on the hill only 3,000 returned to their main body, which had now moved from Ulm to Lauingen. Passing the-river, the allies besieged and took

the small fortress of Rain, and thence moved to the neighbourhood of Augsburg, thoroughly and deliberately devastating the countryside so as to force the elector to make terms. The best that can be said of this barbarous device, is that Louis XVI. had several times practised it. Its most effective condemnation is that military devastations, in these purely political contests, were entirely 1Even Villeroy it appears rose to the situation thus far, but the king only allowed him to send 25,000 men to Tallard... -

166

SPANISH

SUCCESSION

unprofitable. Louis had already found them so, and had given up the practice. In the present case Marlborough’s own supplies ran short, and his convoys were harassed. The movements of the two armies were but trifling. Marlborough, though superior, was not decisively superior, and his opponents, well entrenched near Augs-

burg, waited for Tallard and (in vain) for Villeroy. Marlborough marked time until Eugene should join him. There were now five armies in the field, two allied and three French. The centre of gravity was therefore in Villeroy’s camp. If that marshal followed Tallard, even Eugene’s junction with Marlborough would not give the latter enough force. If Tallard alone joined the elector and Eugene Marlborough, the game was in the hands of the allies. But none of the possible combinations of two armies against one were attempted by either side. Eugene when informed that Tallard was on the move slipped away from Villeroy to join Marlborough. Tallard and the elector, aware of Eugene’s march, were content to join forces peaceably at Augsburg. Villeroy, in whose hands was the key of the situation, hesitated and finally tried in vain to detain Eugene (who was already far away) in the Stollhofen lines. The last stage of the campaign was brief. Marlborough and Eugene had in mind a battle, Tallard and Marsin a war of manoeuvre to occupy the few weeks now to be spun out before winter quarters were due. The two allied armies met in the Danube valley on Aug. 6. If the enemy remained on the south side Eugene was to cross, if they recrossed to the north bank Marlborough was to follow suit. The margrave Louis of Baden had been sent off to besiege Ingolstadt as soon as Eugene had come within a safe distance. When therefore the French and Bavarians were reported opposite Eugene on the north side, Marl-

borough crossed at once, and without waiting for the margrave the two great soldiers went forward. On Aug. 2 (see BLENHEIM) they attacked and practically destroyed the armies of Tallard, Marsin and the elector.

Campaign of 1705—The and of little profit to either turned to the Low Countries. bant and retaken Huy. With Bavaria. On July 18, after a

campaign of 1705 was uneventful side. Marlborough’s army had reVilleroy had also returned to Brahim was the now exiled elector of series of skilful manoeuvres, Marl-

borough forced the lines of Brabant at Elissem near Tirlemont, but

not even the glory of Blenheim could induce the Dutch deputies to

give him a free hand, or the Dutch generals to fall in with his

schemes. King Louis was thus able to reinforce Villeroy betimes from Villars’s Lorraine army, and the campaign closed with no better work than the razing of the captured French entrenchments. On the Rhine Villars, with a force reduced to impotence, carried on a spiritless campaign against the Margrave Louis. In Italy

there was serious fighting. Here Venddme’s army engaged in the attempt to subdue Victor Amadeus of Savoy and was so far

successful that the duke implored the emperor for aid. Eugene

was sent with new reinforcements, opposed to which was a force

under Vendéme’s brother Philippe, called the Grand Prior. This

man, a lazy dilettante, let himself be surprised by Eugene’s fierce attack on the line of the Adda. The day was restored however,

and the Austrians beaten off, thanks to Vendéme’s opportune

arrival and dauntless courage (battle of Cassano, August 16). Nevertheless, the subjugation of Piedmont was put off until the

next year.

Ramillies, 1706.—1706 was a bad year for the French. At the very outset of the campaign in the Netherlands, Vuleroy, hearing that some of the allied contingents that composed Marlborough’s army had refused to join, ventured out from his new defensive lines along the Dyle and moved towards Namur. Marlborough hurried forward to intercept him before he could reach the shelter of the Meuse fortresses and was able (May 12) not only to win but also to profit by the glorious victory of Ramillies (g.v.) on

the r2th of May.

A

4Fi

4

attacked the Imperialists’ camps. His onset broke up the defeng | completely

(battle of Calcinato,

April

19), and

he hustle

the fragments of the Imperialist army back into the mountains

where Eugene had the greatest difficulty in rallying them. Uni

the middle of June Vendôme completely baffled all attempts of

Eugene to slip past him into Piedmont.

He was then, however,

recalled to supersede Villeroy in Belgium, and his feeble successor entirely failed to rise to the occasion. Philip of Orleans, with Marsin, was besieging Turin.

As soon as he knew of Vendôme’

departure Prince Eugene emerged afresh from the mountains, and out-manoeuvring the French in Lombardy, hurried towards Turip,

Victor Amadeus, leaving the defence to the Austrian and Pied. montese infantry, escaped through the besiegers’ lines and joined his cousin with a large force of cavalry. On Sept. 7 they attacked the French lines round Turin. Owing to the disagreements of their generals, the various corps of the defenders, though superior ip

total numbers, were beaten in detail.

Marsin was killed and

Orleans retreated ignominiously to Pinerolo.

The battle of Turin

practically ended the war in Italy. | Both in the north and in the south the tide had now receded to the frontiers of France itself. But it is from this very point that the French operations cease (though only gradually it js true) to be the ill-defined and badly-joined patchwork of forays | and cordons that they had hitherto been. In the place of Tal-

lards, Marsins and Villeroys Louis made up his mind to put his Villars, Vendémes and Berwicks, and above all the approach _ of the allied armies roused in the French nation itself a spirit

of national defence which bears at least a faint resemblance to the great uprisings of 1792. For the gathering of this unexpected moral force 1707 afforded a year of respite. Marshal Tessé formed a strong army for the defence of the Alpine frontier, In Germany Villars not only pricked the bubble reputation of the lines of Stollhofen, but raided into Bavaria, penetrating as far as Blenheim battlefield before he gave up the attempt to rouse the Bavarians again. The Imperialists and Piedmontese in the south succeeded in turning the Alpine barrier, but they were brought to a complete standstill by Tessé’s gallant defence of Toulon (August) and finally retired over the mountains. In Belgium the elector of Bavaria, who was viceroy there for King Philip, and was seconded by Vendéme, remained quiescent about Mons and Gembloux, while Marlborough, paralysed more completely than ever before by the Dutch, spent the summer inactive in camp on the Gheete. Campaign of 1708.—In 1708 Eugene foresaw this shift of the centre of gravity and arranged with Marlborough to transfer hi army which was ostensibly destined for the Rhine campaign to Brabant, since the French was markedly superior in numbers to Marlborough’s and hardly inferior to Marlborough’s and Eugene's combined. King Louis had put his young grandson and heir, the duke of Burgundy, at the head of the great army which assembled at Valenciennes, and gave him Vendéme as mentor But the prince was pious, mild-mannered, unambitious of military glory and also obstinate, and to unite him with the fiery, looseliving and daring Vendôme, was, as Saint-Simon says, ‘‘mixing fre and water.” At the end of May Vendôme advanced to er gage Marlborough before Eugene should join him. As the Frend came on towards Brussels, Marlborough, who had concentrated at Hal, fell back by a forced march to Louvain. Vendôme having thus won the first move, there was a pause and then the French suddenly swung round to the west, and began to overrun Flanders,

where their agents had already won over many of the officials who had been installed by the allies since 1706. Ghent and Bruges surrendered at once, and to regain for King Philip all the country west of the Scheldt it only remained to take Oudenarde. On the

day of the surrender of Ghent Marlborough was moving to inter. pose himself between the French and their frontier, and one long forced march brought his army almost within striking distance 0 the enemy. But though Eugene himself had joined him, Eugene’

In Italy the campaign had, as before, two branches, the contest for Piedmont and the contest between the French forces in Lombardy and the Austrian second army that sought to join Victor army was still far behind. Vendôme soon moved on Oudenarte Amadeus and Starhemberg. The latter, repulsed by Vendéme at But scarcely had he begun this investment when Marlborough wa Cassano, had retired to Brescia and Lake Garda, Vendéme folupon him. lowed, and in April 1706, profiting by Eugene’s temporary absence, Oudenarde.—The duke discussed the situation with Eugene

SPANISH

SUCCESSION

Marlborough was half inclined to wait for Eugene’s troops, for he knew that Vendôme was no ordinary opponent, but Eugene counselled immediate action lest the French should escape, and

relying on his own skill and on the well-known disunion in the French headquarters, Marlborough went forward. As he ap-

167

time, had only enough energy remaining to take Mons before he retired into winter quarters. The loss of the French is given variously as 7,000 and 12,000. The allies sacrificed no less, probably more, than 20,000 men.

Campaign of 1710.—In 1710 Villars lay entrenched behind a

proached, the enemy gave up the siege of Oudenarde and took up a position at Gavre, 7 m. lower down the Scheldt. Here the dis-

new series of lines, which he called Ne plus ultra and which extended from Valenciennes to the sea. Marlborough made no at-

sensions in the French headquarters became flagrant. Vendéme began to place part of the army in position along the river while the duke of Burgundy was posting the rest much farther back as another line of defence. The allied main body, marching with

tempt to invade France from the side of Mons, for Villars at the head of the army which had been through the ordeal of Malplaquet was too terrible an opponent to pass by with impunity. In England, too, the anti-Marlborough party was gaining the upper hand in the queen’s council. So Marlborough took no risks, and returning to the Lille side, captured Douai (June 26) and Béthune

all speed, crossed the Scheldt at all hazards. In the encounterbattle which followed (see OupENaRDE) Marlborough separated, cut off and destroyed the French right wing. The French retreated in disorder on Ghent (July 11) with a loss of 15,000 men. Marlborough was prevented from carrying out his desire for a

prompt move on Paris after Oudenarde. For the moment Berwick, recalled from Alsace, manoeuvred about Douay, while Vendôme

remained near Ghent, and between them Marlborough’s and Eu-

gene’s armies devoted themselves to the siege of Lille. In this town, one of Vauban’s masterpieces of fortification, the old Marshal Boufflers had undertaken the defence, and it offered a long and unusually gallant resistance to Eugene’s army. Marlborough covered the siege. The French generals limited their efforts first to attempting to intercept a huge convoy of artillery

and stores that the allies brought up from Brussels for the siege, and secondly to destroy another convoy that was brought up from Ostend by the General Webb known to readers of Esmond. The futile attack upon the second convoy is known as the action of

Wynendael (Sept. 28). On Dec. 8 the brave old marshal surrendered, Eugene complimenting him by allowing him to dictate the terms of capitulation. Ghent and Bruges were retaken by the allies without difficulty, and, to add to the disasters of Oudenarde and Lille, a terrible winter almost completed the ruin of France. In despair Louis negotiated for peace, but the coalition offered such hard terms that not only the king, but his people also, resolved to fight to the end. 1709, Malplaquet.—When spring came round Marlborough proposed to make a daring thrust toward Paris, masking the fortresses, but this scheme was too bold even for Eugene, who preferred to reduce the strong places before going on. Lille having been successfully besieged, Tournai was the next objective, and the allies suddenly and secretly left their camps before Lille as if for an attack on the Douai lines (June 26-27). But before noon on the 27th they had invested Tournai. A few days afterwards their siege guns came up from Menin by water (down the Lys and up the Scheldt) and the siege was pressed with intense vigour. Rut it was Sept. 3 before the citadel capitulated. Then Marlborough, free to move again, transferred his army secretly and by degrees to the river Haine, and burst, through the French lines almost unopposed. Mons was weakly held, and Marlborough hoped by the rapidity of his operations to take it before Villars could interrupt him. But Villars also moved quickly, and his eager army was roused to enthusiasm by the arrival of Boufflers, who, senior as he was to Villars, had come forward again at the moment of danger to serve as his second in command. Thinking that the allies were somewhat farther to the east than they were in fact, the French marshal marched secretly, screened by the broken and wooded ground, to the south of the fortress, and occupied the gap of Aulnois-Malplaquet (Sept. 9) to work feverishly to entrench himself. Marlborough at once giving up the siege of Mons brought his army forward to attack as rapidly as his brigades came on the scene. At this crisis the duke submitted the question of battle— unwillingly, as one may imagine—to a council of war, and Eugene himself was opposed to fighting an improvised battle when so much was at stake, and it was not until the rrth that the duke delivered his attack on the now thoroughly entrenched position

of the French. The battle of Malplaquet (q.v.) was by far the most desperately contested of the war. In the end Boufflers, who took command when Villars was wounded, acknowledged defeat and drew off in good order. Eugene was wounded, and Marlborough, after the most terrible experience in any soldier’s life-

(Aug. 26). No attack was attempted upon the lines. In Dauphiné, Berwick repulsed the Austrians and Piedmontese. The year 1711 was Marlborough’s last campaign, and it was remarkable for the capture of the Ne plus ultra lines by manoeuvres that must be recorded as being the ne plus ultra of the 18th century way of making war by stratagem. In May the sudden death of the emperor completely altered the political outlook, for his successor Charles was the coalition’s claimant to the throne of Spain, and those who were fighting for the “Balance of Power” could no more tolerate a new Charles V. than they could see Louis XIV. become a Charlemagne. In accordance with a strategic policy of passive endurance the marshal Villars remained on the defensive behind his lines, and Marlborough determined to dislodge him. What force could not achieve, the duke trusted to obtain by ruse. The lines extended from the sea along the Canche, thence to Arras, and along the Sensée to Bouchain on the Scheldt. As the western part of the lines, besides being strong, were worthless from the invaders’ point of view because their capture could not lead to anything, Marlborough determined to pass the barrier between Arras and Bouchain. On July 6 Marlborough marched away to the west, as if to attack the lines between Arras and the headwaters of the Canche. Villars followed suit. The plot of the comedy now thickened. Marlborough lost his usual serenity, and behaved in so eccentric a manner that his own army thought him mad. He sent off one part of his forces to Béthune, another back to Douai, and ordered the small remainder to attack the lines between the Canche and Arras, where, as every one knew, Villars’s whole army was massed. In the night of Aug. 4-5 the main army slipped off westward, at the highest possible speed. The Scarpe was crossed and then the pace was increased, though thousands of the infantry Fell out and scores died from exhaustion. Five hours ahead of the French army the allies crossed the great lines unresisted. The troops concentrated at Cambrai when Marlborough, declining Villars’s offer of a battle, manoeuvred still farther to the east and invested Bouchain. The siege, covered by a strong “line of circumvallation” which Villars did not attempt to attack, ended with the surrender of the place on Sept. 13, and so terminated a series of manoeuvres so extraordinary as to be almost incredible. In December Marlborough was dismissed the service in disgrace. But Holland and Austria determined to make one last effort to impose their own terms on Louis. Eugene’s army, which had been used in 1711 to influence the imperial election instead of to beat Villars, was brought back to the Low Countries. Reading the meaning of Marlborough’s fall, he quietly made preparations to take over the various allied contingents into Imperial or Dutch pay. So when England seceded, Ormonde only marched away with 12,000 sullen men, while 100,000 remained with the prince. Misfortunes at Versailles helped Eugene in his first operations, for two successive heirs apparent to the crown died within a month and all was in confusion, not to speak of the terrible misery that prevailed in the country. But the old king’s courage rose with the danger and he told Villars that if the army were beaten he would himself join it and share in its fate. Villars, though suffering still from his Malplaquet wound, took command on April 20, and spun out time on the defensive until the end of May, when Ormonde’s contingent withdrew. Eugene, as the defection of England had made further operations near the sea unprofitable, took Le Ques-

noy (July 4) and moved thence on to Landrecies, which was

closely invested.

SUCCESSION

SPANISH

168

Then followed the last serious fight of the war,

the battle of Denain, which saved the French monarchy completed the disintegration of the coalition.

and

monde’s

troops were landed

to attack the forts, while Rook

pushed forward a special advance squadron and forced the boom which the French had laid across the entrance to the inner har.

bour (Oct. 12, 1702). In the furious engagement which followed Rooke sank and captured the 24 French warships and the ly with on circumvallati of lines usual the constructed Eugene Prince such speed that Villars, on coming up, found that they were too Spanish galleons, and recovered bullion worth two million pound; Portugal Joins Allies——In 1703 Portugal joined the Allies formidable to attack. Villars anxiously looked out for an opportunity of breaking through. At Denain, the besiegers’ route so that Lisbon could be used as a naval base, but Admiral Clowd. crossed the Scheldt and he resolved to attack them there. The isley Shovell was sent to the Mediterranean too late to achieve enterprise, like Marlborough’s forcing of the Ne plus ultra lines, any object, and many of his ships on their return were destroyed involved an extraordinary combination of force and fraud—for in the Channel during the great storm of Nov. 27. Great efforts the point of attack was far away and the opposing army almost were made in 1704 to bring about something decisive. Rooke | within cannon-shot. Some days were spent by Villars in deceiv- sailed in February and landed the Archduke Charles at Lisbon, ing Eugene and his own army as well, as to his real intentions. together with 2,000 English and Dutch troops to co-operate with Then on the night of July 23 the French army moved off silently, the Portuguese in an invasion of Spain. Rooke carried his fleet through the Straits, hoping to be able and by 9 A.M. on the 24th had completely deployed on the north bank of the Scheldt. Eugene galloped away to bring up his army to make an attack on Toulon in concert with the duke of Savoy, from Landrecies. But, long before it arrived, Villars’s troops who had recently joined the alliance. This, in conjunction with stormed the lines. A mass of Dutch troops—spiritless since Mal- Marlborough’s march across Germany to Blenheim, would have plaquet—were huddled into the narrow avenue between the two been a fine counterstroke to the French thrust at Vienna, but as entrenchments and forced back against a broken bridge. Their often happened afterwards, Savoy failed to co-operate. An at. generals were taken. The broken mob of fugitives tamely sur- tempt was made to win over Barcelona to the archduke’s cause, | rendered. Eugene arrived on the other bank with some brigades but the governor refused to admit the allied forces. Meanwhile, of the imperial infantry, but failed to reopen the passage. Villars the Comte de Toulouse succeeded in bringing the French Brest followed up his victory at once, capturing Marchiennes and St. fleet into the Mediterranean and though Rooke sighted him, his Amand, and in these places all Eugene’s reserve stores, pontoons ships were too foul to catch the French, who entered Toulon w.and guns. On Aug. 2 Eugene broke up the siege of Landrecies and opposed, and so united their principal Atlantic and Mediterranean retreated by a roundabout route to Mons, while Villars’s lieuten- forces. Rooke therefore passed the Straits and met Shovell and ants retook Douai and Bouchain (September—-October). Before the Dutch between Cape St. Vincent and Cadiz, and then re. ‘ the next campaign opened the treaty of Utrecht had been signed, entered the Mediterranean to watch for the French. Gibraltar Taken by Allies.—At this juncture the allied and although the emperor continued the struggle alone for another year, the enfeebled combatants were content to accept Villars’s leaders took the memorable decision to capture Gibraltar and so captures of Landau (July 22, 1713) and Freiburg (Nov. 21) as advance their sphere of activity 300 miles beyond Lisbon. After — decisive. The treaty of Rastatt, between Austria and France, was lengthy preparations the attack was begun by Admiral George signed on March 7, 1714, Eugene and Villars being the negotiators. Byng, who bombarded the fortress with a special squadron on See J. W. Fortescue, Hist. British Army, vol. i. (London, 1899); July 23 (1704), while Prince George of Hesse-Darmstadt, the

Denain.—In order to protect his camps around Landrecies,

lives of Marlborough (especially Frank Taylor’s) ; the Austrian official Feldsiige des Prinzen Eugen (Vienna, 1871-1892) ; Roder v. Diersburg’s Markgraf Ludwig von Baden (Karlsruhe, 1850); Arneth’s Pring Eugen; Mémoires militaires relatifs & la succession d’Espagne (1835; ed. De Vault) ; detailed histories of the French army, and monographs

in the French general staff’s Revue d’histotre.

(X.)

Imperial representative, landed 1,800 English marines and cut off the fortress on the land side. Gibraltar being only weakly held an attacking force was soon landed from the ships, and the place surrendered next day.

l

Hardly was this great success achieved than Toulouse was reported sailing south-west to recapture the fortress. Rooke left NAVAL OPERATIONS AND MILITARY OPERATIONS IN Prince George and goo marines in Gibraltar and went in search — SPAIN of Toulouse, having had to spend some time watering his fleet at The great campaigns fought in the Rhine delta and in North Tetuan. On Aug. 9 the fleets were in sight of each other, but the Italy, often tend to obscure the fact that the principal objective French retreated and then attempted to double back again close of both sides during the war was Spain. The French could reach inshore. Rooke, however, sighted them slipping past and brought | the theatre of operations quite easily by land, but the Austrian them to action off Malaga on Aug. 13, each side having about so Imperialists had to rely entirely on Anglo-Dutch fleets to make ships of the line. The French were decisively beaten. . their efforts effective. On the formation of the Grand Alliance, The allies returned to Lisbon to refit, leaving Prince George considerable difference of opinion arose as to how the English with all the marines and some ships, guns and stores to defend fleet should be used, William III. and Marlborough being in Gibraltar. He was soon attacked by land and sea in overwhelmfavour of a concentration in the Mediterranean, while many of the ing force, but was relieved by Admiral Leake, who arrived from sailors advocated oceanic operations on the Atlantic coast of Spain Lisbon where he had been left in command by Rooke, who had ` and Portugal, and on the east coast of America. gone home. Entering the bay on Oct. 25, the day on which the Allied Victory at Cadiz—Admiral Sir George Rooke was final attack was to take place, he destroyed the French flotilli, put in command of the combined fleet, consisting of 30 English enfiladed the Franco-Spanish entrenchments on shore, and re ' ships of the line, and 20 Dutch under Admiral van Almonde, and victualled and reinforced the garrison. The French now sent carrying 13,000 English and Dutch troops under the Duke of Marshal Tessé with a siege train to command Ormonde. Rooke was instructed to seize Cadiz as a base for and Prince George was again hard pressed, the attack by land, but Leake again refuture operations in the Mediterranean. Inevitable complications, inforced and revictualled him in December. At last, on March 10, ` however, arose. It was judged inexpedient to compel the Spaniards 1705, Leake destroyed de Pointis’ force at Marbella, and Tess¢ | to acknowledge the Archduke Charles as their rightful king, by raised the siege. 3 means of a bombardment, and they, being not unnaturally someAllies Invade Spain—The Allies now took the offensive, . what backward in receiving the candidature of an Austrian Prince, Shovell and Lord Peterborough coming out from England as joint lent no support to the Anglo-Dutch arms. Consequently the at- commanders. Picking up Leake at Lisbon and Prince George at tempt on Cadiz could not be pushed too vigorously and may be Gibraltar, they sailed said to have failed. Rooke was already steering north again when captured and occupiedto Barçelona and besieged it. It was finaly on Oct. 3, 1705; but Prince George was he learnt that the Spanish treasure fleet had entered Vigo Bay, killed during the assault. Philip, the Bourbon candidate, hurried protected by Admiral Chateaurenault with a French squadron. to Catalonia with Marshal Tessé to recapture it, and a squadron The Allies at once determined to prevent the French obtaining the put out from Toulon. Leake, however, was able to foil all ‘the treasure by capturing it themselves, and, entering the bay, Or- French efforts and forced them to raise the siege on April 30, 1706. 2

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FROM SIEGBAHN,

AG-EDGE

“SPEKTROSKOPIE

FIG. 6.—SPECTRUM CATHODE

FROM

DER

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L-G ROUP

RONTGENSTRAHLEN”

ANTI-

and many other applications of the X-rays. This part of the X-ray spectrum shows qualitatively no dependence on the radi-

ating substance, the intensity only being different from various

FROM

SItEGBAHN,

“SPEKTROSKOPIE

DER

RONTGENSTRAHLEN”

the quantum theory as follows.

The line-spectra on the other hand are characteristic of the emitting substance. They correspond to the K- and L-radiation of Barkla, but analysis has shown that each of these radiations consists of a group of monochromatic spectral-lines. In addition to the emission-spectrum of X-rays there is also

between the cathode from the former to electron is suddenly energy is given off as y and containing the

analogous

to the absorption-spectra

of

(SPRINGER)

FIG. 7.—INTENSITY DISTRIBUTION OF THE CONTINUOUS FROM A TUNGSTEN ANTICATHODE AT VARIOUS VOLTAGES

anticathodes.

an absorption-spectrum

oy ee

d

chromatic rays overlapping the former (see fig. 5). The first mentioned radiation corresponds to the “white” light of ordinary optics, whereas the second is analogous to the line-spectra. The

K-GROUP

a py

MEES Aee a HHH Aa y AI COCA REE ee L EN AENG bY ee ee ie coer AREN

emitted from an arbitrary substance is built up of two kinds of radiation, one of which shows a continuous distribution over a wide range of wave-lengths, the other consisting of a few mono-

DIRECT RAY

(3)

where the wave-length is expressed in A.U. (10% cm.) and V in

5

very high output of energy. Further a small window of aluminium

Different Kinds

(2)

where e is the charge of the electron, V the tension on the tube, and k= Planck’s constant. If the numerical figures of e and A are introduced the equation may be written

CONTINUOUS SPECTRUM

FIG.

=

RADIATION

When the potential is appliea

and the anticathode an electron on passing the latter acquires the energy: eV. If the brought to rest at the anticathode this an electromagnetic wave with the frequency energy ky, which gives hy=eV

198

SPECTROSCOPY,

which corresponds to the above equation (2) for the maximum frequency. Generally the electron before being completely stopped will suffer several collisions and will send out smaller amounts of energy or waves of smaller frequencies. The total amount of energy, that is, the integral energy included by the distribution-curves in fig. 7, has also been measured by many investigators. As the result of these researches it can be stated that the total energy is proportional to the square of the voltage on the tube.

X-RAY

reach outside the glass-walls. In the diagram in fig. 9g, only the small portion between the vertical lines o and r À.U. in cludes the radiation given off by the technical X-ray tube. Hence for the study of X-ray spectra, one is confined to the use of tubes with thin foils as windows and spectrometers built for vacuum, The Absorption Spectra.—As already mentioned the absorption spectra, obtained by putting a screen of the substance between l4 À 10°8cy

Secondly it has been found (by G. W. C. Kaye and others) that for different elements used as anticathode the total radiation is proportional to the atomic number of the element. Already in the early days of X-ray technique it was found advantageous to use heavy elements as anticathodic materials for the medical X-ray tubes, an observation which is in agreement with the last general law. The Line-spectra.—tIn 1913 and 1914 the young English physicist H. G. J. Moseley published two very remarkable papers in the Philosophical Magazine entitled “The High-frequency Ii

spectra of the elements.’

The

i

two papers contain the first announcement of the birth of a new branch of optics. Moseley

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regular way than is generally the |f case in the spectra which had |" previously been studied. FROM PHILOSOPHICAL MAG, 1913, SER. 6, 26, PL XXIII (TAYLOR AND FRANCIS, Two groups of spectral-lines VOL. LONDON) were found. One of these groups FIG. 8.—THE K-SERIES OF THE was

identified with the K-series

ELEMENTS Ca TO Cu, AND OF BRASS

of Barkla; the other, of longer (C% 2) wave-length and of more complex structure, corresponds to the L-series. Fig. 8 is a reproduction from Mboseley’s paper of spectra of successive elements from Ca (atomic number 20) to Zn (30). It shows in the most beautiful way how regularly the spectra—in this case the K-group—repeat themselves from one element to the next. With increasing atomic number (here from 20 to 30) of the emitting element the line-group is displaced in regular steps towards the shorter wave-length. This rule is not confined only to these elements and this group, but is universally confirmed by all X-ray spectra. In 1916 M. Siegbahn discovered a new series of still greater wave-lengths called the M-series. The existence of series outside the K- and L-group had already been suspected earlier by reasons of analogy. In the later development of X-ray spectroscopy some indications of still other series, N, O, etc., have been traced, but further experimental work is needed to prove its existence. A general scheme of the X-ray spectra is given in the diagram fig. 9 which contains the strongest lines of the three groups K, L

and M at every third element from Na (11) to U (92). The diagram shows how all three series are regularly displaced to longer wave-lengths as one proceeds from the heavier elements to the lighter. If the spectrum of some special element, say Tungsten, a material commonly used for the anticathode, is considered, it will be seen that there are big gaps between the three groups where no lines are to be found. This fact is of predominant importance in interpreting the spectra in their relation to the structure of the atom. As to the structure of the different groups it may be mentioned

that the K-group generally consists of 4 lines (a,0,8,8,) the L-

group of more than 20 lines (the strongest lines designated by Oe, BiBoB3 +++, YiYa -e ) and finally the M-group of about 20 lines, Most of the X-ray spectra consists of a very easily absorbe d

radiation so that in using an ordinary X-ray tube they will not

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FROM SIEGBAHN, “SPEKTROSKOPIE DER RONTGENSTRAHLEN” (SPRINGER) FIG. 9.—DIAGRAM SHOWING THE STRONGEST LINES OF X-RAY SERIES FOR EVERY THIRD ELEMENT

lo THE

SEVERAL

the X-ray source and the spectral plate, usually have the appearance of a sudden, sharp drop in the blackening of the plate. The study of these spectra has shown that there is always one absorption-edge in the region of wave-lengths where the K-group of the same element is located. In the region of the L-group ABSORPTION SPECTRUM

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EMISSION SPECTRUM

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FROM SIEGBAHN, “SPEKTROSKOPLE DER RONTGENSTRAHLEN” (SPRINGER) FIG, 10.—DIAGRAM OF THE ABSORPTION AND THE EMISSION SPECTRUM SHOWING THE RELATIVE POSITIONS OF’ DISCONTINUITIES AND LINES

there are three absorption-edges and finally in the domain of the M-group experiments have revealed five edges. As to the K-absorption-edges the measurements of their wavelengths show that they have, if not exactly, very nearly, the same values as those of the line with the shortest wave-lengths within the K-group. How the three absorption-edges of the L-group are located

relative to the L-emission-lines is shown in figure ro. As seen from this diagram, here also the edge with the shortest wavelength agrees with the shortest emission-line. It is reasonable to

SPECTROSCOPY, X-RAY suppose that the L-group may be divided in three sub-groups of

.

fluous energy being sent out as an X-ray wave.

199 In this way we

lines of which every one is related to one of the three edges as

understand the emission of, for instance, the K-line in the fol-

is the case in the K-group. A numerical analysis of the material strongly supports this view as will be stated later. Analogous results concerning the five edges within the M-

by absorption of energy been removed, its place is taken up by an electron from the L-shell, accompanied by emission of the K-

group indicate the existence of five sub-groups in this series. Connection Between Emission- and Absorption-spectra. —As soon as reliable measurements of the two kinds of X-ray spectra, line- and absorption-spectra, had been performed it was

immediately clear that there existed a very intimate relation between them. If the frequencies of the absorption-edges are indicated by K for the one absorption-edge within the K-group

lowing manner.

One of the electrons belonging to the K-shell has

a-line. As after this process there is an empty place in the L-shell

this may again be filled say by an M-electron with emission of an L-line and so on. It is immediately seen that this picture of the absorption and emission-process is in conformity with the connection between the two kinds of spectra discussed in the preceding paragraph. As to the structure of the electronic shells of the atoms some general conclusion may be drawn from the empirical knowledge

of the X-ray spectra, which, as just mentioned, may be interpreted as coming from the different layers of the electronic M; Ma Mm My My for the five absorption-edges within the M-group atmosphere of the atom. it is found that the differences between some of these values give First the fact that the X-ray spectra of all the elements show a exactly the frequencies of some of the emission-lines. For in- very big resemblance to each other and change from element to stance the differences K—Ly and K—Lyr give the values of the element mainly by moving toward higher frequencies must mean frequencies of the two strongest lines of the K-group namely that the general structure of the electronic layers within the atom Ka, and Kaz. On calculating the difference between some of the is the same for all elements. The increasing of the frequencies above M-values and the K-value other lines belonging to the K- is readily understood by the increasing positive charge of the nucleus and the accompanying strengthening of the attractive group are obtained. In the same way a difference between Ly, Ly and Lm with some forces acting on the electrons. secondly the appearance of the distinct and widely separated of the values of the higher absorption-edges (M1 Mn - - -) gives groups: K, L, M . . . indicates that the electronic atmosphere of emission-lines of the L-group. Now these connections between the absorption and emission-spectra allow an extension which the atom consists of distinct layers or shells with decreasing seems highly probable. The frequencies obtained by calculating energy-contents beginning with the innermost shell, the K-shell the difference between the three L-values and the M-values followed by the L-shell, the M-shell and so on. Thirdly all these shells or groups of electrons (except the include only part of the L-emission-lines, but supposing the existence of higher absorption-frequencies Nr Nn Nin --- Or: :- K-group) are divided into sub-groups as indicated by the existence of suitable frequencies the remaining L-lines may be accounted of more than one absorption-edge or energy-level within every for as differences between absorption-frequencies. The existence main group. Further information regarding the structure of the atom is of these higher absorption edges has not as yet been directly experimentally proved but they are strongly supported by the fact obtained by considering the completeness or rather lack of comthat also lines of the M-group may be calculated from them in pleteness of the X-ray spectra of the different elements. If one starts with the heaviest element, uranium (with atomic number the same way as were the L-lines. If this hypothesis is right we should expect that there are for 92) and proceeds towards the lightest elements it is found that the heaviest elements seven absorption-edges, five O and prob- successively and systematically a number of spectral lines (and consequently also absorption-edges) vanish. That means the ably three P-edges. Now it may be added that not all the numerical differences successive peeling off of electronic shells whereby the number of between two arbitrary absorption-values correspond to emission- possible transitions between the groups is reduced. The remainlines. Some of these ‘‘calculated” lines for some reason or other do ing lines and edges of every atom consequently show directly the not exist; they belong to what are called “forbidden” transitions. number of layers and furnish us with a means of mapping out Physical Interpretation of the X-ray Line-spectra and the electronic structure of the different elements. If we confine the Structure of the Atom.—According to the Bohr-Ruther- ourselves to the inert gases the empirical study of the X-ray ford hypothesis the atoms are built up of a positive nucleus of spectra suggests the existence of the following shells filled with a comparatively small dimensions which is surrounded by a number number of electrons as given in the table on p. 200. X-ray Spectra and Chemical Constitution.—The most of electrons. If this general picture of the atom is accepted the A-ray spectra furnishes us with a lot of valuable information striking difference between the ordinary optical spectra and the regarding the feature of the electronic part of the atom. Then X-ray spectra is the fact that the former show a marked resemplausible calculations show that the X-ray series of highest fre- blance between elements with same chemical character and change quencies, the K-series, must be ascribed to those electrons which considerably from one group of chemically analogous elements form the innermost part of the electronic atmosphere of the to another whereas in the X-ray spectra no indication of the atom. The higher series consequently correspond to successive chemical nature of the elements is to be found. This is readily electronic transitions outwards to the surface-layers of the atom, understood by the picture of the atom and its relation to the spectra which has just been given. From this interpretation the where we meet the region of the ordinary optical spectra. In the X-ray absorption-spectra according to this view we optical spectra arise from the surface of the atom which is also find the different energy-levels pictured, which correspond to the the seat of the chemical bounds, while the X-ray spectra are energy-output necessary to remove one or other of the electrons given off from the inner parts of the electronic atmosphere of the of the atom. In consequence we speak of the K-level, the L-levels, atom. But of course it is to be expected that a small influence etc. of the atom. Or if we wish to indicate the parts of the elec- may be seen if an atom emitting an X-ray is acted upon by tronic atmosphere, the K-shell, the L-shell, etc., each of these neighbouring atoms. This is a question of the sensitivity or accurshells may of course include more than one electron. For in- acy in the methods of studying the X-ray spectra. By increasing stance it is probable that the K-~shell contains two electrons, the the precision of the measurements it has been possible to detect L-shells eight electrons, the M-shell eighteen electrons and a number of such effects as Just mentioned; for instance it has been shown by Bergengren and Lindh that the K-absorption-edges SO On. After one electron has—by absorption of energy—been thrown are a little displaced when the atom (Phosphorus, Sulphur and out from its place within the atom its place will soon be filled up Chlorine especially have been studied) enters in different chemical by an electron which through the attraction of the positive nu- combinations. The valency of the atom seems to be one of the cleus falls from some of the outer shells into the empty place. main factors in this respect so that by investigations of the kind This means a diminishing of the energy of the atom, the super- valuable information regarding the valencies may be obtained. L, Lu Lm for the three absorption-edges within the L-group

SPEE—SPEENHAMLAND

200

SYSTEM

TABLE I.

Nv. Nvir.}|

Or.

|On. Orr. Orv Ov.

2 2 2 2 2 2

But the line-spectra are also in a certain degree influenced by the chemical bonds as shown by Lundquist, Backlin, Ray, etc. Finally we may in this connection point out the service that the X-ray spectroscopy has rendered as a method of chemical analysis and for the detection of new elements. On the suggestion of Bohr that the element with atomic number 72 may be sought

in minerals containing its homologue Zirkon, Coster and Hevesy succeeded in identifying this new element by its X-ray spectrum. Berg, Noddack and Tacke gave convincing evidence of the unknown elements 75 and 43 by X-ray methods. (M. Sœ.) SPEE, MAXIMILIAN, Count von (1861-1914), German

sailor, was born in Copenhagen on June 22, 1861. He entered the German navy in 1878 and from 1887 to 1888 was Hafenkommandant (commander of the port) in German Cameroon. In 1908 he was made chief of staff of the German North sea command, and at the end of 1912 took over the Far Eastern Squadron. On Nov. r, 1914, he was engaged by Admiral Cradock off Coronel, on the Chilean coast, and succeeded in defeating the British squadron. On Dec. 8, 1914, however, he was attacked by Admiral Sturdee’s cruiser squadron. The Germans were heavily defeated in the battle that took place. This is usually known as the battle of the Falkland islands, and in it Spee himself went down with his flagship, the “Scharnhorst.” (See CORONEL; FALKLAND ISLANDS.)

SPEED, JOHN

(1552-1629), English historian and cartog-

rapher, was the son of a London tailor, and followed his father’s trade, being admitted member of the Merchant Taylors Company In 1580. He settled in Moorfields, where he built himself a house. He was enabled to devote himself to antiquarian pursuits through the kindness of Sir Fulke Greville, whom Speed calls the “procurer of my present estate,” and through his patron’s interest he also received a “waiter’s room in the custom-house.” His important works are: Theatre of the Empire of Great Britaine (1611), a series of fifty-four maps (with descriptive matter) of different parts of England, which had already appeared separately, and in which he was helped by Christopher Saxton, John Norden and William White; and History of Great Britaine under the Con-

Main

Principles.—The

out from the axis of rotation. An indicator records the speed, A second principle very extensively used is that of magnetic drag. A cup of sheet aluminium is mounted on a spindle and held in the “zero” position by a spiral spring. A permanent magnet whose lines of force pass through the wall of the cup is rotated inside the latter at a speed proportional to that to be measured. The rotation of the magnet induces currents in the aluminium cup and the reaction between these currents and the magnetism of the magnet produces a drag on the cup, which causes it to turn around its axis against the resistance of the spring, and in proportion to the speed of the magnet. A scale printed on the outside of the cup shows through an opening in the face of the instrument, and the scale reading in line with a mark on the face indicates the speed. A third principle made use of is based on the fact that speed is the quotient of distance by time. Instruments based on this principle comprise an odometer and a clockwork, measuring distance and time respectively, and they effect the operation of division mechanically., A further principle is that of the magneto and voltmeter. A magneto generator has the characteristic that the voltage generated by it varies with the speed at which its armature is driven. Therefore, if a magneto is placed in driving connection with a road wheel and its terminals are connected to a voltmeter whose scale, instead of in volts, is graduated in miles per hour, the combination will serve as a speedometer. This type is particularly adapted for use where it is desirable to take readings at a long distance from the road wheel as the only connection is by wires. i (P. M. E.)

SPEEDWELL,

~——more particularly the speeds of road vehicles—and graduated in miles (or kilometres) per hour. They are driven either from one of the road wheels, or from the transmission, through a flexible shaft and a gear mechanism. Account is taken of the diameter of the road wheel and of the gear ratio between the wheel and the speedometer shaft. Speedometers carry a so-called odometer, which indicates distance. |

in botany the name applied to the 17 Brit=

3

ish species of the genus Veronica

(family Scrophulariaceae); the British forms are herbs with

AYA

eS

history; in preparing it he received help from Sir Robert Cotton, William Smith, Henry Barkham and Sir Henry Spelman. Speed brought some historical skill to bear on the arrangement of his work, and although he repeated many of the errors of older chroniclers he added on the whole a substantial contribution of valuable material for the history of his country. He died in London on July 28, 1629.

SPEEDOMETERS, instruments for measuring linear speeds

depend on cen.

such a manner that they may move out from the axis as in the Watt conical pendulum governor, being restrained by a spring, The faster the shaft revolves, the farther the weights will move

quests of the Romans .. to... Ring James (1611). Speed brought some historical skill to bear on the arrangement of his

Other maps of his, beside those in the Theatre, are in the British Museum. Another edition of the Theatre is Theatrum Magnae Britanniae latine, redditum a P. Holland (London, folio, 1616). He wrote Genealogies Recorded in Sacred Scriptures (1611), and a similar work, A Cloud of Witnesses (1616). These passed through numerous editions, and were frequently prefixed to copies of the Bible. An account of Speed’s descendants is to be found in Rev. J. S. Davies’s History of Southampton (1883), which was founded on ms. material left by John Speed (1703-1781).

oldest speedometers

trifugal force. A pair of weights is carried on a revolving shaft, in

bright blue flowers. athe

€

po agea

a

BY

Oy dl

me

me ee BY COURTESY OF YATION SOCIETY

THE

COMMON

reas Naa THE

WILD

FLOWER

SPEEDWELL

ONICA OFFICINALIS), WHICH

SMALL

PINK,

BLUE

OR

PL OMERS SPEENHAMLAND

The genus

Veronica contains about 250 species, temperate, alpine and arctic,

many of which are shrubs or trees

with handsome spikes of flowers,

j and are often cultivated The woody forms are especially characteristic of the mountains of New Zealand. Some 15 species ma occur in North America, includPRESERing several that have been natu(VER. ralized from the Old World. The BEARS

culver-root (Veronica virginica),

WHITE

found across the continent, was

formerly much used in medicine. SYSTEM, a system of poor relief

adopted by the Berkshire magistrates in 1795, by which the wages of labourers were supplemented from the poor-rates up to a certain level, an additional dole being permitted for each child. At a critical moment the Berkshire justices were forced to adopt a desperate remedy, but it was a pernicious plan, for it unfairly transferred the burden of wages from the employer to the rate-payer, it encouraged the farmers to pay inadequate wages, and degraded the labourer to the position of a pauper. The system lasted until

201

SPEKE—SPELL See, besides the works

mentioned,

Sir R. F. Burton,

The Lake

the new Poor Law of 1834; it was never in force in Scotland or i the north of England.

Regions of Central Africa (1860); J. A. Grant, A Walk across Africa

was a son of George Speke (d 1690) of White Lackington,

Nile Quest (n.d. [1903]).

SPEKE, HUGH (1656-c. 1724), English writer and agitator,

Somerset.

Educated at St. John’s College, Oxford, Hugh Speke

joined the Green Ribbon Club, and in 1683 he was put in prison

for asserting that Arthur Capell, earl of Essex, had been murdered by the friends of the duke of York. In prison Speke kept a

printing-press, and from this he issued the Address to all the English Protestants in the Present Army, a manifesto written

by the Whig divine Samuel Johnson (1649-1703), urging the

soldiers to mutiny. In 1687 he was released, and in 1688 he served James II. as a spy in the camp of William of Orange. In

(1864); T. D. Murray and A. S. White, Sir Samuel Baker: a Memoir The (1895); The Times (Sept. 17 and 19, 1864) ; Sir H. H. Johnston,

SPELL, a word of Teutonic origin meaning something “spo-

ken.” In general terms, the belief underlying the use of spells is that the wish that they embody will be fulfilled, regardless of its goodness or badness, so long as the formula has been correctly pronounced. Broadly speaking, then, spell and prayer, like magic and religion to which they severally belong, can be distinguished by the nature of the intended purpose.

Ritual is to be seen in relation to its moral context as a

whole. For instance, the judicial oath may have lost some of force, but, December of this year a document, calling upon the Protestants to its special significance as a religious act of binding it forms which of endeavour, solemn the with circulated, freely connection was in taken neighbours disarm their Roman Catholic its validity and much damage was done to property in London before it was a part, to administer justice in the light of the truth, charges of found that it was a forgery. Speke asserted his authorship in his can hardly be said to have been affected. Or, again, are reckworship religious of details Happy the the of regards as History Secret formalism Memoirs (1709), revised as The Revolution in 1688 (1715). Speke died in obscurity before 1725. lessly bandied about, when the spirit and not the letter of the SPEKE, JOHN HANNING (1827-1864), English explorer, observance should alone be regarded as relevant to the issue. make discoverer of the source of the Nile, was born on May 4, 1827, Next, as regards the criterion of intelligibility, we must the ignorance own our making not are we that it using 1844. in in sure Army Indian the entered He . Somersetshire at Jordans, without be to alleged rite the of value intrinsic the of measure Punjab. He served under Sir Colin Campbell’s division in the to the unlearned, When on furlough Captain Speke explored the Himalayas, and meaning. Just as any foreign tongue is gibberish if we have symbolism eloquent most the to deaf be may we Somaliso in Burton Richard joined crossed into Tibet. In 1854 he land, as narrated in What led to the Discovery of the Source of not a key to the sense. To take an example from Australia, if members of the witchthe Nile (London, 1864). In April 1854 Speke was wounded by grub totem desire to secure a harvest of these grubs for etty Somalis. Invalided home, he volunteered for the Crimea and the benefit of the community, they repair in procession to cerserved with a regiment of Turks. In 1856 Speke joined Burton in exploration of the African lakes, tain stones that remind them by their shape of witchetty grubs the especially Nyassa. The route to Nyassa was closed by the Arabs, and rub their stomachs with these stones, thus indicating and the travellers left Zanzibar in June 1857 by a more northerly precise destination to which the symbolized delicacies are meant route. They learnt from an Arab trader that further inland were to find their way. Moreover, this pantomime is reinforced by three great lakes—-and Speke assumed that the most northerly oral means in the solemn declaration, “We have eaten much would be the source of the Nile. In January 1858 the travellers food”; where, let the perfect tense be noted, as if for the man reached Lake Tanganyika. By June they were back at Kazé, of faith the thing were as good as done. The chief deity of the Masai goes by the name that simply and here Speke induced his chief, who was ill, to allow him “The Rain”; and the simplest of their rites consists in means to attempt to reach the northern lake. Marching north for 25 days, on July 30 Speke reached a creek, along which he trav- crying out “Rain! Rain!” in chorus (see Prayer). Here the elled till, on Aug. 3, he saw it open up into the waters of a lake question whether this is prayer or spell ought not to turn on extending northward to the horizon. He no longer doubted the degree of personality attaching to the god, and still less on that this lake—the Victoria Nyanza—was the source of the Nile. a grammatical point such as the possible use of the imperative Returning to Kazé (Aug. 25) he made known his discovery to mood. Surely the religious character of the whole proceeding is

Burton, who did not believe Speke’s theories. Speke had the support of Sir Roderick Murchison, president of the Royal Geographical Society, under whose direction a new

sufficiently established by the fact that “The Rain” is for the Masai, the reputed giver of all good things.

In primitive rite the verbal formula tends to be accessory to the dramatic part of the procedure. Sometimes it is but descripmand, his only European companion being Captain (afterwards tive of the action, “We are doing so and so,” though sometimes Colonel) J. A. Grant (q.v.). The expedition, over 200 men all the purpose is added, “We are doing so and so, that so and so told, started from Zanzibar in Oct. 1860 and reached Kazé on may happen.” Thus the efficacy of the rite, words and all, is apt Jan. 24, 1861. The Victoria Nyanza was again reached, at its to seem self-contained. The rite has mana (q.v.), which is almost south-west corner, in Oct. 1861. Following the western shores of to say “It works, I know not why” in one pregnant word. Corthe lake Speke crossed the Kagera Jan. 16, 1862, and arrived at respondingly, it becomes a perilous instrument for the ordinary the capital of Uganda on Feb. 19 following. Here he was detained man to handle, and its use is reserved for the man with mana— by the king Mtesa, for some months, but at last prevailed on the expert who is strong enough to wrestle with mysteries. Now the chief to furnish him with guides, and on July 28 Speke stood to be vested with esoteric attributes in one’s own eyes no less where the Nile issued from the lake. The travellers were not than in the eyes of the rest bears hard on the weakness of the permitted to visit another large lake (the Albert Nyanza) of flesh. True, the wonder-worker may be ready to admit that his whose existence and connection with the Nile they learned. As mana possesses him rather than he it. An Australian medicinefar as possible Speke and Grant followed the course of the Nile, man, for instance, who had given way to European strong drink, and on Dec. 3 came in touch with the outside world once more. became convinced that his healing power had left him and in a On Feb. 15, 1863, they arrived at Gondokoro. At Gondokoro they spirit of befitting humility retired from practice. Or, again, we met Sir Samuel (then Mr.) Baker, generously giving him the have the Malay wizard whose spell explicitly announces that some power greater than himself is working through him: “It is not information which enabled him to discover the Albert Nyanza.

expedition was fitted out. Of this expedition Speke had the com-

In the same year (1863) Speke published his Journal of the Discovery of the Source of the Nile, a work written in a frank, attractive style. His conclusions were disputed by Burton and

McQueen in The Nile Basin (1864), it being argued in this work

that Tanganyika was the true Nile source. Speke was to discuss the question with Burton at the geographical section of the

British Association at Bath on Sept. 16, but he accidentally shot himself while out after partridge on Sept. 15.

I that am burying him (in the form of a waxen image), it is Gabriel who is burying him.” In Melanesia and elsewhere a man owns a ritual and charms so completely that he can bequeath them to a son. Nay, he can

even sell them in the open market, and in such a case we expressly learn that the oral part of the rite—the muttered spell—is what the money is paid for, since it is what the owner can most easily hide and so keep to himself. At this point the spell has clearly

SPELLO— SPENCER

202

become a non-moral thing, a mere trade secret. It will degenerate still further into abracadabra. The folklorist is constantly coming across oral survivals in the mouths of peasants that once were medical recipes or even prayers couched in Latin. Afterwards, when reduced to mere rigmarole, these have been treasured by the unlettered for the sake of the sheer mystery lurking in the unfamiliar sounds. (R. R. M.) BIBLIOGRAPHY.—W. Hertmiuller, Im Namen Jesu (1903); R. R. Marett, “From Spell to Prayer” in The Threshold of Religion (1914); W. W. Skeat, Malay Magic. See also MANA; PRAYER; RITUAL.

SPELLO (Hispellum, q.v.), a above sea-level. Pop. (1921), 2,849 5. Maria Maggiore contains some of (1501), “The Annunciation,” “The the Temple.”

SPELMAN,

SIR HENRY

town of Umbria, 1,030 ft. (town); 6,161 (commune). Pinturicchio’s finest frescoes Adoration” and “Christ in

(c. 1564-1641), English anti-

to its Natural State. He died in London on Sept. 8, 1814. His admirers formed a “Society of Spencean Philanthropists.” (See Harriet Martineau’s England During the Thirty Years’ Peace.) See also Davenport, Life, Writings and Principles of Thomas Spence (London, 1836); O. Rudkin, Tkomas Spence (1926).

SPENCER,

HERBERT

(1820-1903), English philosopher,

was born at Derby on April 27, 1820. His father, William George Spencer, was a schoolmaster, and his parents’ religious convictions familiarized him with the doctrines of the Methodists and Quakers. He declined an offer from his uncle, the Rev. Thomas Spencer, to send him to Cambridge, and so was practically selftaught. During 1837-46 he was employed as an engineer on the London and Birmingham railway; in 1848-53 as sub-editor of the

Economist. From about this time to 1860 he contributed numerous articles to the Westminster Review, which contain the first sketches of his philosophic doctrines. He also published two

quary, was the eldest son of Henry Spelman, of Congham, Norfolk, larger works, Social Statics in 1850, and Principles of Psychology and the grandson of Sir John Spelman (c. 1495—1544), judge of in 1855. In 1860 he sent out the syllabus of his Synthetic the king’s bench. He was educated at Walsingham School, and Philosophy in ten volumes, which he completed in 1896 with the Trinity college, Cambridge. With Sir Robert Cotton and William Principles of Sociology. He died on Dec. 8, 1903. Camden, he belonged to the Society of Antiquaries, which deSpencer’s significance in the history of English thought depends clined, and Spelman’s efforts to revive it in 1624 were frustrated on his position as the philosopher of the great scientific moveby James I. A judgment given against him by Bacon in a case ment of the second half of the roth century, and on his friendover the crown lease of two abbeys led to his pamphlet De non ship with men like Darwin, G. H. Lewes, and Huxley. He tries temerandis ecclestis (1613-16), which induced many lay owners to express in a general formula the belief in progress which perof ecclesiastical spoils to make restitution, and Spelman himself vaded his age, and to erect it into the supreme law of the universe. acted accordingly. Spelman proposed to write a work on the But to the specialists in sciences which were advancing rapidly foundations of English law, based on early charters and records; to results which often transformed their initial assumptions, as a preliminary to this task he began to compile a glossary, the Spencer has often appeared too much of a philosopher and defecfirst volume of which, Archaeologus in modum glossarii, was tive in specialist knowledge; to the technical philosophers he published at his own expense in 1626. He continued to work at has not seemed philosophic enough. the subject until 1638. A second volume, Glossarium archaioSpencer claims, with some reason, that he was always an logicum (1664), appeared after his death. His Codex legum evolutionist. But his notions of what “evolution” is developed veterum statutorum regni Angliae, quae ab ingressu Gulielmi I gradually. At first he seems to have meant only the belief that usque ad annum nonum Henry III. edita sunt was published by progress is real, and that the existing order of nature is the David Wilkins in his Leges anglo-saxonicae (1721). Spelman’s result of a gradual process. In Social Statics (1850) he still most important work, Concilia, decreta, leges, constitutiones in re regards the process teleologically, and argues after the fashion ecclesiarum orbis britannici (2 vols., 1636-64), is an attempt to of Paley that “the greatest happiness is the purpose of creation” place English church history on a basis of genuine documents. (ch. iii. § x). In The Development Hypothesis (1852) he objects Spelman entered parliament as member for Castle Rising in strongly to the incredibility of the special creation of the myriad 1597, and took a prominent part in public business until his forms of life, without, however, suggesting how development has death (Oct. 1641). He was buried in Westminster Abbey. been effected. In Progress, its Law and Cause (1857) he adopted Edmund Gibson, bishop of London, published in 1723 The English Von Baer’s law, that the development of the individual proceeds Works of Sir Henry Spelman, Kt., Published in his Lifetime; together with his Posthumous works relating to the Laws and Antiquities of from the homogeneous to the heterogeneous. This is at once conEngland. The first section contained De non Temerandis Ecclesiis, nected with the nebular hypothesis, and subsequently “deduced” already mentioned; The Larger Treatise concerning Tythes, first pubfrom the ultimate law of the “persistence of force,” and finally lished in 1646; De sepultura; and Villare anglicum, or a View, of the supplemented by a counter-process of dissolution, all of which Towns of England; while the second included The Original Growth, Propagation and Condition of Feuds and Tenures by Knightservice in appears to Spencer only as “the addition of Von Baer’s law to a number of ideas that were in harmony with it.” Spencer welEngland, written in 1639; Two Discourses: i. Of the Ancient Government of England, ii. Of Parliaments; The Original of the Four Terms comed Darwin’s Origin of Species (1859) and enriched its docof the Year, written in r614 and first printed in 1684; Icema: a Latin trines with the phrase “survival of the fittest”; but he did not description of Norfolk, and some other treatises. This was a revised edition of an earlier collection (1698), and contained a life of the give up the (Lamarckian) belief in the hereditary transmission author, based chiefly on the autobiographical matter prefixed to the of the modifications of organisms by the exercise of function. Glossary of 1626, and two additional papers, Of the Admiral Jurisdiction, and the Officers thereof, and Of Antient Deeds and Charters. Wilkin’s edition of his Concilia was edited by A. W. Haddan and W. Stubbs in 1869-73.

SPENCE, THOMAS

(1750-1814), inventor of a system of

land nationalization, was born at Newcastle-on-Tyne on June 2T, 1750, the son of a Scottish netmaker and shoemaker. He proposed the establishment of self-contained parochial communities, in which rent paid to the corporation, in which the absolute ownership of the land was vested, should be the only tax of any kind. His pamphlet, The Meridian Sun of Liberty, which was first hawked in Newcastle, appeared in London in 1793; it was reissued by Mr. H. M. Hyndman under the title The Nationalization of the Land in 1775 and 1882. Spence presently left Newcastle

for London, where he kept a bookstall in High Holborn.

In

1784 he spent six months in Newgate gaol for the publication of a pamphlet distasteful to the authorities, and in 1801 he was

sentenced to twelve months’ imprisonment for seditious libel in connection with his pamphlet entitled The Restorer o Í Society

Of his Furst Principles (1862) the first part shows that while ultimate metaphysical questions are insoluble they compel to a recognition of an inscrutable Power behind phenomena which is called the Unknowable; the second part is devoted to the formulation of the Law of Evolution. In the first part Spencer’s argument rests on Mansel’s Limits of Religious Thought and Hamilton’s “philosophy of the conditioned” (and so ultimately on Kant), and tries to show that in scientific and religious thought the ultimate terms are “inconceivable” (not by him distinguished from “unimaginable”). In science, the more we know the more extensive “the contact with surrounding nescience.” In religion the vital and constant element is the sense of mystery. This is illustrated by the difficulties inherent in the conception of Cause, Space, Time, Matter, Motion, the Infinite, and the Absolute, and by the “relativity of knowledge,” which precludes knowledge of the Unknowable, since “all thinking is relationing.” Yet of the Unknowable we may have an “indefinite knowledge,” positive, though vague. Hence both science and religion must recognize as the “most certain of all facts that the Power which the Uni-

SPENCER verse manifests to us is utterly inscrutable.” In the edition of his First Principles, published in 1900, he adds a “postscript” which

shows some consciousness of the contradiction involved in his knowledge of the Unknowable, and finally contends that his account of the Knowable in part ii. will stand even if part i. be rejected. But, in reality, a really inscrutable Unknowable would destroy all confidence in the order of nature and render all knowledge precarious. In part ii. Spencer recognizes successively likenesses and unlike-

nesses among phenomena (the effects of the Unknowable), which

are segregated into manifestations, vivid (object, non-ego)

or

faint (subject, ego), and then into space and time, matter and

motion and force, of which the last is symbolized by our experience of resistance, and is that out of which our ideas of matter

and motion are built. Hence the Persistence of Force is the ultimate basis of knowledge. From it Spencer deduces the indestructibility of matter and energy, the equivalence and transformation

of forces, the necessity of a rhythm, of Evolution (z.¢., integration of matter with concomitant dissipation of motion) and Dissolution, and finally the statement of the Law of Evolution as “an

integration of matter and concomitant dissipation of motion, during which the matter passes from an indefinite incoherent homo-

geneity to a definite coherent heterogeneity, and during which the retained motion undergoes a parallel transformation.” This

process of evolution is due to “the instability of the homogeneous,”

the “multiplication of effects” and their “segregation,” continuing until it ceases in complete “equilibration.” Sooner or later, however, the reverse process of Dissolution, with its absorption of motion and disintegration of matter must prevail, and these oscillations of the cosmic process will continue without end. It appears, therefore, that Spencer ultimately describes the Knowable in terms of the mechanical conceptions of matter and motion, and this gives a materialistic colouring to his philosophy. In the Principles of Biology (1864) the chief points are the definition of life as the continuous adjustment of internal to external relations, and the consequent emphasis on the need of adapting the organism to its environment. This does not suffciently recognize that the higher organisms largely adjust external to internal relations and adapt their environment to their needs. His universal process of Evolution seems to give Spencer a criterion of “higher” and “lower” “progression” and “degeneration,” independent of the accidents of actual history. The higher (at least in times of “evolution”) is the more complex, whether it invariably survives or not. On the other hand, he advances too easily from the maxim that function is prior to structure to the conclusion that the results of use and disuse are immediately incarnate in structural adaptations capable of hereditary transmission, an inference that has involved him in controversy with Weismann’s school. In his Principles of Psychology (1870-72) Spencer advocates the genetic explanation of the phenomena of the adult human mind by reference to its infant and animal ancestry. On the fundamental question, however, of the psychophysical connection and

the derivation of mind from matter, his utterances are neither clear nor consistent. On the one hand, his whole formulation of Evolution in mechanical terms urges him to compose the mind out of homogeneous units of consciousness (or “feeling’”’) ‘‘similar in nature to those which we know as nervous shocks; each of which is the correlative of a rhythmical motion of a material unit or group of such units” (§ 62); on the other hand, he is ready

to amend nervous into psychical shocks, which is no doubt what he ought to have meant but could not say without ruining the illusory bridge between the psychical and the physiological which is suggested in the phrase “nervous shock.” And he admits (§ 63)

that if we were compelled to choose between translating mental phenomena into physical and its converse, the latter would be preferable. But he finally leaves the relation between the unknowable “substance of Mind” and the unknowable “substance of Matter” to the Unknowable. To the theory of knowledge Spencer contributes a “transfigured realism,” to mediate between realism and idealism, and the doctrine that “necessary truths,” acquired m experience and congenitally transmitted, are a priorit to the A

203

individual, though a posteriori to the race, to mediate between empiricism and apriorism. In the Principles of Sociology (1877—96) Spencer’s most influential ideas have been that of the social organism, of the origination of religion out of the worship of ancestral ghosts, of the natural antagonism between nutrition and reproduction, industrialism and warfare. Politically, Spencer was an individualist of an extreme laissez faire type, and it is in his political attitude that the consequences of his pre-Darwinian conception of Evolution are most manifest. But for this, he would hardly have established so absolute an antithesis between industrial and military competition, and would have been readier to see that the law of the struggle for existence, just because it is universal and equally (though differently) operative in every form of society, cannot Þe appealed to for guidance in deciding between the merits of an industrial or military and of an individualist or socialist society. In the Principles of Ethics Spencer, though relying on the intrinsic consequences of actions for the guidance of conduct, conceives the ethical end in a manner intermediate between the hedonist and the evolutionist. The transition from the evolutionist criterion of survival to the criterion of happiness is effected by means of the psychological argument that pleasure promotes function and that living beings must, upon pain of extinction, take pleasure in actions conducive to their survival. Conduct being the adjustment of acts to ends, and good conduct that which is conducive to the preservation of a pleasurable life in a society so adjusted that each attains his happiness without impeding that of others, life is valuable only if it conduces to happiness. On the other hand, life must in the long run so conduce because a constant process of adjustment is going on which is bound to lead to a complete adjustment which will be perfect happiness. Spencer concludes that the sense of duty must diminish as moralization increases. In this reasoning Spencer overlooks the possibility of an expansion of the ethical environment. If this is as rapid as the rate of adaptation, there will be no actual growth of adaptation and so no moral progress. Complete adaptation to an infinitely receding ideal is impossible, but Spencer considers that he can both anticipate such a state, and lay down the rules obtaining in it, which will constitute the code of “Absolute Ethics.” He conceives it as a state of social harmony so complete that even the antagonism between altruism and egoism will have been overcome; everyone will derive egoistic pleasure from doing such altruistic acts as may still be needed. Originally the socially salutary action was in the main that which was enjoined on the individual by his political and religious superiors and by social sentiment; it was also in the main that to which his higher, more complex and re-representative feelings prompted. Hence the fear with which the political, religious and social controls were regarded came to be associated also with the specifically moral control of lower by higher feelings, and engendered by coercive element in the feeling of obligation. Its authoritativeness depends on the intrinsic salutariness of self-control, and must cease with the resist~ance of the lower feelings. Hence Spencer concludes that the

sense of duty must diminish as moralization increases. In the preface to the last part of his Ethics (1893) Spencer regrets that

“the Doctrine of Evolution has not furnished guidance to the extent he had hoped,” but his contributions to ethics are not unlikely to be the most permanently valuable part of his philosophy. After completing his system (1896) Spencer continued to revise it, and brought out new editions of the Biology (1898-99) and First Principles (1900). The dates of his chief works are as follows: 1842, Letters to the Nonconformist, “The Proper Sphere of Government”; 1880, Social Statics; 1852, The Theory of Population (cf. part vi. of Biology); “The Development Hypothesis” (in Essays, vol. i.) 1853; The Universal Postulate (ct. Psychology, part vii.); 1854, “the Genesis of Science” (in Essays, vol. ii.) ; 1855, Principles of Psychology (1 vol.) ; 1887, Progress, its Law and Cause (Essays, vol. i.) 1858, Essays (containing most of his contributions to the Westminster Review; 1863, vol. 1.3 1885. vol iii); 1861, Education: Intellectual, Moral, Physical; 1862, First Principles (and ed., 1867; 6th, 1900); 1864-64, Principles of Biology (2 vols.) ; 1872, Principles of Psychology (2nd ed., in 2 vols.) ; 1873, The Study of Sociology; 1876, vol i., The Principles of Sociology; vol. ii., Ceremonial Institutions, 1879, Political Institutions, 1882; vol. iii., Ecclesiastical Institutions, 1885, completed 1896; 1879, The Data of

204

SPENCER—SPENSER

Ethics (part i of Principles of Ethics in 2 vols.; part iv., Justice, 1891; parts il. and iii., Inductions of Ethics and Ethics of Individual Life, 1892; parts v. and vi., Negative and Positive Beneficence, 1893). 1884, Man versus the State. 1886, Factors of Organic Evolution. 1893, Inadegquacy of Natural Selection. 1894, A Rejoinder to Professor Weismann and Weismannism once more. 1897, Fragments. 1902, Facts and Comments. An Autobiography in 2 vols. appeared posthumously in 1904. For a useful summary of his chief doctrines by Spencer himself see his preface to Collins’s Epitome of the Synthetic Philosophy; see also: J. A. Thompson, H. Spencer (1906); W. H. Hudson, H. Spencer (1908).

SPENCER, JOHN CHARLES SPENCER, 3rp Ear (1782-1845), English statesman, better known by the courtesy title of Lord Althorp, which he bore during his father’s lifetime,

was the son of George John, 2nd Earl (1758-1834), who served in the ministries of Pitt, Fox and Grenville, and was first lord of the admiralty from 1794—1801. Jobn Charles was born at Spencer House, London, on May 30, 1782, and was educated at Trinity college, Cambridge. He represented Okehampton (1804), St. Albans (1806) and Northamptonshire (1806). When Lord Grey’s administration was formed at the close of 1830 the chancellorship of the exchequer combined with the leadership of the House of Commons was entrusted to Lord Althorp. The budget was a failure, but this misfortune was soon forgotten in the struggles over the Reform bill, in the preparation and success of which Lord Althorp played an important part. The death of the 2nd Earl Spencer in Nov. 1834, called his son to the upper house and was the occasion of Melbourne’s dismissal by King William IV. He was the first president of the Royal Agricultural Society (founded 1838), and a notable cattle-breeder. He died at Wiseton on Oct. 1, 1845. See Sir Denis Le Marchant, Memoir (1876); W. Bagehot, graphical Studies (1881); E. J. Myers, Lord Althorp (1890).

Bio-

SPENCER, JOHN POYNTZ SPENCER, sth Earr (1835-1910), English statesman, was the son of the 4th Earl and his first wife.

Born on Oct. 27, 1835, and educated at Harrow

and Trinity college, Cambridge, he was a member of parliament for a few months before he succeeded to the earldom in Dec. 1857. His long career as a Liberal politician dates from his acceptance of the office of lord-lieutenant of Ireland under Gladstone in 1868, a post which he retained until 1874. When the Liberals returned to power in 1880 he was appointed lord president of the council, but in 1882 he entered upon a second term of office as lord-lieutenant of Ireland. In the Liberal administration of 1886 he was lord-president of the council, and from 1892 to 1895 he was first lord of the admiralty. From 1902 to 1905 he was the Liberal leader in the House of Lords, and early in 1905, was discussed as a possible Liberal prime minister. He died on Aug. 13, z910. The fine library, collected at Althorp by the 2nd earl, was sold by him for £250,000 to Mrs. Rylands, the widow of a Manchester merchant, who presented it to that city.

SPENCER,

a town

of Worcester

county,

Massachusetts,

U.S.A. Pop. (1930) 6,272. Spencer was settled in 1721 and incorporated in 1753. One of its houses was the birthplace of three inventors: William Howe, Tyler Howe and Elias Howe, Jr., who invented respectively the “Howe truss” bridge, the spring bed and the sewing machine.

SPENDER, JOHN ALFRED (1862), British journalist, was born at Bath, the son of a doctor, and educated at Bath College, and at Balliol College, Oxford. Adopting the career of a journalist, he was editor of The Eastern Morning News from 1886 to 1890 and then on the staff of The Pall Mall Gazette in London. When the Westminster Gazette was established in 1893, he became an assistant editor and from 1896 to 1922 was its editor, leaving just after it became a morning paper. As editor of the Westminster Spender won general respect, not only as a brilliant writer but as the possessor of an exceptionally fair and balanced mind. He held a high place in the councils of the Liberal

party and his services to the state included membership of the

royal commission on divorce and of the Milner Mission to Egypt. A slight volume, The Comments of Bagshot (1914), reveals Mr. Spender at his best. He has also written The Indian Scene (1912); The Foundations of British Policy (1917); and The Life of Sir H. Campbell-Bannerman (1923). His memoirs appeared in 1926,

Life, Journalism, and Politics (2 vols.).

SPENER,

PHILIPP

JAKOB

(1635-1705), German the.

ologian, was born on Jan. 13, 1635, at Rappoltsweiler in Upper

Alsace. He won his degree of master at Strasbourg (1653) by a disputation against the philosophy of Hobbes. In 1666, he was chief pastor in the Lutheran Church at Frankfort-on-Main.

he published his two chief works, Pia desideria

Here

(1675) and

Allgemeine Gottesgelehrtheit (1680), and began that form of pastoral work which resulted in the movement called Pietism. In

1686 he accepted the invitation to the first court chaplaincy at

Dresden. But the elector John George III. was offended by his chaplain’s candour. Spener refused to resign his post, and the Saxon government

hesitated to dismiss him.

The difficulty was

solved by his promotion (1691) to the rectorship of St. Nicholas

in Berlin with the title of “Konsistorialrat.”

The university of

Halle was founded under his influence in 1694.

Spener was ex-

posed to the abuse of orthodox Lutheran theologians.

In 1695 the

theological faculty of Wittenberg formally laid to his charge 264 errors. He died on Feb. 5, 1705. His last important work was Theologische Bedenken (4 vols., 1700-02), to which was added after his death Letzte theologische Bedenken, with a biography of Spener by C. H. von Canstein (1711). Though “the father of Pietism,” the extravagances of the movement cannot be ascribed to him personally. Spener was a voluminous writer. The list of his published works comprises 7 vols. folio, 63 quarto, 7 octavo, 46 duodecimo; a new edition of his chief writings was published by P. Grunberg in 1885, See W. Hossbach, Philipp Jakob Spener und seine Zeit (1828, 3rd ed., 1861) ; A. Ritschl, Geschichte des Pietismus, ti. (1884) ; E. Sachsse, Ursprung und Wesen des Pietismus (1884) ; P. Grünberg, P. J. Spener (3 vols., 1893—1906).

SPENGLER, OSWALD

(1880-

), German philosopher,

was born at Blankenburg in the Harz on May 29, 1880. He studied mathematics and natural history, with history and art. This rare combination is the foundation of the peculiar character of Spenglers work, in which unexpected parallels between scientific truths of physics and mathematics and the artistic and other cultural achievements of an epoch of history are drawn. He completed in 1914 the first version of Der Untergang des Abendlandes (1918, rev. ed. 1922; Eng. trans. The Decline of the West, by C. F. Atkinson). Other works of Spengler, chiefly concerned with contemporary political problems are. Preussentum und Sozialismus (1920); Pessimismus (1921); Politische Pflichten der deutschen Jugend (10924); Neubau des deutschen Reiches (1924).

See M. Schroeter, Der Streit um Spengler, etc. (1922).

SPENSER, EDMUND

(?1552-1599), “the prince of poets

in his time,” was born in London—Oldys says, in East Smithfield —probably in 1552, possibly in 1549. (The date depends on whether Sonnet 60, written when Spenser was 41, belongs to 1593 or to’1590: v. infra.) His mother’s name, he tells us, was Elizabeth: his father has been conjecturally identified with John Spenser, a journeyman cloth-maker. Later, the poet claimed kindred with the Spencers of Althorpe in Northamptonshire, and had his claim allowed; but the poverty of his home is shown by the grants made to him out of the Nowell bequest as a poor scholar of Merchant Taylors’ school. There, under the great Mulcaster, he laid the foundations of his wide, if inexact, scholarship; best of all, he learned from Mulcaster to “worship the English,” and to believe it as capable of great poetry as any language. He was still at school when, in 1569, he supplied some verse translations from Marot and du Bellay to Van der Noodt’s Theatre of Worldlings. Van der Noodt, it is true, took the credit of these verses to himself: but they were included, with some alterations, in the Complaints volume of 1591 (v. infra), and we need not doubt that they are Spenser’s. The rhymed stanzas after Marot at least bear his mark: the blank-verse renderings from du Bellay are inferior, and were considerably altered and tagged with rhymes for the re-issue of 1591. : In this same year he entered Pembroke hall, Cambridge, as 2 sizar, matriculating on May 20. He remained at Cambridge for

seven years, as was then not unusual, proceeding B.A. in 1572 and commencing M.A. in 1576. His health was poor; but he read

SPENSER widely, especially in philosophy and rhetoric, studying Italian

as well as Latin, Greek and French, and training himself for poetry. His studies profited from the friendship of Gabriel Harvey, a fellow of his college, a conceited pedant, but a real scholar,

and sincerely attached to Spenser, though his friendship may not always have been quite disinterested nor his literary advice wise. Literature, however, stirred the mind of Cambridge less than theol-

ogy. In the ecclesiastical controversy with which the university

had seethed ever since Cartwright’s brief tenure of the chair of divinity (1569-70), Spenser took the Puritan side. But he was neither sectary nor ascetic. He had a hatred of popery (inflamed

by the Bartholomew massacre) and contempt for the hirelings who “for their bellies’ sake” had climbed into the Anglican fold. What he did on leaving Cambridge is still a mystery. He had missed his fellowship, and must look about him for a profession

or a patron. The view that he went to live with relatives in Lan-

cashire, though buttressed by appeals to family tradition and to the language and scenery of the Calender, rests at bottom on no ascertained fact. But in the “North-parts” (Drayton brings Rosalind to the Cotswolds; Aubrey says that she was related to Sir Erasmus Dar-

win’s lady, who was a Wilkes of Hodnell in Warwickshire), Spenser fell in love with the Rosalind of the Shepheardes Calender, of whom again we can say only that she was a lady of higher rank

than his, who enjoyed, but did not reward, her young poet’s devotion. In 1577 we seem to get a glimpse of Spenser in an unexpected quarter. In the View of the Present State of Ireland Irenaeus tells

how he witnessed the execution of Murrogh O’Brien, which took place at Limerick in July, 1577.

In the rest of that dialogue

Irenaeus represents Spenser himself, and it is natural though not inevitable to conclude that he does so in this place also. But no other evidence has been found for this visit; Phillips’s statement that Spenser was secretary to Sir Henry Sidney may be discounted, since he has probably confused Sidney with Grey. Yet Irenaeus’s account of this hideous incident reads like the words of an eye-witness, and the visit, if it occurred, would point to a connection ‘with the Sidney-Leicester circle earlier than 1579. After this we are on firmer ground. We know that in 1578 Spenser was secretary to John Young, bishop of Rochester, who had been master of Pembroke hall while Spenser was a student. The bishop of Rochester (Episcopus Roffensis) is the Roffyn of the Shepheardes Calender: the fable of Roffyn’s dog and the wolf may glance at the old Roman Catholic bishop, Thomas Watson, who was committed to Young’s custody in Feb. 1579. Much of the Shepheardes Calender was apparently written at Rochester, where also Spenser first conceived the idea of the wedding of Thames and Medway. If Spenser at this time thought of entering the Church, he changed his mind on a nearer view of its condition, for by Easter 1579 he was in Westminster, sharing rooms with Harvey and holding “long conference” with him. There was a third party to their discussions, one “E.K.,” to be identified probably with Edward Kirke, once a fellow-sizar of Spenser’s at Pembroke. The notion that E.K. is a mask for Spenser himself has been disproved by Dr. Herford. It is not unlikely, indeed, that the “Mistress Kerke” in Westminster, who took charge of letters for Spenser in October of this year, was E.K.’s mother, and that all three were living in her house. Among other things they discussed Spenser’s début as an author. He had several pieces ready or nearly ready—Dreams, Legends, Court of Cupid, Pag-

eants, The English Poet (in prose), and the Shepheardes Calender. It was decided to bring out the last, and to bring it out in classical

style with introduction, notes and glossary by E.K., even as Muretus edited the first book of Ronsard’s Amours. E.K. wrote the introduction forthwith—it is dated from London, April ro, 1579—and got to work on the notes.

Harvey’s Letter-book gives us an amusing picture of Spenser

that summer. He is reading some law, evidently with an eye to diplomatic or administrative work; he has blossomed into a cour-

her and a gallant, bearded and moustachioed, Italianate, Frenchified. At what date, and in what sense, he entered Leicester’s service we do not know precisely. At all events on Oct. 5 he writes from Leicester house to tell Harvey that he expects to go

205

abroad in a week, “most what” at Leicester’s charges—the ‘“‘most what” shows that he was not entirely dependent on Leicester’s bounty—and that “gentle Mr. Sidney” has proposed that they two should correspond. The tour apparently never took place, for his next letter of ten days later says no word about it, but is all concerned with quantitative verse and with doubts about the publication of his Slumbers. He has been to Court and expects to go again; Sidney and Dyer have him “in some use of familiarity.” The Shepheardes Calender was licensed on Dec. 5, and published anonymously; the dedication to Sidney is by “Immerito.” The Shepheardes Calender.—The Calender consists of 12 pastoral eclogues in the artificial style of Virgil, Mantuan, Sanazzaro and Marot, which admits real persons and current events in a pastoral guise. From all these precursors Spenser borrowed ostentatiously, above all from Marot, whom E. K. nevertheless belittles, perhaps because the Pléiade had eclipsed him. Derivative and conventional as it is, the Calender made an epoch in English literary history, not so much by naturalising pastoralism as by showing (under cover of the pastoral convention) what English could do in many kinds and metres. The couplets of the satires and fables are intentionally rude, and the rhymeless sestina is mere virtuosity; but the elegiac stanzas of the complaints recaptured the metrical secret of Chaucer, and the lyric staves of the paean and the dirge extended the range of English song. In all these measures he made free use of alliteration, dear to English ears, though abused by his contemporaries and frowned on by the classicists. For his reform of poetic diction Spenser had before him the example and precepts of the Pléiade. Like them, he sought to embellish the beggarly vocabulary of contemporary verse, partly by foreign loan-words, but mainly by drawing on native sources, by archaisms, pseudo-archaisms and dialect words. He was in search of a vocabulary fit for the heroical poem that he already contemplated. But the new poet had to care not only for words but for the order of his words and the structure and juncture of his sentences. Here Spenser scored his greatest success, eschewing obscurity and looseness, and giving his syntax a movement, too copious perhaps, but admirably fluent, in lucid, easy yet well-knit sentences. Syntactically, Spenser is one of the simplest of poets. The Shepheardes Calender may not have fulfilled all Spenser’s hopes, but it went into a second edition in 1581. Sidney praised it judiciously, or judicially, but durst not approve its rustic diction. However, Spenser had many other arrows in his quiver. In April 1580 he is full of projects for the immediate publication of his Dying Pelican and Dreams; his Latin Stemmata Dudleiana will need “more advisement’ before it can be “sent abroade,” but the quantitative Epithalamton Thamesis shall be “shortly set forth.” Under the influence of Sidney, Dyer and Drant, he had come for the moment to take quantitative verse more seriously. But he is more eager to proceed with the Faerie Queene, of which he sent Harvey specimens. Harvey thought little of them, preferring the Clost) Nine Comedies in the manner of Ariosto. Moreover, the poet is in love again, this time with better hopes. Harvey’s compliments to Mea Domina Immerito, Mea Bellissima Collina Clouta, taken with an obscure passage in Daphnaida (11. 64-66), which reads like consolation tendered by one widower to another, have led some scholars to believe that Spenser married this “second Rosalind.” But there is no other evidence for the marriage, nor is the lady ever heard of again. These letters of April 1580 give no hint of any friction with Leicester. But now Spenser seems to have made a false step. The queen had dallied for years with the project of marrying the duke of Alençon. In Jan. 1579 his agent Simier came to England and Alençon himself paid a flying visit in August to press his suit in person. He was ugly, dwarfish and half her age, but the queen smiled on him, called him her “grenouille” and Simier her “petit singe.” The Puritans took alarm. Sidney remonstrated in such plain terms that the queen forbade bim the Court. He

retired to Wilton to write his Arcadia, and Spenser probably never saw him again. This was in Jan. 1580. It was at this juncture apparently that Spenser drew his pen. He had begun a fabliau of an ape and a fox, satirising the Parson

206

SPENSER

Trullibers and other humbugs of the day. Now, catching at Elizabeth’s trick of animal nick-names, he brought his ape and fox to a court of ‘beasts. The ape becomes Alencon-Simier, the fox is Burghley, who was believed to favour the marriage. Their misrule when they have stolen the lion’s skin foreshadows the fate of England under a French king-consort. But Spenser misjudged the situation. Leicester had concluded that the wind stood fair for France, and trimmed his sails accordingly. Spenser was snubbed, and the satire, which was circulating in manuscript as Mother Hubberds Tale, was called in, but not before it had come to Burghley’s ears. The tale of Spenser’s discomfiture is told in Virgils Gnat, killed by the man whose life it had saved. Such is the most plausible explanation of this obscure episode. At all events, abandoning all his projects of publication, Spenser accepted a secretaryship to Lord Grey of Wilton, the newly appointed Lord Deputy of Ireland. In Ireland.—Grey

landed in Dublin in Aug. 1580 and set

himself at once to the task of suppressing Desmond’s rebellion. He was a stern Puritan, to whom the pope was Anti-christ and the Papist rebels were traitors at once to God and their queen. Spenser soon had proof of his quality. A band of Spanish and Italian filibusters had landed in Kerry to support the Munster rebels and occupied a fort near Smerwick. Grey marched against them, forced them to surrender unconditionally, held the officers to ransom, and put the men to the sword. Then he ravaged Munster, leaving famine to complete the work. On campaigns Spenser saw “such wretchednesse as that any stonye harte would have rued the same.” With Grey’s recall in 1582 Spenser lost his secretaryship; but in the previous year he had acquired a clerkship for the faculties (i.e., licences and dispensations) in the Dublin chancery; and he had begun to obtain leases of forfeited houses and lands at modest rents which he did not always pay. At one of these houses, New Abbey in Co. Kildare, he seems to have resided occasionally in 1583 and 1584. But his headquarters were still in Dublin. We get a pleasant glimpse of him there in Ludovick Bryskett’s Discourse of Civil Life. Bryskett tells us how a distinguished company, including the primate of Armagh, and soldiers like Norreys and St. Leger, met at his cottage near Dublin. Spenser suggested that their host should read them his translation of Giraldi da Cinthio’s Discourse of Civill Life; which Bryskett accordingly did. The reading lasted for three days, being interspersed with discussions. On the third day Spenser interposed again, urging (to our astonishment) Aristotelian objections to the immortality of the soul. But Bryskett is simply putting into his mouth the arguments given by Giraldi to Torquato. It is doubtful, indeed, if this famous discussion ever took place at all, for Bryskett imitates Giraldi not only in the substance of his dialogue but in its setting. But if it never actually occurred it must be such as might have occurred. In 1585 the centre of Spenser’s interests began to shift to Munster. In that year he is found acting as deputy to Ludovick Bryskett in the clerkship of the council of Munster. In í 586 he held the prebend of Effin in Co. Limerick; and in that same year, under the Government’s scheme for the plantation of Munster, he obtained a perpetual lease of Kilcolman Castle in Co. Cork with 3,028 acres of land. His resignation of his clerkship for the faculties in 1588 probably means that he then began to live at Kilcolman, where tradition says that his sister Sarah kept house for him. Here in 1589 he received a momentous visit from

Raleigh. He had been engaged on the Faerie Queene intermit-

tently for nearly ten years, receiving a fresh stimulus from Tasso’s Gerusalemme Liberata, which reached him probably about the time of Lord Grey’s recall. By 1589 three books were completed. Raleigh at once perceived their superlative merits and

carried Spenser off to England to lay his poem at the queen’s feet. It was licensed on Dec. 1, 1589 and published in 1 590 with

a dedication to the queen. Its reception can only be described as reverential. The great English epic so long awaited had appeared.

Spenser remained in England for more than a year, enjoying his fame, making friends with brother-poets, entertained at country houses, and acknowledged by his kinswomen of Althorpe,

Lady Carey, Lady Strange, and Lady Compton and Mountegh But Burghley had not forgiven him; the substantial prefermey

for which he hoped was whittled down to a pension of £0 4 year, and in 1591 he returned to Ireland a disappointed map

Before leaving, he arranged for the publication of some of his minor poems, which appeared in 1591 as Complaints. Complaints——Of the Complaints, the Visions of Petrarch an Visions of Bellay are refurbishings of his schoolboy translations

The Ruines of Rome, a rendering of du Bellay’s Antiquitez de Rome, is clearly a juvenile production also. In the same kind, but much superior, is the original Vistons of the Worlds Vanitie, in which, from Harvey’s remarks, we may fairly recognize a frag. ment of the Dreams of 1580. The Teares of the Muses, men. tioned in A Midsummer Night’s Dream, V. 1. 52, where Theseus dismisses it as “some satire, keen and critical,” is an unconvine. ing complaint of the neglect of poetry, more excusable in 15% than in 1590. The Ruines of Time laments various members of the Dudley family, including Sidney and Leicester, who had died

in the previous decade: its present form belongs to 1590: but it probably incorporates

some

material collected for the

Latin Stemmata Dudleiana; and the “Pageants” at the end may be another fragment of the Dreams.

Mother Hubberds Tale was

strengthened by the addition of a brilliant and bitter denuncia. tion of the wretchedness of the suitor’s state; and Spenser bated

no jot of his satire on Burghley. Virgils Gnat, a free rendering of the Culex, has already been described. The one entirely ney poem in the volume is Muiopotmos, which clearly belongs to 1590. Its theme recalls Sonnet 71, and may have been suggested simply by the sight of Lady Carey at her drawn-work. In spite of the grim ending the tone is so light-hearted that it seems perverse to read an inner meaning into this “airy trifle,” with Burghley as the spider. Yet no reader would have suspected an inner meaning in Virgils Gnat but for the dedication to Leicester, On reaching home, or so he would have us believe, Spenser wrote Colin Clouts Come Home Againe, dedicating it to Raleigh “from my house of Kilcolman the 27. of December 1591.”! It was not published, however, till 1595, when it appeared in one volume with Astrophel. Colin Clout; Astrophel—Colin Clouts Come Home Againe is the most charming of Spenser’s poems. He is again in Arcady, telling his fellow-shepherds of his voyage with the Shepherd of the Ocean, his reception by the mighty Cynthia, her court, her ladies and brave poets. Then the note changes to the old complaint of courtly falsity and praise of the shepherd’s life. The whole poem is exquisitely written, in “an easy running verse with tender feet.” There is nothing more attractive in Spenser than Colin's chivalrous defence of Rosalind. Astrophel is the prelude to a set of pastoral elegies on Sidney

by several hands. The second “number,” the Lay of Clorinda, though credited to Sidney’s sister, is demonstrably from Spenser’s pen. If Astrophel seems conventional and frigid we must remember that Spenser had already lamented Sidney in the Ruines of Time, and that the Sidney whom he now laments is not

the hero of Zutphen but the author of the Arcadia. Colin’s praise of the shepherd’s life prepares us to find Spenser, though disappointed of preferment in England, harassed by law-suits with his Irish neighbour Lord Roche, begun to love his Munster home and to weave its legends scenery into his verse.

that and had and

Towards the close of 1592, on the ortho-

dox view of the Amoretti, he fell in love with Elizabeth Boyle and married her on June 11, 1594. He celebrated his wooing in the Amoretti and his wedding in the Epithalamion, which wert

entered together at Stationers’ Hall in November 1594, and pub

lished together in 1595. It is highly probable that some of the Amoretti had already done service tu express. an amour courtois for Lady Carey during his English visit. It is probable tha

Elizabeth Boyle was the orphan daughter of Stephen Boyle, ol

Bradden in Northamptonshire, who had accompanied her brothe!

1Vet the dedication of Daphnaida is dated “London this first 0 Januairie, 1591” (i.¢., 1592 ns). No convincing explanation of thi discrepancy has been offered. On the whole it is easiest to believe tha

Spenser, writing on New Year's Day, used the new style, ic., that hi I§QI means our 1501.

SPENSER

207

Alexander when he went to Ireland to seek his fortune under the and sudden death gave rise to a crop of legends. Ben Jonson told protection of their kinsman Richard Boyle, afterwards earl of Cork. The view that she was a widow, having been married to one Tristram Peace in 1588 or 1589, at present lacks documentary confirmation, and is hard to reconcile with Burke’s statement that she bore seven children to her third—on this view her fourth—

husband, Sir Robert Tynte, after 1612 or 1613. Amoretti; Epithalamion.—The

Amoretti are love-sonnets,

all but one in a form which Spenser made his own, consisting

of three linked quatrains and a couplet. It had already been used in Scots, but Spenser may have got it direct from Marot. Though it lacks the pyramidal strength of the Petrarchan form, and the

freedom of the Shakespearean, its “linked sweetness” suits Spen-

ser’s style. Many of these sonnets are imitated from French or

Italian, especially from Desportes and Tasso: for one a Spanish original has been found. They are all graceful, but only the famous sonnet on Easter can be called great. The Epithalamion, on the other hand, is by common consent the greatest of all weddingsongs; rich in poetic allusions and in echoes from his own earlier

poems, as if Spenser had gathered up all the fruits of his study and all the flowers of his fancy to present them to his bride. Here for once his whole nature speaks, flesh and spirit reconciled in the sacrament of marriage. The stanza, suggested by the Italian

Drummond that one of Spenser’s children perished in the flames of Kilcolman Castle and that he himself died “for lack of bread.” It is only too likely, after all he had gone through, that Spenser collapsed on reaching Londen, and was a dying man before his friends could learn of his condition and come to his aid. Two

more cantos of the Faerie Queene with two stanzas of a third were published in 1609; if more was written, as is probable, after 1596, it is irrecoverably lost. The Faerie Queene.—Spenser’s place among the great poets depends on the Faerie Queene, a fragment of a great poem which was to have been “disposed,” as the title informs us, “into XIT. bookes fashioning XII. morall vertues,” each virtue embodied in a knight, and the whole designed “to fashion a gentleman or noble person in vertuous and gentle discipline’—at once a chivalric romance and a handbook of morals and manners; nay more—for Spenser would emulate Virgil as well as Ariosto—a national epic to the glory of England’s Elizabeth. Such a threefold cord is not easily twined. Yet the task seemed feasible to Spenser, because

to him the eternal war of good and evil, which was his essential

theme, was embodied in the struggle of Protestant England against her Catholic foes. Book I. indeed may be read not inconsistently either as a mere romance, or as the spiritual expericanzone, is magnificent far beyond anything previously heard in ence of an elect Christian, or as a history of the English Church in English. The structure of the whole poem is as perfect as that of the sixteenth century. But in Book II. the story stands still its parts. for nearly two whole cantos; the tale of Hellenore in Book III. Towards the end of 1595 Spenser, having finished three more is told with a gusto ill calculated to fashion a gentleman in virbooks of the Faerie Queene, came to London to`publish them. tuous discipline; in Book IV. the poet grows so careless of his During this year he also published his Prothalamion and Fowre characters that he lets the long-parted lovers come together withHymnes, and composed or revised his Veue of the Present State out recognizing one another; the recent history of Book V. has of Ireland, which, though entered at Stationers’ Hall in 1598, was little allegorical or romantic interest; and Book VI. ends in a not allowed to be printed without further authority, and, in fact, burst of sheer pastoralism in which the poet forgets his allegory did not see the light till 1633. | as completely as the hero forgets his quest. Only Spenser’s conProthalamion; Hymnes; Veue of the Present State of temporaries could fully appreciate the historical element, and Ireland—The Prothalamion graced the wedding of two of the some of it even to them can only have had the interest of a roman Earl of Worcester’s daughters, who were married together from a clef; yet it strengthens the texture of the poem, and gives Essex house. Though it lacks the glow and sweep of the Epitha- figures like Arthegall and Satyrane some firmness of outline. lamion, it is, if possible, even more perfect in metre and diction. The allegory was treated with respect for two centuries; Milton The hymns of Heanvenlie Love and Heavenly Beauty were thought “our sage and serious poet” a better teacher than Scotus written in 1596 to propitiate two pious noblewomen and counter- or Aquinas; modern criticism has too often followed Hazlitt in act the hymns in Honour of Love and in Honour of Beautie commending the poem to readers with the assurance that the allewritten in his youth. So Spenser avers; but to print the earlier gory won't bite them. But to ignore the allegory is to ignore the informing purpose of the whole, without which the story would hymns was scarcely the way to ensure their oblivion. In the Veue of the Present State of Ireland Irenaeus expounds be a mere series of ill-joined episodes, and much of the imagery to Eudoxus the causes of the Irish troubles and propounds a meaningless, some of it grotesque or even repulsive. The ethical, cure. Irish laws, customs and religion must all be reformed on as distinct from the structural, value of the allegory must depend the English model. But subjugation must precede reform. Vac- on the worth of the ideas it embodies, as its poetical value deillation has been the curse of the Government. Let them now pends on the imaginative force of their embodiment. Spenser ' bring over 10,000 foot and 1,000 horse, plant these in six con- was not an original nor a systematic thinker. His philosophy is venient garrisons, give the rebels 20 days in which to surrender, a blend of Platonism refracted through Ficino, Aristotelianism of and then hunt down relentlessly all who stand out. Two winter the scholastic tradition, and Christianity with a Calvinistic bias. campaigns will break their spirit. Let a fresh offer of pardon And the elements do not perfectly combine. Thus the doctrine then be made, and rebellion will be at an end. There follows of love and beauty, by which Ficino thought to reconcile the a detailed scheme, supported by statistics, for the administration love of woman with the love of God, this doctrine, brilliantly of the pacified areas, ending with a proposal for the appointment expounded in the first two Hymns, is fundamentally irreconcilable of a leutenant-general, Essex being clearly indicated. Political with the scheme of salvation through the atoning sacrifice of antagonism and racial antipathy combined with religious hatred to Christ which is expounded in the third Hymn. The poet was a sincere and militant Christian, but also a man sensitive to the blind Spenser to the Irish cause. During this second visit to England Spenser’s hopes of prefer- allurements of the world and the flesh; he knew self-distrust, ment were centred in the Earl of Essex, but again he sued in and weariness, and regret for evanescent youth, and is never so vain. He returned to Kilcolman, probably in 1597, and resumed moving as when he writes out of such experiences or turns from the Faerie Queene. In Sept. 1598 he was recommended for the this unstable life in longing for the eternal rest. Of the romance itself, with its wealth of imagery and melody, sheriffdom of Cork. But preferment came too late: in October Tyrone’s rebellion had broken out, the Munster Irish rose, Kil- there has never been but one opinion. Like all Spenser’s work, colman Castle was burned and Spenser fled with his family to it is highly imitative. He rifled romantic literature for incidents Cork. From Cork he was sent to London with a dispatch which and situations. The descriptions in which he excels constantly bears date Dec. 9, 1598. Along with it he brought a brief note recall works of art—picture, tapestry, pageant or masque. But of his own in which he reiterated the policy of the View. On Jan. he owed much also to real life; he was recommended for his 16, 1599 he died. He was buried in Westminster Abbey close sheriffdom as “not unskilful or without experience in the wars”; to Chaucer; many nobles attended his funeral, and his fellow- and his journeys through the wild woods of Munster and his poets brought elegies which they threw into his grave with the intercourse with soldiers like Grey and Norreys yielded many a pens that had written them. Spenser’s tragic reversal of fortune hint for the background and characters of the F.Q. Its diction,

208

SPENSERIAN

STANZA—SPERRY

archaic but not rustic, and rich in strange coinages and terms and was the confidant of the emperor in that secret diplomacy of chivalry, is in keeping with its remote and old-world air. Not which preceded the breach of Russia with Napoleon. On the eve of the struggle with Napoleon, Alexander, conscioy less appropriate is the stanza which he invented, not by “‘extending” the ottava rima or the rhyme royal, but by adding to the of his unpopularity, conceived the idea of making Speranski his i linked quatrains which he had used in the S.C. an Alexandrine scape-goat, and so mobilising Old Russian sentiment against reyo. lutionary France. The grand-duchess Catherine, Karamzin, Ro. such as Ferrars had employed to tip his sestets. The elements stopchin and the Swedish general Baron Armfield, intrigued ty | a not is It . combination their in lies miracle the new: not are perfect stanza for narrative, nor indeed is Spenser a perfect story- involve him in a charge of treason. Alexander did not credit the teller: but its amplitude fits the slow tempo of his thought, as he charge, but on March 29, 1812 he dismissed him from office. Rein. unrolls his leisurely pageants or ponders on time and change. stated in the public service in 1816, he was appointed governor. Its power must not be judged by single stanzas, but by the cumu- general of Siberia, for which he drew up a new scheme of gover. | lative effect as stanza after stanza rolls in, each ninth wave break- ment, and in 1821 entered the council of state. He died on Feb. 1; 1839, at St. Petersburg. ing higher than the rest.

AUSIRSSS v3

orS

Spenser has not Chaucer’s genial breadth, nor Milton’s art, nor Wordsworth’s vision; but in the purely poetic gifts he is

inferior to Shakespeare alone. The “school of Spenser” was small and short-lived, quite eclipsed in the next generation by Jonson and Donne; but in a wider sense all later English poets

have been his scholars. Beeston described Spenser to Aubrey as a little man, with short hair, little band and little cuffs—a description that fits the Pembroke College portrait better than the beruffled exquisite of the Dupplin portrait. These two portraits, whether genuine or not, do aptly illustrate the two sides of Spenser, scholar and Puritan on the one hand, courtier and man of affairs on the other; fundamentally a poet, sensitive and fastidious, yet responsive to the claim of affection or of honour. “Entire affection hateth nicer hands”; “No service loathesome to a gentle kind”; “The noblest mind the best contentment has’—in such lines we hear his authentic voice. BrBLi0ocRAPHY.—Dates of first issues are given above. Folios in 1609 (F.Q. only), 1611-13, 1617, 1670 (said to have been “overseen” by Dryden). Editions by J. Hughes (1715), H. J. Todd (1805), F. J. Child (1855), J. P. Collier (1862), R. Morris and J. W. Hales (1869), A. B. Grosart (1882-84), R. E. N. Dodge (1908), J. C. Smith and E. de Sélincourt (1909-10). F.Q. only by R. Church (1758), J. Upton (1758), K. M. Warren (1897—190c). S.C. by C. H. Herford (1895). Fowre Hymnes by L. Winstanley (1907). Commentaries and criticisms by J. Jortin (1714), T. Warton (1752), G. L. Craik (1845), R. W. Church (1879), J. J. Higginson (S.C. only) (1912), E. Legouis (1923), W. L. Renwick (1925). Much of the recent work on Spenser has been done by American scholars: F. J. Carpenter, E. A. Greenlaw, J. Erskine, J. B. Fletcher, P. W. Long, C. G. Osgood, F. M. Padelford, C. H. Whitman, etc. Most of it is available only in periodicals. Carpenter’s Reference Guide (1923), Osgood’s Concordance (1915), and Whitman’s Subject Index (1918) are indispensable for Cc

.C.

Sm.

SPENSERIAN STANZA, a verse-form so called from its

invention by Edmund Spenser for his Faerie Queene (1590). Its origin is disputed; Schipper derives it from the Old French ballade (g.v.), others from the Italian ottava rima. Probably, how-

See the biography (in Russian) by M. Korff (St. Petersburg, 1861) and the works of V. Vagin (St. Petersburg, 1872, Moscow, 190:),

SPERMACETI, a wax found in the head cavities and blub. ber of the sperm-whale (Physeter macrocephalus), where it is dissolved in the sperm oil while the creature is living (ftom Lat

sperma, seed, and cetus, a whale). It also occurs in other Cetacey

(see Waare

Orns).

It is mainly

cetin or cetyl palmitate

CısH3:1CO2C16H33. The substance is used in making candles, in the dressing of fabrics, in medicine and surgery, and in cosmetic preparations. (See OrLs AND Fats.)

SPERMOPHILE,

a name applied to a group of squirrel.

lke rodents (Clitellus), widely distributed in the northern hemisphere, called also pouched-marmots. Most spermophiles hibernate and all have internal cheek-pouches. In Russia they are known as sousliks and in the United States as ground-squirrels or gophers. (See GROUND-SQUIRREL; SOUSLIK.)

SPERMOPHYTA, the name often used in botany to denote the seed-plants, including the true flowering plants, or angiosperms (g.v.), and the conifers and their allies or gymnosperms (¢.0,),

SPERM-WHALE the toothed

(Physeter macrocephalus), the largest of

whales, called also cachalot, its size being about

equal to those of the Arctic right-whale. The head is about onethird of the length of the body, massive, high, and truncated in front. It owes its size and form to the accumulation of a peculiar form of fatty tissue in the large hollow on the upper surface of the skull. The oil contained in cells in this cavity, when refined, yields spermaceti, and the sperm-oil of commerce is produced principally by the thick covering of blubber, which everywhere envelops the body. Ambergris, used in perfumery, is a concretion

formed in the intestine, and found floating on the sea. (See CrTACEA; SPERMACETI.)

SPERRY,

ELMER

AMBROSE

(1860-1930), American

inventor, was born at Cortland, N.Y., on Oct. 12, 1860. He began early to experiment with electric arc lights and in 1879 established a factory in Chicago to manufacture an improved model which

ever, it is Chaucer’s eight-lme Momnk’s Tale stanza, with a ninth line (an alexandrine) added, a feature which gives the stanza its beauty. The rhyme-scheme is ababbcbcc-+ (the + denoting the extra foot in the last line). Spenser’s sonnet-scheme is somewhat similar. The stanza was hardly used in the 17th century, though Giles and Phineas Fletcher made for themselves adaptations of it. About 1740 it was revived, by Akenside (Virtuoso, 1737), Shenstone (Schoolmistress, 1742) Thomson (Castle of Indolence, 1748); followed by Beattie (Minstrel, 1771) and Mrs. Tighe (Psyche, 1805). Since 1850 it has been rarely employed. It is a purely English form. SPERANSĶKI, COUNT MIKHAIL MIKHAILOVICH (1772-1839), Russian statesman, the son of a village priest, spent his early days at the ecclesiastical seminary in St. Petersburg (Leningrad), where he rose to be professor of mathematics and physics. His brilliant intellectual qualities attracted the attention of the government, and he became secretary to Prince Kurakin. In 1806, the emperor Alexander I. took him to the conference of Erfurt and put him into direct communication with

was highly successful. He then turned his attention to the development of electric mining machinery, invented the electric rotary and the chain undercutting machines, devised and built his own electric mining generator and other mining apparatus and established another factory to manufacture this machinery. He next designed an electric locomotive for industnial work, and developed motor and transmission machinery for street cars, which resulted in the founding of the Sperry Electric Railway Co. of Cleveland. About 1900 he established a research laboratory in electro-chemistry at Washington, D.C., where he invented the chlorine detinning process and also the electrolytic process for producing white lead from impure by-product lead. In rors he announced his high-intensity arc searchlight, built upon an entirely new principle,

Napoleon, who described him as “the only clear head in Russia.” They discussed Russian reforms. From 1809 to 1812 Speranski was all-powerful; he replaced

and are in use for aircraft and coast beacons, the largest giving a white light of 1,500,000,000 candle-power which can be seen for upwards of 150 miles. Sperry’s most important inventions were based upon the application of the gyroscope in which he was always greatly interested.

the earlier favourites, becoming practically sole minister. In 1810 and the first half of 1811 Speranski was still in high favour,

allowing a brilliancy as high as goo candle-power per square millemetre, whereas 160 was the highest obtainable previously. The electrical and mechanical means of operating, as well as the mechanism to control the high temperatures of the arc, represented a difficult engineering achievement. These searchlights have be-

come the standard for the principal armies and navies of the world

SPES—SPHENE

209

Chief of these is the gyro-compass (g.v.), first installed on the battleship Delaware in 1911. This compass, unaffected as it is by

bartered their hope of philosophic results of scientific experience.

chant ships. Upon it the whole complicated system of modern naval gunnery has been developed. (See GUNNERY, Navat.)

rerum principiis placita (1838) ; Chr. Aug. Brandis, Geschichte der griechisch romischen Philosophie (1853), I. ii. 1; Zeller, Die Philosoph ie d. Griechen (Leipzig, 1875), IL. i.: Mullach, Frag. Phil. Graecorum, iii. a and Uberweg, Grundriss der Gesch. der Philosophie, Bd. I.

iron and steel, has entirely superseded the magnetic compass on submarines and battleships and is rapidly being placed on mer-

Sperry also designed and manufactured

electrically

BIBLIOGRAPHY.—J.

sustained

the war

ended.

Further experiments

yielded the gyro-pilot for the steering of ships, the automatic

gyro-pilot for stabilizing aeroplanes, the gyroscopic roll and pitch recorder for the testing of ships, and, finally, a gyroscopic ship

stabilizer, which has been installed on a number of ships in the

United States, British, Italian and Japanese navies and promises to find a wider application. The motion of a ship in the waves is almost completely neutralized by automatic counter movements of the gyroscopes. He served after tors as a member or the naval consulting board, and has published numerous scientific

papers. He died at Brooklyn on June 16, 1930.

See “The Engineering and Scientific Achievements of Elmer Sperry,” in Mechanical Engineering, vol. xlix. (1927).

A.

SPES, properly bona spes (“good expectation,” ie., hope), a

goddess worshipped in Rome from an uncertain but doubtless early date (temple in the Forum Holitorium, or vegetable mar-

ket, vowed during the first Punic War, cf. Tibullus, i. I, 9, cf. ii. 6, 21). Possibly she was originally an agricultural deity, not the personification of hope in general. See Wissowa, Religion und Kultus, 2nd ed., p. 329.

SPESSART, a highland forest district belonging mainly to the

Bavarian province of Lower Franconia, but in the north to the Prussian province of Hesse Cassel. SPEUSIPPUS (4th century B.c.), Greek philosopher, son of Eurymedon and Potone, sister of Plato, is supposed to have been born c. 407 B.c. He was bred in the school of Isocrates, but when Plato returned to Athens c. 387, Speusippus became a member of the Academy. In 361, when Plato undertook his third and last journey to Sicily, Speusippus accompanied him. In 347 the dying philosopher nominated his nephew to succeed him as scholarch, and the choice was ratified by the school. Speusippus held the office until his death in 330.

Of Speusippus’s many philosophical Writings nothing survives except a fragment of a treatise On Pythagorean Numbers. We gather (a) In regard to his theory of being: (1) whereas Plato postulated as the basis of his system a cause which should be at once Unity, Good, and Mind, Speusippus distinguished Unity, the origin of things, from Good, their end, and bot Unity and Good from controlling Mind or Reason; (2) whereas Plato recognized three kinds of numbers—firstly, ideal numbers, ie., the “determinants” or ideas; secondly, mathematical numbers, the abstractions of mathematics; and thirdly, sensible numbers, numbers embodied in things—Speusippus rejected the ideal numbers, and consequently the ideas; (3) Speusippus traced number’ magnitude and soul each to a distinct principle of its own. (B) In regard to his theory of knowledge: (4) he held that a thing cannot be known apart from the knowledge of other things; for, that we may know what a thing is, we must know how it differs from other things, which other things must therefore be known;

(5) accordingly, in the ten books of a work called “Ouora, he attempted a classification of plants and animals; (6) the results thus obtained he distinguished at once from “knowled ge” and from “sensation” holding that “scientific observation” though it

de primis

SPEY, river in the highlands of Scotland, rising in Mt Clach-

During the World War

he also developed aerial torpedoes with automatic gyro-control which proved effective at a range of 35 miles, Quantity manufacture had begun when

Speusippi

I920),

gyros for torpedoes which enabled them to complete long trajectories with a high degree of accuracy.

G. F, Ravaisson,

certainty for the tentative

a-Cheannaiche in Lochaber, in Inverness-shire. A mile from its source it forms the small Loch Spey, and 3r m. lower down the larger Loch Inch. It falls by several mouths into the Moray Firth at Kingston. It is about rro m. long. It is a very rapid river, famous for salmon-fishing, and is nowhere navigable. SPEYER (Spires), a town and episcopal see of Germany, capital of the Bavarian palatinate, situated on the left bank of the Rhine, at the mouth of the Speyerbach, 16 m. S. of Mannheim by rail. Pop. (1925) 25,609. Speyer, known to the Romans as Augusta Nemetum or Nemetae, and to the Gauls as Noviomagus, appears under the form of Spira, about the 7th century. Captured by Julius Caesar in 47 B.c , it was repeatedly destroyed by the barbarian hordes in the first few centuries of the Christian era. The town had become an episcopal seat in the 4th century; but heathenism supervened, and the present bishopric dates from 610. In 830 Speyer became part of the Frankish empire. The contentions between the bishops and the citizens were as Severe as in any other city of Germany. The situation of the town opposite the mouths of several roads through the Rhine valley early fostered its trade: in 1294 it rose to be a free imperial city. It enjoyed great renown as the seat of the imperial supreme court from 1527 till 1689. Numerous imperial diets assembled here. From 18or till 1814 it was the capital of a department of France; but it was restored to Bavaria in 18r4. A basilica of sandstone, the cathedral has a peculiar importance in the history of architecture as probably the earliest Romanesque basilica in which the nave as well as the side arcades was vaulted from the first. Built in 1030-1061 by Conrad II. and his successor, this church has had a chequered history, its disasters culminating in 1689, when the soldiers of Louis XIV. burned it to the bare walls, and scattered the ashes of eight German emperors. Restored in 1772-1784 and provided with a vestibule and facade, it was again desecrated by the French in 1794; but in 1846-1853 it was once more thoroughly restored and adorned in the interior with gorgeous frescoes. Speyer, although rebuilt in 1697, has never recovered from the injuries inflicted by the French in 1689. Its manufactures include paper, tobacco and cigars, sugar, machines, lead, vinegar, beer and musical instruments.

SPEZIA, a city of Liguria, Italy, 49 ft. above sea-level. Pop.

(1926) 94,347 (commune). It is the chief naval harbour of Italy, having been adopted as such in 1861 though Napoleon I. had entertained the idea. The Bay of Spezia (anc. Portus Lunae) is sheltered from all except southerly winds, and on its western shore are numerous openings, which afford perfectly safe anchorage in all weathers. The entrance is protected by forts, while a submarine embankment, 2 m. long, renders it secure. Its important arsenal dates from 1870. The establishment of San Vito is devoted entirely to the production of artillery; that of San Bartolomeo is exclusively used for electrical works and the manufacture of submarine weapons, especially torpedoes. It is the headquarters of the northern naval command (see Itaty). The museum con|tains a unique collection of menhirs from the neighbourhood cut |into the form of human figures. Spezia probably arose after the | destruction of Luna. It was sold by the Fieschi in 12 76 to Genoa. The town was fortified by its new possessors and made the seat of a governor of some importance. It became a city in the 16th century,

cannot attain to truth, may, nevertheless, in virtue of a certain acquired tact, frame “definitions.” (c) In regard to his theory of ethics: (7) he denied that pleasure was a good, but seemingl y SPHENE or TITANITE, a mineral consisting of calcium was not prepared to account it an evil. | titano-silicate, CaTiSiOs, crystallizing in the monoclinic system. _ >peusippus and his contemporaries

exercised a far-reaching |The crystals vary considerably in habit, but are generally thin and When they rejected their wedge-shaped; hence the name sphene (Gr.c@jv, a wedge). The master’s ontology and proposed to themselves as ends mere colour is green, yellow, brown or black, and the lustre resinous to classificatory sciences which with him had been means, they adamantine; crystals are transparent to opaque. The hardness is

influence upon

Academic

doctrine.

5-5, specific gravity 3-5. Sphene is cut as a gem-stone, though it is rather too soft to stand much wear; owing to its high dispersive power it gives brilliant flashes of prismatic colours. As small crystals, it is found in igneous rocks (granite, syenite, trachyte, phonolite, etc.), and also in gneiss, schist and crystalline limestone.

SPHENISCIDAE: see PENGUIN. SPHENODON: see REPTILES.

SPHERE, in Greek geometry, the solid generated by the revolution of a semicircle about its diameter as an axis. In modern elementary geometry it is more generally considered as the spherical surface so generated, or as the locus of points at a constant distance from a fixed point called the centre. The constant distance is called a radius, and any line segment through the centre and limited at both ends by the sphere is called a diameter. In the geometry of surfaces it is defined as the quadric surface passing through the circle at infinity. Any section made by a plane cutting a sphere is a circle, being a great circle if the plane passes through the centre, and otherwise a small circle. The solid cut off by the plane of a great circle, is a hemisphere ; that cut off by the plane of a small circle, a segment. In analytical geometery, the equation of

a sphere in rectangular Cartesian co-ordinates is x+y +z =0, and in polar co-ordinates it is r—=a. If the centre is (a, 8, y), the Cartesian equation becomes

(x—a)*-+-Cy— 8)? ez- yE. The surface of a sphere is found by the formula S=47r’, the

area being four times that of a great circle. The volume is 77°. Analogous to is a series of AsTRONOMY, ETRY, SoLips

SPHERES

HARMONICS

SPHENISCIDAE—SPHERICAL

210

the propositions of plane geometry and trigonometry propositions relating to the sphere. (See GEODESY, SURFACES, ANALYTIC GEOMETRY, PROJECTIVE GEOM[Geometric], TRIGONOMETRY.)

OF

INFLUENCE.

“Spheres

of influence,”

“spheres of action, “spheres of interest,” “zones of influence,” “field of operations,” “Machtsphare,” ‘“Interessensphare,’ are regions as to which nations have agreed that one or more of them shall have exclusive liberty of action. These phrases became common after 1882, when the “scramble for Africa” began. Among treaties defining such spheres are the following: Great Britain and Portugal as to Africa, Aug. 20, 1890, Nov. 14, 1890 and June 11, 1891. Great Britain and France as to Upper Niger, Jan. 20, 1891; Nov. 15, 1893, as to Lake Chad. Great Britain and France as to Siam, Jan. 15, 1896. The two Governments engage to one another “that neither of them will, without the consent of the other in any case or under any pretext, advance their armed forces into the regions, etc.” They also engage not to acquire within this region any special privilege or advantage which shall not be enjoyed in common, or equally open to Great Britain and France or their nationals and dependants. Great Britain and Italy as to Africa, April 15, 1891; May 5, 1894, as to region of the Gulf of Aden. Congo and Portugal, May 25, 1891, as to “sphères de souveraineté et d'influence” in the region of Lunda. Great Britain, Belgium and Congo, May 12, 1894, as to the sphere of influence of the independent Congo State. Great Britain and Germany, July 1, 1890 and Nov. 15, 1893, as to East and Central Africa. Great Britain and Russia as to the spheres of influence to the east of Lake Victoria in the Pamir region, March 11, 1895. Being the result of treaties, arrangements as to spheres of influence bind only the parties thereto. As Olney, in his correspondence with Lord Salisbury in regard to Venezuela, remarked: ‘Arrangements as to spheres of influence are new departures, which certain great European Powers have found necessary and convenient in the course of their division among themselves of great tracts of the continent of Africa, and which find their sanction solely in their reciprocal obligations” (United States No. 2, 1896, p. 27). Some treaties declare that the arrangement shall not affect the rights of other powers (Stoerck, Recueil, xvi. p. 932). Hinterland.—Claims

somewhat

similar

to

these

embrace

hinterland. Sometimes it is called the “doctrine of contiguity,” or “droit de vicinité, de priorité, de préemption ou d’enclave.” The occupation of the mouth of a river is constructive occupation of all its basin and tributaries.

A State, having actually occupied the coast, may claim to reserve to itself the right of occupying from time to time territory lying inland (hinterland). In the discussions as to the western

boundary of Louisiana between the commissions of the United States and Spain, as to Oregon, as to the claims of the Portuguese in East Africa, and as to the boundaries of Venezuela, the question

of the extent of the rights of the discoverer and occupier came wp, Lord Salisbury referred to “the modern doctrine of hinterland with its inevitable contradictions” (United States, No. 2, 1896, p,

12). Certainly it is inconsistent with the doctrine, more and more receiyed in recent times, that effective possession

is necessary

to found a title to sovereignty or control. The doctrine of the hinterland is likely to become less important, now that Africa has been parcelled out. See MANDATE, PROTECTORATE, SOVEREIGNTY, BrsriocrapHy.—R. H. Phillimore, Commentaries on International Law (1854—61), s. 236; T. Twiss, Laws of Nations in Time of Peace (1861—63); C. Salomon, L’Occupation des territoires sans maître

(1889); Correspondence as to Delagoa Bay (Portugal, No. 1, 187s,

p. 191); British

Counter

Case,

Venezuela,

No.

2 (1899), p. 13%:

Annuaire de Vinstitut de droit internationul, 1x. 243; x. 173; Revue de droit international, xvii. 113; Xviil. 433; xix., 371; Venezuelan Papers, No. 4 (1896); J. B. Moore, Digest of International Law (1906), 1. 268: Jenkins, British Rule, etc., beyond the Seas.

SPHERICAL

HARMONICS

are certain functions which

occur in the theories of gravitation, electricity, hydrodynamics, and many other branches of mathematical physics. If a number of particles of masses My, Mo,-:- , Mm, attracting according to the inverse-square law, are placed at points Ai, As,***, Am, the potential of these masses at any point P, i.e., the work done by the gravitational attractions in bringing a unit mass from an infinite distance to P, is

M: P

M

Mm ek AnP

Ai P isA,

If now the points Ai, As,-::, Am, P are referred to a set of rectangular co-ordinate axes, and the co-ordinates of the points are (a, bi, Cx); (de, be, C2), es

(am, bm, Cm); (x, y, 2) so that

A, P = V{(z—a)?+ (y—b)+ (z—c1)?} with similar expressions for A,P, A3P, `- , AmP, and if V denotes the potential, it may be verified by partial differentiations that

yV Ox?

yV ev _ ðy

ðZ

This equation does not involve the masses or the points at which they are placed, and so it is satisfied by the potential produced at a point (x, y, 2), in free space, by any gravitating system; it is known as Laplace’s equation, and it is frequently written in the form V°2V=o, enoting the the differential differential operator za brevity. V? denoting o + ae = + zaor =

Laplace’s equation occurs in problems of Gravitation, Electrostatics and Hydrodynamics; the related equation V?V =kdV/di

occurs in problems of conduction of heat, V being then a function of the co-ordinates x, y, z, and the time #, and & being 4 constant; and the equation ?V?V=0?V/d# occurs in problems of Vibrations of air and aether, c being the velocity of sound or of light, according to the problem considered. In order to discuss generally problems concerning the potential, it is found more effective to examine solutions of Laplace's equation than to regard the potential as the sum of a number of terms of the type M/AP, each term representing the potential produced by an attracting particle. If Vi, Vo, V3,--- area number of solutions of Laplace’s equation, and if

Vee Vasey ay a

og

it is easily verified that

VE HSV Ver yi =o, and so the sum of any number of solutions of Laplace’s equation

SPHERICAL

HARMONICS

The next step is to construct 21-+1 harmonics of degree z. This may be effected by considering the condition that

It is thus possible to build

is itself a solution of the equation.

up a solution of Laplace’s equation by adding together simpler

solutions. Now let V be any potential function, and suppose that it can be expanded by Taylor’s theorem as a series of positive integral

(ax--by+cs)”

Vi = aotar et di yer 3+ G2 x? + boy

at+b?+c = o;

---.

Group together all terms which are of the same degree in v, y, z, and denote the groups of terms which are of degrees 0, 1, 2,---, n, -in the expansion by Yo és Y, 2),

Vite, y, 3),

F(x, y, z), a)

or, for brevity, by Vo, V1;. Yo; "> 5 Va;

Yalt,

y, z),

,

may be a harmonic, where a, b, c, are constants, and deducing the harmonics from it. By actual differentiation it follows that the condition that (ax+by+cs)” is a harmonic is

powers of x, Y, 3, thus

+692*+ds yoteosetfexytagxi+

211

and this condition is satisfied by taking a=icosu,

b=itsinu,

c $I,

where u is any angle and i stands for V(—1); and so (stixcosut+iysinu)”

r

* 4 80 that

is always a harmonic. Now suppose this expression to be expanded by the multiYotYitYet+::-+Y,+°-::. V= nomial theorem, and replace cosu and sinu by their exponential The expression Y,(x, y, 3) is called a spherical harmonic of values (e+e-)/2 and (e—e-)/(2z); when the products of degree n. It may be verified that powers of cosu and sin u are multiplied out in this way, replace

YPPY

o VY+

= VV =0

expressions such as e™, e~™iu by cos mui sin mu.

so that the expression on the left vanishes identically; and since the terms written down are of different degrees, 0, 1,°--,”2—2°°°, each must vanish separately, so that spherical harmonics are themselves solutions of Laplace’s equation.

It is thus possible to express (s+7xcosu-+dysinu)” in the form

If the polar co-ordinates of (x,y,z) are (7, 6,@), so that x=yrsinédcosd?, y=rsinésing, z=rcosé, then Y,,(x, y,Z) may be written in the formr"f,(0,), where /,(0, ¢)

where gm(x,y,5) and /tm(x,y,s) are polynomials of degree n in x,y,s, and are independent of w; and since

is independent of r; and fn(@, @) is called a surface harmonic.

(stixcosu+tysinu)” = dgo(x,y, 2) + 2 [gral y,2) cos mu+hin(x, y,2)sin mu],

3V7gZ0(x, 953) FLV Em, y, 2) cos mu +V hmlx, y, z)sin mu] =0,

It can be proved that Y,(x, y, z)/7°"*! is also a solution of for all values of u, it is evident that gm(x,y,z) and Am(x,y,2) must Laplace’s equation, and it is called a spherical harmonic of degree —(n+1); this function and FY, (x, y, z) are called solid harmonics. The term spherical harmonics (German, Kugelfunktionen; French, Fonctions sphériques) is due to Lord Kelvin. When referred to polar co-ordinates, Laplace’s equation becomes

fN

LE 2

Or p ðr

sinô

ðð

. sin

,OV —) +

1 ey

sin? ôg?

O;

be harmonics.

As an illustration,

(z+ixcosutiysinu)? = 2—$x?—}4y + 2ixzcosu + 2tyzsinu+4(y?—x?) cos2u—sxysin2u. To obtain gn(x,y,z) and Am(x,y,2) explicitly, use Fourier’s rule for determining the coefficients in a trigonometrical series, i.e., multiply the expansion of (z+7xcosu-fiysinu)” by cos emu and by sin mu, and integrate with respect to u from ~—v7 to r. It follows that m

Tom(X,V,2) = f (stixcosu+iysinu)"cosmu

Determination

of

Harmonics

of

Given

Degree.—Let

dye x"y’s' be an arbitrary expression of positive integral degree n in x, y, z where y, s, t are positive integers (zero included) such that r+s+i=n, and the summation extends over all possible sets of values of 7, s, ż. It is required to find conditions that this expression may be a harmonic.

It is readily proved that the number of terms in the expression is }(n+2)(n+1); if the expression is operated on by Laplace’s operator, the result is an expression of degree n—2 in v, y, 3, in which the 42(z—1) coefficients are linear combinations of the Gy,s. If the last expression is equated to zero, 37(%—1) equa-

tions connecting the a,,.,, are obtained, which have to be satisfled if the former expression is to be a harmonic. It follows that the number of independent coefficients a,,s,: 18

3(m+2) (n+1)—3n(n—1), Le., 2n+ 1, and the remaining coefficients are expressible linearly in terms of them.

Consequently

there are

2m-+1

independent

harmonics

of

degree n, and any other harmonic of degree n is expressible as a linear combination of these harmonics. Take n= 2 as an illustration; the expression ax? +b ytc 2+ 2da yz+ 223%+ 2f2 2Y

is a harmonic if as+b:+c2=0, and 5 independent harmonics of degree 2, in terms of which any harmonic of degree 2 may be expressed, may be taken to be

yZ,

2x,

Xy,

22—x—y,

xy.

9

du,

-r

this was the form of the equation originally given by P. S. de Laplace in 1784, in a memoir on Saturn’s rings.

(m=o,

I,

2, oe

3 n),

T

In (X, 5,2) = f (stixcosu+iysinu)"sin mu du -T

(m=1,

2,3:°° "3 n).

It will be proved later that these functions g,(x,y,3) and Mim(x,,2) are linearly independent, and so they form a set of 2n-+1 independent harmonics. The General Solution of Laplace’s Equation.—It has just been seen that any harmonic of degree » may be expressed in the form n

Th

Èa Sm km(x,952) + mol D, Palen (%,9,2)

m=Q

where am and bm are constants.

If now, for brevity,

n

n

m=0

m=l1

Y amcosmu+ }_ bmsin mu be called m/,(w), it follows that any harmonic of degree z is expressible in the form f (s-+ixcosut+zysinu)”"f,(u)du,

where falu) is a function of u; and, conversely, if f(u) is an arbiirary function of u, it may be verified by substituting the expression in Laplace’s equation that it is a harmonic of degree 7.

Next take any solution V of Laplace’s equation and suppose it to be expansible in a convergent series of positive ‘integral powers of x,y,z; group together all the terms of the same degree and replace each group of terms of the same degree by an expression of the form

212

SPHERICAL

HARMONICS where P,() depends on u and # only; and it may be seen from

Í. (stixcosu+zysinu)”"f,(u)du;

the expression in Cartesian co-ordinates that 7“P,(u) is a hay. monic of degree n; it is possible to identify P,(u), defined jn this manner, with Laplace’s integral; and it can be proved that

it follows that

= 2 f (s+ixcosutiysinu)”fa(u) du; —_—

.

i

o

ry

:

1

n

Paen

.

and this value of VY is expressible in the form á

;

Palu) = 2” -

V= f f(s+ixcosu+iysinu, u)du,

T

y= { f(stixcosu+zysinu, u)du. =T

This solution was obtained by E. T. Whittaker in 1902; it may be compared with the solution of the equation =

Q,

(known as Laplace’s two-dimensional equation) namely

W=f(xtiy)+g@—ty) where f and g denote arbitrary functions. Zonal, Tesseral and Sectorial Harmonics.—The 2n-+-1 harmonics of degree n which have been constructed take more simple forms when referred to polar co-ordinates; it is, in fact, possible to establish the expansion:

(z eposu epei

2

i

eG

n(a—1)

=, sie

3.

pa

l = (an=) n(n — 1) (%—2)(n—3)

where f denotes a function of the two arguments z+ 71xcosu-+tysinu and u; and conversely if f denotes an arbitrary function of its two arguments, the expression on the right may be shown to satisfy Laplace’s equation. It is possible to remove the restriction concerning the possibility or expanding V as a series of positive integral powers of x,y,3; and hence the general solution of Laplace’s equation may be written in the form

eV ðy?

ae

(2n)!

Base

CW Ox?

Te

= r®P,(cos@) + 2 a T rat = ”P ™(cos 6)

A J

a> 4( 21) (2n-=3) If a sphere is drawn with centre at the origin, the locus of

points on the sphere at which P,(cos@) vanishes consists of the » parallels of latitude on which the cosine of the co-latitude is q

root of the equation P,(u) =o; the locus thus divides the sphere into x+1 zones, and for this reason r™P,,(cos@) is called a sonal harmonic. In like manner when n>mZ1, P,™(cos@) vanishes on n—» parallels of latitude, while cos mọ vanishes on 2m meridians, and sin mọ vanishes on 2m other meridians; the sphere is thus divided

into 2m(n—m—r) rectangular regions, with 2m triangular regions round each pole, and for this reason 7” Pp”(cos 0) cosmo and r*P,”(cos@) sin m@ are called żesseral harmonics (réocepa=a square). For similar reasons r*P,”(cos@) cosn@ and r”P,,”(cos6) sinndg are called sectorial harmonics. The function P,(cos@) is called a Legendre coeficient, or a

Legendre function, while P,(cos@) is called an associated Legendre funciton. Normal Solutions of Laplace’s Equation.—The zonal, tesseral and sectorial harmonics are of the form R:O-® where R,8,4 respectively involve the co-ordinates, 7,6, ¢, only; a solution

consisting of the product of three functions each involving only one co-ordinate is called a normal solution.

Thus, if X-Y-Z is a normal solution of Laplace’s equation

in Cartesian co-ordinates, it follows, on substitution and division by XYZ, that (cos mp cos mu + sin mp sin mu) where P,(cos@) depends on 9, 1 OX 1 OY 1 OZ ar, (cos@) _ X Ox Y oy Z O02 but not on ġ, and B” (cos) = sin™ð d(cos 0)” d 1 OX 1 O?Y 1 OZ From the form of the above expansion, it is evident that pares X dx?’ VY Oy’ Z Oe r"F,(cos6) is identical with 4go(x,y,2) so that must be respectively independent of x,y,z; hence they are constants. If these constants are called a?, b?, ¢?, where a?+b?+c? =o, P, (cos 6) = >f {cos0+isinð cos(ġ —u)}”du, =

O,

we obtain the solutions

it follows from the statement that P,(cos@) is independent of @ that it is permissible to put @=o in the last formula without

affecting the result; and so

V = etorbbykes,

Similarly, if RO® is a normal solution in an

FP,(cos@) = os f (cos6+isin6cosu)"du,

a formula known as Laplace’s integral. From the result stated, it follows that 2n+1 harmonics of degree n are

= = (eS) ta and

co-ordinates,

ii(sino) Toar a

so —TG 5

and

ab 3 ag

must

S on

be constants,

say

n(n+-1) and —m?; and so 9 satisfies the equation

r" Fr(cos 6) x" P"(cos9) cosmo, +” P(cos@) sin md, (m= 1,2, ° , 7),

T s ang ap) t + (nfeae a) ae and, from the manner in which @ occurs in them, they are ob2 viously linearly independent. while £ G 5) —n(n+1)R = o, i+m = o. An alternative definition of P,(cos@) is derived from the fact that the potential produced at (x,y,z) by a unit mass at (o, o, a) is Possible values of R are +” and 7~"—1; and possible values of ®

Vf a—3)}

= 1a arut’),

in polar co-ordinates, where u denotes cosĝ; when this potential function is expanded in ascending powers of r, the result is of the form

tr

Py(p)

g

a

meen +

aca

ale +

se

r”Palu) a

ermine

greti

T

=

em

f

are cosmd@ and sinmd.

But now n and m are not necessarily

integers, and so the question arises of defining P,”(cos@) in such circumstances. This problem is dealt with by means of the hypergeometric

function of Gauss defined by the equation

a8

| a(a+1)8(8+12)

re nn rpc en ae am ae eea a a st a an

i

.

Mee

.

3

=

L

eee

T

Pct ent

eeeee

oe

I

o2

yly+r)-1:2 ep

b.,

4

213

SPHEROID—SPHINX A solution of the equation which is the definition of P,™(cos@) I Nu+ o P”(cos0) = o

it is convenient to adopt as

) (=n, n-+15 1m; 3-4), im

where '(z—m) denotes the gamma function of Euler which reduces to (—m)! when m is a negative integer (when m is a

positive integer, this function differs from the associated Legendre function, as previously defined, by a constant factor). The theory of generalized Legendre functions is consequently merged into the wider theory of hypergeometric functions.

Cylindrical and Ellipsoidal Harmonics.—The cylindrical co-ordinates (p,6,2) of a point are defined by the equations

x=pcosd,

y=psing,

S3=2.

of Laplace’s equation is When the solution e(2tscosutiwsinw expressed in terms of such co-ordinates it becomes: ekz erkp cos (~u)

and this can be expanded in the form |To(kp) +2 > i” Jm(kp) (cos mọ cos mu+-sin mẹ sinma)| ml

where

& Im(kp) _= 2

"Gkp) (—1) E

This leads to the consideration of the cylindrical harmonics e*J (Rp),

eIn (kp) COS mọ,

e** Im (kp) sinmop,

which may also be derived as normal solutions of Laplace’s equation in cylindrical co-ordinates, viz. ov 1 0/ OV 1 OV

EG

p Op \ dp

ee es È

ð?

= 02?

The functions J,,(ke) are known as Bessel functions (q.v.). They occur in numerous physical problems of diverse types including F. W. Bessel’s investigations of planetary motion, Daniel Bernoulli’s problem of a vibrating hanging chain and L. Euler’s problem of a vibrating circular membrane. The functions which occur in a similar manner when Laplace’s equation is referred to a system of confocal conicoids as surfaces of reference are known as Lamé’s functions; these are of a more complicated type than the functions described hitherto, because

Soc.

(2) 6 (1908),

pp. 141-177;

E. W.

Barnes,

“On

generalised

Legendre functions.’ Quarterly Journal of Math. 39 (1908), pp. 97-204; E. W. Hobson, “A general convergence theorem,” Proc. London Math. Soc. (2) 6 (1908), pp. 349-395; N. Nielsen, Handbuch der Theorie der Cylinderfunktionen (Leipzig, 1904); A. Gray and G. B. Mathews, A Treatise on Bessel functions (1922); G. N. Watson, The theory of Bessel functions (Cambridge, 1922); W. D. Niven, “On ellipsoidal harmonics,” Phil. Trans. of the Royal Soc. 182A (1891), pp. 231-278; G. H. Darwin, “On ellipsoidal harmonics,” Phil. Trans. of the Royal Soc. 197A (1901), pp. 461-557. “On the pearshaped figure of equilibrium of a rotating mass of liquid,” Phil. Trans. of the Royal Soc. 198A (1901), pp. 301-331; A. Wangerin, Theorie des Potentials und der Kugelfunktionen (1909, 1921); T. M. MacRobert, Functions of a complex variable (1917); R. Courant and D. Hilbert, Methoden der Mathematischen Physik (1924); G. F. Riemann und H. Weber, Die Differential- und Integralgleichungen der Mechanik und Physik (yth edition, Brunswick, 1925); T. M. MacRobert, Spherical Harmonics (1927); E. T. Whittaker and G. N. Watson, A course of modern analysis (Cambridge, 1927). (G. N. W.)

SPHEROID, literally a sphere-like body. In geometry the

term is applied to figures generated by an ellipse (q.v.) revolving about either its minor axis (giving an oblate spheroid) or its major axis (giving a prolate spheroid). If the equation of the generating ellipse is b’x?-+-a?y?=a’b’, and the ellipse revolves about the major axis (the x axis), the volume is 4. r af daha hada’

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1. PHOTOGRAPHS,

VARIOUS SETTINGS]

STAGE

other but from one country to another at the same period. The

producer's problem in Liliom was, in essence, that his story deals

with the creed of a gangster and a “tough” who is fundamentally

romantic. Liliom falls genuinely in love with the servant, Julie, and evinces a belief in “the eternal feminine” worthy of a latterday Faust. He is transported by the prospect of fatherhood.

When he stabs himself rather than be captured by the police in an attempted hold-up that fails, his last cry is ‘Julie ... my

little girl . . . my little cricket.” When, after facing the judgment of heaven and ten years’ probation, he returns to earth as

a beggar for an opportunity to win redemption, he steals a star

to give to his daughter, and then in a moment of exasperation heats her, as he formerly beat her mother. The child cries “he

hit me .. . but I didn’t feel anything—as though someone had

stroked my hand . . .” “Nothing has happened” her mother assures her, divining who the beggar is, “it is possible, my child,

for someone to hit you—so that you don’t feel any pain.” Liliom is not forgiven in heaven; he is redeemed on earth by the persistence of human compassion. The beauty of the final scene made the play at the Guild theatre an allegory, the vindication of a romantic faith, and dictated the scenery. The play was something more than the story of a foreign underworld; its realism was made an ironic cloak for poetic truth. Thus the amuse-

ment park where Liliom flourished as a bully was made as authentically Hungarian as possible, so that the audience might accept the reality of a romantic gangster and not reject him as a

maudlin invention. On the other hand, precisely because the play seemed important as an allegory because of its poetic truth, the tawdry squalor of Liliom’s surroundings had to be invested with beauty, even the tumbledown shack in which he lived. And the railroad embankment, where he attempted his hold-up and met his death, was composed with some of the dignity and severity appropriate to tragedy. Scene 2 represents the park where Liliom falls in love. The point is that, bully, seducer and braggart though he is, he does fall genuinely in love. He is transfigured and the moment becomes as beautiful for this Hungarian hooligan and a kitchen maid as it does for all lovers. Therefore, the park where they meet must be made beautiful. The hour is dusk, when, as Whistler reminded us, “the evening mist clothes the riverside with poetry as a veil, and the tall chimneys become campaniles, and the warehouses are palaces in the night and the whole city hangs in the heavens”; the “exquisite hour” as Verlaine calls it, Therefore the problem for a designer was to clothe that park with poetry as with a veil; with tree silhouettes hung on transparent gauzes (see Plate II.); putting into those tree silhouettes all the grace and

the loveliness appropriate to the trees of a pastoral bower destined to arch over young lovers. Had the scene been one of cynical seduction, this quality of tenderness and brooding would have been irrelevant. Scene 6 represents heaven. Liliom sees heaven in terms of the police courts with which he is familiar. He can conceive of no other bar of judgment; heaven is merely the last police court presided over by a police-court judge; the attendant angels are to his eyes only detectives and policemen. The stage directions emphasize the fact by stating that their costume is the usual police

uniform. Nevertheless, Liliom has died; he is in heaven awaiting eternal judgment. If the play is to be properly interpreted this seat of judgment cannot be the proverbial heaven with a celestial throne. On the other hand, if the allegory of the play is to be made plain it cannot be shown simply as a police court. This dilemma was solved by making the scene as far as Liliom’s eye ranged a drab room, with the ordinary judge’s bench at one end; but the solid walls ended at the wainscoting and window frames.

Beyond that was emptiness; the room sat without walls or roof under a blue sky as illimitable as stage light could make it. By this

combination of realism and fantasy, the reality of heaven was established for the audience, and at the same time the fact was made clear that to Liliom its judgments were no different from What he had experienced on earth.

These four scenes from two

plays entirely different in type demonstrate how contradictions of realism and decoration in stage pictures are determined by

DESIGN

283

problems of dramatic interpretation and not primarily by pictorial considerations. The picture is a result of a conviction as to what the meaning of a play is and how it can be reflected in picto-

rial form.

The Method of Abstraction.—Settings

that eliminate the

stage picture entirely are designed for the same reason and by the same process. The Tidings Brought to Mary, by Paul Claudel, was played on the same platform for its entire five acts, which according to the stage directions take place in a barn, a farm kitchen, an orchard and a road at the edge of a forest.

Fedor

Komissarjevski, the director, chose the unit platform because he felt that the play was mediaeval not only in its story but in its quality. It was a mystery, couched in the fhystic faith of a truly mediaeval catholicism. A single square block served as a bench and, covered with a formal cloth, as a supper-table and an altar (see Plate IV.). The orchard became eight nuns clothed in Byzantine splendour, each holding a branch of silver flowers, who stood in a remote semi-circle. The sky behind them at this moment became green to suggest the foliage of out of doors. For the road-side scene at night, the same backdrop became the inky blue of a wintry night spangled with a few stars. And a cold steel-blue light thrown over the platform gave the illusion of win_ter snow. For the miracle the sky blazed forth gold, like the background of a 14th century mosaic, and aureoled the actors. The same intention was carried through the costumes: many were mediaeval French, but others—those of the father and mother— were clad in the traditional robes of early religious paintings, so that the mother had a suggestion of the Mother of Christ, the father, of one of Christ’s disciples, and in its formal grouping, the supper of farewell suggested an apostolic meal. In Man and the Masses, by Ernst Toller, the formal platforms became almost invisible. The settings were made wholly by the massing and the movement of the actors. The human beings on the stage provided all the scenery that was needed, for the play was conceived as an abstract allegory. One leader who tries to limit the workers to the bloodless methods of a general strike, is called simply The Woman. The agitator who incites them to revolution is called The Man. Though the workers are supposedly in their union hall, their angry indictments of capitalistic society are chanted in unison as a formal chorus. How could this meeting be placed in a realistic setting of an actual union headquarters, without making such formal choruses seem ridiculous? The title literally translated is “mass-man.” The force of Toller’s conception is his vision of mass-man. The working-men are a single stubborn unit, welded together in resentment and anger, from which only voices of the young and the old emerge to cry, threaten and lament. If a group of 30 or 40 actors on the stage are to give this feeling of mass power, they cannot be scattered, they cannot move about much; they must be welded. Hence a stage setting was devised that was a literal cross-section of an amphitheatre; the players never moved from the spot where they were wedged; they rose with waving arms and clenched fists to face The Woman, who pleaded with them (see Plate IV.); they towered over her; she was below them, supplicating. When this compact mass of 30 actors stood they seemed to represent “the masses”; it seemed that they could sweep down on The Woman and overwhelm her. Then The Man sprang out of their midst and slowly backed up step by step to the top of the amphitheatre. As his eloquence grew they swung slowly round, looking up towards him, turning their backs on The Woman as they ignored her pleas. Finally, at the moment when they were won over to a doctrine of violence, they were a solid mass, crouching under him waiting to spring; as he cried “revolution” they took one step up, the only step they took in the entire act, and lunged together like a huge beast, echoing his cry “revolution.” Each one had turned completely round during the scene without once moving from the spot on which he or she stood. They remained a mass, and by a single mass movement expressed their change of faith.

Varieties of Interpretation—The

designing of scenery is

thus never a purely pictorial problem; it is part and parcel of the act of interpreting a play. Whether a designer chooses abstraction or realism, a picture-stage which imitates the world as we see it

284

STAGE

in rooms with the fourth wall knocked out into which we peep,

or a formal stage which symbolizes the world, is in itself a relative thing. The method of design chosen is only good even from a pictorial point of view provided it touches the imagination of an audience, and really convinces it of the truth and reality of the play. Setting the play is only part of the process of acting it so as to give it dramatic force; no method, however beautiful it is as a picture, is the right method if it fails to convince an audience; and there are as many types of audience as there are kinds of play. No play has only one meaning; it can mean all things to all men. The imagination of the director must decide and the pictorial imagination of the scene designer must second him. If you can make your audience accept Liliom’s story as a modernistic fairytale, an allegory from the outset, Pitoev’s method of presenting it in clear hard formal outline is the right one. If the play means more as a story in which the allegory is implicit, then the more realistic method of the Theatre Guild is better;

DESIGN

[STRUCTURAL INNOVATION;

stage of to-day the spectators are looking into a space so Shallow that any illusion of depth is difficult to attain. In an average pro. duction there is rarely more than 8 to to ft. from the garden wal to the distant mountains; often there can be only 4 or 5 ft. from a window to the sky. The early technique of shifting scenery was done by having the side flats on grooved slots, set in pairs, tied to a rod which con.

nected with a series of windlasses in the cellar. At a given mp.

ment one turn of these windlasses would shoot the rear flats out

like a shutter, and withdraw the front flats out of sight, achieving a complete change of scene with great precision. A beamed grid-

iron under the ceiling, with another series of windlasses, hoisted and lowered the clouds and the platforms on which gods and goddesses descended. Owing to the shallow space of the moder

theatre and the suppression of the apron in front of the curtain, the front rows of spectators can see clear to the roof and to the side walls. The modern stage settings therefore have had to becom similarly with He Who Gets Slapped (see Plate II.). To com- a three-sided box with a lid over the top, when interiors ar pare the two one would have to sit through the two productions called for; for exteriors a curved sky, either of canvas or of as played by two different casts. plaster is used, instead of a sky in flounces as seen in the 18th There is no one way of producing any play, even classic master- century theatres. There is so little room on the stage for stack. pieces. In fact every one, whether Euripides or Shakespeare, has ing scenery that most of it has to be broken apart, or unlashed, to be constantly re-interpreted, in order to become relevant and for each change of scene, and hoisted into the air where ithangs remain living. If Shakespeare’s characters seem important as fig- until it is needed again, and as certain sets may be 24 and ures rescued from an actual historic past then the elaborate and sometimes 30 ft. high they have to be hoisted high enough to be exact costuming of the Duke of Saxe-Meiningen or Henry Irving out of sight when not in use. Hence the gridiron from which is not only necessary but effective. To one audience, which con- scenery is hung—handling is facilitated by having the line ceives them primarily as creatures of Shakespeare’s time, the bare that haul it attached to counterweights grouped at one side of the boards of the Elizabethan stage will make them live more com- stage,—is the most important part of standard stage equipment, pletely. To another audience, particularly sensitive to Shake- The opening which the audience sees, the proscenium frame, is speare’s word-magic, formal scenery, even a single curtain, is in reality a mouse-trap shutter at the bottom of a tall shaft The enough. To a German audience, for whom much of the poetry average proscenium opening is 24 to 30 feet. The curtain in actul is lost in translation, more pictorial backgrounds are necessary, use is rarely drawn higher than 20 ft. for exteriors, and 12 t into which that lost glamour must be projected. But to both 14 ft. for interiors; the remaining space is occupied by flounces German and American audiences for whom Shakespeare’s pro- and draperies. And the gridiron must be a minimum of 6s ft tagonists are imaginative figures living in the world of the imagi- in height; for hauling scenery out of sight, 80 to 85 ft. is better, nation, they become most real when part cf an unreal world, a At the Century theatre, New York, it is about roo ft. above the forest of dyed strips of tapestry or gauze (Barker’s production of stage floor. A Midsummer Night’s Dream and Reinhardt’s production of In any case the space behind the stage opening is mainly storage the same), or a blood red stairway (Jessner’s production of Rich- space for hanging scenery in mid-air. The place occupied by the ard IIT.), or among golden screens (Craig’s production of Hamlet largest scene is approximately one-seventh of the total stage with Stanislavski at the Moscow Art theatre). And if the trag- space, and the proportion will not vary greatly in American edy of Hamlet begins to seem too remote and archaic to us, theatres or most commercial theatres of Europe. we can make him a human being, for certain audiences, by The system outlined above is not by any means the best either putting him in modern dress. The art of scene designing is a liv- mechanically or aesthetically. It is, in method, as archaic a ing art because it can find no final formula. It will live pre- hoisting sails; indeed the workmen on the stage who shift scenery cisely as long as it can discover new meanings in every play are known as the crew to this day. The revolving stage introduced of every epoch. Scenery is the background of a play, and as such by Lautenschlager from Japan was used extensively, and did is part of the continuous adventure of projecting the meaning of away with the necessity of a gridiron almost entirely. At Dresden, a play across the footlights, finding, firing, and then fusing the Linnebach at the State theatre and Hasait at the Opera, con imagination of an audience. And that adventure will always be a structed elevator stages worked by hydraulic power, so thai different one in every country and every epoch. heaviest sets could be set in the cellar, hoisted to stage level and Structural, Innovations.—The technical and_ structural slid into place with extraordinary speed. The cellar being two ot changes which determine the design of modern scenery are two: three storeys deep, the settings for two or three entire productions first, the modern theatre, in contrast to the 18th century theatre, could be kept intact indefinitely. has become an extremely shallow box; second, that black box can These mechanical marvels have never developed because the be completely flooded with electric light, modulated and controlled. economic trend of the time is against them. Land has become too The theatres of the late 17th and 18th century fixed the architec- expensive to allow the amount of space and excavation required; tural type of our theatres, which with changes of ornament and rising costs everywhere in Europe make the duplication of any the depth and arrangement of balconies is the type still prevalent such installation prohibitive. In the United States where a single to-day. But there is one vital difference: the proportion of the elevator platform 12 by 30 costs approximately $25,000 to install space occupied by the stage in relation to the space occupied by an entire stage so equipped would represent a capital investment the audience in the auditorium. The 18th century stage averaged that not even the wealthiest theatrical producer could carry. Thus in depth zr to 13 times the depth of the auditorium pit, and was theatres tend to become smaller and shallower and the theatre rarely less than 75 feet. To-day, the stage, except in opera houses everywhere approximates to American conditions where everyand foreign State theatres, is rarely more than 4 the depth of the thing has to be crowded into a standard building site of 100 ft auditorium, and averages at the best 25 to 30 feet. square. | Moreover the 18th century stage was carefully calculated to Iniportant architectural experiments have been made which alm enhance painting in perspective. The stage floor sloped up. The at changing the conventional “‘peep-show theatre,” as its criti side flats receded until the rear of the stage was very near the have called it, where we look into a stage picture through a mort true vanishing point, so that an alley of trees or an avenue of or less gilded frame. Theatres have been projected with the stag columns receded very much as they would in nature. But on the as a formal platform, where the actor emphasized in space, picked

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“The Mill’? an example of ornamental theatrical setting designed by Isaac Grunewald for the production by the Royal Opera in Stockholm of “Samson et Dalila.” The stage ts black except for a vivid shaft of light which reflects on the millstone. As the stone slowly turns the reflection gradually widens from a narrow crescent into a circle of brilliant light, against which Samson is silhouetted at just the moment when his aria begins. Here we have a modern setting in which the forms are sublimated into a single dynamic composition

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The scenery wagons formed the keystone of this production of Rostand’s “Cyrano de Bergerac,” reputed to be the most difficult play to set according to the author’s direction. Each wagon is rectangular, about 8 ft. by 12, with one floor or platform 18 in. above the stage and a second 7 ft. higher. They are mounted on ballbearing wheels and all four sides covered by 24 ft. “flats”? containing doors, windows, arches, balconies, and so forth. By rolling these wagons into different positions and exposing different faces to the audience at different times; by combining them in one scene and separating them in another, and by supplementing them with sections of scenery of the ordinary sort it is possible to meet all the acting requirements and at the same time differentiate the scenes sufficiently to deceive all but the most expert and analytical eye. By this device the high and heavy scenery

IN REALISTIC

SETTINGS

the opening curtain for all five acts is both set and stored before the rise of

for the storage of stage the cook-shop scene alone use of material extends to of the inner theatre stage the cook-shop scene next in the first, second and appears following (fig. 2). The stairway which in each case. The ramthird acts is the same stairway, masked differently the fifth (not parts in the fourth act (fig. 4) become the box hedges in which has been shown in drawings) by the removal of the dyed burlap earthworks of thrown over them to give them the appearance

and the interiors of the wagons can be utilized ‘properties’ of which there are more than 200 tn (fig. 2). This principle of the double and triple the minor items of the scene as well. The front in the first act (fig. 1) becomes the counter in

EQUIPMENT]

STAGE

DESIGN

285

other medium in the theatre. We react to it even more quickly than to the actor’s voice. In fact it sets the key of our emotions, and determines what effect the actor’s voice will have on us. not only paint and model the setting, emphasize its planes, Lights the and Vanderwelde Dutchman the ects of the American Geddes, its form; light also sustains the mood of a scene, and define and Copeau for Austrian Stranad. Jouvet’s platform stage designed lighting can war against existed in Paris for a number of years; a circus theatre by Poelzig, dramatizes its meaning. Crude or blatant the emotions an actor is trying to convey, and often destroy them like but Berlin, in built actually “the theatre of the 10,000,” was Copeau’s theatre it was abandoned. Quite apart from economic entirely, all the more so because the lighting of any scene often roblems, what thwarts the development of these playhouses is does not remain static, but is dimmed or heightened, pulses and the fact that modern playwrights will not write enough plays that fluctuates with the action, like an orchestral score. Change of light alone created every difference essential to the can be given in any such manner. O’Neill and Shaw, Toller, or five acts of the Tidings Brought to Mary. The park scene of it from depart they as often as quite Werfel, revert to realism and write plays which require the three-sided box room or the Liliom (Plate II.) consisted of two gauzes on which the silhouettes illusion of distance in an actual world which can only be achieved, of trees were pasted. The entire mood of poetic dusk was created in the theatre, by looking through a frame. Until modern play- by a balance of lights. In Man and the Masses, the contrast bewriting achieves some unity of tradition, these formal stages tween the mystic dream scenes (not shown) and the sculpturesque force of the mob scenes is entirely a matter of lighting. In the must remain isolated experiments or dreams on paper. Lighting—The most important effect that the shallow-box course of the play there were several hundred subtle shifts of stage has had on designing is the fact that perspective planning lighting timed to coincide with the action of the play. The tree and painting become preposterous; anything that leads the eye of knowledge in Back to Methuselah was entirely made with light, from the front of the stage directly across it to the back wall, projected from the rear. The sphinx in Peer Gynt became a makes the eye realize that the picture is only 20 ft. deep. Hence towering form by the same process. The sacred tree on the rim the kind of composition modern scene design employs is not the of the Persian desert in Marco Millions was merely a silhouette Renaissance composition of distance into which the eye is led by on a semi-transparent back-drop. But it towered in mysterious receding parallel perspective, but distance suggested in the Japan- majesty because of the way light was thrown upon it, from both ese manner by planes cutting one another like the distant peak of front and rear. The technical basis of this important phase of modern theatre Fujiyama appearing directly over the brink of a hill. The eye, leaping from one to the other, imagines the distance and gets the art is the spot-light—in contrast to the flood light—which can be suggestion of space. Thus a space in modern settings is suggested controlled and focussed accurately upon one particular spot. To rather than revealed: the base of one column will suggest an be effective these spot-lights must be separately controlled so that entire temple; one pillar in a gloom pierced by a stained glass each can be set at any point of intensity from full to dim and window will convey an entire cathedral, and because there is fluctuated back and forth if need be during the progress of the no intermediate form between the pillar and the window, the play. Hence the rheostats, or dimmer board, that controls these blackness will seem as deep as the nave of a church. Even the lights, is to the designer’s conception what the central nervous window may not be shown but a shaft of light may be thrown system is to the ideas in the brain. Increased subtlety both in from a point out of the spectator’s range of vision in order to design and control of electric light, and particularly the colour of light, is the key to theatrical design of the future. That must wait increase the scale by the same process of suggestion. not only on the playwright and stage designer, but on the lighting Light is the scene-painter of the modern theatre; light, not paint, draws the scene, and by varying planes of intensity, models engineer, who, more than anyone, holds the key to the modern it, and makes the corner of a building solid, a hill remote, a sky theatre’s destiny. (See THEATRE: Modern Tendencies.) Brsriocrapuy.-—E. Gordon Craig, The Art of the Theatre (1903; infinite though it be only two arms’ length from the garden wall. 3rd ed., 1924) ; H. K. Moderwell, The Theatre of To-day (with bibl. If a stage 25 or 30 ft. deep is flooded with even radiance, nothing 191s; 3rd ed., 1928); E. Stern and H. Herald, Max Reinhardt und will persuade the eye that it is anything but a shallow box, how- seine Bühne (1918; Eng. trans. by M.S. Gudernatsch, ed. O. M. Sayler, ever suggestive the arrangement of the setting itself may be. 1924); I. Pichel, On Building a Theatre, Theatre Arts Mag. Mono-

out by light, can mingle freely with the audience and is partially

surrounded by them, a sort of electric contact being the goal sought. The most notable theatres of this sort have been the proj-

Settings are constructed now as in the Renaissance period, of canvases stretched on wooden frames and hinged or lashed together, but the paint on them is a mere preparation for the light to be thrown on. No setting can be designed until one is certain how one is going to light it; the colour painted is conceived as an undertone of what it will seem when lighted on the stage. The railway viaduct in Liliom, for example, if it 1s to seem massive and menacing must have the light thrown across it, not at it, otherwise it will become flimsy canvas. Thrown from right to

left the single pier casts a sharp shadow which gives a sense of solid masonry. The whole forepart of this scene must have a different quality and intensity of light from the distant silhouette of factory chimneys. With the right balance of light they will recede and seem distant even though they are actually only 8 ft.

behind the arch culvert. And both foreground and background ee properly related to the sky if they are not both to fall into it, i

So much for the scene; but there are the actors. They must be modelled and emphasized in the areas in which they move; sharply

graphs No. r (1920) revised and reprinted as Modern Theatres (1925) ; O. M. Sayler, The Russian Theatre under the Revolution (1920; 2nd

ed., 1923), and Inside the Moscow Art Theatre (1925); L. B. Campbell, Scenes and Machines on the English Stage during the Renaissance

(1923); K. MacGowan, Continental Stagecraft (1923); R. E. Jones, “Drawings for the Theatre” and Norman Bel Geddes, “A Project for the Theatrical Presentation of the Divine Comedy of Dante,” Theatre Arts Mag. (1925) ; W. R. Fuerst and S. J. Hume, XX. Century Stage Decoration (2 vols. 1928); L. Wagner, Der Szentker Ludwig Sievert (1926) ; Sheldon Cheney, Modern Stage Decoration (1927) ; A. Nicoll, The Development of the Theatre (1927); R. Fiiloep-Miller, Das Russische Theater (1928). See also The Theatre Arts Magazine (1917, etc.), an indispensable supplement to the foregoing; and two monographs of bibliography, published by the New York public library, Stage Scenery (1917), and The Development of Scenic Art and Stage Machinery

(comp. by W. B. Gamble, 1920).

(L. Sr.)

STAGE EQUIPMENT The mechanical equipment of present day stages exists for two purposes: (1) to change settings; (2) to light the stage. They are best considered separately.

Scenery Shifting—The necessity of shifting scenery is sup-

picked out at certain moments, where the action calls for it, at posed to be one of the characteristics of modern stagecraft, and others almost blotted into half shadow, for this scene is one of the introduction of the first effective device to shift settings in the ambush, of two thieves waiting to rob a cashier, and a rim of course of a play is assumed to be the turning point which detershadow into which they can retreat is part of the process of mined the structure typical of playhouses to-day. The unity of creating the atmosphere of terror and suspense when the crisis place in the Greek theatre is usually pointed out in contrast and comes. Every scene has pools of light waiting for the actors, light the assumption is common that imaginative Greek audiences, like which we do not see or know is there until the actor walks into it those of the mediaeval market places and the Elizabethan inn yards, did not need the realistic simulation of changes of locale. at a given moment. Emotionally we react to light far more quickly than to any Nevertheless, this orthodox doctrine is only relatively true. No

286

STAGE DESIGN

theatre of the Western world has ever been satisfied with completely immovable scenery. The attempt to vary and change the backgrounds of a play has existed from the beginning of drama in Europe. Even the Greeks needed the literal descent of their gods from the machine—an obvious derrick that hoisted them over the permanent background of a palace or temple wall. And both Haigh and Flickinger agree that Greek dramatists felt the necessity of showing scenes inside the permanent and immovable background of their tragedies and comedies alike, and so put on a tableaux stage the murders which by literary convention had to take place off stage and could be described only by a messenger or a chorus. “This was a small wooden platform (eccyclema) rolling upon wheels which was kept inside stage buildings. When it was required one of the doors in the background was thrown open and it was pushed forward on the stage. .. . On it were seen the corpses of the murdered persons, the murderers standing over them with weapons in their hands... .” This device was also occasionally used in comedy. Flickinger cites the fact that traces of the tracks for the wheels of this scene wagon are said to have been found in the ruins of one of the Greek theatres in Asia Minor. Although the mediaeval market-place theatre did not shift its scenery as a whole, it built the various scenes of its morality and miracle plays side by side. The actors shifted to the sets and walked from heaven to purgatory and to the hell-mouth, as the action of the play demanded. (See the well-known print of “The Valenciennes Passion Play’ reproduced in almost any handbook on the mediaeval stage.) Certain of the prompt books of other market place festivals have been discovered which call for a succession of realistic effects, such as the water that was piped to the roofs of houses in the market place and then, at a given signal, released as the deluge; the machinery that literally hoisted Jesus up on high, or made the angels tremble and totter before their fall. It is doubtful whether the discovery of shifting scenery, usually ascribed by the authorities to designs by Inigo Jones and Webb in England, was not anticipated in Italy by the contemporaries of Serlio and Sabbatini. In any case Vasari contains references to Italian court masques where the heavens opened, gods appeared in chariots and descended, while mounds, bearing cherubs and flowering bushes and caverns breathing smoke, appeared through the stage floor, thus implying a use of machinery that would have taxed the resources of the Drury Lane Theatre of yesterday. The effort to change the stage-picture is incessant. For some inexplicable reason it never occurred to any of these earlier experimenters to lower a curtain, hide the stage and do this shifting of scenery out of sight. Jonson describes a device used by Inigo Jones in staging Tethy’s Festival: “Three circles of lights and glasses” moved circularly so distracted the spectators that they “scarcely discerned” that the scenery had changed from a seaport to a cavern. Sabbatini’s handbook lists the various methods of distracting an audience’s attention for just this purpose: someone in the back of the hall may pretend to start a brawl, a sudden fanfare of trumpets or the roll of drums may be sounded. It has, however, become modern practice to lower the curtain and change (shift) settings out of sight of the audience, although this is occasionally also done with all lights out and curtain up on a dark stage. This mechanistic age has added very little that is modern to the devices of Renaissance and antiquity, except—and this only occasionally—to work them by electric or hydraulic power. The modern mechanisms which were generally part of the technical equipment only of German municipal and State theatres built between 1875 and 1900 are three: The Sliding Stage, in its essentials, the eccyclema of the Greeks, is built to run on tracks and is generally driven by electric power. Groups of two or three sliding stages are usually employed. Each sliding stage is as wide as the stage opening (called the proscenium opening or proscenium arch). While scene 1 is playing scene 2 is being “set” (set up) or is already in place. The curtain is lowered for an instant and scene 2 is pushed into space. The wagon stage, holding scene 1, is then “off stage” (out of sight) and can be rebuilt with scene 3 and the process reversed.

[MACHINERY

Or if the scenes are not long enough to allow this, three slidi

stages can be used and scene 3 be ready off stage with scene; drawn to the back (up stage).

By the time scene 3 is Over, there

is invariably time for scene 1 to be “struck” (taken down) ang replaced by scene 4, and the process continues indefinitely. The advantage of this system is that the time between shifts ang scenes is reduced to a minimum; the disadvantage is that jt requires a stage of such tremendous size that the ground rent of most cities precludes its use, unless the theatre is owned or sub-

sidized by the municipality. For this reason this system of scene. shifting, notwithstanding its numerous advantages, has not be. come widespread. The Revolving Stage, which was traditional on the Japanese popular stage, was seen there by the German technician, Lauten. schlager, copied literally and imported into Germany. It js a turntable

set level with the stage floor, and propelled by a

windlass from below. The settings are arranged on it in rotation like the segments of a pie, all set before the play begins, and can

be shifted in the twinkling of an eye. The advantages are obvious: speed of shifts and the fact that heavy and high constructions,

such as rocks, walls, etc., can be used, which would be only slowly

and laboriously moved in any other way.

less obvious, are:

The disadvantages,

(1) In order to get a maximum number of

scenes on to the circle of the turntable, they have to be triangular in shape—often a decided pictorial limitation. (2) Each sector must be so completely bounded as to hide the others, an open stage

under a full sky, often artistically desirable, being impractical, (3) A deep stage for mob scenes, etc., often cannot be arranged for the same reason. (4) For any great number of scenes, as in a Shakespearian performance, even the largest revolving stage is inadequate. This can be obviated by ingenious dove-tailing for which Max Reinhardt and his designer Stern were particularly noted, and also by the practice, common in Germany, of beginning theatrical performances at 7.00 or 7.30 and having a half-hour intermission for refreshment in the course of the evening, during which an entirely new sequence of scenes can be set up for the rest of the evening. For this reason the revolving stage is not common outside of Germany. Moreover, for certain kinds of sceneshifts, as in Ibsen’s Little Eyolf, where a three-sided interior must alternate with an exterior, an unobstructed view over the fjords, it is of no use whatsoever. The revolving stage cannot therefore be exclusively relied upon. And for that reason alone the expense of installing it usually bars it from being built as part of a theatre’s equipment. The Sinking Stage, of which the most notable types are those in Germany, built by Hasait and Linnebach for the Dresden operahouse and State theatre respectively. The stage floor from front to back is divided into three large platforms which are supported by elevator plungers. Each section can be raised independently to turn the stage into a series of grandiose terraces or lowered separately to the cellar and a new scene set and brought into place. In conjunction with sliding stages, as Linnebach uses it, there is no problem of scene-shifting that cannot be easily and successfully solved. The sinking stage allows for more freedom of design than the segmental system of the revolving stage, and the interior and exterior scenes can succeed each other with ease. It was devised to offset the limitations of the revolving stage which had become apparent by 1890. Unfortunately, it is extremely costly to mstal. The machinery required to move these platforms, heavilyweighted with settings at sufficient speed to make scene-shifts quickly, is an elaborate piece of mechanical engineering, and the necessity for excavating a deep cellar underneath the stage adds greatly to the initial cost of constructing a theatre. For these reasons, except in playhouses whose repertory involves a daily change of classics or opera on a lavish scale, the capital investment is usually prohibitive. In consequence, elevator stages are not common even in Germany.

Machinery.—In this age of mechanical marvels the machinery

commonly used for shifting settings is, except in details, not very

different from that used in the French theatres of the 18th cet

tury. It is clumsy, involves a great deal of manual labour which yearly grows more expensive; it is slow in operation, except after

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sing labour expense to extended rehearsal (again adding an increa ugh shifting settings altho the cost of every production). Thus, play requiring more than a play, n moder of d deman l is the typica in the usual intermistwo scene-shifts (which can be done slowly er’s greatest probdesign scenic and or’s direct the ns remai sions) entary system typical equipment of to-day involves a rudim na controlled by is It sight. of out it ng hoisti by set a for “striking” ?

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DESIGN

nes the freight-car door in the United States, 5 ft. 9 in. determi constill are units, or “flats” These there. scenery of basic unit

century; structed as they were in Serlio’s day in Italy in the 17th canwith covered and s) (batten frames wooden on built are they or exterior an of texture the e simulat to vas which is painted interior wall. Ornament such as door frame mouldings, window frames, etc., is applied and screwed to supporting battens behind. The element of weight due to the primitive and clumsy mechanics of current stage equipment, is an important factor in the designing of scenery. Every set must be designed not only for the play, but with an eye as well on the problem of striking and setting it. Many intrinsically excellent ideas are therefore often discarded at the outset. As an alternative the unit setting is often used. This consists of a structural frame which remains standing throughout the performance. Inserts within it, small in size and easier to handle, are changed, thus giving the illusion of a change of locale. Such schemes stimulate the imagination of both the designer and producer, and are often as welcome to audiences as the easier reliance on literal realism. This kind of simplification has often been carried further, as in Jessner’s production of Othello, in Berlin, when a single pillar suggested the senate chamber, a bed on a platform, Desdemona’s bedroom. Nevertheless, such important playwrights as Shaw and O’Neill continue to write plays which require realistic settings And the inability of playwrights in general to confine themselves to any one tradition makes a steady use of any method of stylization impossible. Theatrical productions have become unceasingly a matter of competitive private enterprises for which costly mechanical installation is too great an investment risk. Modern theatres are, therefore, still built, with rare exceptions, to house the equipment for scene-shifting described, which remains mechanically clumsy, crude, and wasteful of both time and labour.

BY COURTESY OF SHELDEN CHENEY H STAGE MACHINERY DIAGRAM SHOWING POSSIBLE EFFECTS MADE THROUG

(gridiron) ropes or cables (lines), which are run to a slotted frame , where pin-rail the to pulleys over under the stage roof and then figure.) they are tied until the moment to “fly? them occurs. (See 60 about is wood, of y formerl and iron of This gridiron, usually a gallery to 80 ft. above the stage floor. The pin-rail, formerly in the about 20 to 24 ft. above the stage floor is now usually on counter y properl is scenery of piece stage floor itself as each weighted so that it can be raised and lowered with ease without being hauled up as dead weight. There are three lines to each large piece of scenery, called the long, middle and short line respeclar tively, according to the position of the pin-rail. Any particu or floor stage the to level t brough be piece of scenery can “trimmed” (tilted) by pulling more on the long or the short line or vice versa. However, these lines are only practical for pieces of scenery that can be set parallel to the front of the stage. Others can be set obliquely, but obviously they cut off the use of the

number of sets of lines that intervene. (There are usually 50 to 70 such sets on the average gridiron.) Such slanting walls, palace

fronts and exteriors, where the lines would be visible against the sky, must be handled by lowering them to the floor, snapping off the lines for the set and reversing the process for the strike. For that reason shorter pieces, such as sides of rooms which set up and down the stage (perpendicular to the audience), garden walls, etc., are usually “stacked” (pushed off the stage) and carried on by hand. Those of the stage hands who “strike” and “set” are the carpenters. But the furniture, and all the other things, such as books, inkwells, papers, jugs, etc., which the actors use and handle during a scene, are brought by others called property-men. Ten to fifteen stage-hands are usually required to make a comparatively simple scene-shift. A series of quick shifts may require as many as 20. A single setting though seen as a whole is, therefore, made to set and strike in a number of pieces, and then lashed together. But even these units are bolted together from smaller ones in order to get the set into the theatre and for ease in transporting it from town to town when on tour. The height of the average

ELECTRICAL

EQUIPMENT

The incandescent electric lamp is the modern invention which has radically changed stage equipment. Electricity is the one element of production which makes the modern stage different from

any that preceded it. (For its place as an aesthetic factor in

modern stage design see p. 285.) The drastic changes in stage lighting (v. inf.) made possible by electric light result from the fact that the current can be run over coils of resistance wire (dimmers) and the intensity of light subtly changed from one moment to another, to fit the changing mood or accompany reaction of a play. Adolphe Appia was the first modern experimenter to indicate the dramatic importance of this method of lighting plays and the technique of stage-lighting is still very largely a development of his ideas outlined in Die Musik und die Inscenierung. The first electrical equipment consisted of rows of smallpowered incandescent lamps in narrow metal troughs (light borders) and hung in series of two or more rows parallel to the footlights which were relied upon to illuminate the actors’ faces. These, with the other borders, were usually arranged in circuits of yellow (amber), white and blue—the lamps being dipped in a transparent dye—and each circuit dimmed or cut of to change the colour of any scene. The various drawbacks of this system were that the footlights, if sufficient to light the actors, flooded the

settings with needless brilliance, casting shadows behind them. The whole stage being flatly and evenly lighted, contrast and emphasis became impossible. This type of light is very fittingly known as flood-lighting. The development of incandescent spot-lamps has greatly improved lighting. These consist of high-powered bulbs of 500, 1,000 and 1,500 watts in a metal hood which can be tilted to any angle, the light projected through a lens focused upon any given stage area. (A smaller, 250 watt type is known as a baby-spot.) The area of light can be spread or be narrowed down to the size of a face. Spot-lamps were at first mostly used on a light bridge hung just inside the proscenium frame, where the electricians (operators) could walk to and fro and re-angle them as needed. Owing to the steady rise in the cost of labour it is a common practice to use more lamps previously set and angled for successive scenes. Some

STAGE

288 are hung from a bridge or iron pipe overhead.

DESIGN

[LIGHTING

But, as these tend | such efforts are unimportant to current stage-craft except fy

to cast heavy shadows in the sockets of the actors’ eyes, groups of

To to 20 are mounted in a standing iron pipe (light tormentor) on each side of the stage (see diagram). Footlights are kept low and reinforced by additional spot-lights from the front of the first balcony or the ceiling of the theatre if space has been provided for them. In a recent production of Faust (at the Theatre Guild, N Y., 1928) 8o spot-lights were used for its 17 scenes on the fore-stage alone. The effectiveness of spot-lighting depends entirely on the flexibility of lighting control; z.e., the dimmer. The only satisfactory system is to have each spot-light controlled by a separate dimmer so that every lamp can be brought independently to the degree of intensity required. But for complete changes of light, groups of lamps must be dimmed together. Hence the nerve centre of stage lighting is the dimmer-board, where the switches and dimmers are grouped; it may be compared to the sensory and motor nerve system of the body. The most important and difficult piece of mechanical construction in the modern stage equipment is this switch-board and dimmer-board and the coupling of both so as to obtain the greatest ease in controlling the lights in any desired order or grouping. The American type of dimmer is not the most effective. In this the resistance, divided into 100 steps (called a dimmer-plate), is wound in direct connection with the handle that controls it, and then banked in rows behind the face of the board. They are heavy and cumbrous, and tend to overheat rapidly. The Theatre

certain traditional interpretations of operas. The control of the colour of light is still in a primitive and

experimental stage. Light is coloured by a series of gelatine slide placed over the spot-light lens. But the colour steps are a crude series of yellows (light dark and medium amber), a few pinks and greens and three or four blues. Gelatines fade quickly, The colours are not standardized. Glass slides which obviate these disadvantages are not produced on a commercial scale except in Germany. The relation of the colour of lights to the dyes oj

materials and paint has not yet been worked out. The only scien. tific step has been a number of systems for illuminating the sky. drop by three-colour systems of light primaries. Red, blue ang green being the light primaries, with a proper mixture of groups of all three, z.e., by dimming one group or another, the colour on the sky can be moved through the entire range of the spectrum if the colour mediums used are spectroscopically pure. These have not yet been produced on a commercial scale. The present range of

colour is only approximate. But the Schwabe or AEG, in Europe, the Pevear system in America are an indispensable unit in theatre equipment. The Cyclorama.—aAnother necessity in the average theatre js the cyclorama as a substitute for the sky-drop, in open-air scenes, the angle of sight from each side of the house being such that a third of the audience can see past the ends of a sky-drop into the wings of the stage. A cyclorama is either a cylindrical expanse of canvas with an arc wide enough to block these sight lines, or an

Guild switch-board of 102 dimmer-plates is 11 ft. long and 6 ft. arched plaster dome that covers the whole stage. The drawback

high. Coupling or interlocking handles to bring down groups of lamps in unison involves much friction and is cumbersome to operate even in its most compact form. The German system of control perfected by Schwabe and the Allgemeine ElektrizitatsGesellschaft, is mechanically a great improvement. The resistance coils are stacked underneath the stage floor (or above it) in a fireproof chamber. A carbon-brush contact is connected by a fine cable brought to the stage over pulleys and wound on a counterweighted circular drum which serves as an indicator. As this indicator handle is shifted the contact brush in the cellar slides up and down. The great advantage of this system is that the indicator coils are small, being only cable controls, light in weight, and easy to move; the circular indicator is one-third the size of a standard American dimmer-plate, so that a bank can be easily brought within the reach of a mechanician, and the gearing of any group of them is mechanically much simpler and easier to move. Valuable stage space is saved by having the resistance coils in the cellar. They can be made larger, the number of steps increased and the dimming of light be advanced almost imperceptibly. This system is now being copied in England. It is to be hoped that its adoption will soon be universal. In the last decade some progress has been made in projecting scenery to replace the always somewhat hard and non-atmospheric

painted back-drop. The first was the Linnebach lamp. (See section on Modern stage design.) The Tree of Knowledge in the Garden

of Eden

was projected by means

of this same lamp.

The principle is that of the shadowgraph thrown on a drop transparent sheeting. The general forms are outlined by an opaque silhouette painted in lamp-black on a.glass slide about 24 by 30

in. which is then coloured and slid over a square hood containing

a carbon arc light. The line divergence of the arc rays achieves the magnified projecting without the aid of a lens. For this reason definition can not be exact, and although a large space can be covered approximately 30 by 24 ft. at a distance of 15 ft., dis-

tortion begins if any wider space is to be covered. The lamp is large and difficult to conceal and cannot be shot at an angle. The G.K.P. lantern recently perfected in Vienna is a great improvement; the plate as small as the average lantern slide is mathematically distorted so that it can be thrown from any angle or height and cover the background of the largest stage. Any drawing can be reproduced with photographic accuracy and keep the exact quality of the artist’s work. Schwabe and Co., of Berlin have perfected an elaborate motor-driven lamp which projects

moving clouds and similar effects with remarkable realism. But

of the canvas cyclorama is that it usually hangs in wrinkles; the plaster dome blocks the use of the gridiron except on exceptionally large stages. Both Hazait and Linnebach have perfected a wrinkleless canvas cyclorama that unrolls in 14 min. like an upright window shade, on an overhead track. These are driven by motor-power and leave the stage entirely free for shifting and striking of settings. But either these or the plaster dome in conjunction with a good system of light primaries, produce the necessary illusion of infinite depth of sky, the ambient of open air, and the subtle gradations of colour necessary to outdoor settings. A gridiron with properly counterweighted lines, used if possible in conjunction with a revolving stage or sliding stages, a cyclorama, a three-colour border for lighting it, an ample array of focusing spot-lights on dimmers flexibly controlled by a large dimmerboard constitute the present day stage equipment which producers and designers must use. (See THEATRE: Modern sai L. Sr

STAGE LIGHTING The function of coloured light in the theatre is to stimulate the imagination and excite the emotions of the audience. In this use it is parallel to the function of music. If the audience is ina receptive mood—fertile soil to receive and react to the impressions and atmosphere—there are two great mediums with which to achieve these effects: light and music. Assuming that the director is familiar with the possibilities

as well as the limitations of every piece of equipment used in stage lighting, he has to consider the colours at his disposal; the emotional values attributed to each; the relative strength of each colour; the effect obtained by their isolation, succession ot combination. He may use coloured lights upon a stage as 4 painter uses his brush and paints. He can tell a complete story

with lights. By the employment of the appropriate colours he can interpret the rise and fall of the emotional scale, using lights to emphasize or heighten the emotional climax. Considered from the most elementary aspect, light may be said to have two primary purposes: brought upward, or brightened,

it elevates, inspires and stimulates; taken down, or subdued, tt

creates a depressing, quieting or narcotic effect in the same pre portion. With various shadings, gradations and combinations of

colours, a certain mood may be produced in an audience. Each

colour possesses a property which will create that mood or contr bute to its creation.

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ALBERT

MODERN

ROTHSCHILD

LIGHTING

APPARATUS

reflect l. Mezzanine in Roxy theatre with lighting effects that are used to & ft. high the mood of the stage presentation. 2. Roxy theatre switchboard,

and 22 ft. long, with over 1,000 switching levers and 500 dimmers. 3. The dimmers and contactor rector room of the Roxy theatre where rector

(ROXY

THEATRE)

watts switches are placed. The rector plates run up to a capacity of 15,000 placed each, and each switchboard dimmer to 3,600 watts. 4. Spotlights

on the bridges at each side of the stage, an effective means angle lighting

of creating

BY COURTESY

OF THE

CLAVILUX

LABORATORIES

COLOUR 1. Dancing

AS A VITAL

LIGHTING

with visual accompaniment.

The dancer moves

ELEMENT

in silence with

ment the rhythmically changing light forms as the only accompani which 2. Changes in form, motion and colour of the luminous column, dance seemingly envelops the dancer, follow the progress of the

to form a 3. Theatre for the use of light-settings. Screen and dome merge which the huge surface for projected scenery. Only the base upon projected actors stand is real, the rest of the steel structure being

from the keyboard

7

IN MODERN

STAGE

DESIGN

of stage and auditorium 4. An example of the complete change in mood accomplished

by the light-keyboard

in a few seconds

actor grasps fs aotual, 5. Projected setting for a play. The lever which the up and controlled

is built but the machine with its turning wheels from the tight-keyboard from which a player controls all G. The light-keyboard in the orchestra pit keys. These, through visual possibilities by moving the small sliding relays, actuate the remote optical and electrical units

STAGE

DESIGN

289

For example, red will excite, will create a premonition of im- | note for the lighting, and may be accentuated or subdued to fit the

nding danger; or it may be used to achieve a sinister effect. Amber and white added to the red will eliminate the more formidable aspects of the colour and create an effect of speed and action.

Yellows and reds with a supplementary white will create a sustained mood, and serve to establish a definite atmosphere. Blue creates suspense.

The audience becomes keyed to a mood.

becomes interested in the succeeding action.

It

A mixture of shades

of this colour will create a subdued mood, or even depression. Purple will impart an atmosphere of majesty, of power, of magnitude. Toned amber will contribute to the effect. The use of the

primary colours, red, blue and green, will create a mood of pas-

sion; of primary emotions;

of strength and virility.

Thus we see how each individual colour can either definitely express 4 mood or be used in conjunction with another or other

colours to achieve a particular mood. The intensity, proportion

and quality of the colours may be modified to suit the finer gradations of the mood. An audience cannot be thrust into the atmosphere of a particular

colour, or transferred from one mood to another too abruptly. The speed or tempo must be judiciously timed to correspond with the character of the mood. Otherwise the ultimate purpose of the lighting is apt to be defeated. For this purpose, the dimmers on the switchboard, which bring up or take off the lights at the required rate of speed, demonstrate their usefulness.

The relation of coloured light to music follows the same general

principles of emotional interpretation.

It is altogether possible

to take a musical composition and interpret it by means of light, by establishing an accompanying atmosphere; to interpret the yariety of moods; to mark the changes in tempo, quality and volume; to heighten or emphasize the climaxes. The analysis

of colour as indicated above will serve as a guide to the interpretation of the emotional qualities of the music. A brief specific application of the theory will explain this. The orchestra has tuned up and is ready to start the overture. It is necessary to secure the attention of the audience; to con-

centfate its eyes and ears on the orchestra. The mechanical equipment is used to accomplish this end. The major illumination is to be thrown on the orchestra. The house lights are brought down. The musical composition to be played provides the atmospheric theme, so to speak, of the lighting. With the spotlights in the ceiling or dome of the auditorium we may throw the desired light or colours on the orchestra itself. The other lights in the ceiling may be selected in colours necessary to establish the opening character of the music. Behind the orchestra is the stage curtain, an ideal background for the light interpretation of the music. A combination of spotlights or colours may be used for this background.

By means of this picture of light, the attention of the audience is focused on the orchestra, and a suitable atmosphere is created for the music. As the composition progresses the colours may be modified, added to, changed, or intensified in accordance with the tempo, the spirit, the volume of the music. We co-ordinate the colour scale with the changing music until we reach the climax. With the approach of the finale and the marshalling of all the

musical forces, the lights expand accordingly. If the subdued nature of the composition requires it, the lights are likewise diminished. The closing chords find both the music and the lights

particular needs of the director.

It is often undesirable to create a specific light theme.

The

music or subject may not be indicative of any particular atmosphere or mood. In that case, a certain freedom in the application of colours and light may be applied. In projecting lights, there is also the quality to be considered. Light may be hard or soft, and the resultant effects naturally are dependent on this important factor of quality. By straining the light through a filter, a diffused quality is produced, which is very effective in the establishment of atmosphere. It is also important to retain the neutral character of the background or auditorium. The lighting of this background must not conflict nor detract from the stage picture or music picture to be created. The maximum utilization of the different types of lighting equipment will be of further assistance in the creation of moods and atmosphere. Many different types of equipment constitute the lighting tools used in the modern theatre, but they can be condensed into two

general classes: (1) general lighting, (2) localized lighting. Modern Lighting Equipment.—The general lighting equipment consists of footlights, border lights and strip lights. Localized lighting equipment includes bunch or flood lights, incandescent spotlights and carbon arc spotlights. The localized group can further be divided into fixed units and portable units. Lighting units placed in the foremost part of the stage may be used to illuminate the stage curtains and drapes as a musical setting, or to furnish general illumination in the foreground of the stage. Another set of units at the back of the stage is generally used for the lighting of the cyclorama or backdrop. General illumination, furnished on the stage from overhead, is the function of border lights. The stage is divided into entrances, and over each entrance, spanning the width of the stage and about 7 ft. apart, these border lights are suspended and so arranged that they can be raised and lowered at will. High wattage lamps are placed in individual reflectors and are divided into colour groups, wired similarly to the footlights. Colour screens of glass or gelatine are used in border lights. Bunch or flood lights are made in many forms, and are used to light a given area to a higher intensity, or to flood painted scenery with a diffused, an unmodified or a coloured light. Some flood lights are made so that they can be suspended. The spotlight may be used to focus the attention of the observer to any particular performer or group, or to any one part of the scene. There are innumerable points in the theatre where these spotlights can | be placed, not only on the stage but out in the auditorium as well. This, however, is a very dangerous form of lighting, and must be applied with great discretion. Bridges spanning the whole width of the stage are suspended at various places, and are mounted with a number of incandescent and arc spotlights. From them shafts of light may be directed to parts of the stage that require particular illumination. Bridges are also suspended on each side of the stage, extending from the proscenium arch toward the rear wall. They are built on two levels and are equipped with a number of bunch lights, incandescent spotlights and arc spotlights. The proscenium spotlights,

which are nearest the proscenium arch, can also be supported

The stage picture, which is often a visual interpretation of the music, provides further means of establishing and co-ordinating the mood of the audience. Just as a composition has a definite theme or character, so the corresponding lighting of the music must have a theme. Once having determined the light theme, So to speak, it should be followed throughout the sequence to

on these bridges. The unique, the grotesque, or stylized mood may be obtained by lighting at angles. Lights may be focused from any direction on the desired object. The effect is generally interesting and unconventional. It must not be forgotten, however, that the function of light in the theatre is to stimulate the imagination. In visionary lighting—the realistic appearance of dreams, apparitions and similar

sustain that particular mood. The light that is visible to the audience is reflected light, and its purpose is to simulate reality. Thus, it is necessary to achieve, or approach as nearly as possible, a natural lighting, or a lighting that is consistent with the char-

creative pictures—the imaginative thought is transposed to actual vision. Ceiling and side-lights are manipulated to create the illusion and the reality—food for the audience’s imagination. There are other mechanical devices to create the illusion—the

emphasize the natural colours of each particular subject or scene,

ples, snow, etc. It is also possible to give the illusion of motion and depth to a scene. All are created by the manipulation of lights and colours. Modern equipment has made rapid strides in the

finishing in perfect co-ordination.

acter of the subject or scene, and an effort should be made to

which provides a guide for the kind of lighting. Costumes, materials, natural settings, may also supply the key-

simulation of various natural phenomena—rain, waterfalls, rip-

290

STAGE

DESIGN

development of stage lighting, both from the mechanical and artistic standpoint, and there is every indication that in the near future it will take a much more prominent part in stage and musical interpretation than ever before. The beauty and magnitude of this branch of the interpretative art lies in the fact that there are no limitations—no specific rules for the director to follow. He may use his ingenuity and his imagination to the full extent. It is a field where the pioneer and experimenter will reap his reward in the beauty of his creation. (See also THEATRICAL STAGE EQUIPMENT; THEATRE, MODERN TENDENCIES; THEATRE, DEVELOPMENT OF; THEATRICAL ProDUCTION; CoLouR Music; LIGHT; THEATRICAL STAGE DESIGN.) BIBLIOGRAPHY. —M. Luckiesh, Tke Lighting Art: Its Practice and Possibilities (1917); C. H. Ridge, Stage Lighting for Little Theatres (1925). See also F.S., “The Development and Present State of Stage Illumination,” in The Illuminating Engineer, vol. i. (1908) ; A. Pollock, “Illumination and the Drama” in Drama, vol. 4, No. 13 (Feb. 1914); J. M. Feeney, “New Method of Stage Lighting,” in Lighting Journal, vol. 3 (Oct. 1915). (S.L. R.) VISUAL ACCOMPANIMENT IN LIGHT

With the new use of light as an independent medium for aesthetic expression through form, motion and colour and the consequent beginning of an art of light (see Cotour Music), a promising field is opening up to artists and experimenters whose work in the new medium will, without a doubt, deeply affect the older art forms, particularly music and the arts of the theatre. Visual Accompaniment to Music—From Castel (16881757) up to the present day a considerable number of experimenters have attempted to assign a permanent colour to each step in

the musical scale, but the results in actual performance have been without scientific or aesthetic justification, partly because the claim that a physical correspondence exists between sound and light vibrations has been permanently disproved by the physicist, and partly because only formless colours were employed and the absence of form and motion, the two most important factors in all visual experience, proved too great a handicap. The only reasonable solution seems to be the complete liberation of the visual artist to compose, in form, motion and colour,

pit or in a modified prompter’s box under the front part of th. stage from which the light-artist can control all visual possibili.

ties by the sweep of a hand over tiny low voltage keys, Further. more, a standardization of lighting units and keyboards mustbe arrived at in order to permit the playing of a written light-scop

in any theatre without the necessity of transporting the heavy

and delicate equipment as is now the practice. Having the manuscript of the play before him and using th white cyclorama or backdrop as a painter’s canvas the scenic an. ist at the light-console can then proceed to illuminate the acto, and the necessary material units, at the same time building Up from special projectors, mobile visual settings in apparent space surrounding the action and recording it all in a suitable notatio below the lines of the play. Settings projected in light have been used for many years, generally painted in colour upon glass o mica disks which were then rotated in the focal plane of a powerful stereopticon, but only on rare occasions have these been ex. ecuted by the scenic designer as an integral part of the setting

They have mostly consisted of detached “effects” such as drifting clouds,

water

ripple,

etc., superimposed

upon

already painted

drops, and the results have lacked co-ordination and depth.

Adolphe Appia, the first important pioneer in stage lighting writes in his Die Musik und die Inscenierung (1899) about the forest scene in “Siegfried”: “We must no longer try to create the illusion of a forest, but instead the illusion of a man in the

atmosphere of a forest. When the forest trees, stirred by the breeze, attract the attention of Siegfried, we, the spectators, should see Siegfried bathed in the moving light and shadows and not the movement of rags of canvas agitated by stage tricks.”

With the invention of the clavilux the projection and control of three-dimensional form in motion has become possible and this instrument was used in the production of Ibsen’s “The Vikings” at the Goodman theatre, Chicago, in March 1928. Each of the four acts began and ended in complete darkness and out of this forms and figures were lifted only as they were meant to occupy the attention of the spectator. The second act, a nocturnal banquet of vikings in a Norse hall, was lit entirely from a battery of a visual accompaniment to an already written musical composition instruments in the central fireplace, and mobile firelight, slightly and of the musician to compose similarly in melody, harmony and stylized, followed the action, constantly bringing out areas oi rhythm a musical setting to a silent visual composition with all importance while subduing all else, increasing and decreasing ir intensity and tempo and retarding only once into a static glov the freedom he now has in setting a poem to music. One of the first attempts in this direction was demonstrated to intensify a moment of suspense. The light conditions change by Leopold Stokowski and the Philadelphia Orchestra and Thomas so constantly during the entire act that the player was unable t Wilfred and his clavilux (g.v.) in Carnegie Hall, New York in lift his hands from the light-keyboard for a single moment. Thi Jan. 1926. For each of the four movements of Rimsky-Korsa- ride of the dead warriors to Valhalla, generally obtained m oper kov’s “Scheherazade” Wilfred had composed a mobile visual by moving lantern slides, was here done as an abstract essence0 setting which he played on a large white screen erected between blackness galloping toward light amid flashes of steel and blood. Thus lighting, having assumed equal importance with music 1 the orchestra and the auditorium. Each musical motif had a corthe theatre, will need a new type of creative artist whose mai responding mobile form and colour motif and these were blended and interwoven as the music was played. It was here demonstrated task will be the fusion of the movements of actors and group that an aural crescendo can effectively be accompanied by a visual with the space surrounding them in such a way that the two com diminuendo and also that the so-called cool colours (blue, tur- to form a mobile, at all times perfect, frame around the spoke quoise and green) introduced in definite forms in certain rapid mo- word. The lighting of static settings and the more or less ind tion progressions, can well be used with an aural climax which pendent “flooding” and “spotting” of the actors will give wayt invariably would have suggested “red” had only formless colour the one difficult problem: the aesthetic treatment with light¢ been employed. Form and motion alone have also been used in mobile form in space. The New Stage.—It is probable that such progress will great! mobile white, grey and black accompaniments to music. Visual Accompaniment to the Drama.—tThe art of light simplify the mechanical requirements of the stage of to-day, at t also opens up fascinating possibilities in the use of mobile light- same time permitting such freedom as the gradual change frol settings of abstract, symbolic or even realistic nature which will one scene or act to the next without a break or a single mechan fold themselves around the action of a play, opera, pantomime cal operation. The new stage in its simplest form would tht or dance as closely as music around a poem—so delicately blended merely consist of a raised platform in front of a large white su and changed that the spectator, while aware of the unusual em- face. No proscenium or curtain would be required as the prop phasis it would give to every.scene, would seldom be conscious of use of light would frame each scene and darkness mark the b

the lighting itself. _. i But before such: possibilities can be touched upon it will be necessary to revise the entire lighting system of the theatre. Even

the most elaborate of the present day equipments are still mamipulated by the electricians from: large cumbersome switchboards,

ginning and end of each chapter of the play, the convention division into acts and scenes no longer being necessary.

Such

stage has been evolved by the American designer, Norman F Geddes. It will be well for those who are to build the theatres of t future to reflect over Appia’s prophetic words, uttered in the ck

generally so placed in a corner of the stage that the several operator’sare unable to see the results produced. This switchhoard ing years of the last century: “An object or an actor takes on stiould be replaced by a light-keyboard placed in the orchestra| plastic quality only through the light that strikes it, and t

PLAN—STAINED

STAGGER

the light is artistically plasticity can only be of artistic value when ICIAL ILLUMINATION: ARTIF AND ING LIGHT also (See handled.” (T. Wi.)

Lighting 1 Practice.)

STAGGER PLAN. The great congestion of transit facilities

GLASS

291

in name only, being composed entirely of Russian officials. Stahl-

berg was then president of the Diet and he had to act as the chief public representative of Finnish opinion. He firmly withstood the increasingly oppressive tendencies of the Imperial Russian Gov-

due to a uniformin some of the larger cities of the United States, ity of opening and closing hours, has led to the adoption of a

ernment. After the Russian revolution of 1917 Finland became an independent republic, and in rọrọ Ståhlberg was elected to the

volved, to the fact that is confined the result of tall buildings and to the fact that travel ical locageograph and shape the to owing s, direction largely to two

and mitigating policy, and when the time of the next presidential election approached, the country almost unanimously desired him to accept re-election. He refused, however, and retired on the

of the Progressive and Socialist so-called stagger plan. The acuteness of the problem in the city presidency and as the candidate hostility and distrust of unconcealed the fight imto had he parties persons of number of New York is mainly due to the large a conciliatory nevertheless, pursued, He parties. conservative the as business areas are highly concentrated

tion of the island which forms the centre of New York’s business on of activity. The department of health, feeling that the congesti d a conducte the transit facilities constituted a menace to health,

survey to determine the feasibility of “staggering” or varying the

opening and closing hours of firms employing large numbers of persons, As the result of this survey, a plan was determined upon to and a considerable number of organizations voluntarily agreed recomthe with ty conformi in hours closing and opening shift their mendations of the health department.

Some of the larger com-

panies found it desirable to divide their employees into groups,

one group arriving at 8.30, another at 8.45, another at g, another at 9.15 and another at 9.30. Each of these groups leaves at cor-

respondingly different times in the afternoon.

The groups are

chosen in such a manner as to be co-ordinate with the flow of work in the organization. In addition to relieving congestion on the

transit lines, this also tends to relieve congestion in the halls and elevators of the company’s building. The movement was in 1928

still in the embryonic stage. STAHL, FRIEDRICH

JULIUS

(O. G. S.) (1802-1861), German

ecclesiastical lawyer and politician, was born at Munich on Jan.

16, 1802, of Jewish parentage. At the age of nineteen he entered the Lutheran church. He was professor of law at Würzburg, and of ecclesiastical law and polity at Berlin. Stahl early fell under the influence of Schelling, and at the latter’s insistence, began in 1827 his great work: Die Philosophie des Rechts nach geschichtlicher Ansicht (an historical view of the philosophy of law), in which he bases all law and political science upon Christian revelation, denies rationalistic doctrines, and, as a deduction from this principle, maintains

must be strictly confessional.

that a state church

This position he further eluci-

dated in his Der christliche Staat und sein Verhältniss zum Deismus und Judenthum (The Christian State and its relation to Deism and Judaism). As synodal councillor Stahl made use of his influence to weaken the Evangelical Union (ż.e., that compromise between the Calvinist and Lutheran doctrines which is the essence of the Prussian Evangelical Church) and to strengthen

the influence of the Lutheran

Church.

(Cf. Die Lutherische

Kirche und die Union, 1859.) Frederick William IV. supported Stahl in his ecclesiastical policy, and the Prussian Evangelical Church would probably have been dissolved had not the regency of Prince William (afterwards the emperor William I.) super-

vened in 1858. Stahl retired into private life and died at Brückenau on Aug. 10, 1861.

STAHL, GEORG ERNST

(1660-1734), German chemist

and physician, was born on Oct. 21, 1660, at Anspach. Having graduated in medicine at Jena in 1683, he became court physician to the duke of Weimar in 1687. From 1694 to 1716 he held the chair of medicine at Halle, and was then appointed physician to the king of Prussia in Berlin, where he died on May 14, 1734. In chemistry he is chiefly known in connection with his doctrine

of phlogiston (see Cuemistry, History of), the essentials of

which, however, he owed to J. J. Becher; and he also propounded a view of fermentation which in some respects resembles that

supported by Liebig a century and a half later.

STÅHLBERG, KAARLO JUHO (1365- _ ), Finnish

statesman, was born on Jan. 28, 1865, At the beginning of his

public career, he held alternately university and administrative

expiration of his presidency.

STAINED GLASS, a term that is generally understood to

refer only to glass windows that have been coloured by such methods as the fusion of metallic oxides into the glass, the burning of pigment into the surface of white glass, or the joining of white with coloured pieces of glass. ORIGINS

The origin of stained glass is obscure. It probably came from the Near East, the home of the glass industry, and mosaic windows of glass set in plaster work, which we know from the 17th century in Egypt and elsewhere, are probably of great antiquity. But it is not likely that the art goes farther back than the gth century; it is doubtful if before that time glass was made in a sufficient variety of colours to suggest and produce coloured

designs. The art would most naturally spread first to Italy, and Venice may have been a centre as early as the roth century. An Italian panel in the Victoria and Albert Museum, tentatively ascribed to the 13th or 14th century, is fully Italian and Romanesque in style and suggests a native tradition. Actually the earliest reference to stained glass in the accepted sense of the term (that is, windows not merely coloured, but pictorial also) is in a manuscript which records that Adalbéron, bishop of Rheims from 969 to 988, rebuilt the cathedral and redecorated it with windows representing various stories (Richer, vol. ii., lib. 3). An earlier reference, in a oth century life of St. Ludger, certainly relates to coloured windows, but it is not clear that they were

pictorial. Male gives, as the earliest mention of leading, a refer-

ence to the Miracles of Saint Benoit where it is related that in the last years of the roth century the church of Fleury-sur-Loire was set on fire and it was feared that the leads of the windows would be melted. Which are the earliest windows extant is a matter of dispute, but the evidence, both literary and stylistic, seems to favour certain figures of prophets in Augsburg cathedral, which may date from the middle of the 11th century. TECHNIQUE

A stained-glass window is a translucent mosaic held together by lead; that is the simplest conception of its technique. Actually other considerations come into play in the design and execution of a window. The lead is not merely a connecting medium, but in all good design plays a part of its own; it outlines the main constituents of the design, giving definition and rhythm to the masses of colour. From the account given by Theophilus, we can derive a very accurate notion of the technique as practised when the art first came to its perfection in the 12th century. The general scheme for the glazing of a church was, of course, the care of the clerics, and we may assume that the artists among them, the illuminators, would prepare the first drawings. One such series of drawings, the Guthlac Roll, is preserved in the British Museum (Harley Roll, Y 6). But the actual cartoon for the glass was drawn on one end of a whitewashed board supported on trestles. The vacant space at the other end was used for laying out the glass and for the general business of glazing. The cartoon was marked to indicate the various colours, and the next step was to shape a piece of glass to the outline required by the design. This was done, firstly and roughly, with a hot iron and then more carefully with a tool known as the “grozing iron,” a

posts until he became a member of the Diet in 1904 and of the flat piece of iron with a notch at one end, rather like a modern Finnish Government in 1905. He resigned in 1907 and in the spanner. This must have been a slow and laborious process, but year was appointed a professor of administrative law. allowing At the outbreak of the World War, the government was Finnish

the grozing iron seems to have continued in use until about 1500,

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when the modern method of diamond cutting began to be employed. The next step, in a fully developed stained-glass window, was to paint the glass with details which the bare design of glass could not give. At first the use of paint was confined to an opaque brown (grisaille, g.v.), used, not as colour, but as a means of outlining the design in further detail, reinforcing the effect of the leads. This pigment consisted of powdered glass mixed with a metallic oxide (probably iron), to which was added sufficient gum to make the mixture adhere. If “high lights” were desired, the whole surface of the particular piece of glass was covered with a thin coating of this paint and the lines scratched through with a pointed stick. Shading effects were produced by stippling with a brush. The glass, having been painted, was next fired in the kiln, to fuse the enamels to the glass. In mediaeval times the glass was fired in a pan, which was filled to the top with alternate layers of glass and whiting. When the glass was fused sufficiently, it was brought out and cooled and then rearranged on the glaz-

ing table. The next step was the leading. This was (and still is) done by means of strips of lead, in section like the letter H, but with a thicker cross-bar to represent the “‘core” of the lead; the upright strokes represent the “tapes.” At first the leads were cast, but in the 17th century the lead vice was introduced. This is a kind of mangle, with two toothed wheels like coins with milled edges, between which a strip of lead is squeezed, the soft metal emerging in the form already described. Sometimes the wheels had the glazier’s name engraved on them, which thus became impressed on the lead as it passed through the machine, and these names are occasionally found on old leading. When the leads, cut to the required length and shape, had been inserted between the pieces of grozed glass, they were next soldered together at the points of junction, and cement or putty was rubbed into the crevices between glass and lead. The window was then ready to move into place, where it was fixed by means of leaden strips soldered to the leads and attached to iron saddle-bars let into the masonry. Larger windows were made in smaller units and these units fitted into an iron framework or “armature” which itself often formed a geometric design contributing to the general effect of the window. From the r2th to the 15th century the technique of stained glass remained practically unchanged, though one minor innovation had a great effect on the character of design. This was the invention, early in the 14th century, of a yellow stain derived from a solution of silver. It formed a very thin film on the glass and was therefore very transparent; on clear glass it varied in tone from pale lemon yellow to deep orange; but it could also be applied to blue glass to produce a brilliant green. Its effect on design was far-reaching and will be noticed when we come to the history of the craft. In the 16th century the technique of glasspainting became more scientific; the glass itself was thinner and smoother and more transparent; two layers of different colours could be put together to produce a third colour; if these layers were fused together, one layer could be ground away or “abraded” (and by a later process “eaten” away by fluoric acid) to give delicate effects beyond the reach of a leaded mosaic. Finally, towards the middle of the 16th century, the art of painting in enamel on glass appeared, perhaps as a result of economic causes

which made a scarcity of pot-metal.

Hitherto glass had been

coloured throughout its substance and was known as “pot-metal,” though to obtain sufficient translucency in a dark colour like ruby the glass was “flashed,” that is to say, clear glass whilst still pliant was dipped into molten coloured glass, and so received a translucent film of the desired colour. But now ground glass was mixed with various metallic oxides (copper for green, cobalt for blue, manganese for purple, and so on) and the design was then painted on to a clear sheet of glass and fused on. For some time this technique was continued with the old technique of leaded pot-metal; but in the 17th and 18th centuries the old technique disappeared, and the art of stained glass was virtually dead. HISTORY

_ Eleventh and Twelfth Centuries.—The windows at Augsburg, ascribed by Fischer to the middle of the 11th century, have already been mentioned. To the end of the 11th century belongs

GLASS

[HISTORY |

a window at Le Mans (France) painted with the Ascension. Fe the 12th century we have in England a figure from a Tree gf Jesse in the minster at York, and at Canterbury there is a map. nificent series representing the genealogy of Christ which mayb

dated about 1180.

At Chartres there are more important ang

extensive examples—in the west window is a Tree of Jesse design which is undoubtedly

the best surviving

stained glass of thi

century; also the beautiful figure of the Virgin and Child know, as La Belle Verrière. Other considerable specimens of 12th cep. tury glass exist at Angers, Saint Denis, Chalons-sur-Mame Bourges, Strasbourg, Poitiers and Le Champ (Isére). The earlieg of these windows, such as those at Augsburg and Chartres, are strongly Romanesque in character. The windows at Canterbury ‘come at the end of the Romanesque tradition. They still preserys

the monumentality so characteristic of Romanesque design, but the figures are far removed from the rigorously schematic treat. ment of the Augsburg prophets; there is the first flush of human. ism in their bold features. There is a sense of movement in their limbs; a sense of vigour in the formal draperies. The colouring of this Canterbury glass is still typical of the 12th century; the bare flesh is cut in pink glass, whilst the rest of the design isa quiet harmony of blues, pale green, white, brown and yellow, arranged in fairly broad masses with no effort towards “jewel-

like” quality. The architectural settings are rudimentary, in most cases representing a simple column on each side of the figure, with an arch spanning the head.

It is probable that most of the early windows were of the singlefigure, monumental

character of the Augsburg and Canterbury

examples. But about the middle of the 12th century a new type of window came into being which consisted, instead of a single representative figure, of a medallion (or several medallions) painted with pictorial subjects, such as incidents from the life of Christ, or from the life of some saint. This change was accompanied by various subsidiary developments. The necessity of telling a story in a series of medallions led to the decorative arrangement of these medallions within an “armature” or iron framework which was itself a subject for pattern, and very beautiful designs were evolved, showing a skilful counterplay oi circles, lozenges, quatrefoils and squares, with their appropriate borders and interspaces. This development in its turn neces sitated larger windows and this necessity had a profound effect on the development of Gothic architecture itself. A third development was in the actual colour of the glass. The pictorial treatment called for a more detailed and more varied play of colow, and the technical resources of the glass-maker were equal to this demand. The result was that kaleidoscopic or jewel-like glow oi colours with which stained glass is always popularly associated. It is in glass of the early 13th century that this property is supremely evident. Thirteenth Century.—With these early 13th century medallions we first become fully conscious of the part played by the actual painting in stained glass. It is true that the earlier figures had a broad effective scheme of drawing, but with the 13th century medallions a fine dramatic sense of line was developed

and continued in force throughout the century. sense of line came that superb sense

And with the

of dramatic composition

illustrated in so many of the medallions of this period at Canterbury, Lincoln, Chartres, Sens, Bourges, Le Mans, Rouen, Cologne, Marburg and Klosterneuburg (near Vienna). The highly stylicized motives of the decorative borders of the 12th century were n0 longer in keeping with this dramatic mode, and as the century advances we accordingly get a naturalizing of these motives. The formal acanthus leaves of classical inspiration give place to mort natural plant motives, to scrolls of oak and vine; these coil with a more organic and vigorous movement, until eventually, in the r4th century, the artists begin to copy directly from their own observation—from the ivy and the wild strawberry. Towards the last quarter of the 13th century, a greyer mood seems to have descended on our glass-painters. It may be that they were required to give more light in the churches, or that the supply of ruby glass, always somewhat precarious, gave out Whatever the reason, there developed in the latter part of the

STAINED

ENGLISH

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much in the south transept of Canterbury Cathedral. As in “The Patriarch is cut in pink glass, while the rest of the design is a of the mediaeval glass in England, the bare flesh ow, arranged in fairly broad masses harmony of blues, pale green, white, brown and yell Jare d.” 12th century

window

Prare I

HISTORY]

STAINED

293

GLASS

are now given a contemporary setting; for his figures, his y3th and early 14th centuries the technique generally known as | jects and his architecture the painter looked around him and grisaille painting. It implies the use of large areas of clear quarries | costumes before his eyes. A playful freedom of line gradmodels found ve unobtrusi painted in black or brown enamel with simple and as the brush-stroke grew lighter, it grew easier. d; ually develope patterns of foliage. Grisaille work at this period is of two kinds: | rendered with more grace and verve; there is are features The | outlined often quarries, of it may consist of geometrical patterns curve and curl in eyes and lips and locks. An of excess an almost | often in coloured bands, on which are painted designs of foliage, lization of the features begins to creep in; we begin to in imitation of a trellised plant, or it may be used in combination | individua of real people, friends and contemporaries of the presence the feel | method with subject medallions. The best instance of this latter abstracted, no longer idealized. The folds longer no nter, glass-pai | York, at js perhaps seen in the windows of the Chapter House and of the garments lose their angular restlessness and sweep which, though now much decayed and obscured, are supreme ex- | in graceful curves. We get, too, the entry of fashion. The sway amples of grisaille work. in the 12th and 13th centuries are formal and of classical These characteristics of 13th century stained glass are gen- | garments except in so far as they are ecclesiastical or military. n, derivatio | flowed. (g.v.) eral wherever the main stream of Gothic art to be somewhat non-committal during the first Distinctions of nationality need not, and indeed cannot, be made. | They continue century, but with the growth of naturalistic r4th the of half | perhaps ry Canterbu at windows n In point of time the medallio revival of figure-subjects we get the unmisthe and t treatmen | come first; then, closest in time and style, come the similar evidences of contemporary fashions. The representation windows at Sens; Chartres comes next and is very impressive | takable then becomes a matter of course, and is of great costume of | glass is there in its quantity and scale; at Bourges and Rouen

very similar to that of Chartres;

the glass at Lincoln and| assistance in the precise dating of stained glass.

But the most typical and expressive development of ornament Beverley in England must be placed somewhere before the seen in the canopy. This form of architectural ornament no is | middle of the century. But back again in France we find a more originated in the 12th century, when an architectural unit doubt | of half second the during Paris in ng developi distinctive school ly an arch—was introduced to indicate a building or —general | Chapelle Sainte the century, in connection with the building of the This simple unit became more elaborate during and the extension of Notre Dame. The distinguishing feature | interior scene. but remained essentially illustrative in inténcentury, 13th the trellisof nd backgrou a of use of this latter style was the general as an early characteristic of the t4th century, get we Then tion. | work in blue and red glass, which, in the mass, has a rather undetail into purely ornamental features. The this of on elaborati the | England, to d penetrate scarcely style This pleasant purple effect. value of pure decoration. At first this is the given is ure architect | south the of though an example may be seen in the east window n, and slender pillars and fretted pindimensio one in rendered transept of Christ Church, Oxford. form a simple and effective setting colour, in nged intercha nacles, | comes century 14th the y in .—Midwa Fourteenth Century k. But as the architecture framewor the within figures the for pure the Black Death, and this catastrophe marks the end of the representation in the glass its , elaborate Gothic tradition, in this as in all other arts. Its most marked | itself becomes more we find an elaborate century r4th the of end the By develops. mmunity inter-co effect was perhaps reflected in the break-up of the spirit of play breaks the century 15th the In ve. perspecti of Christian art. No doubt other forces, economic or political, | use of with angels and coy peopled are niches the and here, even out | Black the by caused zation were operative too; but the disorgani century advances the canopies grow more comDeath among artists and craftsmen all over Europe resulted | minstrels. As the representational. more though plex, Onschools. local more and limited more of in the formation .—With this development of the architecCentury h Fifteent Gerand ward from 1350 the styles of England, France, Austria is perhaps bound up a many diverge more and more from each other. And within all| tural features of stained glass ornament the abandoncentury— x5th the during sion retrogres curious | centres various between iations these countries the local different Artists fordiapers. stylicized for motives plant natural of are often very marked. The disorganization not only affected tra- | ment and vine, and introduced oak ivy, observed carefully the sook | ability the that seems It . technique so more even ditions, but that usually described as the “seato manufacture some of the brilliantly coloured kinds of glass | instead such dreary motives as , shapelessly indented leaf, generally was lost at this time, never fully to be recovered until the rgth | weed pattern”—an elongated and seemingly kept as century. There was also a Cistercian ban on pictorial windows, | painted in reserve on a blue or ruby glass, an indeterminate required design the whenever used be to “stock” which no doubt had some influence in this direction, during the | experath century. But the glass-painters were not slow to react to the | background. It was a step towards that still more slipshod century. 16th the nd of backgrou d diaper e stencille dient—th | century the in early stain new situation; the invention of yellow of stained had provided them with one new resource; and the growing taste | The borders, which had always been an integral part trend. general the ty with conformi in develop design, glass | menalready glass grisaille the d in witnesse as for line design, they and obvious less becomes function aesthetic their But | When tioned, led to the full exploitation of clear white glass. the once the use of white glass had been forced on the glass-painters, | gradually lose decorative value. In the 12th century k the design, enclosing its aesthetic value was appreciated. It may be also that the re- |border had been the essential framewor of unconfined design. sultant effect on the lighting of the churches was appreciated, | within its definite pattern the otherwise for the sequence foil a as existed border the century 13th the In | clearer a at ly aim to conscious nters began and that the glass-pai

when the subeffect. Architectural developments kept pace with, and even | of separate designs. Then, in the 14th century, border beaided, this changing colour-scale. The windows grew higher and | ject-panel became isolated from its background, the unit ing separate a contribut e feature, decorativ purely a nter came | glass-pai g the of wider, the tracery more intricate, demandin an effect that was not too heavy for the expanse to be filled, or | to the general aesthetic effect; in the r2th century the border framed the design—in the 14th it edged the frame of stonework, too clumsy for its delicacy. Further developments were due not so much to economic | its naturalistic form suiting this purpose admirably. Then in the factors as to a change in spirit. The 14th century saw the full | r5th century, with its strange efflorescence of canopy work, the emergence of that movement towards humanism which had found | border tended to lose all aesthetic justification; it existed merely the stonework, and providing, its protagonist early in the 13th century in St. Francis of Assisi. | as a strip dividing the design from to the other. In this rôle it one n from transitio a were, it as | seen already have we sm which The tendency towards naturali more formal in character. Already in’ become to tended naturally | far a was glass stained of motives e decorativ the into creeping foliage had been wider phenomenon, and involved all art and literature. The new the 14th century the typical border of creeping chalices, spirit of Franciscan naturalism only manifested itself in plastic

varied with alternations

of devices

such as crowns,

small figures of angels, etc.; art by slow degrees, but it culminated in the Renaissance. It heraldic badges, grotesquise toanimals, in the famous Bellfounders’ seen be al example exception an | the phy, and iconogra Christian of mation involved a transfor minster, where the glass-painter, along with other artists, now deserted the fixed window in the north aisle of the nave, York

and musical monkeys (centre types of early Gothic art for the living types before him. Sub- | border consists of bells (outer lights)

294

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[HISTORY

light). The 15th century saw some recovery of the sense of colour.

Towards the end of the 15th century England suffereg . Coloured glass of a variety of colours, but too even and flat in general invasion of foreign artists and craftsmen, a growing A tone to be quite satisfactory, became available on the Con- flux that reached its culmination early in the next century with tinent and was largely imported into England. Already in 1408 the arrival of Torrigiano and Holbein. At this time, in th the east window at York minster, made by John Thornton of Netherlands, the art of stained glass had reached a developmen Coventry, is full of a new vitality and gaiety. The covenants for which, in accomplishment and modernity, was far ahead of th the execution of the glass in the Beauchamp Chapel, Warwick, insular style in vogue among English glass-painters. The wog which are dated 1447, specifically provide for glazing the windows and cloth trades flourished in spite of the wars. The ney “with Glasse beyond the Seas, and with no Glasse of England; merchants, earnest Lollards as they were, were eager to turn thei and that in the finest wise, with the best, cleanest and strongest wealth to some good purpose, and thus they made the rsh glasse of beyond the Sea that may be had in England.” This century an age of church building and charitable foundation window was carried out by John Prudde, one of the greatest of And these merchants, moreover, were men of some culture, whos: English glass-painters, and the result is versatile in the extreme, business had brought them into contact with foreign luxuries~ the colours, jewelled and counterchanged to the utmost limits particularly those of the Netherlands. When, therefore, they re. quired glass for the beautifully furnished churches which they of ingenuity, blazing with the greatest richness imaginable. In Germany also, the development was in consonance with the began to construct in various parts of the country, they demande richness and complexity of late Gothic art in general, and here glass in keeping with their luxurious tastes, and for this they the development may be particularly associated with the name of turned to the men from the Netherlands. In answer to the de. Hans Wild, whose principal works date from about 1470 to 1480. mand these men came across and, in accordance with the His most famous window is in the cathedral at Ulm, and shows regulations, established themselves within a recognized sanctuary great boldness and original fantasy in the use of foliage motives. such as the liberty of St. Thomas in Southwark, and assumed The window becomes a luxuriant trelliswork of flowering plants English names. As time went on, they became a menace to the and pinnacles in the depths of which the human figures tend existence of the London Company or Gild of Glaziers, and4 almost to disappear. continual series of disputes between the Gild and the foreigner

One characteristic of this period is the development of heraldry

in glass. We have practically no knowledge or records of the use of heraldry in stained-glass windows previous to the 14th century, though there are three 13th century shields in the apse windows of Westminster Abbey which serve to indicate an early use of heraldic glass. We know from records that these shields were originally placed in the aisle windows, which were of grisaille. But the particular circumstances which brought heraldic glass into general use are hardly consistent with the spirit of

early Gothic art. One of the characteristics of the r4th century is the introduction of the personal element into the windows. Donors began to desire their portraits within the design of their window; memorials to the immediate dead began to assume a representational form. At first no attempt at faithful portrayal could be made; the mode and technique of glass-painting at that time forbade it. The shield of arms had therefore the very definite use of identification. But it was soon realized that heraldry had an aesthetic value of its own, and its use multiplied. Glass proved to be especially suitable to the rendering of the formal patterns of the shields, and the brilliancy doubly attractive in this personal emblem. The ground of the shield, which was usually filled in with a diaper pattern, gave the glass-painter an opportunity to exercise his skill in brushwork and his fertility in the invention of decorative motives. The technique of scratching a design with a point through a dense ground of colour, always a pleasant technique in glass-painting, was encouraged by this development. The glass-painter kept pace with the herald, and did not hesitate to attempt the utmost elaboration of curved shield and exuberant mantling. With the Renaissance heraldic glass took on a more restrained appearance—at least, in England, where the common use of the garter and the wreath tended to

marks the beginning of dition of glass-painting stained glass thrived as with, architecture. With

the 16th century. But the proper tr. was entirely lost. In the middle age an art subordinate to, or in community the Renaissance, and the shifting of th

dominant emphasis of artistic effort from architecture to painting

the glass-painter found himself in a dilemma. He had to adap his art to the new conditions, or suffer from the general neglec of arts subordinate to architecture. He attempted to save him self by adopting the aesthetics of painting, and the history o

stained glass henceforth is the history of this false step and o all the disastrous consequences. Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries—But whilst thi false aesthetic was developing, there grew up in France and th Netherlands a full-blooded Renaissance style of glass-paintin which makes the first half of the 16th century a distinctive epoc

in the history of the art. It is a development of the pictori treatment of the windows on the largest possible scale; the wi dow is regarded as one large canvas; the intersecting mullions a ignored. On this canvas the coloured glass is spread in generoa masses and heightened by all the resources of line and shade. T} windows gleam with everything that is rich and ornate | colour, design and subject. The glass is thin, but this fault counteracted

by the breadth

of the treatment.

The

Nethe

landish type is well represented in England by the work of in ported artists, of whom Barnard Flower is the most importan This artist came from the Netherlands, probably encouraged| Henry VII., who made him king’s glazier in 1505. Flow executed the whole of the windows for Henry VII.’s chapel. Westminster,

and was

entrusted with the contract for King

College chapel, Cambridge, but died before he had complet: more than four of the windows. It is probable that among t! confine the design within sober limits. Elsewhere, especially in work which may be attributed to Flower are the windows | Switzerland, heraldic glass became, during the course of the 15th Fairford church in Gloucestershire, perhaps the most comple unit of stained glass remaining intact in England. King’s Colle and r6th centuries, the most typical use of glass-painting. The xrsth century saw a great growth and intensification of the chapel, begun by Flower after designs probably by the Flemi individualism we have already noted as arising in the 14th cen- artist, Dirick Vellert, was completed by a mixed company tury. Such a development naturally gave rise to the dominance English and Flemish glaziers. In France, Rouen was the great centre of glass-painting, 4 of artists of unusual talent, and to the formation of schools dependent on such artists. A distinct. style became established that city still offers an incomparable display of the glass of tl as a local tradition and sometimes persisted over two or three period, though many other towns, such as Evreux, Chalons-st generations. Such schools were formed all over Europe, and Marne, Dreux, Beauvais, Auch, Troyes and Montmorency, £ particularly in the great ecclesiastical cities. In England, for famous for their windows. In the Netherlands, the most import example, definite schools can be associated with York, Coventry, windows of this period are found in Antwerp, Hoogstraten, Br Canterbury, Winchester, Oxford, Gloucester, Wells, Lincoln, Nor- sels, Liége and Amsterdam, whilst the windows at Gouda, paint by the brothers Dirk and Waiter Crabeth and their pup wich and Westminster. The different styles are not always easy to distinguish, and the towards the end of the 16th century, are of extraordinary ra! “schools” are rather in the nature of empirical groupings based on and completeness. In Germany important schools existed Strasbourg, Augsburg, Munich, Freiburg-im-Breisgau, Nure the density of distribution.

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iy ENGLISH

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33 From the east w indow of All Sa ints church , York, dated “St. Anne Teaching the Vi irgin. The colouring Ís s imple though rich in q ual ity, a character is t ic of English glass about 1440. The Virgin’s dress St. Anne wears a ruby cloak and b onnet and a blue gown. of this period. is white, ornamented with a pale yellow pattern, and the background of figures and canopy i w ith a diaper. All other parts are white w ith some yellow sta Is blue covered

II

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295

herg, and above all at Cologne, the general character of all of | individuals, each expressing his own wayward

which was not essentially different from that of the dominant | some

ingenuity, supplying

some

Flemish or French type. In Italy the period is mainly associated | nothing of significance. Eighteenth and Nineteenth with the name of Guglielmo de Marcillat (1467-1 529, sometimes

fancy, displaying

passing need, but achieving Centuries.—The

Gothic

re-

of erroneously called William of Marseilles). Windows known to| vival that came as an offspring of the Romantic movement have been made by him exist at Arezzo and Rome, and a very | the late 18th and early 19th centuries was not without its effect typical example from the cathedral of Cortona, dated 1516, is | on the art of stained glass. The styles and methods of the early of all inner reason in the Victoria and Albert Museum. At Florence, where there | Gothic period were reconstructed, but devoid

formulas are also important earlier windows in the cathedral which are | or inspiring sentiment. The art thus reduced to sterile of said to have been designed by Ghiberti

and Donatello,

other | was easily commercialized, and factories for the manufacture

up windows in the style of Marcillat may be seen in the church of | windows, any size, any subject and colours to taste, sprang of state this From Germany. in especially but Europe, over all | an caused Milan at cathedral the of Santa Croce. The building important school of glass-painting to develop there, and the | things the Pre-Raphaelites and William Morris (qq.v.), largely work of Cristoforo de Mottios and Nicolo da Varallo carried out | inspired by Ruskin, revolted, and whatever faults we may impute

during the second half of the 15th century is of great beauty. | to them, we must nevertheless acknowledge that they made a

The Milan school continued in full activity during the 16th and | feeling for design once again a vital force in the social life of rth centuries. In Spain, especially at Seville, Leon and Avila, | England—and, indeed, eventually of Europe. We cannot enter magnificent windows of this period exist, but they are in all | here into the general character of Morris’s achievements, but the basic fact upon which all his ideals rested was an intense cases the work of Flemish glass-painters. In the 17th century we find the highest level of glass-painting | aesthetic appreciation of mediaeval art. As much, perhaps, can in Switzerland, though actually that level had been surpassed in | be said of the initiators of the Gothic revival, though we may its own country during the 16th century, when Holbein and Burgk- | suspect that as an aspect of romanticism their enthusiasm sprang mair were leading designers of the panels typical of that country. | from a sense of the remoteness, the strangeness, and the mysteriBut the real significance of Switzerland in the history of glass- | ous gloom of this earlier art rather than from any real underpainting is that there alone was evolved an appropriate technique | standing of its rational basis or religious significance. But Morris of enamel-painting. For various reasons of a social kind, glass- | had a more logical appreciation of the Gothic, and his attitude painting in that country had acquired a more domestic char- | was as free from insincerity as it was devoid of any desire to imiacter; it actually became part of the furniture of the people, and | tate. He realized that without the spirit, the form could not exist,

a panel for the window of a room was as natural, and even more | and his real greatness and overwhelming importance in the his-

usual, than a picture for the wall. Glass-paintings thus became | tory of modern craftsmanship springs entirely from the fact that intimate and portable—a kind of Kleinmaleret comparable to the | he attempted to evolve a style and invent a technique appropriate development of Kleinplastik in sculpture. Within the limits of | to the expressions of his age. Burne-Jones designed his first carthis littleness, the art of enamelling glass developed an appropriate | toons for stained glass as early as 1857, and the St. Frideswide technique. It was, indeed, the technique of painting—of trans- | window in Christ church, Oxford, dates from 1859. These early lucent painting—but then the Swiss panel was in all essentials |windows were carried out by Messrs. Powell of the Whitefriars a painting. To the same category belong the roundels painted in | Glasshouse, but from 1861 Burne-Jones worked exclusively for grisaille which were produced in large quantities during the first | Morris. Stained glass was included in the first exhibition of the half of the 16th century. In these types of glass-painting the | work of Morris, Marshall, Faulkner and Company in 1862. But specific problems of distance and architectural harmony did not | the work of this period is weak in design and uncertain in techenter into the question; everything was made for nearness and | nique. No attempt had been made to work out the proper funcintimacy. And on this scale stained glass was inappropriate, un- | tion of the leads in the design, and the enamels are either poor in quality or badly fired. But even so, there was a certain freshness gainly and without effect. The same observations might be made of the Dutch and| of attitude and a revolt against the dead conventions of the time. Flemish glass-paintings of the 16th and 17th centuries, which | But as the demand for stained glass increased, so more thought illustrate the enamel technique in both its good and bad aspects, | was given to these matters and the improvement was rapid. In and it was through these, rather than the Swiss, that the new | Morris’s fully developed style, as in the cathedral at Birmingham, style penetrated to England.

Abraham

and Bernard van Linge | there is little to complain of in the technique of his glass. Time

(who flourished about 1620-40 and painted many windows in | has yet to show whether the materials will weather so well as Oxford and elsewhere) were the chief of these immigrants, but | the 13th century materials, but in this matter Morris was at the they were ably imitated by native artists such as Henry Gyles | mercy of other people; he did not make his own glass, but obof York (1645-1709), the Price and the Peckitt families of the | tained the best he could find in the market. In other technical same city, and by artists like Francis Eginton (1737-1805) and | matters Morris need not fear comparison with any age. His seJames Pearson (d. 1805), who carried the art right on to the | lection and disposition of colours is admirable, and he was not

threshold of the roth century. At their best, the achievements | afraid of using new colours to achieve effects unknown to previous

of the glass-painters in this genre have a miniature delicacy and | ages. In the use of leads to emphasize design he is masterly, and a perfection of means beyond reproach. But it must be realized |we must go back to the 13th century for an adequate comparison. that we have entered on a new art, with its own aesthetic, and | The best examples of windows by Morris and Burne-Jones are”

we must beware of any confusions of judgment in this respect. | to be found in Christ church, Oxford (the St. Cecilia and St.

The unfortunate truth is that in England (and elsewhere in | Catherine windows, 1874-75 and 1878), the “Judgment” window Europe) it was the glass-painters who were guilty of confusion. | at Easthampstead (1875), the two windows in Salisbury cathedral

Social custom never called upon them for a domestic art com- | (1879), the east window parable with Swiss glass-painting, but nevertheless they attempted to apply the methods of the domestic glass-painters (but without their technical skill) to the quite different needs of ecclesiastical

of St. Peter's, Vere street, London

(1881), a window representing the Resurrection at Hopton (1882), the well-known windows in the cathedral at Birmingham, perhaps the finest of all (1887), and (perhaps the most impor-

buildings. The result was generally ludicrous, and always in- | tant in London) the windows at Holy Trinity, Sloane street. appropriate. The crowning example of this misalliance of two | What is reputed to be one of the finest examples of their work inconsistent arts is to be found in the window designed by Sir | (1882) is a window at Biarritz in France, representing the marJoshua Reynolds

for New

College chapel, Oxford, which was

actually carried out by a china-painter.

riage at Cana.

In addition to all the work designed for churches,

and confined in the main to Biblical subjects, Burne-Jones and

è art of glass-painting in England during the 17th and 18th | Morris made a good deal of stained glass for domestic or secular centuries does not offer sufficient material for any comparative | purposes. In their choice of subjects for this profane glass, they criticism or positive judgment. We see nothing but scattered | perhaps unduly confined themselves to the romantic and literary

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PHOTOGRAPHS, MAJESTY KING TOR

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ALBERT

PERMISSiON OF HIS OF (4-8) THE DIREC»

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15TH

EXAMPLES OF AND 16TH CENTURY STAINED GLASS

1, 2, 3. Panels

depicting

scenes

of “The

Last

(Rouen School); dated French Supper.” 1542 4. “The Adoration of the Magi,” by Guglielmo de araa emen RDEE EAA ER EREE Marcillat, Italian. About 1516. From Cortona Cathedral, Italy 5. “The Virgin and Child,” 15th century, German 6. A heraldic panel, Swiss, 16th century 8. “A Merchant in his Warehouse.” “The Month of March,” Roundel, from a series of the Labours of the Months. about 1530 Engiish, 15th century T

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PLATE

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(6,

10)

THE

DIRECTOR

OF

THE

VICTORIA

AND

ALBERT

MUSEUM,

(9,

11)

COLLECTION

ARCHIVES

PHOTOGRAPHIQUES,

PHOTOGRAPHS,

(3, 7, 8) PUHL AND WAGNER

1. “The Mocking of Christ,” English, early 16th century. In King’s College Chapel, Cambridge. 2. “‘Jonah and the Whale,” by Abraham Van Linge. In University College Chapel, Oxford. Dated 1635. 3. “Fishing.” Example of modern German stained glass, Seewald, executed by G. Heinersdorff. 4. “St. Peter,” English, middle 14th century. In Gloucester Cathedral. 5. ‘‘God Appearing unto Abram.”’ English, middle 15th century. In Great

Malvern

Priory.

6. “St.

Peter.”

French,

second

half

(1,

2,

5)

4,

of 13th

From Sées Cathedral, Normandy. 7 and 8. “Prophets.” century. In Augsburg Cathedral. 9. “The CreaGerman, llth century. middle tion of Eve,” in the Cathedral, Chalons-sur-Marne. French, 11. 10. ‘‘St. Michael,’? German, 14th century. 15th century.

“The Institution of Matrimony” Chalons-sur-Marne

another stained

glass window

at

297

STAINES—STAIR

ETOR

redilections of their circle; but here again we cannot criticize

on of their cheir stained glass without entering into a discussi say that it lacked to nt sufficie perhaps is It view. of point cy whole the immedia and the reality which we are entitled to expect

from any contemporary expression of ideals. The principles which William Morris established and followed

give us an adequate criterion for the criticism of modern stained

have been glass. It is sad to confess how little these principlesvital contact ‘allowed in England itself. There is no longer any day. hetween the glass-painters and the significant artists of the

neuere

Glasmalerei

(1925);

J. D. Le Couteur,

English

M ediaeval

Painted Glass (London, 1926); H Read, English Stained Glass (London, 1926); F. Kieslinger, Gotische Glasmalerei in Österreich bis 1450 (H. Ro.) (Zurich, 1927); F. Gaudin, Le Vitrail (Paris 1928).

STAINES, a town in Middlesex, England. Pop. of urban district (1931) 21,209.A British village was situated at the Thames

on the main road from London, and the crossing was one of the earliest bridged. A grant of oaks from Windsor forest for the

repair of the bridge is recorded in 1262. The existing bridge, from the designs of George Rennie, was opened in 1831, after three and lifeless bridges had failed in the previous forty years. The name of And in all directions there is a relapse into a servile disregard Staines appears in the Domesday Survey, and is attributed to a imitation of mediaeval mannerisms, due to a natural It observed. Morris which s ordinance ficing stone marking an early limit of the City of London. for those self-sacri

sems that only the complete filling of every window in every old church will ever terminate this atrocious vandalism. There

might be some satisfaction in the prospect if it were certain that

“period that would put a stop to what is known in the trade as work”; but these pastiches of the art of other epochs find their

way into practically every new church that is built, and the only

hope of any reform would seem to lie in the final triumph of those principles for which William Morris stood. For these prinon ciples are not altogether dead; they have merely migrated, and

the Continent, especially in Germany, there is a school of glassby painting which is not only modern in intention, but is inspired

all that is vital and significant in modern art. Like the stained glass of William Morris, this modern continental stained glass is both religious and secular. The work of Jan

Thorn-Prikker and of Karl Schmidt-Rottluff has given to the symbols and images of Christianity a new intensity and realism for which there is no parallel this side of the Renaissance; and the abstract designs in which these glass-painters have experi-

mented seem to open up infinite possibilities for this art of pure colour and light. These artists work under the direction of Gott-

fried Heinersdorff for the Berlin firm of Puhl and Wagner.

In

STAINLESS

and unrivalled beauties of the art as it has existed in the past. (See PAINTING;

GRISAILLE;

INTERIOR

DECORATION;

from 12 to 18% chromium, the balance being iron. It is inher-

ently stainless to atmospheric corrosion, resists most acids and chemicals fairly well, and can be fabricated and worked cold like mild steel. Most of the possible iron-carbon-chromium compounds up to 3% carbon and 60% chromium have been patented, in addition to the Brearley patent noted above, and many of them containing more than 20% chromium, either in the form of forgings or castings, are non-scaling, ze., will withstand oxidation ‘at 1,100° C for weeks. Such are very useful for furnace parts or pots to withstand flame. High chromium steels containing

France, interesting experimental work is being done, for example, by MM. Mauméjean of Paris and Hendaye. Stained glass, which dominates all other arts in this matter of colour, would seem to be peculiarly fitted for those experiments in abstract design and harmony which have been distinctive of a certain phase of modern art. The difficulty in all contemporary glasspainting of a non-ecclesiastical kind, is not so much to extend the possibilities of the art in the direction of design and actuality, but rather to find a function for the art itself. For that we must look, with whatever faith we can summon, to those manifestations of civic and commercial enterprise for which our age is distinguished. At Hagen, in Germany, the railway station has fine modern glass by Jan Thorn-Prikker; in Paris, the offices of a newspaper, L’Intransigeant, have windows with appropriate designs by Henri Navarre executed in leaded glass by Gaëtan Jeannin. But these are isolated instances of what seems to be the only chance of a revival of the art commensurate with its possibilities. There is nothing impossible in such a revival; the technical and material resources of the art are greater than they have ever been. All that is lacking is the desire; and to foster this we cannot do better than instil a wider consciousness of the unique HERALDRY; GOTHIC ART; RENAISSANCE;

STEEL is a term used in a broad sense, par-

ticularly in America, to cover all “rustless steels” (q.v.) or iron alloys designed to resist atmospheric corrosion, attack by organic solutions, hot or cold acids or chemicals, or scaling at elevated temperatures. In the restricted sense the term applies as a trade name to cutlery steels containing not more than 0-70% carbon and from 9 to 16% of chromium patented in 1916 by the English metallurgist Brearley. Chromium is the principal alloying element in most stainless metals (in the broad sense used above). Stainless or rustless iron contains less than oro% carbon and usually

MOSAIC;

GENRE; ARCHITECTURE,

CHURCH; Grass.) Brsriocrarpay—N. H. J. Westlake, History of Design in Painted

Glass (1881-94); H. Oidtmann, Die Glasmalerei, thre Technik und Geschichte (Cologne, 1893); H. Lehmann, Zur Geschichte der Glasmalerei in der Schweiz. (Mitteilungen der Antiquarischen ‘Gesellschaft

considerable nickel, for instance 17% chromium and 8% nickel,

are non-rusting and are austenitic (g.v.) in structure, very tough, may be hardened by cold work, and are being widely adopted by the chemical industry for processing equipment. Addition of silicon improves the resistance to scaling of this and plain chromium steels (gas engine valves, for instance, contain 8% chromium and 3% silicon). Other alloying elements are also used for special purposes. Superior resistance to hot or cold hydrochloric acid (until recently unobtainable by any but the noble metals) is given by an alloy of 20% iron, 20% molybdenum and 60% nickel. While the entire field of iron-carbon-chromium-nickelsilicon alloys is so big that the surface has barely been scratched, to say nothing of possible additions of tungsten, molybdenum, cobalt, copper, manganese, and aluminium, enough is known of

the properties of various stainless alloys so that small pieces or large equipment which will corrode or scale no faster than 0-02 in. per year can now be furnished for nearly all commercial liquids (E. E. T.) or industrial atmospheres.

STAIR, JAMES

DALRYMPLE,

ist Viscount

(1619-

1695), Scottish lawyer and statesman, was born in May 16109, at

Drummurchie in Ayrshire. After seven years as regent of the University of Glasgow he resigned, going to Edinburgh, where he was admitted to the bar on Feb. 17, 1648. In 1649 he was appointed secretary to the unsuccessful commission sent to The Hague to treat with Charles II. by the parliament of Scotland, and was sent in the following year to Breda, where the failure of Montrose’s expedition forced Charles to change his attitude and to return to Scotland as the covenanted king. Stair met him on his

landing in Aberdeenshire. He refused in 1654 to take the oath of allegiance to the Commonwealth. Three years later (1657), Stair was appointed a commissioner of justice in Scotland, on the Vtrer (1905); L. F. Day, Windows (London, Schwäbische Glasmalerei (Stuttgart, r912); M. Drake, History of recommendation of Monk. After the Restoration he was received

Schweizer Glasia Zurich, 1903-12); H. Oidtmann, Geschichte der1909); Leo Balet, Glasspainting (London, 1912); H. Schmitz, Die Glasgemälde English des Kgl, Kunstgewerbemuseums in Berlin (Berlin, 1913); G. Heiners-

dort and K. Scheffler, Die Glasmalerei (Berlin, 1913); P. Nelson, Ancient Painted Glass in England (London, 1913); J. L._Fischer, Handbuch der Glasmalerei (Leipzig, 1914); H. Schmitz, Deutsche Glasmalereien der Gothik und Renaissance (Rund- und KabinettGlasmascheiben) (Munich, 1923); H. Lehmann, Zur Geschichte der lerei in der Schweiz (Leipzig, 1925) ; A. Hoff, Thorn-Prikker und die

with favour by Charles, knighted, and made a judge in the court of session. He refused to take the declaration that the National Covenant and the Solemn League and Covenant were unlawful oaths, and, forestalling deposition, he resigned. The king, however, summoned him to London, and allowed him to take the

declaration under an implied reservation. In 1669 a family calam-

298

STAIR— STAIRCASE

ity, the exact facts of which will probably never be ascertained, overtook him. His daughter Janet, who had been betrothed to Lord Rutherford, was married to Dunbar of Baldoon, and some tragic incident occurred on the wedding night, from the effects of which she never recovered!, In 1670 Stair served as one of the Scottish commissioners who went to London to treat of the Union. In Jan. 1671 he was appointed president of the court of session. In 1672, and again in 1673, he was returned to parliament for Wigtownshire. When the Test Act was enforced Stair, dreading a fate similar to that of Argyle (g.v.), went to London to seek a personal interview with the king; but the duke of York intercepted his access to the royal ear, and when he returned to Scotland he found a new commission of judges issued, from which his name was omitted. He retired to his wife’s estate in Galloway, and occupied himself with preparing for the press his great work, The Institutions of

the Law of Scotland, which he published in the autumn of 1681, with a dedication to the king. He repaired to Holland in Oct. 1684, and took up his residence, along with his wife and some of his younger children, at Leiden, where he published the Decisions of the Court of Session between 1666 and 1671 and a small treatise entitled Physiologia nova experimentalis. In his absence a prosecution for treason was raised against him and others of the exiles by Sir G. Mackenzie, the lord advocate, but it was dropped, owing to the appointment of his son, the master of Stair, who had made his peace with James II, as lord advocate in place of Mackenzie. Stair returned from Holland in the suite of William of Orange. In 1689 he was again placed at the head of the court of session. He was attacked by an anonymous pamphleteer, perhaps Montgomery or Ferguson the Plotter, in a pamphlet entitled The Late Proceedings of the Parliament of Scotland Stated and Vindicated. He defended himself by publishing an Apology. Shortly after its issue he was created Viscount Stair (1690). The massacre of the Macdonalds of Glencoe (Feb. 13, 1692), for which his son, the master of Stair, was largely responsible, naturally reflected on him. On Nov. 29, 1695 Stair died in Edinburgh. Stair’s great legal work, Fhe Institutions of the Law of Scotland deduced from its Originals, and collated with the Civil, Canon and Feudal Laws and with the Customs of Neighbouring Nations is important for the historical study of Scottish law. See J. Murray Graham, Annals of the Viscount and First and Second Earls of Stair (1875); A. J. G. Mackay, Memoir of Sir James Dalrymple, First Viscount Stair T7875) ; and Sir R. Douglas, Peerage of Scotland, new ed., by Sir J. B. aul.

STATR, a series of steps arranged one above the other, occasionally varied by platforms known as “landings.” The total height of a stair is the “rise,” the total horizontal distance between the top and bottom steps is the “run.” A series of steps without a landing is called a “flight.” The horizontal surface of a step is called its tread, and the vertical front its riser. The projection of the tread beyond the face of the riser is termed a nosing. Long use has demonstrated that certain proportions of riser and tread are safe and easy. For interior stairs twice the height of the riser, plus the length of the tread, should be 23, all dimensions being in inches. A variant is that the sum of rise and tread should be between 17 and 174 in.; a third rule specifies that the product of rise and tread, in inches, should be not less than 70 nor more than 75. In general, English usage advocates a slightly lower rise for a given tread than American usage, while in Europe the rise is frequently greater. For exterior stairs, the general usage is to keep the riser below 6 in., and the tread above 12. It is uncertain what is the oldest stair in existence. On the sacred road up the mountain of Tai Shan, in Shantung, China, there are many great flights of ancient granite steps. In Egypt stairs in pylons exist which date from the second millennium BC. Assyria has left massive stairs on the ziggurats (q¢.v.), which date from the oth and 8th centuries, B.c.; and the palace terrace at Persepolis has a double flight of steps, of great beauty, which shows the skill of the Persians in the 6th century B.c. Further west, stairs play an important part in the Cretan palISir Walter Scott took the plot of his Bride of Lammermoor

from

this incident, but he disclaimed any intention of making Sir William Ashton a portrait of Lord Stair.

aces, as in the palaces at Knossos and Phaistos (both c. 1500 B.C}

In Hellenic Greece the monumental stair was of less importane

due to the Greek love of informal and picturesque approache Thus in Athens the propylaea of the Acropolis was probably e.

tered by a winding path and the present great flight of stairs dy. ing from the Roman period, is not part of the original design, Jn the post Alexandrian period there developed a new love of mony. mental grandeur, largely Asiatic in origin, which produced such magnificent stairs as those of the altar of Zeus at Pergamon (18 B.c.). A similar monumental sense distinguished Roman stair Those of the propylaea at Baalbek (time of Hadrian), over to, ft. wide, are typical, and again and again stairs are made essen. tial parts of great architectural conceptions, as in the temple of the Sun on the Quirinal hill at Rome, built by, Aurelian (ap. 273), some of the steps of which were taken, in 1348, to build the fy.

mous stairs of the Aracoeli on the Capitoline hill at Rome. Although during the middle ages stairs were used more for util. tarian than aesthetic purposes, where they were necessary they received adequate treatment, usually more direct and informal and more picturesque than those of the Roman tradition. Thus at Le Puy en Vélay, in France, the rrth century cathedral, which was built on a hilltop, is approached by a magnificent stair that provides a superb foreground to the polychrome façade. The steps that mount up to and past the apse of the 14th century cathedral at Erfurt, in Germany, show the direct and beautiful relationship between the building itself and the stairs which is characteristic of the best Gothic usage. The Renaissance produced a recrudescence of the tradition of Roman formality in stair design. Particularly magnificent are the

stairs of the Baroque period, such as the so-called Spanish stairs at Rome in the Piazza di Spagna (1723-26), by F. de Sanctis, those of the Campidoglio, at Rome (begun 1547), by Michelangelo and the infinitely varied terrace stairs of the Italian villas. The inspiration of these Italian Baroque stairs was felt throughout Europe and is largely the foundation of stair design in modem city and garden planning. Thus the enormous stairs of the gardens of Versailles (1667-88), by A. Le Nôtre, owe much to the Italian precedent, and were themselves imitated widely all over Europe, Among modern stairs may be noted the extremely lavish stairs of the monument to Victor Emmanuel IL., in Rome (begun 1885), by Giuseppe Sacconi, with the altar of the Patria; the broad flights leading up to the library of Columbia university, New York (1896), by McKim, Mead and White; Waterloo steps in London (1831-34), by Benjamin Wyatt and those of the Lincoln memorial at Washington, D.C. (1924), by Henry Bacon. In the Orient, the stairs leading down to the river at Benares,

in India, of various dates, combine monumentality and picturesqueness; a similar skill is shown in the design of large numbers of temple and palace steps throughout the peninsula. Further east the ruins of Angkor use wide flights of steps with magnificent effect in connecting the various levels of the terraced group. Th Chinese have always been superb stair designers and builders, and there is hardly a temple or large house or palace which does not owe some of its effect to its stairs, either monumental and formal, like those of the Forbidden City or the Temple of Heaven, both in Peking, or winding and informal, as in Chinese garden design. Many of the temple stairs have, in the centre, an inclined plane running the entire height of the rise, richly carved with the symbolic dragon—the so-called spirit stairs by which the beneficent powers are supposed to enter. In Japan the tradition is much more informal, but the hilly nature of the country makes stairs an

important feature of almost every temple layout. (T. F. H.) STAIRCASE, a term for stairs accompanied by walls. The earliest staircases seem to have been built with walls on both sides, as in Egyptian pylons. Contemporary models of houses, dating back to the Middle Kingdom, show a staircase leading up the side of a court to a roof terrace, with continuous wall below. The origin of such stairs may have been earlier structures in wood, or even ladders cut out of logs. Egyptians may have used the self-supporting staircase in which each step is supported at its

front by the step below and prevented from turning by having 1t

end built solidly into a wall.

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1. Staircase by John Russell Pope in the Sloane house in New York, a characteristic modern interpretation of late Georgian delicacy and detail 2. The staircase of the third quarter of the 18th century, in the MoffattYard-Ladd house in Portsmouth, N.H., characterized by the panels, bracketed ends and lavishly turned balusters, so typical of the developed American colonial 3. The famous stairs of the Petit Trianon at Versailles, though built by Gabriel tn 1766 under Louis XV., show a simple delicacy and a use of straight lines characteristic of the style known as Louts XVI. 4. Much more typical of Louis XV. work is the lavish and monumental

(4) LEVY AND NEURDEIN,

MODERN

(5, 6, 7) BONNEY

STAIRCASES

by E. Here, stairs of the Hôtel de Ville at Nancy, France, designed with iron work by Lamour

many materials and to 5. Modern freedom in design, the effort to combine designed by

a stair contrast straight and curved lines, characterize Patou in a Paris shop (La petite Jeannette) in Paris, designed by 6. The circular, concrete staircase in the Martel house types R. Mallet-Stevens, an austere simplification of the more extreme of modernism

concrete 7. In his Paris house, the same architect, Mallet-Stevens, combines stairs with a railing of aluminium whose narrow aluminium supports, set at varying angles, catch varying reflections

STAIRCASE Greece and Rome.—In classical Greece, interior staircases were common but unimportant; they were placed in out of the

way corners, and often built of wood. In Rome, a new treatments for staircases became necessary. Many of the apartment houses indicated on the marble plan of Rome (c. A.D. 205), now

in the Palazzo dei Conservatori at Rome, seem to have had stair

rowers built in the centre of a courtyard. The Colosseum (g.v.) at Rome (completed A.D. 80) has elaborate and practical entrance and exit stairs, by which the crowds could be readily handled.

These, in general, are supported by sloping vaults and roofed by others. Similar staircases were common in the theatres.

Byzantine and Romanesque.—Merely inclined planes lead

up within enormous buttresses at the ends of the narthex of S. Sophia (532) at Constantinople, so giving access to the galleries. In S. George at Salonica (late 5th century), a spiral staircase surrounds an open well. In the early Romanesque there is a growing use of the spiral staircase. To this development the great thickness of Romanesque walls and buttresses was particularly congenial, as it allowed the staircases to be built in solid masonry. Not only was the open circular well used, but the solid newel, in which each step had cut upon it a cylindrical form to act as part

299

ness of wall surface remains, as in the staircase of the hospital of S. Cruz at Toledo (1504-14), by E. de Egas. The climax of Spanish Renaissance monumental stair design is reached in the

“Escalera Dorada” at Burgos cathedral (1519), by D. de Siloe, with its exquisite metal railing. The developed classicism combined with the Baroque of the later 16th century to give a new trend to staircase design throughout Europe. Thus in France a gorgeous series of staircases was produced, of which the “Escalier des Princes” of Versailles is typi-

cal. The reaction to the lightness and gaiety of the Louis XV. period (see Louis Stytes) led to the development of many gracious and inviting house staircases of the type known as _ self-supporting, full of sweeping curves and with railings frequently of metal. In the Louis XVI. period the new, popular classicism restrained the exuberance of the earlier staircases but retained their graciousness and lightness; of these, one of the loveliest is that of the Petit Trianon at Versailles (1766), by Gabriel, with a beautiful iron railing. Meanwhile, the classic trend had expressed itself in England by the substitution of open string for closed string stairs, that is with the balusters coming down to the top of each tread, rather

than being supported on a slanting member, or string, which received the ends of the treads. This at once made for a more interGothic.—The Gothic spiral staircase was cut with the utmost esting treatment at the ends of the steps, and led, eventually, to cleverness. We have the radial stone cut in two levels, so that the the development of the bracketed step end, in which scrolls and ascent was twice as fast as by the ordinary method, thus allowing leafage of great richness were carved under the end of each riser. the radius to be remarkably decreased. Such circular staircases as Moreover, the fact that English stairs were largely of wood inlead up in the traceried turrets of the spire of Strasbourg cathe- spired the design of turned balusters and newels of great variety. dral in Alsace (1435) are miracles of daring design and delicate During the last half of the 18th century, a growing trend toward execution. The late Gothic period also produced a great number lightness and delicacy of design led to the substitution of plain, of beautiful interior staircases, like the “Stair of the Library” in tapered shafts in place of elaborate balusters, and the use of Rouen cathedral (1477-79), which show that the possibilities of stairs rising in continuing curves instead of straight flights and the staircase with straight runs were at last being realized. Of rich landings. The same development took place during the 18th ceninterior spiral staircases, the early 16th century staircase leading tury in the colonial work of North America. Thus certain of the to the organ in S. Maclou, in Rouen, and the contemporary stair- earliest houses, like the Capen house at Topsfield, Mass. (1683), case to the jube (g.v.), or rood loft, of S. Étienne du Mont in have closed strings and heavy newels of Jacobean type, while the Paris (in which a certain amount of Renaissance feeling is pres- Lee mansion at Marblehead, Mass. (1768), has a magnificent ent) are noteworthy. In the larger houses the lack of communi- open string staircase, whose steps have panelled and scrolled ends, cating passages led to many staircases. Thus in the house of and whose twisted balusters are as rich as any contemporary Jacques Coeur at Bourges (c. 1450), there are eight separate work in England. The curved staircase of the Valentine museum spiral staircases, whose exterior treatment, in rich, traceried towers, at Richmond, Va. (1812), is typical of the later delicacy. Modern.—During the middle and the third quarter of the roth furnishes a great deal of the picturesqueness and varied beauty of century, staircase design reached its lowest ebb, not only in Engsuch a building. Renaissance.—During the Renaissance, despite such tours de land and France, but throughout Europe, except in the case of force as Vignola’s spiral stair in the palace at Caprarola (c. 1550), those monumental and official buildings on the Continent whose the general practice was to have important staircases run up in design never fell a victim to the current taste. Closed strings a straight flight, sometimes varied by landings, and sometimes again became the fashion and balusters and newels of gargantuan with changes in direction between walls often crowned with a proportions and bulbous and meaningless elaboration. Yet one slanting vault. The most perfect developments of this type were of the most gorgeous and effective staircases in the world dates” madechiefly during the Baroque period. The magnificence of the from this period, that of the Paris Opéra (1861-74), by Charles huge interior flights of the Genoese palaces (e.g., the “University,” Garnier. Two elements have vastly affected modern staircase design, 1623, by Bianco) is famous. The Scala Regia is particularly remarkable in the artificial exaggeration of its perspective, through steel and reinforced concrete. The use of steel has led to simple the gradual diminution of width and height as the steps ascend. plans of straight runs and railings delicate and straightforward in In France the spiral staircase added by Francis I. to the chateau at design, with newels usually accented, as in the Jacobean wooden Blois (1515-24) and the double circular staircase of the chateau stairs. Reinforced concrete, on the other hand, is a material so of Chambord (begun 1519) are remarkable. The early Renais- flexible that the most daring curves and fantastic sweeps become sance, however, produced its most remarkable results in the richly structurally sound. Probably the most brilliant example of this omamented wooden staircases of Tudor and Jacobean houses. modern type of staircase design is in the new portion of the The usual arrangement was to have the staircase divided into Galeries Lafayette at Paris (1926), by F. Chanat, a conception of comparatively short flights, at right angles to each other, around dizzying lightness, with modernist iron railings.

of the newel. This type of spiral staircase is still in use.

4 central open well; the heavy newels at the corners were finished

with urn-like finials at the top and carved drops at the bottom, the railing consisted of a large rail supported either by miniature arcades or square balusters, whose mouldings were often sloped to follow the stairs, and the whole was covered with intricate surface ornament of strap work. The staircase at Hatfield house (161r) iş typical. The early Renaissance staircases of Spanish palaces are in most cases placed in one corner of the courtyard and run up between walls to a landing with a return flight that Opens out onto the upper floor gallery. The walls, and sometimes

‘ven the treads and rises, are often cased in brilliant faience tiles. ven in staircases of more Italian type, with balusters, the rich-

STRUCTURAL

DESIGN

Stone and Marble Staircases—Modern

stone and marble

staircases are of two main types. In the first the actual exposed treads and rises form, themselves, the structural elements. In the other type the treads and rises are supported upon a separate structural base which may consist of a masonry vault, a steel framework or a reinforced concrete slab. In the first class, in which the steps themselves are structural, the staircase is usually built into a wall at one side. Each step rests for a small distance upon the step below and is built into the wall for a distance suffcient to make the weight of the wall above prevent it from turning.

300

STALACTTTES

The undersides of the steps, where exposed, are frequently cut to ently of any wall, and are frequently used in open spaces, such form an inclined surface, following the slope of the stairs, and as those existing in power houses, gymnasiums and the like. Ren. may be decorated with panelling or carved or other ornament. forced concrete, sometimes finished as artificial stone, is used fg ` This type of stair can be used both for straight and curved runs, stairs and permits of infinite variety of form. Moving Staircases.—In many places where continuous tran. and is particularly applicable to monumental entrance halls, where the stair, in a triple run with two landings, or in a continuous, it between floors is necessary, as in large shops, undergroung curved sweep, fills a recess opposite the door. In such staircases railway stations and the like, moving stairs, sometimes known x the railing is usually of metal with the uprights securely dowelled escalators, are much used. These are of two types. In one, ay into the ends of the steps. Stairs somewhat similar can be built endless belt carries on its surface links or blocks of suffice with the ends of the steps built into the walls on both sides, where roughness to act as treads. This endless band, at top and bottom, rotates around wheels or pulleys, motor-driven. At the bend the a monumental run rises between two walls. Wooden Staircases.—These can be divided into two classes, band disappears through the floor into a slot armed with ste! closed and open string stairs. In both the essential support is arms, so designed as to occur one in each groove between the given by rough timbers called carriages,- which follow the slope raised portions of the treads. Another continuous band on each -of the stairs and are cut roughly to the shape of the under side side, geared to the same speed, serves as a hand-rail. The other of the steps. In the case of closed string staircases both sides type has a similar mechanical basis, but the belt, instead of carryof the staircase are finished by a sloping, straight-sided plank, ap- ing directly upon its upper surface blocks to form the treads, js proximately an inch and a half thick, on the inner faces of which designed to motivate actual continuous horizontal treads with grooves are cut, whose upper and outer faces exactly fit the top risers radially shaped, so that at top and bottom the treads slid: and side of the tread and riser; the under and inner sides are, up on the risers into a continuous moving plane. Moving hang. however, sloped, so that wedges may be driven in to force the rails are furnished as in the other type, and in addition, a moving tread and riser boards into position and hold them with perfect band angularly across the top and bottom, to remove autorigidity. Similar wedges are driven in between the rough carriages matically any dropped objects. Moving stairs of the second type and the under sides of treads and risers. To give additional are always entered and left at the side, those of the other type strength, the treads and risers are, themselves, rebated together, directly at top and bottom. Legal Regulation.—As stairs form one of the most necessary so that a small, projecting strip of the’tread fits into a groove in the bottom of the riser, and a similar strip on the top of the riser methods of exit from a building, their design has formed one of fits into a groove on the bottom of the tread. The projecting por- the most important portions of the building legislation of modem municipalities, especially in the case of public, commercial, intion of the tread is moulded and an additional small cover mould dustrial and educational buildings. Although there is much varisplaced below to cover the joint. tion in the detailed requirements of different cities, the method to cut are In the open string staircase the strings at the end of regulation are almost the same and state: (1) where fireproof the shape of the steps, and the vertical cuts are usually mitred stairs are required; (2) the number of staircases; (3) size; (4) with form may mitred, also risers, at 45°, so that the ends of the design. Thus, in addition to the universal requirements for strutthem an invisible joint. In the ends of the treads dove-tailed sockets are left to receive the dove-tailed ends of the balusters; tural solidity, the attempt is generally made to furnish at least two stair exits to any large, enclosed, upper floor area; and where a moulding, exactly similar to the nosing, is then applied across fire risk and the danger of panic are unusually great, as in the case the end of the step, and covers the bottom of the balusters. At of theatres, to demand sufficient stairs to allow the building to be times, bracketed and carved pieces are mitred at the ends of the emptied in a very short time, without disorder. Widths of stain risers and applied over the face of the string. It is this type of in accordance with the number a staircase that was the rule during the Georgian period in England are frequently determined people using them. In New York, for instance, each staircase must work. and in the developed American colonial and early republic be designed to contain all the people of the floor area it serves Where an open string stair is built against a wall, it is usually person to each 21 in. of width and each one finished at the wall end by a closed or housed string, similar to on the basis of one Design is controlled by specifying the rels treads. half one and that described, forming a base-board for the wall. riser, the distance apart and size of landings, and tread of tionships furusually is staircase wooden a for The structural strength stairs are allowed, etc., and often, because curved not or whether nished by framing a heavy member, called a header, at the top smoke danger, requiring exit stairs to be enclosed in a the of carriages rough the headers these to run; every of bottom and with fireproof, self-closing doors at all entrances. care spiked, and the newels, if they exist, firmly fastened. The fireproof tower, Swan, The British Architect or the Builders y-—A. Breriocrapa newels themselves are designed to receive the finished stair Treasury of Staircases; Viollet-le-Duc, Dictionnaire Raisonné i occasionally is that member string finished strings, and also the l Architecture (1854-76); Letarouilly, Edifices de Rome Modern; used at the edges of a floor in the stair-well opening. In stair- F. E. Kidder, Building Construction and Superintendence (z911); Byne and cases similar to those of the early 19th century in England and C. A. Martin, Details of Building Construction (1916); Century (1917), Spanish 16th the of Architecture Spanish Stepley, America, in which newels did not exist, except at the bottom, and i Interiors and Furniture (1921); P. G. Knoblauch, Good Practice (T.F.H in which stair rails and balusters were of the most extreme atten- Construction (1923-26). uation, and the whole frequently laid out with complex curves, STALACTITES are pendent masses formed where watt strength was achieved by the most exquisite workmanship, very slowly from an elevation. whereby the careful framing of every part made the finished containing mineral solutions drops to drip.) They are seen, fot ev, craddoc from s, cradaxrd (Gr. curved the staircase an independently rigid structure. Frequently old buildings where water and arches bridges, plan itself furnished a certain amount of lateral rigidity. In mod- example, beneath dissolved vety ern staircases of this type additional strength is obtained by in- percolating through the joints of the masonry has and morta cement the in present lime the of s quantitie serting iron or steel bands into the hand-rail; occasional balusters small between the stones. On exposure to the air part of the water may be of steel, well fastened to the string. Steel Staircases.—These have become almost universal in evaporates and the solution of calcium carbonate becomes st modern fireproof buildings of all types, except where unusual persaturated; a deposit of this substance ensues and as the drop of white monumental effect is desired, and the design of steel staircases is continues to fall from the same spot a small column from direction vertical a in ds downwar grows slowly very largely standardized. They consist of a steel string on each side, calcite produ which takes the form of a plate or channel of sufficient rigidity the roof. In the same way stalactites of ice (icicles) are in frosty weather as the water dropping from eaves of buildings, to carry the weight. , freezes. Other Iron spiral staircases are usually formed of cast iron members, elevations, branches of trees, etc., very gradually we find in mu thus growths; c stalactiti in occur often minerals each of which forms a tread and riser, and has at its inner end, a s of limonité, stalactite veins mineral of collar arranged to slip over a vertical pipe or cylindrical bar form- and in the cavities of great si, ing the central newel. Such spiral staircases are rigid independ- opal, chalcedony and gibbsite. These are never

STALACTITE

WORK—STALINGRAD

ysually not more than 2 or 3in. in length, and probably the method of origin is exactly the same as that of the larger and more common stalactites of ice and calcite.

The conditions essential to the perfect development of stalac-

ites appear to be (1) a very slow trickle of water from a fissure;

(2) regular evaporation; (3) absence of disturbance, such as currents of air. Hence, ice stalactites form most readily on calm cold

nights, and stalactites of ice or calcite are seen in greatest perfection in the interior of caves.

In limestone caves stalactites form in abundance as glimmering white columns covered with a thin film of water. The great caves, such as those of Adelsberg (in Styria), Jenolan (Australia), the

Mammoth Cave the grottoes of richly festooned to various groups

(Kentucky), the Causses district in France, and Belgium, are divided into chambers which are with stalactites, and fanciful names are given according to their similarity to different objects,

natural or artificial.

Ice caves of considerable size occur in the

Arctic and Antarctic regions, and are draped with ice stalactites often wonderfully like those of limestone caves. Where the water drops upon the floor of one of these caves evaporation still goes on and if the air be perfectly still the drop will always land on the same place and a pillar of deposit, called a stalagmite, will rise vertically, till in course of time it meets and joins with the stalactite above. As the stalactites thicken, they assume tapering forms with irregular surfaces. Large stalactites may be 3 or 4ft. thick, but in that case they are usually due to coalescence of adjacent ones. Single stalactites 2ft. in diameter are not rare. From data obtained by measurement of the rate of growth at the present day it has been estimated that as much as

200,000 years may have elapsed since certain thick stalactites began to grow.

Caves

are of great antiquity but there is, of

course, no certainty that the conditions have remained uniform. Sir Archibald Geikie records that stalactites 14in. in diameter had formed beneath a bridge in Edinburgh which was 100 years old; in caves, however, the rate of formation is rarely so great as this. Inscriptions on stalactites in the Adelsberg cave after 30 years had been covered with a scarcely perceptible film of new deposit. In one of the Moravian caves a stalactite, about as thick as a goose quill, was broken across in 1880, and in r8ọr it had grown 3 or 4cm.; from careful observations it has been calculated that one of these stalactites, 7ft. long, may have been formed in 4,000 years. The stalagmitic crust on the floor of caves is usually mixed with blocks which have fallen from the roof, sand, mud and gravel carried in by floods, and the bones of animals and men which have inhabited the cave if it had an accessible entrance. Stalactites also occur in the interior of the lava caves found in Hawaii, Samoa, etc. Often the upper surface of a lava flow has cooled to form a crust, while the interior is still perfectly fluid,

and it sometimes happens that the liquid basalt has made its escape, leaving great cavities below the hollow roof of the lava. The interior of these caves is covered with a black shining film of glassy basalt, and black stalactites of lava hang downwards. Their surface action of the retired. These and probably

is sometimes changed to brown or red by the acid vapours which filled the cave after the lava stalactites are tubular, with bluntly rounded ends, their mode of growth is somewhat analogous to

that of icicles.

301

Stalactites are of comparatively late development in Muslim art, the earliest buildings in Syria, Egypt and north Africa showing no traces of them. They seem to appear suddenly all over the Muslim world toward the beginning of the 12th century. Thus simple forms are found in the mosque at Ani in Armenia, built between 1072~—1110, and they are common in Algiers and Sicily during the course of the century, as in the gate at Chella (1118-84), and in the building known as La Ziza at Palermo (1154). In Egypt the stalactite appears in panels flanking the main entrance of the El Akmar mosque at Cairo (1125-50). They reached their highest development in the 14th and 15th centuries, becoming the normal decoration for the heads of door niches and the bracketing under cornices and minaret galleries. The richest examples of the prismatic type are to be found in Moorish work in Spain, especially in the intricate wood and plaster ornament of such palaces as the 14th and rsth century Alhambra in Granada and the 14th century Alcazar at Seville. In Turkey, a peculiar type of faceted crystal shape is found and the form became the most common capital decoration. STALIN, JOSEPH VISSARIONOVITCH (DyvcasxVILLI), general-secretary of the Russian Communist Party, was born in 1879, son of a Georgian peasant shoemaker. Young Joseph secured an education through being selected for a course at a Russian religious seminary. However, he was expelled for “unreliability.” At 17 he joined a Social Democratic group and agitated among the workers of Georgia. For organising demonstrations in Batoum in 1go2 he was imprisoned, and in 1903 was exiled to Eastern Siberia for three years. In Jan. 1904 he escaped and returned to his political activities, frequently changing his pseudonym. He evaded arrest until 1908, when he was again exiled to Vologda province for three years. He escaped once more in 1909, returning to Baku and renewing his activities, but was speedily arrested and sent to Solvichegodsk for six years. Inside a year he escaped to St. Petersburg, but was arrested a third time after a few months and sent

back to Vologda province for a further three years. He escaped in Dec. r911, was again exiled in April 1912, but was once more in St. Petersburg (Leningrad) in September. In March 1913 he was arrested and exiled to Turukhansk in Northern Siberia, where he remained until Feb. 1917. He was responsible for the Bolshevik campaign for the State Duma in 1913, directing the Bolshevik group in that Duma from outside, and in 1912-13 acting as one of the editors of the Bolshevik

journals “Sviezda” (Star) and “Pravda” (Truth). He belonged to the central committee, and in the Soviet Government he became commissar for nationalities. Stalin fought against Yude-

nitch, Denikin and the Polish army, in rọrọ and 1920 he was commissar for workers’ and peasants’ inspection, and from 1920 to 1923 was a member of the revolutionary military council. As general secretary of the central committee of the Russian Communist party, after Lenin’s death he became the most powerful figure in the U.S.S.R., and held his position when his policy was assailed by other Communist leaders, securing the exile of Trotzky and other opponents. His Leninism was translated (1928) into English.

STALIN, a town in the Ukrainian S.S.R. Pop. (1926) 105,

739. In 1870 a British subject named Hughes received a concesSTALACTITE WORK, in architecture, one of the most sion from the Russian government to manufacture iron rails. general characteristics of all of the Mohammedan styles, con- His company started operations on the site of the present Stalin, sisting of a series of little niches, bracketed out one above the formerly known as Hughesovka (Yuzovka). British, French and other, or of projecting prismatic forms in rows and tiers, con- Belgian capital was freely invested in the development of the nected at their upper ends by miniature arches. Its infinite industry from 1880 up to rọr4. The close conjunction of the varieties may be classified into three groups, the first consisting Donetz coalfield to iron and manganese deposits made the industry of those basically niche-shaped, in which the concave curve is very profitable. Following the 1917 revolution the industry was the most important feature; the second group includes those in depressed, but from 1924 onwards progress has been rapid and the

population of Stalin was doubled between 1923-6. STALINGRAD, a province of Russia, lying on both banks portant feature, being set at all sorts of angles and having generally prismatic forms; the last group consists of elaborately intersect- /of the lower Volga. Area 85,167 sq. kilometres. Pop. (1926) ing, Miniature arches. The first two groups occur commonly in 1,406,927. It is a low-lying area, and the banks of the Volga for syran, Moorish and Turkish work and in their simpler forms, some distance on either side of the river are below sea-level. in Persia; the last group is typically Persian and is found also in The soils on the left bank of the Volga river are salt steppe; on the right, as far as the Don river, they are light brown and Mogul work in India.

which the vertical edges between the niches are the most im-

302.

`

STALINGRAD—STAMBOLISKY

grey steppe, with salt efflorescences, while west of the Don is part in the rising in favour of the false Demetrius, and was çy a fertile black-earth region. The climate is continental and the tured by Stenka Razin in 1670. In 1773~75 it took a part in the rainfall scanty and variable from year to year. The province lies rebellion of Pugachev. After the revolution of 1917, Stalin held in an area subject to terrible recurrent famines due to failure of the town and it was renamed in his honour. rainfall, and rapid desiccation has been in progress for some time. STALL, literally a place where one may stand, and so applied In years of sufficient rainfall, the harvest is fairly good. The chief to a separate division in a stable, shed, etc., in which a Single crops are summer wheat and winter rye; millet, sunflower seed, horse, cow or other domestic animal may be kept, to a separa barley, oats and potatoes are grown in less quantity and vineyards booth, bench or table in a market or other building, or in th are profitable in the south. Maize cultivation is steadily increasing. street, on which goods are exposed for sale and in England ty Irrigation is the only hope for the district. Experimental stations the higher-priced seats on the ground floor of a theatre, J are working at Stalingrad and at Tingutin. cathedrals, monastic churches and the larger parish churches th The most favourable region is the alluvial strip near the Volga stalls are fixed seats enclosed at the back and separated at ths and Akhtuba rivers, which is particularly wide near the town of sides by high projecting arms, and placed in one or more roy; Stalingrad. Here the temperature remains above freezing point on the north and south sides of the choir or chancel. In acathe for nine months in the year and the combination of alluvial soil, dral the canons and prebendaries have each a stall assigned ty warmth and moisture makes grain, fruit and vegetable growing them. In the chapels of the various knightly orders the stalls are very profitable. Poplar trees attain a remarkable growth in assigned to the members of the order, thus, in St. George’s Chapel, ten years, and fruit trees bear for five years in succession. The Windsor, are the stalls of the Knights of the Garter, in Henry nearness of the oil wells facilitates the use of internal combustion VII.’s chapel in Westminster abbey are those of the Knights oj motors for irrigation purposes, and cheap and convenient routes the Bath, adorned with the stall plates emblazoned with the arm: for export are available. The drawback is the frequent change of the knight occupying the stall, above which is suspended his in direction of the main watercourses and their connecting chan- banner. nels, which may convert a fertile garden into a waste of river Architecturally considered, the stalls of a cathedral or church mud, or even wash it entirely away. Dikes are being built to are a marked feature of the interior adornment. They are richly lessen this danger. Sheep, cattle, pigs and horses are bred, and in carved, and are frequently surmounted by canopies of tabernacle 1926 had made rapid progress towards restoration to pre-War work. The seats generally can be folded back so as to allow level. The r92r famine, particularly disastrous in this region, the occupant to stand upright or kneel; beneath the seat, espe following on the civil war centring round the town of Stalingrad, cially in monastic churches, is fixed a small bracket, a miserere had reduced their numbers catastrophically. There is also some (g.v.), which affords a slight rest for the person while standing, camel breeding in the district. Stalingrad is becoming a centre Among beautiful specimens of carved stalls may be mentioned the

for timber but apart from Stalingrad (q.v.) there are no industrial

areas in the province. The chief peasant occupations supplementing agriculture are fishing, flour-milling, oil-pressing, tanning, leather, fur-dressing, textiles and felt making and the making of pottery and household and farm implements. Lake Elton, one of the most productive sources of salt in Russia, is situated in the trans-Volga part of the province, but has no rail connection. The Don approaches the Volga very closely near Stalingrad, and the Soviet Government in 1928 embarked on a scheme to construct a canal linking the two rivers. The canal should be open for navigation by 1935. The region was occupied in the 5th century by the Finno-Turkic Bulgars, who were in the roth century driven northward by the Khazars, a closely related tribe. Later the region formed a part of the empire of the Tatar Golden Horde, one section of which was incorporated in the khanate of Astrakhan. The Russians in 1557 conquered Astrakhan and in 1589 erected the fort of Tsaritsyn on the site of the present town of Stalingrad, but the real absorption of the region into Russia involved a century of struggle with the nomads of the Volga during which there were perpetual Nogai, Kalmuck and Kirghiz raids on the Russian settlements. In the reign of Catherine II., the Russian peasants, the Cossacks and the dissatisfied native tribes rebelled under the leadership of Pugachev (1773-75) and fighting was fierce in the region between Kazan and Stalingrad. After the 1917 revolution, there was much disorder in the region, and considerable opposition to the Bolshevists, which was, however, finally overcome.

STALINGRAD

(formerly Tsaritsyn), a town of Russia, the

administrative centre of the province. Its position at the point where the Volga most nearly approaches the Don gave it great importance as a transhipment centre and after the construction of the railway links with the Don at Kalach and with the railway systems of Moscow and Leningrad, its growth was rapid. The town manufactures metal goods and machinery, has a naphtha-refining

factory, 20 sawmills, a chemical factory, a brewery, a confectionery industry and mineral oil works. A tractor factory with an output of 10,000 tractors per annum was under construction in 1928. There are municipal electricity, water, tram and bus services.

Pop. (1926) 143,243; (1897) 55,186.

Early Decorated stalls in Winchester cathedral (1296); the Early Perpendicular ones in Lincoln minster (c. 1370); the early rsth-

century canopies in Norwich cathedral (15th century), and the towering corner-stalls with their ornate carving filled with figures, in Amiens cathedral (1508-20).

STALLBAUM,

JOHANN

GOTTFRIED

(1793-1861),

German classical scholar, was born at Zaasch, near Delitzsch in Saxony on Sept. 25, 1793, and died at Leipzig, where he was rector of the Thomasschule, on Jan. 24, 1861. His reputation rests upon his work on Plato, of which he published two complete editions, See C. H. Lipsius in the Osterprogramm of the Thomasschule (1861) ; R. Hoche in Allgemeine deutsche Biographie, vol. xxxv.

STALYBRIDGE, municipal borough, Cheshire, England. It stands on the river Tame, in a hilly district. Pop. (1931), 24,823 The whole district is very densely populated. Stalybridge is one of the oldest cotton towns, the first cotton mill having been erected in 1776.

STAMBOLISKY, ALEXANDER

(1879-1923), Bulgarian

statesman, was born at Slavovitsa, in southern Bulgaria, Sept. 1. 1879, the son of a peasant landowner. After studying at the vil lage school and later in the neighbouring town, he attended the

agricultural college of Halle in Germany. On returning to Bul garia, aged 18, he took up journalism, and in 1902 became editor of the organ of the newly-formed Agrarian League. Six years later he was elected to the Sobranye, where he led the Agrarian party. He now began to organise the peasant masses, who form 80% of the total population of Bulgaria, into agricultural associations. In 1911, when the Grand Sobranye met at Trnovo to amend the Constitution, his first conflict with King Ferdinand occurred After the treaty of Bucharest (1913) Stambolisky and the Agrerians were unmerciful in their criticisms of Ferdinand’s policy. though deterred from extreme measures by the fear of external complications, Stambolisky’s opposition to Ferdinand came to! head in rors during the negotiations that preceded Bulgaria’ entry into the World War. Stambolisky strongly backed the Entente in spite of the King’s anger, pressure from the Gover ment and the growing influence of the Central Powers. Sum moned before the King, Stambolisky threatened him with persons!

violence if he should fight against the Allies, reminding him that

A fort was erected here in 1580, after the fall of Astrakhan, to he had a crown to lose. Ferdinand ordered his arrest, He wë prevent the raiding of settlers by Kalmucks, Kirghiz and Circas- tried by court-martial and condemned to penal servitude for life

sians, often joined by Cossacks and runaway serfs. The town took

In Sept. 1918, when the resistance of the Bulgarian troops

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STAMBOLOV—STAMFORD

393

began to slacken, Ferdinand released Stambolisky, who left for the Macedonian front. He returned at the head of the insurvectionary troops and their arrival at Sofia resulted in Ferdinand’s abdication and flight. A partisan of the new ruler, King Boris, Stambolisky became a member of the Cabinet in Jan. rig and Prime Minister in Oct.; as head of the Government

ures resulted in the downfall of the provisional government set up by the Russophil party at Sofia. On the abdication of Prince Alexander (Sept. 8) Stambolov became head of a council of regency, with Mutkurov and Karavelov as his colleagues; the latter, however, soon made way for Jivkov, a friend and fellow townsman of the first regent. Stambolov frustrated the mission of he went to Paris and signed the Treaty of Neuilly in the same General Kaulbars, whom the Tsar despatched as special commisvear, In Feb. 1920 he dissolved the Sobranye, and the following sioner to Bulgaria; suppressed a rising organized by Nabokov, a month was returned to power at the head of „a homogeneous Russian officer, at Burgas; quelled military revolts at Silistria and Agrarian majority. From 1920 to 1923, the Agrarians under Stam- Rustchuk; held elections for the Grand Sobranye, despite the bolisky ruled Bulgaria with a rod of iron. They had the Rado- interdict of Russia, and eventually secured the election of Prince slavov Cabinet, which had brought Bulgaria into the World War, Ferdinand of Coburg to the vacant throne (July 7, 1887). Under condemned to death by popular vote. Stambolisky also carried the newly-elected ruler he became prime minister and minister measures based on the interest of the peasants (see But- of the interior, and continued in office for nearly seven years. carta), and declared: “Sofia, that Sodom, that Gomorrah, may The aim of his foreign policy was to obtain the recognition of disappear. . . . I shall not weep for her.” Through his influence Prince Ferdinand, and to win the support of the Triple Alliance post-War Bulgaria loyally carried out the terms of the Peace and Great Britain against Russian interference in Bulgaria. He Treaty, won the esteem of the Allies, and secured a reduction of gained the confidence of the Sultan, and obtained concessions for the Bulgarian episcopate in Macedonia (see Macepon1a). With reparations. Stambolisky also made persistent efforts to improve Bulgaria’s relations with Yugoslavia, with which country he con- the assistance of Austria-Hungary and Great Britain he negotiated cluded an agreement at Niš (1922). His ultimate ideal was prob- large foreign loans which enabled him to develop the military ably some kind of federal South Slav State, embracing Bulgaria. strength of Bulgaria. He was still the despot. Major Panitza, The overthrow of the Government by a military faction on after a conspiracy, was shot at Sofia in 1890; four political oppoJune 9, 1923, was caused partly by dissatisfaction with Stambo- nents were hanged at Sofia in the following year, and Karavelov lisky’s domestic policy and partly by the influence of the Mace- was sentenced to five years’ imprisonment. donian party. The change of régime took place in one night, His mood was emphasized by the assassination of his colleague, the Agrarian Ministers being arrested in their homes. Stambo- Beltchev, in 1891, and of Dr. Vikovitch, the Bulgarian reprelisky, pursued by an armed detachment to his native village of sentative at Constantinople, in 1892, and eventually proved intolSlavovitsa, escaped and fled across the mountains, hoping to reach erable to Prince Ferdinand, who made him resign in May 1894. the frontier. After being followed by soldiers for three days, he He was now exposed to the vengeance of his enemies. On July was eventually surrounded and shot on June 12. A formidable 15, 1895, he was attacked and barbarously mutilated by a band of personality, attractive in many ways, and made of finer clay than Macedonian assassins in the streets of Sofia, and succumbed to his the average Balkan statesman, Stambolisky has been called a injuries three days later. His funeral was interrupted by disgracemodern Rienzi. Tall and broad, his demeanour was fierce and his ful riots, and an effort was made to perpetrate an outrage on his movements ungainly; his rough-hewn face was crowned by a remains. No attempt was made to arrest his murderers; two permass of black hair; he impressed everyone with his strength and sons, however, arraigned for the crime in 1896, were subjected to the sincerity of his advocacy of a “Green International,” to unite almost nominal penalties. (J. D. B.; X.) the peasants of all countries. Stambolisky published Authority, STAMFORD. a town of Lincolnshire, partly in NorthamptonAnarchy and Democracy; and What a Politician ought to be. shire. Pop. (1931) 9,946. It formerly possessed 14 parish STAMBOLOV, STEFAN (1854-1895), Bulgarian states- churches, but now has only six. There are some remains of the man, was born on Jan. 31, 1854, at Trnovo, the ancient Bulgarian 7th century Benedictine monastery of St. Leonard’s and a west capital, where his father kept a small inn. Under Turkish rule it gate of the Carmelite monastery (1291). To the south of Stamwas impossible to obtain a liberal education in Bulgaria, and young ford, in Northamptonshire, is Burghley house, the seat of the Stambolov, after attending the communal school in his native marquis of Exeter, a fine quadrangular mansion dating from town, was apprenticed to a tailor. During the politico-religious 1587, Containing a noteworthy art collection. agitation which preceded the establishment of the Bulgarian exApart from the tradition preserved by Henry of Huntingdon archate in 1870, a number of Bulgarian youths were sent to Russia that the Saxons here defeated the Picts and Scots, in 449, Stamto be educated at the expense of the Imperial government; among ford (Staunford) is a place of great antiquity. The Danes built them was Stambolov, who was entered at the seminary of Odessa a fort here on the north bank of the Welland, round which a in order to prepare for the priesthood. He was expelled for his asso- town existed when in 922 King Edward fortified the opposite side ciation with Nihilists, and, making his way to Rumania, he entered }of the stream. It passed again into Danish hands and was one into close relations with the Bulgarian revolutionary committees of the five boroughs recaptured by Edmund Aetheling in 941. at Bucharest, Giurgevo and Galatz. In 1875, though only twenty The priory of St. Leonard was a cell of Durham, and a charter of years of age, he led an insurrectionary movement at Nova Zagora Edgar dated 972 mentions a market and a mint. In the reign in Bulgaria, and in the following year organized another rising at of Edward the Confessor Stamford was a royal borough governed Orekhovitza. In the autumn of 1876 he took part as a volunteer by 12 lawmen. The Norman castle, built before 1086, was thrice in the Serbian campaign against Turkey, and subsequently joined | besieged by Henry II., but only yielded in 1153. Henry IIL. gave the Bulgarian irregular contingent with the Russian army in the the town a charter in 1256. war of 1877-78. After the signature of the Berlin Treaty in 1878 Stamford was known for its monastic schools, and in 1333 Stambolov settled at Trnovo, where he set up as a lawyer, and was was chosen as the headquarters of the students who seceded from soon elected deputy for his native town in the Sobranye, of Oxford, and an Early Decorated gateway remains of Brasenose which he became president in 1884. The revolution of Pbilip- Hall. The attempt to establish a regular university was prohibited popolis, which brought about the union of Bulgaria with eastern by royal authority. The defeat of the Yorkists here was followed Rumelia, took place on Sept. 18, 1885, and it was largely owing by the decay of the castle in the reign of Richard III., and the to Stambolov’s advice that Prince Alexander decided to identify history of the place later centred round the family of Cecil. himself with the movement. War with Serbia followed, and Stam- | See E. C. Mackenzie-Walcott, Memorials of Stamford, past and present (1867) ; J. Drakard, The History of Stamford in the County of lov served as an ordinary soldier in the Bulgarian army. After the abduction of Prince Alexander (g.v.) (Aug. 21, 1886) Lincoln, comprising its ancient progressive and modern state (1822). Stambolov, who was then at Trnovo, established a loyal govern- .incoln.ey History of Stamford (1879); Victoria County History ment at Trnovo, issued a manifesto to the nation, nominated his

brother-in-law, General

Mutkurov,

commander-in-chief

STAMFORD, a city of Connecticut, U.S.A., on the Boston

of the ‘Post road. Pop. (1920) 35,096 (30% foreign-born white); 1930 ‘my, and invited the prince to return. to Bulgaria. These meas- Federal census 46,346. The city lies around a broad bay (2 m.

304.

STAMITZ—STAMPINGS

across at the entrance and 14 m. wide), from which two tidal inlets extend. The city still has the charm of a New England village. It is a residential suburb, with 90 trains daily to and from New York. It is also an important industrial centre with factory products in 1927 valued at $39,433,400. The town of Stamford (known for the first year by the Indian name of Rippowam) was settled in 1641 by 29 persons who seceded from the Wethersfield church. In 1662 it submitted to Connecticut. The borough was incorporated in 1830 and became a city in 1894.

STAMITZ,

JOHANN

WENZL

ANTON

(1717-1757),

the eldest and most important of a family of Bohemian musicians famous in the 18th century. He was born at Deutschbrod on June 19, 1717. He was a solo violinist at the coronation. of the emperor Charles VII. (1742), and in 1745 the elector took him to Mannheim as director of the chamber of music. Stamitz and his successors are known as the Mannheim school. Although Phillip Emanuel Bach in Berlin and the young school in Vienna were arriving at similar results, it seems certain that Stamitz was the real pioneer, who not only demonstrated the dramatic value of the “working-out” section of the first movement of a sonata or symphony, but, by incorporating the minuet, definitely established the four-movement form. In addition he demanded of the orchestra a greater independence from the different instruments, singling out the much neglected viola. He died at Mannheim on March 30, 1757. His works include 27 concertos, sonatas and solos for violin; several sets of symphonies, and harpsichord music. Johann’s brother ANTON THADDAEUS STAMITZ (1721-1768) was a cellist at Mannheim. Much confusion has arisen between Johann and his eldest son CARL STAMITZ (1746-1801), who sometimes used the name Johann, while the father was frequently called Johann Carl or Carl Johann. He produced an opera, Der verliebte Vormund, at Frankfurt and another, Dardanus, in St. Petersburg. He died at Jena in 1801. His more elaborated 70 symphonies are chiefly written for larger orchestras than his father’s.

not fail from want of breath.

In some cases aid may be oh.

tained by raising the voice towards the close of the sente Sounds or combinations of sounds that present special Cifficultiss

should be carefully studied, and the defect may be largely over. come by a series of graduated exercises in reading. Intoning j often useful. Some maintain that benefit from such education is often merely temporary. In any case the psychical basis af

7

a ie

stammering calls for the most pronounced attention in treatment. In very severe cases, where the seizures affect other musde

than those of articulation, medical treatment is necessary.

STAMP, SIR JOSIAH CHARLES (1880-

economist, was born in London on June 21, 1880.

_), Brig

Educated at

j 4

|

| }

the University of London, he entered the civil service (inland ||j

revenue department) in 1896, and became assistant secretaw to the board in 1916. In 1919 he resigned from the service tg

l

join Nobel Industries Ltd., of which he was a director and secre.

tary until he accepted the new post of president of the executive gf the London, Midland and Scottish railway in 1925. Stamp sat op the royal commission on income tax (1919); on the finance arbi-

tration committee for Northern Ireland (1923-24); on the com. mittee on taxation and national debt (1924); on the Dawes Com. mittee on German currency and finance (1924); on the cour of enquiry into the coal industry (1925); and on the Paris com. mittee of enquiry into the reparations question of 1929. He held

many academic honours, and was created G.B.E. in 1914. Heis the author of many books, e.g., Wealth and Taxable Capacity

(1922, 2nd ed. 1923).

STAMP ACT, in American history, an act introduced by George Grenville, and passed by the British parliament in 176s, with the object of raising revenue to pay in part the expenses of

the French and Indian Wars (g.v.). It involved an extension of

the British system of stamp duties to the American colonies and provided for the appointment of officials to distribute the stamped papers. It was passed without debate and with no idea that it would be opposed. Determined opposition, however, was at once An introduction with details of the family, by Hugo Riemann, is shown in all the colonies, the act being looked on as an attempt included, together with a thematic catalogue of 45 symphonies and at taxation without representation. It led to the passage of reso ro orchestral trios, in Series III. i. of Denkmäler deutscher Tonkunst lutions of protest by many of the colonial assemblies and to the in Bayern, and other compositions of Johann and Carl are found in calling of a Stamp Act Congress in New York attended by dele | Series VII. i, XV. and XVI. of the same work. See also Grove, Dictionary of Music and Musicians; Riemann, Lexikon; Eitner, Quellen-

Lexikon; R. Sondheimer, Die formale Entwicklung der vorklassischen Sinfonie (Algem. Musikztg. Jan. 1922); P. Bekker, Musikgeschichte

(1926) p. 126 et seq.

STAMMERING

gates from nine of the colonies. So great was the opposition | that the proceeds from the duty were less than the expenses of |

collection.

The next year Parliament repealed the act as a matter

of expediency but passed another act declaring the right of Parlia

or STUTTERING, a spasmodic affection of

the organs of speech in which the articulation of words is suddenly checked and a pause ensues, often followed by a repetition in rapid sequence of the particular sound at which the stoppage occurred. There are many grades, from a slight inability to pronounce with ease certain letters or syllables, to a condition in which the muscles, not only of the tongue and throat and face, but even of those of respiration are involved in spasm. In normal speech exquisite co-ordination of muscular movement is necessary in larynx, cheeks, tongue, lips, involving also

ment to bind the colonies by its enactments. The Stamp Act was one of the important causes of the American Revolution. Se | UNITED STATES: History.

Me net Ae eS

STAMP DUTY, a tax imposed in Great Britain on written documents which are evidence of legal nghts involved. The payment of the tax is denoted by a stamp which is im pressed on or affixed to the document. The Stamp Act of 1891 is still the principal act governing stamp duties. But new duties and increases have been authorized by successive Finance Acts. The revenue from the duty for the year ending March 31 amounted to £27,000,000. In some cases, moreover, parties have no discretion to dispens with written evidence. For example, contracts for insurance (marine, life or general accident) must be expressed in the form

complicated nervous actions. It is when the co-ordination is not effected with sufficient precision that stammering results. Stammering rarely shows itself before the age of four or five years, and often it develops in a child in a feeble state of health. Stammerers, as a rule, find the explosive consonants b, p, d, t, of a stamped policy and failure to do this not only vitiates the k and hard g the most difficult to articulate, but many also are contract but renders the parties liable to fines. The sanction of the act is expressed in very wide terms. Except unable easily to deal with the more continuous consonants, such in criminal proceedings, an instrument executed in Great Britan. as v, f, th, $, z, sh, m, n, y, and in severe cases even the vowels may cause a certain amount of spasm. Usually the defect is not or relating, wherever executed, to any matter or thing done orts be done in Great Britain, is not to be given in evidence or to observed in whispering or singing. The condition named aphthongia totally prevents speech, and available for any purpose whatsoever, and it is the dutyof al judicial officers before whom an instrument is tendered In ew may, at intervals, come on when the person attempts to speak; dence to take notice of the absence or insufficiency of duty. it is only temporary, and is usually caused by nervous excitement. Stuttering may, it seems, be overcome in some cases by in- Further, any person whose duty it is to enrol or record an instit struction in reading and speaking slowly and deliberately, care- ment liable to duty is liable to a fine if he enrols or records 3 fully pronouncing each syllable. When feeling the tendency to instrument insufficiently stamped. On the other hand, the stam? stammer, the speaker should pause, and then by a strong volun- does not add to or warrant its legality, it merely makes it possible tary effort attempt to pronounce the word. He should also be for the legality to be examined. STAMPINGS, DROP: see Pressep METALS. taught how to regulate respiration during speech, so that he may

STAMPS—STANDARDIZATION STAMPS: see POST AND POSTAL SERVICE and PHILATELY.

(1864— STANCIOFF, DIMITRI

), Bulgarian diploma-

sist, was born at Sistov, Bulgaria, in May 1864, and studied at the Theresianum

College, Vienna. In 1887 he entered the Foreign

395

to crystallization resulting from fixity of mental attitude. (11) It is one of the principal means of getting the results of research and development into actual use in the industries. (12) It helps to

eliminate practices which are merely the results of accident or

entrusted with Office, Sofia, and was a member of the delegation head of the new

tradition and which impede development. (13) By concentration on essentials and the consequent suppression of confusing elements King’s political Cabinet. Afterwards he was successively Bul- intended merely for sales effect, it helps to base competition garian representative at Bucharest, Vienna and St. Petersburg. squarely upon efficiency in production and distribution and upon He became Minister of Foreign Affairs in 1906 and was for a time intrinsic merit of product. (14) Standardization is increasingly Prime Minister after the murder of Petkoff. In 1908 he resigned important for the maintenance and development of foreign trade. (15) The efficiency of competing countries, increasing through and became Minister in Paris, where he remained until 1915 when he was sent to Rome. He was made a member of the Bulga- national standardization programmes, is likely to stiffen competirian Delegation to the Paris Peace Conference, and in 1920 was tion between those countries. (16) Joint effort in bringing about appointed Bulgaria’s representative to the Court of St. James. standardization within and between industries almost invariably Stancioff was Bulgaria’s chief delegate to the first international leads to better understanding and to beneficial co-operation along Peace Conference in 1899 and was a permanent member of the other lines—a step toward the integration of industries” (Meckanical Engineering, Aug. 1926). International Court of Arbitration. Practically every major American industry has co-operated with For the various meanings of this word see STANDARD. its allied or related industries in standardizing products or com\WeasURES AND WEIGHTS; PrysicaL Units, Untrs and DrmenSIONS, STANDARDS DEPARTMENT; ELECTRICITY and TIME, STAND- modities of mutual interest. This group movement is one of the outstanding post-War developments in America. ARD. The American Engineering Standards Committee.—In STANDARD, BATTLE OF THE, a name given to the battle of Aug. 22, 1138, near Northallerton, in which the Scottish order to make standardization on a national scale possible, a cleararmy, largely composed of wild and undisciplined Highlanders ing house or co-ordinating agency has been established to bring and Galloway Picts under King David, was defeated by the Eng- about systematic participation by, and co-operation of, the many lish levies of Yorkshire and the north Midlands. The latter organizations and associations individually working on the general formed a single deep line of dismounted men in front of a chariot problem. This agency is the American Engineering Standards carrying the consecrated banners of St. Peter of York, St. John committee, a federation of 33 national organizations, including of Beverley, St. Wilfred of Ripon and St. Cuthbert of Durham. nine major engineering societies, 18 national industrial associaKing David planned to use his nucleus of knights and archers to tions and six departments of the Federal Government. lead the way and open a gap in the English line, but the fierce pride Government Co-operation in Standardization.—The of the clansmen compelled him to give them precedence. Their United States Government is interested in industrial standardizaheadlong onset was repulsed. Left isolated except for his body- tion in two ways: first, as a purchaser, in the specifications for guard of knights, King David retired from the field. materials and apparatus, and secondly, through its service and See C. Oman, Art of War in the. Middle Ages, vol. i. 390—396 (1924). research bureaux, in innumerable standardization questions. STANDARDIZATION, means setting up standards by Thirty-three branches of the United States Government are offiwhich extent, quantity, quality, value, performance and service cially represented on sectional committees of the American Enmay be gauged. Instances are the mile, the hour, the pound, the gineering Standards committee. The bureau of standards of the bushel, and the dollar. Department of Commerce is acting as sole or joint sponsor for 13 Many individual manufacturers have standardized their prod- projects; the bureau of mines, Department of Commerce, for ucts to gain the advantages and economies of mass or volume seven; the forest service, Department of Agriculture, for two; production. Several of these manufacturers maintain standards and the public health service, Treasury Department, for one. In departments in their organizations to supervise design and pro- addition, the bureau of standards, for example, is officially coduction with the view to effecting maximum interchangeability operating through representatives on sectional committees on 69 between parts entering into the finished product, by securing con- projects. One or more branches of the Federal Government is sistent uniformity in their size and other essential characteristics. participating in this way in practically all the work of the AmeriThe standards established by one company are sometimes, though can Engineering Standards committee. The Department of Labour not always, of interest to another company. designates representatives on all sectional committees dealing with Standardization offers many advantages to manufacturers, dis- safety codes, and is publishing approved codes as Government tributors and consumers. “(1) Standardization stabilizes pro- documents. The State Governments are actively participating in duction and employment, since it makes it safe for the manufac- the work, chiefly through national organizations of State commisturer to accumulate stock during periods of slack orders, which sions, the most active being the International Association of Inhe cannot safely do with an unstandardized product. (2) It re- dustrial Accident Boards and Commissions and the Association of duces selling cost. Possibilities of reduced costs are generally governmental labour officials. The highway and traffic commiseven greater in distribution than in production. (3) It enables sions (which co-operate through the American Association of buyer and seller to speak the same language and makes it possible State Highway Officials and the regional conferences of motorto compel competitive sellers to do likewise. (4) In thus putting traffic administrators) and the railway and utility commissions tenders on an easily comparable basis it promotes fairness in com- also participate in this work. petition, both in domestic and in foreign trade. (5) It lowers unit The bureau of standards of the Department of Commerce is a costs to the public by making mass production possible, as has national agency for standardization and mdustrial research. Ben so strikingly shown in the standardization of incandescent cause they carry Government approval, the standards developed in lamps and automobiles. (6) By simplifying the carrying of stocks, the course df bureau research often tend to become those deit makes deliveries quicker and prices lower. (7) It decreases liti- manded by intelligent buyers throughout the country. For example gation and other factors tending to disorganize industry, the bur- the Government specifications for cement and the tests therewith den of which ultimately falls upon the public. (8) It eliminates have become the commercially accepted standard. Again, the indecision both in production and utilization—a prolific cause of Government buys about $1,000,000 worth of electric lamps anincficiency and waste. (g) By concentrating on fewer lines, it nually on specifications. The acceptance is based on bureau of enables more thought and energy to be put into designs, so that standards’ tests, which have become the standard of the country. The Federal specifications board was organized under the they will be more efficient and economical. (10) By bringing out the need of new facts in order to determine what is best and to bureau of the budget in r921. It is composed of representatives secure agreement on moot questions, it acts as a powerful stimu- of each of the purchasing units of the U.S. Government, the chair-

electing Ferdinand,

in due course

becoming

to research and development, and it is thus in decided contrast

man of the board being the director of the bureau of standards,

306

STANDARDIZATION

ex officio. Its purpose is to unify Government specifications and to bring them into line with the best commercial practice.

The local code requirements for such construction appeared tobe in a chaotic state. No careful investigation had been madewp

audits of adherence, also co-operating with the United States bureau of foreign and domestic commerce in applying the stand-

them were incorporated in the subcommittee’s

The Bureau of Standards at Washington has been reorganized to this time. Accordingly a subcommittee on plumbing wa appointed by Secretary Hoover and this outlined a series of test to include commercial standards as well as research and testing. to be carried out at the bureau. These tests were continued oye in l promotiona mainly is service its As to commercial standards, deduced from character. It helps to work out such standards and adds periodical a period of more than two years and the principlesreport, Recom. ards to foreign commerce. The American Marine Standards committee was organized primarily to promote simplification of practice and economy in the construction, operation and maintenance of ships and ports facilities. The underlying authority is vested in a membership enrolled

from the marine and allied industries.

In 1928 its field was

confined to three divisions: hull details, engineering (machinery) details, and ship operation details and supplies. Progress of similar work abroad is closely observed by exchange of publications with foreign bodies. Standardization for Design, Construction and Tests.— For the purpose of bringing to the user the best obtainable opinion on the merits of appliances, devices, machines and materials in respect to life, fire and collision hazards, and theft and accident prevention, the Underwriters’ Laboratories (Inc.) was established and is maintained by the National Board of Fire Underwriters. The laboratories are conducted for service and not for profit. One of the most widely circulated codes of the laboratories is its code for electrical appliances, which consists of standards for design and construction, and tests of devices and materials for use in electrical circuits for light, heat and power, and for the

forms of supervision of such products marketed under inspection

and listing by the Underwriters’ Laboratories. The code is in looseleaf form to facilitate revisions. The following standards are included and may be also obtained as separate pamphlets: armoured cables and cords; cabinets and cut-out boxes; cartridge-enclosed fuses; cut-out bases; electric ranges; electric signs; fixture wires; flexible cords; flexible non-metallic tubing; ground clamps; heater cords; knife switches; panel board; renewable cartridge-enclosed switches; rigid conduits; rubber-covered wires and cables; snap switches; soldering lugs. Additional standards are constantly under consideration and in preparation. Lists of inspected elec-

mended Minimum Requirements for Plumbing in Dwellings an

Similar Buildings, published in 1924. The report contains a ree. ommended code and a complete report of the experiments at th bureau of standards. Purchasing and Standardizing Agencies—General py. chasing agencies have been established in a number of cities, Among the municipalities, New York city has formulated an utilized the greatest number of purchase specifications, more thay 1,600 specifications for 42 different classes of commodities having been prepared for this purpose. Practically all of the work of standardization is done in the department of purchase.

Recon.

mendations for standards are forwarded to the board of estimate and apportionment, which consists of the mayor, the controller, the

president of the board of aldermen, and the five borough preg. dents. Standards adopted by this board are compulsory on all city departments. In every one of the 48 States, standards for materials used in the construction and maintenance of roads and bridges have been established by the State highway commissioners. Much of the activity in this line of standardization can be attributed to the aid given to the States by the Federal Government for the building of the main highways of the country. Pan-American Conference on Standardization.—The firs

Pan-American conference was held at Lima, Peru, from Dec. 23,

1924, to Jan. 6, 1925. The general purpose of the Lima conference was to prepare the ground for co-operation in standardization between the republics of the Western Hemisphere and to facilitate international

commerce

through

standardization work.

No at-

tempt was made to undertake any technical work at the first meeting, but co-operative relations were established and means were provided for continuing study for future work. The conference was attended by representatives from 13 countries :—Brazil, Costa Rica, Cuba, Guatemala, Haiti, Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama, Paty guay, Peru, United States, Uruguay and Venezuela. It was the found and tested and trical appliances which have been examined standardization can be used by the Latin to comply with the standards of the laboratories are published general opinion that first in expediting and making more ways: three in Americans semi-annually. development; secondly in improving on industrial own work their —The efficient Housing. Standardization in Building and in foreign countries; and thirdly buying their of effectiveness the the of n applicatio wider a promote to seeks building and housing for producing and marketing methods better of development the in $6,000,the to design best standards for building materials and The formal resolutions of the conference, 900,000 or more of new construction carried out each year. In their own raw products. d that there be a convention be this way it helps to widen the practical usefulness of the labora- as an official body, recommende for co-operation in standart. providing States, American the of tween tory and field research work of the bureau of standards and t in each country of one of establishmen the matters; ization to adherence general more a secure to and other scientific bodies, dealing with standardization matters, either approved specifications and simplified practice programmes for more organizations or mixed, as each may deem best; the industrial or l governmenta elimination of excess dimensional varieties. Inter-American High Commission ai the of present the for use active most been has The advisory building code committee and the gradual compilation ofa on; communicati of channel the of and influential in this field. More than $3,000,000,000 worth Portuguese, English and French. Spanish, in vocabulary technical conditions the under year each out construction work is carried zation conference was held standardi ican Pan-Amer second The s committee’ prescribed by local building codes, and each of the of the American Seventeen 1927. 12, to 9 May reports gives concise recommendations suitable for inclusion in at Washington, represented at this meeting, the programme oi were republics such codes. to standards for use in the inter-Americat Standardization of building codes took a prominent position in which was confined coffee, cocoa, fruits, hides, certain oil-seeds and wool the public mind as a result of the activities of the United States trade in recommendations concerned the organization and de formal in The appointed n Senate committee on reconstruction and productio the standardization work in the several countries; of 1920. Salient facts brought out by this committee were that there velopment of appropriate agencies to fight plagues and ment establish the prothis that nts; was a wide diversity in building-code requireme and vegetable production; the early accep animal affecting pests ceeded from unscientific methods in preparing codes, and that standards; and the immediate develsample type wool of tance reuniform more through possible large savings appeared to be ions for agricultural products and ra" specificat uniform of opment archimany quirements. These were facts already well known to rican trade. inter-Ame in important tects and builders, but their significance was thrown into relief materials ations in the report of recommend the among are following The building. by the twin evils of inadequate housing and stagnant standardized so faras be should Products : committee Hoover Practical attack of the problem was commenced in 1921 through the nt of manufacturing. Ma | developme e progressiv with consistent is seven of committee a of the appointment by Secretary Hoover should be standardized to the fewest practicable kinds, j architects and engineers of high professional standing to undertake terials mr | and grades. At least the details of equipment, including thorough and impartial studies. The country needed homes. sizes

SS SASS pea

STANDARDIZATION chines and tools, should be standardized so as to permit of the widest interchangeability and maximum usefulness consistent standwith improvements 1n design and invention. Performance and producplanning to aid valuable a as d develope be should ards

ton control. Under the week-work system such standards are the hasis of a just measurement of the individual worker’s perform-

397

known. industrial and management engineers to make a survey of waste in industry. The committee studied six major industries and found wastes ranging from 29% in the metal trades to 64%

in the manufacture

of men’s ready-made

clothing.

Avoidable

waste, according to the committee’s evaluation, amounted to 41% in boot and shoe manufacture, 49% in the textile, 53% in the

Unance and of the adjustment of his wage rate to his capacity. der the piece-rate system they are the basis of just rates. Without standardization of appliances, conditions, work content and

building and 589% in the printing industry. Among the outstanding causes for waste in these fields was the unnecessarily great variety in sizes, etc. The committee therefore suggested that the Federal Government call together representatives of trade associations method, no valid performance standard can be maintained. By in inter-dependent industries and form committees to effect and s standard the with ance perform actual g constantly comparin promptly investigating the causes of departure from standard, the simplifications in their commodities. (See Waste in Industry, manufacturer can quickly detect adverse conditions as they creep McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1922.) When Hoover became secretary of commerce he was requested (R. M. H.) in, and can rectify them. by many business leaders to assist industries to apply simplificaSIMPLIFIED PRACTICE OR SIMPLIFICATION tion. Accordingly, he organized the division of simplified practice. In Nov. 1921, varieties of vitrified paving-brick were reduced Another branch of standardization is the commercial eliminafrom 66 to 11, which constituted the bulk of the output. qualities or grades dimensions, sizes, in variety tion of unnecessary A general conference of brick producers, highway engineers, and ecothe of common commodities. Its chief purpose is to reduce officials agreed thereafter to concentrate on the rr most poputoo of distribution and production the from resulting waste nomic many varieties of the same general class of goods. The wastes of lar sizes. In March 1922, a second conference reduced the number to 7; in Jan. 1928, only 5 varieties were listed. (See Trade over-diversification are unduly large inventories, increased cost to Association Activities, Domestic Commerce series no. 20, US. e obsolescenc heavy investment, idle turnover, carry them, slower department of commerce, 1927.) Meantime, simplification through on, and decreased profits. Advantages gained through simplificati group co-operation has been applied to 80 other commodities, with by the manufacturer are decreased production costs and selling elimination of superfluous variety ranging from 25% in some expenses, smaller inventories, faster turnover and consequently instances to 99% in others, as shown in part in the following improved profits. Distributors likewise are enabled, through simtables :— plification, to reduce their inventories to the lines that sell well and thus to secure speedier turnover and better profits. ConSimplified Practice Applied to Construction Materials

sumers benefit from simplification through lower prices, improvements in quality of product and in the service of supply. Analyses of many different lines of products have shown to the U.S, department of commerce that usually 80% of the year’s total business in any line of products is done in 20% of the varieties in which that line is offered. The remaining 80%, producing only 20% of the year’s business, usually provides a fertile field for simplification. During the World War, the United States organized its war industries board which, among other responsibilities, was charged with the restriction of production of non-essential goods, in order to divert to war purposes the material and labour represented in those goods. The conservation division of the board applied sim-

, Commodity

Varieties Formerly

Now

Reduction

Zo Paving bricks Asphalt. . . . Steel reinforcing bars . Metal lath . . . Woven wire fence Asbestos millboard

; Eave trough and conductor pipe | Concrete building units . . Sand lime brick Roofing slate.

66 102 40 125 552 10 21

94 go

|

Average reduction

f

| |

|| pa

«SIMPLIFICATION: IS-CONCENTRATION

-

ON-SIZES-IN

GREATEST:

Simplified Practice Applied to General Supplies and Furnishings for Homes, Hotels, Hospitals, Clubs, ete.

DEMAND: 60

70

80

Varieties

Commodity

VARIETY [propuction, SALES OR SHIPMENTS: PER vear ror ENT IRE- INDUSTRY

Formerly

90

80 % OF BUSINESS IN 20% OF VARIETIES

| Now

_

Reduction |

Bedsteads, springs and mattresses Bed blankets i : . Sterling silver flatware Tinware, galvanized japanned

Milk bottles

oe

e

Milk bottle caps . Hotel china-ware Restaurant china-ware

Dining car china-ware.

Hospital beds Steel lockers .

Ns EEE NRRL PRESEN pe om APSR SEE

|

Average reduction

plification to more than 300 commodity lines with enormous sav- | One manufacturer of electrical apparatus eliminated 49% of ings to industry. (See B. M. Baruch, American Industry in the War, U.S. Government Printing Office, 1922.) After the war, the items in his stocks. An important Western road reduced its many of the industries which had participated in the Govern- stores, releasing $18,000,000 of otherwise idle investment. ment’s programme and had benefited by simplification, wishing to continue this waste-elimination programme, turned to the US:

Chamber of Commerce.

(See WAR CONTROL OF INDUSTRY)

. Early in 1921, Herbert Hoover, then president of the American

“gineering council (the executive body of the Federated Ameri‘42 Engineering Societies), organized a committee of 17 well-

A shoe manufacturer making 3 grades of shoes in 2,500 styles cut his varieties to one grade of roo styles, thereby reducing his production cost 31%, direct overhead 28%, inventories 26% and cost to consumer 27%. This enabled him to increase his turnover 50%; women’s shoes 22%; and men’s 80%. Simplification, now widely recognized in America, is also being

STANDARD

308

OF

LIVING

It is obvious, to begin with, that standards of living, as thy studied, and to some extent applied, by business interests in other! conceived, have a profound influence upon the erp. technically | of countries. Many economists regard the increasing application within a nation, Ji simplification as a significant factor in the advancing standard of | nomic well being of nations and of classes

living, since the savings it yields are passed on to the ultimate

the standard of living of every individual of a group, eithe

territorial or occupational, is high, it insures the group againg consumer in higher wages and lower prices. BrerrocrarHy.—“Simplification,” Management’s Handbook, Sect. 17, over-population. If, for example, no one would marry and under. p. 989—1034 (1924); U.S. Bureau of Standards, Standards Year Book | take the support of a family until he was reasonably certain oj

Lit- | being able: to educate3 his children, toT house them comfortably LAWY, Soc. of Mech. Eng., Bibliography of Management 3 Amer. (927) ,pPractice 58 (1927); U.S. department of commerce, Simplified certain tha a motor car,h 1t 1$ reasonably with mete them‘ibe, and provide (R. M. H.) tin famili hild

—Whai

it Is and What it Offers.

FROM Let

us

THE

agree

POINT

at once

no children wou

OF VIEW and

frankly

OF THE with

the

social

critics

e legitimately

could afford these things.

CONSUMER that

of immigration,

would

born except

in

families which

Besides, such a country, in the absence

never

have

any

more

people

than could

and bankruptcies might reduce som standardized behaviour patterns, moving-picture plots, syndicated | afford these things. Disasters On the other editorials, slavery to advertised styles, political speeches, educa- | to want, but normally there would be no want. the support oj

marry and undertake tional rolling mills, are an unmitigated evil, but when it comes to | hand, if every one would

a bare physical sub. the kind and the quality of the goods which the public buys, we | children as soon as he was able to provide that a great many children would be hom enter a different, more limited field, and one where standards | sistence, it is certain bare physical subsistence of workmanship have a definite and valuable place. Women should | in families which could only afford not wear identical frocks; but no aesthetic values are lost if a | In other words, wide spread poverty would be the normal state

people. woman has standards to guide her in respect to the durability, | of large masses of In the above characterization we have coupled both sex ang the fullness of measurement, the fastness of dyes, the silk content factors in a low standard of living. In a rather of materials. Standards often improve a product because, due to | domesticity as sense however, it is a relatively strong sexu narrow and strict | specialized more with stability of demand, the product can be built

nt of domesticity which and more precise tools, and with more research behind it, than | desire rather than a high developme A highly developed domes. living. of standard es low a characteriz | For varieties. excessive and quantities small with case the is merely chil

person to desire not nicety of workmanship and exact adaptation to its function, the | ticity would lead an intelligent his future children. This would lead of welfare the but dren, | counterno has watch fine or be vacuum-tu bulb, lamp y present-da for part in handicraft industry. The U.S. Chamber of Commerce has | to some postponement of marriage until one could provide welfare. their | is America in effort industrial all estimated that one-quarter of The items which go to make up a high standard of living wasted because of irrelevant over-diversification of styles, types other things than material articles of consumption. Those include | 5,000,000 ely approximat of labour and sizes. This refers to the reasonably

(S. Cu.; F. J. S.) | who will not marry until, as suggested above, they are people, and a full 25% in the cost of living. a high standSTANDARD OF LIVING. The term “Standard of Liv- | certain of being able to educate their children, have welfare of their ing” has two distinct meanings.

As used by the leading econo- | ard of living.

Such a desire to safeguard the

has the same effect on marriage rates and marmists from Ricardo to the present day, it has a strictly technical | future children desire for beefsteak and race track tickets. Even the as ages meaning. It also has a loose, general and semi-popular meaning. | riage high standard of

be a mark of a In the strictly technical sense it means the scale of living which | a high degree of thrift may until he can afford a sizeable inmarry not will who He living. | to preferable considers the average individual of any given group be called a thrifty individual. may account bank or policy marriage, or which he must be sure of maintaining before he will | surance living. In such a case the of standard high a has also he but | and loose the In family. a of support the marry and undertake account has the same bank a or policy insurance an for desire | averthe which things general sense it means merely the list of of marriage as the desire for a motor age individual of any given class happens to be consuming at a | effect on the postponement and must be accounted as a part of a given time and place. In the technical sense, it is a dynamic | car or an eight-room house it is that if no one would mary Certain living. of standard high | supply, labour the factor in determining the density of population, or a bank account, no children policy insurance an had he the rate of wages, and the possibility of future improvement of | until in families which, at one time except born legitimately be would | descripa merely is it sense general the In economic conditions. accounts. There would genbank or policies insurance had least, at | and time given a in living tion of the way people are actually of unforeseen disasters result the as except poverty no be erally | in place. It is useful in determining what income is necessary and cut off incomes out of which savsavings dissipated which | which living of standard a to according family a order to support ings were made. the estimator deems necessary or satisfactory. It is well to remember that this balancing of sex against other In the strictly technical sense, a man who will marry and beget is conditionéd upon an economic system which imposts desires provide to ability his to whatsoever regard any children without responsibility. If one did not have to pay the expenses parental | of standard no literally, for the needs of wife and children, has, family, no other desires would have to be sacrificed own his of | thus living at all. It is safe to say that the only creatures who desires were gratified. procreative the when | and plants’ like which, those are breed and mate thoughtlessly different classes within each nation may and nations, Different standard A future. the of animals, lack the capacity for thinking of living in the strict as well as in the standards different have | of living, in this technical sense, is something which goes with of the term. There are, however, no statistics avalsense general foresight. and intelligence any very direct light on these differences i Similarly, those who will marry and undertake the support of | able which throw Some indirect light is thrown on the subject sense. stricter the | families as soon as they feel able to provide the bare necessaries study by Baber and Ross on “Changes valuable y exceedingl an by | those , Conversely living. of standard low a have to said are of life in One Generation” (University Families American of Size the in | able being of certain who will not marry until they are reasonably Social Sciences and History, No. 10 to afford a great many luxuries as well as all the necessaries and | of Wisconsin Studies in the included which show that farmers decencies of life, are said to have a high standard of living. Thus | Madison, 1924). Tables are than business and professional tend to marry earlier a standard of living is always relative and consists of the number | and labourers

the average, more children are of desirable things which the individual considers more desirable |men; other tables show that on

than the domestic satisfactions which come with marriage. A | born of early than of late marriages. Family budgets as evidences of the spending habits of people high standard of living may result either from a weakening of were the first records to be studied str sex and domesticity or from a strengthening of the desire for | with different incomes, determining standards of living. The to view a with tistically | exagfrom either result may standard low a other things, while of Dr. Ernst Engel. The following that is these of famous most | desires weakened gerated sexual and domestic desires or from table summarizes the general results of that study. for other things.

STANDARD Percentage of expenditure of family income

| Items of expenditure

|

$225-$300 a a| a oe 1O-0| 12:0(99°°

a

|Subsistence | Clothin ee

:

|Heat and light -

public

| Education,

wor-

;

ship, etc.

.

5'0

Š

2°0

rotection

Le

-E

|Care $ health

|Comfort and recreation .

|

59

100-0

5:5)

30" s

2-0 (7°

2s

3°5

100-0

100-0

p. 145, Table I.

fort, etc., increases.

A fairly clear idea of the comparative

standard of living of

different countries and at different times may be gained from a study of the relative cost of living. Changes in the cost of living the in Great Britain from 1915 to 1926 have been calculated by Ministry of Labour. The following table is a condensation of their findings:

Index Numbers of the Cost of Living in Great Britain Calculated by the Ministry of Labour* July, 1914 = 100 | Date | Food | Housing | Clothing 132

IOO

Fueland|

Other

Total cost of living 125

125

| 1916 1917 | 1918 | ' 1919 | 1920} 1921 1922 1923 | 1924 |

161 204 210 209 258 220 180 162 162

100 Loo 102 106 II5—-120 145 153 147 147

160 205 320 360 425 290 240 220 225

I45—150 180 200-205 205~ 210 252 219 184 149 170

| 1926 |

161

150

147

230

173

| 1925 | 167

220

|e

=

~

H

a

A ef —

© oS 5 A. H +

Mm

|

=

4

Q

æ

T

599 | 25°9|

18 | 5°9 | 444]

12-4]

13 | TO | 64

goo-

799 | 21-9]

15 | 570 | 45°6|

13-4]

25

6o00-

699 | 23°6{ 809 | 207|

goo- 999 | 19-0] 1,000- 1,999 | 18-2] 1,100I,2001,3001,500-

r,199 £,299 1,399 1,599

r7 | 58 | 44°6] z0 | 50

|443|

IOO 97 102 130 146 155 I90 152 146 146 143 146 155 _*From the “Monthly

I00

Bulletin

United | United I00 125 148 180 210 215 255 222 IBI 171 171 173

LOO 105 118 142 174 199 200 174 170 173 173: 178

173 of Statistics, League

6-9

129 | zo | zr

7-3

Ipo

Ort

|

292

| TQ | 8-2

| 27]

15 | 52 | 44-7] 146| 26 |26] Org | TS | 45 1447] TSS | 25 | r5 | 1m4

| 16-2] r-9 | | 19°8 | 2-2 | | 168| rr | | 163 | r12 |

3:8 3:8 3:6 4°r

|456| |450] |436] {368|

1479 152 13°7 16:8

| | | |

2°5 272 49 23

| | | |

3:6 | r3 | rI | 74 |

Total Amounts Required to Support the Standard Family of Five According to Various Budgets Amount of budget

Year

City

Switzerland

1913-15|

TOO IIQ 140

1919

Investigator

1919 1920 1920

1920

1921 1922 of Nations,”

No. II. February, 1926. Page 67.

The changes in the cost of living have been compared with the changes in money wages in order to give the trend of real wages iN various countries. Cf. the International Labour Review, 1927,

eaa Cotton and Littl

Philadelphia

1917 | San Francisco . 1918 | Philadelphia

180 261

|

on Workingmews Standard of Living in Philadelphia, N.Y., 1919, and a symposium by various writers on Standards of Living; a Compilation of Budgetary Studies, published by the Bureau of Applied Economics, Washington, 1920. On the basis of these studies of actual budgets, various estimates have been made as to the money income necessary at existing prices to enable an average family to maintain a satisfactory standard of living. Of course something depends upon what the estimator considers a satisfactory standard. One of the best of these estimates was made by Robert Coit Chapin in 1909. His estimate was that in New York City in that year $900.00' was necessary. Various other estimates, based on different price levels and costs of living are tabulated by Paul Douglas in his Wages and the Family*., A summary of this tabulation follows:

oio

agg 2.4 o| Com- | nT]

435 3A,

229

Ir5 TOS 15-2 I5

Numerous other studies have been made, notable among which are those of Henry Higgs, “Workingmen’s Budget,” Journal of the Royal Statistical Society, 1893; Louise Bolard More on Wage Earner Budgets, N.Y. 1907; Frank Hatch Streightoff on The Standard of Living among the Industrial People of America, Boston, x911; Wiliam C. Beyer, Rebekah P. Davis and Myra Thwing

=

Kingdom | States

ee

geo~

Cost of Living in Different Countries, *1914-1926 1914 =100

France

be

13-0 | r2 | 372

*The figures are for July of each year.

Canada

A g vertd

2-6 | 5-6 | 40-8]

170

A comparison of the changes in the cost of living in different countries is contained in the following table. These, together with the statistics of wages, furnish the best information available as to the standards of living of wage workers in those countries:

Ly

28 188)| 38

Sifglese| F| as) |

H

5 3H

499 | 26-8]

800-

that The only striking thing about this table is that it shows ries necessa basic the for spent tage percen as incomes increase the comdecreases while the percentage spent for education, health,

om

5 ia, laa, 3 S w [m oe ot

AARE

$ 4oo-$

From Ernst Engel, Prussian Statistical Bureau Report No. 1857,

| IQIS

ea)

Income

3l

zol.

rolf

Expenditures of Families in New York City

5'0

3°5

32

399

Page 107. A somewhat more elaborate study was made in 1909 by Robert Coit Chapin in his Standard of Living in New York City, page 70The following is a brief summary of his more elaborate table:

18-ol,_. oe 85:0

TSO ban. roto 5ʻ0

ro|

ro

$450-$600 | $700-$1,000 50°0 55-0)

OF LIVING

. | Peixotto Beyer.

fort

|

|

| N Boetee . $1,070) .. |

1,4.76 . . | 1,637 | Washington . | U.S. Bureau of Labor | Statistics $2,262 | Lawrence, Massachusetts. | Nat. Ind. Conf. Board | 1,658 Nat. Ind. Conf. Board | 1,692 | Cincinnati, Ohio | Chicago, Illinois Council of Social Agencies . . | 1,666] 2,322 | San Francisco, Los Angeles, and Sacramento Blum and Peixotto .. | 2,292 | Philadelphia, Pa. Beyer . 1,847 : | Anthracite region of Pennsylvania Nat. Ind. Conf. Board | 1,322

.

It is frequently asserted that because the well-to-do classes have low and the poor a high birth rate, the difference in wealth is ICf. The Standard of Living Among Workingmen’s Families in New York City, p. 246. 2Chicago, 1925, pp. 7 and 8.

310

STANDARD

OIL COMPANIES—STANDARDS

the cause of the difference in the birth rate. On the mere ground of probability it would be at least as likely that the causal connection is the exact reverse, or that the difference in the birth rate is the cause of the difference in prosperity. There are some rather strong reasons for believing that, zm the same economic class, an increase of prosperity increases rather than decreases the birth rate. If, without first raising the standard of living, in the strictly technical sense, a given economic class is provided with larger incomes, the larger incomes are used as a means of earlier marriages and larger families. From Malthus to the present day, it has been recognized that a low standard of living among the working classes was the chief hindrance to the success of schemes of social betterment. Efforts to improve the condition of backward peoples are clearly frustrated by their enormous fecundity. During 40 years of British rule in Egypt, -1882-1922, the population doubled. This was made possible by irrigation and other economic improvements. Had the population not doubled, the lot of the masses might have been greatly improved. But with a low standard of living, the increased food supply merely resulted in a greater excess of births over deaths with no great improvement in the average well being. Similar results followed British rule in India, the French control of Algeria, the American occupation of the Philippines and Porto Rico. In every case, there has been a phenomenal increase in population, with no apparent change in the standard of living. The net result is, as Ross so expressively states, “The white race ts today serving as a midwife to the blacks and the browns.” If the standards of living of the blacks and the browns could have been raised while the productivity of their countries was being increased, the results would have been different. Instead of merely increasing the number of people living a miserable existence, white control would have lifted those people to a higher state of comfort. Similar results seem to follow from most so-called humane movements for the improvement of the condition of the lower classes of labourers within advanced countries. So long as the standard of living remains low and men will marry as soon as they are assured of sufficient income to satisfy the basic necessaries of life, any improvement in wages or employment is likely to result merely in earlier marriages and larger families with a consequent increase in the supply of labourers followed by a reduction of wages to the old level. On the other hand,.if the reform can start with, or be accompanied by, a rise in the standard of living, this train of evil consequences will not follow. The real question, therefore, upon which the success of most schemes of social amelioration depends, is, Can the standard of living of the mass of the labourers be raised? For the more intelligent portion of the labouring classes the raising of the standard of living is not only feasible but offers the most effective means of social amelioration. For the less intelligent classes, those bordering on feeblemindedness, some more drastic method will have to be employed to prevent the overstocking of the

gone into direct competition with Standard Oil Company of Ney York and Standard Oil Company

of New Jersey, in the fields

formerly reserved to those units. Standard Oil Company of Noy Jersey has recently entered the State of Pennsylvania, former} occupied exclusively by Atlantic Refining, and is engaged jn building up its own retail distributing organization in that State Standard Oil of Indiana is in active competition both for produc tion and retail business with several of its former associates. The Vacuum Oil Company is competing for lubricating oil busines against all the other companies. The largest of the former mem. bers of the Standard Oil group now does but a very small per-

centage of the total business of the country. Some of the principal Standard Oil Companies are Standard O} Company (N.J.), Standard Oil Company (Indiana), Standard 0} Company of New York, Standard Oil Company of Californiy,

Standard Oil Company of Ohio, Vacuum Oil Company, Atlantic Refining Company, Prairie Oil and Gas Company. The first named is the largest of the former units, with assets of approximately $1,500,000,000. Its business is about half domestic and half for. eign, the domestic business being done chiefly in the middle Atlantic States, which are best served by its seaboard refineries, This is now exclusively a holding company which owns numerous subsidiary companies that produce, transport, refine and marke petroleum and its products. Prominent among these subsidiaries

are Standard Oil Company of New Jersey, Standard Oil Company of Louisiana, and Standard Oil Company of Pennsylvania, all 100% owned. The holding company has a majority interest in Humble Oil and Refining Company, Beacon Oil Company, Creole Petroleum

Corporation,

Imperial

Oil Ltd.,

and various

other

operating companies. It is a large operator of tankers, having the greatest private tonnage under the American flag. Standard Oil Company of Indiana operates directly in eleven

States in the middle west and through subsidiaries in many other areas where it competes with former units of the trust. It has total assets in excess of $500,000,000. Standard Oil Company of California is an important producing, refining and marketing company which is chiefly operating on the Pacific coast. It too operates a large number of tankers.

STANDARD PRICE: sce Price MAINTENANCE.

STANDARDS, NATIONAL BUREAU OF. This United States body was established by act of Congress on March 3, 1901, and has for its functions the development, construction, custody and maintenance of reference and working standards, and ther intercomparison, improvement and application in science, engineering, industry and commerce. The bureau is a part of the Department of Commerce. Its services are available without charge to the national and State Governments, and under certain conditions, tests and investigations are conducted for the public. In the case of tests for other than the national and State Governments, fees are charged which are paid in to the U.S. Treasury. The original staff of the bureau of standards numbered 14 persons. In 1928 there were about 850, of whom two-thirds were technically trained. The plant comprised 14 permanent buildings on a site labour market. (T. N.C.) STANDARD OIL COMPANIES, American petroleum of 43 ac. in the north-west suburbs of Washington. The bureau serves as a clearing house for scientific and technical corporations which were formerly a single group operating throughout the world under the ownership of Standard Oil Com- information and to this end co-operates with similar institutions pany of New Jersey. In rgrz the United States Supreme Court abroad and with the research laboratories of American industries. ordered the dissolution of this company under provisions of the Large industrial groups send representatives to work in the buSherman Anti-Trust Act and shares of 33 subsidiaries were dis- reau’s laboratories on problems of mutual interest, the results tributed to stockholders of the company. Since that time there has of which are published for the public benefit. The laboratory been a gradually decreasing community of interest among the dif- equipment is unusually complete and includes several small-scale ferent units, and the ownership of the shares, originally in the manufacturing plants in which mill processes can be studied. Scope.—The bureau’s work falls into two major classes, the same hands as the shares of the Standard Oil Company of New Jersey, has become widely diversified. In 1929 the largest interest first comprising scientific and technical research and testing, and in Standard Oil Company (N.J.) stock controlled but 11% of its the second the establishment of commercial standards. Each of shares, and this interest had disposed of all of its holdings in these major groups includes several divisions which in turn ar some of the other units. There was no officer or director holding made up of sections, the section being the working unit dealing a place in the management of two or more of the companies and with some specific class of problems. The research and testing each company has pursued an independent career. Many of the group consists of the following divisions: electricity, weights anc companies formerly aligned are engaged in spirited competition, measures, heat and power, optics, chemistry, mechanics a one with the other. Notably, Atlantic Refining Company has sound, organic and fibrous materials, metallurgy and ceramic The commercial standards group is composed of the follow \Standing Room Only, by Edward A. Ross, N.Y., p. 98.

STANDARDS ing units:

simplified

practice,

building

and

DEPARTMENT—STANFIELD housing,

speci-

fications, commercial standards; and members of the staf cooperating with such organizations as the Federal Specifications

Board and the American Marine Standards committee. In addi-

the tion to these two groups there are divisions concerned with

administrative work of the central office, the operation of the bureau's plant and the construction of apparatus. Achievements.—Through conferences held during the past 23 years, practical uniformity in weights and measures has been

cecured throughout the country. In this connection it should be remembered that the Bureau of Standards has no police power. Many contributions have been made to the art of radio communication, particularly as regards the fundamental data under-

lying the propagation of radio waves, and the measurement and

control of frequency. Recently a new type of radio beacon has been developed by which aircraft are guided in fog and by which the pilot can tell when he is following the desired course. Contributions have been made to the art of manufacturing railroad rails, car wheels, boiler plate and other metallurgical

products. A means for greatly retarding the corrosion of duralumin, the light alloy used in the construction of aircraft, has heen developed, and the plating of metals with chromium has

heen made a commercial success. The bureau constructed the first altitude laboratory in the

world for testing aircraft engines under flight conditions.

In this

laboratory the low air pressure and temperatures existing at high altitudes can be duplicated and the performance of the engine

determined. The results obtained in this laboratory were of the greatest value in assisting in the design of aeroplane engines

B11

ment of the Board of Trade.

The functions of the standards department include the custody

of the imperial standards, the periodical comparison of these with their parliamentary copies and the verification and re-verification of local standards and scalebeams for local authorities and of any

standards submitted by other bodies in this country or by any colonies or foreign countries. The types of apparatus accepted for verification include standard weights, measures, weighing and measuring instruments, gas-measuring standards and apparatus for determining the flash-point of petroleum. Under the Weights and Measures Act 1904, the department is charged with the duties of examining and certifying candidates nominated by local authorities for appointment as inspectors of weights and measures or inspectors of gas meters; the making of regulations with regard to the verification and stamping of weights, measures and instruments for use in trade, the tests to be applied, the limits to be allowed and the conditions under which stamps are to be cancelled; also the examination and certification of novel patterns of weighing or measuring apparatus with reference to fraud. There are also standards departments under the charge of experlenced scientists in Berlin, Leningrad, Paris, Vienna, Rome, Madrid, Washington and elsewhere. For the United States Bureau of Standards see STANDARDS, NATIONAL BUREAU OF.

STANDERTON,

a town in South Africa on the Vaal river,

here spanned by two bridges, 114 m. by rail S.E. of Johannesburg: altitude 5,022 feet. It is the chief town of a district of the same name and the centre of an agricultural and of a coal-mining region.

STANDISH, MYLES

or MILES

(c. 1584-1656), Amer-

ican colonist, was born, according to Nathanael Morton, in Lancashire, England; but became a soldier in the Netherlands, where during the World War. The bureau’s polarimetry section has made many fundamental he met the Pilgrim Fathers. He sailed with them in the Maydiscoveries in the field of carbohydrates. A commercial method flower in 1620, and became the Captain or military defender of was developed for the production of corn-sugar (dextrose) and New Plymouth. As soldier and linguist he was invaluable in dealthis is now a most important industry. Similar work is now in ing with the natives. He rescued Weymouth colony from the progress on levulose (sugar obtained from a weed, the Jerusalem Indians in 1623; came to England on behalf of Plymouth colony artichoke) and experiments will soon be possible on a commercial in 1625-6, and later helped to buy out the Merchant Adventurers. scale. Revolutionary developments are expected to follow as the He was treasurer of the colony 1644~—9, and for a time assistant governor; but was never elected governor, perhaps because not a sugar has many advantages over cane-sugar for certain uses. In 1914 experiments were started on the making of optical glass, member of the Pilgrim Church. He removed to Duxbury, 1632, and in three years the bureau was able to turn out good grades where he died, 1656, and a monument was erected to him in 1872. Longfellow’s well-known poem, Courtship of Myles Standish, of glass in all the usual varieties. This work has been continued and recently there was cast at the bureau the largest disc of is based on a late tradition, published in Alden’s work on Epitaphs optical glass ever made in this country, 70 in. in diameter and in 1812-14. The story that Chorley Church Register was defaced to defeat ir in. thick. This will be used as the mirror of the reflecting his title to local lands is proved to be unfounded. Myles Standish telescope at Perkins observatory, Ohio Wesleyan university. On the experimental paper-mill, a paper on which to print was one of the Ormskirk branch of the Standish family. See the histories of Plymouth colony by William Bradford and by American currency has been developed which shows a strength of 40% greater than the paper formerly used. In co-operation with Nathanael Morton. Also Porteus: Captain Myles Standish (1920) and (ECP the Iowa State College experiments are in progress on the manu- History of Standish (1927). STAND PAT, a term used in American politics, signifying facture of wall board from corn stalks, and on recovering other progressive or advanced policies. It originated in the latter part valuable products from waste material of the farms. At the last meeting of the International Conference on Weights of Roosevelt’s administration when certain progressive members and Measures at Paris, in 1927, the bureau was largely responsible of the Republican Party, mostly from western States, called for the adoption of a uniform international temperature scale, the conservative members of the party “standpatters.” STAND-PIPE is a vertical pipe coupled to a ground hydrant, and for the tentative adoption of a value of the international to lead off water suitably for filling buckets, street-watering hose, metre in terms of the wave length of light. The publications of the bureau can be purchased from the fire-hose, watering-carts, etc. The pipe is either permanent or superintendent of documents, Government printing office, Wash- detachable, and the top may be of fixed or swivel type, with one or more outlets. A tall bent pipe is sometimes attached for filling ington, D.C. (See STANDARDIZATION.) (G. K. B.) STANDARDS DEPARTMENT. A department of the watering-carts or small locomotives. A stand-post is often comEnglish Board of Trade, having the custody of the imperial stand- bined with a drinking fountain or with a lamp column. In the ards of weights and measures. As far back as can be traced, these United States a stand-pipe is a vertical pipe or high tank to which were in charge of the chamberlains of the exchequer. This office water is forced in order to obtain a better head-pressure than is was abolished in 1826, but the custody of the standards remained afforded by the mains. (See HYDRANT.) attached to an officer in the exchequer (qg.v.) until that deSTANFIELD, WILLIAM CLARKSON (1794-1867), partment was abolished in 1866. Meanwhile, in pursuance of English marine painter, was born of Irish parentage at Sunderland recommendations of Standard Commissions of 1841 and 1854 in 1794. Asa youth he went to sea, but he practised sketching to and a House of Commons committee of 1862, the Standards of such good effect that, on being incapacitated by an accident, he Weights, Measures and Coinage Act, 1866, was passed. This act was able to paint scenery at the “Old Royalty,” a sailors’ theatre created a special department of the Board of Trade, called the in Wellclose Square, London, the Coburg theatre, Lambeth, and Standard Weights and Measures Department.” The Weights at Drury Lane. His first easel exhibit was “Wreckers off Fort

und Measures Act of 1878 made the office more strictly a depart-

Rouge” at the British Institution in 1827, and in 1832 he was

272

STANFORD— STANHOPE

made A.R.A. and in 1835 R.A. He died on May 18, 1867. His art was influenced by his early scene painting and tends to be spectacular and dry and hard in colour; on the other hand the treatment is broad and effective. His principal works are: “Mount St. Michael”, “The Opening of London Bridge” and “Portsmouth Harbour” (1832), ‘““The Battle of Trafalgar” (1836) for the United Service Club, “Isola Bella” (18412), “The ‘Victory’ bearing the Body of Nelson towed into Gibraltar” (1853) and “The Abandoned” (1856). Stanfield’s Coast Scenery contains 40 of his works engraved in line.

STANFORD, SIR CHARLES VILLIERS (1852-1924), Irish composer, was born in Dublin on Sept. 30, 1852. After studying in London under Ernst Pauer he won (1870) a scholarship at Queen’s College, Cambridge, whence he migrated to Trinity College in 1873, and succeeded J. L. Hopkins as college organist, a post he held till 1892. His appointment as conductor of the Cambridge University Musical Society gave him great opportunities. In 1874 to 1877 he visited Germany each year, studying under Reinecke and Kiel. His first important composition was incidental music to Tennyson’s Queen Mary (Lyceum, 1876). In 1881 his opera, The Vetled Prophet, was given at Hanover; followed by Savonarola (Hamburg and Covent Garden, 1884), and The Canterbury Pilgrims (Drury Lane, 1884). A long interval separates these from his later operas, Shamus O’Brien, the least pretending but most successful of all his dramatic works (Opéra Comique, 1896) and Much Ado About Nothing (Covent Garden, 1gor). Meanwhile he had been appointed professor of composition at the Royal College of Music in 1883; conductor of the Bach choir in 1885; professor of music in the university of Cambridge, succeeding Sir G. A. Macfarren, in 1887; conductor of the Leeds Philharmonic Society, in 1897, and of the Leeds Festival from 1901 onwards. He was knighted in 1902 and died in London on March 29, 1924. His instrumental works include six symphonies, many chamber compositions, among them two string quartets; besides many songs, part-songs, madrigals, etc., and incidental music to the Eumenides and Oedipus Rex (as performed at Cambridge), as well as to Tennyson’s Becket. His last operatic work was The Travelling Companion, posthumously produced in 1926. His church music and editions of Irish and other songs are well known. See his Studzes and Memories (1908), and Pages from an Unwritten Diary (1914).

‘STANHOPE, CHARLES STANHOPE, 3xp Eart (17531816), English statesman and scientist, was born on Aug. 3, 1753;

and educated at Eton and Geneva, where he studied mathematics. In politics he was democratic; he represented High Wycombe from 1780 until his accession to the peerage in 1786, giving his support (1783-84) to the administration of Pitt, whose sister, Lady Hester Pitt, he married in 1774; but when Pitt forsook his Liberal principles, Stanhope severed their political connection. He was the chairman of the “Revolution Society,” which expressed its sympathy, in 1790, with the aims of the French Republicans, and in 1795 he introduced into the Lords a motion deprecating any interference with the internal affairs of France, on which point he was in a “minority of one.” He thereupon retired from politics for five years. He spent much money on experiments in science and philosophy. His inventions include the printing press and the lens which bear his name, a monochord for tuning musical instruments, and two calculating machines. He projected a canal through Devonshire, and took the levels himself. His writings include Principles of Electricity (1779); a reply to Burke’s Reflections on the French Revolution (1790); and an Essay on the rights of juries (1792). The lean and awkward figure of Lord Stanhope figured in a host of caricatures. His first wife died in 1780, and in 1781 he married Louisa, daughter and heiress of the Hon. Henry Grenville, who survived him, and died in 1829. Lady Hester Stanhope (qg.v.) and Lady Lucy Rachael Stanhope, who eloped with the family apothecary and was never reconciled with her father, were daughters by his first wife. Lord Stanhope died at Chevening, Kent, on Dec. 15, 1816. See G. P. Gooch, Life of Charles, 3rd Earl Stanhope (1914).

STANHOPE, LADY HESTER LUCY (1776-1839), the eldest child of the 3rd Earl Stanhope by his first wife, Lady

Hester Pitt, was born on March 12, 1776, and lived at her fathers seat of Chevening in Kent until early in 1800, when his excitabl.

and wayward disposition drove her to her grandmother’s house

at Burton Pynsent. In 1803 hold of her uncle, William cheered his declining days, Hester Stanhope possessed

she became the chief of the house. Pitt. Although her wit and beauty her satire created enemies, [a great business talents, and when

Pitt was out of office she acted as his private secretary. On his

death she was granted a pension of £1,200 a year, dating from Jan. 30, 1806. On Pitt’s death she lived in Montagu Square London, but in 1810, she left England for ever. After many wanderings she settled among the Druses on Mt. Lebanon, and from the lonely villa of Djoun, 8 m. from Sidon, she wielded an almost

absolute authority over

the surrounding

districts, main.

tained by her commanding character and by the belief that she possessed the gift of divination. Ibrahim Pasha, when about to invade Syria in 1832, solicited her neutrality. She died on June 23, 1839. Her disappointments and her dictatorship intensified 3 temper naturally imperious. In appearance as in voice she resem. bled her grandfather, the first Lord Chatham. Some years after her death there appeared three volumes of Memoir; of the Lady Hester Stanhope as related by herself in Conversation; with her Physician (Dr. Meryon, 1845), and these were followed in the succeeding year by three volumes of Travels of Lady Hester Stan. hope, forming the Completion of her Memoirs narrated by her Physician. They presented a lively picture of this strange woman’s life and character, and contained many anecdotes of Pitt and his colleagues in political life for a quarter of a century before his death. See also Mrs. Charles Roundell, Lady Hester Stanhope (1910) ; the Duchess of Cleveland, Life and Letters of Lady Hester Stanhope (1914); and F. Hamel, Lady Hester L. Stanhope (1913).

STANHOPE, JAMES STANHOPE, rsr EARL (c. 16731721), English statesman and soldier, the eldest son of Alexander

Stanhope (d. 1707), a son of Philip Stanhope, xst earl of Chesterfield, was educated at Eton and Trinity college, Oxford. He served in Italy and Flanders as a volunteer against France, and

in 1695 obtained a commission in the British army. Entering the House of Commons in 1701 he still continued his career as a soldier. In 1706 he was appointed British minister in Spain, and in 1708 commander-in-chief there. He captured Port Mahon, assisted at the battles of Almenara and Saragossa in 1710, but was forced to capitulate to the French at Brihuega on Dec. 9, 1710, and was imprisoned in Spain for a year. Returning to England in 1712 he became one of the leaders of the Whig opposition in the House of Commons, and, in 1714, he became secretary of State for the southern department, sharing with Walpole the leadership of the House. In 1716, as George I.’s foreign minister he only just failed to conclude a treaty with France. He was made first lord of the Treasury in 1717, but in 1718 returned to his former office of secretary of State. In 1717 he was created Viscount Stanhope of Mahon, and in 1718 Earl Stanhope. He helped to conclude the quadruple alliance between

England, France, Austria and Holland (1718). He died in London on Feb. 5, 1721, just after the collapse of the South Sea scheme, for which he was partly responsible, though he did not profit. STANHOPE, PHILIP HENRY STANHOPE, st

Eart

(1805-1875), English historian, better known as Lord

Mahon, son of the 4th earl, was born on Jan. 30, 1805, was educated at Christ Church college, Oxford, and entered parliament in 1830. His chief interest was in literature. He was a trustee ol the British Museum, and in 1856 proposed the foundation of the National Portrait Gallery, whose subsequent creation was due to his executors. He also assisted in the establishment of the His torical Manuscripts Commission, and was president of the Society of Antiquaries from 1846 onwards. In 1855 he founded the

Stanhope Essay prize at Oxford.

His works include: Life of

Belisarius (1829); History of the War of Succession in Spam (1832); History of England from the Peace of Utrecht to the

Peace of Versailles (1836-53); Life of William Pitt (1861-62);

and History of England, comprising the reign of Queen Ant until the Peace of Utrecht (1870, new ed. 1908), the last tw of which remain standard works. Stanhope had unique access 1 ms. authorities, a clear style, and a general impartiality in crit \

STANIMAK A—STANISLAWOW was succeeded by his son, cism. He died on Dec. 24, 1875, and

Arthur Philip (1838-1905). of the STANIMAKA, a town of south Bulgaria, at the foot Rhodope mountains. Pop. (1926), 17,333. Itis a very old Greek

ning otherwise obsocolony; its inhabitants speak a dialect contai l terms. On the hill above the town is “Tsar

lete classica

Asen’s tower” (see ASEN). This was a very strong fortress, and

ed here Renier of Trit, the Latin Count of Philippopolis, was besieg

few , until relieved by Villehardouin (g.v.). A

for nine months vo, miles up the valley of the Cepelare is the monastery of Bactko . library famous a with the second in Bulgaria, king of PoSTANISLAUS I. [LeszczynsxI] (1677-1766), land, born at Lemberg in 1677, was the son of Rafael Leszczynski,

palatine of Posen, and Anne Catherine Jablonowska.

He married

er. In 1697, as Catherine Opalinska by whom he had one daught cupbearer of Poland, he signed the confirmation of the articles

Lithuanian Conof election of Augustus II. In 1703 he joined the Charles XII. year ing follow the in and us, federacy against August intimidaselected him to supersede Augustus, and by bribery and months later few A 1704). 2, (July on electi his d secure tion us to seek Stanislaus was forced by a sudden inroad of August 1705, was refuge in the Swedish camp, but finally on Sept. 24, ded crowned king with great splendour. Stanislaus at once conclu ance assist small some him ed render and s, Charle with e an allianc against the tsar; but he depended entirely on the success of his ally’s arms, and after Poltava (1709) the vast majority of the Poles hastened to repudiate him and make their peace with Augustus, and Leszczynski, henceforth a mere pensioner of Charles XII., retreated to Swedish Pomerania. On the restoration of Augustus, Stanislaus resigned the Polish Crown (though he retained the royal title) in exchange for the little principality of Zweibriicken, residing at Weissembourg in Lorraine.

313

ent unexpected recovery of the empress Elizabeth and the consequ tors. arrest of the conspira Stanislaus returned to Warsaw much discredited, but neverthe less was (Sept. 7, 1764) elected king of Poland through the overwhelming influence of Catherine, and crowned on November 25 to the impotent disgust of his uncles. He was hated by the nobility, yet he tried to do his best. He inaugurated some economical reforms. After the first partition he sought to restore the power of their country, while his eloquent oration before the Diet on taking the oath on May 3, 1791, moved the deputies to tears. But when the confederation of Targowica was formed against the constitution, he was one of the first to accede to it, thus completely paralysing the action of the army which, under his younger brother Prince Joseph and Thaddeus Kosciuszko, was performing prodigies. On the outbreak of the insurrection of 1794 he was obliged to sue for his very life to Kosciuszko, and saw his effigy expunged from the coinage a year before he was obliged to abdicate his throne. The last years of his life were employed in his sumptuous prison at St. Petersburg (where he died in 1798) in writing his memoirs. He contracted a secret marriage with the countess Grabowska. He was capable of the most romantic friendships, as witness his correspondence with Mme. Geoffrin. See Lars von Engestrém, Minnen och Anteckningar, vol. i. (Stock-

In 1725 Louis XV. of France married Stanislaus’ daughter

Mary, and supported his claims to the Polish throne after the death of Augustus II. in 1733, which led to the war of the Polish Succession. On Sept. 9 1733 Stanislaus himself arrived at Warsaw, having travelled through central Europe disguised as a coachman, and on the roth was once more elected king of Poland. Russia, however, protested, proclaimed the Saxon candidate king as Augustus III. (June 30, 1734), and in October besieged Stanislaus with his partisans in Danzig. The expected French help did not arrive until May 20, 1735, when a fleet disembarked a small force, which, however, could do little. On June 30 Danzig capitulated unconditionally after a stubborn resistance of 135 days. Stanislaus, disguised as a peasant, had contrived to escape two days before. He attempted to rally his partisans from Königsberg, and to secure fresh help from France and from Count Potocki in the Ukraine, but without avail. In 1736 Stanislaus again abdicated the throne, but received by way of compensation the dukedom of Lorraine and Bar, which was to revert to France on his death. He settled at Lunéville, founded there the Academia Stanislai, and devoted himself for the rest of his life to science and philanthropy. He died in 1766 at the age of 39. Among his works may be mentioned: Oeuvres du philosophe bienfaisant (Paris, 1763; 1866).

holm, 1876); Correspondance inédite de Stanislas Poniatowski avec Madame Geoffrin (Paris, 1875); Jan Kibinski, Recollections of the Times of Stanislaw Augustus (Pol. Cracow, 1899); Mémoires secrets

et inédits de Stanislas Auguste

(Leipzig, 1862) ; Stanislaw and Prince

in Joseph Poniatowski in the Light of their Private Correspondence,

French, edited in Polish by Bronislaw Dembinski (Lemberg, Stanislaus’s diaries and letters, which were for many years Russian foreign office, have been published in the Vestnik for January 1908. See also R. N. Bain’s The Last King of ‘i and his Contemporaries (1909)-

STANISLAVSKY,

Alexeev (1863-

stage name of Constantine

1904). in the

Evropy Poland

Sergeevich

), Russian theatrical producer, was born in

Moscow. His father was a rich mill owner and his grandmother a French actress; he studied at the imperial school of dramatic art and in 1888 began work as an actor and producer in the Society of Art and Literature and after ten years of training founded

in 1898 together with the playwright V. N. Danchenko the Mos-

cow Art Theatre. His productions were extremely varied, ranging from the historical Czar Fedor to the extreme naturalism of Chekhov’s plays. He was also an actor of great force and subtlety, taking the leading parts in Chekhov’s and Gorky’s plays. Stanislavsky revolutionized the art of producing and is the acknowledged father of the modern Russian theatre. See Stanislavsky, My Life in Art (Eng. trans., 1924).

a province of Poland. Area 7,090 STANISLAWOW, sq.m. Pop. (1921) 1,349,000, of whom 69-7% are Ruthenians, 22-2% Poles and 6-8% Jews. The Ruthenians speak a different dialect from that of the Ukrainians and the Polesian groups, those in the Carpathian area maintaining their Highland

customs, especially the interesting tribes of Hucules, who seem to be of Rumanian admixture. They are members of the Greek Catholic or Uniat Church. The province consists of a fertile belt drained by the tributaries of the Dniester, which forms its northeast boundary, of the Carpathian slopes and the mountains Les themselves, which rise in height to the east and form the lofty Lacroix, See Robert Nisbet Bain, Charles XII. (1895); Louis Opuscules inédites de S. L. (Nancy, 1866); Lettres inédites de S. L., Czarna Hora, with dense forests of beech, fir, etc. The province ed. P. Boyé (1g90r); Marchioness Des Reaulx, Le Roi Stanislas et produces 2,200,000 cubic metres of timber annually, the highest Marie Leszczynski (1895). proportion per inhabitant of all the Polish provinces. Stanisfamous for its horses and dairy cattle. The salt of STANISLAUS II. AUGUSTUS [Pontatowsxr] (1732- lawow is has been worked since the earliest times, forming part a Kolomyj 1798), king of Poland, the son of Stanislaw Poniatowski, palatine Cracow.

of Cracow, the friend of Charles XII. of Sweden. Through the

influence of his uncles the powerful Czartoryski, he was sent to St. Petersburg in the suite of the English ambassador Hanbury Williams. Subsequently, through the influence of the Russian chancellor, Bestuzhev-Ryumin, he was accredited to the Russian court as the ambassador of Saxony. Through Williams he was introduced to the grand duchess Catherine, who was irresistibly attracted to the brilliant young nobleman, for whom she aban-

doned her other lovers. Poniatowski was concerned in the con-

spiracy to set aside the succession of the grand duke Peter and his son Paul in favour of Catherine, a conspiracy frustrated by the

of the salt belt which extends all along the mountains to Potash is found at Kalusz and Turka. The Stanislaw6w district also has oilfields, producing (1924) 40,495 tons. Other districts, such as Kolomyja, produce oil and there is mineral gas at Kalusz.

The mountain scenery of the province is very beautiful, particularly in the valley of the Stryj. There are a number of health resorts, such as Kosów, in Pokucie. The chief towns are Stanislawów (pop. 1921, 28,200), Stryj (27,300), Kolomyja, Kalusz, Sniatyn and Turka. Halicz (Russian Galich), the ancient capital of the three provinces of Stanislawéw, Tarnopol and Lemberg, is a small town near the Dniester. It was the capital of a line of

314

STANLEY

Russian princes, which became extinct in 1340 when Casimir the Great occupied the principality.

STANLEY

(Famy),

derived its name

from Stanley in

Leek (in the Staffordshire “moorlands”). Its first known ancestor is Adam de Stanley, brother of Liulf de Audley, who lived in the time of King Stephen. His descendant, William de Stanley, acquired the forestership of Wirral, with an heiress, in 1284, and was ancestor of two brothers, Sir William and Sir John Stanley. The former married the heiress of Hooton in Wirral and was ancestor of the Stanleys of Hooton, whose baronetcy, created in 1661, became extinct in 1893. The younger brother, lieutenant of Ireland under Richard II. and Henry IV., obtained from the latter the Isle of Man in fee. His grandson Thomas was father of the first earl of Derby and of Sir William Stanley of Holt, whose great wealth led to his execution for treason in 1495, and also of Sir John Stanley, ancestor of the Stanleys of Alderley, who obtained a baronetcy in 1660 and a barony in 1839. The earls of Derby are noticed under DERBY. The barony of STANLEY OF ALDERLEY was created in 1839 for Sir John Thomas Stanley, Bart. (1766-1850), of Alderley Park. EDWARD JOHN STANLEY, 2ND Baron (1802-1869), entered the House of Commons in 1831 and became under-secretary to the home department in 1841, patronage secretary to the treasury from 1835 to 1841, paymaster-general in 1841, and under-secretary for foreign affairs from 1846 to 1852. In 1848, two years before he succeeded to the barony of Stanley, he was created Baron Eddisbury of Winnington. He was president of the board of trade from 1855 to 1858, and postmaster-general

from 1860 to 1866. His wife, Henrietta Maria (1807-1895), a daughter of Henry Augustus Dillon-Lee, 13th Viscount Dillon, was a remarkable woman. Before her marriage in 1826 she had lived in Florence, and had attended the receptions of the countess of Albany, the widow of Charles Edward, the Young Pretender; and in London she had great influence in social and political circles. When he was patronage secretary her husband was described by Lord Palmerston as “joint-whip with Mrs. Stanley.” Later in life Lady Stanley of Alderley helped to found the Women’s Liberal Unionist Association, and she was a strenuous worker for the higher education of women, helping to establish Girton College, Cambridge, the Girls’ Public Day School Company, and the Medical College for Women. She died in 1895. STANLEY, ARTHUR PENRHYN (1815-1881), English divine, dean of Westminster, was born on Dec. 13, 1815, at Alderley, Cheshire, the son of Edward Stanley (1779-1849), afterwards bishop of Norwich. He was educated at Rugby under Arnold, and at Balliol college, Oxford. In 1839 he was elected fellow of University college, also taking orders. In 1840 he travelled in Greece and Italy, and for ten years he was tutor of his college. In 1845 he was select preacher, and published in 1847 Sermons and Essays on the Apostolic Age. He was a strong advocate of toleration and used his influence to protect from formal condemnation the “Tractarian” party. In 1847 he resisted the movement set on foot at Oxford against R. D. Hampden's appointment to the bishopric of Hereford. Finally, in 1850, in an article in the Edinburgh Review, in defense of the “Gorham judgment” he asserted two principles which he maintained to the end of his life—first, “that the so-called supremacy of the Crown in religious matters was in reality nothing else than the supremacy of law,” and, secondly, “‘that the Church of England by the very condition of its being, was not High or Low, but Broad, and had always included and been meant to include, opposite and contradictory opinions.” He was greatly interested in university reform and acted as secretary to the royal commission reporting in 1852. Stanley was also appointed to a canonry at Canterbury. During his residence there he published his Memoir of his father (1851), and completed his Commentary on the Epistles to the Corinthians (1858). In the winter of 1852—53 he made a tour in Egypt and the Holy Land, the result of which was his well-known volume on Sinai and Palestine (1856). In 1857 he travelled in Russia, and collected

canonry at Christ Church, he held till 1863. He published the first two volumes of his History of the Jewish Church in 1863 and 1865. In the storm which followed the publication of Essays oni Reviews Stanley opposed the High Church Party. In 1836 he published a Letter to the Bishop of London, advocating a relax.

tion of the terms of clerical subscription to the Thirty-nine Articles and the Prayer Book.

the year 1865. In 1862, Stanley accompanied the prince of Wale in Egypt and Palestine. In 1863 he was appointed dean of Westminster. In December he married Lady Augusta Bruce, sister of Lord Elgin, then gover. nor-general of India. He wrote a third volume of his History oj the Jewish Church, a volume on the Church of Scotland, another of Addresses and Sermons preached in America, and another m Christian Institutions (1881). He was constantly fighting for the interests of the poor. He gave offence by defending Bishop

Colenso, although he disapproved of Colenso’s views, and, still more, by his invitation to the Holy Communion of all the revisers of the translation of the Bible, including a Unitarian among other

Nonconformists.

He desired that the Athanasian Creed be op

tional instead of imperative in the Church of England. In 18% Stanley, who was much esteemed by Queen Victoria, conducted

the Anglican ceremony at the marriage of the duke of Edinburgh and the grand duchess Marie.

He died on July 18, 1881, and was

buried in Henry VII.’s chapel. Stanley’s other works include: Life of Dr. Arnold (1844); Essays on Church and State (1870); Memorials of Westminster Abbey (186s), See G. G. Bradley Recollections of A. P. Stanley (1883); R. E. Prothero and G. G. Bradley, Life and Correspondence of Dean Stanley (2 vols., 1893).

STANLEY, SIR HENRY MORTON (1841-1904), British explorer of Africa, discoverer of the course of the Congo, was born at Denbigh, Wales, on June 10, 1841, of a family named Rowlands or Rollant. John Rowlands, by which name Stanley was baptized, was brought up first by his maternal grandfather, and after his death was boarded out by his mother’s brothers at half a crown a week. In 1847 he was taken to the St. Asaph Union workhouse, where the schoolmaster, James Francis (who eventually died in a madhouse), was a tyrant of the Squeers type, and in May 1856, Rowlands, after giving Francis a thrashing. ran away from school. His paternal grandfather having refused to help him, he became a pupil teacher at Brynford, where his cousin was master. But within a year he was sent to Liverpool, where he lived in poverty with an uncle, and after working at various trades, he sailed as a cabin boy to New Orleans, where he landed in 1859. There he obtained a situation through the good offices of Henry Morton Stanley, who subsequently adopted the lad as his son, but died without making provision for him.

When the Civil War broke out in 1861 Stanley enlisted in the Confederate army; he was captured at the battle of Shiloh (April 1862), and after two months’ imprisonment at Camp Douglas, Chicago, he obtained release by enrolling in the Federal this

might have a dynamical

explanation,

since the speeds of the

molecules of a gas distribute themselves according to the same

law. Up to a certain point observations agree with the equipar-

tion law, but there are noteworthy exceptions; the massive B stars have low average speed as the law requires, but the most massive stars of all, type O, have rather large speeds. The present

position is that our knowledge of the factors determining the

mean speed of different kinds of stars is made up of fragmentary correlations, and has not yet led to any generally comprehensive I, theory.

but in regions where the circumstances of projection are favourable the third stream always appears clearly. Rotation of the Galaxy.—lIf the galactic system is analogous to a spiral nebula it is presumably rotating in its own plane; in any case its flattened form would lead us to suspect rotation. Several attempts have been made to detect such a rotation from the proper motions of stars, but it is difficult to be sure that the

results are not vitiated by the systematic errors of meridian cataJogues. A determination by C. V. L. Charlier, in 1913, gave a general retrograde rotation of the stars in the galactic plane of 0-35” per century; his more recent result is 0-24”. The rotation appears now to be confirmed by better evidence afforded by the radial velocities. If the rotation were like that of a rigid body the radial velocities, as viewed from any point, would be unaffected; “but it is more reasonable to suppose that the angular velocity diminishes outwards from the centre of the system, as with the planets in the solar system. Then, if we take a group of stars surrounding the sun, those between us and the centre will be gaining on us and those outside us will be lagging behind. This shearing motion distorts a square into a parallelogram, that is to say one diagonal is lengthening and the other diagonal is shortening; so if we observe stars in two opposite regions of the sky, corresponding to the direction of one diagonal, these should be receding from us, and along the other diagonal, 90° away, the stars should be approaching us, on the average. J. H. Oort has found that this effect is quite prominently shown in the observed radial velocities, and that the direction of the galactic centre deduced from it accords well with the direction generally accepted (deduced from the distribution of globular clusters). Moreover, taking different classes of stars, the positions found for the centre are very accordant, and the effect increases, as it should do, proportionately to the mean distance of the class. Our survey covers only a relatively small region of the galactic system, but we can at least say that in this region the stars have systematic motions which shear the distribution in the same way as orbital motion about the centre of the galaxy would do. It is possible, however, that other physical explanations of this behaviour might be given.

Individual Motions.—After eliminating all systematic motion there remains the individual motion of the star itself. An interesting field of study arises from the correlation between individual speed and other characteristics, such as mass, spectral type, brightness. The earliest result of this kind was found by W. W. Campbell and J. C. Kapteyn in 1910; viz., a progressive change of mean speed with spectral type. Campbell’s results for bright stars were: Type B, 6-5 km. per sec.; A, 11; F and G, 15; M, 17 km. per second. The figures refer to the radial component only, and must be doubled to give the mean speed in three dimensions. At the time it was thought that this sequence of types represented the order of evolution, so that the progression implied that the speed of the stars increases with their age: with the recognition of giant and dwarf stars this interpretation has become inadmissible. Actually type M consists of two distinct classes, viz., very diffuse stars supposed to be in the earliest

stage of condensation from a nebula, and very dense stars supposed to be at the end of the evolutionary sequence; both classes have high speeds, the latter being particularly large. Generally speaking, faint stars have greater speeds than bright stars; owing

One complicating factor is the asymmetry

of high Velocity

stars, which has been discovered by J. H. Oort and G. Strömberg,

According to Oort, stars with speed greater than about 6o km.

per sec. are moving almost exclusively towards one hemisphere of the sky.

It seems reasonable to interpret this critical speed

as the “velocity of escape” from our local star-cloud. Stars with velocity below the velocity of escape are permanent members of the star-cloud, and deseribe orbits within it under its gravitational attraction;

on the average,

therefore,

one direction as in the opposite.

they move

as much in

Stars with velocity above that

of escape cannot be permanent members; they pass once through the system and do not return; accordingly they may well show an asymmetry of motion, dropping into our star-cloud from a cluster or clusters on one side of it, passing through it, and not returning. The value of the velocity of escape is more or less

| what we should expect from our general knowledge of the extent of the star-cloud and the number of stars per unit volume. About 18 stars are known within a sphere of 4 parsecs radius surrounding the sun, z.¢., having parallaxes greater than 0-25”: there may be a few additional faint stars yet to be detected, Many of these near neighbours are red dwarfs with masses onequarter or one-fifth that of the sun; on the other hand a considerable proportion are double stars (here counted as one), The total mass within the 4 parsecs sphere may be estimated at about r2 times the sun’s mass. If this may be taken as the general average density of our star-cloud, it is possible to calculate the orbital period of the stars moving within it under its gravitational attraction; for the periods of orbits in a sphere of uniform density are isochronous, and depend only on the density and not on the size of the sphere. The period would be 200 million years. In addition to the mass of the lucid stars there may be other masses in the sphere, e.g., dark stars or scattered nebulous matter of great tenuity. These added masses would shorten the period; but we cannot allow the period to be shortened very much, because then the stars in the largest orbits, hurrying to get from one side of the star-cloud to the other and back again in the prescribed period, would need to have greater velocities than we observe. Dark stars and nebulous material together cannot amount to many times the mass of the lucid stars. At the end of this article direct observational evidence will be given for the existence of a cloud of diffuse matter in interstellar space. This must be extremely rarefied; one atom per cubic centimetre is the most we can possibly allow consistently with the dynamics of stellar motions. CONSTITUTION OF THE STARS Density.—When the mass and radius of a star are known, the mean density of the material can be calculated immediately. Direct determinations of the mass are only available for double stars; but for other stars the mass may with some confidence be inferred from the absolute magnitude by means of the massluminosity relation described later in this section. In any case the range of stellar masses is so restricted that errors are not likely to affect the general order of magnitude of the densities deduced. The radius R may be calculated from the absolute

luminosity and the observed surface-temperature.

Other things

being equal, the luminosity is proportional to the area of the surface, że., to R*, but allowance must be made for the different

CONSTITUTION]

STAR

Se]

radiating power of surfaces at different temperatures; this allow- | main results of the investigation, and, by considering the extreme

| be calculated from the laws ; of radiation (Planck's law). | cases of a source wholly concentrated at the centre and a source = way have been con- evenly distributed through the mass, we can set limits to the this in d deduce radii the sR a few stars ġrmed by direct measurement of the apparent angular diameter uncertainty. For the sun the central temperature is found to be of the order of the disc with Michelson’s interferometer. In this way we find that some of the red giant stars, such as Betelgeuse, Antares, Mira, 40,000,000° C. The mean temperature (averaged for equal mass) have densities less than 100 that of air; Capella has a mean is 23,000,000°, and is less subject to uncertainty arising from ce can

density nearly equal to air; the sun, we already know, has a density 1-4 water; the faint red dwarfs have density about 10X water. For the class of stars called white dwarfs, which includes

ignorance of the distribution of the source of energy and other data. Moreover, all stars of the Main Series (see STELLAR Evo-

LUTION) have nearly the same internal temperature.

The Main

the companion of Sirius (see Srrtus), the method gave an enor- Series, which comprises the great majority of the stars, includes mous density 60,000 times that of water; this result was at first B type stars several hundred times more luminous than the sun, regarded as incredible, but it now appears probable that it is and red dwarfs, giving a hundredth or a thousandth of its light.

to be accepted literally. For the more diffuse stars it is evidently legitimate to treat the stellar material as perfect gas. The study of stellar equilibrium thus reduces to the study of the equilibrium of a globe

of perfect gas held together by its own gravitational attraction.

It was thought that the simple theory must break down for stars of higher density (such as the sun) owing to the deviations from

the laws of a perfect gas; but in 1924 it was found by Eddington that the dense stars agreed observationally with laws which had heen deduced theoretically for gaseous stars. The fact is, that at the temperatures of the order of ten million degrees occurring in the stellar interior, the atoms are stripped of all theìr outer

It is remarkable that stars differing so widely in mass, in output of heat and light, and in surface temperature, should be so uni-

form in internal temperature. The giant stars have lower internal temperature, e.g., Capella, which is of the same spectral type as the sun but has only g4, of its density, has a central temperature 10,000,000°. The temperature gradient from the centre to the surface causes a flow of heat outwards, which is hindered by the opacity of the stellar material; hence, knowing the temperature distribution in

the interior, and having observed the total outflow of heat from

the star (2.e., its luminosity reduced to heat units) we can compute the opacity. This astronomical opacity may be compared electrons and reduced to ions of very small dimensions; conse- with the theoretical opacity for material of the density and temquently the jamming of atoms against one another, which causes perature concerned, as calculated from the modern theory of the the breakdown of the gas laws, does not occur in the stars until atom. At present the results are not fully accordant, the astrofar higher densities are reached. The high density found for nomical opacity being about 12 times the calculated opacity, że., the white dwarfs confirms this conclusion; close packing is possible the stars are about three magnitudes fainter than we should expect. because the atoms have lost their balloon-like envelopes. In all The discrepancy is, however, the same for all stars, so that, if stars other than white dwarfs the material may be treated as instead of attempting to predict theoretically the absolute brightperfect gas, except that in the stars of least mass (red dwarfs) ness, we use the law of variation of opacity with density and there is a small correction arising from the electrostatic forces temperature to predict differences of brightness, the agreement is between the ions which makes the gas superperfect, 1.e., makes it very good. The Mass-luminosity Relation—Having calculated the deviate in the opposite direction to the deviations of imperfect temperature distribution in the star by the condition of radiative terrestrial gases. Internal Temperature and Pressure.—The distribution of equilibrium, we find the following formula for the total outflow temperature and density in a sphere of gas in equilibrium under of heat L (in ergs per second): ‘ts own gravitational attraction is a classical problem studied by L=4ncGM(1— 8) /R, Lane, Ritter, Emden and others. The mathematical analysis dewhere ¢ is the velocity of light, G the constant of gravitation, M yeloped in these earlier researches is used in the modern theory, the mass of the star (in grams); & the coefficient of opacity, but three new features have been introduced. (1) It used to and 1-8 the ratio of radiation pressure to the whole pressure,

be supposed that the heat radiated from the star’s surface into space was brought up from the interior by convection currents, but it has now become evident that it is transferred by radiation. Accordingly the stars are now assumed to be in radiative equilibrium instead of in convective equilibrium. The condition of radiative equilibrium is that each region must have settled down to a temperature at which it radiates an amount of heat equal to that which it absorbs from the-radiation passing through it. One simplification resulting from this change is that we no longer need to know the ratio of specific heats of stellar material—a physical constant difficult to estimate. (2) Radiation-pressure is

obtained by solving the quartic equation,

1—PB=0-0031 M* usps, where M is now expressed in terms of the sun’s mass, and p is the average molecular weight in terms of the hydrogen atomic

weight. Knowing L and M for any star we can calculate k; for example in Capella we find k=120 C.G.S, units, This means that a screen containing 74, gram. per sq.cm. (equivalent to about 6 cm. of air) would stop about twe-thirds of the radiation passing through it. At first sight this is a surprisingly high opacity. The old problem as to how the heat is brought up from the interior sufficiently great to play an important part in the equilibrium, of a star to replace that radiated from the surface, has comespecially of the massive stars, and it is now taken into account. pletely changed; we see rather that the star has to be constructed (3) Formerly the average molecular weight of the stellar gas of highly opaque material in order to hold back the internal heat was taken to be the weight of the atoms likely to preponderate, and permit it to come to the surface no faster than it does. The e.g., iron (at. wt. 56). It is now recognized that the atoms in high opacity is, however, not so surprising when we realize that the interior will be highly ionized; most of the electrons which at ten million degrees the radiation in the interior consists of circulate round the nucleus will have broken loose, and must be X-rays chiefly of wave-length 2 to 6 Angstroms, which are highly counted as independent “molecules.” Taking this into account absorbed in a few millimetres of air. In fact the stellar opacity the molecular weight will be slightly over 2, a result nearly inde- is less than the observed opacity in the laboratory—a fact expendent of the chemical constitution of the star provided only plained by the high ionization of the stellar atoms, which throws that there is not an excessive proportion of hydrogen. Owing to a great part of their absorbing mechanism out of order. According to modern theories of X-ray absorption, the cothis decrease in the adopted molecular weight, the internal temperatures are considerably lower than those calculated on the efficient of opacity should (approximately) be proportional to the density and inversely proportional to the 4 power of the older theories, l Since it is þelieved that a star’s heat is maintained by libera- temperature (hoo p/T4). By the use of this law we can eliminate tion of sub-atomic energy, another unknown condition enters into k from the equation given above and obtain the relation between the problem, viz., the distribution of sub-atomic sources in the Land M. The density of the star nearly disappears from this remterior. This, however, has no very important effect on the lation, so that the total radiation or absolute bolometric magni-

STAR

328

[STELLAR SPECTR,

the continuous spectrum for different wave-lengths;

the hj

tude of a star is a function of the mass and molecular weight only, apart from a trivial correction dependent on the density, which can be calculated and applied when the spectral type is

placed to the violet.

known.

This predicted relation between LZ and M can be plotted

equivalent black-body temperature is checked by calculating also

as a graph; it is called the mass-luminosity relation. It appears to be well confirmed by all the observational data available; but it must be remembered that accurately determined masses are rare, so that the test is not so complete as we should desire. The mass-luminosity relation cannot conveniently be expressed by an algebraic formula, but as a rough guide it may be stated that the heat outflow from a star varies as the third or fourth power of the mass In the most important part of the range. These results are mainly independent of the assumed chemical

the temperature corresponding to the absolute intensity of its radiation; so presumably it will apply to other stars, although we have not usually any direct check., Good indirect confirma. tion of these temperatures has been afforded by studying the

the temperature the more the region of maximum intensity is diz.

For the sun this method of finding th

spectral indications of ionization of the elements.

(See below.)

The following temperature scale is a combination from varios sources; the results are in degrees absolute. Temperature

constitution of the stars, owing to the fact that the average molecular weight for all elements except the lightest turns out to be nearly 2 when account is taken of ionization; but for stars

o

20,000 15,000 II,000

Go G5 Ko

5,500 4,700 4,000

| | |

composed mainly of hydrogen the mass-luminosity relation would 8,500 Ks 3300 | be greatly altered. It may be inferred, therefore, that the stars 7,500 Mo 3,000 | do not contain an excessive proportion of hydrogen. 6,500 It is interesting that we should be able to learn anything at all about the chemical composition of the inaccessible interior; but This refers to giant stars; dwarf stars of the same type are about the fact has also a definite bearing on theories of the source of a 500° hotter. The radiating power of the surface in heat units is star’s heat. One theory suggests that the store of energy needed proportional to the fourth power of the temperature. to maintain the star for thousands of millions of years is provided In all the later types the stars fall into two groups, the giant by the evolution of higher elements from hydrogen. (Hydrogen, or diffuse stars, and the dwarf or dense stars. They are most which consists merely of protons and electrons is perhaps best re- widely distinct in type M, and converge to coalescence in types garded as unformed matter.) By cutting down the admissible pro- A and B. If, instead of arranging the stars in order of surface portion of hydrogen to, say, 10%, we reduce the supply from this temperature, we put them in order of increasing density, we must source to one-tenth, and it becomes very doubtful whether it start with the giants of type M, follow the giant branch through will suffice. Secondly, by admitting that 90% of the star must K, G, F until it coalesces with the dwarf branch in types A and consist of “formed” matter, we must suppose that the main pro- B, and then continue along the dwarf branch in the reverse order cess of formation of matter occurs in a pre-stellar stage. Evolu- A, F, G, K, M. It is natural to suppose that the order of intion of the elements is, therefore, in the main a low temperature creasing density is that of evolution, and accordingly we seek process and, perhaps still more surprisingly, a low density process. a theory of evolution which will be consistent with this order.

Radiation-pressure.—At any point in a star, gas-pressure and radiation-pressure together support the weight of the layers above. The proportion supported by radiation-pressure (1-8) is found by a quartic equation already given. To a first approximation it is the same in all parts of the interior, and is independent of the star’s density; the molecular weight being given, it depends only on the star’s mass. It is remarkable that for stellar masses there is no great disparity between radiation-pressure and gaspressure, whereas for masses of a different order 1-8 would begin -00.... or -99 It seems clear that the condition of rough equality of the two pressures has in some way determined the size of the aggregations of the primitive matter of the universe. The simplest view is to suppose that, when radiation pressure amounts to say one-tenth of the whole pressure, it renders the aggregation of further material more difficult or makes the mass more liable to break up. Hence larger masses are more and more rare. Gravitation by drawing together the primitive nebulous material will, in general, build up masses to a size at which radiation pressure first begins to offer serious opposition to further increase. It is now widely believed that the ‘stars radiate away a large part of their mass during their life-time; hence it is fairest to consider only the youngest stars—those in the most diffuse state; 90% of these have masses (deduced by the mass-luminosity relation) between two and one-half times and five and one-half times that of the sun, corresponding to values of 1-8 between -17 and -35. If the rise of radiation to importance plays a part in limiting the masses of the stars, this is just the range which we should expect to be most critical. STELLAR

SPECTRA

Following this supposed order of evolution, the temperature of the surface starts decreases again, the ture, and the dwarf which was stressed

very low, increases to a maximum, and then giant stage being one of ascending temperastage of descending temperature. This fact, in early theories, has probably no great significance, since the surface temperature does not correspond at all closely to the internal temperature. It is more important to note that the mass (corresponding closely with the luminosity) is nearly steady in the giant sequence, perhaps decreasing slightly, and then diminishes rapidly as we pass down the dwarf sequence. It seems impossible to retain our general ideas of stellar evolution without admitting that the mass of a star decreases substantially during its life-time. Radiation is the principal cause of loss of mass by a star, and hence we are inclined to believe that a large part of the mass of a star is convertible into radiation—in short, matter must disappear, its energy of constitution being released as aether waves. Admitting this source of energy, the age of the stars is of the order of a billion (10%) years or more. In fact, we can calculate the time taken for a star to evolve from one type

to another by reckoning how long it would take for its observed radiation to carry away the necessary amount of mass. In the latest dwarf stages, when the radiation is feeble, evolution will be very slow, and the sun may

continue

to shine with increasing

feebleness for 300 billion years before it reaches the last stage of the sequence type M (dwarf). ,

After the first use of spectroscopy to identify chemical elements in the atmosphere of a star, was the discrimination of “enhanced in the spark spectrum as compared early progress in this direction was Fowler. In general, enhanced lines

the most important advance lines,” że., lines strengthened with the arc. Much of the due to J. N. Lockyer and A. are those due to the atom

We deal rather briefly with this branch of the subject since some of the more interesting developments are treated under with one electron missing (singly ionized atoms), the arc lines ASTROPHYSICS, STELLAR EvoLuTIon, Sun. By the appearance of being due to neutral atoms. The spectra of all the important eletheir spectra (see Spectroscopy) stars are arranged in a se- ments have now been unravelled, and we can say at once which quence of types O, B, A, F, G, K, M. This turns out to be the lines belong to neutral atoms, which to singly ionized, which to order of decreasing surface temperature. The “effective” sur- doubly ionized atoms, etc. Thus it is found that in some stars the face temperatures of stars are calculated by Planck’s law of radia- atams of calcium in a position to form an absorption spectrum tion (for theory, see RADIATION) from the relative intensity of are neutral, in others they are singly ionized, in others doubly

ST AR

jooo

4500

5000

Piare II

65

5500

:

:

oc

NAME, COLOUR AND CHARACTERISTICS OF SIX TYPES OF STARS

Ie Orionis, blue-white. ‘Helium

(He)

lines

J strong; ionized oxygen | (O—) present ionized. nitrogen

(N~)

present

Temp. about 23,000°

H Sinus, white HydroSgen ‘Ho, HB, etc) dominant, iines of ionized metals. Temp. 31,020°.

| ô Geminorum, yellowAwhite Hydrogen lines mB weak, metallic arc lines appear, Calcium (H, a K`lhnes strong Temp. 7400°.

J Sun, Capela, yellow. Metallic arc lines strong; H and K very fm strong, G band (probPa ably due to the comm pound CH) appears.

m Temp

giant, 5600°;

= dwarf, 6000°.

Arcturus, yelloworange. Many metallic

Barc

lines;

j strong

G

band

Temp. giant,

5 4200°, dwarf, 5100°.

m Antares,

Betelgeuse,

Orange. Titanium (TiO: bands. Temp. j giant, 3200°; dwarf,

| 35005.

cae BY PERMISSION OF THE EASTERN SCIENCE SUPPLY COMPANY,

BOSTON, MASS , COPYRIGHT OWNERS,

SPECTRA A substance when at ‘“‘white heat’? emits

all colours; these combine

to form

OF SIX TYPES

light-rays of all wave-lengths,

“white”

light.

WITH THE COOPERATION OF PROF

The spectroscope

or

sifts

White light into a ribbon of rainbow colour: violet, indigo, blue, green, yellow, orange, red, With the hottest stars, the most intense radiation is toward the violet end, giving these stars a bluish colour. As the temperature falls, the blue rays

diminish, giving a series of bluish, white, yellow, orange and red stars.

Each element, when raised to incandescent vapour, emits rays of definite colours, which the spectroscope shows as lines of colour. Thus the most conspicuous lines in the visible spectra of Sodium are two yellow lines (D); of

RAYMOND S. DUGAN

OF STARS

Hydrogen, Hain the red, Hg in the blue, H

and Hg in the violets of Thallium,

a green line. There are other lines in the Invisible ultra-violet which can be photographed.

and infra-red,

When “white”? light passes through an incandescent vapour, the latter extinguishes precisely those colours which it emits, showing in the spectroscope a dark line on a ribbon of colour in place of a coloured line on a dark backround. : As each element thus writes its own recognizable spectroscopic signature, It is possible to tell which elements, as incandescent vapour, are in the atmosphere of a star. The spectra of six types of stars are here given.

SPAR

APPLE—STARA

ZAGORA

329

ionized. Clearly this is a clue to the physical conditions in the _ centre of mass of the star. After removing the solar motion the outer layers of a star. The modern thermodynamical theory of | velocity of the cloud relative to the mean of the stars is found ionization was brought to bear on the astronomical observations '! to be small. Just as there are lines in the solar spectrum which

by M. N. Saha in 1920, and has dominated all recent progress. The degree of ionization depends on both the temperature and

pressure, the former representing the factor which causes the breaking away of electrons and the latter the factor which determines their opportunity of recombining. By connecting together the data for different elements and controlling the results

by reference to other methods of determining stellar temperatures, much information has been obtained as to the temperature and pressure in the reversing layer. In particular it is found that the pressure is generally between

10° and

ro* atmospheres—

much lower than used to be supposed.

Spectroscopic Parallaxes.—Since the nature of the spectrum

shown by a star is conditioned both by the temperature and pressure of the reversing layer, a complete classification of spectra should be two-dimensional. Ordinarily we recognize only a linear

series—the Draper sequence of types considered above; but by attention to detail we can recognize also a classification transverse to this. Taking the Draper sequence to correspond roughly

to temperature, the transverse classification will correspond to pressure. Since low pressure favours ionization, it will be marked in the spectrum by great strength of the enhanced lines relatively to the arc lines. The giant and dwarf stars of the same spectral

type can easily be distinguished from one another by this method; the reversing-layer pressure is low in the giant stars owing to the

small value of gravity at the surface. It was early recognized by E. Hertzsprung that those spectra marked by Miss Maury as having the “c-characteristic” belong exclusively to the giant stars. This characteristic is an unusual fineness of the lines—a feature which also results from low pressure. More precise criteria were found by Adams and Kohlschutter in 1914; and the method has been developed by Adams into a means, not only of distinguishing giant and dwarf stars, but of determining quantitatively the absolute luminosities of stars. At present the procedure is empirical; the curve connecting absolute magnitude with differential intensity of certain selected pairs of spectral lines is deduced from and tested by stars of known trigonometrical parallax; it is then applied to find the absolute magnitudes and hence the distances of other stars. Parallaxes of some thousands of stars determined in this way have been announced, and are known as spectroscopic parallaxes. The underlying principle of the method may be summarized as follows: Stars may differ in mass, and stars of the same mass may differ in density; but, when the mass and density are given, no other important difference can occur, and the luminosity, surface temperature and pressure in the reversing layer should be uniquely determined; hence the spectrum should be determinate. Conversely, a sufficiently close examination of the spectrum (its position both in the Draper sequence and in the classification trans-

verse to it) should fix the mass and density of the star, and hence its other physical properties, including luminosity. Ideally the deduction of luminosity might be made theoretically, but in any case the connection between luminosity and spectrum can be observed experimentally and formulated as an empirical law. Calcium Cloud in Space.—In certain spectroscopic double

stars the phenomenon of “fixed calcium lines” is observed. Whereas the other spectral lines shift to and fro as the star approaches and recedes in its orbit, the H and K lines of ionized

calcium remain stationary. It is clear that somewhere between us and the star’s photosphere there must be an absorbing cloud of calcium vapour which does not follow the star in its orbit. The phenomenon was first pointed out by Hartmann in 1904 for the star ô Orionis. Later Miss Heger discovered that the D lines of sodium also remain fixed in ô Orionis. The same behaviour has now been observed in a large number of stars, but no other

i

do not share in the sun’s rotation and are accordingly to be attributed to absorption during the passage of the light through the earth’s atmosphere, so we have fixed lines of calcium and sodium which do not share in the orbital or individual motion of the star and are to be attributed to absorption in an interstellar “atmosphere.” The fixed lines only appear in the spectra of the hottest stars, but that is perhaps due to the fact that cooler stars have strong H and K lines of their own, masking the lines of the cloud, or because the cooler stars, being less luminous, are not observed at a sufficient distance to give the cloud absorption a chance. It has been suggested that the presence of the hot star is necessary in order to ionize the calcium vapour and render it capable of absorbing H and K light, so that although the absorption is performed by the interstellar cloud only the parts of the cloud stimulated by the star are effective. But this explanation would not hold good for the D lines of sodium which are absorbed by un-ionized unexcited atoms. There can be little doubt that the absorption occurs along the whole track of the light

through space, and the intensity of the lines should be an indication of the length of track, that is of the distance of the star. This appears to be confirmed by the researches of O. Struve, whe has found that the strength of the fixed lines increases steadily with the average distance of the objects observed. In order to avoid a huge mass of the stellar system inconsistent with the observed velocities of the stars, it must be postulated that this interstellar cloud is of very low density. About one

atom per cubic centimetre is the maximum that can be allowed. It is calculated that matter so diffuse as this would take up a high temperature not much lower than the photospheric temperatures of the stars; although a black body in interstellar space would sink to a temperature of 3° absolute. The density is too small to give any appreciable scattering or absorption of light in space other than the special line-absorption of calcium and sodium light. See also Nova; STAR CLUSTER; ALGOL; SIRIUS; STELLAR EvoLUTION; COSMOGONY; CONSTELLATION. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—A. S. Eddington, Stellar Movements and the Struc-

ture of the Universe (1914); R. G. Aitken, The Binary Stars (1918) ; H. Dingle, Modern Astrophysics (1924); F. J. M. Stratton, Astronomical Physics (1925); A. S. Eddington, Internal Constitution of Stars (1926, mathematical) and Stars and Atoms (1927); Russell, Dugan and Stewart, Astronomy, vol. ii. (Astrophysics and Stellar Astronomy) (1927); J. H. Jeans, Astronomy and Cosmogony (1928, mathematical) ; Kohlschiitter and Ludendorff, Handbuch der Astrophysik, bd. vi. (Das Sternsystem). (A. S. EJ

STAR APPLE (Chrysophyllum Cainito), an evergreen tree of the family Sapataceae (q.v.), called also cainito, native to tropical America and cultivated for its edible fruit. The pleasantly flavoured fruit, 2 to 4 in. across, is apple-shaped. In a crosssection of the unripe fruit the seed-bearing cells form a star.

STARAYA RUSSA, a town of Russia in the province of

Novgorod, in 58° N., 31° 22° E., on the river Polista, by means of which and Lake Ilmen it is brought into steamer communication with Leningrad. Pop. (1926) 21,511. Brine springs on the east of the town were used as a source for the supply of salt as late as 1865; at present they are used only as mineral waters (temperature 51~54° F), having a great resemblance to those of Kreuznach in Germany. Some thousands of visitors were accustomed to resort to them every summer, and owing to this circum-

stance Staraya Russa was better built and better kept than any

other town in the government of Novgorod. The inhabitants are

supported chiefly by the summer visitors. There is a trade in rye, oats and flax.

The name

of Staraya Russa occurs

in Russian

annals as far back as 1167. It belonged to the republic of Novgorod, and suffered continually in the wars between Russia, “fixed” spectral lines have been found. The important question Lithuania and Livonia. It was afterwards annexed to Moscow. STARA ZAGORA, the capital of a department of southern to decide is whether the cloud belongs to the double star or whether it is a continuous cloud filling interstellar space. J. S. Bulgaria lying on the southern slope of the Karaja Dagh, 7o m. Plaskett has shown that the latter alternative is correct; the N.W. of Adrianople, with which it is connected by railway. Popumotion of the calcium cloud is often different from that of the lation (1926), 28,929. The city is surrounded by vineyards,

330

STARCH

and has flour-mills, breweries, brandy distilleries, copper foundries and tanneries. The production of silk and attar of roses is carried on in the district, which contains numerous mineral springs, and there is a trade in corn and wine. It is the junction of the trans-Balkan and Burgas-Philippopolis railway lines. It was destroyed during the Russo-Turkish war (1877-78) and rebuilt on modern lines. During the rebuilding, important Thracian, Roman, Byzantine and Turkish antiquities were discovered. Stara Zagora, founded probably by the Thracians, was known to the Romans as Augusta Traiana, but afterwards, to distinguish it from a Macedonian town of this name, it was named Beroe or Berrhoea. By the Turks the name was changed in the 17th century to Eski-Zagra or Eski-Zaara, whence its Bulgarian name.

STARCH.

This is perhaps the most widely distributed sub-

stance in the vegetable kingdom and occurs, often in great abundance, in almost every plant. Pure starch has the appearance of a white, glistening, friable powder, and possesses a harsh feel when rubbed between the fingers; it is tasteless, has no smell, is not soluble in cold water and undergoes no change when exposed to the air. When examined under the microscope it is found to consist of granules of definite shape, size and appearance. These show very wide variations, some being minute while others attain a comparatively large size; they are, nevertheless, quite characteristic of the plant from whence they are obtained, and the identification of any particular starch by comparison with those of known origin is a more or less simple matter. Granules or cells which are usually oval in shape are found to be composed of a series of concentric layers arranged around a nucleus or hilum which appears as a dark spot, the outer layers being the oldest in point of growth.

Starch belongs to the group of carbohydrates in which are included the sugars, gums and cellulose, and is composed of the elements carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. Its constitution is very complex, but it is built up in the plant from two simple compounds, water and the carbon dioxide gas present in the atmosphere, through the agency of the green colouring matter, chlorophyll, under the activating influence of sunlight. The rôle of starch in plant economy is that of a reserve material, and as such it must be transferred from the leaves and other green parts of the plant, where it is formed, to more permanent quarters. To facilitate this migration it is broken down into sugars which dissolve in the cell juice, in this way passing through the cell walls of the plant finally to become reconverted into starch, either in the fruit or seeds, or in the bulbs and tubers as the case may be. It is thus rendered available as a source of sustenance for the young plant until it is sufficiently advanced to carry on the process of starch formation itself. The starch granule is composed of two distinct but similar compounds, amylose and amylopectin, the former being in considerable excess, and although it is quite insoluble in cold water, when mixed with hot water the cells rupture considerably below boiling point, and form a viscous, Jjelly-like liquid which is known as “starch paste,” setting into a solid mass on cooling. When starch paste is heated with dilute acids the starch is first converted into the soluble form and, by a process known as hydrolysis, is subsequently changed into a series of sugars, the

principal of which are dextrin, maltose and glucose. This process is employed in the manufacture of corn or glucose syrup, used very extensively in confectionery, and of glucose sugar used in brewing. Hydrolysis is also effected by certain natural ferments or “enzymes” such as those present in saliva, pancreatic juice, malted grain (diastase) and in fact all germinated seeds, and it is the latter agent which is employed in the fermentation industries— brewing, distilling, etc—converting the starch in the materials used into material capable of fermentation by yeast. The development of starch in the growing plant already referred to, and the rebuilding of the soluble products into the cellulose which constitutes the tissues, is carried out by ferments or enzymes elaborated by the plant itself, while a similar process goes on in the human system when starchy foods are eaten and converted into soluble sugars capable of assimilation.

Dry starch heated to about 320° F is transformed into dextrin, a pale, yellowish powder soluble in water, known as British gum.

A very sensitive reaction of starch is the productign of ap intense blue coloration with a solution of iodine, a characteristic much used in its identification. The average starch content of the principal starch yielding plants, together with the temperatures at which the purified starch

gelatinizes when heated with water, are, according to Lippmann, as in the following table: Average Starch

content Jo

Gelatinizing

temp. ° F

Potato

. 18-20

145

Wheat

7

54-58

152

Oats Rye

- 35-38 - 44-46

131

Maize

. 55-65

Barley

. 40-46

Rice

Millet Peas Lentils Arrowroot

70-79

.

(Maranta arundinacea) Tapioca (Jatropha manthot) Yams (Batata edulis)

53-55 39-40 39-40 26-39 25-40 . 25-35

146 145

142

158 156

Sago. £ : 158 The storehouse, or starch-containing part of the plant, consists of a network of cells, within the walls of which the starch granules are closely packed together. The process of manufacture involves the rupturing of the enveloping cell walls and separation of the starch from the associated material by levigation. Manufacture.—The manufacture of starch from roots and tubers is usually carried on in the locality in which they are grown; that from potatoes on the continent of Europe, principally in Germany, France and Holland; arrowroot, cassava and tapioca

are prepared from the roots and tubers of the maranta and manioc plants in the West Indies and South America; sago is manufactured from the pith of the sago palm and also from the yams or sweet potatoes in the East Indies and Borneo. Cereals can be more readily transported and stored, so locality is a matter of convenience; thus rice is used as a raw material in England, France, Germany and Italy and other parts of Europe, while maize is used very extensively in North America, and in England, France and Germany. Wheat is not now largely employed. The purposes for which starch is manufactured can be classified under three heads:

(a) Industrial. These include sizing yarn and cloth in the textile industries; dressing cloth; thickening mordants and colours in calico printing; the preparation of British gums and dextrin, confectioners’ glucose or corn syrups, and sugars for use in the fermentation industries.

(b) Food. Used alone in the form of cornflour, arrowroot, tapioca, sago, etc., or In conjunction with other substances in the preparation of custard and blanc mange powders, macaroni, semolinas, sauces, cocoa, confectionery, etc.

(c) Laundry. In pipe or crystal form and powders, both “thick” and “thin boiling” preparations. The suitability of starches from various sources for these purposes depends on their cost, purity, the stiffness or viscosity of the paste they make with hot water and the size of the granules. Potato, maize, rice and wheat starches are those chiefly used for industrial purposes; rice, maize, arrowroot, cassava and sago for foodstuffs; and the small granuled starches, rice and maize, are used extensively in the laundry owing to the fact that the granules are required to enter the texture of the linen or cloth before becoming gelatinized by the hot iron. The general principles for dealing with all types of roots and tubers are substantially the same, but of course vary in their elaboration and efficiency in different parts of the world, and they also only differ to some extent in detail when cereals are being treated. They are briefly as follows:—-The tubers first go through washing machines where earth, stones, sand and grit are removed; they then pass to a rasping machine where all the cells are com-

pletely ruptured. The resulting pulp is washed in a fine stream of water on fine-mesh brass sieves, which separate the starch from vegetable fibre, etc.; the resulting milky starch liquor is run into vats to separate fine sand and grit by settlement, through fine silk sieves for further purification, and is finally allowed to run very

STAR

CHAMBER—STAR

slowly over long, shallow, wood troughs, runs or tables, pure starch settles out and the impurities pass off at the the water. The pure white starch is washed from the ‘et of water and is pumped to either filter presses

where the ends with runs by a or hydro

extractors, which remove all except about 40-45% of the water,

leaving the starch in the form of a damp cake. The cereals contain varying proportions of protein or gluten material associated with the starch, and special methods have to

‘he employed in their preliminary

treatment.

The protein con-

ained in rice is found to be rendered soluble by very weak caustic soda solution, and advantage is taken of this in the production of starch from the raw material.

Maize in addition to protein contains an oil-containing germ which it is necessary to remove. In this case the grain is first steeped for 2 to 4 days in warm water containing 1% of sulphur

dioxide, ground in burr stone mills, and the resulting difflUuent mass

diluted with water is passed through a long V-shaped tank where the germ floats and is skimmed off. Wheat contains gluten which forms an elastic paste with water and cannot be removed by levigation. The procedure carried out

in this case is to reduce the grain to flour which is then made into a dough with water, divided into small pieces and placed in a

semicircular silk or fine brass sieve where a travelling roller presses out the starch which is removed by a fine spray of water. The starch liquor goes through a very similar purification process to that employed for maize, often being treated with dilute caustic soda solution to swell the gluten and assist its removal between the sieving processes. It is necessary to carry out the final drying process at very low temperatures to prevent the gelatinization of

the starch granules. Several methods, similar in principle for starches from all sources, are in use in the large factories, and consist of either bringing the starch lumps or blocks in contact

with a continuous current of warm air, or evaporating off the excess of moisture In a vacuum chamber. For producing the starch in the form of powder or flour the moist lumps are either placed on an endless band running backwards and forwards in an enclosed chamber through which warm air is drawn, or they are placed on trays mounted on a trolley and passed through a tunnel in contact with warm air. In the tropics drying is usually carried out in the open air. Prism or crystal starch is prepared from maize or rice starch for laundry purposes, and is produced by forming the damp starch| into blocks by draining off the water from the starch liquor in | boxes with perforated bottoms covered with filtering cloths; the| blocks are cut into two or more sections which are partly dried in a warm chamber; the yellowish brown crust which forms on the

CLUSTER

39

In 1398 repairs of the “Sterred chambre” are mentioned. 1453 a meeting “in concilio nostro”

“in the Sterred Chambre.”

In

(in our council) was held

In 1542 a law provided punishment

for those convicted “in the Starr Chamber at Westmynster before the Kinges most honorable Counsell.” In the middle ages judicial functions were exercised by the king of England and his council. The crown never parted with supreme jurisdiction. The council shared it, and also did judicial work not specially delegated to the particular courts which had evolved from the curia regis. The king’s council, in Star Chamber and elsewhere, was reinforced by judges of the royal courts and by various others. From time to time parliament defined and approved this judicial work. In 1487 a statute (3 Henry VII. c. 1)—for a long time mistakenly supposed to have established the court of Star Chamber—named a commission of seven principal councillors and two of the judges, to try offenders too great

to be dealt with by ordinary courts. In the sixteenth century councillors, judges, persons specially summoned, additional “counsel,” and great lords sometimes attending, acted either as a council or a court in Star Chamber, records being kept by clerks. Councillors and judges sitting in Star Chamber were more and more thought of as the court of Star Chamber. They dispensed much justice and heard many cases often by desire of the parties concerned. Hearings were public; there was no jury; torture was sometimes used to get confession. Generally speaking, it was a court of criminal jurisdiction, particularly in respect of violation of royal proclamations; but “all offences may be here examined and punished if the king will.” Sentence of death was never pronounced. The court punished with imprisonment and with fine, even with mutilation. Under Elizabeth attendance at Star Chamber approximated to that at privy council, with reinforcement of judges, so that the two bodies were differentiated in function rather than in personnel. Under James I. and Charles I. Star Chamber continued as an active, important court, largely respected and liked. As Puritan and parliamentary opposition developed, however, it incurred odium from severe penalties, and the reputation then affixed by enemies has since persisted. In 1641 it was abolished by an act of the Long Parliament (16 Charles I., c. ro). At the same time the judicial power of councillors in privy council was abridged. BisLiocRAPHY.—William Mill, Treatise of the Starre chamber and power of the Priuy Councell—British Museum, Hargrave ms. 216 (time of Elizabeth) ; William Hudson, A Treatise of the Court of Star Chamber (17th century), printed in Collectanea Juridica, vol. ii (1792); I. S. Leadam, Select Cases before the King’s Council in the Star Chamber (1903, 1911) ; Cora L. Scofield, Court of Stur Chamber (1900); E. P. Cheyney, History of England, vol. i. (1914); E. R. Turner, The Privy Council, vol. i. (1927); A. F. Pollard, in English Historical Review, July, Oct. 1922, Jan. 1923. Star Chamber pleadings are in the Public Record Office, London; court records and (E.R. T.) -decrees have disappeared.

outside is scraped off, and the blocks wrapped in paper, returned to the drying chamber and dried very slowly. Under this treatment the blocks break up into irregularly shaped prisms technically termed “crystals.” STAR CLUSTER. In surveying the sky we find regions Pearl tapioca is made by heating the slightly moist starch from manioc in a steam heated copper pan with constant stirring, some here and there where the stars are much more richly strewn of the cells becoming gelatinized and adhering together in small, than usual. Some of these are clusters, where hundreds or thouirregular masses. Further drying follows and the crude lumps are sands of stars are seen concentrated together in a small field of view, providing show-objects—beauty spots of the celestial passed through rollers and graded. Granulated or pearl sago is prepared by drying the starch in landscape. Not only are they impressive to observe, but they such a way that it forms a plastic dough in which a portion of the have led to remarkable advances in our knowledge. The measgranules have become gelatinized, forcing this through sieves, and urement of the extent of the visible universe and an indication of its organization, together with intimations of its mass, populadrying the resulting granules in the air. tion, and past duration, are among the contributions to astronBIBLIOGRAPHY .—O. Saare, Die Fabrication der Kartofelstärke (1897) ; H. Gault, Microscopy of Starches (1900) ; J. Fritsch, Fabrica- omy and cosmogony that have been made chiefly through the fton de la Fécule et de ’ Amidon (Paris, 1906); A. Thomas & Hébert, study of star clusters. The researches have been descriptive, Fabrication des Fécules (Paris, 1911); the two last named are tech- astrometric, photometric, spectroscopic, statistical, mathematical, nical treatises; H. A. Auden, Starch & Starch Products (1922); and speculative—often complicated, and more often very tediCommon Commodities and Industries Series. Felix Rehwald, Starch ous. In a three-page account of these ancient and instructive Making (a manufacturers’ handbook, tr. by C. Salter, 1926); Sir E. cluster systems, the reader can be and should be spared the Thorpe, “Starch,” in Dict. of Applied Chemistry (1927). (H. Her.) details of method and the evidence of observatory labours. PerSTAR CHAMBER, the name of an apartment in the royal haps the most important item will be the short bibliography, palace of Westminster, a meeting-place of the king’s councillors, which will guide the reader who desires more information. The derived from stars fashioned on the roof, perhaps, of the hall. aim of the following treatment is a general survey of the subject By derivation, later on, the name of councillors and judges sitting and a statement of current results; we take up, successively, (1) introductory remarks on the frequency and variety of clusters, there as a court.

STAR

334

CLUSTER

(2) the naked-eye systems and their measurable motions, (3) | consideration in this discussion of star clusters. Systems more definitely circumscribed than the constellations just named are the Hyades, the Pleiades, Coma Berenices, Prae.

classitication and distribution, (4) the forms of globular clusters, (5) variable stars in clusters, (6) distances and dimensions, and (7) the réle of clusters in the evolution of stars and galaxies.

r. Introduction.—The grouping and clustering of astronomical bodies are so common that we may infer from available observation that most of them are in close gravitational associa-

tion. The earth-moon system, the sun and the planets, and the close double stars are examples of physically associated groups,

probably all resulting from subdivision. Wide binary stars, typical star clusters, and star clouds are further examples of gravitational organization, but possibly they represent the accumulation of once isolated bodies and not the fission of originally larger masses. Organized systems smaller than any of these are the showers of meteors; and larger groups are the galaxies, and the clusters of “island universes.”

It is not easy to draw a dividing line between multiple stars

and star clusters. The brightest star, Sirius, is double; the near-

est star, œ Centauri, is triple; possibly Polaris is quadruple, and Castor is sextuple. The trapezium of the Orion Nebula, 0 Orionis, is actually the many-starred nucleus of a widely spread system of stars. For the convenience of the present discussion we shall call the Ursa Major group of bright stars, the Great Bear, a cluster. All groups of equal or greater population will fall within the cluster category, up to the richest of globular clusters, where we shall limit the family, without including the spheroidal extra-galactic nebulae (which may be merely globular clusters

of superior size), or the star clouds and the spiral nebulae. Tt will be convenient to divide the star clusters into a globular class and a galactic class; the one is named from its form, the other from its apparent and real association with the Milky Way.

The former can be limited fairly well to one hundred objects, only a dozen of which approach in structure, and in paucity of stars, the more open clusters of the galactic class; but the galactic clusters themselyes are so varied in form, population, and angular and linear dimensions, that no distinct limits can be set, at least between them and the chance aggregations of stars in the Milky Way. A current compilation of well-defined galactic clusters, made at the Harvard Observatory, contains about 250 entries. 2. Conspicuous Star Clusters——The stellar groupings that have led in ancient and modern times to the establishment of constellations frequently bring together stars that are not actu-

ally associated in space.

A few, however, involve bright stars

that are physically allied—notably Orion, Ursa Major, Scorpio,

and Perseus. Thus, five of the seven conspicuous stars of Ursa Major are now known to be closely alike in distance, in amount of motion, and in spectral class; and though they are widely separated in the sky, Sirius and other bright stars are also members of the same Ursa Major family. These stars move in parallel paths through space, and probably they have consti-

tuted a cluster throughout their whole past history as stars, and will continue to be associated in the future for a period indefi-

nitely long. Ultimately, through encounters with other stars, the

members of such groups may be diverted from essentially parallel motion, for they move through the highly populated regions of the Milky Way. A number of the naked-eye stars in the constellation Orion also form a large loosely organized

cluster, composed

almost

wholly of the very hot stars of spectral class B. There are similar large loosely defined groups of B stars in Vela, Centaurus, Scorpio and Perseus.

In fact, J. C. Kapteyn’s researches and the subse-

quent investigations by C. V. L. Charlier and Harlow Shapley

have shown that these various groups of B stars all together form a larger system of which the total diameter is probably in excess

of a thousand parsecs (a parsec is 3X10" kilometers, approxi-

mately). This system of loose clusters, named the “local system”

by Shapley, is known to contain a great number of stars besides those in the localized B type clusters; according to recent researches by F. H. Seares, it also includes the vast majority of all stars surrounding the sun. The local system is, in fact, rather in the nature of a star cloud, like those in the Milky Way, or like the Magellanic Clouds, and as such it need receive no further

sepe, and the Double Cluster in Perseus.

All these clusters are

visible with the unaided eye, and for all of them the proper mo-

tions (angular speeds) have been studied in much detail. An jp. vestigation of the proper motions of the individual stars of a cluster leads to the discovery, first made for the Hyades by Lewis Boss, that the paths converge towards a common point’ (or diverge from one). The convergence is obviously a matter of perspective. When the convergent point is accurately deter-

mined, and the motion of one or more of the stars of the cluster in the line of sight has been determined spectroscopically, then we can determine with high accuracy the linear distance to the cluster and the actual speed of the stars. If V is the radial velocity of the star in kilometers per second, yw its proper motion in seconds of arc per year, and @ the angular distance from the

star to the convergent point, then the distance in parsecs, R, is given by =0-211 V tan@/u and the velocity in space in kilometers per second is

v= Vsecd When

the

velocities

of several

stars

are

measured

spectro-

scopically, as is possible in the Hyades, mean values of V can

be obtained, thus eliminating the effect of accidental errors and peculiar velocities, and the distances of the individual stars and of the cluster as a whole are determined with high precision. If its distance is known, a cluster can be dissected in detail, The candle power of its various stars is readily deduced from

measures of apparent brightness. In the case of the Taurus cluster, the dispersion in luminosity is found to range over at least six stellar magnitudes, that is, a range in brightness of more than 250 to 1. Most of the members of the cluster lie within a sphere of ro parsecs radius, the centre of which is about 42 parsecs distant from the sun. In a similar way, but with less accuracy, the convergent point

and distance of the Pleiades can be determined. There is good evidence also (from a study by A, Kohlschiitter) ‘that the stars of Praesepe move toward the same convergent point as those of the Hyades, and this affords a means of determining the distance of Praesepe. The radial velocities of several of the brighter stars in the double cluster in Perseus (h and x Persei) have been shown by Mount Wilson observers to be about 4o km/sec; the proper motion of the double system is so small, however, that the convergent point and distance are as yet uncertainly determined. Frequently it has been suggested that certain stars move in paths parallel to the sun’s motion in space, and that our system, therefore, is a member of an open star cluster. This matter has been especially investigated by W. J. Luyten, who finds no good evidence of solar companions, with the possible exception of the fifth magnitude star 46 Tauri. It may be suggested that the existence of planets around the sun argues against its membership in a star cluster, for the hypothetical ancient encounter with another star that gave rise to the planetary births would at the same time deflect the sun from its original path and detach it from the cluster to which it may once have belonged. 3. Classification and Distribution of Clusters.—Various classifications of clusters have been proposed, but because of the gradual transition from one form to another no classifying, beyond the major divisions of globular and galactic clusters, is much more than a working convenience. Recently, however, Shapley and Miss Sawyer have classified the globular clusters on the basis

of central concentration, and R. Trumpler and Shapley have pro-

posed simple classifications for the brighter galactic clusters on the basis of the spectral characteristics of their stars. A typical globular cluster is an assemblage of scores of thou-

sands of stars, perhaps hundreds of thousands. It is approxi mately circular in outline, strongly concentrated to the centre,

and so remote in space that although actually of great dimensions it rarely exceeds the moon in angular size even when its most

STAR outlying members are included.

CLUSTER

Its stars are normal giants and

super-giants, as far as our present researches show, for dwarf stars of the sun’s light and diameter would be unattainable with our present telescopic power when at the distance of the nearest a globular cluster. There is a general similarity among globular clusters in size, form, content and integrated brightness; but marked deviations

from the average have been noted in the matter of compactness. Also, some globular systems, such as No. 19 of Messier’s list and w Centauri, are conspicuously elongated;

Messier 62 is easily

seen to be non-symmetrical, and a few systems are obviously

deficient in giant stars. The new classification distributes the one hundred globular clusters into twelve approximately equal

classes, Class I representing the highest concentration of the stars toward the centre, and Class XII theleast. A study of the relation of the concentration classes to distribution in the sky, total brightness, number of stars, and ellipticity of apparent form

333

or by dynamical encounter with other stellar systems.

This flat-

tening reveals itself through the elliptical form of the projected image. In a recent study at Harvard the ellipticities of the photo-

graphic images of about one-third of all globular clusters are

satisfactorily estimated; in the most extreme cases the minor axis of the projected ellipse is but six- or seven-tenths of the

major axis; but it is not possible to evaluate separately both the

true flattening of a cluster and the inclination of its equatorial

plane to the line of sight.

The most we can say is that some

globular clusters have equatorial diameters at least forty per cent greater than their polar diameters. In no cases do they ap-

bear to attain the high degree of flattening observed in spiral

nebulae (g.v.) „Much work distribution of ing the number

or in the Milky Way system itself. has been devoted to studies of the laws of the stars in globular clusters. Various formulae relatof stars per unit volume, N, with distance from

centre of projected image, r, or with p, the distance from the

shows no significant interdependence of these quantities; but it is cluster center, have been derived or assumed, and applied to probable that the classes are an indication of developmental age, published counts of stars. For instance,

and they should thus prove useful in studies of the linear diameters, the frequency of variable stars, and the deeper problems

CG

of the origin and life-history of stellar systems.

N (p)

The galactic clusters, which are typically irregular in form,

he

aed

al vir

Pa

pan a) o

(E. C. Pickering, H. von Zeipel) where R is the radius of the loosely organized, and composed of a few scores or a few hun- cluster and n is the number of stars in the corresponding unit dreds of highly luminous stars, can be most conveniently placed area of the projected image. Analogies with the kinetic theory in two classes (according to Shapley)—the Hyades type and the of gases have encouraged some of these researches. No comPleiades type—either of which may be associated with star clouds pletely satisfactory representation of the observations has been or diffuse nebulosity. In the Hyades type we find some yellow- found, which is not surprising because the data, with which comish or reddish giant stars (spectral classes G, K, M), togethereT | parison is made, are inherently faulty. The so-called Eberhard

with stars of the hotter spectral classes (B, A, F); whereas in | effect, intrinsic in almost all photographic

work in crowded

the Pleiades type of cluster the giant stars are lacking | regions, vitiates the results because the photographic and all the cluster stars fall along cooler the main sequence

of spectral | ment is more thorough, and brings out fainter stars, developtypes which extends from the giant B and A stars down through | edges of clusters than in the centre. Further, the available at the counts the

intermediate Classes F and G to the dwarfish red stars of | deal only with the few hundreds or few thousands of the super-

Classes K and M. Trumpler has proposed some subdivisions of| giant stars of the globular clusters; the tens or these two main types of galactic cluster. _ | Sands of fainter stars cannot be considered in There is as striking a difference between globular and galactic | vestigations. In counting cluster stars there clusters in distribution over the sky as in population and compact- | difficulties with varying photographic contrast,

hundreds of thouthe theoretical inare also practical and with the seri-

ness. With scarcely an exception the galactic clusters are Scat- | ous effect on stellar magnitude of the curvature of telescopic tered

along the central line of the Milky Way; very rarely is | fields. And finally, nearly all discussions of the problem heretoone found more than ten degrees from the galactic circle. The fore have ignored the lack of radial symmetry. globular clusters, on the other hand, are frequently found in high

In general, the frequency of giant stars, except near the centre,

galactic latitudes, that is, angularly far from the Milky Way. | is (roughly) inversely proportional to the fourth power of the As we approach the low galactic latitudes, however, they become distance from the centre for most of the typical globular clusmore numerous, up to the very edges of the stream of Milky | ters; the laws of distribution of fainter stars are even less defiWay star clouds. But their number suddenly falls off near the| nitely known. Beyond this we cannot go at present. central line of the Milky Way, so that only two or three are The distribution of stars in galactic clusters is too varied for found along a central belt seven or eight degrees in width. It is | any general statement beyond noting a frequent centralization; just within this region devoid of globular clusters that the galac- | probably the distribution is here not very significant because tic clusters and rich star clouds are most numerous. these loose and irregular systems have been much distorted by The contrasted distribution may be explained largely by the| the perturbations of the galactic stars among which they move. fact that globular clusters are, on the average, much more dis-

tant than the open groups, and that globular clusters in low galactic

5. Variable

Stars in Clusters.—After

a few sporadic

dis-

coveries of variable stars in the globular clusters had been made,

latitudes therefore may be obscured by intervening clouds of | S. I. Bailey turned his attention to the problem in the last years cosmic matter which lie beyond the galactic clusters of our | of the roth century, making use of photographs taken with the ; _ | 13-In. and 24-in. refractors of the Harvard Observatory. Bailey’s

catalogues.

The galactic star clusters are distributed throughout all longi- | work revealed literally hundreds of variable stars

in the score tudes along the Milky Way, whereas the globular clusters are| of clusters closely examined. In some globular systems one highly concentrated in the constellations of Ophiuchus, Scorpio star out of he six, among the giant stars, proves to be periodically and Sagittarius. ‘The same region of the sky is also very rich | variable (see p. 334); whereas in other clusters of practically in remote variable star s, in novae, planetary nebulae and star | the same appearance, brightness and concentration, no variable

clouds: it is a region of depth and heavy stellar population. 4. The Forms of Globular Clusters.—A deviation of the

stars are found. Bailey’s work on the variable stars shows them to be typically, of the short period Cepheid class; a few Cepheids

photographic image of a star cluster from circularity was first | with periods greater than one day were found among the stars pointed out with certainty for a few globular clusters by S. I of the clusters, and a few irregular variables, but the overwhelmBailey in his sty dy of Harvard photographs. Subsequent detailed | ing majority belong to that subtype of Cepheid which is now

counting of stars in globular clusters at the Mount Wilson Observ- | known as the cluster type variable. In w Centauri Bailey finds atory by F. G, Pease, Shapley and others, showed that the lack three subclasses of cluster type stars, distinguished by the shapes of exact radial symmetry in the globular clusters is typical. | of the light curves and the lengths of the periods. The most Thorough investigations of this matter, mainly at the Mount | common, subclass a, has a period of about thirteen hours on Wilson and Harvard Observatories, led to the conclusion that | the average, and this type appears most commonly in other the average globular cluster is flattened, as though by rotation | globular clusters. The median magnitudes of all the variables

STAR

334

CLUSTER

in a given cluster are essentially the same, whatever the subtypes or the range of variation. The difference in the observed median from cluster to cluster is probably due wholly to the different distances, the median absolute luminosity thus being the same everywhere, and apparently a constant of nature peculiar to the cluster type Cepheid. In the galactic clusters there are as yet no known variable stars, the three or four possible cases on record being as readily attributed to the galactic foreground and background as to the cluster system itself. Bailey’s classical work on variable stars in clusters has recently been considerably extended through the discoveries and studies with large reflecting telescopes by Shapley and assistants at the Mount Wilson and Harvard Observatories, and by W. Baade and J. Larink at the Bergedorf Observatory, Hamburg. Variable Stars 4

|

|

Name of cluster

47 Tucanae Dunlop 62. Messier 79.

w Centauri Messier 3 . Messier 5 . |Messier 13. Messier 62.

Messier 22. Messier 15.

Number of

S | SETE

| p] T

| |

Number of variables

2,000

0+003

675 200

3,000 goo goo 1,000 960

3

Proportion variable

The studies of variable stars in distant clusters, using photographic plates sensitive to blue and yellow light, led to the measurement with surprising accuracy of the relative velocity of

light of different wave lengths. It was found that light waves differing twenty-five per cent in length travel in space with iden. tical velocity, the probable error of the determination not exceed.

ing one part in ten thousand million. This accuracy is possible solely because of the enormous distances of globular clusters, Though subject to the uncertainties mentioned above, the distances of the clusters, derived as indicated, are now generally accepted. The one hundred known systems range in distance from 15,000 to nearly 200,000 light years. Their concentration to the Milky Way indicates that they are a part of the general galactic system, and in fact their distribution has been generally taken to outline the form and extent of the Galaxy. The diameter oj the system of globular clusters is of the order of two hundred thousand light years; the centre of the system lies in right ascen. sion 175 30™, south declination 33°, near the junction of the con. stellations Ophiuchus, Scorpio, and Sagittarius. The distance from the earth to the centre of this system is of the order of fifty thousand light years.

The linear diameter of the average globular cluster is between 85 4 26

-043 -180 "004

one and two hundred light years, not counting its most outlying members. The density of stars, therefore, near the centre is un-

"004 "027

hood, for a cluster’s population probably exceeds 100,000. For the galactic clusters, the distances are not as yet satisfactorily determined. The absence of Cepheid variables, and the irregularity and diversity of form and population, leave us with very indirect methods of estimating their distances or the luminosities of their stars. From preliminary results we know that most galactic clusters are but a few hundred or a few thousand

6. The Distances of Globular Clusters.—The relation between apparent brightness and period for Cepheids in the Small Magellanic Cloud, found by Miss Henrietta Leavitt, was general-

ized by Shapley with the aid of galactic Cepheids and the variables of the globular clusters. The “period-luminosity” curve, which relates the absolute magnitude (intrinsic luminosity) of the Cepheid variable to the logarithm of its period, was thus derived. The zero point of the curve was fixed with the aid of the nearer galactic Cepheid variables, for which the distances and absolute magnitudes were determined from studies of their motions. The period-iuminosity curve permits the determination of the intrinsic luminosity, and therefore of the distance, of any Cepheid variable when the period of its variation and its apparent brightness are measured. With its use, not only are the distances and distribution in space of the galactic Cepheids readily deduced, but also, of more importance, the distances of all the globular clusters, or other stellar systems, which contain Cepheid variables are simply derived. When the distances of clusters containing

commonly high compared with the density in the solar neighbour-

light years distant. It is probable that the more distant galactic clusters are lost to observation through being indistinguishable in the rich Milky Way star clouds. The velocities of a number of the globular clusters, measured for the most part at the Lowell Observatory by V. M. Slipher, lie mainly between one hundred and three hundred kilometers a second—much higher than the velocities of most classes of stars, The proper motions are as yet practically unattainable because of the great distances of the clusters. The radial velocities of galactic clusters, so far as determined, are of very moderate amount, and the motions appear to be parallel to the galactic plane. 7. The Role of Clusters in Cosmogony.—The

centre of the

system of globular clusters can be accepted in the first approximation as the centre of the Galaxy; and the extent of the system of clusters indicates at least a minimum for the size of the galactic Cepheids have been obtained, the distances can be inferred also system. It has been shown in recent years that the same centre for the clusters devoid of variables, because of the apparently is indicated, but with less certainty, by other highly luminous inherent similarity of all globular systems in linear size, total objects—the novae, the galactic Cepheids, the planetary nebulae, luminosity, and in the real brightness of their most luminous stars. as well as by the distribution and density of galactic star clouds. The observed angular sizes and apparent magnitudes thus become Furthermore, there is evidence from the motions of stars in the indicators of distance. Applications of these principles by Shapley solar neighbourhood that the whole galactic system rotates about (1917) (later revised by Shapley and Miss Sawyer [1928]), have this same centre in the southern Milky Way. Apparently, thereled to a determination of the distances and distribution in space fore, the globular clusters lead to a conception of an enormously of all known globular clusters. Uncertainties may arise through large stellar system in which the solar system is eccentrically the absorption of light in space, the dissimilarity of globular situated. The condensation of stars in the solar neighbourhood clusters in the characteristics used in estimating distances, the appears to indicate only that the sun is near the centre of a local errors in the apparent magnitudes of the variable stars and other cloud or system. The total number of luminous stars in the Galaxy is probably stars in the faint clusters which are hard to measure, and, finally, through error in the determination of the zero point of the period- not less than fifty thousand million. Of this number a relatively luminosity curve. The last contributes the most serious possi- small proportion is involved in the now recognized globular and bility of systematic error, but the current work at various ob- galactic clusters. But there is some evidence supporting the hypo-

the brighter and provide

thesis that the star clouds throughout the Milky Way are largely composed of disintegrating clusters. The possibility that the galactic clusters represent the remnants of globular systems that

clusters have space that is proportional to the wave length of the light is measurable, except in localized regions; and the inference is probably safe that except in. special nebulous regions space is clear of matter that seriously obstructs or scatters light.

have been dragged into the Milky Way star fields and dismem-

servatories on the distances and luminosities of galactic Cepheids will soon remove the difficulty, accurate calibration of the period-luminosity curve, The studies of the colours of stars in distant shown conclusively that no absorption of light in

bered, is advocated by Shapley, P. ten Bruggencate, and others. J. H. Jeans suggests that the globular clusters may represent

groups that have escaped from the Milky Way, or at least are keeping clear of its disintegrating tendencies. The solution of the problem does not seem hopeless, given enough observations and

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BY COURTESY OF (1) THE MOUNT WILSON OBSERVATORY,

(2, 4) THE HARVARD COLLEGE OBSERVATORY,

EXAMPLES 1. Globular star cluster, M 13, in Hercules. below, and

globular cluster 47

Tucanae,

above.

OF

2. Small

GLOBULAR

AND

Magellanic Cloud,

3. Double

star cluster

In

Perseus. 4. Section of the southern Milky Way showing the globular cluster

(3) THE YERKES OBSERVATORY

GALACTIC (w) Centauri

STAR

CLUSTERS

in the upper left-hand corner.

is the “Coal Sack.”

The dark nebula In the centre

Directly north-west of the “Coa!

of four stars, is the constellation of the Southern Cross

Sack” and consisting

435

STAR-FISH

thought; and at any rate the various clusters seem to be inti- | convenient to turn its stomach inside out, and wrap it round the mately connected with the star clouds of the Milky Way and | prey, which is then digested quickly and the stomach withdrawn with the genesis and future development of this largest of all | again. In attacking oysters and similar bivalves, the sea-star first has to open them; this it does by fixing the suckers of one known galaxies. The most important prooiems immediately ahead of the investi- | or two arms to one valve, and those of the opposite arms to the gator of star clusters appear to be (1) the question of the relative | other, while it may get a purchase by also holding on to neighfrequency of dwarf stars, to be answered by study of the faintest | bouring objects.

It then begins to straighten out its rays.

The

attainable stars in the nearest globular star clusters with the | oyster can withstand a strong pull, but not a long pull, and the

greatest reflecting telescopes; (2) the stability of globular clusters | sea-star does not hurry.

At last the oyster gives way, and the

in traversing stellar and nebular fields (a problem already par- | sea-star has its reward; its companions often join in, and a whole tially solved by Jeans); (3) the abnormal and connectant type of| rolling ball of them may be seen interlaced round half-digested

globular clusters; (4) the spectral composition of clusters, com- | molluscs. Sea-stars begin to eat voraciously when quite young; pared with that of galactic star fields and che Magellanic Clouds; | one less than % in. across ate over 50 young clams of half that (s) further study from many standpoints of the variable stars | length in six days. A sea-star may become sexually mature in less in clusters. These problems indicate the many points where star | than a year, then producing many thousands of young. Increase cluster investigations touch on questions of stellar evolution as | is kept in check by many causes. The free-swimming larvae are swallowed in millions by fish. When they settle down on sea-weed well as on the measurement of the Galaxy. their bright colours attract eels and many small fishes. Later in | various in stars variable of “Studies Bailey, I. BrsuiocraPHY.—Solon

globular

ee

a

a Ot

A ecb

dae cece with ae a E “A Catalogue Ee of Star Clusters,” Memoirs feld. Guan) “ihe P. J. Melotte,

life they are attacked by parasites, while those that stray into shallow water are eaten by gulls, crows and even foxes.

and cold currents are also destructive.

Freshets

Probably the best way

of the Royal Astronomical Society (London), vol. 60, part 5, 1925. | 10 which man can keep down the numbers is by dredging the seaHarlow Shapley, “Studies Based on the Colors and Magnitudes in| weed a month after midsummer when covered with young; a

(Carnegic | single cartload thrown on shore would capture many millions. At Stellar Clusters,” Papers 1-19, Mount Wilson Contributions Institution, Washington), r915~1921, technical studies, mostly of a statistical and photometric nature, of ‘many phases of the cluster | ? later stage tangles of hemp or cotton waste may be dragged problems. “Studies of Magnitudes in Star Clusters, 1-13,” Mount | over oyster-beds, when the sea-stars will cling to them by Wilson Communications

1921, z Masa Te

Ce

(Milan),

(Carnegie Institution, Washington), r916- | their pedicellariae. They make excellent manure.

I9r9-1920,

ee

Hasa

untechnical

survey

: Faaon

of the author's | S€4- Some of these mutilated animals may, however, grow fresh

investigations. ‘Star Clusters,” Harvard Observatory Monograph (Cambridge, Massachusetts), 1929, a general treatise on globular and

galactic _ ais Pears ae

oo

Fishermen who

catch them often tear them in half and throw them back into the

ee a

ee

arms, and thus one may find a sea-star with one large arm and four small ones, the whole shaped like a comet.

The Brittle-stars or Ophiuroidea (“‘snake-tails”) differ from

almost entirely by means of their arms. (See tee a ie tee peehcineey ont ss Dorani sea-stars in moving To, 2.) Thus the arms are sharply marked off fig. ECHINODERMA, spectroscopic researches on galactic clusters. H. von Zeipel, “Recherches sur la constitution des amas globulaires,” Kungl. Svenska Vetenskap- | from the disc-like body, to which digestive and generative organs

have long wriggling arms, fringed sakad, Handl. Upsala and Stockholm (Stockholm), vol. 51, No. 5, | are confined. Brittle-stars proper 1913, gencral account of the author’s technical studies of stars in | with prickles, with which they can progress more than two yards (H. SEa.) clusters. a minute. If seized, they break off their arms, which continue STAR-FISH. This name covers three classes of the echino- breaking into smaller pieces; but the body soon grows new ones. derms, namely sea-stars or Asteroidea, brittle-stars or Ophiuroidea, and feather-stars or unstalked Crinoidea. (See ECHINODERMA, figs. 1, 2 and 4.) The Asteroidea and Ophiuroidea are free-moving and live mouth downwards like sea-urchins; thus they differ from Crinoidea, which are normally attached by a stalk, and live mouth upwards. (See ECHINODERMA.)

The Sea-stars, to which the name “star-fish” is often restricted, include many different forms, but the common cross-fish or fivefinger (Asterias rubens) of British seas, or A. vulgaris from America, may be taken as typical. The animal consists of a central

Sand-stars have shorter, stouter arms, with prickles closely pressed to the sides; they progress by a rowing movement. Sand-stars and brittle-stars abound in the shallow waters of all seas, especially in the tropics. By constantly sweeping their arms over the sea-floor they gather in mihute animals as food. They eat the

bait of fishermen, and their fish as well if they find any already dead; but they are themselves a food of many fishes, notably

cod. Basket-fish or medusa-heads are ophiuroids whose arms branch several times, their ends curling and interlacing round some marine object. They live in deeper water and are often brought body and five (occasionally 4, 6 or 7) arms, not clearly marked up clinging to fishermen’s lines. The Feather-stars (Unstalked Crinoidea) are distinguished off from it. The upper surface is covered with a leathery skin, as Comatulida (“hair-stars”) from various other crinoids that bearing many lime, of carbonate of plates little in which are prickles and small pincer-like pedicellariae. (Cf. SeA-URCHIN.) have at earlier periods of the world’s history lost their stem. A For further details of structure, see ECHINODERMA. A sea-star | typical form is the rosy feather-star (Antedon bifida). (See can crawl over any surface by means of its sucking-feet, and can | ECHINODERMA, fig. 4.) The stalk is not really absent, but reduced

squeeze its supple body through incredibly narrow crevices. The | to a knob, from which spring numerous hooked tendrils (cirri); by

rate of progress is about 6 in. a minute. The but-thorn (Astro- | these the animal clings to some object on the sea-bottom. From pecten) has no suckers, and creeps over hard sand on its pointed | the bedy stretch five arms, each bifid (in other species they may podia. Cushion-stars are stiff, swollen, five-sided forms. The | fork more than once) and fringed with small branches (pinsmallest British sea-star (Asterina gibbosa) is of this shape; nules) giving a feathery appearance. Along these arms and pinits near relation, the bird’s-foot star (Palmipes) is flat and thin. | nules, grooves pass from the central upturned mouth (EcurnoSun-stars (Solaster) are remarkable which may exceed 30.

for the number

of arms, | DERMA, fig. 7), and the minute hair-like cilia that line them constantly sweep towards the mouth a stream of water, from the

Sea-stars are the scavengers of the sea, but unfortunately do | microscopic organisms in which the crinoid extracts nourishment.

not confine their attentions to decaying matter; they eat oysters,

clams, mussels, barnacles, sea-snails, worms, crustaceans and even smaller sea-stars. No less than 42,000 bushels of sea-stars were removed from the oyster-beds of Connecticut in a single year; they had worked damage to the amount of $631,500. The simplest way in which a sea-star eats is by using its podia to pass small bits of food into the stomach, and ejecting the refuse through the mouth. But when the food is large, the sea-star finds it more

Antedon crawls by pulling and pushing with its arms, and swims, or rather treads water, by raising and depressing alternate

branches. The ancestors of the feather-stars in the Jurassic period still had a stem in the adult. Since that period feather-stars have

increased in number and variety, so that to-day they occur in

all salt seas at all depths, often in enormous quantities, and are

classified in 98 genera.

(F. A. B.)

Brerrocrarny.—For special works with bibl., see ECHINODERMA.

336

STARGARD—STARNBERG

STARGARD, a town in the Prussian province of Pomerania, situated on the left bank of the navigable Ihna, 20 m. E. of Stettin on the railway to Danzig and at the junction of lines to Posen, Schneidemühl and Cüstrin. Pop. (1925) 32,575. Stargard, mentioned as having been destroyed by the Poles in 1120, received civic rights in 1229, and became the capital of eastern Pomerania. As a Hanseatic town it enjoyed considerable commercial prosperity, but it had also to undergo siege and capture in the middle ages and during the Thirty Years’ War. STARK, JAMES (1794-1859), British painter, was born in Norwich on Nov. 19, 1794, and at the age of seventeen was articled to John Crome for three years. He died in London on March 24, 1859. Between 1831 and 1859 most of his pictures were shown at the Royal Academy. He undertook in 1827 the publication of a work on The Scenery of the Rivers of Norfolk, which was completed seven years later; the illustrations he prepared for it have much topographical and artistic interest. His painting “The Valley of the Yare,” is in the National Gallery of British Art.

STARK, JOHANNES (1874), German physicist, was born April 15, 1874 at Schichenhof in Bavaria and studied at the University of Munich. In 1g00 he became an assistant at the

graduated M.D. in 1890. He never practised as a physician ang in the same

Guy’s.

year he was

appointed lecturer in physiology a

In 1900 he became Jodrell professor of physiology gt

University College, London, where he continued to work through-

out his life, although, in 1922, he retired from the Jodrell Chai, and was

appointed Foulerton

research

professor

of the Royal

Society.

Starling was one of the foremost physiologists of his age. The

subjects for investigation which particularly attracted him were

those physiological processes which seemed capable of interprets. tion in terms of chemistry and physics. The conditions determining transudation from the vessels and lymph flow occupied his atten. tion for some years and he showed that the hydrostatic ang osmotic pressures within the vessels supplied the balance of force necessary to explain the hitherto perplexing experimental facts

His researches on the movements of the intestines, undertaken jp conjunction with Bayliss (g.v.) demonstrated the neuro-muscular mechanisms involved and reduced the previous chaos to order. Their discovery of “secretin” not only laid bare the way in which

the secretion of the pancreas was called forth and adjusted, byt stimulated

further research on the chemical integration of the

body functions, since so profitable. By ingenious methods of experimentation he was successful in maintaining the mammalian kidney, isolated from all connection with the body, ina state of functional activity and thereby to bring to light new and fundamental facts concerning renal secretion. Starling’s most important researches were, however, those dealing with the heart and circulation. Together with many other important discoveries on the physiology of the circulation, he demonstrated the mechanism by which the heart is able to automatically increase the energy of each contraction in proportion to the mechanical demand made upon it and, apart from the nervous system, to adapt its work in accordance with the needs of the body. No one physiologist has so greatly advanced knowledge of the heart’s action since the discovery of the circulation by Harvey 300 years ago. During the World War, he became director of research at the R.A.M.C. College and engaged in devising defensive methods against poison gas. Subsequently, 1917-19, Starling rendered valuable national service as chairman of the Royal Society Food Committee, scientific adviser to the Ministry of Food and British scientific delegate on the Inter-Allied Food Commission.

University of Göttingen. He went as professor in 1907 to the Technische Hochschule at Aix-la-Chapelle, in 1917 to Greifswald and in 1920 to Wiirzburg; he retired in 1922. Stark devoted himself principally to the study of the modern theory of radiation and the atomic theory. He discovered the Doppler effect in parallel rays, for which the Vienna Academy awarded him the Baumgartner Prize. Later he discovered the Stark effect, named after him, and in 1919 was awarded the Nobel Prize for Physics. He wrote numerous essays on physical problems, including the Prinzipien der Atomdynamik, in 3 parts (1910-5); Die elektrischen Quanten, Die elektrische Strahlung, Die Elektrizität in Gasen (1902) and Die Dissociierung und Umwandlung chemischer Atome (1903). He was the founder of the Jahrbuch der Radioaktivitdt und Elektronik (1904), which he edited until 1919. STARK, JOHN (1728-1822), American soldier, was born at Nutfield, now Londonderry, N. H., on Aug. 28, 1728. During the Seven Years’ War he served under Robert Rogers, first as a lieutenant and later as a captain. At the beginning of the Revolutionary War he raised a regiment and as colonel did good service in the Battle of Bunker Hill, the Canadian expedition, and WashSTARLING (Sturnus vulgaris), a bird common throughout ington’s New Jersey campaign in the winter of 1776-77. In northern Europe and Asia and also found in India. About the March 1777 he resigned his commissién. Later in the year, he was size of the thrush, the starling has a plumage of black, beautiplaced in command, with the rank of brigadier general of militia, fully glossed with purple, green and steel-blue and having each of a force of militiamen, with whom, on Aug. 16, near Bennington, feather tipped with buff. The starling is an omnivorous feeder, Vt., he defeated two detachments of Burgoyne’s army. For this but, where numerous (as in Britain), it must undoubtedly be victory, which did much to bring about the capitulation of Gen. numbered among the injurious species. It gathers in enormous Burgoyne, Stark received a commission as brigadier general in flocks in the autumn to roost in reed-beds, and such a flock on the Continental army (Oct. 4, 1777). He took part in the opera- the wing is a memorable sight, their simultaneous turns in the tions about Saratoga, and for a short time was commander of the air being very remarkable. Of late years, it has taken to roosting northern department. In Sept. 1783 he was breveted major in increasing numbers om large buildings in London and other general. He died at Manchester, N. H., on May 8, 1822. towns. The song of the male is cheerful and varied, if not very See Memoir and Oficial Correspondence of General John Stark beautiful, and the bird’s disposition is bustling and lively. It nests (1860) by his grandson Caleb Stark. in holes in trees, which it frequently appropriates from a woodpecker, or in buildings. The eggs, four to seven in number, are STARK EFFECT: see Quantum THEORY; LICHT. STARLEY, JAMES (1830-1881), British inventor, the son a pale blue-green. As the young grow, they become extremely of a farmer, was baptized at Albourne, Sussex, on June 13, 1830. noisy. The starling was introduced into New York city in 1890. In 1857 he started in Coventry the manufacture of the “Euro- It spread rapidly in New York and adjoining States. It has caused a decrease in many native hole-breeding birds pean” and other sewing machines from his patents. In 1868 he began the manufacture after a Paris model and at first for French by usurping the available nest sites. Allied species occur in the use, of bicycles, several of the earliest suggested improvements Mediterranean, Kashmir, Persia and Armenia. The related genus Pastor includes the beautiful rose-coloured being Starley’s. A number of firms were soon devoting themselves ` exclusively to the manufacture of bicycles, and for one of these starling (P. roseus), a bird of irregular and erratic habits, arrivStarley designed the Coventry tricycle. As it was harder to propel ing in incredible numbers in unexpected places to breed—usually than the bicycle, he invented the balance gear, and applied it in in a district where locusts are becoming or have become excesthe Salvo tricycle. Starley died on June 17, 1881. His nephew, sively abundant. The plumage is rose-pink and black. J. K. Starley, patented the tangent wheel in 1874. : STARNBERG, a village and climatic health resort of GerSTARLING, ERNEST HENRY, r.r.s. (1866-1927), Eng- many, in the republic of Bavaria, on the Starnberger See, 16 m. lish physiologist, eldest son of H. H. Starling, Clerk of the S. from Munich by rail. Pop. (1925) 4,838. It has an old castle Crown at Bombay, was born in London, 1866. Educated at (now government offices). The Starnberger See (or Würmsee) is

King’s College School; entered Guy’s Hospital in 1882 and

a lake with a length of 12 m., a breadth of 3 m., and covering 23

STAR-NOSED

MOLE—STATEN

m. Its greatest depth is about 400 ft. On the Roseninsel, an

island in the lake, remains of lake dwellings were found. See Ule, Der Wiirmsel in Oberbayern (Leipzig, 1901).

ISLAND

S07

STATE, ACT OF, the plea of “act of state” in English law

means primarily a defence raised by the Crown on behalf of a servant of the Crown, who is sued in the English courts for some STAR-NOSED MOLE (Condylura cristata), a North Amer- wrongful act ratified by the Crown. In this sense the plea is not ican species. In habits it resembles the European mole, but is recognized by the English courts who, in rejecting it, have unidistinguished by the presence of a ring of tentacles, probably formly held that, as the King cannot do a wrong so also “it follows that the King cannot authorize a wrong.” The only exception to tactile, round the nostrils. (See INSECTIVORA.) STARODUB, a town of Russia in the Bryansk province in this rule is in the case of a wrongful act done to an alien who, in 2° 35° N,, 32° 45’ E. It is the terminus of a branch railway, such a case cannot sue (Buron v. Denman [1848] 2 Ex. 167) if and three telegraph lines radiate from it. Pop. (1926) 10,9109. the act was done outside British territory and was ratified by the Russian princes contended with one another for it in the rrth Crown, but it has recently been held in Johnstone v. Pedlar 90 and 12th centuries. It was destroyed by the Mongols in the 13th L.J.P.C. 181 that if the act complained of was done to him in century. In the 15th and 16th centuries the Russians and Lithu- British territory he has the same right to sue as a British subject anians struggled for it; it became a Polish stronghold in the 17th and the defence of “act of State” is, in that case, equally inapplicable. But the term is also used in another and less questionable century, but was handed over to Russia in 1686. STARVATION, the state of being deprived of the essentials sense. It will be entertained by English Courts where the acts in respect of which an action is brought are “transactions of indeof nutrition, particularly of food (see Huncer anp Turrst). In starvation those tissues which are of the greatest importance pendent States between each other,” such as those arising out of to the economy are nourished at the expense of less important tis- the execution, or non-execution, of a treaty, the succession of the sues. Thus the brain and spinal cord lose only 3 per cent of their Crown to a foreign territory by cession or conquest, and the like. weight in a hunger period during which fat loses 96 per cent. From For example, a concession granted by the chief of native territory the behaviour of the respiratory quotient in starvation it is clear is not enforceable whether by Petition of Right or otherwise in that the wastage of muscle and other proteins is due to endeavours British Courts by the grantees against the Crown, on succeeding to keep up the body temperature at its normal level. Experimental to the territory by annexation (Cook v. Sprigg [1897] A.C. s79): starvation, even though food be entirely withheld is not accom- So too the contractual obligations incurred, whether towards a panied by any great alteration in body temperature until starva- British subject or an alien, by a foreign state are not binding on the Crown, after its conquest and annexation by the Crown, unless tion has been going on for perhaps three weeks. STAS, JEAN SERVAIS (1813-1891), Belgian chemist, the Crown expressly elects to adopt them (West Rand Gold M ining was born at Louvain on Aug. 21, 1813. He first studied medicine, Co. v. the King [1905] 74 L.J.K.B. 753); for annexation is an and then worked in the Paris laboratory of J. B. A. Dumas (g.v.) “act of State” of an international character. In such cases the whom he assisted in the redetermination of the atomic weight of title of the subject has originated with a foreign Government, not carbon and in other work. From 1840 to about 1865 he was pro- with the Crown. If the contract or concession in question had

fessor of chemistry at the Ecole Royale Militaire at Brussels. He

died at Brussels on Dec. 13, 189r. Stas’s name is best known for his determination of the atomic weights (g.v.) of a number of the more important elements. His work in this field, for which the Royal Society awarded him a Davy medal in 1885, was marked by extreme care. In connection with a poisoning case in 1850, Stas worked out a method for the detection of the vegetable alkaloids, which, modified by Friedrich Julius Otto (1809-1870), professor of chemistry at Brunswick, has been widely used by toxicologists as the Stas-Otto process. Stas’ papers on atomic weights were collected in Recherches sur les Rapports réciproques des Prids Atomiques and in Nouvelles Recherches sur les Lois des Proportions Chemiques.

STASINUS, of Cyprus, according to some ancient authorities the author of the Cypria (in 11 books), one of the poems belonging to the epic cycle. Others ascribed it to Hegesias of Salamis or even to Homer himself. The Cypria contains an account of the events leading up to the Trojan war, such as the judgment of Paris and the rape of Helen. It is probable that the list of the Trojans and their allies (/liad, ii. 816-876), which formed an appendix to the catalogue of the Greek ships, is abridged from that in the Cypria. Proclus, in his Chrestomathia gave an outline of the

poem (preserved in Photius, cod. 239). See F. G. Welcker, Der epische Cyclus (1862) ; D. B. Monro, Appen-

dix to his edition of Odyssey, xiii—xxiv. (190r); T. W. Allen, “The Epic Cycle,” in Classical Quarterly (Jan. 1908, sqq.) ; and CYCLE.

STASSFURT, a town in the Prussian province of Saxony, and one of the chief seats of the German salt-producing industry;

originally been made by the Crown itself, it would be another matter. Even in the case of a British Protectorate the Crown may plead “act of State” as a defence to claims in respect of

expropriation of native territory because the Crown in such a case is acting in territory which is not British (see the recent case of Sobhuza II. v. Miller [1926] A.C. 518). So too claims arising under a treaty are not enforceable against the Crown unless and until the Treaty, which is an international act, becomes part of English municipal law by being incorporated in a statute. The negotiation

of the Treaty is an “act of State” into which, and its meaning, the Courts cannot enquire. In this sense the declaration of war and the making of peace by the Sovereign is also an act of State. As Lord Somer put it in Johnstone v. Pedlar (Op. cit. at p. 794) “Municipal Courts do not take it upon themselves to review the dealings of State with State and Sovereign with Sovereign.” On

the other hand the mere fact that some act, wrongful per se in

English law, was done in execution, or alleged execution, of a treaty made by the Crown against the person or property of a British subject is a defence that would never be entertained by the courts in action against a servant of the Crown, for, while a treaty cannot confer new rights, enforceable at law, upon a British subject, neither can it deprive him of any of his existing rights under English law. This was specifically laid down in Walker v. Baird [1892] AC. 491 where in an action for trespass an officer of the Crown put in the plea of “Act of State” in that

he was acting in the execution of a Convention with the French

Government. AUTHORITIES:—Sir W. Harrison Moore, Act of State in English Law;

on the river Bode, 20 m. S.W. of Magdeburg by rail to Aschers- Bellot’s edition of Pitt Cobbett’s Cases and Opinions in International (J. H. Mo.) leben. Pop. (1925) 16,136. The systematic exploitation of the Law. salt-beds to which the town owes its prosperity, dates from 1856

only. Besides the rock-salt, the saline deposits yield deliquescent salts and other saline products, which have encouraged the foundation of numerous chemical factories. For about so years prior to

the World War the bulk of the potash used throughout the world

originated in the Stassfurt mines. The deposit underlies an area of about 100 sq.m. and is the largest body of soluble potash known. Production continues to be heavy, although Germany’s monopoly 8 no longer complete.

STATE: see SOVEREIGNTY.

STATE, PARTMENTS. STATEN

DEPARTMENT

OF:

see Government

De-

ISLAND, an island constituting the borough of

Richmond, New York city, and Richmond county, the southernmost of the counties of the State of New York. It is separated from Long island on the east by the Narrows which connects upper and lower New York bay, from New Jersey on the north by the narrow channel of Kill van Kull which connect8 New York bay with Newark bay; and from New Jersey on the west by the narrow channel of Arthur Kill. On its south-east coast are lower

338

STATE

RIGHTS—STATE’S

New York, Raritan and Prince’s bays, Great Kills, and the Atlantic ocean. Triangular in shape, it is 134m. long from north-east to southwest, has a maximum width of nearly 8m. at its north end, and has an area of 57sq. miles. The north-east quarter is broken by two ranges of hills having a precipitous east slope and rising to a maximum height of about 4ooft., 1m. inland from the Narrows;

but on the west and south the hills fall gently to the coastal plain, which, occupying the greater part of the island, is broken only by low morainal ridges and terminates in salt marshes along much of the west coast. There are many species of forest trees and more than 1,300 species of flowering plants and ferns. The population in 1910 was 85.969; In 1930, 158,346. The north shore, including New Brighton, West New Brighton and Port Richmond, is largely given over to industrial development. In 1927 the local chamber of commerce

listed 252 industrial es-

tablishments, employing 20,320 persons, with a capital investment of more than $93,000,000, and a product valued at $103,000,000. There are shipyards, bakeries, lumber mills, printing and publishing houses, and factories for the manufacturing of clothing, soap, linoleum, fertilizer, fireworks and other products. The chief residential communities lie along the easterly shore, from St. George south to Ft. Wadsworth. Tottenville, on the south-west tip of the island, is both a residential and industrial district. South and Midland beaches below the Narrows are popular seaside resorts.

The Staten Island Rapid Transit Railway furnishes electrified passenger service along the north and easterly shores. The north

EVIDENCE

the site in 1847 and after destroying the old forts began the erep. tion of the present Ft. Wadsworth and Tompkins, which cong,

tutes one of New York’s strongest defences.

In 1898 Staten island

became the borough of Richmond in Greater New York, See J. J. Clute, Annals of Staten Island (1877); R. M. Bayles, His. tory of Richmond County (1887) ; and I. K. Morris, Memorial History of Staten Island (1898-1900).

STATE RIGHTS, a term used generally in political science to denote those Governmental rights which belong to the ingj. vidual States of a Federal union, there being a certain sphere of

authority in which these individual States may act without inter. ference from the central Government. Thus in the United State: there were certain rights reserved to themselves by the States

when forming the union under the Constitution of 1787. These

rights the central Government is by fundamental law bound ig respect, and they can be reduced only by amendment to the Con. stitution. For 1,000 years the various German States were so jealous of any curtailment of their individual rights as to prevent the formation of an efficient Federal Government. In Federal unions

such as Mexico and Brazil, where a central authority existed first and created the States, the belief in State rights is much weaker

than it is in unions composed of originally independent States.

The rights of a State are said to be delegated when, as in Mexico,

Brazil and Colombia, the Constitution is created by a central national authority which also makes the States; State rights are residuary when independent States unite to delegate by a consti-

tution certain powers to a central Government, as in the case of the United States, Switzerland and, until 1905, Sweden-Norway.

shore branch of this railroad, with a terminal at St. George, is History shows that States forming unions of the second class are certain in aftertime to deny or assert that the sovereignty of the the New York terminus of the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad for State is one of the rights reserved, according as the State belongs the handling of freight. The island is connected by ferry with the to a stronger or weaker section or faction; State sovereignty being boroughs of Manhattan and of Brooklyn, and vehicular bridges, completed in 1928, connect the south shore with Perth Amboy the defence of the weaker State or faction, and being denied by (N.J.) and Howland Hook, Staten island, with Elizabeth (N.J.). the stronger group of States which controls the Government and A third bridge, connecting the north shore with Bayonne (N J.), is which asserts that a new sovereign State was created by a union of the former independent ones. This dispute is usually ended by scheduled for completion in 1932; until that date ferries will continue to operate between these two points. The island has 21 civil war and the destruction of State sovereignty. The evolution of State rights as shown in the history of the United States is deep-water steamship piers, r,200ft. in length, equipped with modtypical. Thirteen independent States formed a Union in 1787 ern freight handling devices, and within the free lighterage district under a Constitution reserving certain rights to the States. The of New York city. In March 1929 steps were taken for the sphere of the State authority embraced most of the powers of construction of a tunnel at the Narrows to connect the island with government, except, for instance, those relating to foreign affairs, Brooklyn. army and navy, interstate commerce, coinage and the tariff: When discovered by Europeans, Staten island was occupied by the powers of the central Government were specified in the fundathe Aquehonga Indians, a branch of the Raritans. Several Inmental law. Most of the States claimed at one time or another dian burying-grounds and many Indian relics, including a stone that sovereignty was one of the reserved rights of the States and head with human features, have been found here. In 1630 the on this theory the Southern States acted in the secession in 1861. Dutch West India Company granted the island to Michael Pauw The war that resulted destroyed all claims of State sovereignty. as a part of his patroonship of Pavonia, but Pauw sold his title The other rights of the States consisted of those not delegated to back to the company without establishing a settlement and in 1636 a portion of it was regranted to David Pietersen de Vries, the central Government or forbidden to the States by the Constitution. In case of doubt the presumption was in favour of the the remainder being erected into a patroonship and granted to State. Since the beginning, however, the central Government has Cornelis Melyn. In 1641 de Vries established a settlement at gained strength at the expense of the States, seldom by direct Oude Dorp (Old Town), near South Beach, but after its destruction by the Indians in 1655 it was abandoned. In 1658 a company usurpation (except during the Civil War and Reconstruction, 1861-76), but indirectly through use and custom, as the country of Waldenses settled at Stony Brook, about 2m. W. of the ruins and people developed and new conditions of government arose. of Oude Dorp, and this was the principal village for many years. The field of State rights has not increased, while centralization In 1664 when the duke of York became proprietor of the newly has slowly but surely taken place. The central authority in the erected province of New York he granted Berkeley and Carteret United States, formerly affecting the average citizen but little, all that portion of his province which lay west of the Hudson river, now touches him in many of the activities of life and sometimes thus making Staten island a part of New Jersey. In 1668, howintrudes even into the domain of local self-government. The ever, the duke decided that all islands within New York bay which history of the decay of State rights makes it seem doubtful if the could be circumnavigated in 24 hours should be adjudged to New York. Capt. Christopher Billopp making the trip within the time Federal form of government is a permanent one, or is only a limit, he was granted 1,163ac. of the south end of the island which transient form between independent State Governments or loose became the manor of Bentley. The manor-house, built about this confederacies and a centralized national Government. _ See US. Library of Congress “List of References on centralization time, is still standing in the village of Tottenville. In this house in the U.S. Government including State Rights,” Select List of ReferLord Howe on Sept. 11, 1776, held a peace conference with Ben- ences No. 947 (1926); Woodrow Wilson, The State (1900 and later jamin Franklin, John Adams and Edward Rutledge representing eds.); A. H. Stephens, Constitutional View of the War Between the the Continental Congress. From July 3, 1777, until the close of States (Philadelphia, 1868-70); A. L. Lowell, Governments and Parties in Continental Europe (Boston, 1896) ; and H. P. Judson, Our the Revolutionary War, Staten island was held by the British. Federal Republic (1925). In the War of r8r2 Ft. Richmond was built at the Narrows and STATE’S EVIDENCE, the term used in the United States

Ft. Tompkins In the rear of it. The Federal Government bought for evidence given by an accomplice upon promise of pardon.

STATES-GENERAL—STATESVILLE

339

STATES-GENERAL, the English translation of (1) the ttats-genéroux of France and (2) the staten-generaal of the

swell of the French Revolution, but they appeared again in 1814.

Dutch Netherlands. The name in both cases signifies the assembly

of the estates of the realm, as distinct from provincial assemblies of estates; it is thus the equivalent of the English parliament, of

kingdom of Italy in 1860 they were reduced to the Comarca of Rome, the legation of Velletri., and the three delegations of Viterbo, Cività Vecchia and Frosinone; in 1870 they disappeared

the Cortes in Spain, or the diet of the Holy Roman Empire, which she states-general resembled in their original constitution. In France the states-general were first summoned, in 1302, by

from the political map of Europe. From that time, the popes retired within the Vatican as self-constituted prisoners. This situation was changed by the Lateran treaty between the Holy See

Philip IV. for the purpose of giving him moral support in his

and the kingdom of Italy (signed Feb. 11r, 1929), which recognized

tives of the three orders of clergy, nobles and commons (tiers état, third estate), an arrangement which survived to the end, though their composition, as well as their effective powers varied greatly at different times. For various reasons (notably the Hundred Years’ War and the religious wars of the 16th century) they never secured the power over taxation and legislation early obtained by the English parliament, and after 1614 they were never

cated by an annexed map, entitled “the city of the Vatican.” Therein the Holy See is recognized as having full and exclusive

quarrel with Pope Boniface VIII.

They consisted of representa-

In 1849 they received a constitution.

On the formation of the

Pope Pius XI. as sovereign of a clearly defined territory, indi-

dominion and sovereign jurisdiction.

(See Vatican; Prus XL.)

STATE SUCCESSION, The extent to which a succession State is bound by the obligations of its predecessor constitutes one of the most difficult problems in international law. The clearest

statement is probably that contained in the report of the Transvaal

summoned until 1789, when they transformed themselves into the National Constituent Assembly. This Assembly consisted of the representatives of the three orders sitting together, but the statesgeneral had ceased to exist (see France: History).

Concessions Commission; see Parl. Pap. South Africa, rgo1r [Cd. 623]. The principles which the commissioners regarded as applicable to the determination of questions relating to various concessions granted by the Transvaal Government in view of the conquest and annexation of the Transvaal by Great Britain are as fol-

sisting of delegates from the provincial estates, dates from about the middle of the 15th ‘century, under the rule of the dukes of

lows:—-(1) “It is clear that a State which has annexed another State is not legally bound by any contract made by a State which has ceased to exist, and that no court of law has jurisdiction to enforce such contracts if the annexing State refuses to recognize them, see Cook v. Sprigg (1899) A. C. 572. But the modern

In the Netherlands the convocation of the states-general, con-

Burgundy. The mame was transferred, after the separation of the northern Netherlands

from the Spanish dominions, to the

representatives elected by the seven sovereign provincial estates

for the general government of the United Provinces. The statesgeneral, in which the voting was by provinces (each province having one vote) was established from 1593 at The Hague. The

states-general came to an end after the revolution in 1795, with the convocation of the National Assembly (March 1, 1796). (See Hotianp: History.) STATES OF THE CHURCH or PAPAL STATES, that

portion of central Italy which, previous to the unification of the

usage of nations has tended in the direction of the acknowledgment of such contracts. After annexation, it has been said the people change their allegiance, but their relations to each other and their rights of property remain undisturbed, U.S. v. Pencheman, 7 Pet. 51; and property includes rights which lie in contract, Soulard v. U.S., 4 Pet. 54.” Concessions of a mixed public and private character probably continue to exist after annexation until abrogated by the succession State. There would not appear to be any distinction between cession and annexation. Private

kingdom, was under the direct government of the see of Rome. Their area in 1859 was 16,000-8 sq.m.; their population in 1853 rights should be respected, but this is based rather on ethics than law. (2) “Though we doubt whether the duties of an annexing numbered 3,124,758. With the exception of Benevento, surrounded by the Neapoli- State towards those claiming under concessions or contracts .. . tan province of Principato Ulteriore, and the small State of have been defined with such precision in authoritative statement or Pontecorvo, enclosed within the Terra di Lavoro, the States of acted upon with such uniformity in civilized practice, we are conthe Church formed a compact territory, bounded on the N.W. vinced that the best modern opinion favours the view that as a by the Lombardo-Venetian kingdom, on the N.E. by the Adriatic, general rule the obligations of the annexed State towards private on the S.E. by the kingdom of Naples, on the S.W. by the persons should be respected, Manifestly the general rulẹ must be Mediterranean, and on the W. by the grand-duchy of Tuscany subject to qualification, as that an insolvent State could not by aggression which practically left to a solvent no other course than and the duchy of Modena. On the Adriatic the coast extended to annex it, convert its worthless into valuable obligations; again 140 m. from the mouth of the Tronto (Truentus) to the southern an annexing State would be justified in refusing to recognize oblimouth of the Po, and on the Tyrrhenian Sea 130 m. from 41° 20° gations incurred by the annexed State for the immediate purposes to 42° 22’ N. latitude. The former papal territories are now of the war against itself; and that probably no State would accomprised within the Italian provinces of Bologna, Ferrara, Forli, knowledge private rights the existence of which caused or conRavenna, Pesaro and Urbino, Ancona, Macerata, Ascoli-Piceno, tributed to cause the war which resulted in annexation.” (3) The Perugia, Rome and Benevento. The question of the origin of principle to be adopted was that proclaimed by the Prussians upon the territorial jurisdiction of the pope is treated under Papacy. the annexation of Hanover “we will protect every one in the posWith the moral and ecclesiastical decay of the papacy in the oth session and enjoyment of his duly acquired rights.” (4) “The and roth centuries much of its territorial authority slipped from acceptance of this principle clearly renders it necessary that the its grasp; and by the middle of the 11th century its rule was not annexing Government should in each case examine whether the recognized beyond Rome and the immediate vicinity. By the rights which it is asked to recognize have, in fact, been duly Treaty of Sutri (Feb. xrrr) Paschal II. was compelled by the acquired. (5) Thus a concession may properly be cancelled when Emperor Henry V, to surrender all the possessions and royalties “(a) the grant of the concession was not within the legal powers of of the church; but this treaty was soon afterwards repudiated, the late Government, or (b) was in breach of a treaty with the and by the will of Matilda, Countess of Tuscany, the papal see annexing State, or (c) when the person seeking to maintain the was enabled to lay claim to new territories of great value. By concession acquired it unlawfully or by fraud, or (d) has failed to the capitulation of Neuss (1201) the Emperor Otto IV. recog-

nized the papal authority over the whole tract from Radicofani

in Tuscany to the pass of Ceperano on the Neapolitan frontier— the exarchate of Ravenna, the Pentapolis, the March of Ancona, the bishopric of Spoleto, Matilda’s personal estates, and the countship of Brittenoro; but a good deal of the territory thus described remained for centuries an object of ambition only on the part of the popes. The actual annexation of Ravenna, Ancona, Bologna, Ferrara, etc., dates from the 16th century. The States of the Church were submerged for a time by the ground-

fulfil its essential conditions without lawful excuse.”

(6) A con-

cession may be cancelled when its maintenance would be injurious to the public interest. See A. B. Keith, Theory of State Succession (1907); Max Huber, Die Staatensuccession (1898); Westlake, Collected Papers; Pitt Cobbett, Leading Cases on Intern. Law Vol. IL, 4th ed. (1924).

STATESVILLE,

a city of North Carolina, U.S.A., the

county seat of Iredell county: 130 m. W. of Raleigh, on Federal highways 21 and 70, and served by the Southern railway. Pop. 7,895 in 1920 (187% negroes); 10,490 in 1930 by Federal census.

340

STATIC—STATISTICS

The city is in the upper Piedmont section of the State, at an altitude of 960 feet. Statesville was laid out in 1790 as the capital of Iredell county (organized 1788), near old Ft. Dobbs, which was twice defended against the Indians by Daniel Boone. Kit Carson, the Indian scout, was born near the city. During the Civil War Governor Zebulon Vance took refuge in Statesville when Sherman entered Raleigh (April 13, 1865).

STATIC, a term in radio denoting conduction or charging

current in an antenna (g.v.) resulting from physical contact between the antenna and charged bodies or masses of gas. In America this term is synonymous with atmospherics.

STATICS, the branch of mechanics which discusses the con-

ditions of rest or equilibrium of forces (from Gr. root ova, stand)

(see MECHANICS).

STATIONARY MACHINERY:

see Farm (STATIONARY)

MACHINERY.

STATIONERY.

ing the total consumption of sugar in the country, another serie, of figures showing the number of persons living in that country in each of the years covered by the table. To the columns cop. taining (1) the dates of the years to which the information re. lates, and (2) the total amounts of sugar consumed in the re.

spective years, there will thus be added (3) a column showin

the numbers of persons concerned in the consumption of these quantities of sugar. The significance of this last column in re. lation to the preceding may be made clearer by the addition of a

fourth column (4) deduced from the two preceding by dividing

the quantity of sugar shown in any line of the table by the num. ber of the population shown in the same line, thus obtaining the average amount of sugar consumed per head of the specified population. The form of the table is sufficiently indicated by

means of the lines relating to the United Kingdom in ten years, 1903 and 1913, given below:

The word now covers all writing materials

Consumption of Sugar in the United Kingdom

and implements, together with the numerous appliances of the desk and of mercantile and commercial offices. The principal articles and operations of the stationery trade are dealt with under

such headings as BookBINDING: OFFICE LITHOGRAPHY; PAPER; PEN and PENCIL.

STATIONS

APPLIANCES;

(2)

(x)

Total con-

:

Year

INK;

STATISTICS.

The name statistics was first applied to col-

lections of data relating to matters important to the State, such as the numbers of the population, the yield of taxation, the value of trade carried on within the territory of the State or between that territory and other parts of the world, the mortality from particular diseases and from all causes together, etc., and to the study and interpretation of such data. The data were not at first numerical and later not exclusively numerical, but the precision and convenience of data expressed in numbers, as compared with other forms of statement, have led to the more general cultivation of arithmetical data and to the common use of the term “statistics” as if it related exclusively to data expressed in numerical form. At the same time, the numerical data to which the name “statistics” is generally applied are not limited to such as have some connection with the organization or administration of the

State, the methods appropriate to the study of statistics being, broadly speaking, the same whether the data under consideration relate to human communities or are concerned with any other

branch of knowledge or investigation.

Statistical Tables—The simplest way of arranging numerical records is to set them out in tabular form. We may, for example, ascertain the amount of sugar consumed in a given country in each year of a given period. A table may be drawn up in which each line contains the figures for the year the date of which is

shown at the beginning of the line. If each line relates to the year next following that dealt with in the preceding line, the sequence of figures of consumption will enable us to determine

;

Po

(3)

(4)

; ' pulation

4 : Consumption

thousands

28:547 36734

OF THE CROSS, a series of 14 pictures or

images representing the closing scenes in the Passion of Christ, viz., (1) the condemnation by Pilate, (2) the reception of the cross, (3) Christ’s first fall, (4) the meeting with His mother, (5) Simon of Cyrene carrying the cross, (6) Veronica wiping the face of Jesus, (7) the second fall, (8) the exhortation to the women of Jerusalem, (9) the third fall, (10) the stripping of the clothes, (11) the crucifixion, (12) the death, (13) the descent from the cross, (14) the burial. Sometimes a 15th—the finding of the cross by Helena—is added; on the other hand in the diocese of Vienna, the stations were at the end of the 18th century reduced to eleven. The representations are usually ranged round the church; sometimes they are found in the open air, especially on the ascent to some elevated church or shrine. The normal form of the devotion, which began among the Franciscans, is to visit the stations of the cross wherever represented, and exercise a devout meditation on passing from station to station. See article “Stations of the Cross” in the Catholic Encyclopaedia.

es

|

|

per head, lb.

42-247 45°713

765

go'o

If to this table further columms are added or a new table js

drawn up, in which data relating to the consumption of tea in the same country and in the same years is set out, we obtain two sets of facts the comparison of which may prove of interest

and importance. We can ascertain whether the variations in the consumption of sugar and of tea were related. Graphs.—lIt is frequently of advantage to set out in diagrammatic form such tabulated results as those referred to, as at least the broader features of the comparison of two or more series of

100 90

a

abies e

z

80

| 60

50

TEA IN QUNCESY ff" i

|

|

LOS

7

-

za

>

HA

oe, Ji a, de

yy

Lr

Vi

a

te

Z

ZOL

Peay

! g

=

bys UGARIN L LB. Å pf”

iy

ali

7"

|j f

|

oe ee et | tt EL

tr

40

went

LeELEEIL LEI ae 10

Nee 0

1864

1870

1875

1880

1885

1890

1895

1900

1905

1910 lvls

YEAR

FIG.

1.—GRAPH

IN THE

UNITED

SHOWING

KINGDOM

CONSUMPTION

IN EACH

YEAR,

PER

HEAD

OF

TEA

AND

SUGAR

1864-1913

Quantities in stock at the end of each year are not taken

into account

figures can often be seen more clearly in this form. Such simple graphical comparisons are familiar through their use in meteorological reports where readings are shown by the upward and

downward movements of a line crossing from left to right a serles of vertical lines marking the hours of the day or the days of the week. The particulars of the consumption, per head of the popula-

tion of the United Kingdom, of sugar and of tea in each of the

whether, and at what rate, the yearly consumption of sugar in-

so years from 1864 to 1913, are thus shown in Fig. (1). A neces-

creased in successive intervals of years. The increase of popula-

sary precaution in planning such graphical comparisons is also

tion from year to year observed in most countries is an obvious influence tending to increased use of any popular article of consumption, and it will be advantageous to add, to the figures show-

illustrated in the same diagram. The figures which are plotted relating to sugar show the average consumption year by year m

lb. per head. The consumption of tea in lb. per head yields the

STATISTICS

341

is in line at the foot of the diagram, the variations of which are so |manner in which the individual observations are distributed slight as to suggest no similarity with those of the line showing | close accordance with that of events dependent on pure chance. sugar consumed. If, however, the consumption of tea per head is | Such a case is presented by the following. A number of balls, expressed in ounces, it becomes clear that, though in individual | indistinguishable in size, weight or form, are placed in a bag, half

years the variations shown are by no means similar for sugar and | of the balls being white and half black.

If one ball be drawn

for tea, over the whole period the increase was in approximately | from the bag, its colour, whether white or black, may be noted. the same proportion for these two commodities!. The fluctuations |The ball being replaced and the bag shaken, another drawing will were more considerable in the case of sugar, and the diagram | give a result wholly independent of the first. The repetition of

suggests that, up to 1901, the quantities of sugar increased some- | such drawings will furnish a record of runs of white and of black

what more rapidly than, and thereafter failed to maintain as great | balls, some short, some long. The numbers of cases (a) of a change of colour in consecutive drawings (b) of sequences of the an increase as, those of tea. Even though graphs fall short, in the matter of precision of | same colour of two, three, four, etc., in number, being noted, the

statement, of the numerical tables, they have the great advantage | material for a table is furnished, and this table would have a

of enabling a large mass of figures to be grasped as a whole much | general similarity with that of the men’s heights used above for more readily than is possible when those figures are presented in| illustration. It is possible to determine theoretically the relative frequency with which the various sequences would recur in a ; one or more tables. Averages and Dispersion.—A second illustration of statistical | series of trials indefinitely extended.

series is seen in the following summary

of the heights of a|

number of men:—

If, in a large number of drawings, sequences of xr white (or of

x, black) balls are recorded on Y, occasions, the total number

n of drawings will be expressed by #=2,¥i+x2Yo+xsVe+. .. +2,-¥;+.... The relative frequencies of the different series is are Yi, Ya etc., where m-y1= V1, my2o=Yo, etc., and, when 74 73 72 7I 70 69 68 Height in inches. y’s the increased, is and the x’s relation between indefinitely the 4 9 23 75 87 Number recorded | 126 | 109 expressed by the formula y=a-e""?, which represents a curve of The table may be interpreted as meaning that 126 were found the shape shown below in fig. (2), known as the probability curve. between 5 ft. 74 in. and 5 ft. 85 in. and similarly for other heights. It is not proposed to enter into discussion of the character of In tables such as this some method of dealing with cases falling the probability curve, or the interpretation of the variations. It exactly on the dividing line between two adjacent groups must will be sufficient here to point out that the equation given relates be laid down, and a common method is to assign half the number to a curve symmetrical in form to right and left of the position found on the dividing line to each of the classes of which it forms represented by x=o. The part to the right may be supposed to the limit. This procedure may, of course, result in numbers in show the record of white sequences, and that to the left the some of the groups which are not integers. The true average height of the 730 men covered by the table can be ascertained only by reference to a more detailed statement showing the height of each man exactly, instead of in a number of groups. It will be

Height in inches. | Number recorded

őr 2

62 IO

63 II

65 a7

64 38

66 72

observed that 297 were not taller than 5 ft. 74 in., while 307 were 5 ft. 84 in. or more, the distribution being not quite symmetrical on both sides of the numerically largest group. The approximate average height was about =1,in. less than 5 ft. 8 in. A table of this kind tells us, however, something more than the average height of the individuals represented. We note that 191 were not more than 5 ft. 64 in. in height and 198 were not less than s ft. 94 in. in height. By calculation from the figures shown, assuming that the individual heights were distributed with approximate regularity along the intervals from inch to inch, the points representing 5 ft. 6-3 in. and 5 ft. 9-7 in. would divide the O series of heights so that one-quarter of the whole number fell y= a.g T below the former, and one-quarter of the whole number above the latter. A similar calculation gives, as the point dividing the FIG. 2 series into two equally numerous groups, 5 ft. 8-04 in. This last sequences, że., of sequences in black of record similar point is called the median of the series, and the two others are exactly which white balls failed to appear. the lower and upper quartiles, the three points serving to divide In any actual series of observations (e.g., of the colours of the whole number examined into four groups of equal numbers of cases. The distance between the upper and lower quartiles, in balls drawn from, and returned to, a bag) the observed numbers to the case in question 3-4 in., gives the range within which the mid- expressing the frequency of different events will be found of the form dle half of the instances recorded lay. This distance expresses differ more or less from those expressed by the curve, much more definitely the degree of concentration of the indi- given by the above equation, which is appropriate to the circumviduals in the neighbourhood of the median height than, for ex- stances of the experiment. Prolonged trials would give results and ample, the whole range (14 in.) within which all the measurements approzimating to those derived from theoretical calculations Thus, in the case curve. probability the of shape the in expressed lie. If a more exact description of the nature of the distribution covering than is afforded by the specification of the median and quartiles, of the heights of 730 men, it is probable that records and condition social and race same the of men, of numbers larger but of the same general character, is desired, the group may be the 730 were which from those as age of limits same the within divided into a number of parts, e.g., into ten equally numerous selected, would give a distribution of heights more closely correparts, the points of division being then known as deciles. probability curve than the In many varieties of statistical problems it is found that the sponding to that shown by a typical covered observations are distributed in a manner similar to that shown numbers cited. If, for example, for every one actually measured, closer been had roo or 50 or 20 or 10 table, our by in the above illustration, and the question arises whether the selected theoretical series would form of the distribution is of a recognizably definite character, correspondence with a suitably the determination of which can be of use in the interpretation of have been cn probable. : ; 3

the results obtained. It is found that, in numerous cases, the} 1

Te

:

ae eo

Ha

:

Oe ane don Tee eee Cee

on imports less exports of sugar, excluding sugared goods.

M eee

on meaning a gee

segidole an

quency of events, it is generally of considerable importance

ascertain what is the extent of variation that is as likely to happen

'as not, since the significance of actual variations can only be

STATISTICS

342

judged in relation to those which may have no significance at all in reference to the problem under consideration, Skew Distributions.—The normal probability curve, referred to above, is not the only form resulting from the theoretic con-

the individuals of which were half an inch taller than those of the original group. If the distribution of the original group were such as could be precisely represented by an appropriate theo. retical formula, the compound group would not be, in general

sideration of chance events, and presenting close correspondence with statistical records of various kinds. The study of these forms, and of their theoretical bases, has been particularly active since the last decade of the 19th century. It wiil sufice here to mention that particular statistical problems are found to yield distributions of observations, not only symmetrical on either side of their mean, as with the normal probability curve, but also grouped more closely on one side of the mean than on the other. The illustration from men’s heights showed some small tendency to a skew shape, though it appears possible that the apparent de-

represented by the same formula. In some instances, it has been found possible to show that an observed group was so distributed as to be consistent with the assumption that it was made up of two groups of different characteristics, the members of which were included within one and the same series of observations Such an analysis can clearly be of considerable importance with reference to the deductions to be drawn from the examination of the observed data. Three Variable Elements.—In what precedes, the statistical material considered has consisted of series of pairs of quantities the values of the two quantities in each pair being related: for

formation would, on extending the field of observation, be found

to disappear and be shown to result from the fact that, in so small a number of cases as 730, the even representation of men of all heights in the population from which these cases were drawn had not been exactly secured. The following records of weights of men of 25 and less than 30 years of age and within half an inch of 5 ft. 6 in. in height, shows a more marked skewness. Weight in Ib.

105 I7

Number of cases -

120 722

150 £35 2,275 1,346

example, where one of the quantities is the height of a man, the

other the relative frequency with which men of that height were observed. We pass now to the consideration of series of three quantities, for example, where two of the quantities express the measures of different phenomena (which may be connected ip some way, or may be independent) and the third expresses the

relative frequency with which any combination of the other two

165 | 180 | 195 | 210

485 | 155 | 33]

occurs. Such a series is represented in the table given below, which shows the proportions in which, over a period of years, in

3

a particular country, marriages in which both bride and bride.

In this case the average (or arithmetic mean) of the weights of the 4,936 men is, on the assumption of continuous distribution, approximately 141-6 Ib. The median is at about x lb. less, viz., 140-5 lb. In the previous illustration of heights, the median was

groom had been married previously were distributed according to the ages of the brides and of the bridegrooms. The particulars might advantageously be set out in fuller detail, but the condensed

greater than the mean, so that the skewness shown is of opposite

table will serve quite well to illustrate the nature of the problems connected with the analysis of data of this kind.

direction in the two cases. This illustration serves also to show a third characteristic of

statistical distributions of this kind. Nearly four of every nine

Ages of wives at date of marriage

cases are included in that one of the eight groups of which 135 Ib. is the central point, this group being notably more numerous than any other. The weight 135 lb. may be called, so far as the figures furnish a ready indication, the most generally occurring weight or the “modal” weight. The point in the distribution thus determined is called the “mode.” A table like the above does not, however, give a very close measure of the central point of the

35-44

45-54

group (covering a range of 15 lb.) which would prove largest if

55-64 . 65 and over

we compared various groups such as 1274 to 1424 lb. (the group

Total husbands

point is the point the weight corresponding to which is the “mode” of the distribution, the most prevaient weight in the distribution under examination. Various problems in probability lead to curves of the distribution of chances which show the skewness that marks groups of statistical observations. Groups That Are Not Homogeneous.—A case that may, however, be mentioned is that in which the measurements obtained relate, not to a homogeneous group, but to a mixture of two or more groups. The manner in which such a mixture might affect the characteristics of a distribution may be illustrated from

the figures given below for the heights of a particular group of men. Suppose two such groups were found differing in the heights of the individuals composing them, but in such a way that the numbers in one of them whose heights were between any two specified limits were exactly twice those for limits an inch higher in the other group. We might have, for example:— | | Height inches.

Numbers

Under 25

IO 20 5

Under 25. 25-34

shown) 127 to 142 lb., 128 to 143 lb., and so on. If the curve be found which represents the distribution in question, its highest

Ages of husbands at date of marriage

25-34. | 35-44 | 45-54 | 55-64

Total 65 and! wives over

75 175

The table is to be read as follows: Of each thousand women married for the second (or later) time to men who had been married before, 447 were between 25 and 35 years old, and of these 20 married men under 25 years of age, 175 married men between 25 and 35, 167 married men between 35 and 45 and 17 men between 45 and 55. The other rows of figures will be read similarly. and the columns are to be read in corresponding manner, with the words “husband” and “wife” interchanged. The columns, and also the rows, representing the age distributions of particular sections of the wives and of the husbands, are examples of skew distribution of numbers. It is clear, from the clustering of numbers in the neighbourhood of a band crossing the table from its upper left side towards its lower right side.

that there is some association between the ages of the wives and the husbands, which are more often relatively high together, or relatively low together, than in other relations.

The average age

of the husbands is near 4r years and that of the wives somewhat

in

in

Troup I.

| Num oer in roup If.h Nacho the two groups

6o~-61 | 61-62

|

4

4

|

62-63 | 63-64 | 64-65 | 65-66 | 66-67 | 67-68 | 68-69 | 69-70 | 7o-7x | 71-72 | 72-73 | 73-74 | 747-75

|

20

22

76

II$

146

212

252

218

174

Igo

46

18

8

2

IO

II

38

577

73

106

126

Io 9

87

775

23

9

1

22

32

87

152

203

285

338

344

283

237

T21

4I

I7

4

The numbers in the last row represent a compound of two groups as numerous as the original group, the individuals of each of which were half an inch shorter than those of the original group, and another group, equal in number to the original group,

in excess of 34 years. Correlation.—If the average ages of the husbands shown in

each row of the table be computed, and also those of the wives

shown in each column, the two series of figures thus obtained show

STATISTICS

343

the variation of the average ages of corresponding groups of hus- | variations in time of phenomena under examination, are tested for closeness of fit by the calculation of correlation coefficients, ag the regression of the ages of husbands on those of wives, it is possible to test whether one of the two series differs from and the regression of the ages of wives on those of husbands. the other mainly in respect of the time at which variations are The two regressions would be complementary if the distribution greatest or smallest. In comparing two series such as

hands and wives. They furnish the measures of what are known

represented

complete

linear correlation

of husbands’

ages and

wives’ ages. When this complete correlation is not shown, a measure of the degree in which the distribution diverges from that corresponding to complete correlation is afforded by the so-

called coefficient of correlation. Between two series of quantities

and

Xi, X2, X3

.

Yi,

e»

Y2,

Yz

Ki Xa Xe Xt. .

Yı Ye V3 Ya

a

ew

.

the sum of products used in calculating the correlation ficient was conceived of as xı Yi F X Ye F £s Ys A. It may be found that such product-sums as e.»

à

©

©

bsa

e

2

oe

a

if the sums of the squares of each series, S(x2) and S(y*) be calculated, and the sum of the pairs of products xyy1, xoye, x23 .., 46, Sey) be also calculated, the fraction S(ny)/ /[S(x*)-S(y*)] gives the coefficient of correlation. In the case represented by the final row and the final column

of the last table, the calculation gives a fraction exceeding -o. The highest possible value for the coefficient is 1. The coefficient is a measure of the divergence between the two lines of regression

in cases like that illustrated, those two lines coalescing when the correlation is complete. If the series compared are such that decreases in the one correspond to increases in the other, the calculated coefficient is negative. The range of values for the coefficient lies between o and r for positive correlations and between o and —r for negative correlations. Small values of the coefficient mean that the connection between the series is slight,

and, in view of the extent to which, in actual observations, the records obtained are affected by disturbances having no relation to the matter under examination, no great significance can generally be attached to the occurrence of correlation coefficients of small magnitude. The class of problem of which the figures given in the last table furnish an illustration is one of great importance in statistical work. Thus the variation of the height and weight of men with their age, the questions relating to the transmission of characteristics from parents to children, the association of different diseases or defects and the results of combinations of treatment of diseases or defects, the interpretation of the results of variation in different features of the weather, for example rainfall and temperature, on crop yields and many other problems give rise to such distributions, while the limitation of the illustration to the case of three kinds of variation should not be taken to imply that larger numbers of elements may not be considered. The practical application of the procedure of calculating coefficients of correlation is not confined to cases such as that in connection with which the nature of correlation was illustrated. It may also be applied to determine, in cases such as that of the consumption of sugar and of tea, illustrated earlier, the closeness with which the variations in the two series of figures coincide.

In some cases it is of importance to compare, not two series the trends of which are, on the whole, similar, but two series of which the trends are different, though the variations from the general trend may prove to be similar in the two cases. Whether for diagrammatic representation, or for preliminary arrangement of material for testing by the calculation of coefficients of correlation, it is desirable to isolate the important features as far as possible. The relation between economic prosperity and the marriage rate is a problem that has attracted much attention, and in using as a measure of economic prosperity the value of the

exports year by year, or of imports and exports together, the connection which appears in some periods may be obscured in later periods by other conditions which cause one or other, or both, of the curves compared to diverge from the trend previously shown. To a considerable extent the effect of these disturbing elements in obscuring the significant relation may be evaded by using for comparison, not the absolute measures, e.g., of the value of trade and of the marriage rate, but the proportion in which the

figures for a given year are in excess or defect in comparison with those of the average of a series of several years of which

the year under consideration is the middle year, or the final year.

It may be noted that when two series of quantities, showing the

Xi Ye q or

Xa Ya F

Xs Va few.

.

coef-

we a

ee

Lyi tHLyt LYH .

show significantly larger resulting coefficients than the productsum first named. If so, it may be taken as meaning that of the two phenomena the variations of which are compared, those variations are not contemporaneous, but the members of one series follow, or precede, those of the other by a roughly constant interval. The repetition of the calculations for several different intervals may furnish a measure of the lag of one of the two phenomena on the other. It has been stated that the lowest value of the correlation coefficient is zero. It may be added that when, in practice, a calculation of such a coefficient gives a result practically equal to zero, it is not to be concluded that there is no correlation between the quantities. The form given for the correlation coefficient was based on the assumption that the lines of regression were sufficiently nearly straight lines to render it unnecessary to call attention to their divergence from that form. In some cases in which a high correlation with non-linear regression exists, the coefficient calculated by the formula given will be small. On the other hand, there are cases in which large correlation coefficients result from the formula of calculation, though the phenomena

compared are, in fact, not related to each other. The principal

cause of such apparently strange results is found in the fact that actual series of observations may be but small samples of the universe of phenomena of which they are taken as representative, and in small samples the securing of really representative results is not easily achieved. We turn, therefore, to the consideration of some questions relative to sampling. Sampling.—Two principal reasons lead to the use of statistics of samples in place of complete statistics of an exhaustive character covering the whole of the so-called universe of instances. One is that only portions of that universe may be accessible as sources of data, the other that the labour and expense involved in handling very large masses of statistics render it expedient to seek representative selections of moderate extent as the basis of the data to be submitted to detailed examination. In the latter case, it is to be supposed that the selection of instances is at the discretion of the investigator, and the practical question involved is the devising of a means that will ensure that the instances selected should give, as far as is possible, a picture ¿n petto of the whole feld of enquiry. The most common method is to choose the instances in a manner that shall ensure that there is no concentration on those possessing any particular characteristic in preference to those lacking that characteristic. All cases are to be given an equal chance of selection; the sample is to be a random selection. Tt is only necessary to illustrate the kind of procedure that will secure that result. Suppose we have to select 200 cases from a total of (say) 20,000. We may, if the 20,000 are arranged in any kind of sequence, take the first, pass over 99 and take the case then next following, again pass over 99 and take the case then next following, and so on. Another method would be to place in a bag cards bearing the series of numbers from 1 to 20,000 and to draw from the bag 206 cards in succession, shaking the bag between each pair of drawings. The numbers of the cards drawn would show what choice of cases from the complete series should be made, and any effect produced by the arrangement of the cases in a particular order, which might influence the result of the method of selection first named, would

tend to be avoided by the second procedure.

STATIUS

344

Random sampling has, as its object, as already stated, the securing of a comparatively small group possessing the same general characteristics. #.¢., showing the same proportions in which each special feature is present or absent, as the complete series of cases. This may, in some conditions, be secured more effectively by deliberate selection of instances in which a number of characteristics are distributed

in a manner

similar to that in which the same

Sources of Statistical Data.—In the work of administration the governments of most civilized countries are able to make ii haustive enumerations of various classes of events occurring within their territory. A few examples are:—the number of births

in successive weeks, months or years, the deaths in the same

periods, the causes of deaths and the sexes and ages of the persons dying, the amount of property or income serving as the basis of

characteristics are distributed in the mass from which the sample assessment to taxation of individual citizens, the value and quan. is taken. This involves, of course, that, in respect of the character- tity of each of various kinds of merchandise imported from or istics used as guides, available records exist covering the mass. exported to other countries during any determined interval of time Another mode of testing a sample in respect of its representative the numbers of various kinds of animals existing in the country at character is to divide it into two or more parts at random, and com- selected dates, the length of the roads maintained at the public pare the characteristics of the separate parts. Agreement between expense and of the railway tracks existing from time to time, the the parts is commonly taken as an indication that the sample is numbers of various kinds of vehicles for the use of which licences are required, the quantities of certain dutiable articles of food and representative in character, though such agreement, or its absence, is not a final test. To illustrate, suppose the special case of ran- drink on which duties are paid in successive months or years. From time to time, generally at intervals of ten years, the total dom samples of men of specified age from a defined race and number of persons of each sex, the age of each being also recorded, their and taken, men such 1,000 of locality. Suppose a sample characteristics examined: for example, their average height, median is ascertained for each administrative subdivision of the country height, the dispersion of these heights and other features of the and either simultaneously or on other, and possibly less frequent, distribution of heights may be determined. The process may be occasions the number of persons engaged in each principal classaf occupation is also generally ascertained. repeated for a second, third, etc., sample of 1,000 until we have Organizations of a private character, including corporate bodies, coneach samples 1,000 from derived results (say) 1,000 sets of sisting of 1,000 units. Taking one of the characteristics, say the obtain, like the public administrative bodies, much information for average height, we may examine 1,000 results from the separate their own guidance, some of which is made public. In some cases samples. It will almost certainly happen that these differ from there results an exhaustive enumeration of events of certain kinds one another but slightly as compared with the differences between occurring within the country, in other cases a series of more or the heights of the individuals in any one sample. But these less representative illustrations of what has happened is furnished, Thus the total weight of goods carried by railway may be availaverages would themselves generally possess a degree of variation, and their grouping according to their order of magnitude would able, while the quantities of gas, water or electricity supplied may furnish a frequency distribution having its own mean, median, only be made public by some of the undertakings supplying them, dispersion, etc. This latter distribution would, in fact, indicate and the extent to which the ascertained aggregates fall short of the actual aggregates supplied may be variable in a degree that cannot the degree of variability of the results obtained by sampling. be determined and may be of importance. The study of the mathematical theory relating to the problems In addition to the data arising out of the general administration thus illustrated furnishes estimates of the answers to such quesof a country, and those published by business organizations, tions as: what is the probability that the divergence of the mean value of a specified feature of the sample from the (unknown) statistical data may be obtained as the outcome of special enquiries by either of these classes of bodies or by private bodies or mean value of the same feature of the universe from which the sample is drawn shall not be greater than a specified amount? The persons. The latter class of data generally presents the characteranswers may be a guide to a decision on the questions of whether istic just referred to as affecting some of the data obtained by busiprocedure by sample is satisfactory, and what size of sample may ness organizations, namely, that an exhaustive enumeration covering the whole country is not secured. What is obtained is a record be desirable to justify the use of the sampling method. relating to a part, more or less typical of the whole so far as the derived data only because adopted is sample by When procedure from samples are procurable, the investigation of the entire mass matter under examination is concerned. The principles to which of cases being excluded, the use of methods aimed at securing attention was directed in the paragraphs relating to sampling (A. W.F.) that the samples are random or are representative is, generally if apply to the statistics thus secured. BrsriocGRapHy.—Herbert Spencer, Principles of Sociology (1877); not universally, not a matter for consideration. It is, therefore, M. Block, Traité théorique et pratique de statistique (1878) ; R. Mayoof the greatest importance to examine the conditions affecting the Smith, Science of Statistics (1895); A. L. Bowley, Elements of Statisselection of the sample. It may be found that some bias in the tics (1901, 5th ed., 1926); W. P. and E. M. Elderton, Primer of Staselection is unavoidable, while the extent to which that bias affects tistics (1910); H. Secrist, Introduction to Statistical Methods (NY. the results may not be capable of estimation. To apply to the 1917); J. Koren (editor), History of Statistics (N.Y., 1918); J. G. results of biassed sampling the tests and limitations determinable Frederick, Business Research and Statistics (N.Y., 1920) ; R. E. ChadPrinciples of Statistics (Boston, 1925); E. E. Day, Statistical by theory for the case of random sampling may lead to error. dock, Analysis (N.Y., 1925); R. W. Burgess, Introduction to the MatheThe relative stability of the relations between different groups matics of Statistics (Boston, 1927); G. U. Yule, Introduction to the of statistics relating to human communities and their organization Theory of Statistics (8th ed., 1927); R. A. Fisher, Statistical Methods was a feature that attracted attention at a very early stage of for Research Workers (and ed., 1928) ; see also, Journal of the Statististatistical enquiry. Changes in habits of masses of men are gener- cal Society (1893, in prog.). STATIUS, PUBLIUS PAPINIUS (ce. av. 45~96), Latin ally of slow development. The consequence is that any well ascertained sequence of phenomena in economics may be expected to poet, was born at Naples. His father was also a poet, and Statius be repeated, that is, the repetition of certain conditions may be ex- seems to have been trained as one from the start. Of events in the pected to be followed by consequences of a definite character. The life of Statius we know little. From his boyhood he was victorious underlying assumption is the permanence of the essential deter- in poetic contests—many times at his native city Naples, thrice mining features of the organism with whose manifestations we are at Alba, where he received the golden crown from the hand of the

concerned. The introduction of new conditions, not all of which may be obvious or ascertainable, may destroy that stability of relations on the faith of which future changes might be expected when observed conditions show particular mutual relations. Not only new conditions, but also the deviations from uniformity recognizable in the comparison of different samples of one and the same universe of phenomena, must be kept in mind in forming any judgment of the probable future based on observations of the course of events in the recent past.

emperor Domitian. But at the great Capitoline competition (probably on its third celebration in a.D. 94) Statius failed to win the coveted chaplet of oak leaves. Perhaps the emperor’s favour had failed him; in any case, he withdrew to Naples (Silv. iii. 5). The rôle of court poet seems to have suited Statius. His flattery is as far removed from the gentle propitiatory tone of Quintilian as it is from the coarse and crawling humiliation of Martial. It is in the large extravagant style of a nature in itself healthy and generous, which has accepted the theme and left scruples

STATUTE behind. In one of his prefatory epistles Statius declares that he never allowed any work of his to go forth without invoking the odhead of the divine emperor. Statius had taken the full measure of Domitian’s gross taste, and, presenting him with the rodomontade which he loved, puts conscience and sincerity out of view, lest some uneasy twinge should mar his master’s enjoyment.

As a poet, Statius unquestionably shines in many respects when compared with most other post-Augustans. He was born with

exceptional talent, and his poetic expression is, with all its faults, richer on the whole and less forced, more buoyant and more felicitous, than is to be found generally in the Silver Age of Latin poetry. Statius is at his best in his occasional verses, the Silvae, which have a character of their own, and in their best parts a

charm of their own. The subjects of the Silvae are very various.

Five poems are devoted to flattery of the emperor and his fayvourites; but of these enough has already been said. Six are lam-

entations for deaths, or consolations to survivors. Another group of the Silvae

give picturesque

descriptions

of the villas and

gardens of the poet’s friends. In the “Kalendae decembres” we

have a striking description of the gifts and amusements provided

by the emperor for the Roman population on the occasion of the Saturnalia. In his attempt at an epithalamium (Silv. i. 2) Statius is forced and unhappy. But his birthday ode in Lucan’s honour (Silv. ii. 7) has, along with the accustomed exaggeration, many powerful lines, and shows high appreciation of preceding Latin poets. Some phrases, such as “the untaught muse of high-souled Ennius” and “the lofty passion of sage Lucretius,” are familiar words with all scholars.

345

The list of English statutes as at present existing begins with the Statute of Merton, 1235. The earliest existing statute roll is 6 Edw. I. (the Statute of Gloucester). After 4 Hen. VII. the statute roll ceased to be made up, and enrolments in chancery

(first made in 1485) take its place. All statutes were originally public, irrespective of their subjectmatter.

The division into public and private dates from the reign

of Richard III. At present statutes are of four kinds, public general Acts, public local and personal Acts, private Acts printed by the king’s printers and private Acts not so printed. The division into public general and public local and personal rests upon a resolution of both houses of parliament in 1798. In 18125 a resolution was passed in accordance with which private Acts are printed, with the exception of name, estate, naturalization and divorce Acts. The last two are now practically superseded by changes in the law of divorce and nationality. Each Act is strictly but a chapter of the legislation of the session, which is regarded as composing a single Act divided into chapters for convenience, the chapters themselves being also called Acts. The citation of previous Acts is provided for by the Interpretation Act 1889 (s. 35). Every Act now contains a short title by which it may be cited, e.g., the Housing Act 1925. The Short Titles Act 1896 creates short titles for numerous single Acts and groups of Acts, and it is now usual to cite Acts and groups by their short

and collective titles rather than by the year of the reign. At com-

mon. law judicial notice is taken of all public Acts of parliament; the king’s printers’ copies of private and local and personal Acts are admitted as evidence without further proof under the EviThe epic poems of Statius are less interesting because cast in a dence Act 1845; private Acts not printed by the king’s printers commoner mould, but they deserve study in many respects. They are proved by an examined copy of the parliament roll. are the product of long elaboration. The Thebais, which the poet A public Act binds all subjects of the realm, and need not be says took 12 years to compose, is In 12 books, and has for its pleaded (except where the law from motives of policy specially theme the old “tale of Thebes”—the deadly strife of the Theban provides for pleading certain Acts, as in the defences of not brothers. There is also preserved a fragment of an Achillets, con- guilty by statute, the Statute of Frauds and the Statute of sisting of one book and part of another. In the weary length of Limitations). A private Act must generally be pleaded, and does these epics there are many flowers of pathos and many little not as a rule bind strangers to its provisions. Formerly an Act finished gem-pictures, but the trammels of tradition, the fash- took effect from the first day of the session in which it was passed. ionable taste and the narrow bars of education check continually The hardship caused by this technical rule was obviated by statute the poet’s flight. in 1793, since when an Act takes effect from the day on which it The editio princeps of the epics is dated 1470, of the Silvae 1472. receives the royal assent, where no other date is named. This Notable editions since have been those of Bernartius (Antwerp, 1595), has been held to mean the beginning of the day, so as to govern Gronovius (1633) and Barth (1664). Recent texts are the Teubner (the Achilleis and Thebais by Kohlmann, the Silvae by Baehrens) and all matters occurring on that day. An Act cannot in the strict that contained in the new edition of the Corpus poetarum latinorum; theory of English law become obsolete by disuse. Nothing short and of the Silvae only, texts by Klotz (1899), and Vollmer (1898), of repeal can limit its operation. The law has, however, been the last with an explanatory commentary. Among editions of por- interpreted in many cases with somewhat less rigour. In the case tions of Statius’s works, that of the Silvae by Markland (1728) of a prosecution for blasphemy in 1883 (R. v. Ramsay) Lord deserves special attention. A translation of the Silvae with introducColeridge said, “though the principles of law remain unchanged, tion and notes was published by D. A. Slater in 1908 (Oxford Library of Translations). A critical edition of the Thebais and Achilleis was yet (and it is one of the advantages of the common law) their begun by O. Miiller (Thebaid i—vi., Leipzig, 1870) but not completed. application is to be changed with the changing circumstances of For the poet’s life see Lehanneus, De P. P. Stati Vita et Operibus (La Rochelle, 1878); Riv. Fil. 35 (1907) 3. See also B. A. Wise, the times.” This would be applicable as much to the interpreInfluence of Statius upon Chaucer (Baltimore, 1911); W. A. Menite, tation of statutes as to other parts of the common law. The title, Notes on the Silvae (Univ. of California, 1918). (J.S.R.; X.) preamble and marginal notes are strictly no part of a statute, STATUTE, in English law, is a law made by the “sovereign though they may at times aid its interpretation; the same is true : power” in the State. (See Act oF PARLIAMENT.) It forms a part of punctuation and brackets. Besides the fourfold division above mentioned, statutes are of the lex scripta, which by English legal authorities is used solely for statutory law, a sense much narrower than it bore in often classed according to their subject-matter, as perpetual and Roman law. To make a statute the concurrence of the Crown and temporary, penal and beneficial, imperative and directory, enthe three estates of the realm is necessary. Thus a so-called abling and disabling. Temporary Acts expire at a date fixed in statute of 5 Ric. II. c. 5, directed against the Lollards, was after- the Act itself. Thus the Army Act is passed annually and conwards repudiated by the Commons as passed without their assent. tinues for a year, and the.London Traffic Act 1924 was to expire The validity of a statute was indeed at times claimed for ordi- at the end of 1928. By such provision experimental legislation is nances such as that just mentioned, not framed in accordance rendered possible where the success of a new departure in legiswith constitutional rule, and was actually given to royal proc- lation is doubtful. An annual Expiring Laws Continuance Act is

lamations by 31 Hen. VIII. c. 8 (1539). But this Act was re-

passed for the purpose of continuing (generally for a year) vari-

statute has possessed the force of a statute, except perhaps certain

proved value are then made permanent. Penal Acts are those which impose a new disability; beneficial, those which confer a new favour. An imperative statute (often negative or prohibitory in its terms) makes a certain Act or omission absolutely necessary, and subjects a contravention of its provisions to a penalty. A directory statute (generally affirmative in its terms) recom-

pealed by 1 Edw. VI. c. 12, and since that time nothing but a ous temporary Acts; the list is periodically revised and those of subordinate legislation

(“Statutory Rules and Orders”), the

making of which has been delegated by parliament to departments and other authorities (see also PROVISIONAL ORDER), and except

Church Assembly Measures passed under- the Church of England

Assembly (Powers) Act of rọrọ and presented for the royal assent after a favourable resolution of both houses of parliament.

mends a certain Act or omission, but imposes no penalty on non-

34.6

STATUTE

observance of its provisions. To determine whether an Act is in 1870, substituted 18 volumes for 118; a second edition, begun imperative or directory the Act itself must be looked at, and in 1886, contains the Acts from 1235 to 1900 in 20 volumes extended further by the Statute Law Revision Act of 1927, — many nice questions have arisen on the application of the rule The chief editions of the British statutes are the Statutes of the of law to a particular case. Enabling statutes are those which Realm printed by the king’s printers, Ruffhead’s and the fine folig it. restrict statutes disabling while law, enlarge the common edition issued from 1810 to 1824 in pursuance of an address from the Declaratory statutes, or those simply affirming the common law, once not uncommon, are at the present time practically unknown: the Treason Act is an example. Statutes are sometimes passed

in order to overrule specific decisions of the courts. Examples are the Territorial Waters Jurisdiction Act 1878, the Married Women’s Property Act 1893, the Trade Disputes Act 1906. Interpretation of Statutes.—The construction or interpretation of statutes depends partly on the common law, partly on statute. The main rules of the common law, as gathered from the best authorities, are these: (1) Statutes are to be construed, not according to their mere letter, but according to the intent and object with which they were made. (2) The relation of the statute to the common law is to be considered. In the words of the resolution of the court of exchequer in Heydon’s case, 3 Coke's

Rep. 7, the points for consideration are: “(a) What was the common law before the making of the Act? (b) What was the mischief and defect against which the common law did not provide? (c) What remedy the parliament hath resolved and appointed to cure the disease of the Commonwealth? (d) The true reason of the remedy.” (3) Beneficial or remedial statutes are to be liberally, penal more strictly, construed. (4) Other statutes in pari materia are to be taken into consideration. (5) A statute which treats of persons of inferior rank cannot by general words be extended to those of superior rank. (6) A statute does not bind the Crown, unless it be named therein. (7) Where the provision of a statute is general, everything necessary to make such

provision effectual is implied. (8) A later statute repeals an earlier, as far as the two are repugnant, but if they may stand

together repeal will not be presumed. (9) There is a presumption against creation of new or ousting of existing jurisdictions, against impairing obligations, against retrospective effect, against viola-

tion of international law, against monopolies, and in general against what is inconvenient or unreasonable.

(10) If a statute

House of Commons to George III. The safest authority is the Revised

Statutes.

Chitty’s selection of Statutes of Practical Utility is usefy

Earlier works on statute law include the readings and commentaries

on statutes by great lawyers, such as the second volume of Coke’;

Institutes, Bacon’s Reading on the Statute of Uses, Barrington’s Odser.

vations on the more ancient Statutes from Magna Carta to the 21 Jae I. c. 27 (sth ed., 1796), and the Introduction to Blackstone’s Commer.

taries. Among the later works are the treatises of Dwarris (2nd ed,

1848) and Maxwell (6th ed., 1920) and Craies (founded on Hard. castle) (3rd ed. 1923). On the interpretation of statutes, see Sir C. P. Tlbert, L sanie Methods and Forms (1901) and Mechanirs of Law-Making (1914); Sir H. Thring, Practical Legislation (1002), An official Index to Statutory Definitions (1923) is valuable for draftsmen. For bibliography of English Statutes see P. H. Winfield, Chief

Sources of English History

(1925).

For Revised Statutes see Lay

Quarterly Review (1929, p. 168). Statutory rules and orders are officially published by H.M.

annual volumes.

Stationery

Office both singly and in

i

Scotland.—The statutes of the Scottish parliament before the

union differed from the English statutes in two important respects: they were passed by the ẹstates of the kingdom sitting together and not in separate houses, and from 1367 to 1690 they were discussed only after preliminary consideration by the lords of the articles, a legislative committee. An Act of the Scottish parliament may in certain cases cease to be binding by desuetude. Acts of the imperial parliament which have been passed since the union extend in general to Scotland, unless that country be excluded from their operation by express terms or necessary implication.

Scottish Acts are cited thus, 1678, c, ro. An edition

was issued by order of the Treasury, 1844-75.

Scots Statutes

Revised (1707 ta 1900) in 10 volumes is a useful publication, Obsolete Acts from 1424 to 1707 were repealed by the Statute

Law Revision (Scotland) Act 1906. Treland.—Originally

the lord deputy appears to have held

parliaments at his option, and their Acts were the only statutory law which applied to Ireland, except as far as judicial decisions

inflicts a penalty, the penalty implies a prohibition of the Act or /had from motives of policy extended to that country the obligaomission to which the penalty is imposed. Whether the remedy tion of English statutes. In 1495 the Act of the Irish parliament given by statute is the only one depends on the words of the known as Poynings’ Law or the Statute of Drogheda enacted that particular Act. In some cases an action or an indictment will he; all statutes lately made in England be deemed good and effectual in others the statutory remedy, generally summary, takes the in Ireland. This was construed to mean that all statutes made in place of the common law remedy. In some instances the courts England prior to the 18 Hen. VIJ. were valid in Ireland, but none have construed the imposition of a penalty as operating not to of later date were to have any operation unless Ireland were invalidate a contract but to create a tax upon non-compliance specially named therein or unless adopted by the Irish parliament, with the terms of the statute. The Interpretation Act 1889 pro- as was done, for instance, by Yelverton’s Act, 21r and 22 Geo. III.

vides an authentic interpretation for numerous words and phrases of frequent occurrence in statutes.

The earlier Acis are generally simple in character and language, and comparatively few in number. At present the number

passed every session is substantial; for the session of 1925 there

c, 48 (I.). Another article of Poynings’ Law secured an initiative

of legislation to the English privy council, the Irish parliament having simply a power of acceptance or rejection of proposed legislation. The power of the parliament of Great Britain to make laws to bind the people of Ireland was declared by 6 Geo. I.

c. 5. This Act and the article of Poynings’ Law were repealed in 1782, and the short-lived independence of the parliament of Ireland was recognized by 23 Geo. III. c. 28. The application of Acts passed since the union is the same as in the case of Scotland. Irish Acts are cited thus, 26 Geo. III. c. rg (I.) or (Ir.). The statutes would be but a trackless desert without trustworthy best edition js that issued in 20 volumes pursuant to an order of guides, Revision of the statutes was evidently regarded by the the earl of Halifax, lord-lieutenant in 1762. A volume of revised legislature as desirable as early as 1563 (see the preamble to 5 statutes was published in 1885. The earliest that is still law is Eliz, c. 4.). It was demanded by a petition of the Commons in one of 1459. Since the constitutional changes in the Government 1610, Both Coke and Bacon were employed for some time on of Ireland, the Irish Free State passes Acts printed bilingually and

were gt general Acts (occupying over 1,800 pages in the official volumes) and 132 local and personal Acts. Without going as far as to concede with an eminent legal authority that of such legislation three-fourths is unnecessary and the other fourth mischievous, it may be admitted that the immense library of the

a commission for revision. In 1861 was passed the first of a long series of Statute Law Revision Acts. The most important action, however, was the nomination of a Statute Law Committee by Lord Chancellor Cairns in 1868, a body of experts in drafting and public administration, which continues to supervise the official

cited by year and number. The Northern Ireland legislation in form and citation resembles that of Westminster. British Colonies, Dominions and Dependencies.—Acts of

the imperial parliament do not extend to the Isle of Man, the Channel islands or the colonies, unless they are specially named publication of revised statutes and indexes to statutes and to therein. By the Colonial Laws Validity Act 1865 (“the charter statutory rules. A Chronological Table and Index of the Statutes of colonial legislative independence”) any colonial Jaw repugnant which are still law is annually published under the Committee’s to the provisions of any Act of parliament extending to the colony direction; the Table shows how far any enactment has been is void to the extent of such repugnancy, and no colonial law is repealed or amended, The first edition of Revised Statutes, begun to be void by repugnancy to the law of England unless it be re-

STATUTE + to such an Act of parliament. The 1865 Act is discussed

in the Summary of Proceedings of the Imperial Conference of which 1926 in its application to the self-governing dominions, for

their consent. the imperial parliament does not legislate without

For colonies without representative legislatures the Crown usually r cases. legislates, subject to the consent of parliament in particula are general in colonies the for n legislatio Examples of imperial

of Admiralty the Colonial Stock Act 1877, and the Colonial Courts in-

347

The fact that there are 49 different statute-making bodies in the

United States makes for an immense mass of legislation. Despite

the fact that most State legislatures have only biennial sessions, their legislative activity produces a vast number of statutes. The first thorough attempt to keep in touch with their activity by the mechanism of an index to State legislation was originated in 1928 by the Library of Congress. Periodic revisions of their statutes are made by each State but upon plans that lack any uniformity.

No revision of the statutes of the Federal Government was made until 1874. A second revision was accomplished in 1925. Statutes commonly take effect from the date that they receive s like the the executive assent. In some States constitutional provision Act 1900, and the South Africa Act 1909: these statutes, the expiration after until effective be not shall they that prescribe ce competen the Irish Free State Constitution Act 1922, deal with legislature shall the purposes of a certain time after their passage, unless the of the dominion legislature. A colony is defined for of such public urgency as to one is matter the that designate In 18. s. 1889, Act ation of imperial legislation by the Interpret ns of an Act of require their immediate operation. The result of these restrictio certain dominions like Canada, the constitutionality urgency an append to e legislatur the induce to for has been simply the colonial legislature is, as in the United States, a matter thus committee clause to each statute irrespective of its subject-matter and judicial the of or court local the of tion determina the restriction. Two other common cononal constituti the override of the privy council on appeal. stitutional provisions relative to statute-making ın the State Other Countries—In most European countries there is a legislatures deserve notice. To avert the process of “log-rolling” n code, the existence of which makes the system of legislatio or the inclusion of particular legislation in a general statute, the of two hardly comparable to that of Great Britain. The assent with more than State, is gen- Constitutions provide that no statute shall deal the of head other or president the of and chambers one subject, to be plainly and specifically expressed in the title erally necessaryto the act. The term “statute” is used by international jurists and civilians The legislation of the United States and its constituent States of body whole the denote to Europe of t continen mostly on the either is generally conceded to be in an unhappy state. Several signifithe municipal law of the State. In this sense statutes are for law cant reform movements are (1929) in progress. A movement the real, personal or mixed. A real statute is that part of with s organization bureaux, reference legislative of creation the imwhich deals directly with property, whether movable or the double purpose of offering expert help in the draughting of movable. A personal statute has for its object a person, and deals statutes and of affording to legislators information upon the with questions of status, such as marriage, legitimacy or infancy. subject matter of specific statutory proposals, was begun in Wisng A mixed statute affects both property and person, or, accordi l consin and has gained wide acceptance during the last 15 years. Persona ons. obligati and Acts with deals it ies, authorit some to Expert legislative draughtsmen are now attached to the Senaté statutes are of universal validity; real statutes have no extra- and House of the U.S. Congress and to a number of State legiswhich under class territorial authority. The determination of the in latures. A movement for introducing uniformity in the statutory a particular law ought to fall is one of great difficulty, and one laws of the several States was initiated by the organization of the which there is often a conflict of legal opinion. Commissioners on Uniform State Laws in 1892. They consist of M. H. by ed. See J. Story, Conflict of Laws (Boston, 1834; 8th ed., (2nd Law onal commissioners appointed by each State who meet annually to Bigelow, 1883) ss. 12-16; von Bar, Private Internati droit frame legislation on subjects upon which uniformity is believed Eng. trans. by Gillespie, 1892); A. Pillet, Traité PractiqueC. deT. C.) (J. Wu.; international privé (1924). essential and recommend its enactment by the various State legisUNITED STATES latures. Their most successful achievements have been in the of commercial law, though their endeavours have embraced the of field act an to confined Statute in American law is generally to apply subjects of wide variety. Similar efforts to promote uniformity legislature, though the term is occasionally used to abeen made by groups representing private interests and administr have of ns regulatio and rules the and municipal ordinances welfare organizations. Interpretation statutes upon the funce public legislativ tive agencies passed in the exercise of delegated been enacted in some States and the work Hons. The concurrence of the executive is demanded for the British model have also has brought some order and method in draughtsmen veto expert a of accorded is executive efficacy of the legislative act. The ng. over legislative action which can, however, be overridden by con- the process of statute-maki problem relates to the extent to American peculiar e. Another legislatur the of houses the in majority currence of a sufficient statute law. All courts are bound of e cognizanc take courts must which States United Any consideration of statute-making in the of the Federal laws and the statutes of the notice judicial does take to only Not nation. the of character Federal the mind bear in brought. But different doctrines are in force each of the 48 States possess statute-making powers for that State, State in which suit is they will take notice of the statute which to extent the but the national Government within the ambit of its delegated as to State courts have boldly asserted Some States. other of The law nation. the t throughou effective powers may pass statutes of such laws; others refuse to notice take to s willingnes which their by device of judicial review over legislation is the scheme pleaded or proved, in despecially are they unless conflict between the various statutes is resolved. As the supreme recognize them other State is identical the of law the that assuming thereof the fault of laws and treaties ion, law of the land stand the Constitut law. statutory or decisional their with United States, and State statutes passed in contravention of them either Statutes have different forms, being either acts of the legislature are unenforceable. Not only are State and the lower Federal joint or concurrent resolutions of both houses of the legislature. or ing contraven courts obliged to refuse to enforce a State statute must secure the approval of the executive. Federal constitutional or statutory law, but by providing for an In each instance they subject-matter is alternately dealt with same the cases many In statutes State of appeal to the U.S. Supreme Court, the validity Treaties of the national Government statutes. of forms both can be brought for judgment to that ultimate tribunal. The by stand on a parity with them. Like and eternal have the force of statutes Supreme Court thus occupies the position of arbiter in the law of the land” and supersede “supreme the are they statutes comalso conflict between States and nation. State statutes must as a subsequent statute may reJust n. legislatio final | conflicting State ply with the provisions of the State Constitution but the repeals an earlier treaty. States statute later a one, earlier an peal not and court supreme arbiter of their compliance is the State but may make compacts with treaties conclude to the U.S. Supreme Court. (See CONSTITUTION AND CONSTITU- are forbidden

s Act 1890. Imperial Acts dealing with particular dominion British North clude the New Zealand Constitution Act 1852, the America Act 1867, the Commonwealth of Australia Constitution

TIONAL Law.)

State statutes in violation of the State or Federal

Constitution are void, but State statutes contravening Federal statutes are suspended during the operation of the latter.

one another with the assent of Congress.

Such compacts also

instrument have the effect of statutes. They have been used as an

a of statecraft to deal effectively with problems that demand

STATUTORY

348

RULES

AND

ORDERS—STAVANGER

STAUNTON, a city of Macoupin county, Ilinois, U.S.A regional treatment greater than a single State can give and yet 42 m. N.E. of Saint Louis. It is on Federal highway 66, and L less than is desirable for nation-wide control. Codification on an analogy to the European systems began as a served by the Wabash and the Illinois Traction (electric) rail movement in 1848, the date of the adoption of the Field Code in ways, and for freight also by the Chicago and North Wester and New York. That code was limited to an attempt to recognize the Litchfield and Madison. Pop. 4,618 in 1930. and simplify procedural law. A similar programme for the codiSTAUNTON (stan’ton), a city of Virginia, U.S.A, 1138: fication of the substantive law was initiated by the same sponsor, ft. above sea-level, in the heart of the beautiful and fertile David Dudley Field, but failed of adoption. Procedural and sub- Shenandoah valley, 135 m. N.W. of Richmond; the county seat stantive codes on the model of the Field Code were, however, of Augusta county, but administratively independent of it, Ttis adopted in numerous States. The merits and demerits of a codi- on Federal highway rr and is served by the Baltimore and Ohio fication in statutory form of the procedural and substantive law and the Chesapeake and Ohio railways. Pop. 10,623 in 1920, 17%, became a heated matter of professional controversy during the negroes; 11,990 in 1930 by the Federal census. It is a city of latter part of the 19th century. The controversy has not yet beautiful residences and numerous schools and institutions abated. The hopes of the codifiers of remodelling the common law The manse of the First Presbyterian church was the birthplace on lines akin to the civil law systems have not been realized. and childhood home of Woodrow Wilson. About 20 m. S. of the Judges imbued with the common law training and technique have city is the homestead of Cyrus McCormick, where he invented continued to handle codifications as mere statutes and not as the reaper. Within 50 m. are five great caverns, Natural Bridge. ultimate sources of the law in the manner of the civilians. The and other points of interest. Just east of the city is a national “code States” are thus common law jurisdictions to the same cemetery, and west of it a Confederate cemetery. Staunton was extent as the other States. the first city in America to adopt a city-manager form of governSee Freund, Standards of American Legislation (1917); Reinsch, American Legislatures and Legislative Methods (1913) ; Willard, Legislative Handbook (1890); Jones, Statute Law Making in the United

States

(1912);

Sutherland,

Statutes

and

Statutory

Construction

(1904); Black, Handbook on the Construction and Interpretation of the Laws (1911); Clarke, Science of Law and Lawmaking (1898); Brown, Underlying Principles of Modern Legislation - a oe

STATUTORY RULES AND ORDERS. The British parliament being a sovereign body, its acts cannot be challenged as ultra vires. “Statutory rules and orders,” not passed directly by parliament but made under delegated powers, have no such immunity. Occasionally a statute, when authorizing such delegations, directs that the resultant rules, regulations or orders shall “have effect as if enacted in this Act.” These words, formerly used by draftsmen when annexing schedules to statutes, may place the rules and orders beyond challenge (Patent Agents Institute v. Lockwood, 1894, A.C. 347), but normally the law courts will vigilantly examine the departmental exercise of legislative power. Law-making by statutory rules and orders was immensely extended during the World War, under the Defence of the Realm Acts, and is authorized by the Emergency Powers Act of 1920, when the community requires special protection. The pressure upon parliamentary time is developing a system by which Acts contain bare principles of law, and the clothing of the skeleton is left to subordinate rule-making. The making of rules of procedure in various courts or Orders in Council (see Privy Counc) to bring Acts into effect on appointed days are well-known instances of such delegated legislation. Special provisions exist for the publication of draft rules (see especially the limited effect of s. 1 of the Rules Publication Act, 1893), for consultation with interests concerned, for control by parliament, and for the promulgation of all subordinate legislation when finally made. The extremely limited and unsatisfactory character of parliamentary control over this delegation of its powers, and the fact that the enabling statute itself often excludes control by the courts, has given rise to repeated demands, both in and out of parliament, that some means shall be devised of restoring the control alike of parliament and the courts over the exercise of this legislative power by government departments. As a result of this agitation, a Committee was appointed by the Lord Chancellor in the autumn of 1929 to explore and report upon the situation. See C. T. Carr, Delegated Legislation (1921); J. H. Morgan, Remedies against the Crowm (1926); Lord Justice Sankey, Principles and Practice of the Law To-day (1928). (C. T.C.)

STAUNTON,

HOWARD

(1810-1874), English Shake-

spearian scholar and writer on chess, supposed to have been a natural son of Frederic Howard, fifth earl of Carlisle, was born in 1810. As a Shakespearian commentator he showed the qualities of acuteness and caution which made him excel in chess. In 1864 he published a facsimile of the Shakespeare folio of 1623, and a facsimile edition of Much Ado about Nothing, photolithographed from the quarto of 1600. He died on June 22, 1874.

ment (1908). The first settlement in the vicinity was made in 1731, 2 mE. of the present city. A county court-house was built in 1745, and

the name Staunton (the family name of the wife of Sir William Gooch) was adopted about 1748. In 1781, when Col. Tarleton

drove the general assembly of Virginia across the Blue Ridge,

they took refuge here, holding their sessions for a time in the old

Trinity Episcopal church. During the Civil War Staunton was an important supply-base for the army of northern Virginia and for Jackson’s Valley campaign, and it was twice occupied by Federal troops. It was chartered as a city in 1870.

STAUROLITE, a mineral consisting of basic aluminium and

ferrous iron silicate with the formula HFeAI;Si,O;3. The material

is, however, usually very impure, the crystals enclosing sometimes as much as 30 or 40% of quartz and other minerals as well as carbonaceous matter. Crystals are orthorhombic and have the form of six-sided prisms. Interpenetrating cruciform twinned crystals are very common and characteristic; they were early known as

pierres de croix or lapis crucifer, and the name staurolite has the same meaning (Greek, oravpés, a cross, and Aidos, a stone). In fig. 1 the twin-plane is (032) and the two prisms intercross

FIGS. 1 & 2.—TWIN

CRYSTALS

OF STAUROLITE

at an angle of 91° 22’; in fig. 2 the twin-plane is (232) and the prisms intercross at nearly 60°. The mineral is translucent to opaque and dark reddish-brown in colour. Waterworn pebbles of material sufficiently transparent for cutting as gem-stones are occasionally found in the diamantiferous sands of Brazil. The hardness is 7-5, specific gravity 3-75. Staurolite is a characteristic

mineral of crystalline schists, and it is also a product of contactmetamorphism. : (L. J. S.)

STAVANGER,

a seaport of Norway, capital of Stavanger

amt (county), on the west coast on the Bukken fjord. Pop. (1921) 46,822. The town is one of the oldest in Norway, founded in the 8th or oth century, but the greater part of the present town is modern and built of stone. It became the seat of a bishopric in the 13th century, and though the see was removed to Christian-

STAVELEY—STEAM

349

constitute a visible cloud. Any mixture of steam with water, swithun, founded by the English bishop Reinald at the end of the whether in such a cloud or in the working chamber of an engme

sand in 1685, it was restored in 1925. The cathedral church of St.

ith century, and rebuilt after being burned in 1272, is, next to the cathedral of Trondhjem, the most interesting stone church in Norway. The old episcopal palace of Kongsgaard is now a

Latin school. The fisheries are important—for herring, mackerel, sprats, cod, salmon, lobsters and anchovies. The extraordinary

growth of Stavanger during the last half century is mainly due to the development of its fish-canning industry. Other industries sre the making of iodine from seaweed, and shipbuilding.

STAVELEY, town, in the north-eastern parliamentary division of Derbyshire, England, 12 m. S.E. of Sheffield, on the L.M.S. ind L.N_E. railways. Pop. (1921) 12,646. It lies in the valley of the Rother, in a populous industrial district.

STAVELOT, town on the Amblève, province of Liége, Belgium. Pop. (1925) 5,724. Here Charles Martel gained a signal victory over Neustria in 719. The prince-abbot of the monastery of Stavelot (established 7th century) exercised secular author-

ity over many towns in the Ambléve and Warche valleys, including Malmédy, and had a seat in the old German Diet.

STAVROPOL, a former government of Russia, now in the

Caucasian Area, North (g.v.).

STAVROPOL,

a town of Russia, in the North Caucasian

or turbine, is often spoken of as wet steam. Its properties are most conveniently described by imagining an experiment in which steam is formed by applying heat to a small quantity of water contained at the bottom

of a large upright

cylindrical vessel. Suppose that the vessel is fitted with a piston which rests on the water to begin with and can rise when the fluid below it is made to change from water into steam by applying heat. Imagine further that the piston is frictionless and carries a definite weight so that, as the piston rises, the fluid continues to be subjected to a constant pressure, say, ~ lb. per square inch. Saturated Steam.—When heat is applied, no steam is formed until the temperature of the water is raised to a value T which depends on p. Steam then forms, raising the piston, and this goes on without further rise of temperature until all the water is converted into steam, when it occupies a certain volume V. During this stage the steam is said to be saturated. T is the temperature of saturation corresponding to the pressure p, and is the lowest temperature at which steam can exist in stable equilibrium at that pressure.

Superheated Steam.—Suppose now, after all the water has

turned into steam, that we go on applying heat. The temperature will rise and the volume will increase beyond V if we keep p confrom Rostov-on-Don passes through it. Pop. (1926) 57,488. The stant, or the pressure will increase beyond p if we then fix the town has textile and oil-pressing factories and manufactures agri- piston so as to keep V constant. In either case the steam is said cultural machinery. It Is a centre for Armenian, Georgian and to be superheated. Steam is superheated when its temperature is raised in any Persian trade. STAWELL, a municipality of Borung county, Victoria, Aus- manner to a value which exceeds the temperature of saturation tralia, 179 m. by rail W.N.W. of Melbourne. Pop. (1921) 4,413. corresponding to the actual pressure. Thus for example steam The quartz reefs of the Pleasant Creek goldfields near the town may change from the saturated to the superheated condition by being compressed (without loss of heat), or by passing (without are worked at very deep levels and there are cyanide plants. STEAD, WILLIAM THOMAS (1849-1912), English loss of heat) through a throttle valve into a region of lower journalist, was born at Embleton, Northumberland, on July 5, pressure. When steam is so “throttled” its temperature falls to 1849, the son of a Congregational minister. He was early appren- some extent, but remains higher than the temperature of saturaticed in a merchant’s office at Newcastle-on-Tyne; he soon gravi- tion corresponding to the reduced pressure. Properties of Steam: Callendar’s Tables.—The physical tated, however, into journalism, and in 1871 became editor of the Darlington Northern Echo. In 1880 he went to London to properties of steam have been the subject of systematic experibe assistant editor of the Pall Mall Gazette under John Morley, mental enquiry by Regnault and many later observers. Our and when the latter retired he became editor (1883-1889). Up modern knowledge of them is largely due to H. L. Callendar who, to 1885 he had distinguished himself for his vigorous handling with the help of formulas the basis of which is partly theoretical of public affairs, and his brilliant modernity in the presentation and partly empirical, has rationalized the experimental data and of news. He introduced the “interview,” made a feature of the has compiled comprehensive tables for the use of engineers Pall Mall “extras” (see also NEWSPAPERS: London), and his Callendar’s tables, published in 1915 and in an enlarged form in enterprise and originality exercised a potent influence on con- 1924, set forth all the important properties throughout a suitable temporary journalism and politics. In 1885 he entered upon a range of pressures and temperatures. From the principles of crusade against vice by publishing a series of articies on the thermodynamics (q.v.) it is known that certain relations hold “Maiden Tribute of Modern Babylon.” Though his action un- between various properties, In steam or any other vapour; the doubtedly furthered the passing of the Criminal Law Amendment values stated by Callendar, besides being founded on the best Act, it made his position on the paper impossible; and he was available data, are consistent with these relations. They apply imprisoned in Holloway gaol for three months on a charge aris- to the superheated as well as to the saturated state; saturation ing out of his crusade. On leaving the Pall Mall he founded the is to be regarded as only a limiting case. monthly Review of Reviews (1890). He started cheap reprints So long as steam is saturated the relation of temperature to (Penny Poets and Prose Classics, etc.), conducted a spiritualistic pressure is definite. But steam may be superheated to any temperorgan, called Borderland (1893-1897), in which he gave full play ature above the saturation temperature at which it is formed in to his interest in psychical research; and became an enthusiastic the boiling of water, and the temperature then becomes an indesupporter of the peace movement, and of many other movements, pendent variable. This affects certain other properties with which popular and unpopular. He wrote with facility and sensational the steam engineer is concerned, namely :— fervour on all sorts of subjects, from The Truth about Russia The volume V, Area, in 45° N., 41° 58’ E., situated on a plateau 2,030 ft. above sea-level, on the northern slope of the Caucasus. The railway

(1888) to If Christ came

to Chicago

(1893), and from Mrs.

Booth (1900) to The Americanization of the World (1902). In

private life his keen sense of merit and kindly interest influenced many aspirants to journalism and literature. Stead went down in

the “Titanic” on April 15, 1912.

See Life of W. T. Stead (1913), by his daughter; and F. Whyte, Lije of W. T. Stead (1925).

_ STEAM, the vapour of water. In the pure state it is a dry invisible gas. Often, however, as in a jet escaping from the spout of a kettle or the funnel of a locomotive, it is mixed with minute

particles of water which are produced by condensation of portions

of the gas. In such a mixture the suspended particles of water

The internal energy E, The total heat J, The entropy ¢,

all of which are to be reckoned per lb. of the substance.

Each

of these quantities has a definite value for steam or for water in any assigned state of pressure and temperature. Steam tables usually follow a convention, according to which quantities such as the energy or the entropy are treated as zero for water at o° C; the tabulated numerical value accordingly expresses the amount by which the quantity in question has changed when the substance passes from that zero condition to the actual state. Internal Energy.—When steam is formed (starting, say, from

350

STEAM

ACCUMULATORS

the state of water at o° C) heat is taken in, and some external work is done by the expansion of the substance. The difference, which depends simply on the final state and not on the manner of formation, is called the internal energy E. Total Heat.—The total heat J is conveniently defined by the equation l=E-APY, where P and F are respectively the pressure and volume of the substance, and 4 is a factor which converts units of work into

units of heat. Hence when the substance is heated under constant pressure the change of J is measured by the quantity of heat that is taken in, for it is then equal to the gain of internal energy plus the work done. In a process of throttling it is easy to show that J does not change, provided there is no loss of heat to other bodies. Entropy.—To define entropy, it may be said that when the substance takes in heat in a reversible manner (namely a manner which excludes the existence of any turbulent movement) its entropy changes by the amount g where Q is the heat taken in

which condensation should occur, it is found, when no nucle} are present about which water droplets may form, that the temperature may fall some way below the temperature of sary.

ration before condensation begins. A temporary and unstable state

may accordingly be produced, called super-saturation. The vapour in this condition may be described as supercooled: its State js

analogous to that of a liquid cooled below its melting point with.

out crystallization. Water-vapour in Air.—Water vapour is one of the constitu. ents of the atmosphere, the proportion depending not only on the

temperature but on other causes which affect local dryness. At any given temperature air is said to be saturated with Water vapour when the proportion present is such as to exert a Partial

pressure equal to the pressure of saturation corresponding to the given temperature. Any excess tends to be thrown out as

mist or rain: any less quantity than that required for saturation is held as an invisible constituent, namely, in the state of Superheated steam. The quantity of water-vapour present in air may

be expressed as a fraction of the quantity which would cause

saturation: this fraction is called the “relative humidity” of the and T is the temperature (on the absolute scale) at which it is air. The “dew-point” is the temperature to which air must be taken in. If T is itself changing while the heat is being taken in, cooled to allow a deposit of water to take place. Air is often dried for industrial uses by cooling it to a very we must write this change of entropy as f- - Thus when steam low temperature. This causes it to deposit nearly all its contained moisture, which is then drained away, leaving only the trifling is formed in a quietly steaming boiler, at a constant temperature quantity that suffices to produce saturation at the low temperaT, from water at the same temperature, the entropy ¢ changes by ture. When the air returns to normal temperature without taking the quantity $» where L is the “latent heat.” Like the other quan- up more water its relative humidity is very small. tities, the entropy of water at o° C is reckoned as zero for convenience in tabulation. Both the entropy of steam and the total heat are quantities of great importance in the theory of the steam-

engine (q.v.).

Critical Temperature.—Imagine a quantity of superheated steam at any usual temperature to be compressed while the temperature is kept constant. When the pressure reaches a certain value condensation begins, and we are then dealing with a substance which is partly water and partly saturated steam. The pressure in question is that which corresponds to saturation at the assumed constant temperature. This pressure will not rise further until all is condensed: after that the pressure on the water may of

course be increased to any extent. The process is discontinuous, with three distinct stages. Suppose this experiment to be repeated at various temperatures: it will be found that when the temperature is sufficiently high there is no stage during which both water and steam are present together. When this temperature is reached or exceeded, the substance passes, as its pressure is increased, from the condition of steam to that of water—from vapour to liquid—in a continuous manner without ever being a mixture of the two. The lowest temperature at which this can happen is called the critical Temperature, and the limit of pressure above which the substance cannot exist as a non-homo-

geneous mixture of liquid and vapour is called the critical Pressure. These conditions of pressure and temperature constitute the “critical point.” The critical temperature of steam is about 374° C and the critical pressure about 3,158 Ib. per square inch, The properties of steam in the neighbourhood of the critical point are less exactly known than at lower and more usual pressures. The “characteristic equation” on which Callendar founds many of his tabulated values applies with sufficient exactness within the lower range of pressures commonly met with in engineering practice. It takes the form V =

=~—c+b,

where V is the volume (per Ib.), T is the absolute temperature,

P is the pressure, R is a constant relating to the ideal volume of a “perfect” gas, b is a constant which expresses the additional volume of the molecules, and c is a term, depending on the temperature, which expresses the loss of volume through “coaggregation” or temporary association of molecules. The equation is applicable to thé superheated as well as the saturated state.

Super-saturation.—When steam is cooled to a temperature at

See Regnault, in Mém. Inst. France (1847, Vol. XXI.) ; H. L. Callendar, Properties of Steam (1920), and The Callendar Steam Tables (1915); J. A. Ewing, Thermodynamics for Engineers E T

STEAM

ACCUMULATORS

are devices for ‘equalizing

steam flow and steam demand. They are inserted between the source of steam supply and the point where it is used for the purpose of absorbing steam at times of low demand and releasing it when needed; several types have been developed. One of the earliest was the Rateau accumulator or regenerator. Its primary purpose was to utilize the intermittent exhaust from ptime movers— such as steel rolling-mill engines—for driving low-pressure turbines carrying a fairly constant load; installed in the steam line between these two units, it served to equalize supply and demand, the turbine governor being designed to admit live steam when necessary. Another type is the Smoot accumulator, designed primarily for use in gas manufacturing plants. It collects, or accumulates, in a steel tank the exhaust from pumps and auxiliaries and from the

BY COURTESY

OF

AMERICAN

SOCIETY

OF

MECHANICAL

ENGINEERS

FIG. 1.—MECHANICAL DRAWING OF A COMPLETE ACCUMULATOR INSTALLATION hot-water drips; by decreasing the pressure in this tank steam is

made available for the intermittent operation of the water-gas

apparatus, and deficiency in supply is taken care of byalive steam “make-up” valve. The latest development is known as the Ruths steam accumulator, and while it operates on the same general principle as the others, it has been applied over a wider field of usefulness. Specially designed governor valves make its operation entirely automatic up to 200 Ib. per sq.in. and through greater pressure ranges (fig. 1). The tank A is filled with water to 9o% of its capacity, and the regulating valves V-r and V-2

automatically control the charging and discharging of the accumv-

STEAM-CHEST—STEAM tor, The accumulator must be placed between the high and the

low pressure steam line, and its pressure varies between these

mits; accumulated steam is made available by the regulating valves in such a way as to maintain uniform steam pressures in the low pressure steam lines. Any steam generated by the boilers

and not used by the high pressure consumers overflows through valve V-r into the accumulator. Y-2 maintains a uniform presif the sure in the line P carrying the low pressure steam, so that

valve V'-r is passing more steam than is required in the low pressure line, the excess is stored in the accumulator. Charging nozzles

G are equipped with circulating pipes H which permit a uniform and noiseless heating of the water. Should a sudden demand for

high pressure steam arise the boiler pressure would drop slightly,

y-r would close and a certain amount of steam would become

available at or near this higher pressure.

This diversion to the

high pressure line of steam intended for the lower pressures would

ENGINE

351

wide range through which the temperature of the working substance falls, as a consequence of expansion within the engine, from the level of temperature at which heat is received to the level at which heat is rejected. Thus in the steam engine the most efficient performance, that is to say the greatest output of work in relation to the heat supplied, is secured by keeping the condenser as cold as the available

cooling water will allow, and at

the same time using a high boiler pressure, so that the working substance is very hot while it receives heat in the act of changing from water into steam. For this reason, modern practice tends towards higher and higher boiler pressures, as the mechanical difficulties of boiler construction and high pressure working are

overcome. After conversion into steam the working substance may take in a supplementary supply of heat on its way from the boiler to the engine, by passing through a superheater, in which its tem-

cause a deficit in the low pressure line. V-2 would then open and the heat energy previously stored in the accumulator would

perature is raised above that of the boiler. A common form of superheater is a group of parallel pipes with their surfaces exposed to hot gases of the boiler furnace. Steam engines are classified into two general types according to

the flow through V-r not sufficient, the accumulator would sup-

the manner in which the steam does work during its expansion. In

instantly flash into steam to meet this deficit. Should the sudden increase in demand be caused by low pressure consumption and ply it. (R. A. L.) STEAM-CHEST is a box cast on or attached to the side of a steam cylinder, and containing the slide-valve which slides over the steam and exhaust ports, and uncovers these in turn. A stuffingbox maintains the valve-rod steam-tight.

Some engines have two

valves, one sliding upon the top of the other, for the purpose of

giving expansive working of the steam. Cylindrical or piston valves

are used extensively in marine and locomotive cylinders, as they

give a balanced effect all around.

In locomotive practice these

valves have to be placed above the cylinders in many cases for reasons of design.

the first, or piston-and-cylinder type, the steam, in a confined space, namely the part of the cylinder behind the piston, enlarges the volume of that space by pushing the piston forward. It does work by exerting a static pressure on the moving piston: the movement of the steam itself is of no significance. In the second class, to which belong all kinds of steam turbines, the

action is less direct. The pressure of the steam is first employed to set the steam itself into motion, forming a jet or group of jets, the momentum of which causes work to be done on a moving

part of the machine, either by the impulsive action of the jet or jets on revolving vanes, or by the reaction on revolving guideblades during the formation of the jets, or, as in Parsons’ turbine, by a combination of impulse and reaction. In any turbine

STEAM COAL: see Coar ann Coar MINING. STEAM ENGINE. A steam engine is a heat engine in the action of the steam is kinetic, in contrast with its static action which the working substance is steam. By a heat engine is meant

a machine for doing mechanical work through the agency of heat: it does this by taking in heat at comparatively high temperature, converting part of the heat into another form of energy, and rejecting the remainder of the heat at a lower temperature. The working substance is the vehicle by which heat is taken in and rejected. In a steam engine, the substance takes in heat mainly in a separate vessel—the boiler—in the process of being vaporized; it does work by expanding under pressure and thereby con-

in an engine of the piston type. In both types there is progressive expansion of the steam from the high pressure and relatively small volume at which it is admitted, to the low pressure and relatively

very great volume at which it is discharged. The principle already stated, that a large range of temperature and pressure, between admission and exhaust, is essential to efficiency applies equally

to both types. In practice, the turbine has‘a notable advantage

over the piston-and-cylinder engine in this respect, that it allows

the last stages of the expansion, when the volume of the steam verts part of the heat that is taken in; finally the remainder of has become very great, to be effectively utilised, to a degree which the heat is rejected, either by allowing the steam to escape into is impracticable in the other type, because of the enormous size the atmosphere, as in locomotives, or by condensing it at a com- which the cylinder would have to assume and the waste of work paratively low temperature and pressure, as in marine and many that would be caused by piston friction, if the steam were exother engines. This gives a broad distinction between non-con- panded down to a very low pressure by the piston method. The densing and condensing steam engines. The latter have the great turbine method escapes these difficulties: mainly for that reason

advantage that they allow the effective expansion of the steam to be carried much farther; the substance rejects heat at a lower limit of temperature, and this enables the engine to convert into work a larger fraction of the heat which it has received, That fraction expresses what is called the efficiency of the engine as a contriv-

ance for converting heat into work. The addition of a condenser, while it increases the efficiency, of course complicates the mechanism: it requires a supply of cooling water or some equivalent means of keeping down the temperature by absorbing the heat which the steam gives up in the act of being condensed, and also

it has become the most efficient way of converting heat into work, on a large scale, through the agency of steam. It has further advantages in compactness, in simplicity of working, and in the facility with which it can be adapted to take steam of exceptionally

high initial pressure and high superheat. HISTORICAL

In any historical sketch of the steam-engine, stress must be laid on the work of James Watt. But a process of evolution had been going on before his time which prepared a crude and primi-

tive device for the immense improvements it received at his hands. The labours of Watt stand in natural sequence to those of which it brings about in respect of efficiency is so great that all Newcomen, and Newcomen’s to those of Papin and Savery. Savengines of large power, where economy of fuel is an important ery’s engine, In its turn, was the reduction to practical form of factor, and where the use of a condenser is practicable, are of an ancient scientific toy. Along another line of development, the | modern steam turbine, which we owe to the genius of Charles the condensing kind. ` Given the upper limit of temperature, at which heat is taken Parsons, can be traced back to an early prototype. in, the efficiency which the engine may attain is determined by the | In the Pneumatica of Hero of Alexandria (c. 130 B.c.) there is lowness of the temperature at which heat is rejected. Similarly, described the aeolipile, which may be called a primitive steam when the lower limit of temperature, at which heat is rejected, reaction turbine, It consists of a hollow glabe pivoted so that is assigned, the efficiency which the engine may attain is in- it can turn on a pair of central trunnions, and supplied with steam creased by raising the temperature at which the working sub- through one of them, which is hollow. The steam escapes from stance takes in heat. To secure high efficiency there must be a the globe to the outside air through two bent pipes facing tana pump or other means of removing the condensed substance together with any air that may be present. But the advantage

ENGINE

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gentially in opposite directions at the ends of a diameter perpendicular to the axis. The globe revolves by reaction from the escaping steam. Hero's volume also mentions (Greenwood’s translation of Hero’s Pneumatica) another device which may be described as the prototype of the pressure engine. A hollow altar containing air is heated by kindling a fire on it; the air expands and by its pressure drives some of the water in a vessel below into a hanging bucket, which then descends, opening the doors of a shrine. When the fire is extinguished the air contracts, the

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boiler and vessels could bear. Pressures as high as 8 or toatmospheres were employed—and that, too, without a safety-valve —but Savery found it no easy matter to deal with high-pressure steam. Apart from this drawback, the waste of fuel was enormous, from the condensation of steam which took place on the surface of the water and on the sides of the displacement-chamber at each operation; the consumption of coal was, in proportion to the work done, some twenty times greater than in a modern engine, Before Savery’s engine was displaced by its successor, Newbucket empties, and the doors close. comen’s, it was improved by J. T. Desaguliers who applied to In a treatise on pneumatics (1601) by Giovanni Battista della the safety valve (invented by Papin), and substituted condensaPorta there is shown a somewhat similar apparatus, but with tion by a jet of cold water within the vessel for the surface consteam for working substance. Its pressure forces up water from densation used by Savery. To Savery is ascribed the first use a separate vessel. He also points out that the condensation of of the term “horse-power” as a measure of performance. the steam may be used to produce a vacuum and thereby suck up In 1690 Denis Papin suggested that the condensation of steam water from a lower vessel. His suggestions go far to anticipate should be employed to make a vacuum under a piston previously the engine which, a century later, in the hands of Savery, became raised by the expansion of the steam. Papin’s was the earliest the first commercially successful steam engine. cylinder and piston steam engine, and his plan of using steam was Meanwhile Edward Somerset, second Marquis of Worcester, that which afterwards took practical shape in the atmospheric described in his Century of Inventions (1663) a method of rais- i engine of Newcomen. But his scheme was made unworkable by ing water by the agency of steam. His description is obscure, and the fact that he proposed to use but one vessel as both boiler and no drawings of the device are extant. It appears to have consisted cylinder. A small quantity of water was placed at the bottom of of a pair of displacement chambers, from each of which alter- a cylinder and heat was applied. When the piston had risen the nately water was forced, probably by admitting steam from an fire was removed, the steam was allowed to cool, and the piston independent boiler, while the other vessel was allowed to refill. did work in its down-stroke under the pressure of the atmosphere. Savery, 1698.—The earliest steam-engine to take a practical After hearing of Savery’s engine in 1705 Papin turned his attenform and find employment in industry was that of Thomas Savery, tion to improving it, and devised a modified form, with a floating who, in 1698, obtained a patent for a water-raising engine, shown diaphragm or piston on the top of the water to keep the water in fig. I. Steam is admitted to one of the oval vessels A, dis- and steam from direct contact with one another. Papin’s engine placing water, which it drives up through the check-valve B. may be described as a non-condensing single-acting steam pump, When the vessel A is emptied of water the supply of steam is with steam cylinder and pump cylinder in one. stopped, and the steam already there is condensed by allowing a Newcomen’s Atmospheric Engine, 1705.—While Papin was jet of cold water from a cistern above to stream over the outer thus going back from his first notion of a piston engine to Savsurface of the vessel. This produces a vacuum and causes water ery’s cruder type, a new inventor had appeared who made the to be sucked up through the pipe C and the valve D. Meanwhile piston engine a practical success by separating the boiler from steam has been displacing water from the other vessel, and is the cylinder and by using (as Savery had done) artificial means ready to be condensed there. The valves B and D open only up- to condense the steam. This was Thomas Newcomen, who in wards. The supplementary boiler and furnace Æ are for feeding 1705, with his assistant, John Cawley, gave the steam engine the water to the main boiler; Æ is lled while cold and a fire is lighted form shown in fig. 2. Steam admitted from the boiler to the cylunder it; it then forces a supply of feeding-water into the main inder by the opening of a valve allowed the piston to be raised by boiler F. The gauge cocks G, G are an interesting detail. An- a heavy counterpoise on the other side of the beam. Then the other furm of Savery’s engine had only one displacement-cham- steam valve was shut and a jet of cold water entered the cylinder ber and worked intermittently. In the use of artificial means to and condensed the steam. The piston was consequently forced condense the steam, and in the application of the vacuum so | down by the pressure of the atmosphere and did work on the formed to raise water by suction from a level lower than that of pump. The next entry of steam expelled the condensed water the engine, as weil as in practical features, Savery’s engine marked from the cylinder through an escape valve. The piston was kept an inventive advance. It found considerable employment in tight by a layer of water on its upper surface. Condensation was pumping mines and in raising water to supply houses and towns, at first effected by cooling the outside of the cylinder, but an and even to drive water-wheels. A serious difficulty which pre- accidental leakage of the packing water past the piston showed vented its general use in mines was the fact that the height the advantage of condensing by a jet of injection water, and this through which it would lift water was limited by the pressure the plan took the place of surface condensation. The engine used

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BY COURTESY

SCIENCE

MUSEUM,

LONDON

THE

PROGRESS

OF THE

1. One of Boulton and Watt’s early (1789) rotative steam engines, among the first to utilize the double-acting

principle

Watt's Model of Newcomen’s steam engine (1719), the precursor of Newengine, and successfully used in pumping and mine drainage. of comen created a vacuum within the cylinder by the condensation steam

Symington’s original marine steam engine (1788), first used to propel a paddle-boat on Dalswinton Loch, Scotl and, at a speed of about 4 m. per hour

4. 5. 6.

STEAM

ENGINE

Trevithick’s high-pressure, or non-condensing

engine

(1811)

Quadruple piston-rod steeple paddle engine (1842)

resemblance Grasshopper engine (1862), so-called because of the obvious of its upper and right-hand portions to that insect

valve 7. Model of single-cylinder horizontal engine (1898), with Corliss

the piston gear. A sectional view at the right end of cylinder reveals and valve construction lifted to 8. Parsons’ turbo-generator (1902), with upper turbine casing show rotor

STEAM

HISTORICAL]

ENGINE

353

steam whose pressure was little if at all greater than that of the | steam them, atmosphere. is now About 1711 Newcomen’s engine began to be introduced for cannot

pumping mines. It is doubtful whether the action was originally automatic, or depended on the periodical turning of taps by an

to press on the pistons, or whatever may be used instead of in the same manner in which the pressure of the atmosphere employed in common fire-engines. In cases where cold water be had in plenty, the engines may be wrought by this force of steam only, by discharging the steam into the air after it has done

its office.”

attendant. The common story is that in 1713 a boy named Hum-

The “common fire-engine” alluded to was the steam engine of Newcomen. Highly important as Watt’s first inventions were, an engine he attended, made the engine self-acting by causing the they resulted for a time in the production of nothing more than a beam itself to open and close the valves by suitable cords and greatly improved engine of the Newcomen type, much less wastecatches. This device was simplified in 1718 by Henry Beighton, ful of fuel, able to make faster strokes, but still only suitable for who suspended from the beam a rod called the plug-tree, which pumping, still single-acting, with steam admitted during the whole worked the valves by means of tappets. By 1725 the engine was stroke, the piston, as before, pulling the beam by a chain workin common use in collieries, and it held its place without material ing on a circular arc. The condenser was generally worked by inchange for about three-quarters of a century in all. Near the jection, but Watt has left a model of a surface condenser made close of its career Newcomen’s engine was much improved in its up of small tubes, in every essential respect like the condensers mechanical details by John Smeaton, who built many large engines now used. of this type about the year 1770, just after the great step which Fig. 3 is an example of the Watt pumping engine of this period. was to make Newcomen’s engine obsolete had been taken by It should be noticed that, although the top of the cylinder is James Waitt. closed, and steam has access to the upper side of the piston, this is Compared with Savery’s engine, Newcomen’s had (as a pump- done only to keep the cylinder and piston warm. The engine is ing engine) the great advantage that the intensity of pressure in still single-acting; the steam on the upper side merely plays the the pumps was not in any way limited by the pressure of the part which was played in Newcomen’s engine by the atmosphere; steam. It shared with Savery’s, in a scarcely less degree, the de- and it is the lower end of the cylinder alone that is ever put in fect already pointed out, that steam was wasted by the alternate communication with the condenser. There are three valves: the heating and cooling of the vessel into which it was led. Though “steam” valve a, the “equilibrium” valve b, and the “exhaust” obviously capable of more extended uses, it was in fact almost valve c. At the beginning of the down-stroke c is opened to proexclusively employed to raise water—in some instances for the duce a vacuum below the piston and a is opened to admit steam purpose of turning water-wheels to drive other machinery. Even above it. At the end of the down-stroke a and c are shut and b contemporary writers complain of its great consumption of fuel. is opened. This puts the two sides in equilibrium and allows the James Watt, 1763, 1769, 1781, ete.—In 1763 James Watt, an piston to be pulled up by the pump-rod P, which is heavy enough instrument maker in Glasgow, while engaged by the University to serve as a counterpoise. C is the condenser, and A is the airin repairing a model of Newcomen’s engine, was struck with the pump, which discharges into the hot well H, whence the supply waste of steam to which the alternate chilling and heating of the of the feed-pump F is drawn. cylinder gave rise. He saw that the remedy, in his own words, In a second patent (1781) Watt describes the “sun-and-planet” would lie in keeping the cylinder as hot as the steam that entered wheels and other methods of making the engine give continuous it. With this view he added to the engine a new organ—namely revolving motion to a shaft provided with a flywheel. The crank the “separate condenser’’-—an empty vessel separate from the and connecting-rod—already a familiar mechanical device from cylinder, into which the steam should be allowed to escape from its use on the treadle of a lathe—would have been the natural the cylinder, to be condensed there by the application of cold means of doing this, but its application to the steam engine in a water either outside or as a jet. To preserve the vacuum in particular manner had been made the subject of a patent by his condenser he added a pump called the air pump, whose James Pickard, and Watt, rather than make terms with Pickard, function was to extract from it the condensed steam and water whom he regarded as a plagiarist of his own ideas, made use of of condensation, as well as any air which might come in by his sun-and-planet motion until the patent on the crank expired. leakage or by solution in the steam or the injection water. The reciprocating motion of earlier forms had served only for Then, as the cylinder was no longer used as a condenser, he was pumping; by making the steam engine drive a revolving shaft able to keep it hot by clothing it with non-conducting bodies, and Watt opened up for it many other channels of usefulness. The in particular by the use of what is called a steam-jacket—a layer engine was still single-acting; the connecting-rod was attached to of hot steam between the cylinder and an external casing. Further the far end of the beam, and that carried a counterpoise which and still with the same object, he covered in the top of the cylin- served to raise the piston when steam was admitted below it. der, taking the piston-rod out through a steam-tight gland or In 1782 Watt patented two further improvements of the first stuffing-box, and allowed steam instead of air to press upon the importance, both of which he had invented some years before. piston’s upper surface. After much experiment Watt patented One was the use of double action, that is to say, the application his improvements in 1769; they are described in a specification of steam and vacuum to each side of the piston alternately. The other (invented as early as 1769) was the use of steam expanfrom which the following extracts are taken:— “My method of lessening the consumption of steam, and conse- sively, in other words the plan, essential to economy of fuel, of quently fuel, in fire-engines, consists of the following principles:— stopping the admission of steam when the piston had made only a “First, That vessel in which the powers of steam are to be employed part of its stroke, and allowing the rest of the stroke to be perto work the engine, which is called the cylinder in common fireengines, and which I call the steam vessel, must, during the whole formed by the expansion of the steam already in the cylinder. To time the engine is at work, be kept as hot as the steam that enters let the piston push as well as pull the end of the beam Watt deit; first by inclosing it in a case of wood, or any other materials that vised his so-called parallel motion, an arrangement of links contransmit heat slowly; secondly, by surrounding it with steam or other necting the piston-rod head with the beam in such a way as to heated bodies; and, thirdly, by suffering neither water nor any other pace colder than the steam to enter or touch it during that guide the rod to move in a very nearly straight lme. He further added a throttle valve, for regulating the rate of admission of ime.

phrey Potter, whose duty it was to open and shut the valves of

“Secondly, In engines that are to be worked wholly or partially by condensation of steam, the steam is to be condensed in vessels distinct from the steam-vessels or cylinders, although occasionally communicating with them; these vessels I call condensers; and, whilst the engines are working, these condensers ought at least to be kept as cold as the air in the neighbourhood of the engines, by application of water or other cold bodies. Thirdly, Whatever air or other elastic vapour is not condensed by the cold of the condenser, and may impede the working of the engine,

steam, and a centrifugal governor, in the form of a double coni-

ts to be drawn

mingham the manufacture and sale of his engines with great success, and held the field against all rivals in spite of severe assaults

out of the steam-vessels

or condensers by means of

bumps, wrought by the engines themselves, or otherwise. Fourthly, I intend in many cases to employ the expansive force of

cal pendulum, which controlled the speed by a throttle-valve.

Among other important devices associated with Watt was the “indicator,” by which diagrams showing the relation of the steam pressure in the cylinder to the movement of the piston are automatically drawn: its invention seems to have been mainly due to his assistant John Southern. In partnership with Matthew Boulton, Watt carried on in Bir-

354

STEAM

on the validity of his patents. Notwithstanding his knowledge of the advantage to be gained by using steam expansively, he continued to employ only low pressures—seldom more than 7 |b. per square inch over that of the atmosphere. His boilers were fed, as Newcomen’s had been, through an open pipe which rose high enough to let the column of water in it balance the pressure of the steam. He gave a definite numerical significance to the term ‘‘horse-power,” defining it as the rate at which work is done when 33.000 lb. are raised one foot in one minute. In the fourth claim of Watt's first patent, quoted above, the second sentence describes a non-condensing engine, which would have required steam of a higher pressure. This, however, was a line of invention which Wait did not follow up, perhaps because so early as 1725 a non-condensing engine had been described by Jacob Leupold in his Theatrum machinarum. It was not till much later that the thermodynamic principles underlying the action of the steam engine came to be understood. Engineers were consequently slow to appreciate the fact that to obtain economy of fuel it was advantageous to employ a high initial pressure, in combination with much expansion in the cylinder and with the separate condenser of Waitt.

Trevithick, Bull and Evans.—The introduction of the noncondensing and, at that time, relatively high-pressure engine was

effected in England by Richard Trevithick and in America by Oliver Evans about 1800. Both Evans and Trevithick applied their engines to propel carriages on roads, and both used for boiler a cylindrical vessel with a cylindrical flue inside containing the fire —the construction now known as the Cornish boiler. In assaciation with Edward Bull, Trevithick had previously made direct acting pumping-engines, with an inverted cylinder set over and in line with the pump-rod, thus dispensing with the beam that had been a feature in all earlier forms. But in these “Bull” engines, as they were called, the steam was condensed by a jet of cold water in the exhaust-pipe, and Boulton and Watt successfully opposed them as infringing Watt’s patent. To Trevithick belongs the honour of being the first to use a steam carriage on a railway; in 1804 he built a locomotive in the modern sense, to run on what had formerly been a horse-tramway, in Wales. In this connection it may be added that as early as 1769 a steam carriage for roads

had been built in France by Nicolas Joseph Cugnot, who used a pair of single-acting high-pressure cylinders to turn a driving axle step by step by means of pawls and ratchet-wheels. To the initiative of Evans may be ascribed the early general use of highpressure steam in the United States, a feature which for many

vears distinguished American from English practice.

(See Loco-

MOTIVE.} Compound Engine and Cornish Engine.-Among contemporaries of Watt the name of Jonathan Hornblower deserves special mention. In 1781 he constructed and patented what would now be called a compound engine, with two cylinders of different sizes. Steam was first admitted into the smaller cylinder. and then passed over into the larger, doing work against a piston in each. In Hornblower's engine the two cylinders were placed side by side, and both pistons worked on the same end of a beam overhead. This was an instance of the use of steam expansively, and as such

was earlier than the patent, though not earlier than the invention,

of expansive working by Watt. Hornblower was crushed by the Birmingham firm for infringing their patent in the use of a separate condenser and air-pump. The compound engine was revived in 1804 by Arthur Woolf, with whose name it is often associated. Using steam of fairly high pressure. and cutting off the supply before the end of the stroke in the small cylinder, Woolf expanded the steam to several times its original volume. Mechanically the two-cylinder compound engine has some advantage over a onecylinder engine with the same amount of expansion, in exerting

a more uniform driving effort. But another and more important

merit of the system lies in the fact that by dividing the whole range of expansion into two parts the cylinders in which these are separately performed are subject to a reduced range of fluctuation in their temperature. This helps to limit a source of waste which is present in all piston engines, namely the waste which results from the heating and cooling of the metal by its alternate contact

ENGINE

[HISTORICAL

with hot and cooler steam. The introduction of compound ey.

pansion forms the most outstanding improvement which steam engines of the piston and cylinder type have undergone since the time of Watt.

Woolf introduced the compound engine somewhat widely about 1814 as a pumping engine in the mines of Cornwall. But here i met a strong competitor in the high-pressure single-cylinder engine of Trevithick, which had the advantage of greater simplicity in construction.

Woolf’s engine fell into comparative disuse, and the

single-cylinder type took a form which, under the name of the Cornish pumping-engine, was for many years famous for its great economy of fuel. In this engine the cylinder was set under one end of a beam, from the other end of which hung a heavy rod

which operated a pump at the foot of the shaft. Steam was ad. mitted above the piston for a short portion of the stroke, thereby raising the pump-rod, and was allowed to expand for the remain. der. Then an equilibrium valve, connecting the space above and

below the piston, as in fig. 3, was opened, and the pump-rod

descended, doing work in the pump and raising the engine piston,

The large mass which had to be started and stopped at each stroke served by its inertia to counterbalance the unequal pressure of the steam, for the ascending rods stored up energy of motion in the early part of the stroke, when the steam pressure was greatest, and gave out energy in the later part, when the pressure was much lowered by expansion. The frequency of the stroke was controlled by a device called a cataract, consisting of a small

plunger pump, in which the plunger, raised at each stroke by the engine, was allowed to descend more or less slowly by the escape

of fluid below it through an adjustable orifice, and in its descent liberated catches which held the steam and exhaust valves from opening. A similar device controlled the equilibrium valve, and could be set to give a pause at the end of the piston’s down-stroke, so that the pump-cylinder might have time to become filled. The final revival of the compound engine did not occur until about the middle of the roth century, and then several agencies combined to effect it. In 1845 John M’Naught introduced a plan of improving beam engines of the original Watt type, by adding a

high-pressure cylinder whose piston acted on the beam between the centre and the fly-wheel end. Steam of higher pressure than had formerly been used, after doing work in the new cylinder. passed into the old or low-pressure cylinder, where it was further expanded. Many engines whose power was proving insufficient for the extended machinery they had to drive were ‘““M’Naughted” in this way, and after conversion were found not only to yield more power but to show a marked economy of fuel The compound form was selected by William Pole for the pumping engines of Lambeth and other waterworks about 1850; in 1854 John Elder began to use it in marine engines; in 1857 E. A. Cowper added a steam-jacketed intermediate reservoir for steam between the high- and low-pressure cylinders, which made it unnecessary for the stroke of the low-pressure piston to be just beginning when

that of the other piston was just ending. As facilities increased

for the use of high-pressure steam, compound expansion came into more general use, its advantage becoming more conspicuous with every

increase

in boiler pressure.

In marine

practice, where

economy of fuel was from the first an obviously important factor in design, the principle of compound expansion was extended by the introduction of triple and even quadruple expansion engines. Application to Locomotives

and Steamboats.—The

adap-

tation of the steam engine to railways, begun by Trevithick, became a success in the hands of George Stephenson, whose engine, the “Rocket,” when tried along with others in 1829, distanced its competitors. The principal features of the “Rocket” were an improved steam-blast for urging the combustion of coal and a boiler

(suggested by Henry Booth) in which a large heating surface was given by the use of many small tubes through which the hot gases passed.

Further, the cylinders, instead of being vertical

as in earlier locomotives, were set at a slope, which was afterwards altered to a position more nearly horizontal. To these features there was added later the “link motion,” a contrivance which enabled the engine to be easily reversed, and the amount of expansion to be readily varied. In the hands of George Stephenson

HISTORICAL]

STEAM

ENGINE

and his son Robert the locomotive took a form which in the main s retained by the far heavier locomotives (q.v.) now in use. The first practical steamboat was the tug “Charlotte Dundas,” built by William Symington, and tried in the Forth and Clyde canal in 1802. A Watt double-acting condensing engine, placed

horizontally, acted directly by a connecting-rod on the crank of a shaft at the stern, which carried a revolving paddle-wheel. The trial was successful, but steam towing was abandoned for fear of injuring the banks of the canal. Ten years later Henry Bell built the “Comet,” with side paddle-wheels, which ran as a passenger steamer on the Clyde; but an earlier inventor to follow up Symington’s success was the American, Robert Fulton, who, after unsuccessful experiments on the Seine, fitted a steamer on the Hudson in 1807 with engines made to his designs by Boulton and Watt, and brought steam navigation for the first time to commercial

ccess. Tie in Steam Pressure and in Piston Speed.—With im-

provements in the details of design and construction it gradually

became practicable to use higher steam pressures and higher piston speeds, and consequently to obtain not only greater efficiency, but also a greater amount of power from engines of given bulk. The triple expansion engine, introduced by A. C. Kirk in 1874, did not come into general use until after 1881. It became the

normal type of marine engine, with pressures ranging, as a rule, from 150 to 200 Ib. per sq. inch, piston speeds generally of 500 or 6oo ft. per minute, but sometimes as high as 900 or 1,000, and coal consumption of about 14 lb. per hour per indicated horsepower. It continues to be very largely used in steamships which are not driven by turbines. In some instances quadruple expansion has been preferred, with somewhat higher pressures, but when the pressure is much raised the tendency is to abandon the piston

type in favour of the steam turbine. This is true both in marine and in land practice.

The gigantic concentration

of steam

power that is found in a great steamship or in a power station has been made practicable by the turbine. The selection of Parsons turbines in 1907 as the motive engines of the Cunarders ‘‘Lusitania” and “Mauretania” constituted a new departure in steam engineering. It was then a novelty to develop some 70,000 horsepower in the engine room of a single ship. Many of the turbines in power stations now exceed this figure. Introduction of the Steam Turbine.—The invention of the steam turbine has revolutionized marine engine practice, in respect especially of the largest and fastest vessels. For the generation of electricity the turbine has a notable advantage in directly developing the high speed of rotation which a dynamo requires, and, when designed on a large scale, its efficiency is unrivalled by steam engines of other kinds. To Sir Charles Parsons we owe not only the main idea of the modern steam turbine, but also the invention of many mechanical features and details essential to its practical success and general adaptation. In the steam turbine, as we have seen, pressure, instead of being exerted on a piston, is employed in the first instance to set the fluid itself in motion. There is a conversion of pressure-energy into velocity-energy as a preliminary step towards obtaining the effective work of the machine. If this were done in a single step it would involve immensely high velocities in the steam jet and in the vanes on which the jet acts. Attempts to design a steam turbine were made by numerous inventors, but fell short of practical success mainly because of the difficulty of arranging for high enough velocity in the working parts to utilize a reasonably large fraction of the kinetic energy of the steam. There was a further

255

Parsons attacked the problem at an earlier date and in a different way, by his invention of the “compound” turbine. He divided the whole expansion of the steam into a great number of successive and separate steps and thereby limited the velocity acquired at each step to such an extent as to make it comparatively easy to extract the greater part of the kinetic energy as work done upon the moving blades, without making the velocity of these blades inconveniently high. Moreover, in Parsons’s compound turbine the range of pressure through which the steam expands in each separate step is too small to cause any difficulty in the formation of the jets. The guide blades, which form the jets, are distributed round the whole circumference of the revolving wheel, and all the revolving blades are consequently in action at once.

The steam streams from end to end of the turbine through an annular space between a revolving drum and the casing which surrounds it. Parallel rings of fixed guide blades project inwards from the casing at suitable distances, and between these are rings of moving blades which project outwards from the drum and revolve with it. At each step in the expansion the steam streams through a ring of fixed guide blades, and the streams so formed impinge on the next ring of moving blades, and so on. The con-

struction, which is of great simplicity, is described, along with others, in the article TURBINE: STEAM. It lends itself well to the generation of power on a large scale, especially where a fairly high speed of rotation is wanted. Parsons introduced his compound steam turbine in 1884. For some years it was made in small sizes only, and the steam was discharged to the atmosphere without condensation. So long, however, as this was done the steam turbine was sacrificing one of its most important advantages, namely, its exceptional capacity for utilizing the energy of low-pressure steam down to the lowest vacuum obtainable in a condenser. In 1891 it was first fitted with

a condenser, and it then began to be used in electric supply stations. The first application to marine propulsion was in the “Turbinia,” in 1897. The success of this little experimental vessel of too tons, which, with its horse-power of 2,100, made what was then a record in speed for any ship, was soon followed by the application of the turbine to war-ships and other steamers. In merchant vessels its use was at first limited to those of the highest speed, for the turbine shaft was directly coupled to the shaft of the screw propeller; but in 1910 Parsons introduced a mechanical reducing gear between the two, which allowed the turbine shaft to run much faster than the propeller shaft, to the great advantage in efficiency of both turbine and propeller. Later he followed this up by a “double-reduction” gearing which admitted of a still greater difference in speed of rotation between the propeller and the turbine. In most ships the single reduction system is suffcient for the purpose: its introduction greatly extended the range within which the turbine could be advantageously substituted for the three-cylinder or four-cylinder compound engine of the piston type in ocean-going steamships. Enough has been said to show that the invention of the steam turbine is by far the most important step in steam engineering since the time of Watt. It solved the problem of using steam efficiently in an engine without reciprocating parts. Early Theory.—In the early development of the steam engine inventors had little in the way of theory to guide them. Watt had the advantage of a knowledge of Joseph Black’s doctrine of latent heat; but there was no philosophy of the relation of work to heat until long after the inventions of Watt were complete. The theory

of the steam engine as a heat engine may be said to date from

difficulty in getting the energy of the steam into a suitable kinetic

1824, when N. L. Sadi Carnot published his Réflextons sur la

form, namely, to get the stream of issuing particles to take a Single direction, without undue dispersion, when steam was

puissance motrice du feu, a remarkable essay in which he showed that heat does work only by being let down from a higher to a

allowed to expand through an orifice from a chamber at high pressure into a space where the pressure was greatly less.

lower temperature. But Carnot was not then aware that any of the heat disappears in the process, and it was not until the doctrine of the conservation of energy was established in 1843 by the

In 1889 Dr. Gustaf de Laval introduced a form of steam turbine in which both of these difficulties were, to a considerable de- experiments of James Prescott Joule that the theory of heat engree, overcome, partly by the special form of the nozzle used to gines began a vigorous growth. From 1849 onwards the science produce the steam jet and partly by features of design which al- of thermodynamics was developed with extraordinary rapidity by lowed an exceptionally high speed to be reached in the wheel car- Rudolf Clausius, W. J. Macquorn Rankine and William Thomson (Lord Kelvin) and was applied, especially by Rankine, to pracrying the vanes against which the steam impinged.

STEAM

356 tical problems

in the use of steam.

Rankine’s Manual

of the

Steam Engine, published in 1859, was the first attempt at a systematic treatment of steam-engine theory. It involved the simplifying assumption that the cylinder and piston might be treated as behaving to the steam like non-conducting bodies, in other words, that the transfer of heat between the steam and the metal might generally be disregarded. One effect of this was to treat the volume of steam consumed per stroke as corresponding to the volume of the cylinder up to the point of cut-off. When steam enters the engine cylinder it finds the metal chilled by the previous exhaust, and a portion of it is at once condensed. This has the effect of increasing, often very largely, the volume of boiler steam required per stroke. As expansion goes on, the water that was condensed during admission begins to be re-evaporated, and this action is often prolonged into the exhaust. It is now recognized that exchanges of heat between the steam and its metal envelope cannot

be ignored.

They cause

ENGINE

[RECIPROCATING ENGINES

The distance PQ which represents the stroke may (by the use of an appropriate scale) be interpreted as a volume, namely the volume swept through by the piston, and a point O behind P may be so taken that OP represents, on the same scale, the volume of

the clearance.

The distance measured

horizontally from the

line OY to any point of the curve represents the whole volume of steam behind the piston at that point, and the curve between

admission and release exhibits the relation of the pressure to the

mt

the actual performance to fall

Short, in some cases very much short, of the ideal limit. They may be reduced by suitable design. ACTION

OF RECIPROCATING

ENGINES

Most, though not all, reciprocating engines are double-acting: that is to say, steam from the boiler is alternately admitted to each side of the piston. In each double stroke, or revolution, there are four events for each end of the cylinder:—(1) Admisston, which begins by the opening of a steam-valve when the

piston is at or very near the limit of its travel; (2) Cut-off, at which the steam-valve is closed and admission ceases. This may take place early in the stroke. The steam which is enclosed behind the piston then expands, with falling pressure, while the stroke continues, until (3) Release occurs; that is to say, an exhaustvalve opens, allowing the steam to escape from the cylinder. Its discharge generally continues for a large part of the back-stroke, until event (4), at which the exhaust-valve closes, and Compresston begins: from there to the end of the back-stroke, the steam remaining in the cylinder is compressed into the clearance space behind the piston. This compression of the residue of steam, which is called cushioning, assists smoothness of working as the piston passes what is called the dead-point, at the limit of its stroke; and the cushioning effect is often augmented by giving the steam-valve what is called “lead,’—that is, causing it to open a little before the piston reaches the dead point.

FiIG.6

ài

FIG. 5.—-CROSS SECTION DIAGRAM OF A SLIDE-VALVE SHOWING THE EXHAUST AND INLET PORTS BELOW IT, AND CYLINDER AND PISTON FIG. 6.—CROSS SECTION OF SLIDE-VALVE IN MIDDLE POSITION: (i) INTERNAL LAP, (E) EXTERNAL LAP

total volume of the steam enclosed behind the piston throughout its process of expansion. Actual indicator diagrams may be automatically drawn by attaching to the cylinder of the enginė a device in which a pencil Distribution of the Steam: Indicator Diagram.—Together, is made to rise or fall proportionally to the variations of steam these various events of the stroke constitute what is termed the pressure, while a paper, on which it inscribes a record, moves back distribution of the steam. They are conveniently exhibited by and forth horizontally through distances proportional to the movedrawing an indicator diagram of the action, such as that illustrated ment of the engine piston. Many forms of indicator have been in fig. 4. There, on a base PQ which represents the stroke, lines designed to give, in some such way, a diagram in which the coare drawn to show the continuous changes of pressure that go on ordinates represent respectively the displacement of the piston within the cylinder during the whole action. Starting from the and the pressure of the steam agair3t it. From such diagrams it beginning of the stroke at a, for one side of the piston, steam is is easy to infer the mean effective pressure throughout the stroke, admitted up to the point 5 which shows the cut-off. At (or near) and also to observe how the valves are working. By connecting the end of the forward stroke, at c, the steam is allowed to escape. the instrument successively to each of the two ends of the cylinCompression, in the return stroke, begins at d. From b to c the der, in a double-acting engine, a complete record is obtained for steam confined in the cylinder is expanding, with falling pressure, the two strokes which make up a revolution. The “indicated doing work on the piston. The whole work done in the revolution, horse-power” is determined by the formula namely the integral of the force L.H.P. bes nL (p1Ai+ pr As) acting on the piston and the 33,000 distance through which it moves, where A, and Az are the areas of the two sides of the piston, in is represented by the enclosed square inches; p, and p, are the mean effective pressures on the area of the indicator diagram, | two sides, in lb. per sq. inch, as determined from the diagrams; abcd. | n is the number of revolutions per minute, and L is the stroke in The diagram is idealised in the feet. In trials of a steam engine such diagrams are taken during sense that the events are shown a considerable period. The amount and condition of the steam as if they happened suddenly, FIG. 4.——INDICATOR DIAGRAM giving sharply defined changes S#OWING DISTRIBUTION OF STEAM passing through the engine is observed, by measuring either the quantity of water discharged from the condenser (if of the surface from admission to expansion and so on. In any real engine the type), or the quantity of feed-water required to be supplied to the events are necessarily gradual, for no valve—whatever its type boiler to keep the water level constant. From these data it becomes —

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DICKEY

THE CAD

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52) WINNING

THE $10,000

CHAMPION

STEEPLECHASE

being near Shepherd’s Golden Lion, Yonge street. One race was won by Grasshopper, Black Douglas second, Aemilius Irving up. That fall a heavyweight steeplechase was won by Samuel P.

Jarvis, Jr., riding Gaylad. Both Aemilius Irving and Samuel P. Jarvis were forebears of the well-known Canadian sportsman, Aemilius Jarvis. Canada boasts of the oldest steeplechase stake in America, “The Woodbine,” won in 1882 by Rose, and in 1928 (the 44th running) by Wych Elm, owned by George W. Beardmore, master of the Toronto hunt. W. S. Vosburgh writes that the first steeplechase in the States was at Paterson, N.J., June 7, 1865, a three-mile handicap, over 27 jumps, though the real beginning was an extra day’s steeplechasing at Jerome Park in Nov. 1869. Vosburgh wrote articles for The New York Sportsman in 1880, telling of races won by Oysterman, Postguard, Trouble, Waller, Lobelia, Tammany,

OF AMERICA,

IN 1900, WITH

OWNER,

“MR.

SMITH.“

UP

Detroit, and the Onwentsia, near Chicago, the same year. Fine sport was shown by the Westchester-Biltmore Association at Bowman Park, Rye, in 1927, and in 1928 a meeting was held for the cavalry school at Ft. Riley, Kansas. In Massachusetts, the Willowdale cup has become a prominent feature, and in 1927 a splendid inaugural meeting was given by the Norfolk hunt. The Eastern horse club, founded by Augustus F. Goodwin and others, continuing the work of The Country Club in Massachusetts, has held three most successful meetings, and for a number of seasons

the United Hunts Racing Association has held important meetings on Long Island. Private meetings were given by Joseph E. Widener at Elkins Park, Pa., and in 1927 and 1928 by Jobn R. Macomber at his racing plant at Raceland, Framingham, Mass., and by Robert C. Winmill at Warrenton, Pa.

The

National

Steeplechase

Association.—In

1891,

the

National Steeplechase Association was founded by S. S. Howland, August Belmont and others, and was later merged into the The Driving Park, Chicago, in 1880, “had jumping races,” and National Steeplechase and Hunt Association, providing rules for in. 1884 the July stakes, a handicap, received 18 entries. Edward racing which have been accepted by a number of the clubs, but Corrigan owned a number of splendid jumpers and laid out a their efforts have been small compared with what might have been accomplished. The chief work on behalf of sport has always beautiful course at Hawthorne Park in 1891. Hunt and Country Clubs.—Steeplechasing in America has been done by individual endeavour. In 1899 Robert Chamblet always received its strongest backing from the hunt and country Hooper, Thomas Hitchcock and others founded the Champion clubs, and the most valuable stake offered up to 1883 was given Steeplechase of America and the Grand National, the former by the Rockaway hunt, with a guaranteed value of $5,000, which worth about $10,000 and the latter $8,000. The first Champion was won by Major Pickett. The Rosetree hunt raced across coun- was won by James W. Colt’s Van Ship, the second by Harry try about 1877. The Country club, Brookline, had 36 consecutive Worcester Smith’s hunter The Cad, owner up, and the third by meetings from 1880. The Meadow Brook hunt cup was offered in Self Protection, Harry Page up. “Billy” Hayes won the Grand 1883, and has been won by such well-known gentlemen riders as National on Trillion, and in 1906 Thomas Hitchcock’s Good and Stanley Mortimer, George Work, T. Hitchcock, “Billy” Hayes, Plenty, carrying 170 lb., made a show of his field. At that period “Mr. Smith,” F. S. von Stade and others. Swan Latrobe gave a Hooper’s stable were also consistent winners. For a time without individual effort the sport deteriorated, silver pitcher for the Genesee Valley point to point, which was won on Oct. 13, 1885, by Seward Cary’s Patchen, Tom Cary up. except at the hunt clubs, until 1926 when Bayard Warren of “Mr. Smith” later won this race four times. The Maryland hunt Boston planned the rejuvenation of the Grand National, which cup. given by Ross Whistler, was first raced for in 1894. The was won at Belmont Park in 1927 by Jolly Roger, owned by Mrs. Maryland grand national dates from 1900, and the race for My Payne Whitney, one of the strongest patrons of steeplechasing Lady Manor cup from 1908. In Virginia open steeplechases were in America. Joseph E. Widener’s colours, carried by Fairmount given here and there. At Ivy City track, the most noted gentleman and others, have been prominent over the Park courses at Sararider of his time, Harry Harwood, was killed. The Deep Run toga, Pimlico, Aqueduct and elsewhere, but to the Maryland Hunt Hunt Club, at Chantilly, west of Richmond, gave the first amateur Cup Association must be given the credit of upholding the true meeting in Virginia in 1895. In 1922 the Virginia Gold Cup was importance of sport “between the flags,” for with their course of offered by the Warrenton Hunt Club, and at the Middleburg and 4m. over solid post and rails, averaging almost 5 ft., only firstOrange County Hunts of Piedmont Valley, sport “Between the rate horses and riders can conquer, and the list shows such great sportsmen as Jarvis Spencer, Jr., Redmond Stewart, A. Devereux, Flags” has taken strong hold. About Philadelphia there have been hunt races at the Radnor, G. Mather, Arthur White, Raymond Belmont, J. N. Ewing, J. T. White Marsh Valley club, Wissahickon Farms, and in other hunt- Bowen, A. B. Ober, F. A. Bonsal, Jr., and such horses as Princeing countries, two of the leading patrons of sport being William ton, Landslide, Sacandaga, Oracle, Burgoright, Billy Barton and Clothier and William Kerr, the latter’s Algie and other cracks Bon Master. Billy Barton has to be acknowledged as in a class for years having made steeplechase history. Good sport has been by himself over timber courses, and his gallant showing, when provided by the Essex hunt since 1920 and elsewhere in New he finished second in the English Grand National of 1928, shows Jersey. The Bloomfield hunt held its first meeting in 1920 near that steeplechase horses can be made in America, but not when

Diavolo, Major Pickett and Bourke Cockran, and of steeplechasing in New Orleans in 1871 and 1872.

372

STEER—STEFFANI

raced over low park courses such as Belmont. where the waterį de Stefani retired in 1925 he was able to show a solid reductio n in the national debt. jump is but 9 feet wide, and the hedge is in proportion. Vosburgh has so truly said: ‘Put up the fences and put up the STEFANIE, BASSO NAEBOR or CHUWABA. 3 lake weights. Weight seldom breaks down a horse, and never has of East Africa, lying in 37° E., between 4° 25’ and L COH HO

HO:C-CH:

>c HO

Lactic acid

H

NH2CO-CH:

> NÉ

COMH

Malic acid

H

CH;

H

>t CHs CHOH

COH

Asparagine

Amyl alcohol

When we come to consider the configuration of compounds containing more than one carbon atom, a further question arises. In addition to knowing the relative positions of the valency Sd bonds of the individual atoms we should have some idea of the orientation of the different atoms relatively to one another in the molecule. Evidently the valencies

linking two

FIGS. 5, 6.—TETRAHEDRAL bistri-

BUTION OF VALENCIES OF TWO car.

carbon

atoms

to-

8¢ther will lie in a straight line as

illustrated

by

the

models

BON ATOMS shown in fig. 5 (tetrahedral axes) and fig. 6 (solid tetrahedra), and the experimental facts indicate

that the two atoms can rotate freely about this line as an axis, for compounds like CH:Br-CH-Br, ethylene bromide, or HO:C-CH:-CH:-CO:Ħ, succinic acid, exist in one modification only. The two halves of such molecules must therefore be capable of rotating about the linking by which they are united so as to assume the relative position of maximum stability. These two

simple assumptions of the tetrahedral distribution of the carbon valencies and free rotation about a single linking provide so complete an explanation of practically the whole of the stereochem-

MIRROR

BUTION OF VALENCIES IN A SINGLE

by Le Bel. CARBON ATOM On van’t Hoff’s theory the molecule of a carbon compound of the type C a b c c has the configuration I., as shown in fig. 4, and this has a plane of symmetry, namely, the plane passing through the edge a b and the middle point of c c cutting the tetrahedron in half as indicated by the dotted line; the molecule is therefore superposable upon its mirror-image, and a compound of this type should exist in one modification only. Replacement in this compound of one of the two radicals c by a fourth radical d will give, however, two enantiomorphous configurations, II. and III., according as the one or the other of these two radicals is replaced, for this substitution destroys the plane of symmetry and leaves a completely asymmetric molecule. A compound of the

[OPEN-CHAIN COMPOUNDS

MIRROR

FIG. 7.—ENANTIOMORPHOUS CONFIGURATIONS AND MULAE OF THE TRANS-D- AND L-TARTARIC ACIDS

PROJECTION

FOR-

istry of carbon that there can be little doubt of their essential correctness.

THE

STEREOCHEMISTRY

Mirror-image

OF OPEN-CHAIN

Isomerism.—As

COMPOUNDS

regards their mirror-image

isomerism, open-chain compounds may be considered according to the number of carbon atoms that their molecules contain. Dissymmetric compounds with one or two carbon atoms in the molecule suitable for resolution are not easy to obtain, and it was not until r913 that a one-carbon compound—bromoiodomethanesulphonic acid, CHBrI-SO;H—was satisfactorily re-

solved (Pope and Read). It proved to be optically stable. Among the compounds with three carbon atoms in the molecule are the

STEREOCHEMISTRY

COMPOUNDS]

QPEN-CHAIN

991

contains four non-equivalent asymmetric carbon atoms. Since the introduction of a new asymmetric carbon atom into a com_H,C-HCX-CO2H(X =O0H or NH») seems to be the same in pound doubles the number of stereoisomerides previously posthe naturally occurring optically active forms of these sub- sible. a compound containing 2 non-equivalent asymmetric carbon stances. The compounds containing four carbon atoms in the atoms should exist in 2% forms. The number of possible stereomolecule include the tartaric acids which played so important a i isomers of the same structure as glucose Is therefore sixteen; in part in the establishment of the fundamental principles of other words, there should be eight stereoisomeric aldohexoses, stereochemistry. Their structure having been fixed as dihydroxy-succinic acids, the H tetrahedral theory enabled a precise form

biochemically important substances, lactic acid and the qa-amino-

acids, alanine, serine and cystine. The configuration of the group

PLANE OF

N |

SYMETRY |

CO,H FIG. 8.—THIRD POSSIBLE, OR CIS-, CONFIGURATION

OF TARTARIC ACID MOLE-

to be given to their molecular dissymmetry envisaged by Pasteur; d- and /-tartaric acids will have the enantiomorphous configurations shown in fig 7 which can also be conveniently indicated by the projection formulae shown on the right. It will probably only be possible to determine which of these configurations corresponds with which antimer when a method has heen discovered of calculating the optical

CULEPLANEOF SYMMETRY rotation

of a dissymmetric

compound

from some measurable property, such as the refractivity, of the radicals a, b, c, d, associated with the asymmetric carbon atom. Besides the two configurations of the tartaric acid molecule shown above, a third, represented in fig. 8, is also possible. This configuration has a plane of symmetry, as indicated, and is therefore superposable upon its mirror-image and is incapable of optical activity. This inactive, non-resolvable form of tartaric acid was discovered by Pasteur, who obtained it by the action of heat on salts of tartaric acid, and is known as mesotartaric acid.

FIGS. 10, 11, 12.—TETRAHEDRAL DOUBLY LINKED CARBON ATOMS

DISTRIBUTION

OF

VALENCIES

OF

TWO

each existing in two antimeric forms. All the eight are known, many of them in both antimeric forms, and their configurations

have all been determined.

(See CARBOHYDRATES.)

It is unneces-

sary to proceed further with the consideration of open-chain compounds as the study of the more complex series has not brought new principles to light. Geometrical Isomerism.—On the tetrahedral hypothesis two doubly linked carbon atoms will be represented by models such

as those shown in fig. ro or figs. 11 and 12. Van't Hoff pointed out in his original brochure that this view of the two halves of the tartaric acid molecule. The acid contains of the ethylenic linking leads to two conclusions: (1) That there two equivalent asymmetric carbon atoms, and the relation be- should be no free rotation about an ethylenic linking; the moletween its d-, l-, and meso-modification can be represented by the cule should possess two equilibrium configurations as indicated symbols -+A-+-A, —A—A, and +-A—A. Every compound con- by figs. rr and 12. Ethylenic compounds should therefore exist taining two equivalent asymmetric carbon atoms must be capable in stereoisomeric forms, except when the radicals a and b (or c of existence in three such forms and generally in a racemic form. and d) are identical; (2) That the doubly linked carbon atoms In the five-carbon series a new stereochemical feature is and the four radicals a, b, c, d all lie in one plane. This plane is exhibited in trihydroxyglutaric acid (IV.—VII.). then a plane of symmetry, and thus ethylenic compounds, even

The existence of this form is determined by the structural identity

CO:H

CO.H

u-¢-on

HO-G—-H

H—C—OH

HO-C—H

HO—C—H

H-—C—OH

CO:H IV.

CO.H mCon HO—C—H n-on

COH V.

COH VI.

CO.H H—C—OH H-—C-—OH H—C-—OH CO:H VII.

This compound contains two equivalent asymmetric carbon atoms and thus occurs in two optically active antimeric forms, IV. and V., but instead of having only one meso-form like tartaric, it possesses two such inactive non-resolvable modifications as shown by the projection formulae VI. and VII. If the enantiomorphous configurations of the group CH(OH)-CO:H are indi-

cated by +R and —R, the re-

C

should be incapable of exhibiting

optical activity. These conclusions are fully confirmed by experiment. A large number of ethylenic compounds of the requisite structural type have been found to exist in two isomeric forms, and no adequate explanation has been found for this isomerism except the cis-trans isomerism determined by this conception of the ethylenic linking; also no case of optical activity determined by a Sap c the non-planar configuration of the complex ; A a has been established. The best known example of cis-trans isomerism is that presented by fumaric and maleic acids. These acids are structurally identical; each of them is an ethylenedicarboxylic acid of the structure HO.C-CH:CH-COsH. The great difference

in properties which they exhibit can only be due to difference in

lation between these two nonresolvable forms of the acid can also be represented as in fig. 9. The six-carbon series contains the sugars glucose and fructose

configuration. H

and their stereoisomers, and it is in this group of compounds that FIG. 9.—NON-RESOLVABLE MODIthe usefulness of the conception FICATIONS OF TRIHYDROXYGLUTARIC of the asymmetric carbon atoms acıp has been most strikingly demonstrated.

The hydroxy-aldehydic

formula for glucose OHH

qn

when of the type ; ec

OH OH

fee dle CHO—C—C—C—C—CH,0H

H OHHH

N

Maleic acid, which readily forms a cyclic anhyCO.H

H

yT

H

H

VIII. Fumaric acid

H

/ 8,

COH IX. Maleic acid

N

CO

i

i

i

HO:C

CO

H

©

A 1

co X. Maleic anhydride

dride X., and is regenerated from it by addition of water, must have the cis-configuration IX. Fumaric acid consequently has the trans-configuration VIII. Other examples of cis-trans isomers are cinnamic, XI., and allocinnamic acids, XTI., oleic and elaidic acids, XIII., and stilbene and isostilbene, XIV.

STEREOCHEMISTRY

S92 Ph-C—H

cakeie

q

HC[CHe);CHe

y

H—-C—COH

HOC—C-H

XIL

XII

[CYCLIC COMPOUNDS

CHACH: CH

i

HČICILkCON

HC[CH:};COoH XII.

Ph—C—-H

ee

H—C—Ph

Ph—C—H

AIV. STEREOCHEMISTRY

OF CYCLIC

COMPOUNDS

XVII.

Ring Formation.—An overwhelming proportion of the known

the cis-torm would alone be possible.

cyclic compounds contain five- or six-numbered rings. The special tendency to the formation of such rings, thus indicated, is well illustrated by the hydroxy-acids of the general formula HO-(CH2)2;COsH. When n=3 or 4, but only then, these acids lose water spontaneously, forming cyclic internal esters (lactones) of the structure CH.

Substitution has a remarkable effect in promoting ring closure Thus tetramethylsuccinic acid, XIX., passes into its cyclic anhydride, XX., with far greater readiness than succinic acid itself, Me

>c/ Me

oN

chN

it.

CH,

CHa

/

Soy

Me”

it is pessible to form three- and four-membered rings, but they

CHa XV.

CHI AV.a

Joka

CH,

NCh XVI.

—-

go

CH

NCHaBr ' XVI.a

CH:~—CHa

a

H:—CHa2 XVII.

Me—c—coH

Vo

Me

CO

ws x

a

m aie e n Me—C—CO;H XXI.

XX.

co XXIL.

and dimethylmaleic acid, XXI., shows so great a tendency to ringclosure that when liberated from its salts it passes spontaneously into its anhydride, XXII. The larger the substituent the greater seems to be its effect. Thus the dimethyl-lactone, XXIII, can only be produced indirectly, and once opened it cannot be reformed, but the analogous dipropyl-lactone, XXIV., is formed spontaneously from the corresponding hydroxy-acid, XXV.:—

tend to spring open under the influence of reagents, the tendency being more marked in the 3- than in the 4-rings. Thus ethylene, XV., which we can regard as a 2-ring, cyclopropane, XVI., and cyclobutane, XVII., form a series of diminishing unsaturation. CHLI

Me™ co

MLE

Z Me C—CO CO XIX.

CO

Such ring formation can thus only occur when a s- or 6-membered compound will be formed.

Cet

i

no O

N/Z

CO

CO:H

CH:—CH3

Ok

CH2—CHs XVI.a

Me

H

mx

C —C—C0.H

Sf

Pr

/

H

an

C—C—C0O.H

|

|

Pr

7

H

C——C—COH

O—O CO—OH OH For ethylene combines with all the halogens, even with iodine, XXIII. XXIV. XXV. when ethylene di-iodide XV.a is formed; cyclopropane, XVI., is stable towards iodine but reacts with bromine in the cold, formIt has long been held probable that the regular tetrahedral ing trimethylene dibromide; cyclobutane, XVII., is not opened by configuration obtains only in a carbon atom attached to four bromine, but is converted by catalytic reduction with hydrogen like radicals, as in methane or carbon tetrachloride, and that when (under conditions under which cyclopentane and cyclohexane are the radicals are not all alike the angles between the valencies may perfectly stable) into #-butane, XVII.a. be rendered unequal. Further, if the angle between one pair of These facts constitute a striking confirmation of the tetrahedral valencies is increased by the space demands or the mutual repultheory, for the angle at which the axes of a regular tetrahedron sion of the two attached radicals, the angle between the other pair are inclined to one another is 109° 28’, and this is very nearly may suffer a correlated decrease. Many facts have been accumuthe same as the angle between adjacent sides of the regular lated by Thorpe and Ingold which can be interpreted as supporting pentagon (108°). Thus we have an immediate explanation of the view that enhanced tendency to ring closure may arise from the ready formation of 5-membered carbon rings; in them the such modifications of the natural valency angle. valencies linking each carbon atom to its neighbour on either side Geometrical Isomerism.—Since freedom of rotation about are inclined at an angle which hardly differs from the natural single linkings is abolished by ring-closure, geometrical isomerism angle between carbon valencies. In cyclobutane, however, the is of frequent occurrence among cyclic compounds. Thus any angle of deflection of the valencies from their natural inclination, disubstituted polymethylene (in which the substituents are on 4 (109° 28’—90°) =9° 44’, is considerable; in cyclopropane it is different carbon atoms) may exist in a cis- and a trans-form as larger, $(109° 28’—60°)=24° 44’; whilst in ethylene it amounts the accompanying diagrams of a cis- and trans-1-3-disubstituted cyclohexane show. to 54° 44°. This theory correlating the relative instability of 3- and 4-rings Where, as in the compound with the strain due to deflection of the valencies from their natural represented, the two substituents directions is known as Baeyer’s Strain Theory (1885). In six- and are alike, the molecule of the cishigher-membered rings there is apparently no strain; the strain form has a plane of symmetry is relieved by buckling of the ring. Thus cyclohexane may have (the perpendicular plane through FIGS. 14 & 15.—CIS- AND TRANSeither of the strain free arrangements. the dotted line in fig. r5) and 1-3 DISUBSTITUTED CYCLOHEXANE, Such non-planar configurations, if suffithis modification is therefore non- FIG. 16.—DOUBLE FIVE MEMBERED ciently permanent, should cause molecular ps t resolvable into optical antipodes; RINGS dissymmetry in appropriate derivatives. It the molecule of the żrans-form has, however, only an axis of symcoop nap

has been impossible to demonstrate this Fic. 13.—BUCKLING

OF

dissymmetry; hence the molecules of these S!X-MEMBER

TO

RINGS

buckled rings are probably in a state of RELIEVE STRAIN

flux between their various possible configurations on account of their thermal agitation. Convincing evidence of the non-planar configuration of the cyclohexane ring is however supplied by the discovery (Hiickel, Annalen, 1925, 441, 1) that decahydronaphthalene, XVIII., can exist in a trans- as well as in a cis-modification, for if the two cyclohexane rings in this compound were plane

metry (the dotted line in fig. 14); it is therefore dissymmetric, and this modification can thus exist in optically active forms. This difference between cis- and trans-modifications provides a very reliable method for determining configuration in those cases (as in many cyclo-paraffin carboxylic acids) where it is applicable. The phenomena presented by cyclic compounds have a most

important bearing on the spatial distribution of the carbon valencies. For whilst eny non-planar configuration would account for the observed relationship between molecular dissymmetry

OTHER ELEMENTS]

STEREOCHEMISTRY

and structure, and for the isomerism due to the combinations of centres of asymmetry, the relative stability and readiness of for-

mation of 5-membered rings proves that the natural angle between two of the carbon valencies must be close to 108° (the angle of the regular pentagon). Since, further, spirocyclic compounds of the double 5-ring type are formed with great readiness it would appear that the angle between the other two valencies

XK

/

NH—1—co

ee

XXVI FIG. 17 —EXAMPLES

Its optical activity demonstrates the molecular dissymmetry that on the tetrahedral theory such spirocyclic compounds, in spite of the symmetry of their structural formulae, should possess. They have an axis of symmetry and the two forms correspond with the right- and left-handed forms of a two-bladed screw-propeller. STEREOCHEMISTRY

OF ELEMENTS

OTHER

THAN

CARBON

4-Covalent Elements.—In all optically active compounds known up to 1899 the molecular dissymmetry was dependent upon the spatial arrangement of the valencies of carbon. In that year a great advance was made through the discovery by Pope and

CENTRE OF SYMMETRY

R

393

OF MOLECULES WITH A CENTER OF SYMMETRY AND

WITH AN ALTERNATING AXIS OF SYMMETRY also approximates to 108°. The chemistry of cyclic carbon compounds thus strongly indicates the regular tetrahedral arrangement in which the intervalency angle is 109-5°. Mirror-image Isomerism—The conception of the asymmetric carbon atom, which in the open-chain series provides such a ready means of recognising molecular dissymmetry, is much less useful when applied to cyclic compounds. In cyclic compounds molecular dissymmetry is most easily recognised by noting the absence of centre, alternating axis and planes of symmetry from

the tridimensional formula, for a molecule must possess at least one such element of symmetry to have the property of superposability upon the mirror-image. Examples of molecules with a plane of symmetry have already been given. Well known examples of molecules with a centre of symmetry are those of the trans-forms of the cyclic anhydrides of the a-amino-acids, XXVL. (fg. 17). The alternating axis of symmetry has not yet acquired

practical importance in stereochemistry, since no compounds with a molecule having an alternating axis but no plane or centre of symmetry are known; one of the simplest examples would be a compound of the type X XVII. Among the cyclic compounds possessing special stereochemical interest are methylcyclohexylideneacetic acid, XXVIII. (fig. 18), resolved by Perkin, Pope and Wallach (J. Chem. Soc., 1909, 95, 1789) and the naturally occurring d- and /-inositols. The latter are cyclic hexahydric alcohols of the structure CH(OH)-CH(OH aan (OH)-CH(OH),

H(0H)-CH(OH)”

)

and although there are 7 geometrical isomers of this formula, the

Peachey that quaternary ammonium salts of the type N(RiR2R;Ri)X could be resolved into optical antipodes, for this indicated that the valency configurations | of other elements besides carbon | could have sufficient permanence | to make their stereochemical in| vestigation possible, and thus a | wide field of research was opened. | Further work on quaternary amFIG. 19—PYRAMIDAL AND TETRA- onium salts showed, (1) that HEDRAL CONFIGURATIONS FOR molecular dissymmetry could no AMINE SALTS longer be demonstrated when two of the hydrocarbon radicals were identical, proving that the ion

(NR:R:R;R:)

has a plane of symmetry;

(2) that different

methods of formation of a given salt, such as NR IRR

RygX-—3NR RoR

Ra X gm NYRRR-

R LX

never yielded isomeric modifications, indicating that the valencies linking the four hydrocarbon radicals to the nitrogen atom are inter-equivalent. Only two configurations of the ammonium ion satisfy these conditions, namely, the pyramidal configuration XXXI. (fig. 19) and the tetrahedral configuration XXXII, and of these the first has been definitely disproved by showing that a spirocyclic ammonium salt of the type XXXIII. (fig. 20) can be resolved into optically active components; for it can easily be seen that, if the two rings in this compound were attached to the base of a square pyramid, the molecule would have a plane of symmetry and the compound would be non-resolvable. In the ammonium ion the nitrogen atom must accordingly have the tetrahedral configuration XXXII. corresponding with the asymmetric configuration XXXIV. of its spirocyclic derivative XXXIII. The amine-oxides are another class of compounds of 4-covalent nitrogen (see VALENCY), and in these also the radicals are tetrahedrally disposed about the nitrogen atom, for amine-oxides of the type XXXV. have been obtained in optically active forms by Meisenheimer (1908). Ry

configuration of the active forms can be deduced because only Re

Ry

Ri

AS

N—

O

Se

Rs

m} O

Rs

XXXV.

Re

AS

—~

S

Rg

XXXVI.

XXXVII.

Phosphorus and arsenic have also been shown to have the tetrahedral configuration when in the 4-covalent state—phosphorus

C,H

eK R~ œe, FIG.

18.—CONFIGURATIONS

OF

CYCLIC

COMPOUNDS

one of the isomers (that of which XXIX. represents one of the

antimeric components) is molecularly dissymmetric.

The ketodilactone of benzophenonetetracarboxylic acid, XXX., resolved by Mills and Nodder (1921) is of the type a A

p

C, H

R R

ae

co, HiDK, R, R KE t

OR R

XXXI v FIG. 20.—SPIROCYCLIC AMMONIUM DERIVATIVE AND ITS ASYMMETRIC | CONFIGURATION through the optical activity of a phosphine-oxide, XXXVI. (Meisenheimer and Lichtenstadt, 1911), and arsenic through that of an arsine-sulphide, XX XVII. (Mills and Raper, 1925). In the first short period (see Pertopic Law), besides carbon and nitrogen, the elements beryllium, boron and oxygen can assume the 4-covalent state, and there is evidence that the atoms of each of these elements then have the four radicals tetrahedrally dis-

posed about them.

This was proved for beryllium by the pro-

STEREOCHEMISTRY

394

duction of an optically active compound of the type Ri C=O

ReC—O

a type

XC:NOH can generally be prepared in two isomeric modib fications, and as the isomerism is repeated in the O-methyl ethers, pr for which only one structure :NOMe is possible, it must be

O—CRe

eA

A

Be

SS

CH

RN

O=CRi

(Mills and Gotts, 1926), and for boron in a similar way by Böeseken and Meulenhoff (1924), and the tetrahedral symmetry of 4-covalent oxygen is indicated by the work of Morgan and Bragg on basic beryllium acetate (1923). The molecular dissymmetry

of silicon

compounds

of the type SIRiR2R3R,

has

been established by Kipping, and the investigation of the configuration of 4-covalent copper and zinc by the method used for 4-covalent beryllium has shown that their valencies are also tetrahedrally distributed. It thus appears to be the rule that when an atom is linked directly to four other atoms these are arranged arcund it tetrahedrally. This rule is however not universal: thus, many compounds of 4-covalent platinum containing a complex of the type [PtA,Bz] occur in two, evidently stereoisomeric, modifications. A and B may be chemically similar, as ammonia and ethylamine, the complex then being a bivalent ion, or chemically diverse, as pyridine and chlorine, when the complex is electrically neutral. This isomerism is clearly incompatible with a tetrahedral arrangement of the radicals about the platinum atom and is to be explained most simply by supposing that 4-covalent platinum has a plane configuration and that the isomers are cis- and transmodifications of the type A

|Pt A

B | B

A

|Pt B

B | A

3-Covalent Elements.—The stereochemical relationships of 3-co-ordinated elements are clearest in the case of sulphur. Sulphonium salts [SRiR2R3]X, i which three groups are covalently linked to the sulphur atom, were shown to be molecularly dissymmetric by Pope and by Smiles (1900); the sulphonium ion therefore has a non-planar configuration (fig. 21). Other compounds of 3-covalent sulphur are the sulphinic

O esters, RSC

g

OEt

the sulphoxides, ‘Ss, R

and the sulphili-

mines,“SSonr, and these have each been shown to have a R similar non-planar configuration, since optically active representatives of the three classes have been obtained, principally by Phillips and Kenyon (1925-27). The sulphoxides therefore differ from the ketones in configuration, probably as shown in diagrams which are given in fig. 21; the difference assumed in the oxygen linking is indicated by the electronic theory of valency and is

confirmed by the parachor (g.v.).

[OTHER ELEMENTS

Z

determined by a difference of configuration. a

The form of the

seip XC:N being eed y e weed

eai

b arrangement of the carbon valencies, a configurational difference can only be produced by a lateral displacement of the hydroxyl

FIG 22.—POSSIBLE DISPOSITIONS OF CYANIDE RADICALS group to bring it nearer to one of the groups a or b, as indicated by the diagrams (fig. 22), and this requires a non-planar disposition of the nitrogen valencies. This view, due to Hantzsch and Werner (1890), is confirmed, (1) by the course in the two isomerides of an intra-molecular transformation brought about by acids (Beckmann transformation) in which one of the two groups a or b changes places with the hydroxyl group, for if a is thus transposed in the one modification then b is transposed in the other; and (2) by the optical activity of the cyclic oxime, demonstrated by Mills and Bain (1910), since the molecule of this compound can only be dissymmetric if the nitrogen valencies do not liein one plane. 6-Covalent Elements.—Werner’s proof that substances like the compounds of metallic salts with ammonia, formerly regarded as “molecular compounds,” are co-ordination compounds in which a certain number of atoms or groups, most frequently six, are directly attached to the metallic atom (CoCl;-6NH;, for example, having the constitution XLVI.) brought with it the problem of determining how these six groups are disposed about the central atom. If it is assumed that the valencies by which they are attached are inter-equivalent (and this is supported by the absence of the isomerism which should otherwise occur), three arrangements are possible: the plane hexagonal, the prismatic, and the octahedral (fig. 23). A decision between these was obtained by investigating the compounds formed by linking the co-ordination positions together in pairs through 4-membered chains, as can be done, for example,

Optically active selenonium

salts were obtained by Pope and Neville (1902); hence 3-covalent selenium also has a non-planar configuration. The configuration of the trivalent nitrogen atom is of special interest on account of the number and importance of the com-

FIG.

23.—FOUR

POSSIBLE

CONFIGURATIONS

OF

6-COVALENT

pounds in which the element is | present in this state. The numer- | xxxvi

XXXIX ous attempts made to obtain op- FIG. 21.—-NON-PLANAR CONFIGURAtically active compounds of the TIONS FOR 3-COVALENT ELEMENTS type NRiRoR; have all given negative results, but it is scarcely safe to conclude from this that these compounds have a planar configuration, for it is possible that they are non-planar but racemize rapidly, and the configuration of this important type is still an open question. However, in compounds of trivalent nitrogen of the type —X: NY, where the nitrogen atom is directly linked to two other atoms only, and therefore to one of them by a double bond, the evidence for the non-planar disposition of its valencies is quite definite. Thus, oximes of the

ELEMENTS

CH,

LN

NH: z= NH; NH,

Co

XLVI

NH2

FaN Z

NH;

NH3:|

CH:

Cl,

NH: 3

Che

CH, my N

Mi,

NH:

NH: N

CH; CH:

XLVII

STEREOCOMPARATOR—STEREOPHOTOGRAMMETRY

395

inated ammonia plane. Two photographs, taken from the ends of a known base by the three-fold replacement of two co-ord nitrito-groups and treated in this manner, thus enabled a complete survey to two of (or amine molecules by one of ethylenedi in which the be made of all visible ground in the area common to the pair. ex compl by an oxalato-group), so as to produce a The necessity for avoiding acute graphical intersections in the common member of three symmetrical metallic atom forms a «.membered rings, XLVII. Since it is evident that only adjacent way, the possible ~o-ordination positions can be bridged in this indicated by those are ex compl lic configurations for the tricyc

are given the dotted lines in the four different diagrams whichntly sym-

fixing of points usually meant a long base, with a resulting difi-

culty in the identification of corresponding features in the two widely dissimilar views. The next step was consequently to return to a comparatively short base and at the same time to

in fig. 23, and of these the three first are evide ses only metrical and only the last is dissymmetrical, for it posses try. symme of axis al) a (trigon

eliminate the indetermination of acute graphical intersection by the parallactic measurement of distances.

The Stereocomparator.—The

first practical application of

Experimental investigation of the

this method appears

to have been in the stereocomparator

of

chromium. These compounds should exist in three isomeric forms if their configuration is hexagonal or prismatic, but in two

the examination of the plates. The stereocomparator has had an extensive application in the past, and is even now directly applied in one modern method of survey from vertical air photographs. From the practical point of view, however, its initial use suffered from two serious drawbacks, in that it required the computation of space co-ordinates from independent measurements, and that it implied a system of point by point plotting. (See also BINOCULAR INSTRUMENT: The Stereoscope.)

Tourcade in 1900. The two photographs were taken in the same vertical plane, although not necessarily at the same height, and ced produ be can shown that they were of course placed in the same plane in the comparator. BearThe in optically active forms. ings and elevations were still calculated from the photo-coand ic mmetr dissy thus ‘ons are ordinates of points on one of the pictures, while the distances RAL TAHED 24—oc Fre” last ISOMERS the must consequently have from the base were calculated from a stereoscopic measure of AND (B) TRANSconfiguration. It is therefore (A) cisparallax. The latter was effected by a lateral shift of one plate s of encie coval six s the ound comp such to be concluded that in relative to the other, until the stereoscopically reconstructed sed. ly dispo the central metallic atom are octahedral ical image of the setting feature appeared to lie at the same distance This conclusion is confirmed by the phenomena of geometr such as from the observer as the fused image of a pair of floating marks isomerism shown by complexes of the type [MA2B.], contained in the eye-pieces of a binocular microscope used for are contained in the diacidotetrammine salts of cobalt and

salts of these tricyclic ions has

only if it is octahedral, the alternative arrangements then being those in which the two groups A lie at the ends, (1) of an edge d) of the (cis-compound), and (2) of a diagonal (trans-compoun is two. found actually isomers of number octahedron, and the Moreover, in dicyclic derivatives of this type like [eneCoCl.]Cl

(en=NH>-CH»-CH»-NHz),

that isomer for which the cis-con-

figuration is indicated by its formation from a tricyclic compound

O en.Co

\ CO 7

Cl Cl

ensCo

HCl

Cl

Cl

can be obtained optically active, whilst the other, the żrensisomer, cannot be resolved in accordance with the following tridimensional formulae, fig. 25, which show the symmetry, on the octahedral representation, of the trans- and the dissymmetry of the cis-form. The general result of the stereochemical investigation of the elements has thus been to show that as a rule the valencies of an atom are disposed in space as symmetrically as possible, so that, for example, a 4-covalent atom has the four directly attached tetrahedrally atoms arranged about it, and the six atoms linked to a 6-covalent atom are grouped round it octahedrally; but it has also shown that there are wellmarked exceptions to this rule, FIG. 25.—CIS- AND TRANS- CONthe most notable*being the prob- FIGURATIONS OF DICYCLIC DERIVAable square arrangement of the TIVES disfour groups about 4-covalent platinum and the non-planar (W. H. Mi.) position of the valencies of 3-covalent sulphur. BIBLIOcRAPuY.—F. A. Kekulé, Lehrbuch der ‘organischen Chemie, (1875); 4 vols. (1861-87) ; J. H. van’t Hoff, La Chimie dans Espace Werner, trans. A. Eiloart, Arrangement of Atoms in Space (1877); A. Lehrbuch der Stereochemie (1904) ; A. Hantzsch, Grundriss der Stereochemie (1904) ; A. W. Stewart, Stereochemistry (1907); F. M. Jaeger, Lectures on the Principle of Symmetry (1917).

STEREOCOMPARATOR,

an instrument for comparing

The Thompson Stereoplotter.——The first of these disadvantages was overcome in the 1908 model of the Thompson stereoplotter, which may consequently be considered as the first example of the true plotting machine. It employed the stereocomparator principle without modification, but by the addition of a lever system.

The Stereoautograph.—The disadvantage of point by point

plotting remained in the Thompson machine and was overcome by the von Orel stereoautograph of 1909-11. It is interesting to note, however, that Thompson in 1908 had in view the construction of an automatic machine called the “stereoplanigraph.” This would no doubt have been on the same general lines as the stereoautograph had it reached maturity. The stereocomparator is again used in the von Orel machine, but the plotting system is based on intersections from the ends of the base rather than on an explicit measure of distances. Reduced to its lowest terms, it consists of two azimuth levers which are coupled to the lateral shift of the two plates. This simple arrangement would, however, introduce mechanical difficulties in the carriage of a drawing

pencil at the variable intersection of the two levers, and in the “p

Base Carriage

FIG.

1

necessity for shifting the pivots of these levers in accordance with variations in base length. Suppose, in the first alternative, that LP, RP (fig. r) were the azimuth levers; P being the plotted point and LR the base. Then if any two parallelograms LPQR’, RPP’R’ are drawn on the rays

LP, RP with a common corner at R’, it is clear that P’Q will be equal in magnitude and direction to the base LR, and that LP, R’P’ will still represent the true directions of the azimuth levers. Consequently L, R’ may represent two fixed pivots of the azimuth

levers, if the base QP’ is set inwards in magnitude and direction from a length PQ equal and parallel to LR’. Moreover the base In the earliest appli- carriage PP’Q may be moved anywhere parallel to itself by alter-

two astronomical photographs of the same star-field, commonly

combined with a Blink-microscope (q.v.).

STEREOPHOTOGRAMMETRY.

cations of photography to surveying, use was made of various to detersimple graphical constructions or calculations in order

mine bearings and angles of elevation or depression from the

camera station. In order to simplify these constructions or calculations, the photograph was usually exposed in a vertical

ation in the lengths and directions of the azimuth levers LP, RP’. The point P will always represent the position of the plotted point relative to L as left hand camera station. Similarly, P’ will always represent the position of the plotted point relative to R’ as right-hand camera station. Lastly, the actual drawing

STEREOPHOTOGRAMMETRY

396

pencil will trace a similar plot if it is placed in any fixed position relative to P or P’. It may consequently be rigidly attached any-

where to the base carriage. This simple principle, due originally to von Orel, is sometimes known as the zeiss parallelogram, and has been elaborated into several different types. These different types, which find an application in the later plotting machines, are all comprised in the fact that any or all of the three co-ordinates A

P fBase | Carriage

Drawing peee

K

A

E

AAA

=

=

=

pi

Distance Piece

camera axes had consequently to be depressed in order to include as wide a field as possible. With the World War period of im. provements in photography from the air, it became economically possible to survey flat country photographically, with the cor. responding necessity for exposing horizontal rather than vertica] plates. Further, in the case of air photographs, it is as yet impossible so to stabilize the camera or the aeroplane as to ensure

that the two plates are exposed in the same plane at all, at any rate to the degree of precision attainable by deliberate exposure on the ground. It may in fact be assumed that any type of country can be surveyed photographically provided that, in order to secure the best results, it can be photographed on a plate parallel to its mean slope. Precipitous mountain slopes require vertical, and dead flat plains horizontal plates.

Between these two extremes

there will be a particular tilt for the most efficient survey of a

a a

a

Left Plate

A

a

Right Pinte

||

R

STEREOAUTOGRAPH

FIG.

2

of one end of the base relative to the other end may be set at any of the corners of the initial parallelogram LPQR’—a statement which is evident from the simplest geometrical considerations. A diagram of the action of the stereoautograph is given in fig. 2. The azimuth control shifts the carriage of both plates, and consequently rotates the two azimuth levers AA’ by an equivalent amount. These levers slide in sleeves SS’ attached to pivots on the base carriage, which is thus moved freely along the distance piece. The sleeve pivots, PP’ correspond to the points PP’ of fig. 1, the base setting being effected on the pivot P^. The distance control moves the distance piece bodily, and parallel

to itself, towards or away from the line of pivots LR’ of the azimuth levers. In consequence, the base carriage slides down the left azimuth arm, rotating the right azimuth arm in the process and thus shifting the right-hand plate relative to the left on an upper slide. The parallactic separation of corresponding points is thus altered, so that the floating marks appear successively in stereoscopic coincidence with points whose distance from the base corresponds to the setting of the distance piece. This is of course the unmodified principle of the stereocomparator. The height system is essentially the same as in the Thompson machine, the height scale being carried on an extension of the distance piece.

By combining the movements of the three controls, the apparent movements of the floating mark can be made to follow along the detail of the reconstructed stereoscopic image, the plan of which is thus drawn automatically by a pencil attached to the base carriage. By clamping the height lever to the distance piece, the machine loses a degree of freedom. If then the distance and azimuth controls are moved so that the floating mark still appears to travel along the surface of the ground, the pencil will trace the contour corresponding to the height at which the height lever is clamped. The stereoautograph is capable of fast automatic plotting, provided that the plates are exposed in the same vertical plane. The whole principle of the stereocomparator as a means of

particular type of country, and a corresponding height of station in order to secure the necessary photographic field. The development of air photography has allowed this ideal to be approached, with the consequent demand for a plotting machine with a “universal” range in permissible orientations in space of the camera axes. The stereoautograph can, as a geometrical proposition, be adapted by certain variations in its plotting mechanism to deal with inclined or converging photographs. See O. von Gruber, “Der von Orel-Zeiss’sche Stereoautograph mit Zusatzeinrichtung zur Ausarbeitung von Luftaufnahmen,” in Internationales Archiv für Photogrammetrie (Vienna, 1923); but a different base setting is in general necessary for each contour. Moreover, corresponding points on the two photographs will, generally speaking, no longer lie at the same distance from the eye base when the photographs are placed in the same plane in the comparator, by reason of the perspective distortion due to tilt. A restricted range in tilt can in these circumstances be tolerated by the eyes without a breakdown of stereoscopic fusion, but the process cannot be continued indefinitely, even if a complicated transverse shift of the plates were introduced. The Photogoniometer.—Attempts were accordingly next made to extend the range of plotting machines by the incorporation of the Porro-Koppe photogoniometer, which uses a theodolite to measure horizontal and vertical angles from a photograph. The photograph is mounted in the plate carrier in relation to a photographic objective, which is in all respects similar to the camera objective, so that the internal perspective conditions are reproduced correctly. This implies two transverse adjustments in the plane of the photograph and afine focussing rack as the first essentials in design. The external perspective conditions are then re-established by tilting the whole camera body similarly to the field camera at exposure. This implies the possibility of tilting about a horizontal axis in order to set for the magnitude of tilt, and of rotating the photograph in its own plane about the plate perpendicular in order to set for the

determining horizontal distances from a measure of simple paral-

lax otherwise breaks down.

Moreover, if the plates are inclined,

vertical lines in nature will no longer appear parallel on the photograph, but will converge to the plumb point as vanishing point. The system of plotting azimuths in these early machines, however, obviously requires the image of vertical lines to be |

parallel, in order that the horizontal distances between points on the plate may be independent of the heights of such points.

direction of tilt. Horizontal and vertical angles as from the camera station may then be measured by means of a theodolite whose horizontal and vertical axes are arranged to intersect in or near the centre of the exit pupil of the objective. Where the photogoniometer is employed as an auxiliary in a

plotting machine, rotation in azimuth is usually given to the

camera body, while rotation in altitude only is furnished by the telescope of the theodolite. In this form the photogoniometer

is mechanically unsuitable for photographs whose axes are vertical or tilted less than about 45° from the vertical; z.e., for the majority of air photographs. Where the instrument is used

independently, however, there is no-meed to accept this limitation. Both altitude and azimuth rotations may, for instance, be imparted

to the telescope, leaving the camera body adjustable for tilt only; Before long, it became essential on the score of accuracy, or, in order to avoid moving the eye into impossible positions convenience and economy to expose Inclined plates on converging | where the camera axis approaches the vertical, the altitude moveOrientations. Even in mountainous country, where photographic ment may be furnished by the rotation of a prism in front of the survey had hitherto found its exclusive application, it was often telescope objective.

desirable to site the cameras on high ground in order to minimize the extent of dead ground not covered stereoscopically. The

Intersection Photogoniometric Machines.—The first plotting machine to employ the photogoniometer principle was the

STEREOPHOTOGRAMMETRY

bs

397

On the other hand the camera plastica type depends on depth

Hugershoff autocartograph, the photographs being observed through the goniometer lenses by a binocular telescope. The autocartograph is designed for high obliques, and there is difficulty in dealing with vertical (axis) air photographs, or indeed with

of focus on the plotting screen, and the introduction of consider-

able tilts and variations in relief is apt to strain this factor beyond

its limits of endurance, particularly as the use of a small stop is for various reasons undesirable. With automatic focussing devices and the use of rectified photographs, the range of the camera plastica might possibly be extended. The Zeiss Stereoplanigraph.—This difficulty of preserving

any photographs where the camera axis is tilted less than about

5° from the vertical. This is a direct consequence of the design of the photogoniometers, as mentioned above. Moreover the

focus during movements of the plotting plane has been success-

CT ami —— EN

a

E EEE

HS

CAMERA PLASTICA

fully overcome in the Zeiss stereoplanigraph which works on the same general principle as the camera plastica, by the introduction of an auxiliary tele-objective of variable focus. In this machine two projection cameras are fixed on a cross slide, the internal and external perspective conditions at exposure being reproduced by setting in exactly the same way as for the photogoniometers of the autocartograph. The rear nodes of the projection camera objectives form a Zeiss parallelogram with the two floating marks, any of the corners of which are thus available for setting the magnitude and direction of the base. Actually the projected length of the base is set inwards on the floating marks, while the remaining two co-ordinates defining the orientation of the base in space are set one on each of the camera units. The object of this arrangement is to provide room for the two camera units without an excessive increase

FIG. 3

azimuth levers would need to be capable of all round rotation,

and the von Orel plotting system is clearly unsuited to this

possibility. It is true that the height and distance controls of

the auxiliary drum plot can be interchanged, with the result that an elevation instead of a plan can be drawn on the drum. Consequently, if a pair of vertical (axis) photographs are placed in the position of horizontal (axis) photographs in the goniometers, it is possible to draw a direct plan from them on the drum. The Camera Plastica.—Concurrently with the intersection photogoniometric type, various efforts have been made to develop machines to deal primarily with air photographs on the principle of the camera plastica. The latter, usually avributed to Scheimpflug, is shown diagrammatically in fig. 3. Two projection cameras CC are set in the same relation to one another in the scale of the plot as the two positions of the air camera at exposure, and throw real images on a movable screen S representing the ground plane of reference. It is clear that if the screen is moved bodily towards the projection cameras (to S’ or S”) until the coincidence of corresponding images is obtained, this coincident image will represent the true plan position of the point considered, the position of the screen at the same time affording a measure of heights. Coincidence may be estimated by a flicker system which enables the two images to be thrown on the screen alternately in rapid succession, or a stereoscopic image in anaglyphic relief

in their distance from the floating marks (this being one of the disadvantages of the simple camera plastica), and at the same time to avoid superimposing the two images on a single floating mark, with the consequent necessity for visual separation by colour filters. The distance and height plotting movements are operative on the cross slide carrying the two camera units, while the direction movement is effected by a lateral shift of the two floating marks together in the direction of the line joining them. The distance and direction, or alternatively height and direction, plotting movements are coupled through gearing to a drawing pencil. This possibility of interchanging the distance and height controls enables direct plotting to be carried out either in plan or in elevation, so that it is possible to deal equally well with horizontal, vertical, or intermediately tilted photographs. In order to preserve focus on the plane of the floating marks, an auxiliary lens system, consisting of bi-convex and bi-concave lenses of equal power, is supported in front of the camera objective, the rear node of the combination coinciding approximately with the rear node of the camera objective. The combination is universally jointed on its rear node and is oriented so that its axis always passes through the floating mark, by means of the taper guide rods,

The visual system is a complicated form of stereoscopic comparator, the object of which is to observe the stereoscopic coin-

cidence of the floating marks with various objects in the landscape during plotting. It thus corresponds essentially to the anaglyph filters of a simple camera plastica. If the original

may be obtained by projecting in two colours and viewing through negatives are placed in the projection cameras, a reconstructed filters of the same colours. In the latter case plotting may be space image as in nature is formed near the plane of the floating in mark effected according to the movements of a real floating since the auxiliary lens system introduces no Inversion. marks, the plane of the screen, the depth movement being effected by is viewed in reverse it is necessary to cross the eye- ` this Since cameras. projection the towards bodily translation of the screen to avoid pseudoscopy. (See Many applications of this principle have appeared on the market, the best known being perhaps the Nistri photocartograph. In this case the two projection cameras are set by trial on con‘trol point screens. In order to preserve true perspective conditions the projection lenses are set at the principal distance of the air camera from the photographs, and must consequently be of shorter focus in order to form sharp images on the screen. Coincidence plotting is effected on the flicker system, the movements of a steel pointer over the screen being copied by a pantograph.

pieces of the visual system in order BINOCULAR INSTRUMENTS; Microscore.)

The eyepieces must for

the sake of convenience remain immovable, while the floating marks travel on the direction plotting movement. This is effected by the introduction of scissor-jointed link prisms, which also serve to facilitate the crossing of the eyepieces. Lastly the line of collimation of the instrument must be universally jointed at

the floating marks, in order that the movable part between the floating mark and the rear node of the auxiliary lens system

may be deflected in a constant direction into the visual system. This is done by means of an optical Cardan link actuated by the

The inception of this type of machine was no doubt due to the by rotation fact that the whole photograph is seen at once, and that in taper guide rods. “Leaning” of the image introducedby the differconsequence the systematic trial setting of air photographs on about the two Cardan axes is, as usual, corrected control points is much easier. Up to the present no fully economic ential rotation of a Dove prism. The Wild Autograph.—The latest complete example of method of determining independently the plate constants of the otogrammetric plotting machinery is the Wild “autostereoph air photograph has been discovered, and the computed or trial in which will be recognized the autocartograph and setting of photogoniometric machines is apt to, be protracted. graph,”

398

STEREOSCOPE—STERLING

stereoplanigraph characteristics. The projection cameras are rotatable about horizontal and vertical axes. They are connected to guide rods, which can slide in sleeves attached to universal joints at the ends of the base slide. The centres of these latter joints form a Zeiss parallelogram with the centres of rotation of the projection cameras; the base setting being effected entirely on the two former corners of the parallelogram. All the three plotting movements act on the base slide B, and are geared to a drawing pencil in exactly the same way as in the stereoplanigraph. Sympathetic movements of the projection cameras follow by reason of their connection to the base slide through the guide rods. In addition the direction plotting movement is shared by two prisms of the visual system rigidly mounted on the vertical axis of the projection cameras. Any tilts may be dealt with by an appropriate initial setting of these prisms or by tilting the whole visual system, and by an interchange of axes as in the stereoplanigraph. Owing mainly to the absence of heavy moving parts the result is a light, compact machine. This very considerable advantage is however offset by further complication, since, in order to correct the effect of the above plotting movements, it is necessary to introduce a variable rotation of the plates in their own plane; i.e., a rotation which must be varied for each particular tilt of the camera axes at exposure. This variable rotation, which is effected by a system of variable cams, is however entirely automatic, and requires no attention from the observer after the initial setting. There is little In it to go wrong or to require re-adjustment. A practical disadvantage of the machine for air work might lie in the necessity for computing the relative orientations of the camera axes in space before the machine can be set. In the case of ground surveys with the Wild phototheodolite, only a few combinations are necessary or possible, and the calculations can be done once and for all. BrsriocRaPHy.—F. V. Thompson, “Stereophoto Surveying,” in Geographical Journal (vol. xxxi., 1908); E. R. von Orel, Papers on the Stereoautograph, in Mitteilungen der K. und K. Mulitér-geographwschen Institutes (vol. xxx., 1910, and vol. xxxi., 1911) ; R. Hugershoff and A. Cranz, Grundlagen der Photogrammeirie aus Luftfahrzeugen (Stuttgart, 1919); O. von Gruber, “Der Stereoplanigraph der Firma Carl Zeiss,” in Zeitschrift far Instrumentenkunde (vol. 43, Jan. 1923); A. R. Hinks, “Mr. Wild’s Stereoplotting Machine,” in Geographical Journal (vol, Ixx., 1927). (H. Hre.)

STEREOSCOPE.

An optical instrument used for obtaining

from two slightly different pictures (z.e¢., pictures or photographs

of the same object but from a slightly different point of view), the impression of a single picture in relief. See BINOCULAR INSTRUMENT.

STEREOSCOPIC VISION: see Viston. STEREOTYPING. A process of producing duplicate printing plates from a form of type or blocks by pouring molten metal on a matrix made in plaster of paris or papier-maché. (See PRINTING.) STERILITY, the inability to beget living offspring, may be the result of any of the following causes. Absence of sexual intercourse due to the lack of appropriate psychological stimuli leading to coition. This is one factor in the mutual sterility of different species. (See HYBRIDISM.) Absence or incompleteness of coitiom due to gross abnormality of the external or internal organs of reproduction. Hermaphroditism (see article, Sex); occlusion of the ducts which convey the gametes from the sex-gland to the site of fertilisation, either congenital or acquired through disease; imperforate hymen and other structural abnormalities fall into this group. The chemical

condition of the female passages may be such as to kill the

non-fertilisation. Though as yet nothing very definite is known of the physico-chemical requirements of fertilisation there is a considerable body of evidence to show that an attraction between the male and female gametes must exist if fertilisation is to occur. Abnormalities in the fertilised egg which embarrass or prevent cleavage and development bringing these processes to a stop at some stage, death of the individual thereupon resulting. This is

the fate of many hybrid embryos.

(See HyBsrIDIsM.)

Lethal

factors (see GENETICS and Sex) also operate in this fashion. Abnormalities in the medium in which the fertilised eggs find

themselves which prevent or embarrass development. The exact constitution of the sea-water in terms of alkalinity, for example, determines whether or not the fertilised ova of marine organisms shall begin and continue their development. Pathological conditions within the uterus of the mammalian female can prevent proper implantation of the descending egg. Disharmonies between the developing offspring and the maternal environment can lead to difficult labour and death of either or of both mother and young. For example the male cattle xbison hybrid has a prominent crest and this cannot be accommodated by the maternal passages of the cow. Such male hybrids therefore usually are still-born. Contracted pelvis and similar abnormalities of the female birth-canal are common causes of death of both infant and mother. The general well-being of the mother is necessary for the normal development of the infant she bears. In the case of the human subject there are certain conditions which are essential to fertility. Healthy spermatozoa must be recelved into a healthy vagina with a normal cervix, uterus, tubes and ovaries. An examination of any case of sterility must therefore begin with an examination of the male. It is estimated that in 25 per cent of childless marriages the man is at fault. Experimentation with laboratory animals has shown that infecundity may result from deficiency of the reproductive vitamin

E (Mason, 1925). BIBLIOGRAPHY.—F. A. E. Crew et alia., Concerning Fertility and Sterility (Proc. Worlds Populat. Conference, 1927) (Arnold); S. Forsdyke, “Diagnosis and Treatment of Sterility in Women” (Brit. Med. Jour., Oct. 13, 1928); F. H. A. Marshall, The Physiology of Reproduction

(1922)

(Macmillan);

K. E. Mason, Proc. Nut. Asses of

Sciences, v. ii., 1925; K. Walker, Diagnosis and Treatment of Sterility in the Male (Brit. Med. Jour., Oct. 13, 1928). (F. A. E.C.)

STERLING, JOHN

(1806-1844), British author, was born

at Kames Castle in Bute on July 20, 1806. He belonged to a family of Scottish origin which had settled in Ireland during the Cromwellian period. He was the son of Edward Sterling (17731847), who was for many years a leader-writer on The Times. John Sterling was educated at Glasgow university and at Trinity college and Trinity Hall, Cambridge. At Cambridge he was a

member of the famous “Apostles’” Club.

With F. D. Maurice

he purchased the Athenaeum in 1828 from J. Silk Buckingham, which was not a success. In 1834 he was ordained and became curate at Hurstmonceaux, where his old tutor Julius Hare was vicar. Acting on the advice of his physician he resigned his curacy in 1835, but, according to Carlyle, the primary cause was a diver-

gence from the opinions of the Church. He died at Ventnor on Sept. 18, 1844. Sterling owes his fame to the vivid Life by Carlyle, to whom, with Hare, his papers were entrusted.

STERLING,

a term used to denote money of standard

weight or quality, especially applied to the English gold sovereign, and hence with the general meaning of recognized worth or authority, genuine, of approved excellence. The word has been generally derived from the name of “Easterlings” given to the North

German merchants who came to England in the reign of Edward I. and formed a ansa or gild in London, modelled on the earlier

one of the merchants of Cologne. Their coins were of uniform entering spermatozoa. Infecundity.——The inability to produce functional gametes is weight and excellence (cf. Matthew Paris, ann. 1247, moneta esterfound in many hybrids (see Hyermism) and in certain intersexual lingorum, propter sui materiem desiderabilem, etc., “money of the forms. In such mammals in which the testes lie normally within esterlingi, for its desirable materiel,” etc.), and thus it is supposed a scrotum, the testis if retained within the abdominal cavity does gave the name of the moneyers to a coinage of recognized fineness. not produce functional spermatozoa. Infecundity may follow This theory is based on the statement of Walter de Pinchbeck, a upon exposure to X-rays, for these destroy that tissue of the monk of the time of Edward I. (quoted in Wedgwood, Dict. of sex-gland which is concerned with the elaboration of the gametes. |Eng. Etym.). The word, however, occurs much earlier. The Roman Mutual repugnance on the part of the gametes resulting in | de Rou (1180) has “Pour ses estellins recevoir,” and “in Anglia

STERLING—STETTIN

399

unus Sterlingus per solvetur” occurs in an ordinance of Philip of Accordingly, when a second edition of the first instalment of France and Henry Il. of England of 1184, both quoted in Du Tristram was called for in three months, two volumes of Sermons Cange (Gloss. s.v. Esterlingus). The “sterling” was a coin, the by Yorick were announced. Although they had little or none of

silver penny, 240 of which went to the “pound sterling” of silver the eccentricity of the history, they proved almost as popular. Sterne’s clerical character was far from being universally injured of 5,760 grains, 925 fine, and described in a statute of Edward I., quoted in Du Cange, as “denarius Angliae qui vocatur sterlingus by his indecorous freaks as a humorist: Lord Fauconberg pre(the English penny, which is called Sterling).” The word was bor- sented the author of Tristram Shandy with the perpetual curacy rowed by most European languages and is there applied to English of Coxwold. To this new residence he went in high spirits with his success, “fully determined ta write as hard as could be,” ney. seeing no reason why he should not give the public two volumes of N.E. m. 140 U.S.A., Colorado, of city a “STERLING, Denver, on the South Platte river and Federal highways 38 and of Shandyism every year and why this should not go on for forty 138, served by the Burlington Route and the Union Pacific rail- years. Vols. ili. and iv. appeared in 1761; vols. v. and vi. in way systems; the county-seat of Logan county. The population January 1762. But he was ordered to the south of France; and was 6,415 in 1920 (87% native white) and was 7,195 in 1930 by he came back after two and a half years very little stronger. He the Federal census. The city was founded in 1878 and incorpo- was overjoyed with his reception in Paris. He continued to build up his history of the Shandy family, but the work did not progress rated in 1883. In 1900 the population was 998. STERLING, a city of Whiteside county, Illinois, U.S.A., on as rapidly as it had done. The digressions became extensive. In the north bank of Rock river, 110 m. W. of Chicago. It is on the vol. vil. the work is allowed to stand still while the writer is Lincoln highway and the Hennepin canal feeder, and is served being transported from Shandy Hall to Languedoc. Vol. vin. by the Burlington Route and the Chicago and North-western begins the long-promised story of Uncle Toby’s amours with the railways, and by motor bus lines in all directions. Pop. 8,182 in Widow Wadman. After seeing to the publication of this instal1920 (919% was native white) and was 10,012 in 1930 by the Fed- ment of Tristram and of another set of sermons—more proeral census. Rock Falls (pop. 3,893 in 1930) is just across the nouncedly Shandean in their eccentricity—he quitted England river. The cities have abundant water-power and large manufac- again in the summer of 1765, and travelled in Italy as far as turing industries, making agricultural implements. Sterling was Naples. The ninth and last and shortest volume of Tristram, concluding Toby Shandy’s amours, appeared in 1767. chartered as a city in 1857. This despatched, Sterne turned to a new project, The SentiSTERN, DANIEL: see Acoutt, Marte CaTHERINE SOPHIE mental Journey through France and Italy. Its plan admitted of DE FLAVIGNY. STERNE, LAURENCE (1713-1768), English humorist, any length that the author chose, but, after seeing the first two was the son of Roger Sterne, an English officer, and great-grand- volumes through the press in the early months of 1768, Sterne’s son of an archbishop of York. He was born at Clonmel, Ireland, strength failed, and he died in his lodgings, 41 Old Bond Street, on Nov. 24, 1713, a few days after the arrival of his father’s London, March 18, three weeks after the publication. An excellent edition of Sterne’s works, edited by Professor George regiment from Dunkirk. For ten years the boy and his mother Saintsbury, was issued in six volumes in 1894. See also J. J. Texte, moved from place to place after the regiment, from England to Rousseau et les origines du cosmopolitisme litiéraire (1895) ; Thayer, Ireland, and from one part of Ireland to another. Sterne’s early Laurence Sterne in Germany (1905); Walter Sichel, Sterne: a Study knowledge of garrison life enabled him to draw the portraits of (1910); L. Melville, Life and Letters of Laurence Sterne (2 vols. Uncle Toby and Corporal Trim. He was fixed for eight or nine 1911); G. Rabizzani, Sterne in Italia (1920); W. L. Cross, The Life

years at a school at Halifax in Yorkshire. His father died when

he was in his eighteenth year. He was sent to Jesus College, Cambridge, where he took his degree in 1736. Through the influence of his uncle, precentor and canon of York, he obtained (1738) the living of Sutton-in-the-Forest, near York. Two years after his marriage in 1741 to Elizabeth Lumley he was presented to the neighbouring living of Stillington, and did duty at both places. He was also a prebendary of York Cathedral. Sutton was Sterne’s residence for twenty uneventful years. He kept up an intimacy which had begun at Cambridge with John Hall-Stevenson (1718—1785), a witty and accomplished epicurean, owner of Skelton Hall (“Crazy Castle”) in the Cleveland district of Yorkshire. Stevenson’s various occasional sallies in verse and prose—his Fables for Grown Gentlemen (1761-1770), and his Crazy Tales (1762), bear a resemblance in spirit and turn of thought to Sterne’s work, inferior as they are in literary genius. In 1759 Sterne wrote a skit on a quarrel between Dean Fountayne

and Dr. Topham, a York lawyer, over the bestowal of an office in the gift of the archbishop. This sketch, in which Topham figures as Trim the sexton, and the author as Lorry Slim, gives an earnest of Sterne’s powers as a humorist. It was not published until after his death, when it appeared in 1769 under the title of A Political Romance, and afterwards the History of a Warm Watch-Coat. The first two volumes of Tristram Shandy were issued at York in 1759 and advertised in London on Jan. 1, 1760, and at once made a sensation. For the last eight years of his life after this sudden leap out of obscurity we have a faithful record of Sterne’s feelings and movements in letters to various persons, published in 1775 by his only child, Lydia Sterne de Medalle, and in the Letters from Yorick to Eliza (1766-1767), also published in 1775. At the end of the sermon in Tristram he had intimated that, if this sample

of Yorick’s pulpit eloquence was liked, “there are now in the possession of the Shandy family as many as will make a handsome

volume, at the world’s service, and much good may they do it.”

and Times of Laurence Sterne, new ed. (1929).

STESICHORUS

(c. 640~—555 B.c.), Greek lyric poet, a native

of Himera in Sicily, or of Mataurus a Locrian colony in the south of Italy. The story of his being struck blind for slandering Helen and recovering his sight when he recanted is told by Plato among others. We possess about thirty fragments of his poems, none of them longer than six lines. They are written in the Doric dialect, with epic licences; the metre is dactylico-trochaic. Brief as they are, they show us what Longinus meant by calling Stesichorus “most like Homer”; they are full of epic grandeur, and have a stately sublimity that reminds us of Pindar. This use of lyric for

heroic subjects is what Quintilian (/nstit. x. 1, 62) means by saying that he “sustained the burden of epic poetry with the lyre.” Several of his poems sung of the adventures of Heracles; one dealt with the siege of Thebes, another with the sack of Troy. The last is interesting as being the first poem containing that form of the story of Aeneas’s flight to which Virgil afterwards gave currency in his Aemezd. The popular legends of Sicily also inspired his muse; he was the first to introduce the shepherd Daphnis who came to a miserable end after he had proved faithless to the nymph who loved him. Stesichorus completed the form of the ode by adding the epode to the strophe and antistrophe. Fragments in T. Bergk, Poetae lyrici graeci, iii.

STETHOSCOPE, a medical instrument used in auscultation (g.v.). The single stethoscope is a straight wooden or metal tube with a small flattened bell, the surface of which is usually covered with ivory or bone at the end, which is placed against the body of the patient, and a large flat disc at the other end, for application to the ear of the observer. In the “binaural” stethoscope, which has the advantage of flexibility, the tube is divided above the bell into two flexible tubes which lead to both ears.

STETTIN, a seaport, capital of the Prussian province of Pomerania, on the Oder, 17 m. above its entrance into the Stet-

tiner Haff, 30 m. from the Baltic, 84 m. N.E. of Berlin by rail, and at the junction of lines to Stargard-Danzig and Küstrin-

STEUBEN—STEVENS

400

Breslau. Pop. (1925) 253,740. Stettin is said to have existed as a Wendish settlement in the oth century, but its first authentic appearance in history was in the r2th century, when it was known as Stedyn. From the beginning of the rath century to 1637 it was the residence of the dukes of Pomerania, one of whom gave it municipal rights in 1243. Already a leading centre of trade it entered the Hanseatic League in 1360. The Pomeranian dynasty became extinct in 1637, and in 1648 Stettin was ceded to Sweden. In 1678 it was taken from Sweden by Frederick William, elector of Brandenburg, but it was restored in 1679, only, however, to be ceded to Prussia in 1720 by the Peace of Stockholm. It was fortified more strongly by Frederick the Great. Stettin was the birthplace of the empress Catherine II. of Russia. The main part of the town occupies a hilly site on the left bank of the river, and is connected with the suburbs of Lastadie (“‘lading place” from lastadium, “burden,’) and Silberwiese, on an island formed by the Parnitz and the Danzig. Until 1874 Stettin was closely girdled by extensive and strong fortifications. The church of St. Peter, founded in 1124 and restored in 1816-17, has the distinction of being the oldest Christian church in Pomerania. Both this and the church of St. James, dating from the 14th century, are remarkable for their size. The old palace, now used as public offices, is a large but unattractive edifice. Two gateways, the Königstor and the Berliner Tor, remains of the old fortifications, are still standing. Stettin, regarded as the port of Berlin, is one of the principal ship-building centres of Germany and a place of much commercial and industrial activity. There are six floating docks, and four ice breakers keep the port open in winter. A great impulse to its trade was given in 1898 by the opening of a free harbour adjoining the suburb of Lastadie on the east bank of the Oder; this embraces a total area of 137 acres. It has two basins, with the necessary accompaniment of cranes, storehouses, etc., and the Oder from Stettin to the Haff is 23 ft. deep. STEUBEN, BARON VON, FREDERICK WILLIAM

AUGUSTUS HENRY FERDINAND

(1730-1794), German

soldier, born at Magdeburg, Prussia, Sept. 17, 1730, was a descendant of a noble family, which for generations had produced soldiers. From his 14th year, Steuben led a soldier’s life. Reared in the rigorous military school of Frederick the Great, he took part in many battles of the Seven Years’ War, where he so distinguished himself as to attract the attention of King Frederick, who appointed him as his aide-de-camp (1762). After the close of the Seven Years’ War, he resigned from the army and became grand-marshal at the court of the Prince of Hohenzollern-Hech-

(1859) ; and George W. Greene, The German Element in the War of | American Independence (Cambridge, Mass., 1876); Francis Bowen

“Life of Baron Steuben” in J. Sparks’s Library of American Biography’

|vol. viii., pp. 119-202 (1902); Rudolf Cronan, “The Army of the | American Revolution and its Organizer,” American Historical Review | vol. xxxi. pp. 455-458 (1923).

STEUBENVILLE,

a city of eastern Ohio, U.S.A., on the

Ohio river, 40 m. W. of Pittsburgh; the county seat of Jefferson county. It is served by the Pennsylvania, the Wheeling and Lake Erie, and electric railways, motor-bus and truck lines, and river packets and barges. Two highway bridges span the Ohio Pop, (1920), 28,508 (20% foreign-born white); 1930 Federal censys 35,422. The city lies on a plain 700 ft. above sea-level. surrounded

by hills rising 300-500 ft. higher, in a beautiful and fertile region containing rich deposits of coal, oil, gas, clay and building-stone, The coal-mines of the county had an output of 5,154,753 tons in 1926. There are two power plants generating 600,000 h.p. of electrical energy at the mines. The manufacturing industries are large and varied, including iron, steel, paper, glass and clay works, and the aggregate output in 1927 was valued at $61,500,000. Bank clearings in 1927 amounted to $135,845,732. Steubenville was planned in 1797, immediately after the erection of the county, on the site of Ft. Steuben (built 1786 and named after Baron von Steuben). It was chartered as a city in 1851. STEVENAGE, an urban district of Hertfordshire, England,

284 m. N. of London by the L.N.E. railway. Pop. (1931) 5,476,

The church of St. Nicholas, with a graceful tower and spire, is mainly Early English, but has Norman and later portions. There is a grammar school, founded in 1558.

STEVENS,

ALFRED

(1818-1875), British sculptor, was

born at Blandford in Dorset on Jan. 28, 1818. He was the son of a house painter. In 1833 the rector of his parish sent him to Italy, where he spent nine years in study at Naples, Rome, Florence, Milan and Venice. He had never been at an English school. In 1841 Thorwaldsen employed him for a year in Rome. After this he left Italy for England, and in 1845 he obtained a tutorial position in the School of Design, London, which he held until 1847. In 1850 he became chief artist to a Shefheld firm of workers in bronze and metal. In 1852 he returned to London. To this period belongs his design for the vases on the railings in front of the British Museum, and also the lions on the dwarf posts which were subsequently transferred to the inside of the

museum.

In 1856 Stevens agreed to execute the Wellington

monument for St. Paul’s Cathedral for the sum of £20,000. Stevens died in London on May 1, 1875. See SCULPTURE:

British; Sir William

Armstrong,

Alfred Stevens

ingen, and, after a service of ten years, accepted a similar position at the court of the margrave of Baden. In 1777, his old

(1881) ; H. Stannus, Alfred Stevens (1891).

friend the count of St. Germain, then the French minister of war, persuaded him to go to the assistance of the American colonists. Steuben arrived at Portsmouth (N.H.), on Dec. 1, 1777, and

born in Brussels on May 11, 1828. His father, an officer in the service of William I., king of the Netherlands, encouraged his

offered his services to Congress as a volunteer. In March 1778 he began drilling the inexperienced soldiers at Valley Forge; and by May he was made inspector-general or drill-master. He trained the soldiers admirably, adapting Prussian military ideas to the needs of his pupils. Results of his work were shown in the next campaign, particularly at Monmouth, where he rallied the disordered, retreating troops of Gen. Charles Lee. His Regulations for the Order and Discipline of the Troops of the United States (1779) was of great value to the army. He was a member of the court-martial which tried Maj. John André in 1780, and after Gen. Horatio Gates’s defeat at Camden was placed in command of the district of Virginia, with instructions “to collect, organize, discipline and expedite the recruits for the Southern Army.” In April 178r he was superseded in command of Virginia by La Fayette, and later took part in the siege of Yorktown. Retiring from the service after the war, he passed the last years of

STEVENS,

ALFRED

(1828-1906), Belgian painter, was

son’s talent and sent him to draw in the studio of Francois Navez, director of the Brussels Academy. In 1844 Stevens went to Paris

and worked under Camille Roqueplan, a friend of his father's; he also attended the classes at the École des Beaux Arts, where

Ingres was then professor. In 1849 he settled in Paris, where he exhibited in the Salons. In 1855 he exhibited at the Antwerp Salon a little picture called “At Home,” which showed his genius for depicting ladies of fashion. Henceforth he concentrated on graceful female subjects. At the Historical Exhibition of Belgian Art, Brussels, 1880, he exhibited “The Four Seasons” (in the

Palace at Brussels), “The Parisian Sphinx,” “The Japanese Mask,”

“The Japanese Robe,” and “The Lady-bird” (Brussels Gallery).

He died on Aug. 24, 1906. See J. du

Jardin,

L'Art

flamand (6 vols., 1896-1900); Camille

Lemonnier, Histoire des beaux arts en Belgique (1882; 2nd ed., 1887).

STEVENS, HENRY

(1819-1886), American bibliographer,

his life at Steubenville (N.Y.), where he died on Nov. 28, 1794.

was born in Barnet, Vt., on Aug. 24, 1819. He studied at Middle-

New

bury college, Vermont, and graduated at Yale in 1843, teaching

York, Virginia, Pennsylvania

and New Jersey gave him

grants of land for his services, and Congress passed a vote of thanks and gave him a gold-hilted sword in 1784, and later granted

him a pension of $2,400. See Frederick Kapp, The Life of Frederick William von Steuben

to pay his way and for a time acting as a Government clerk. In this capacity he won the friendship of Col. Peter Force, who employed him to collect books, pamphlets and manuscripts for the American archives on his return to Yale and during his year

STEVENS—STEVENSON at the Cambridge, Mass., law school. His commissions from Force and other collectors took him abroad, where he ransacked the European capitals for rare Americana for the Smithsonian Institution, the library of Congress, and such private buyers as John Carter Brown and James Lenox. At the suggestion of Sir

Anthony Panizzi, the librarian of the British Museum, he also supplied that institution with many American books. He died at Hampstead, London, England, on Feb. 28, 1886.

Perhaps his most notable achievement was his redemption of the Franklin manuscripts, which were finally disposed of to the U.S. Government. He wrote: Catalogue of the American Books in the Library of the British Museum (1856); Historical N uggets, Bibliotheca Americana (1862); Historical and Geographical Notes on the Earliest Discoveries in America (1869); Benjamin Frank-

lin’s Life and Writings (1881); Recollections of Mr. James Lenox _.. and the Formation of His Library (1886); and Thomas Horiot (1900); edited by his son, H. N. Stevens. STEVENS, JOHN (1749-1838), American inventor, was born in New York City in 1749, graduated at Columbia university

in 1768, subsequently studied law and was admitted to the New York bar in 1771. In 1776 he became a captain in the Revolution-

ary army, and later colonel of his own regiment. From 1777 to 1782 he served as treasurer of the State of New Jersey. In 1784 he built a home on what was then the Island of Hoboken, subsequently, when connected with the mainland, known as Stevens Point, where he resided for over half a century until his death March 6, 1838. He purchased the ferry to New York and much of the main New Jersey shore. Along the road leading to the

401

boat’s entrance to the landing-place. In 1830 he was made first president of the Camden and Amboy

railway and went to England to inspect equipment already in use there. On the outward voyage he designed the “T” rail with a broad base, long known as the Stevens, or American rail, and now universally used. He contracted in England for 500 tons of such rails, the first made, and also placed an order with the Stephen-

sons for a locomotive made according to his specifications. This was the famous “John Bull” which he brought to America on his return, and which is now in the Smithsonian Institution. He made many improvements on railway locomotives, introducing the pilot truckin 1832,the bogie truck shortly afterwards, and, finally, using

eight instead of four or six wheels in order to promote adhesion to the rails and drawing power. When stone blocks could not be furnished fast enough for his road-bed he resorted to logs laid crosswise with broken stone and gravel between and discovered that he had found a bed more serviceable and comfortable than any known previously. He devised spikes “six inches long with heads” to hold the rails in place on the logs. As a recreation Stevens took up yachting, and in 1844 he designed the “Maria,” for twenty years the swiftest yacht “America” for his brother, John Cox all English challengers, and founded died at Hoboken, New Jersey, April

STEVENS, THADDEUS

afloat. Later he designed the Stevens, who with it defeated the America’s Cup races. He 20, 1856.

(1792-1868), American political

leader, was born in Danville, Vt., on April 4, 1792. He graduated at Dartmouth college in 1814, removed to York, Pa., was admitted to the bar (in Maryland), and for 15 years practised at Gettysburg, Pa. He frequently appeared in behalf of fugitive slaves beferry landing he began the development of the city of Hoboken. The problem of safe and speedy transportation across the Hud- fore the Pennsylvania courts. In 1840 he did much to bring about son drew his interest early to the possibilities of steam navigation. the election of W. H. Harrison, and in the campaign of 1844 In 1788 he built the first multitubular boiler on record for use in Stevens again rendered marked services to the Whig ticket. He his marine engines. In a desire to protect this invention he peti- was a Whig representative in Congress in 1849-53, and was leader tioned Congress for a patent law, which he outlined, and which of the radical Whigs and Free-Soilers, strongly opposing the Comwas passed as the Patent Law of 1790 the foundation of the promise Measures of 1850, and. being especially bitter in his depresent patent system. He was the first to apply the principle of nunciations of the Fugitive Slave law. In 1855 he took a promscrew propulsion to navigation, building in 1802 a steamboat with inent part in organizing the Republican party in Pennsylvania, two underwater propellers of screw type in the stern which suc- and in 1856 was a delegate to the Republican national convention. cessfully crossed the Hudson several times and only failed because He became chairman of the ways and means committee on July the inefficient boilers of that day could not generate enough power 4, 1861, and until his death was, as James G. Blaine said, “the to make the screw device practical. He turned then toward the natural leader who assumed his place by common consent.” Durdevelopment of high pressure steam engines and boilers in which ing the Civil War he was instrumental in having necessary revfield he was a pioneer. But a few days after Fulton’s successful enue measures passed in behalf of the administration. He was trial of the “Clermont” Stevens launched the “Phoenix,” the not, however, in perfect harmony with Lincoln, who was far more engine of which was built by Stevens himself, whereas that of the conservative than Stevens. He introduced from the joint commit“Clermont” was imported from England. Fulton having received tee what became the Fourteenth Amendment, and also the Recona monopoly grant of navigation rights on the Hudson, Stevens sent struction Act of Feb. 6, 1867. He also advocated the Freedmen’s the “Phoenix” by sea to Philadelphia, the first voyage of a steam- Bureau bills and the Tenure of Office Act, and went beyond Conship on ocean waters. Stevens was also interested in railways, gress in favouring the confiscation of the property of the Conwriting In 1812 a pamphlet entitled Documents tending to prove federate States. He led Congress in the struggle with President the Superior Advantages of Railways and Steam Carriages over Johnson, and after the President’s removal of Secretary of War Canal Navigation. On February 6, 1815, he obtained the first Stanton he reported the impeachment resolution to the house and railway charter granted in America

for a railway between

the

Delaware and Raritan rivers, but it was not until 1830 that he formed the Camden and Amboy Railway company, and 1832 that he completed the first railway across New Jersey, operated by his

sons Robert L. Stevens (g.v.) and Edward A. Stevens.

See A.D. Turnbull, John Stevens: An American Record (1928).

STEVENS, ROBERT LIVINGSTON (1787-1856), American mechanical engineer, was born at New York City on Oct. 18, 1787, the son of John Stevens (g.v.) whose mechanical ability he inherited. Whereas the father spent most of his thought on the improvement of motive-power and machinery of steamhoats, the son made many advances in construction, strengthening hulls, reducing weight, distributing strain and improving the lines

was chairman of the committee appointed to draft the articles of impeachment. He died at Washington, D.C., on Aug. 11, 1868, and was buried at Lancaster, Pa. See S. W. McCall’s Thaddeus Stevens (1899), in the American Statesmen Series, a sympathetic, but judicious biography; J. F. Rhodes, History of the United States from the Compromise of r850 (1904); W. U. Hensel, “Thaddeus Stevens as a Country Lawyer,” Green Bag, vol. xviii. p- 641-656 (1906); James Albert Woodburn,

“The Attitude of Thaddeus Stevens Toward the Conduct of the War,” American History Review, vol. xii. p. 567-583 (1907); and James Albert Woodburn, The Life of Thaddeus Stevens.

STEVENSON, ROBERT

(1772-1850), Scottish engineer,

was the only son of Alan Stevenson, partner in a West Indian

house in Glasgow, and was born in that city on June 8, 1772. He

duced on the “New Philadelphia,” enabled that steamer to break previous records and be the first of Hudson river steamers to go

was educated at Anderson’s College, Glasgow, and at Edinburgh University. He assisted his stepfather, Thomas Smith, in lighthouse schemes, and at nineteen was sent to superintend the erec-

on the Hudson. In 1822 he built the ferryboat “Hoboken” on modern lines and introduced the piled slip which directed the

Lighthouses, and from 1797 to 1843, he designed and built a large number of lighthouses, the most important being that on the Bell

to gain speed. He designed the false bow, which, when first intro-

from Albany to New York during daylight. With this steamer and tion of a lighthouse on the island of Little Cumbrae. Subsequently the “North America,” the Stevens family inaugurated a day line he succeeded Smith as engineer to the Commissioners of Northern

4.02

STEVENSON

Rock, begun in 1807. On his advice an admiralty survey was established, from which the admiralty sailing directions for the coasts of Great Britain and Ireland were prepared. Stevenson published an Account of the Bell Rock Lighthouse in 1824, contributed to the Encyclopedia Britannica, and wrote various papers read before learned societies. He died at Edinburgh on July 12, 1850.

STEVENSON, ROBERT LOUIS BALFOUR (18501894), British essayist, novelist and poet, was the only child of Thomas Stevenson, civil engineer, and his wife, Margaret Isabella Balfour. He was born at 8 Howard Place, Edinburgh, on Nov. 13, 1850. He suffered from infancy from great fragility of health, and nearly died in 1858 of gastric fever, which left much constitutional weakness behind it. He went to school, mainly in Edinburgh, from 1858 to 1867. As his health improved it was hoped that he would be able to adopt the family profession of civil engineering, and in 1868 he went to Anstruther and then to Wick as a pupil engineer. In 1871 he had so far advanced as to receive the silver medal of the Edinburgh Society of Arts for a paper suggesting improvements in lighthouse apparatus. His earliest publication, the anonymous pamphlet of The Pentland Rising, had appeared in 1866, and The Charity Bazaar, a trifle in which his future manner is happily displayed, in 1868. Though he greatly enjoyed the outdoor business of the engineer’s life it strained his physical endurance too much, and in 1871 it was reluctantly exchanged for study at the Edinburgh bar, to which he was called in 1875. In 1873 he first met Sidney Colvin, who was to prove the closest of his friends and at last the loyal and admirable editor of his works and his correspondence. He was now labouring, with extreme assiduity, to ground himself in the forms and habits of literary style. In 1875 appeared, anonymously, his Appeal to the Clergy of the Church of Scotland, and in that year he made the first of many visits to the forest of Fontainebleau. Meanwhile at Mentone in the winter of 1873-1874 he had grown in mind under the shadow of extreme physical weakness, and in the following spring began to contribute essays of high originality to one or two periodicals, of which the Cornhill, then edited by Leslie Stephen, was at first the most important. Stevenson made no attempt to practise at the bar, and the next years were spent in wanderings in France, Germany and Scotland. Records of these journeys were published as An Inland Voyage (1878), and as Travels with a Donkey in the Cevennes (1879). During these four years Stevenson’s health, which was always bettered by life out of doors, gave him little trouble. At Fontainebleau in 1876 Stevenson had met Mrs. Osbourne, the lady who afterwards became his wife; she returned to her home in California in 1878, and in August of the

ing pilgrimage of Stevenson’s life. The Silverado Squatters was published in 1883, and also the more important Treasure Island

which made Stevenson for the first time a popular writer. He

planned a vast amount of work, but his schemes were all frustrated in January 1884 by the most serious illness from which he had yet suffered. The attack was followed by long prostration

and incapacity for work, and by continued relapses. In July he

was brought back to England, and from this time until August

1887 Stevenson’s home was at Bournemouth.

In 1885 he pub.

lished, after long indecision, his volume of poems, A Child’s Gop.

den of Verses, an inferior story, The Body Snatcher, and that admirable romance, Prince Otto, in which the peculiar quality

of Stevenson’s style was displayed at its highest. He also col. laborated with W. E. Henley in some plays, Beau Austin, Admiral Guinea and Robert Macaire. Early in 1886 he struck the public

taste with precision in his wild symbolic tale of The Strange Case

of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde. In the summer of the same year he published Kidnapped, which had been written at Bournemouth, Stevenson printed privately as a pamphlet, in June 1887, a brief and touching sketch of his father. In July he published his volume of lyrical poems called Underwoods. The ties which bound him to England were now severed, and he determined to remove to another hemisphere. He sailed from London, with his wife, mother and stepson, for New York on Aug. 17, 1887. He never set foot in Europe again. His memoir of his friend Professor Fleeming Jenkin was published soon after his departure. After resting at Newport, he went for the winter to be under the care of a physician at Saranac Lake in*the Adirondacks. In this retreat he was very quiet, and steadily active with his

pen, writing both the greater part of the Master of Ballantrae and many of his finest later essays. He had undertaken to con-

tribute a monthly essay to Scribner’s Magazine, and these essays, twelve in number, were published continuously throughout the year 1888. Early in that year was begun The Wrong Box, a farcical romance’in which Mr. Lloyd Osbourne participated; Stevenson also began a romance about the Indian Mutiny, which he

abandoned. His attitude about this time to life and experience is reflected in Pulvis et umbra, one of the noblest of all his essays. In April 1888 he was at the coast of New Jersey for some weeks, and in June started for San Francisco, where he had ordered a schooner, the “Casco,” to be ready to receive him, On the 28th of the month, he started, as Mr. Colvin has said, “on what was only intended to be a pleasure excursion .. . but turned into a voluntary exile prolonged until the hour of his death”: he never again left the waters of the Pacific. The “Casco” proceeded first to the Marquesas, and south and east to Tahiti, passing before Christmas northwards to Honolulu, where Stevenson spent six

following year, alarmed at news of her illness, Stevenson hur- months and finished The Master of Ballantrae and The Wrong riedly crossed the Atlantic. He travelled, from lack of means, as Box. It was during this time that he paid his famous visit to the a steerage passenger and then as an emigrant, and in December, leper settlement at Molokai. In 1889, “on a certain bright June after hardships which seriously affected his health, he arrived in day,” the Stevensons sailed for the Gilbert Islands, and after six San Francisco. In May 1880 he married, and moved to the months’ cruising found themselves at Samoa, where he landed desolate mining-camp which he has described in The Silverado for the first time about Christmas Day 1889. On this occasion, Squatters. Some of his most poignant and most enchanting let- however, though strongly drawn to the beautiful island, he stayed ters were written during this romantic period of his life. In the not longer than six weeks, and proceeded to Sydney, where early autumn of 1880 he returned to Scotland, with his wife and step- in 1890, he published, in a blaze of righteous anger, his Father son, who were received at once into the Edinburgh household of Damien: an Open Letter to the Rev. Dr. Hyde of Honolulu, in his parents. But the condition of his health continued to be very vindication of the memory of Father Damien and his work among alarming, and they went almost immediately to Davos, where he the lepers of the Pacific. Meanwhile his volume of Ballads was remained until the spring of 1881. In this year was published published in London. Virgimbus puerisque, the earliest collection of Stevenson’s essays. The last four years of his unquiet life were spent at Samoa, in He spent the summer months in Scotland, writing articles, poems, circumstances of such health and vigour as he had never preand above all his first romance, The Sea-Cook, afterwards known viously enjoyed, and in surroundings singularly picturesque. In as Treasure Island; but he was driven back to Davos in October. November 1890 he made his abode at Vailima, where he took a In 1882 appeared Familiar Studies of Men and Books and New small barrack of a wooden box 500 ft. above the sea, and began Arabian Nights. His two winters at Davos had done him some to build himself a large house close by. The natives gave him good, but his summers in Scotland invariably undid the benefit. the name of Tusitala. He took up the cause of the deposed king He therefore determined to reside wholly in the south of Europe, Mataafa with extreme ardour, and he wrote a book, A Footnote and in the autumn of 1882 he settled near Marseilles. This did to History: Eight Years of Trouble in Samoa (1892), in the not suit him, but from March 1883 to July 1884 he was at home endeavour to win over British sympathy to his native friends. at a charming house called La Solitude, above Hyéres; this was In the autumn of this year he received a visit at Vailima from in many ways to be the happiest station in the painful and hurry- the countess of Jersey, in company with whom and some others

4.03

STEVENSON—STEVINUS ne wrote the burlesque extravagance in prose and verse, called An Object of Pity, privately printed in 1893 at Sydney. When-

Family (1899), with the critical and biographical Sidney Colvin; Vailima Letters, to Sidney Colvin

ever the cultivation of his estate and the vigorous championship

of his Samoan retainers gave him the leisure, Stevenson was during these years almost wholly occupied in writing romances of Scottish life. The Wrecker, an adventurous tale of American life, which mainly belonged to an earlier time, was written in collaboraand tion with Mr. Lloyd Osbourne and finally published in 1892; towards the close of that very eventful and busy year he began The Justice Clerk, afterwards Weir of Hermiston. In 1893

Stevenson published the Scottish romance of Catriona, written as a sequel to Kidnapped, and the three tales illustrative of Pacific Ocean character, Island Nights’ Entertainments. But in

1893 the uniform good fortune which had attended the Stevensons

since their settlement in Samoa began to be disturbed. The whole family at Vailima became ill, and the final subjugation of his protégé Mataafa, and the destruction of his party in Samoan politics, deeply distressed and discouraged Stevenson. In a series of letters to Te Times he exposed the policy of the chief justice, Mr. Cedercrantz, and the president of the council, Baron Senfft. He so influenced public opinion that both were removed from office. In the autumn of that year he went for a change of scene to the Sandwich Islands, but was taken ill there, and was only too glad to return to Samoa. In 1894 he was greatly cheered by the

plan, suggested by friends in England and carried out by them with the greatest energy, of the noble collection of his works in twenty-eight volumes,

since known

as the Edinburgh

edition.

In September 1894 was published The Ebb Tide, the latest of his

books which he saw through the press.

Of Stevenson’s daily

avocations, and of the temper of his mind through these years of romantic exile, a clear idea may be obtained by the posthumous Vailima Letters, edited by Mr. Sidney Colvin in 1895. Through 1894 he was engaged in composing two romances, neither of which he lived to complete. He was dictating Weir of Hermiston,

apparently in his usual health, on the day he died. This was Dec.

3, 1894; he was gaily talking on the verandah of his house at Vailima when he had a stroke of apoplexy, from which he never recovered consciousness, and passed away painlessly in the course of the evening. His body was carried next day by sixty sturdy Samoans, who acknowledged Stevenson as their chief, to the summit of the precipitous peak of Vaea, where he had wished to be buried, with the Pacific Ocean at his feet. The charm of the personal character of Stevenson and the romantic vicissitudes of his life are so predominant in the minds of all who knew him, or lived within earshot of his legend, that they made the ultimate position which he will take in the history of English literature somewhat difficult to decide. That he was the most attractive figure of a man of letters in his generation is admitted; and the acknowledged fascination of his character was

preface by Mr. (1895), and the

Life of Robert Louis Stevenson by Graham Balfour (Igor)

A com-

plete edition of Stevenson’s works was issued at Edinburgh in 1894-98. Bibliographies of the works of R. L. Stevenson were published by J. H. Slater (1914) and by W. F. Prideaux (1917). See Prof. Walter Raleigh, R. L. Stevenson (1898) ; Isobel Strong and Lloyd Osbourne, Memeries of Vadima (1903); F. A. Swinnerton,

R. L. Stevenson:

a critical study (x914); G. Balfour, The Life of

Robert Louis Stevenson (1918 rev. ed. 1922); G. E. Brown, A Book of R. L. S. Works, travels, friends and commentatars (1919); R. O. Masson, Life of R. L. Stevenson (Edinburgh, 1923); A. St. John Adcock, Robert Louis Stevenson: his work and his personality (1924) ; J. A. Stewart, R. L. Stevenson, Man and Writer (2 vols., 1924); G. S. Hellman, The True Stevenson: A study in clarification (1925).

STEVENSON, WILLIAM

(4. 1575), probable author of

the English comedy Gammer Gurton’s Needle, was born at Hunwick, Durham, matriculated in 1546, took his M. A. degree in 1553, and became B.D. in 1560. Stevenson was a fellow of Christ’s college, Cambridge, from 1551 to 1554 and from 1559 to 1561. He was made a prebendary of Durham in 1560-61 and died in 1575. Gammer Gurton’s Needle is the second extant English comedy, properly so-called. William Stevenson is known to have written a play which was acted at Christ’s college in 1553-54; and in the accounts of Christ’s college for 1559-60 is the entry, “Spent at Mr. Stevenson’s plaie, 5s.” Contemporary Puritan writers in the Marprelate tracts allude to Dr. John Bridges, dean of Salisbury, author of A Defence of the Government of the Church of England, as the reputed author of Gammer Gurton’s Needle, but he obviously could not be properly described as “Mr. S.” He took his M.A. degree at Pembroke college, Cambridge, in 1560. He may possibly have been a coadjutor, See Henry Bradley’s essay prefixed to his edition of the play in Representative English Comedies (1903). The piece is also reprinted in Dodsley’s Old Plays (vol. 1., 1744; vol. 2., 1780) ; in Ancient British Drama (1810), vol. 1.3 and in J. M. Manley’s Specimens of the PreShakespearean Drama (Boston, U.S.A., 1897). See also H. F. B. BrettSmith’s edition of Gammer Gurton’s Needle (Percy Reprints, 1920).

STEVENS POINT, a city of central Wisconsin, U.S.A., on

the Wisconsin river; the county seat of Portage county. It is on Federal highways ro and 51, and is served by the Green Bay and Western and the Soo Line railways. Pop. (1920) 11,371; Im 1930

it was 13,623. The village was incorporated in 1847 and was chartered as a city in 1858.

STEVENSTON, manufacturing town and parish of Ayrshire,

Scotland. Pop. (1921) 8,575. It is situated about r m. from Saltcoats on the coast of the Firth of Clyde, 29 m. S.W. of Glas-

gow by the L.M.S. railway. There are coal-mines, large ironworks and foundries, and, along the shore, the works of Nobel’s Explosives company. Pop. of civil parish (rg31) 11.572.

STEVINUS,

SIMON

(1548-1620), Dutch mathematician,

was born in 1548 at Bruges and died in 1620 at The Hague or in deepened, and was extended over an extremely wide circle of Leyden. He was director of the “waterstaet,” and afterwards readers, by the publication in 1899 of his Letters, which have sub- quartermaster-general, Stevinus was known to his contemporaries dued even those who were rebellious to the entertainment of his by his military methods and inventions; he invented defence by 4 hooks. It is therefore from the point of view of its “charm” that system of sluices which was of great importance in the Netherthe genius of Stevenson must be approached, and in this respect lands. He also invented a carriage with sails which was used on the there was between himself and his books, his manners and his seashore and carried 26 passengers. style, his practice and his theory, a very unusual harmony. In his Statics and Hydrostatics (Leyden, 1586) he enunciated The personal appearance of Stevenson has often been described: the important theorem of the triangle of forces. This gave a new he was tall, extremely thin, dark-haired, restless, compelling atten- impetus to the study of statics, which had previously been founded tion with the lustre of his wonderful brown eyes. Whatever may on the theory of the lever. He discovered the hydrostatic paradox be the ultimate order of reputation among his various books, or that the downward pressure of a liquid is independent of the whatever posterity may ultimately see fit to ordain as regards the shape of the vessel, and depends only on its height and base. popularity of any of them, it is difficult to believe that the time In 1586 he published a pamphlet of a few pages, the French will ever come in which Stevenson will not be remembered as the translation of which is entitled La Disme enseignant facilement most beloved of the writers of that age which he did so much to expédier par Nombres Entiers sans rompuz tous Comptes se rencheer and stimulate. (E. G.; X.) contrans aux Affaires des Hommes. In this he treated decimal Decimal fractions and fractions had been employed for R. L, Stevenson’s other works include: Memories and Portraits fractions. of square roots some five centuries before his time, extraction the (1887); The Merry Men and other Tales and Fables (1887); The Black Arrow (1888); Edinburgh: Picturesque Notes (1889); Across but nobody before Stevinus established their daily use. He dethe Plains, witk other Memories and Essays (1892), and the post- clared the universal introduction of decimal coinage, measures humous works, Songs of Travel and other Verses (1896), St. Ives (1899), completed by Sir A. T. Quiller Couch; A Stevenson Medley (1899); In the South Seas: experiences ... on the “Casco” (1888)

and the Equator (1889) (1900). See the Letters of Stevenson to his

and weights to be only a question of time. His notation is rather unwieldy. He printed little circles round the exponents of the

different powers of one-tenth. For instance, 2377's% was printed

404 237

STEWART 5 @)7@8@);

and the fact that Stevinus meant those

encircled numerals to denote mere exponents is evident from his employing the same sign for powers of algebraic quantities, e.g.,

94 — 14@ +6@®—

5 to denote ox*— 14x94 62—5.

A number of his writings were translated into Latin by W. Snellius. There are two complete editions in French of his works (Leyden, 1608 and 1634) by Albert Girard. See Steichen, Vie et travaux de Simon Stevin (Brussels, 1846) ; M. Cantor, Geschichte der Mathematik.

STEWART, STUART or STEUART, the surname of a family which inherited the Scottish and ultimately the English crown. Their descent is traced to a Breton immigrant, Alan the son of Flaald, which Flaald was a brother of Alan, steward (or seneschal) of Dol in Brittany. This elder Alan, whose name occurs in Breton documents before ro80, went on crusade in 1097, and was apparently succeeded by his brother Flaald, whose son, the younger Alan, enjoyed the favour of Henry I., who bestowed on him Mileham and its barony in Norfolk, where he founded Sporle Priory. By the daughter of Ernulf de Hesdin (in Picardy), a Domesday baron, he was father of at least three sons: Jordan, who succeeded to the family office of steward of Dol; William, who inherited Mileham and other estates in England, and who founded the great baronial house of Fitz Alan (afterwards earls of Arundel); and Walter, who was made by David I. steward (dapifer) or seneschal of Scotland. The Scottish king conferred on Walter various lands in Renfrewshire, including Paisley, where he founded the abbey in 1163. Walter, his grandson, third steward, was appointed by Alexander II. justiciary of Scotland, and, dying in 1246, left four sons and three daughters. The third son, Walter, obtained by marriage the earldom of Menteith, which ultimately came by marriage to Robert, duke of Albany, son of Robert II. Alexander, fourth steward, the eldest son of Walter, third steward, inherited by his marriage with Jean, grand-

daughter of Somerled, the islands of Bute and Arran, and on Oct. 2, 1263 led the Scots against Haakon IV., king of Norway, at Largs. He had two sons, James and Jobn. The latter, who commanded the men of Bute at the battle of Falkirk in 1298; had seven sons: (1) Sir Alexander, whose grandson George became in 1389 earl of Angus, the title afterwards passing in the female line to the Douglases, and in 1761 to the duke of Hamilton; (2) Sir Alan of Dreghorn, ancestor of the earls and dukes of Lennox, from whom Lord Darnley, husband of Queen Mary, and also Lady Arabella Stuart, were descended; (3) Sir Walter, who obtained the barony of Garlies, Wigtownshire, from his uncle John Randolph, earl of Moray, and was the ancestor of the earls of Galloway, younger branches of the family being the Stewarts of Tonderghie, Wigtownshire, and also those of Physgill and Glenturk in the same county; (4) Sir James, who fell at Dupplin in 1332, ancestor of the lords of Lorn, on whose descendants were

conferred at different periods the earldoms of Athole, Buchan and Traquair, and who were also the progenitors of the Stewarts

of Appin, Argyllshire, and of Grandtully, Perthshire; (5) Sir John, killed at Halidon Hill in 1333; (6) Sir Hugh, who fought under Edward Bruce in Ireland; and (7) Sir Robert of Daldowie, ancestor of the Stewarts of Allanton and of Coltness. James

to the house of Stewart in the person of James, second son of Sir James Stewart, the black knight of Lorn, by Joan or Joanna widow of King James I. From Murdoch, duke of Albany, were descended the Stewarts of Ardvoirlich and other families of the name in Perthshire, and also the Stuarts of Inchbreck and Laithers Aberdeenshire. From a natural son of Robert II. were descended

the Steuarts of Dalguise, Perthshire, and from a natural son of

Robert ILI. the Shaw Stewarts of Blackball and Greenock. The

direct male line of the royal family terminated with the death of James V. in 1542, whose daughter Mary was the first to adopt the spelling “Stuart.” Mary was succeeded in her lifetime in 1567 by her only son James VI., who through his father Lord Darnley was also head of the second branch, there being no surviving male issue of the family from progenitors later than Robert IT, In James V., son of James IV. by Margaret, daughter of Henry VIL., the claims of Margaret’s descendants became merged in the

Scottish line, and on the death of Queen Elizabeth of England,

the last surviving descendant of Henry VIII., James VI. of Scot. land, lineally the nearest heir, was proclaimed king of England, in accordance with the arrangements made by Lord Burghley and Elizabeth’s other advisers. The accession of James was, however, contrary to the will of Henry VIII., which favoured the heirs of his younger sister Mary, wife of Charles Brandon, duke of Suffolk. By the usurpation of Cromwell the Stuarts were excluded from

the throne from the defeat of Charles I. at Naseby in 1645 until the restoration of his son Charles II. on May 8, 1660. On the death of Charles II. without issue in 1685, his brother James, duke of York, ascended the throne as James II., but he so alienated the sympathies of the nation by his unconstitutional efforts to further the Roman Catholic religion that an invitation was sent to the prince of Orange to come “to the rescue of the laws and religion of England.” Next to the son of James II., still an infant under his father’s control, Mary, princess of Orange, elder daughter of James II., had the strongest claim to the crown; but the claims of the prince of Orange also, even apart from his marriage, were not very remote, since he was the son of Mary, eldest daughter of Charles I. The marriage had strengthened the claims of both, and they were proclaimed joint sovereigns of England on Feb. 12, 1689, Scotland following the example of England on April 11. They left no issue, and the Act of Settlement, passed In 1701, excluding Roman Catholics from the throne, secured the succession to Anne, second daughter of James II., and on her death without issue (1714) to the Protestant house of Hanover, descended from the princess Elizabeth, daughter of James I., wife of Frederick V., count palatine of the Rhine. George, elector of Hanover, eldest son of Sophia (youngest child of the princess Elizabeth), and Ernest, elector of Brunswick-Liineburg, or Hanover, became sovereign of Great Britain and Ireland. The female issue of James IT. ended with the death of Anne. James, called James III. by the Jacobites and the Old Pretender by the Hanoverians, had two sons—Charles Edward, the Young Pretender, who died without legitimate issue in 1780, and Henry Stuart, titular duke of York, commonly called Cardinal York, on whose death in 1807 the male line of James II. came to an end. Henry was also the last descendant in the lineal male line of any of the crowned heads of the race, so far as either England or Scotland

Stewart, the elder son of Alexander, fourth steward, succeeded his father in 1283, and, after distinguishing himself in the wars of Wallace and of Bruce, died in 1309. His son Walter, sixth was concerned. In the female line, however, there are among the steward, who had joint command with Sir James Douglas of the descendants of James I. representatives of the royal Stuarts who left wing at the battle of Bannockburn, married Marjory, daughter are senior to the house of Hanover, for Philip, duke of Orleans of Robert the Bruce, and during the latter’s absence in Ireland (brother of Louis XIV.), married, as his first wife, Henrietta, was entrusted with the government of the kingdom. He died in daughter of Charles I., and, as his second, Charlotte, granddaugh1326, leaving an only son, who as Robert II. ascended the throne ter and heiress of the princess Elizabeth (daughter of James I.). of Scotland in 137r. Sir Alexander Stewart, earl of Buchan, By the former, through their daughter, the queen of Sardinia, fourth son of Robert II., who earned by his ferocity the title of he was ancestor, among others, of the princess Maria Theresa the “Wolf of Badenoch,” inherited by his wife the earldom of of Bavaria, who in roro was “heir of line” of the house of Ross, but died without legitimate issue, although from his illegiti- Stuart, her eldest son, Prince Rupert, being at that time heir to mate offspring were descended the Stewarts of Belladrum, of the throne of Bavaria. See Sir George Mackenzie, Defence of the Royal Line of Scotland Athole, of Garth, of Urrard and of St. Fort. On the death of the “Wolf of Badenoch” the earldom of Buchan passed to his brother (1685), and Antiquity of the Royal Line of Scotland (1686); Crawfurd, Genealogical History of the Royal and Illustrious Family of the Robert, duke of Albany, also earl of Fife and earl of Menteith, Stuarts (1710) ; Duncan Stewart, Genealogical Account of the Surname

but these earldoms were forfeited on the execution of his son Murdoch in 1425, the earldom of Buchan again, however, coming

of Stewart (1739); Andrew Stuart, Genealogical History of the Stuarts

(1798); Stodart, House of Stuart (privately printed, 1855); An

STEWART—STIBNITE Abstract of the Evidence to Prove that Sir William Stewart of Jedworth, the Paternal Ancestor of the Present Earl of Galloway, was the Second Son of Sir Alexander Stewart of Darnley (1801); Riddell,

4.05

| hanger-on at the court of James V. Portions of his minor verse are preserved in the Bannatyne and Maitland Folio MSS. His

chief work is a metrical translation of Hector Boece’s History, in Stewartiana (1843); W. Townend, Descendants of the Stuarts (1858) ; R, W. Eyton, History of Shropshire (1858), vol. vii.; Bailey, The Suc- | obedience to the command of James V., who entrusted Bellenden cession to the English Crown

(1879) ;_Skelton, The Royal House of

Stuart (1890); J. H. Round, Studies in Peerage and Family History (1901); S. Cowan, Tke Royal House of Stuart (1908) ; and T. F. Hen-

derson, The Royal Stewarts

(1914).

The best chart pedigree of the

house is that which was prepared for the Stuart Exhibition by W. A. Lindsay.

STEWART,

SIR

DONALD

MARTIN

(1824-1900),

British field marshal, son of Robert Stewart of Forres, Elginshire, was born at Mount Pleasant, near Forres, on March 1, 1824.

He entered the Bengal army in 1840, and served in 1854 and

iss in the frontier expeditions against the Mohmands,

and

Afridis Aka and Bari Khel (medal and clasp). In the Indian Mutiny in 1857 Stewart, after a famous ride from Agra to Delhi

with despatches, served on the staff at the siege and capture of Delhi and Lucknow, and afterwards through the campaign in Rohilkhand. For nine years he was assistant and deputy-adjutantgeneral of the Bengal army, commanded the Bengal brigade in the Abyssinian expedition in 1867, and became a major-general in

1868. He reorganized the penal settlement

of the Andaman

Islands, where he was commandant when Lord Mayo was assassinated, and, after holding the Lahore

command,

was promoted

lieutenant-general in 1877, and commanded the Kandahar field force in the Afghan War in 1878. On hearing of the Maiwand disaster he despatched Roberts with a division on his celebrated march from Kabul to Kandahar, and himself led the rest of the army back to India by the Khyber Pass.

Promoted general in

1881, he was for five years commander-in-chief in India, and afterwards member of the council of the secretary of state for India until his death. He was promoted to be field marshal in

1894, and appointed governor of Chelsea Hospital in 1895. He died at Algiers on March 26, 1900. See G, R. Elsmie, Sir Donald Stewart (1903).

STEWART, DUGALD

(1753-1828), Scottish philosopher,

was born in Edinburgh on Nov. 22, 1753. His father, Matthew Stewart (1715-1785), was professor of mathematics in the university of Edinburgh (1747-1772). Dugald Stewart was educated at Edinburgh and Glasgow. At 19 he acted as substitute for his father in the chair of mathematics at Edinburgh. From 1785 to 1820 he was professor of moral philosophy in the university, though he retired from the active duties of the chair after the death (1809) of his second son, which was a great blow to him. He died at Edinburgh on June rz, 1828.

Stewart’s principal work is Elements of the Philosophy of the Human Mind (3 vols. 1792, 1814, 1827). He also wrote Philosophical Essays (1810), and The Philosophy of the Active and Moral Powers (1828). His philosophical views are mainly the reproduction of those of his master Reid.

STEWART, SIR HERBERT

(1843-1885), British soldier,

with its translation into Scots prose. Stewart’s version remained in ms. till 1858, when it was edited by W. Turnbull for the “Rolls Series” (3 vols.). The ms. is now in the library of the university of Cambridge.

STEWART, politician,

began

SIR WILLIAM life as a soldier

(c. 1540-c. 1605), Scottish in the Netherlands,

where

he became a colonel. In 1582 he was in Scotland, where James VI. made him captain of his guard. Having visited the English court in the king’s interest in 1583, Stewart helped to free James from William Ruthven, earl of Gowrie, and to restore James Stewart, earl of Arran, to power; he was made a privy councillor and for a time assisted Arran to govern Scotland. In 1584 he captured Gowrie at Dundee. In 1594 he was knighted and was given lands at Houston. He died before 1606. STEWART, WILLIAM DOWNIE (1878 ), New Zealand politician and publicist, was born at Dunedin on July 30, 1878, his father being a member of the legislative council. In 1914 he entered parliament as member for Dunedin West. A period of war service with the Otago regiment in 1916—17 interrupted his political career, but he was re-elected in r91g and in 1922 joined the Massey ministry as minister for industries and commerce. From 1926 onwards he was attorney-general, minister of finance, of stamp duties, etc. In 1926 he was acting prime minister. He is joint author (with Professor Le Rossignol) of State Socialism in New Zealand (1910). STEYN, MARTINUS THEUNIS (1857-1916), last president of the Orange Free State, was born at Winburg in that State on Oct. 2, 1857. He was a student in Holland and later in England at the Inner Temple, and was called to the English bar in Nov 1882. After his return to South Africa he practised as a barrister at Bloemfontein, and in 1889 was appointed state attorney of the Free State. A few months afterwards he became second puisne judge, and in 1893 first puisne judge of the high court. His decisions won him a reputation for ability and sound judg-

ment. In 1895, upon the resignation of President F. W. Reitz, Steyn was the candidate of the pan-Dutch party for the vacant post. The election resulted (Feb. 1896) in a decisive victory for Steyn. As president he linked the fortunes of his State with those of the Transvaal, a policy which led to the extinction of the republic. He took part in the peace negotiations at Klerksdorp in April 1902, but was prevented by illness from signing the instrument of surrender at Pretoria on May 31. In 1908-1909 he was vice-president of the Closer Union Convention, where he showed a conciliatory attitude.

STEYNING (stén’ning), town in Sussex, England, 12 m. W.N.W. of Brighton by a branch of the S.R. Pop. (1g21) 1.875.

joined the expedition for the relief of Khartoum, and commanded

The church of St. Andrew retains a series of Norman pier-arches in the nave. The Anglo-Saxon church of Steyning mentioned in Domesday is attributed to St. Cuthman, who Is said to have settled here before the gth century, and whose shrine became a resort for pilgrims. In 1086 Steyning was a thriving port, with a market, a mint and two churches. Its decay began in the 14th century owing to the recession of the sea, and it received another blow in the suppression of its priory by Henry IV. STEYR, a town in Upper Austria at the junction of the Steyr with the Enns. The old town, dominated by a tenth century castle, occupies the peninsula between the streams. Two important new suburbs, Steyrdorf and Ennsdorf, lie across the streams. Steyr is the chief centre of the iron and steel industry of Upper Austria.

Khartoum to Korti, on Feb. 16, 1885, and was buried

and Pliny under the names stimmi, stibi and platyophthalmon

born on June 30, 1843, at Sparsholt, Hampshire, was educated at Winchester and entered the army in 1863. Returning from service

in India in 1873, he entered the staff college and the Inner Temple. He served in South Africa in the Zulu War and against Sikukuni, and was present at Majuba (1881), where he was made prisoner for a month. In Aug. 1882 he was placed on the staff of the cavalry division in Egypt, and took possession of Cairo after

Tel-el-Kebir (Sept. 13, 1882). In 1884 he commanded the cavalry under Sir Gerald Graham at Suakin.

For his services in Egypt he

was made K.C.B., and was assistant adjutant and Q.M.G. in the south-eastern district in England (April-Sept. 1884). He then

the relief Metemma. Abu Klea. back from

column sent by Lord Wolseley across the desert of STIBNITE, a mineral consisting of antimony sulphide, SbeSs, On Jan. 17, 1885, he repulsed an enemy charge near occurring as bladed or acicular orthorhombic crystals; an He was promoted major-general, but died on the way important ore of antimony. It was mentioned by Dioscorides

hear the wells of Jakdul.

STEWART, WILLIAM (c. 1480-c. 1550), Scottish poet and translator, descendant of one of the illegitimate sons of Alex-

(rrarvodfadpor); the last name

refers to the use which

the

ancients made of the powdered mineral for darkening the eyebrows to increase the apparent size of the eyes. The Arabic name ander Stewart, earl of Buchan, the “Wolf of Badenoch,” was a al-koh] (now strangely corrupted to alcohol) had reference to member of the university of St. Andrews. He was in orders, and a the same use. Antimonite is also a common name for this species

STICK-INSECT—STIGMATIZATION

406

The crystals are prismatic in habit, deeply furrowed longitudinally, and usually terminated by acute pyramidal planes. There is a perfect cleavage (o10) parallel to the length of the

crystals, and the basal plane (oor) is a plane of gliding; the latter gives rise to very characteristic transverse striations or nicks on the cleavage surfaces of crystals which have been bent. The colour is lead-grey, and the lustre metallic and brilliant; crystals become dull on prolonged exposure to light. Cleavage flakes of extreme thinness transmit a small amount of red light, but are more transparent for heat rays. The mineral is quite soft (H=2), and has a specific gravity of 4-6. Stibnite occurs with quartz in beds and veins in gneisses and schists, or with blende, galena, etc., in metalliferous veins. Magnificent groups of brilliant crystals, up to 20 in. in length, were formerly abundant in the antimony mine of Ichinokawa, on Shikoku island, Japan. Large, but dull, crystals have also been found at Lubilhac in

Haute-Loire, France. Prismatic and acicular crystals often penetrating tabular crystals of barytes, are common at Baia Sprie in

Rumania (formerly Felsobanya, Hungary). (L. J. S.) STICK-INSECT, the name given to certain orthopterous in-

sects of the family Phasmidae, deriving their name from a resemblance to the branches and twigs on which they live and feed. The resemblance is produced by the great length and slenderness of the body and legs. Protection is afforded to some species, like Haaniella grayi from Borneo, by sharp thornlike spines. The anterior wings, when present, are small; but the posterior wings are sometimes large and beautifully coloured. The colouring, however, is only visible when the wings are expanded and in use. Many species are wingless at all ages. As in the leaf-insects, to which the stick-insects are closely allied, the egg cases are very similar to seeds. Stick-insects attain their largest size and greatest profusion of species in the tropics, one N. Queensland species, Palophus titan, reaching a length of roin. Species of small size are found in southern Europe one belonging to the genus Bacillus advancing as far north as the middle of France. They freely regenerate their legs and antennae when amputated. In certain conditions the stump of an amputated antenna will regenerate a leg (see REGENERATION IN ANIMALS).

STICKLEBACK,

a group of small fishes (Gasterosteus)

which inhabit the fresh and brackish waters as well as the coasts of the temperate zone of the northern hemisphere. The majority have a compressed well-proportioned body, which in the marine species is of a more elongate form. Their mouth is of moderate width, oblique, and armed with small teeth. The head is protected by hard bone. There are a series of scutes protecting the sides. The first dorsal fin and the ventrals are transformed into pointed formidable spines, and joined to firm bony plates of the endoskeleton. A remarkable degree of variability is shown by many species. Sticklebacks construct a nest for the reception of the spawn, which is jealously guarded by the male until the young are hatched, from ten to eighteen days after oviposition. He also protects them for the first few days of their existence. Sticklebacks are short-lived animals said to reach an age of three or four years. In spring each male selects a territory, which he fiercely defends and to which he invites all females, until the nest is filled with ova. At this period he assumes a dress of blue and red. The eggs are comparatively large, one female depositing from 50 to 100. The three-spined stickleback (G. aculeatus) is found everywhere in northern and central Europe, northern Asia, and North America. The ten-spined stickleback (G. pumgitius) is smaller than the three-spined species, rarely exceeding 2in. in length. Its geographical range nearly coincides with that of the other species. The sea-stickleback (G. spimachia) attains a length of yin., and is armed with 15 short spines. It is common round the British coasts. At suitable localities which are sheltered from the waves and overgrown with seaweed, especially in rock-pools and shallows covered with Zostera, one or two males establish themselves with their harems. The nest is firmly attached to seaweed.

STIGAND (d. 1072), archbishop of Canterbury, is first mentioned in 1020.

He was then chaplain to Canute and afterwards

to his son, Harold Harefoot, and after the death of Canute appears to have acted as the chief adviser of his widow, Emma. In 104; he was consecrated bishop of Elmham and in 1047 was translated to Winchester; he supported Earl Godwine in his quarrel with Edward the Confessor, and in 1052 arranged the peace between the earl and the king. In this year the archbishop of Canterbury, Robert of Jumiéges, having been outlawed, Stigand was appointed to the archbishopric; but Pope Leo IX. and his two successors refused to recognize him. In 1058, however, Benedict X. gave him the pall, but this pope was deposed in the following year. Stigand is said by Norman writers to have crowned Harold in Jan. 1066; but this ceremony was probably performed by Aldred, archbishop of York. Stigand submitted to William, and assisted at his coronation. But the Conqueror was anxious to get rid of him. In 1070 he was deposed by the papal legates and was imprisoned at Winchester, where he died, probably on Feb. 22, 1072. Stigand was an avaricious man and a great pluralist, holding the bishopric of Winchester after he became archbishop of Canterbury, in addition to several abbeys. See E. A. Freeman, The Norman Conquest (1870-76), vols. ii,

iii. and iv.; and J. R. Green, The Conquest of England (1899), vol. ii.

- STIGMATIZATION,

the infliction of stigmata, used with

specific reference to the supposed supernatural infliction of wounds like those of Christ. In St. Francis of Assisi we have the first example of the alleged miraculous infliction of stigmata. Remembering the sufferings of our Lord, in his cell on Mount Alverno in 1224, we are told by his biographers, Thomas of Celano and Bonaventura, that the Lord appeared to Francis as a seraph and produced upon his body the five wounds of Christ; of these we are told that the side wound bled occasionally, though Bonaventura calls it a scar, and the wounds in the feet had the appearance and colour of nails thrust through. After his death St. Clare endeavoured, but in vain, to extract one of these. Pope Alexander IV. andother, witnesses declared that they had seen these marks both before and after his death. The divinely attested sanctity of their founder gave to the newly established order of Franciscans a powerful impulse, so that they soon equalled and threatened to overshadow in influence the previously founded order of St. Dominic. The reputation of the latter order was, however, similarly raised in the next century by the occurrence of the same wonder in the case of a sister of the third rule of St. Dominic, Catherine Benincasa—better known as St. Catherine of Siena. From her biographer’s account we gather that she was subject to hysteroepileptic attacks. In one of these attacks, when she was twentythree years old, she received the first stigma. In spite of her great reputation, and the number of attesting witnesses, this occurrence was not universally believed. The instances of masculine stigmatization are few. Benedict di Rhegio, a Capuchin at Bologna, had the marks of the crown (1602); Carolus Sazia, an ignorant lay brother, had the wound in his side. Dodo, a Praemonstratensian lay brother, was fully stigmatized, as also was Philip de Aqueria. The marks after death were found on the heart of Angelos del Pas, a minorite of Perpignan, as also on Matheo Carery in Mantua, Melchior of Arazel in Valentia, Cherubin de Aviliana (an Augustinian), and Agolini of Milan. Walter of Strassburg, a preaching friar (1264), had the heart-pain but no mark, and the same was the case with a Franciscan, Robert de Malatestis (1430), and James Stephanus. On Nicholas of Ravenna the wounds were seen after death, while John Gray, a Scotsman and Franciscan martyr, had one wound ; on his foot. Several later instances have been recorded. Anna Katherina Emmerich, a peasant girl born at Miinster in 1774, afterwards an Augustinian nun at Agnetenberg, was even more famous for ber visions and revelations than for the stigmata.

Biographies,

with records of her visions, have been published by Brentano at Munich in 1852 and the Abbé Cazalés at Paris (1870). Colombe Schanolt of Bamberg (1787) was fully stigmatized, as also was

Rose Serra, a Capuchin of Ozieri in Sardinia (1801), and Madeleine Lorger (1806). The last case recorded is that of Louise Lateau, a peasant girl,

ST ILBENE—STILL

speedy recovery of Yale college after the War of Independence;

at Bois de Haine, Hainault, upon whom the stigmata appeared on

his intellectual and theological breadth helped to secularize and

the 24th of April, 1868. This case was investigated by Professor

Lefebvre of Louvain, who for fifteen years was physician to two

lunatic asylums. In her there was a periodic bleeding of the

stigmata every Friday, anda frequent recurrence of the hysterocataleptic condition. Her biography has been written by Lefebvre

407

strengthen the college. He carefully kept thermometric and meteorological statistics; he imported silkworms and books on silk culture; he corresponded with many litterati; he undertook the study of Hebrew at the age of 40 and became an able scholar; in short, his hunger for knowledge was insatiable. On

is E phate

and published at Louvain (1870).

St. Francis: Acta Sanctorum for October, ii.; Franklin’s recommendation he was made a doctor of divinity (edition London, 1908); K. Hase, by the University of Edinburgh in 1765, and he was awarded Franz von Assisi (1856 and 18925 denies the reality of the stigmata) ; other honorary degrees in his own country. Dr. Stiles published P. Sabatier, Vie de saint François d'Assise (1894; Eng. tr. same year) ; a number of sermons, an Account of the Settlement of Bristol, W. J. Knox-Little, St Francis of Assisi (1904) ; both of whom criticise History of Three of the Judges of BrBLIOGRAPHY.—(1)

Celano, Vita Prima S. Francisci

Rhode Island (1785); and a King Charles I. (1794). His Literary Diary (3 vol., 1901) was edited by F. B. Dexter, who quotes largely from Dr. Stiles’s Cotelle, St. Frangois (1895). (2) On the general subject: A. Imbert- Itineraries. Extracts from the Itineraries and Other Miscellames ; (1894) stigmatisation La ; Gourbeyre, Les stigmatisees (and ed. 1886) with selections from Dr. Stiles’s correspondence prepared by the J. J. von Görres, The Stigmata (Eng. tr. 1883). same editor appeared in 1916. Both give a valuable picture of STILBENE, a glistening colourless crystalline hydrocarbon New England life and contemporary figures.

Hase’s arguments; T. Jörgensen, Saint Francis of Assisi (Eng. tr. 1912); Father Cuthbert, Life of St. Francis of Assisi (1912) ; and for medical studies, A. Bournet, St. François d'Assise (18903) and T.

melting at 124° C, and boiling at 306° C, and soluble in alcohol

or ether. It is prepared either by the action of sodium on benzylidene (benzal) chloride, CsHs-CHCh, or by passing toluene over heated lead oxide. Stilbene is symmetrical diphenylethylene,

C,H;CH:CH-CsHs, and many of its derivatives are known to exist in two structural forms exhibiting stereoisomerism of

the type shown by fumaric and maleic acids. It is chiefly of interest as being the basis of several important synthetic dyes. Stilbene

azo-dyes,

4:4’-Diaminostilbene-2:2’-disulphonic

acid,

\H.-C.H3(SOsH) CH :CH-CsH3(SO3H)-NHe, prepared from paranitrotolueneortkosulphonic

acid by successive

treatment

with

aqueous caustic soda and alkaline zinc dust, when diazotised and

coupled with 8-naphthylamine and its sulphonic acids, furnishes substantive cotton dyes known as Hessian Purples M. Stilbene colours.—Various cotton yellows and oranges are obtained by boiling p-nitrotoluene-o-sulphonic acid with aqueous caustic soda alone (Chlorazol yellow), in the presence of oxidis-

able substances such as glycerol, sodium sulphite, or gallic acid (Chlorazol Fast Orange) or with oxidising agents such as sodium

hypochlorite (Chlorazol Fast Yellow). Diphenylacetylene or tolane, CeHs-C:C-CHs, colourless crys-

tals melting at 60° C, results from the action of alcoholic potash (G.T. M.) on stilbene dibromide.

STILBITE,

a mineral of the zeolite group consisting of

silicate, CaAle(SiO;)6+6H:0. hydrated calcium aluminium Usually a small proportion of the calcium is replaced by sodium.

Crystals are monoclinic, and are invariably twinned, giving rise

to complex groups and characteristic sheaf-like aggregates. The colour is usually white, sometimes red, and on the perfect cleavage (parallel to the plane of symmetry) the lustre is markedly pearly; hence the name stilbite (Gr.oriABev, to shine) given by R. J. Haiiy in 1796. After the separation of heulandite from this species in 1818, the name desmine (Séoun, a bundle) was proposed, and this name is now employed in Germany. The hardness is 3-5 and the specific gravity 2-2. Stilbite occurs with other zeolites in the amygdaloidal cavities of basic volcanic rocks; it is sometimes

found in granite and gneiss, and exceptionally in metalliferous

veins. Beautiful, salmon-pink crystals occur with pale green apophyllite in the Deccan traps near Bombay and Poona; white

See the Life of Esra Stiles (1798), by his daughter’s husband, Abiel Holmes, the father of Oliver Wendell Holmes, and the life by J. L. Kingsley in Jared Sparks, American Biography (ser. 2, vol. vi. 1845).

STILICHO, FLAVIUS (?-408), Roman general and statesman, was the son of a Vandal who had served as an officer in the army of the emperor Valens (364-378). He himself entered the imperial army at an early age and speedily attained high promotion. He had already become master of the horse when in 383 he was sent by Theodosius (379-395) at the head of an embassy to the Persian king, Sapor III. His mission was very successful, and soon after his return he was made count of the domestics and received in marriage Serena, the emperor’s niece and adopted daughter. In 38s he was appointed master of the soldiery in Thrace, and shortly afterwards directed energetic campaigns in Britain against Picts, Scots and Saxons, and along the Rhine against other barbarians. Stilicho and Serena were named guardians of the youthful Honorius when the latter was created joint emperor in 394. Rivalry had already existed between Stilicho and Rufinus, the praetorian praefect of the East. Consequently in 395, after a successful campaign against the Germans on the Rhine, Stilicho marched east, with the design of displacing Rufinus; and by connivance with the barbarians he procured the assassination of Rufinus at the close of the year, and thereby became virtual master of the empire. In 396 he fought in Greece against the Visigoths, but an arrangement was effected whereby their chieftain Alaric was appointed master of the soldiery in Illyricum (397). In 398 he quelled Gildo’s revolt in Africa and married his daughter Maria to Honorius. Two years later he was consul. He thwarted the efforts of Alaric and Radagaisus to seize lands in Italy by his victories on the Danube at Pollentia and Verona in 401-3. In a second campaign against Radagaisus, who led a large force of various Germanic peoples into Italy in 405, he surrounded the barbarian chieftain on the rocks of Fiesole and starved him into surrender. Early in 408 he married his second daughter Thermantia to Honorius. It was rumoured about this time that Stilicho was plotting with Alaric and with Germans in Gaul and

taking other treasonable steps in order to make his own son Eucherius emperor. The facts are doubtful. It is certain, however, that he was suspected by Honorius and abandoned by his

sheaf-like groups encrust the calcite (Iceland-spar) of Berufjord near Djupivogr, Iceland; and crystals of a brick-red colour are | own troops, and that he fled to Ravenna, and, having been induced

found at Old Kilpatrick, Dumbartonshire. STILES, EZRA (1727-1795), American clergyman and educationalist, seventh president of Vale college, was born on Nov.

29, 1727 in North Haven, a parish of New Haven (Connecticut).

He graduated at Vale in 1746; was licensed to preach in 1749 and was a tutor at Vale in 1749-55. He also preached in 1750 to the Indians at Stockbridge, was admitted to the bar in 1753,

and practised in New Haven for two years. After pastorates at Newport (R.I.) and Portsmouth

(N.H.) he became in 1778

president of Yale college and professor of ecclesiastical history,

by false promises to quit the church in which he had taken sanctuary, was executed on Aug. 23, 408. |

The principal sources for the life of Stilicho are the histories of Zosimus and of Orosius and the flattering verses of Claudian. See T. Hodgkin, Italy and her Invaders, vols. i. and ii. (Oxford, 1880); E. Gibbon, Decline and Fail of the Roman Empire, edited by J. B. Bury, vol. ii. (1902); P. Villari, Tke Barbarian Invasions of Italy, translated by L. Villari, vol. i. (New York, 1902); S. Dill, Roman Society in the last century of the Western Empire (1899) ; Mommsen

in Hermes xxviii.; and K. Birtin, Spdtrémische Charakterbilder (Leip-

zig, 1919).

STILL, ANDREW T. (1828-1917), founder of osteopathy, oming for a few years after 1780 professor of divinity and lecturing on many subjects. He died in New Haven on May 12, was born in Jonesboro, Va., on Aug. 6, 1828. His family moved 1795. His wise administration as president made possible the

in 1837 to Macon county, Missouri, and later to the Shawnee

408

STILL—STILL-LIFE

reservation near Kansas City, Kansas. Still took an active part in settling the slave question in Kansas, and in 1847 was elected to the Kansas State legislature on the Free State ticket. He began searching for other means than medicine to combat disease and formulated his principles of osteopathy in 1874. He underwent a long period of opposition, but finally, in 1892, founded the American School of Osteopathy at Kirksville, Mo., in conjunction with William Smith, a Scottish physician. In 1922 the Andrew T. Still College of Osteopathy and Surgery was founded and merged with the original American school. He was the author of The Philo-

sophy of Osteopathy (1899), Autobiography of Andrew T. Still (1897) and Osteopathy, Research and Practice (1910). See “Andrew T. Still,’ Missouri Historical Review, vol. xix., 1924, by Ray G. Hulburt; E.R. Booth, History of Osteopathy.

STILL, JOHN (1543?-1608), bishop of Bath and Wells, was born at Grantham, Lincs. He studied at Christ’s college, Cambridge. He was appointed in 1570 Lady Margaret professor of divinity, subsequently held livings in Suffolk and Yorkshire, and was master successively of St. John’s College (1574) and of Trinity College (1577). Still was vice-chancellor of his university in 1575-76 and again in 1592-93, and was raised to the bishopric of Bath and Wells in 1593. He died on Feb. 26, 1608, leaving a large fortune from lead mines discovered in the Mendip Hills. He was for some time generally believed to be the author of the English comedy Gammer Gurton’s Needle, which is now ascribed to William Stevenson (q.v.)

STILL ENGINE: see INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENCINE. STILLINGFLEET, EDWARD (1635-1699), English divine, was born at Cranborne, Dorset, on April 17, 1635. He graduated from St. John’s college, Cambridge, in 1652, and in the following year was elected to a fellowship. At Sutton, Beds., of which he was vicar, he published (1659) his Zremicum in which he sought to give expression to the prevailing weariness of the faction between Episcopacy and Presbyterianism, and to find some compromise. He looks upon the form of church government as non-essential, but condemns Nonconformity. Although in 1680 he published his Unreasonableness of Separation, his willingness to serve on the ecclesiastical commission of 1689, and the interpretation he then proposed of the damnatory clauses of the Athanasian creed, are proof that to the end he leaned towards toleration. His rapid promotion dates from 1662, when he published Origines sacrae, or a Rational Account of the Christian Faith as to the Truth and Divine Authority of the Scriptures and the Matters therein contained. In 1665 the earl of Southampton presented him to St. Andrew’s, Holborn, two years later he became prebendary of St. Paul’s, in 1668 chaplain to Charles II., in 1670 canon residentiary, and in 1678 dean of St. Paul’s. He was also preacher at the Rolls Chapel and reader at the Temple. Finally he was consecrated bishop of Worcester on Oct. 13, 1689. During these years he was ceaselessly engaged in controversy with Nonconformists, Romanists, Deists and Socinians. His various learning, his dialectical expertness, and his massive judgment,

rendered him a formidable antagonist; but the respect entertained for him by his opponents was chiefly aroused by his recognized love of truth. The range of his learning is most clearly seen in his Bishop’s Right to Vote in Parliament in Cases Capital. His Origines Britannicae, or Antiquities of the British Church (1683), is a strange mixture of critical and uncritical research. In his closing years he had some controversy with John Locke, whom he considered to have impugned the doctrine of the Trinity. He died at Westminster on March 28, 1699. His manuscripts were bought by Robert Harley, afterwards Earl of Oxford. A was The was

collected published Doctrines published

edition of his works, with life by Richard Bentley, in London, 6 vols. (1710); and a useful edition of and Practices of the Church of Rome Truly Represented in 1845 by William Cunningham.

STILL-LIFE PAINTING, the art of painting inanimate

objects for their beauty of colour, line or arrangement. It was first developed as an individual branch of easel painting by the artists of the Netherland school of painters.

Families of artists

PAINTING

and draperies, Venetian and Bohemian glass richly ornamented

and even jewels, scientifically arranged

for scintillating effects,

were motifs for some of the most brilliant artists. Simple kitchen

utensils of brass and copper, with meat, fish and vegetables made fine subjects for colour and line. The sparkle of metals, the glitter of wet fish, the deep and rich tones of meat and vegetables—what better material could the painter desire! Exquisite drawing, with painstaking draughtsmanship as a primary factor, resulted in paintings that were sought not only by the rich burghers, but by visiting princes and ambassadors. In every museum may be found these masterpieces, and although not so numerous as the many rows of portraits, genre and religious canvases, they, nevertheless, hold their high place in Dutch art, The Flemish and Dutch artists felt, and so did many true loy-

ers of the fine arts of that time, that the subject of a picture was not the only motif worth while; that an arrangement beautifully

composed, either for luxurious abundance or for simplicity in

colour, tone, values and line, would make a noble work of art, in spite of what higher thought might find in portraying character in the portrait and deep feeling in the religious picture. They argued that a well painted still-life was a greater art production than a badly painted Madonna, however well conceived. Subject-matter—Pictures of the life of the people themselves, their houses, gardens, the interior of the splendidly furnished homes of merchants and aristocrats, rich in hangings and elaborate in table service, made beautiful settings for the painter. The everyday life of the people around the artist showed him just

what he wanted. Besides, it furnished a subject that was simpler to do than the literary picture, as well as being more straightfor-

ward and true. People in silk and velvet, visiting in well-appointed rooms to listen to music or to partake of wine and cake or fruit, served on silver or choice porcelain, were none the better as subjects than a girl scouring a brass kettle in the kitchen. That greatest part of the painter’s knowledge, the observation of values, which means rendering the lights and shadows of a subject regardless of local colour, was first thoroughly understood by these artists, and is the basis of all sound painting. From the work of these men, still-life developed. The principle is the same, the interiors being to a great extent still-life. There is usually very little expression or movement needed for the figures. However well painted the heads, the clothes, even the glass of amber-coloured wine in the lady’s hand, seem almost of the same interest as the head. Take the figures out and the pure still-life is the result. The simple composition of a few peaches on a piece of delft with a silver pitcher and an ornamented glass half full of wine is all that a master like Willem Kalf needs to make a supreme painting.

Technique.—Often in the galleries and at exhibitions, critical

visitors, some of whom are professional painters, ask: “What is still-life?” Reproducing the roundness and firmness of a red apple is not very different from the modelling of a head. Lovers of painting look for something different in a canvas, something that for them means beauty or truth—and not every one sees the same beauty in a picture painted by a master. Take Velazquez’ “Aguador” for an example; to the painter, a quiet study of modelling, with remarkable still-life; to one with perhaps no ability as a painter, a thoughtful study of a man’s head; to another a beautiful head of a boy. Velázquez had a number of interesting stilllife pictures. In “The Steward” and “Old Woman Frying Eggs,” each has a single figure in the composition, but the pictures are evidently made for close studies of inanimate life, dead fish, meat, jars and glass, masses of objects, scattered all over the canvas. Rembrandt’s “Flayed Ox” in the Louvre is a great example of noble quality, rich in colour, bold in treatment, closely observed in values, and of great simplicity—a masterpiece. Pieter Aertsen, early 16th century, one of the first absolute still-life painters, although at times introducing figures in the background of some of his pictures, painted pictures of meats,

vegetables, etc., in the kitchen or larder. His large canvas in Uppsala, representing a butcher-shop with a calf’s head, a side of beef, a pig’s head and sausages, fowl, fish and all sorts of grue-

chose this simple line of art for their life’s work. Gold and sil- some details of what one expects to find in such a place, is typical. ver cups, flagons and plates of porcelain and delft, oriental rugs The canvas is overfilled, every small place is crowded, and

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PHOTOGRAPHS,

FRUIT,

Kalf (1622-93), who needed only the simple

composition of a few peaches, a pitcher and an ornamental

to make a masterpiece. Dutch

wine glass

2. “Large Still Life With Bird’s Nest’? by Jan Davidsz Van Heem (1606-— 84). Dutch. Van Heem’s pictures are drawn and coloured exquisitely. His use of chiaroscuro was very effective

3. “Still Life,” one of Antoine Vollon’s pictures (1833-1900).

French.

Most of this painter’s work was done in one sitting. He painted some-

what after the Dutch manner.

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Dutch

5. “Study of Still Life’ by Frans Snyder (1579-1657).

(1631-95), son

Flemish. Snyder

painted many typical models of still life during the early part of his career. In the Rijks Museum 6. A Still Life by Jean Baptiste Siméon Chardin (1699-1779) depicting a

bowl of fruit and a pitcher. Every colour value is observed. Now in Phillips Memorial Gallery, Washington, D.C. French

7. “Fish on a Table” a still life by Alexander Adriaenssen German

(1587-1661).

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, 1. “Fruit and Game” by Jan Weenix (1640-1719), highly decorative Museum Rijks In Dutch. d. backgroun garden ngs, surroundi luxurious 2, “Dead Game” by Jan Fyt (1611-61), pupil of Franz Snyder (15791657), realistic in quality of the painting of the feathers. In The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York

UNIVERSITY

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3. “The Butcher Shop” by Pieter Aertsen (1507-73). Fine quality, d. excellent perspective, gruesome details have not been overlooke American. 16), 4. “Fish,” a still-life painting by William Chase (1849-19 in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York

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ARTS, FINE OF MUSEUM THE (1) COURTESY BY

(1880— Derain André by Table’ ‘The 2. Bapt Jean by Table” “Kitchen 1.

STILLMAN coloured and a picture most inter„though correct in drawing, well esting, it is in questionable taste.

409

As still-life painting or interior with figure, it has every quality known; every colour value is observed, the drawing is easy, never

overdrawn, and still never slighted. Chardin’s textures are rendered as only a master could paint them; metal is metal and every edge, the despair of the average painter, is with bright colours and glistening surfaces. The painting of wet, cloth is cloth; light and air are over and around every blended; well but firm of study the for student the sparkling fish gives opportunities to still-life painting, an answer to “What is is This object. or figure and prilliant light against the deep and rich notes in the wet fish, canthe form, and still-life?” colour in ates ag the fish very soon deterior Later Still-life Artists——Chardin died in 1779, and for nearly yas must be painted quickly, in the heat of enthusiasm, thus

Abraham van Beyeren (1620-7 5) stands out as one of the foremost painters of fish, producing well composed paintings, glowing

bringing forth the finest results, the most spontaneous work.

Joachim Buckelaer painted fish, as did Alexander Adriassen and, in their late years, Vollon, Manet and Chase. Jan Davidszoon de Heem and his son, Cornelius de Heem,

the two most celebrated members of a large family of still-life

painters, are separately noticed. Jan was one of the earliest and ablest. The realism of the individual flower or peach was more desired by these painters than the ensemble of the picture. Jan yan Huysum (g.v.) reached the top as a flower painter whose style was similar to that of the de Heems.

Willem Kalf, like Willem Claesz Heda, had finer perception of

that tone and envelopment. Both were painters of rich objects keen with but Dutch, the of style adopted the were executed in observation of values and tonality; they were taught by masters like Vermeer and Terborch. Franz Snyders’s large game compositions are highly decora-

tive, his fruit rich in colour, well drawn and painted, but over-

flled with details and without concentration of the motif. No air

in them! The pictures of game that his pupil, Jan Fyt, painted are well studied, realistic in the weight of deer and hare, and in the

a century there were no still-life painters of note; there was practically no interest in nature morte. When Courbet started his bold and vigorous manner of painting, he was alone; he painted what he saw and in a manner of his own invention. Whatever in nature looked worth painting he painted—figures, landscape, marines and still-life. His still-life canvases are done truthfully and spontaneously, and are of a flat, well-coloured technique. Several of his pictures have a stag in them, similar in motion to those of Snyders or Weenix, but with more weight and greater originality. Manet was an artist who painted for excellence, and his stilllife work, of which he did a great deal, is always of a high order. Simple and full of light, the canvas is never overfilled. Manet was also an individual who saw with his own eyes and painted in a flat manner, local colour and values being purposely slighted. Antoine Vollon painted landscapes, but is better known for his still-life, in which he was very prolific. Most of his work was done in one sitting, and in a decorative, well-arranged, somewhat Dutch manner. His picture of “Fish” in the Luxembourg is a splendid piece of painting, with its dark shadows, almost monotone, and

the wet and slimy fish in brilliant light. His reputation was wide-

spread while he was alive, but seems somewhat duller at present; however, it will likely come back again, as in the case of Chardin. Bonvin and Fantin-Latour were men of well-merited reputation. garden backgrounds with decorated vases, the implements for the Fantin-Latour’s flower paintings are tastefully arranged and finely hunt and its spoils. executed. Bonvin’s work, simple and truthful, is based on CharTn all this interesting still-life work it was always the manner din’s methods. that was considered superior to the matter, and it was always Of the American painters, William M. Chase (1849-1916) the school that called for excellence of craftsmanship. Every painted fish, pots and brass kettles, and pictures of great brilliancy. master had his pupils who followed his style; father taught son, Julian Alden Weir’s flowers are noted for their exquisite delicacy and the son taught his son; it was a trade that had to be learned. and beauty. (See also PAINTING; FLOWER PAINTING.) Without absolute knowledge of his tools and the preparation of (E. CN.) craft. the in much for count not did one the canvas or panel, Hy—R. Warner, Dutch and Flemish Flower and Fruit BreriocraP as ds, Netherlan So-called “visions” were not considered in the Painters of the r7th and 18th Centuries (London, 1928); A. E. Bye, they were in Italy. Pictures that could be studied and loved at Still Life Painting (1921) ; E. L. Koller, Stil Life and Figure Drawing; See short range were called for, and the work could not be carelessly H. E. A. Furst, The Art of Stil Life Painting (London, 1927). done. Therefore, something was often missing, even in this beau- also the bibliography under PAINTING. STILLMAN, WILLIAM JAMES (1828-1901), American tiful work. It left no room for imagination. It was only for the was d and journalist, was born at Schenectady (N. Y.), June about—an painter eye—charming to look at, but nothing to dream He graduated at Union college, Schenectady, in 1848. 1828. 1, artist. the of rarely and painter the of work the generally art under Frederick E. Church and early in 1850 went a to studied He still-life lifted Chardin Chardin.—Jean Baptiste Simeon so much under the influence of Rossetti higher plane in art than the Hollanders and Flemings of former to England, where he fell home in the same year he speedily return his on that Millais and technique their to added he methods, years. Understanding their n Pre-Raphaelite.” He studied “America the as known in became air and light as the aim to search for. His simplicity saw beauty to the United States and dereturned Paris, in Yvon under art absolute with them rendered honesty his ; his daily surroundings on Upper Saranac Lake in painting landscape to himself voted watercopper truth, Every utensil in his kitchen we know—the where he started the City, York New in and ks fountain, the charcoal brazier, the brass kettles, the handsome the Adirondac Stillman removed to funds, of want for failed it When Crayon. the bread, of loaf large the as water-jar, the bread knife, as well England, and afterto returned He etts. Massachus , Cambridge herrings, cuts of meat, onions and pieces of china. Chardin’s livnd. He was in Normandy Switzerla in Ruskin with painted wards in bird the and chairs ked straight-bac the with ing-room we know, Civil War broke out. His health was its cage on a stand. We know the housewife with her white apron in 1861 when the American serve in the Northern ranks and he was to him for weak too of miracles are whites Chardin’s white! a splendid how —and consul in Rome. In 1865 he resigned, painting. The white jug and the white fowl in the still-life in the appointed United States s he was appointed to Crete, He was afterward ly immediate Boston museum are unequalled. Few painters of all time have but s Magazine for a short time. When in been able to handle white pigment as Chardin could. James an editor of Scribner’

quality of the painting of fur and feathers. Jan Weenix was a highly decorative painter of dead game in luxurious surroundings,

McNeill Whistler was among the few. Among his earliest pictures was

the “Skate,” now

in the

Louvre. This was accepted by the academy as his diploma pic-

ture, simply painted and freer in treatment than other canvases of his early career. He painted a great many interiors, with one or two figures. Again and again it is the light that predominates, the atmosphere of the room or rooms, for we often look through light. an open door into another room, and that room full of

London lived with D. G. Rossetti. When the insurrection of 1875 broke out in Hercegovina he went there as a correspondent of The Times, and his letters from the Balkans aroused so much interest that the British government was induced to lend its countenance to Montenegrin aspirations. In 1877-83 he served as the corre-

spondent of The Times at Athens; in 1886-98 at Rome.

After

his retirement he lived in Surrey, where he died on July 6, 1901. He wrote The Cretan Insurrection 1866-1868 (1874), On the is Track of Ulysses (1888), Billy and Hans (1897) and Francesco Every figure has its weight, stands soundly on its feet and o D

_ Well in its distance from the onlooker and from the wall behind.

Crispi (1899).

AIO

STILLWATER—STIPPLE

AND

See his Autobiography of a Journalist (Boston, 1901).

STILLWATER, a city of eastern Minnesota, U.S.A., on the St. Croix river, at the head of Lake St. Croix, 20 m. N.E. of Saint Paul; the county seat of Washington county. It is served by the Chicago, Milwaukee, St. Paul and Pacific, the Chicago, St. Paul, Minneapolis and Omaha, and the Northern Pacific railways. Pop.

(1920) 7,735; and it was 7,173 in 1930. The city has a picturesque situation on bluffs high above the river. It is the seat of the state prison (established 1851); a shipping point for the agricultural products of the region; and a manufacturing centre of growing importance. Before the exhaustion of the forests, it had a large trade in pine lumber.

Stillwater was settled in 1843,

laid out in 1848, and chartered in 1854. The “Stillwater Convention” of 1848 was the first step toward the erection of Minnesota Territory. STILO PRAECONINUS, LUCIUS AELIUS (c. 15474 B.C.), of Lanuvium, the earliest Roman philologist, belonged to the equestrian order. His aristocratic sympathies were so strong that he voluntarily accompanied Q. Caecilius Metellus Numidicus into exile. At Rome he divided his time between teaching and literary work. His most famous pupils were Varro and Cicero, and amongst his friends were Coelius Antipater, the historian, and Lucilius, the satirist, who dedicated their works to him. Only a few fragments of his works remain. He wrote commentaries on the hymns of the Salii, and (probably) on the Twelve Tables; and investigated the genuineness of the Plautine comedies, of which he recognized 25, four more than were allowed by Varro. The rhetorical treatise Ad Herennium has been attributed to him by some modern scholars. See Cicero, Brutus, 205-207, De legibus, ii. 23. 59; Suetonius, De grammaticis, 2; Gellius iii, 3, 1. 12; Quintilian, Imst. orat. x., 1, 9953 monographs by J. van Heusde (1839) and F. Mentz (1888) ; Mommsen, Hist. of Rome, bk. iv. ch. 12,13; J. E. Sandys, History of Classical Scholarship (2nd ed, 1906) ; M. Schanz, Geschickte der römischen Literatur (1898), vol. i; Teuffel, Hist. of Roman Literature (Eng. trans., 1900), p. 148.

STILT (Himantopus himantopus), a bird of the plover family (see PLover), remarkable for the extreme length of its slender legs. The bill is long and straight; the legs red; the wings and back black; the head, neck and lower parts white. The sexes are alike Its food consists of small arthropods, which it obtains by wading in shallow water. It ranges

over Europe and Asia, not breeding northward of the Danube valley. The nest is a slight struc- fF ture on the margin of a pool or |, lake, and contains four eggs, kec which resemble those of the oys- assay e

ter-catcher (g.v.). In America, RaRa tRNA

ENGRAVING

used by children are very long, the upper half being held under the arms; they are not strapped to the leg. STIMSON, HENRY LEWIS (1867), American

lawyer and statesman, was born in New York city on Sept, 2; 1867, and educated at Yale (A.B., 1888) and Harvard (AM. 1889) universities. He attended the Harvard Law school and jn 1891 was admitted to the New York bar. He was subsequently a

member of the firms of Root and Clark, 1893-97; Root, Howard Winthrop and Stimson, 1897—1901, and after 1901 of Winthrop and Stimson. His abilities as a lawyer brought him into promi. nence and in 1906 he was appointed U.S. attorney for the southern district of New York State. This position he relinquished in 1910 to become the unsuccessful candidate of the Republican party for governor of New York. In 1911 he was appointed secretary of War by President Taft, in which office he continued from May tg1z to March 1913. He subsequently resumed his law practice, which was interrupted during U.S. participation in the World War by his service in France as colonel of the 31st Field Artillery, In 1927 he was sent by President Coolidge as a special com. missioner to Nicaragua, where he met President Diaz and the rebel leader Moncada and was instrumental in persuading both

leaders to lay down their arms on condition that the United States

would supervise the 1928 election. His success on this mission,

together with his study of the Philippine question in 1926, led to his appointment, in Dec. 1927, as governor-general of the Philippine Islands, in which position he succeeded Maj.-gen. Leonard Wood, whose policies he continued to carry out with notable success. Early in 1929 he was appointed secretary of State by President Hoover and in March of that year he took over the duties of his new office. He attended the London Naval Conference, Jan.—April 1930 as head of the American delegation.

STINKHORN

(Piailus), a genus of basidiomycete fungi, so

called from the carrion-like smell of the spore-cap, which breaks down into a slimy, dripping mass. Flies are attracted by the smell ? and disperse the spores.

STINK-WOOD, a South African tree, known botanically as

Ocotea bullata, and a member of the family Lauraceae. Other names for it are Cape walnut, stinkhout, Cape laurel and laurel wood. It derives its name from having a strong and unpleasant smell when freshly felled. It is used for building in South Africa and is said to be a substitute for teak and equally durable. The wood is dark walnut or reddish brown to black with a yellow sapwood, and the grain extremely fine, close, dense and smooth. STINNES, HUGO (1870-1924), German industrialist, was born in Mülheim on Feb. 12, 1870.

—— pry MSA

VA U

TIR NN

from Oregon southward to Bra- bodia ARNON TANNA Neen nes zil, occurs the black-necked stilt, THE STILT (HIMANTOPUS HIMAN-

H. nigricollis, Other species occur 'OPUS) in South America, Australia and New Zealand.

CRAYON

The stilts are

allied to the avocets (g.v.), and, like them, spend much time

wading in shallow water.

STILTS, poles with footrests fixed at a certain distance above

Educated as a mining en-

gineer, he entered his grandfather’s firm in 1890, but two years later established a business of his own, with a capital of 50,000 marks. The business expanded steadily and came to include, besides dealing in coal, the ownership of coal mines, barges, river steamers and sea-going vessels. Stinnes organized an international business in coal, including the importation of coal from England. He built up a fleet of steamers trading in the North Sea, the Baltic, the Mediterranean and the Black Sea. He also established

iron and steel factories. During the World War he commanded a

large share of the industrial work required by the German authorities, and rapidly increased his shipping interests.

In 1920 he

entered the Reichstag as a member of the German People’s Party the ground. They were originally designed for use in crossing (the former National Liberal party). He began to buy up newsrivers and marshes. As a means of amusement stilts have been papers, whose democratic opinions were quickly modified in acused by all peoples in all ages, as well as by the inhabitants of cordance with his own. In 1921 he was reported to be contemmarshy or flooded districts. The city of Namur in Belgium, which formerly suffered from the overflowing of the rivers Sambre and Meuse, has been celebrated for its stilt-walkers for many centuries. Not only the townspeople but also the soldiers used stilts. The gov-

ernor of Namur having promised the archduke Albert (about 1600) a company of soldiers that should neither ride nor walk, gent a detachment on stilts, which so pleased the archduke that

he conferred upon the city perpetual exemption from the beertax, no small privilege at that time. The home of stilt-walking at the present day is the department of Landes in Gascony, where, owing to the impermeability of the subsoil, all low-lying districts are converted into marshes. Stilts

plating the formation of a super-trust to control the whole of German industry. He died in Berlin April 10, 1924. After his death the business, conducted by his son, rapidly shrank. In June 1925 a conference of bankers was called to investigate the financial affairs of the trust; and bit by bit the great organization was

liquidated and sold. In Oct. 1925 a new company was registered at Hamburg under the title of Hugo Stinnes Coal Trade and Shipping Co., Ltd., the Stinnes family retaining 40% of the shares. STIPPLE AND CRAYON ENGRAVING. Stippleengraving was a little art of prettiness and daintiness, particularly

well adapted to the translation of anecdotic pictures of a sentlmental, mildly romantic,

or domestic

character,

such as were

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an etching ground on a copper plate, and bitten Stipple engraving consists of a design drawn in as eries or group of dots through and perhaps a toothed wheel called a roulette

pleted with dots made directly in the copper by a curved stipple-graver

l. “Countess

Spencer,”

engraved

by Francesco

after the painting by Sir Joshua Reynolds

Bartolozzi

(1723-92).

(1727-1813)

2. “Dressing for

the Masquerade,” engraved by John Raphael Smith (1752-1812) after the painting by George Morland (1763-1804). 3 . “Constancy,” engraved

with

after the painting by by Willia m Ward (1766—1826) 4. “Emma,” engraved by John Jones (1745-97) after

George Romney

(1734—1802)

acid, then comGeorge Morland. the painting by

STIRES—STIRLING

411

uned out in great numbers to supply a vogue in the English |Sellers’ windows, and few native engravers could resist the easy

parket during the reign of George III., many of which, popular |attraction of the new method, while it brought also Italian and n their day, survive only in the colour-prints and, though rarely

xf much artistic value, are yet now highly valued for their merit m survival. Nevertheless there were in the brief hey-day of

‘he art a few among the multitude of designers and engravers who, realizing its limitations, made the most of its qualities, and

these, such as J. R. Smith, William Ward and John Jones, the great mezzotinters Charles Wilkin, Thomas Burke, and whenever he chose to do so, Francesco Bartolozzi, with Peltro William Tomkins, Knight, Cheeseman, Schiavonetti, and others of the school, used the medium with individuality, undeniable charm and some artistic effect. As a separate method, stipple-engraving came to England from France probably about 1764, by way of the crayon manner and the pastel, and these had evolved originally from the dotted man-

French engravers to learn it, and work here for the English market. There was also, up to the war with revolutionary France in 1793, a great trade in English prints on the continent, and Bonnet and other French engravers, adopting the stipple method, tried to get a share in this trade by issuing prints with titles often in misspelt English. Sir Robert Strange, the eminent line-engraver, launched an indignant tirade against stipple, and even denied its claim to be regarded as engraving at all, though there was no denying its efficacy as a medium for colour-printing, the white of the paper, showing between the tinted dots, affording a peculiarly luminous quality, and thus giving it a superiority over the coloured mezzotint, though it must be admitted that rarely was the stipple

or the mezzotint of old time completely printed in colours, some portions invariably being left to be coloured by hand. Neverthener, to which Ludvig von Siegen refers, in announcing the wonders less, the popularity of stipple continued as long as the special of his own invention of mezzotint in 1642, as one of the modes of subjects for which it was used remained in fashion, and as long engraving which it was not. The dotted manner, a process of as the leading 18th century painters and engravers survived the punching the plate with awl and mallet, called opus mallei, was period of their comparatively short though successful collaboraused for its own sake with pictorial effect by Jan Lutma, an Am- tion, but it really waned with the advent of colour-lithography. sterdam goldsmith, and the son of Rembrandt’s sitter; but graven Stipple-engraving is rarely practised nowadays as a separate art, dots had been used earlier as accessory to line-engraving by though a recent attempt has been made to revive it for original Giulio Campagnola, Ottavio Leoni, and others, while in England

the earliest important engraver of portraits, William Rogers, in Queen Elizabeth’s reign, had stippled the face of the Queen, while Lucas Vorsterman used dots also to suggest the flesh in his head of Charles I. But in the 18th century, when the crayon and pastel drawings of Boucher and others were popular in France, the aim of the engravers was to reproduce their texture on the copper-plate.

The idea was in the air, so to speak, and several were engaged in the attempt to materialize it. Thus the invention of the crayon manner was claimed separately by Jean Charles Francois, Gilles

Demarteau, who used his own version of it with artistic feeling, and Louis Marin Bonnet, an ingenious engraver to whom we owe

at least the “pastel manner.” This was a subtle development of the crayon mode admitting colour variety from a series of plates, as we may see in Bonnet’s really fine print, La Téte de Flore, after Boucher, but Francois seems to have been actually the first in the field. The means used to imitate crayon drawing resembled soft-ground etching, though to produce the appearance of the

expression by Dorothy Woollard. As a medium for original colour-

printing it has completely given place to aquatint, woodcut or wood engraving, lithography, or relief-etching from several plates. BrarrocrapHy.—Malcolm

C. Salaman,

Old English

(Special Winter No. of Studio, 1909), Old Engravers

Colour-Prints

of England

(1906), Eighteenth Century French Colour-Prints (1913); Julia Frankau, Eighteenth Century Colour-Prints (1900; 2nd ed. 1906) ; Campbell Dodgson, Old French Colour-Prints (1924). (M. C.S.)

STIRES, ERNEST MILMORE (1866), bishop of Long Island, was born in Norfolk, Va., on May 20, 1866. He received the degree of B. Litt. at the University of Virginia in 1888, and from 1889-91 continued his studies at the Episcopal Theological seminary of Virginia, receiving the degree of D.D. at Trinity college in 1901. The degree of LL.D. was conferred upon him at Kenyon college in 1903. He received his first appointment as rector at West Point in 1891, and in 1893 went to the Church of the Good Shepherd in Augusta, Ga. In the same year he was called to Grace church, Chicago, where he remained until rg01. He then accepted a call to St. Thomas’s church, New York. Under his pastorate the parish became one of the most

chalk lines the etching-ground was perforated by tools of the important in the country. He was consecrated bishop of Long roulette order, and various kinds of needles, while, after the Island on Nov. 24, 1925. usual biting by the acid, the finishing touches were given by STIRLING, WILLIAM ALEXANDER, Eart or (e. graver, dry-point and roulette, though one often fancies the 1s67—1640), Scottish poet and statesman, generally known as methods of soft-ground had been employed. Francois taught this William Alexander, was born at Menstrie House, near Stirling, crayon engraving, and with it the application of colour in printing about 1567, and probably educated at Stirling Grammar school. dla poupée, to William Wynn Ryland, a young English line-en- He may also have been to the universities of Glasgow and Leyden. graver, who had been studying with Le Bas in Paris, and who, He followed James VI. to England, where he became one of the when funds were lacking after his return to London, bethought gentlemen-extraordinary of Prince Henry’s chamber. For the him of the new manner of engraving he had learnt. Then having prince he wrote his Paraenesis to the Prince . . . (1604), a poem called Bartolozzi into collaboration, they both modified and de- in eight-lined stanzas on the theme of princely duty. He was knighted in 1609; in 1614 he was appointed master of requests, veloped it as stipple-engraving. The new method proved very easy of accomplishment, simple and in July 1615 to a seat in the Scottish privy council. In 1613 and rapid. The outline was etched in a series of dots, and all the he began a correspondence with Drummond of Hawthornden. shadows were put in with large or closer dots, or tiny groups of In 1621 he received from James J. enormous grants of land in dots. When all the biting was over, the ground was removed, and America, including Nova Scotia and New Brunswick, and was the finishing was done with dry-point and stipple-graver, a curved appointed lieutenant-governor of the new colony which, however.

tool. Then the printing was done with black, red, or several coloured inks, a rag-stump, or poupée, being used, and the plate

was ceded to the French in 1632. (See Nova Scotra: History.)

From 1626 till his death he was the king’s secretary for Scotland, freshly cleaned for each impression. Beginning by translating the | and in 1630 was created viscount Stirling and Lord Alexander of pretty pseudo-classical designs of Angelica Kauffman and Cipriani, | Tullibody. In 1631 he edited and published a translation of the which acquired a very popular vogue, Ryland and Bartolozzi found Psalms said to be by James I. In 1639 he became earl of Dono | the new method exceedingly profitable. To the ready hand of van. He died on Feb. 12, 1640, in London.

Bartolozzi it came almost as a fairy gift, with the facilities of the medium linking theinselves to his sweet caressing sense of beauty.

Indeed, he developed it with richer character in its fine shades

than the unfortunate Ryland could do, as we may see in many notable prints after Reynolds and other distinguished painters.

All the painters of the day were anxious to share in the profits

so readily made by the stipple-prints which were filling the print-

Alexander’s

poetical

miscellanies

and

minor

verse

include

Aurora, containing the first fancies of the author’s youth (1604);

An Elegie on the Death of Prince Henrie, and shorter pieces. He

also wrote four tragedies, Darius (1603); Croesus (1604); The

Alexandrean (1605), and Julius Caesar (1607); the first two of which were published together in 1604 as the Monarchicke Tragedies: they are didactic poems or dialogues rather than plays,

412

STIRLING

but they contain some fine soliloquies. Of Alexander’s heroic poem Jonathan only the first book was written. Domesday, or The Great Day of the Lord’s Judgment (1614) is a dreary production, in 12 books or “hours,” in eight-lined stanzas. A collected edition of his work appeared in 1637, with the title Recreations with the

Afuses (folio), but did not include Aurora and the Elegie. A com-

north side of the square is the chapel royal, founded by Alex.

ander I., rebuilt in the 15th century and again in 1594 by James VI. (who was christened in it), and afterwards converted intg an armoury and finally a store-room.

Below it is Gowan hill, and

beyond this the Mote or Heading hill, on which Murdoch Stuart,

2nd duke of Albany, his two sons, and his father-in-law the ear} of Lennox, were beheaded in 1425. In the plain to the south. west were the King’s gardens, now under grass, with an octagonal 3 vols. (Glasgow, 1870). His Encouragement to Colonies was edited for the Bannatyne Club turf-covered mound called the King’s Knot in the centre. Farther by David Laing (1867), and by Edmund F. Slaiter, in Sir W. south lies the King’s park. On a hill of lower elevation than the Alexander and Amer. Colonization (Prince Society, Boston, Mass., 1865). See also E. F. Slafter, The Copper Coinage of the Earl of castle and separated from the esplanade by a depression styled Stirling, 1632 (1874); The Earl of Stirling’s Register of Royal Letters the Valley—the tilting-ground of former times—a cemetery has relative to the Affairs of Scotland and Nova Scotia from 1615-1635 been laid out. Here is the Virgin Martyrs’ Memorial, in mem(edit. C. Rogers, with biographical introduction 1884-85); C Rogers, ory of Margaret Maclachlan and Margaret Wilson, who were Memorials of the Earl of Stirling (1877); the introduction to the drowned by the rising tide in Wigtown bay for their fidelity to Works (1870) referred to above; the Register of the Privy Council of Scotland, passim; and the bibliography for William Drummond (g.v.) the Covenant (1685); the large pyramid to the memory of the Covenanters, and the Ladies’ rock, from which ladies viewed of Hawthornden. STIRLING, WILLIAM ALEXANDER, titular EARL OF the jousts in the Valley. Adjoining the cemetery on the south (1726-1783), American soldier, was born in New York city. He is the parish church, portions of which may have formed part served first as commissary and then as aide-de-camp to Governor of the first church, founded by David I. Since the Reformation William Shirley at the beginning of the French and Indian War, it has been divided into two churches. The choir (the East and in 1756 he accompanied Shirley to England, where he prose- church) was added in 1494 by James IV., and the apse a few cuted his claim to the earldom of Stirling. In 1759 an Edinburgh years later. At the west stands the stately battlemented square jury declared him to be the nearest heir to the last earl of tower. The nave (the West church) is a transition between Stirling, and in 1761 he returned to America and assumed the title Romanesque and Gothic, with pointed windows. The crowof Lord Stirling by which he was afterwards known in America. stepped Gothic gable of the south transept affords the main enHe became a member of the New Jersey provincial council and trance to both churches. The choir is in the Decorated and surveyor general of the colony. In 1775 he sided with the patriot Perpendicular styles. Within its walls Mary Queen of Scots was cause and was appointed colonel of a regiment in New Jersey. crowned in 1543, when nine months old, and in the same year In March he became brigadier-general, and for a time was in the earl of Arran, regent of Scotland, abjured Protestantism; in command at New York, and supervised the fortification of the 1544 an assembly of nobles appointed Mary of Guise queencity and harbour. At the battle of Long Island he was taken regent; on July 29, 1567, James VI. was crowned, John Knox prisoner, but was soon afterwards exchanged, and in Feb. 1777 preaching the sermon, and in Aug. 1571 and June 1578 the general became a major-general. He participated in the battles of Tren- assembly of the Church of Scotland met. James Guthrie (1612ton, Princeton, Brandywine and Germantown, and especially dis- 1661), the martyr, and Ebenezer Erskine (1680-1794), founder tinguished himself at Monmouth. He took an active part in ex- of the Scottish Secession Church, were two of the most distinposing the Conway Cabal, presided over the court-martial .of guished ministers. To the south-west of the church is Cowane’s General Charles Lee, and enjoyed the confidence of Washington Hospital, founded in 1639 by John Cowane, dean of gild, and to an unusual degree. In Oct. 1781 he took command of the now used as a gildhall. Adjoining it is the military prison. Near northern department at Albany to check an expected invasion from the principal entrance to the esplanade stands Argyll’s Lodging, Canada. He died at Albany on Jan. 15, 1783. He was a member erected about 1630 by the ist earl of Stirling. On his death in of the board of governors of King’s college (now Columbia uni- 1640 it passed to the rst marquess of Argyll and is now a military versity) and was devoted to the study of mathematics and hospital. Broad street contains Mar’s Work, the palace built by astronomy. i John Erskine, 1st (or 6th) earl of Mar, about 1570, according See W. A. Duer, “Life of Wiliam Alexander, Earl of Stirling,” in to tradition, out of the stones of Cambuskenneth Abbey; the old town house, erected in 1701 to replace that in which John HamilVol. ii. of the Collections of the New Jersey Hist. Soc. (1847). STIRLING, royal, municipal and police burgh, parish, river ton, the last Roman Catholic archbishop of St. Andrews, was port and county town of Stirlingshire, Scotland. Pop. (1931), hanged for alleged complicity in the murders of Darnley and the 22,593. It is finely situated on the right bank of the Forth, 393 regent Moray; the town cross, restored in 189x, and the house m. N.W. of Edinburgh and 294 m. N.E. of Glasgow, being served which was, as a mural tablet says, the “nursery of James VI. by the L.N.E. and L.M.S. railways. The old town occupies the and his son Prince Henry.” The Smith institute, founded in slopes of a basaltic hill (420 ft. above the sea) terminating on the 1873 by Thomas Stewart Smith; an artist, contains a picturenorth and west in a precipice. The modern quarters have been laid gallery, museum and reading-room. Woollen spinning and manuout on the level ground at the base, especially towards the south. factures are the staple industry, and iron-founding, carriage-buildRemains of a town wall exist at the south end of the Black ing and agricultural implement-making are also carried on, in addiwalk. Formerly there were two main entrances—the South port tion to furniture factories, cooperage and rubber works. There and the “auld brig”? over the Forth to the north, a high-pitched is some shipping from the small harbour, which is accessible only structure of four arches, now used only by foot-passengers. It at high water. Stirling is under the jurisdiction of a council with provost and dates from the end of the 14th century and was once literally “the key to the Highlands.” Just below it is the bridge erected bailies, and, with Falkirk and Grangemouth, returns a member in 1829 from designs by Robert Stevenson, and below this again to Parliament. The Abbey Craig, an outlying spur of the Ochils, the railway viaduct. The castle crowning the hill is of unknown 14 m. north-east of Stirling, is a thickly-wooded hill on the top age, but from the time that Alexander I. died within its walls of which stands the Wallace monument (1869), a baronial tower,

plete modern reprint The Poetical Works, etc., was published in

in rr24 till the union of the crowns in 1603 it was intimately associated with the fortunes of the Scottish monarchs. It is approached from the esplanade, on which stands a colossal statue of Robert Bruce. The main gateway, built by James TII., gives access to the lower and then to the upper square, on the south side of which stands the palace, begun by James V. (1540) and

with a valhalla containing busts of eminent Scotsmen. Cambuskenneth abbey, on the left bank of the Forth, about 1 m. E.N.E. of Stirling, was founded by David I. in 1147 for monks of the

order of St. Augustine.

Several Scots parliaments met within

its walls. At the Reformation Mary Queen of Scots bestowed it

on the rst earl of Mar (1562), who is said to have used the

completed by Mary of Guise. The east side of the quadrangle is stones for his palace in Stirling. All that remains of the abbey 1s occupied by the parliament house, a Gothic building of the time the massive, four-storeyed tower, the west doorway and the founof James IIT., now used as a barrack-room and stores. On the dations of some of the walls. The bones of James III. and, his

STIRLING

NUMBERS

413

named after him as a tool for ing used the numbers now rials Stirl | prethe n withi d burie . were | facto Marec of Denmark, who year under || expressing X" as a series of geen, cincts, Were discovered in 1864 and re-interred next tomb at the high altar.

the official x= ale— 1) Fx, Stirling was known also as Snowdoun, which became station | oe (x—1)(x—-2)+3x(e—-1) +4, a had y probabl Romans The . heralds Scots of the

eaten, er I. was ate x(e—1)(r—2)(2— 3)F6x(x— 10x(x— (@—3)1)(#—2)— (2 here. In 1119 it was a royal burgh and under AlexandJames + 2) 4) 3)(x— x— )( —1 a(x x= III. +-2ex(x—1)(x—-2) +1 5x(x— 1) +2. ane of the Court of Four Burghs (superseded under

title

it was handed over by the Convention of Royal Burghs). In 1174

1-6-7-1; d | The coefficients of the various factorials (1-13 1-3-2; to the English in security for the treaty of Falaise, being restore | 1-10:25-15-1) are the Stirling numbers of the second kind. For that be ro the Scots by Richard I. The earliest known charter wasa royal | about 150 years mathematicians considered it important to granted in 1226 by Alexander II., who made the castle of es sequenc of form in ions express ic algebra express to | able residence. The fortress was repeatedly besieged during the wars | factorials. The result was a rich literature consisting of memoirs of the Scottish Independence. In 1304 it fell with the town to rities of this method of expression. In it for ten years, and it was in order | dealing with the peculia Edward I. The English held proved the general futility of this mode rass Weierst the | the year 1846 to raise the Scottish siege In 1314 that Edward II. risked the subject of “factorial notation” then since and n, notatio of | 1334 in it ered battle at Bannockburn. Edward Baliol surrend ted as a topic of discussion in elimina been surely but slowly has | d sn terms of his compact with Edward IIL., but the Scots regaine it is used only in certain“ present At mathematical literature. it in 1339. of interpolation, and as theories in on, summati finite of s problem | in fortunes From this time till the collapse of Queen Mary’s the Stirling numbers. of uses the of some ing illustrat example 1568, Stirling almost shared with Edinburgh the rank and privi- | an Applications.—George Boole in his treatise on the calculus ce of James leges of capital of the kingdom. It was the birthpla n to the “system of numbers In 1571 | of finite differences calls attentio IV. James and III. James of y probabl and nces of nothing)” without indicatIL in 1430 (differe Om Ar by d expresse s, by Mary’s adherent an attempt was made to surprise the castle ing whether he realized that these numbers were already used the regent Lennox being slain in the fray, and seven years later | by Stirling. The formula given by Boole for A* O™ may well be it was captured by James Douglas, 4th earl of Morton, after which | used for the calculation of the above mentioned coefficients T; i.e., | Roman and nts Protesta a reconciliation took place between the the Stirling numbers of the second kind, | and Catholics. It was occupied in 1584 by the earls of Angus on Mar, the Protestant leaders, who, however, fled to England a strong the approach of the king. Next year they returned with

I

force and compelled James VI. to open the gates, his personal

In 1594 Prince Henry was bap-

safety having been guaranteed.

+> Tm-n=n"— E) (n—1)™+ (=)(n—2)"— 5) (n=3)" 3 2 I The Stirling numbers of the second kind (T) also appear in

qn

ni

| the expansion of (e+—1)?. Thus, tized in the chapel royal, which had been rebuilt on a larger to ceased Stirling (1603) crowns the ol x3 al 9X* of I a? scale. After the union mle) a ap al play a prominent part on the national stage. The privy council 3+ 4: 2! 2; of the and court of session met in the town in 1637 on account its Tox a i last it gave disturbed state of Edinburgh. In 1641 Charles I. was held governing charter, and four years afterwards parliament the outbut capital, the in plague the of account in Stirling on to remove to rs legislato break of the pest in Stirling caused the

a re a (*—1)* = > + = 3+ 4: 3: 3° oh pit A Se caer

p! T (b cory! Pei

p! (ae

s held the town, to Perth. During the Civil War the Covenanter

nti p= woth

analysis two sets of numbers which, because of their uses in various branches of analysis, their properties, and the methods used in their computation, have continued to attract the attention of mathematicians. One of the latest writers on the subject, Professor Nielsen of

Copenhagen has named them “Stirling numbers of the first and

tS a+ (r+-x)(1-+2x) °° (rn) =1tnSivtnSex* of the second numbers Stirling the inascending powers of x, while kind are found in eee } sin + I 41

nlittal x

also in ascending powers of y.

This definition immediately leads to the following theorems: first kind is equal (a) The Pth Stirling number of order n of the rs taken P at a time

to the sum of the products of the first n intege , without repetition. r of the second kind of order numbe ng Stirli (b) The Pth

iy

to the sum of the products of the first » integers taken P equal ata time with repetitions,

|

io

qa

$

ai

nipi;

Of the independent formulas developed by various writers, none is suitable for practical purposes; but theoretically the following formulas which appear in a work by Ettinghausen (1826) are important: na (n+). e nop= 2 alblet--1% 25 3°--for all integral values of a,b,c... satisfying the equations; atb+ec+--T T

second kind” in honour of their discoverer. kind Definitions.—The Stirling numbers of order » of the first and may be defined as the co-efficients in the expansion of

(1-+-nx) =I

p plz Ga)! Pip ee

nT p™=nl pt” « ntil pol:

year 1730 STIRLING NUMBERS, in mathematics. In the uced into introd ntialis Differe us Method his in James Stirling,

ce

+-

Formulas.—Of the recurring formulas the most important are

Cromwhich the committees of church and state adjourned after well’s victory at Dunbar (1650), but in August next year the of castle was taken by General Monk. In 1715 the 3rd duke s, Argyll held it to prevent the passage of the Forth by the Jacobite and in 1746 it was ineffectually besieged by Prince Charles Edward.

(14+x)(1+2x)

+e’

ateb+3c+

T.=F nti

=prt prn

+++ =n+rt,

(n+p)!

p=

for all integers satisfying the equations ii atb+tcec+:-:-=?, =nt?. +--+ c at-2b+3 Relations between the S’s and the 7’s are given by

“1 "T oe

aD

F. aop

alı

Feo

tA O E a a ose TP

wSp nSp—1** > 051

aoe

r

esea j,

o afs -ali eeN D a o re Rb

bo .

al pnt pa- init « ,

STIRLINGSHIRE—STJERNHJELM

414

The second formula is evidently obtained from the first by interchanging the T’s and the S’s. Tt has also been observed (Amer. Math. Monthly, 1928) that the Stirling numbers of the first kind can be obtained by performing the algebraic divisions, ate

(a)!

648x+2?

24+ 58x-+22277-+ x?

“G—x)

while the Stirling numbers quotients of ttex

r+8r+6

(=x)

(sx)

(r—x)?

-

of the second kind appear in the r+22x-+ 58x?-+ 24% ?

(1—1)?

The Stirling numbers have many important relationships to the Bernoulli numbers (qg.v.), Euler numbers (g.v.), and the tangential coefficients, and there are numerous formulas connecting them. In fact, there is a way of regarding the Bernoulli numbers as a species of Stirling numbers; that is (e*~—1) always gives, when expanded, Stirling numbers; and when we let n= — 1, we obtain a well-known expansion giving the Bernoulli numbers. The consideration of (e*—1)™ leads to what may be called ultra-Stirling numbers, a subject which, like the ultra-Bernoulli and ultra-Euler numbers has been very litle studied. BrsriocrapHy—Chr. Kramp, Analyse des refractions astronomiques et terrestres (Leipzig, 1799); v. Ettinghausen, Dre combinatorische Analysis (Vienna, 1826) ; Schläfli, “Sur les coeffiaents du développement du product (1-+x) (r1te2x) ... [1+4+(7a—ı1)x] suivant les puissances ascendantes de x,” Journal fiir die reine und angewandte Mathematik

station near the present bridge of Drip.

Thence it crossed the

river to Keir and Dunblane in Perthshire. After the withdrawal

of the Romans the county once more fell into the hands of the native inhabitants, who, however, gradually retired before the

advance of the Saxons and Scots. By the time of Malcolm Car. more (d. 1093) the lowland area had become settled, but the highland tract remained a disturbed and disturbing region until the pacification following the Jacobite rising of 1745-6. The county played a conspicuous part in the struggle for Scottish independence, being particularly associated with many of the exploits of Sir William Wallace and Robert Bruce. The three great battles of the independence were fought in the shire—Stirling Bridge (1297), Falkirk (1298), Bannockburn (1314). James III. was stabbed to death in a cottage in the village of Milton after the battle of Sauchieburn (1488), but apart from the disastrous defeat of the Covenanters at Kilsyth (1645) and the transitory tri-

umph which Prince Charles Edward won at Falkirk (1746), the history of the shire practically centres in that of the county town. Agriculture and Industries.—The arable soils are of two

kinds, locally distinguished as “‘carse” and “dryfield,” the rest of the land being composed of pasture, moor and peat. The “carse” extends along the valley from Buchlyvie to the eastern boundary. The soil consists of the finest clays, without stones, but inter-

spersed with strata of marine shells. It has been largely stripped of the overlying peat, and by draining, subsoil ploughing and the use of lime has been converted into a rich soil, especially adapted for wheat and beans. The “‘dryfield,” which occupies the valleys

(1852); N. Nielsen, Handbuch der Theorie der Gammafunktion (Leipzig, 1906); E, Netto, Lekrbuch der Combinatonik (Leipzig, 19 27); J F. Steffenson, Interpolation (Baltimore, 1927). (J. G1.)

and the higher ground bordering the carse, is fertile and suited for potatoes and turnips. Oats and wheat are the chief grain crops. Beans are also extensively grown. The cattle are comparatively STIRLINGSHIRE, midland county, Scotland, bounded north few, but numbers of sheep, chiefly black-faced, are raised. The by Perthshire, north-east by Clackmannanshire and the Firth of average size of the holdings is from 70 to 80 acres. Birches grow Forth, south-east by Linlithgowshire, south by Lanarkshire and on the lower slopes of the mountains in Buchanan and Drymen, the detached part of Dumbartonshire and south-west and west and oaks on the banks of Loch Lomond. Larch and Scots fir are by Dumbartonshire; area 288,842 ac. (excluding water). In the the leading trees in modern plantations. north-west the Grampians culminate in Ben Lomond (3,192 ft.), The coalfield of the south-east supplies the staple industry, and and the centre is occupied by the Lennox hills. The oldest rocks coal is also mined in the east, near the Forth and Clyde canal. are the Dalradian schists in the north-west beyond a great fault Iron ore and fireclay are also obtained, while granite, limestone which runs from near the bottom end of Loch Lomond in a and sandstone are quarried. The ironworks at Carron near Falnorth-easterly direction across Scotland, On the south-eastern side kirk are important and nails are made at St. Ninians and elseof the fault are the conglomerates and sandstones of Lower Old where. Woollens are manufactured at Stirling and Bannockburn; Red Sandstone age, followed by the Upper Old Red series. Then calico-printing and bleaching are established in the south-west, follows the Carboniferous system occupying the rest of the county. especially at Lennoxtown and Milton, and there are chemical The true coal-measures are well-developed between Grangemouth works at Falkirk and Denny. Tanning, iron-founding, paper-makand Stenhousemuir and about Falkirk. Intrusive sheets of basalt ing, brewing and distilling are carried on at different places, and have penetrated the Carboniferous rocks and are quarried for road shipbuilding at. Grangemouth, the chief port. The southern and metal; Abbey Craig and Stirling Castle hill are formed of one south-eastern districts are served by the L.N.E. railway from of the more important of these intrusions. Much boulder clay Edinburgh to Glasgow (via Falkirk) and the L.M.S. railway from covers the older rocks and an interesting blue marine clay is Glasgow to Stirling (via Larbert), while branches connect Grangefound beneath it in the Endrick valley. The Carse of Stirling is mouth, Denny and other places with the through-lines. A L.N.E. overlaid by the muds and sands of the So-ft. raised beach; and line crosses the shire, mostly in the north, from Stirling to Balloch, and there is a line of the same company from Glasgow traces of the roo-ft. beach also are found. The chief river is the Forth, which forms most of the northern to Aberfoyle. Population and Administration.—In 1931 the population boundary. The other important streams are the Carron, rising in Campsie fells and flowing to the Forth at Grangemouth; the of the county was 166,447. The principal towns to be noted are Endrick, which, rising in Fintry hills, empties itself into Loch Falkirk (population 36,565); Stirling (22,593); Grangemouth Lomond; the Kelvin, which, from its source in Kilsyth hills, flows (11,798); Kilsyth (7,551); Denny and Dunipace (5,512); and The shire returns a member southwest to the Clyde at Glasgow after a run of 22 m.; and Bridge of Allan (2,897). the Avon, rising in the detached portion of Dumbartonshire, and to parliament with Clackmannan, and Stirling, Falkirk and Grangeflowing to the Forth. The principal lochs include the greater part mouth one member. The police burghs include Falkirk, Grangeof the eastern waters of Loch Lomond; a small portion of the mouth, Kilsyth, Denny and Dunipace and Bridge of Allan. The upper end of Loch Katrine, and Loch Arklet, in the north-west shire forms a sheriffdom with the counties of Dumbarton and area, which, like Loch Katrine, provides part of the water supply Clackmannan, but there is a resident sheriff-substitute at Stirling of Glasgow. The Forth and Clyde canal crosses the south-eastern and another at Falkirk. The shire is under school board jurisdic-

corner of the county from Grangemouth to Castlecary. History and Antiquities.——The wall of Antonius, built by Lollius Urbicus, in A.D. 142, connecting the Forth and Clyde, passed through the south-east of the county, in which it is locally known as Graham’s Dyke, At Castlecary and Camelon many

tion, and there are high schools at Stirling and Falkirk.

STJERNHJELM, GEORG (1598-1672), Swedish poet and

scholar, whose original name was Goran Lilja, was born at Wika in Dalecarlia on Aug. 7, 1598. He took his degree at Greifswald. and spent some years in travelling over every quarter of Europe.

relics have been found. The Camelon causeway ran eastwards Gustavus Adolphus gave him a responsible post at Dorpat in from Castlecary and crossed the rampart at Camelon, whence it 1630, and raised him next year to the nobility. After the king's proceeded northwards to Stirling and the Forth, where there was a death, Christina attached him, as a kind of poet laureate, to her

W

+

STOA—STOCK

415

His property lay in Livonia, and when the

of interest upon consols is 24 per cent., and so the dividend upon

hjem, member of the council of war (1661) and president (1667)

price, which is usually quoted in pounds cash per £100 stock.

court in Stockholm.

Russians plundered that Province in 1656 the poet, who was in £200 consols is £5 per annum. Face value has no connection with temporary disgrace at the court, was reduced to extreme poverty the market value. Thus a sale of £200 consols may fetch no more for two or three years. He subsequently became judge at Trond- than £100 in cash. Market value depends simply upon the current

of the College of Antiquities at Stockholm. He died at Stockholm Thus, at a market price of 60, £200 consols could be bought and on April 22, 1672. His greatest poem Hercules (pr. 1653) is a sold for £120 cash. Stock is always bought and sold in quantities didactic allegory In hexameters, written in very musical verse, and with almost Oriental splendour of phrase and imagery. Bréllops-Besvars I hugkommelse, a sort of serio-comic epitha-

lamium in the same measure, is another brilliant work. His masques, Then fangne Cupido (Cupid Caught) (1649), Freds-aft (The Birth of Peace) (1649), and Parnassus triumphans (1651), were written for the entertainment of Queen Christina. He can scarcely be said to have been successful in his attempt, in the first two of these, to introduce unrhymed song-measures. Stjernhjelm was an active philologist, and left a great number of works on language, of which only a few have been printed. wrote on history, mathematics, philosophy and natural

He also science,

producing original and valuable work on every subject he attempted.

There is a full list of his writings in the Svenskt biographiskt Lexikon,

expressed in face value, viz.: a sale of £215.6.8 stock, or a purchase of £350.10.4 stock. Shares are always bought and sold by number,

viz.: 352 Courtaulds The chief forms (British, colonial or eign) and debenture

ordinary shares. (See SHARES.) of stock are as follows—(A) Government foreign), municipal (British, colonial or for-

stock (railways, shipping, trading, manufacturing, etc.). In every case the stock is evidence of a loan made to the Government, municipality, railway, etc. The stock may be

redeemable or it may be irredeemable. The total amount issued is usually limited, but the borrower may have power to issue more

at his discretion. It may be issued at par (ze¢., £100 stock for £100 cash) or at a premium or a discount, że., at more or less than £100 cash. It may be redeemable at par or at a premium. It may have definite, tangible security behind it, such as a lien on

vol. xv. (Uppsala, 1848). STOA, a public building of ancient Greece, whose roof is the customs revenues or upon the manufacturer’s plant, or It may

be secured simply by the word of the borrower. The vital point is that it is measured in, bought and sold according to, and its enade or as a market hall. Extensive remains of stoae exist at dividends based upon, its face value. (B) Preferred, ordinary and deferred stock. Such stock is Assus. At Athens, there are remains of the stoa of Attalus IT. (159-138 B.C.); the so-called stoa of Hadrian is, in reality, a part evidence of a definite share in the property owned by the issuing company—of which each stockholder is ipso facto a member. of the great library of Hadrian. STOBAEUS, JOANNES, so called from his native place By virtue of his holding, he is entitled to a share of the net profits, Stobi in Macedonia, the compiler of a valuable series of extracts after interest on debentures has been met, and to certain rights, from Greek authors. Of his life nothing is known, but he prob- privileges and liabilities, according to his class of holding. His ably belongs to the latter half of the 5th century A.D. From his stock comes under the broad heading of capital stock. As a rule, silence in regard to Christian authors, it is inferred that he was capital is issued in the form of shares and not stock, and so the reader is referred to the article on SHaRes for any further descripnot a Christian. The extracts were intended by Stobaeus for his son Septimius, tion. Two points only need here be mentioned. The first is that and were preceded bya letter briefly explaining the purpose of the dividends are always declared in the form of “so much per cent. work and giving a summary of the contents. From this summary on the face value of the stock.” The second is that, in case of (preserved in Photius’s Bibliotheca) we learn that Stobaeus liquidation, any available assets are divided among the stockdivided his work into four books and two volumes. In most of our holders, class by class, in the same proportion as that borne by MSS. the work is divided into three books, of which the first and the face value of their holding to the total face value of the second are generally called “ExAoyat @votxal kal 7Ocxai( Physical whole of the outstanding stock in the class to which they belong. For forms of issue, see TRANSFER. (N. E. C.) and Moral Extracts), and the third "Av@odéy.ov (Florilegium or BIBLIOGRAPEY.—P. Long, How to deal in Stocks and Shares (1926) ; Sermones). The differences in arrangement between the work as H. Withers, Hints about Investments (1926); S. G. Mosely, Moneywe have it and the summary in Photius, combined with its frag- making in Stocks and Shares (1927); P. S. Leward, The Best Way mentary nature in places, suggests that what we have is a later to Invest Your Money (1928); A. S. Wade, The Plain Man and His Byzantine epitome. The first book teaches physics—in the wide aoa) (1928); C. R. Stiles, Stock Exchange and Investment Terms 1920). Greek sense—by means of extracts. It is often untrustworthy: UNITED STATES Stobaeus betrays a tendency to confound the dogmas of the early Ionic philosophers, and he occasionally mixes up Platonism with The usage of the terms “stocks” and “shares” in the United Pythagoreanism. The third and fourth books, like the larger part States is quite different from that in England. In the United of the second, treat of ethics and politics. In all, Stobaeus quotes States stock signifies the ownership in the business held by the more than five hundred writers. many persons who have bought interest in it and who are known Editio princeps (1609) ; Eclogae, ed. T. Gaisford (1822), A. Meineke as the stockholders. It does not carry the idea of a loan but indi(1860-64); Florilegium, ed. T. Gaisford (1850), A. Meineke (1855- cates always an actual purchase of part ownership. Loans to either 1857), C. Wachsmuth and O. Hense (1884-94, and 1909). private businesses, governments or municipalities are represented STOCK. When money is invested, the investor requires some by “bonds,” except in the case of New York city, which still tangible evidence of his investment and some measure. of its size. adheres to the English usage and still has outstanding its “stock,” Moreover, when, as is usually the case, he is one of many in- which is to all intents and purposes equivalent to the municipal vestors in the same object, means must exist of defining rigidly bonds of other American cities. The aggregate ownership or and legally the proportion held by each. This is true whether he stock of an American corporation is divided into a large number invests his capital in a loan to a government, municipality or of units or shares, of which each stockholder may hold one or trading concern, or acquires a definite share of the last-named. many. The share, then, is one of the units of ownership. This This evidence of the existence, nature and size of his holding ownership is represented by “certificates of stock,” and when a consists either of “stock” or of “shares.” Stock in Great Britain person buys one or more shares of stock he receives as evidence of can be issued, bought, sold or redeemed in any odd amount. A this ownership a certificate of stock filled in for the proper numshare is indivisible and represents, as its name implies, a definite ber of shares. This is a convenient and practical method of repProportion of the total nominal value of the property. This is resenting ownership, because the ownership can readily be transsupported by one or more rows of columns, usually placed adjacent to the agora (g.v.), and used either for a sheltered prom-

the vital distinction, which is best clarified by an example. Stock is always expressed in “so many pounds, shillings and

ferred by the transfer of the certificate. (See TRANSFER.) Owners

of stock in a corporation participate in the prosperity of the compence face value.” Thus “£200 consols” means “£200 face value pany by receiving their proportionate share of any profits that the of British Consolidated Stock.” The face value, in conjunction board of directors sees fit from time to time to divide among With the rate of interest, determines the dividend. Thus the rate | them. This division of surplus is generally made annually, semi-

STOCK

416

annually or quarterly, and all moneys or other property so divided among the shareholders is called a dividend. CLASSES

OF STOCK

Stock of a corporation is a commodity which the corporation must sell in order to raise the funds necessary for the business, and therefore it is incumbent upon the corporation to make this comn odity as attractive as possible, this in order not only that it may be disposed of easily but also at an advantageous price. Stocks are issued, therefore, in several classes providing numerous combinations of the three elements, income, control and risk. The average buyer of securities wants as large and as steady an income as possible with the smallest risk, and takes comparatively little interest in the control. The cautious investor will take a smaller income if there be less risk attached, whereas the specu-

latively inclined will take a greater risk for the chance of greater income. Instances often occur where control of the company is the chief end sought by the stock-buyer and he will practically ignore both present risk and income to get the control. The two great divisions or classifications of stock are “common” and “preferred.” é

Common Stock is simply ownership in the corporation, carrying with it all the usual rights of stockholders (unless otherwise specified) but no special privileges or preferences. These fundamental rights of stockholders are: (1) To proportionate ownership in the undivided assets of the corporation and to a certificate stating this ownership in shares. (2) To transfer ownership of his shares. (3) To receive dividends when earned and declared by the board of directors. (4) To inspect the corporate books. (5) To subscribe, in proportion to his holdings, to any new issue of stock. (6) To proportionate control through voting power. (7) To vote on other questions affecting the corporation property as a whole. (8) To protect the corporation against wrongful acts of a majority.

(9) To restrain ultra vires acts of the corpora-

tion. (10) To share in the proceeds of dissolution. Preferred Stock is stock which, while it possesses the same rights and privileges as common stock (unless otherwise specified), has in addition certain more or less valuable and desirable preferences.

It may be preferred as to assets, dividends or both,

3rd preferred and so on, or sometimes as preferred A, preferred B, preferred C. These two great classes of stock, common and preferred, have not by any means satisfied the wants of investors and speculators, and hence a large number of variations have grown up, particularly in preferred stock, affecting the income, control or risk of the stockholders in various manners. The more important of these various classes will be explained. Non-Participating and Partictpating——Non-participating preferred stock is stock which, through the terms of its issue and sale, is to receive a preferential dividend at a stipulated rate, usually about 6%, and nothing whatever beyond that, all other dividend, regardless of its amount, going to the common stock.

Participating preferred stock is that which is to receive first its preferential dividend at the stipulated rate and after that is

to participate or share with the other stock in the remainder of the funds declared as dividend. This participation or sharing may be done in one of a number of ways, but regardless of the manner of participation, if the preferred stock shares in any way in the dividend over and above its stipulated rate, it is participating stock. The methods of participation are generally known as “participating simply,” “participating immediately” and “participating specially.” Simple Participating—Simple or ordinary participation is an arrangement whereby the preferred stock first gets its dividends up to the specified rate; after that the common stock will be paid dividends as far as possible up to and including the same rate that the preferred has received; if, after having paid both the pre-

ferred and the common the same rate -of dividend, there be anything left of the total amount declared as dividend, it is shared or participated in by both the preferred and common alike, just as though they were only one class. The term “preferred stock” in itself means that it is simply participating. Participating Immediately.—Preferred stock is said to be immediately participating when the arrangement for apportioning the dividend among the classes of stock provides that the preferred stock first receives dividend up to the specified rate and that immediately thereafter without first giving the common stock a dividend payment at the same rate, all the remainder of the dividend money is allotted to all stock alike, regardless of whether

but in ordinary parlance the term “preferred stock” means preferred as to dividends. Being preferred as to assets means that in case of dissolution it be preferred or common. . of the company, the holders of the stock will receive their porParticipating Specially —The above described methods of partion of the proceeds of dissolution before holders of other stock ticipation are, however, by no means the only ones. As a matter not preferred as to assets will participate. This preference is, of of fact, the number of methods of participation is limited only by course, of no service to the stockholder as long as his company is prosperous and in no danger of dissolution, but in the case of weak companies the preference tends to give his stock a higher market value than stock not so preferred. And in the case of actual dissolution where the assets are not sufficient to satisfy all, the preference will prove to be most valuable. “Preferred as to dividends” means that this stock is entitled to a specified rate of dividend out of the earnings before any dividend is given to the stock not so preferred. It does not mean that

a certain dividend is guaranteed but merely that if any amount

of the earnings be declared as a dividend, the amount necessary to pay the specified rate of dividend on the preferred stock, or such part of such dividend as possible, must be used for this purpose before any is allocated to pay a dividend on non-preferred stock. If the entire amount declared as a dividend is absorbed by the dividend on the preferred stock, it means simply that the non-preferred or common stock gets nothing. In prosperous companies, however, it is usually possible to pay the stipulated rate

to the preferred stock and still have sufficient moneys left to pay an equal or even larger rate to the common stock. It is ordinarily only fair that the common stock should get more in view

the ingenuity of the company organizers. It is possible, for instance, to have the preferred get 6%, then the common 6%, then the preferred all the remainder; or the preferred 6%, then common 6%, then preferred 4%, then common 2% and the remainder pro rata; or preferred 5%, then common 6%, then all the remainder to preferred and common in the proportion of two to one; or any other arrangement whatever that may be provided in

the certificate of incorporation, which in this respect constitutes a contract between the company and the stockholder. Non-cumulative and Cumulative —The dividends on preferred stock may be non-cumulative or cumulative. Provision is often

made in the certificate of incorporation that if sufficient dividends

are not declared in any one year to pay the full dividend on the preferred stock, there is no obligation on the part of the corporation to make up the deficiency in any subsequent year. This means that dividends or parts of dividends not paid to preferred stockholders in any given year are lost to them forever. Stock governed by this provision is known as “non-cumulative.” Cumulative preferred stock, on the other hand, is stock, the stipulated dividend of which, if not paid in full in one or more years, carries over from year to year till fully paid. When divi-

of the fact that it takes a risk by permitting the preferred stock dends have not been declared, or have been declared in amount to take out its share of dividend first. insufficient to pay the full specified rate of dividend on this cumuIt is sometimes deemed advisable to have several issues of lative preferred stock, they are in arrears and as long as they are preferred stack, one taking procedure over the next, just as ordi- unpaid they constitute a claim on future earnings prior to nary preferred takes precedence over common. These several ' any dividend claim of the common stock. In other words, comissues are then usually classified as rst preferred, 2nd preferred, | mon stockholders are not entitled to receive any dividend as long

STOCK as the cumulative preferred stock dividends are in arrears.

In | borrowed capital through the sale of bonds.

ing whether or not the preferred stock dividend is to be cumula-

tive, it has been held by the courts that the dividend shall be cumulative. Companies sometimes provide that their preferred stock shall be non-cumulative for several years, after which it shall become This provision relieves the company of the neces-

sity of paying full dividends on the preferred stock during the early years when earnings are expected to be small or of having

is paid to the common

the dividend accumulate as a charge against future years, and yet assures the stock almost as good selling power as if it were fully cumulative from the first. Redeemable

Stock.—Preferred

This means

so as to compensate the holder for the loss of his investment and give him an opportunity to seek a re-investment of his money without suffering loss of income in the interim. Redemption at a premium is not universal, however, many companies having the redemption price set at par. If the redeemable stock has the voting power, its redemption has considerable effect upon the control of the company because of the elimination of all the votes represented by it. Redeemability also may have a material effect upon the market

price of a stock, the tendency being to keep the market price

This sinking fund is built up to

dends in case of poor years when the current surplus would not be sufficient. When this fund reaches the stipulated size, it is not built up further, but the dividends can then go direct to the common stock without the fund payment coming in ahead. If the fund is depleted, however, by being drawn on to meet a preferred

that the company has the option under the conditions and on terms specified in the certificate of incorporation, of redeeming or buying back the stork from the stockholders. This redemption right rests, of course, entirely with the company, and stockholders can neither compel nor refuse redemption of their stock. Some advance notice of intended redemption is usually provided for, and a redemption price is generally set at a premium

stock.

some required size and is to be used to pay the preferred divi-

stock, or certain classes of

preferred stock, are occasionally made redeemable.

If, therefore, a large

number of stockholders are permitted to convert their stock into bonds, thus becoming creditors of the company instead of part owners, it naturally means increase of bonded debt with no increase whatever of assets, and lessens the value of all other bonds. Protected Preferred Stock.—Recently some companies have been making some of their preferred stock especially attractive as an investment by “protecting the dividend.” This means simply that after the preferred dividend is paid, a certain amount is placed each year in a reserve or sinking fund, before the dividend

case the certificate of incorporation makes no provision concern-

cumulative.

417

dividend in a poor year, it must be built up to full requirements again as before. Debenture Stock.—This term is very rarely used in the United States. It is an English expression meaning, in reality, t

y

not stock at all but a bond, corresponding to the American debenture bond. In American finance, however, the name has been adopted occasionally and applied to a special type of stock conferring rights, superior to both preferred and common, something in the nature of a prior preference stock. The best known example of this use of the term is the debenture stock of the General Motors Corporation. Prior Preference Stock.—Prior preference stock, or prior lien stock, is a term rarely used but indicates usually that, after the issuance of the regular preferred stock, another issue has, with the consent of the old stockholders, been issued having a claim

prior to that of all other stocks on dividends or assets. Upon issue, it becomes a first preferred stock and the other names serve probability refuse to pay this much for it, fearing that the cor- merely as convenient descriptions. The prior preferred stock of poration might exercise its redemption privilege and deprive him the Goodyear Tire and Rubber Company and the preferred stock of his stock at 110, thus bringing about a considerable loss. If, of the Market Street Railway Company of San Francisco are on the other hand, the investment value is below the redemption examples. Guaranteed Stocks.—Guaranteed stock is stock whose diviprice, the redemption feature would ordinarily have no effect on the market unless to make the stock slightly less attractive be- dend payments are guaranteed by some other company, usually cause of the fact that there is an upper limit to the possible price one which is using the property of the issuing concern. Railway companies frequently lease and operate the property of other rise. Convertible Stock.—One or more classes of stock may be companies and, as part of the rental, guarantee the payment of made convertible, that is, exchangeable at the option of the dividends at a certain rate to all the stockholders. Although such holder, into some other specified security. Conversion, unlike re- operation is most general among railway companies, it is fredemption, is always at the option of the holder. The certificate quently practised among industrials also. Preferred stock is someof incorporation may make certain stipulations or set a certain times referred to as guaranteed stock, a term which, of course, is time limit for the conversion, but within these restrictions the erroneous. A corporation cannot guarantee its own stock and stockholder can demand the conversion at his pleasure. The most cannot issue a guaranteed stock. Voting and Non-voting Stock.—All stockholders have the usual conversion permitted is from preferred to common stock. Convertible stock of this type is quite popular because it enables inherent right to participate in the management of the corporation the holder to receive preference as to dividends when the earn- through voting for directors and on other matters. Non-voting ings are small and there is little left for the common dividends, stock may be issued, however, and purchasers of such stock voland yet permits him to trade in his stock for common in case the untarily surrender their voting rights. It is generally customary earnings become large and the common is receiving large to give the vote to the common stock and to withhold it from the preferred. The vote may be apportioned among several classes of returns, The matter of control also frequently enters, as non-voting stock in any desired manner as long as at least one class of stock preferred stock is often convertible into voting common stock. is vested with voting power. If stock is issued as voting stock, This feature will sometimes induce stockholders to convert, even however, such stock cannot be deprived of the vote without the at a financial loss. Occasionally, stock is issued which is converti- consent of the holder. Vetoing Stock.—Vetoing is the name given to stock which has ble into bonds. This is rare, however, and is hedged about with various protective stipulations. In the first place, such con- not general voting power but is entitled through provision of the version should be only at the option of the company, for if this certificate of incorporation to vote on certain questions. Thus 2 were not the case, holders of such stock in a weak or insolvent certain issue of preferred stock may be voteless except on the company could convert their stock into bonds and thus share in question of the issue of additional preferred stock on which quesl the proceeds of dissolution ahead of many creditors and on an tion it is given the voting right. It is quite common to give to non-voting preferred stock the equal footing with other bondholders of the company who acquired them through bona fide purchase, which is manifestly right to vote after its dividends have not been paid for a certain

lower than it otherwise might be. If the stock is redeemable at 11o and has an investment value of 140, a buyer would in all

wa

number of years and to continue this voting power as long as the for their ownership is a part of the owned capital of the com- dividends are unpaid, or in case of cumulative preferred stock as pany, and it is upon the strength of this owned capital and the long as dividends are in arrears. In such cases this stock is some-

unfair. The money which stockholders pay into the company

security afforded by it that the company is enabled to obtain its ; times given the right to vote along with the common, sometimes

STOCK BRIDGE—STOCK BROKER

418

the exclusive voting right, and sometimes the right to elect the Par Value and Non-par

Value

stocks and shares of any description, and his status is kept strictly clear from

majority of the board of directors. Stock—For

a great many

years each share of stock of a corporation was given a nominal or par value, the common unit being a share with a par value of $roo. The sum of all of the $100 shares constitutes the nominal value of all the authorized stock of the company. This par

that of a stockjobber,

don stock exchange rules are concerned.

so far as the Lon.

The broker, if a stock

exchange member, dcts as an agent; seldom as a principal. He does not as a rule buy from a client nor sell to a client. He buys or sells on behalf of the client, and takes a certain amount of com-

mission, the extent of which is laid down in stock exchange rules

value, however, does not necessarily represent any real value, though many people are misled by it. A share of stock may have a par value of $100 while the book value may be $80 and its actual market value $60. The nominal or par valuation of stock is, therefore, purely artificial, It furnishes a basis or principal amount upon which to reckon dividends on a percentage basis, but otherwise is no indication of real value. Since 1912 there has grown up the practice of issuing shares of stock without any nominal or par value, known variously as nonpar value, or no-par value stock, stock without par value, and

for members of the stock exchange as his remuneration for doing the business. He is not allowed, in the London stock exchange, to buy roo shares from a client say at £5 and sell them simultaneously to another client at £5 5s. To do this would be acting as a principal, which is, according to the London stock exchange rules, the part assigned to a stockjobber. The man who would become a broker in the London stock exchange usually finds that the best way of achieving his end is to obtain a seat in the office of a stock exchange firm, entering either as an office boy or a clerk, and gradually working his way through unvalued shares. The issuance of non-par value stock is now per- the various stages which stand between the outsider and the fullmitted by the law of 32 States, and the extent of its use may be blown member of the stock exchange. He can become a member judged by the fact that about 10% of all the charters filed in New without delay, provided he is able to obtain three sureties who will York for the five years ending in 1928 contained provisions for guarantee, in the sum of £500 each, the fulfilment of his obligathe issuance of such stock. The statutes usually provide that such tions for four years from the date of his admission. If the candistock shall be sold by the company at a price not less than that date has served as a clerk in the stock exchange for four years prescribed in the certificate of incorporation, or the fair market previously to the lodging of his application-form, two sureties, value, or as may be from time to time set by the board of di- or recommenders, only are required, who must each enter into an

rectors provided that the certificate of incorporation confers this authority, or for such consideration as shall be consented to or approved by the holders of the majority of shares at a meeting called to vote on the question. All non-par value shares sold in accordance with these legal provisions are deemed fully paid and non-assessable and the holder of such shares is not liable to the corporation or to the creditors in respect thereto. Every certificate of stock without par value must show the total number of such shares authorized, as well as the number represented by the certificate, and also the authorized number of par-value shares, if any, and their par value, thus making it possible to determine the proportionate interest in the net assets of a corporation which a given stock certificate represents. Having no par value or base on which to estimate a percentage dividend, the total dividend allotment is divided equally among all the non-par value shares outstanding, and declared as so many dollars per share. (J. H. B.) See T. Conyngton, Corporate Organisation and Management (4th ed, 1919); A. H. Stockder, Business Ownership and Organization (1922); R. W. Pomeroy, Common Stocks (1927), and J. Moody’s Manual of Investments (pub. annually).

STOCKBRIDGE, a town of Berkshire county, Massachusetts, U.S.A., on the Housatonic river, near the western boundary of the State; served by the New York, New Haven and Hartford railroad. Pop. 1930, 1,762 Federal census. It is a summer and autumn resort, and a region of historic interest. Within Its area of 24 sq.m. are Lake Mahkeenac or Stockbridge Bowl, Ice Glen (where caverns are lined with ice even in midsummer), and Monument mountain (1,710 ft.). In 1736 a plantation 6 m. square (including the present town of Stockbridge) was laid out for the Mohican Indians who had come to the Housatonic valley from the west bank of the Hudson when white settlements began to encroach on their territory, and among whom John Sergeant had established a mission in 1734. In 1739 this “Indian Town” was incorporated as the town of Stockbridge. The Indians held their lands in severalty. They had a school and a church which was under the charge of Jonathan Edwards from 1750 to 1758. Many of them fought on the American side during the Revolution. In 1783-88 nearly all of them moved to New York, where they built New Stockbridge 14 m. S. of the present site of Utica, and by 1829 most of them had gone to Wisconsin.

STOCKBROKER, an agent who deals in stocks and shares.

He need not be a member of any recognized stock exchange, nor of an association of stock exchanges. He need not confine his energies to dealing in only such securities as those which are quoted in a stock exchange. The broker-member of the London stock exchange is an agent for the buying and the selling of

obligation as above mentioned, but for £300 apiece. The scale of the London stock exchange charges, both for admission fee and annual subscription, is substantially less in the case of the experienced man. Every candidate for membership must obtain a nomination, the price of which varies considerably. When first created some years before the war, a nomination reached the value of £700. After the war, nominations became at one time

practically valueless. Several are known to have changed hands at £5 apiece. After that an improvement set in, and the price rose above £1,000, but it varies very widely, according, on the one hand, to the demand that there happens to be for stock exchange membership, and on the other, the supply of nominations available by reason of the death or resignation of members. Strict rules govern the stockbroker in the London stock exchange, and many of the provincial stock exchanges have modelled their rules upon them. He must be a British subject; he has to apply for re-election every year; he must state whether he intends to act as broker or jobber; he must not be a principal in any business Other than that of the stock exchange, nor must he be a member of, or subscriber to, any other institution where dealings in stocks and shares are carried on. His wife, also, must not be engaged in business. His duties bring him into contact with mem-

bers of the public, his clients, and with fellow-members of the stock exchange, brokers and jobbers alike, and he acts as agent bétween the public on the one side and members of the stock exchange on the other. He is required to have a general knowledge of all the markets in which he is called upon to deal, and he must be prepared to give reasonable answers to the hundreds of questions with which he is plied on all sorts of subjects. Drawing his

business from members of the public, he is obliged to have offices, a staff of clerks, telephones, and all the paraphernalia connected with correspondence, being involved in heavier expenses on this account than the jobber, whose outgoings are on a more modest scale. The broker’s life is more arduous than that of a jobber, involving longer hours and the exercise of unlimited patience, for

he has to make allowance for the fact that the majority of his

clients do not grasp the intimate details of what is after all a very technical business. He may, for instance, have a perfectly clear idea of what “cum dividend” and “ex dividend” imply, but it is not an easy matter to impart the same information to a country client who seldom deals in stock and shares. His first daily duty, after having digested the financial parts of his newspaper, is to deal with the correspondence that has reached him, and extract from it the orders that he will take into the stock exchange for execution when the markets open, as they do at about half-past

ten, the official time being a quarter to eleven. There he buys or sells War Loan in one market, Kafirs in another, artificial silks in

STOCK

EXCHANGE LE no STOCK EXCHANGE or BOURSE, a market for the

another, going through various parts of the House that have strict delimitations, one market impinging on the next. The men round the markets who deal in specialized stocks and shares are

the jobbers, and to them the broker proceeds, knowing that he will be able to get a double price made to him, at the higher of which he can buy and at the lower of which he can sell without

the jobber knowing in advance which of the two courses he intends to take in executing his client’s order. The outside broker is governed only by the laws of the land, whereas the member of the stock exchange is controlled by the rules laid down for the conduct of business in his own exchange. The outside broker is free to advertise (which the member of the stock exchange may not do), and is exempt from paying entrance fees or subscriptions. He can approach whom he likes with offers

to buy or sell shares, acting as agent or principal as it suits him. Some outside firms specialize in somewhat unfamiliar stocks and shares, just as in the stock exchange itself there are broker firms who make a feature of one particular market, though they are ready to deal in anything else in which they get an order. The public is protected in dealing with members of recognized stock exchanges, for the committees of those exchanges exercise a stricter control over their members than does the law over outside

firms. United States.—-A

stockbroker

is an agent who

(W.L.) deals in

stocks, bonds and other securities either on or off an organized exchange. Legally, the relationship between the broker and customer is not only that of agent and principal but becomes that of creditor and debtor and that of pledgee and pledgor when the

customer purchases on margin and the broker furnishes the required additional funds secured by collateral. The relationships between brokers and their customers are governed by the various and differing State statutes, custom, business policy and the constitutions and rules of the organized exchanges. The New York Stock Exchange does not permit a corporation to become a mem-

ber; consequently brokerage houses with membership

on the

exchange are partnerships. The distinction between brokers and jobbers, which obtains in London, does not exist in the United States. On the New York Stock Exchange all brokers are free to trade with one another and with the public as they choose provided they conform with the constitution and rules of the exchange. Brokers on the New York Stock Exchange may be divided, according to the special nature of their business, into five groups: (1) commission brokers, those who act for the public at a commission fixed by the exchange; (2) “two-dollar” brokers, who act as agents for other member brokers on the exchange at a rate of $2.50 per 100 shares (the old name still prevailing although the $2 rate has been superseded); (3) floor or room traders, those who buy and sell for

themselves and for their own profit; (4) specialists, who specialize

in certain securities and may act as commission brokers or floor traders but who ordinarily do not come into contact with

the public; and (5) the odd-lot dealers, who supply or buy from commission brokers a sufficient number of odd lots to equal the

purchase and sale of securities, such as shares, stocks and bonds. Markets for dealing in securities have existed for centuries. They had their beginnings usually in a few men meeting regularly in a certain place, a coffee house or restaurant, who for a commission were prepared to act as intermediaries between buyers and sellers. As their business grew, these men formed themselves into a sort of association, and rules were framed to regulate the

conduct of their business.

With the growth and wider distribu-

tion of wealth, the volume of stock exchange business has steadily expanded, and in the past quarter of a century the growth has been more rapid than in any similar period. Nowadays, practically everyone in highly-civilized countries has dealings with a stock exchange, or bourse as it is called on the Continent. The development of joint stock enterprise could never have reached its present stage but for the facilities which the stock exchanges

provide for dealing in securities. Their primary function is to liquefy capital by enabling a person who has invested money in, say, a factory or a railway, to convert it inte cash by disposing of his share in the enterprise to someone else. Without the stock exchange, capital would become immobilized, for once invested there would be no means of liquefying it. London.—London is the greatest of the world’s stock exchanges in the range and volume of its transactions. Although New York has made great progress in recent years, London is by far the most interncticna: stock exchange in the world, the range of its business covering every corner of the earth and every class and type of security. It was not until the latter part of the 18th century that the London stockbrokers definitely formed themselves into a stock exchange with premises of their own. They had been in the habit of meeting and doing business in the Royal Exchange and neighbouring places, but in 1773 those who had hitherto met at “Jonathan’s” (Coffee House), in Change Alley, moved to a room in Sweeting’s Alley to which the name of “The Stock Exchange” was formally given, the building becom-

ing known as “The Stock Exchange Coffee House” or “Tavern.” Business grew apace and in 1801 a group of members raised £20,000 of capital in 400 shares of £50 each for the purpose of providing an adequate building and acquired a site in Capel Court, Bartholomew lane, which to-day is one of the entrances to the “house.” The new building of the members was opened in r802. At that time the members of the stock exchange numbered about soo. Rules were drawn up for the conduct of business and for regulating membership of the “house.” It was provided that all future “nembers should be admitted by ballot, and members were required to pay a subscription of ïo guineas each for themselves and 5 guineas for their clerks. It was always the general intention that the shares should be held by members but there was always a large number (and until quite recently a majority) of members who did not hold shares. The first extension was made in 1823 when the floor space was nearly doubled by the addition of a second room for dealings in foreign stock. In 1854 the two rooms

full roo shares, which is the minimum amount that may be pur- with some small additions were rebuilt as one in the form of a chased or sold on the exchange. While very few houses deal in dome with two transepts. Several subsequent extensions of this odd lots, they usually have several representatives on the exchange building have been made, the principal one being in 1885 when and probably one-fourth of all the business done on the exchange another dome was added. The stock exchange building occupies originates in odd lots. The odd-lot dealer enables the small in- the greater portion of the triangular area formed by Throgmorton vestor to trade in a few stocks or shares within a small fraction street, Bartholomew lane and Old Broad street. Outwardly it is above the price at which large lots are bought and sold. an uninspiring structure, but the interior is both spacious and

Brokers who are members of the New York Stock Exchange are controlled rigidly by the constitution, rules and customs of the exchange in an effort to secure fair competition and the proper relationship between the broker and his customer. For example, a broker may not take the side of the market opposite his customer, his charges are regulated, he must report accurately the status of his business to the exchange, he may not advertise securi-

lies falsely and the advertising by the firm of itself is regulated

explicitly by the exchange. Other American stock exchanges in

general are modelled after the New York Exchange. Brokers not Connected with organized exchanges are regulated by the laws of

ir respective States and also by Federal laws.

(W. E. S.)

handsome. The premises and property of the London stock exchange are owned by an association called “The Stock Exchange,” the capital of which Is in 20,000 shares of unlimited hability. On each of these shares £36 has been paid up. No one person may hold more than 200 shares, and only members can be registered as shareholders, except in the case of those who acquired their shares from proprietors who held them before Dec. 31, 1875. The new deec of settlement took effect on Jan. 1, 1876, when the number of proprietors was 268. In 1928 the number was 2,712.

When a shareholder dies his shares must be sold to a member within two years. There is a ready market for the shares, for

4.20

STOCK

EXCHANGE

the dividends are handsome. Recently they have amounted to £10 per share. The income of the Stock Exchange (for 1927-28 it amounted to £231,583) is derived from the annual subscriptions of members and their clerks and from entrance fees paid by new members and from rents and investments. The fees have been raised from time to time; members admitted before March 25, 1876, and members admitted with two sureties before March 25, 1879, pay an annual subscription of only £21. The present annual subscription for new members with three sureties, is 100 guineas, and for new members with two sureties— that is to say, a clerk who has served four years in the house— so guineas. The present entrance fees are 600 guineas for a member with three sureties and 300 guineas for one with two sureties. The present entrance fees for authorized clerks—clerks authorized to deal—are 50 guineas and for unauthorized clerks 15 guineas; and their annual subscriptions amount to roo guineas and 30 guineas respectively. For clerks admitted to the settling room only, no entrance fee is payable, but an annual subscription of ro guineas is payable for each clerk. These subscriptions and fees are fixed annually by the trustees and managers. The property of the Stock Exchange is under the control and administration of nine trustees and managers, who are appointed by the shareholders. Every five years three retire, and are eligible for re-election. If two vacancies occur they are immediately filled, but in the case of one vacancy it Is not filled until the annual meeting. The trustees and managers have no control over business transactions on the Stock Exchange, which are in the hands of the committee for general purposes, numbering 30 members, who are elected annually. This body regulates the transaction of business on the Stock Exchange, makes others and repeals rules and regulations for the same, is charged with the admission and discipline of members and their clerks, and is generally responsible for the good order and government of the members. Its work is so heavy that sub-committees are formed to deal with particular matters. Securities cannot be dealt in on the Stock Exchange except

by permission of the committee, and conditions have to be fulfilled before that permission is granted. This is one of the most important new rules of the Stock Exchange. Before the war any security could be dealt in without the permission of the committee, and all that the latter were called upon to do was to fixa special settlement for the completion of the first transactions. Sometimes weeks would elapse before a special settlement was applied for and granted, and sometimes none was applied for or granted. Grave abuses occasionally arose in connection with the marketing of new shares in this way. This licence to deal has been abolished, and the interests of the public are much better protected than they used to be. The discipline of the stock exchange is very strict and the committee deals severely with any members guilty of improper conduct. The committee settles disputes between members and also between members and their clients. It has power to suspend or expel a member. Membership is for 12 months only, and thus everyone who wishes to remain a member must apply to the committee for re-election. The year ends on March 24. An important innovation was made in the year 1904, when it was decided to restrict the growth of membership. Prior to that date it was possible to become a member without the nomination of a retiring member. As a result, in active times membership rapidly increased, and when dull times came the competition for business became extremely keen. The rule passed in that year virtually stopping the growth of mem-

[LONDON

during the first four years in £500 each, or £1,500 altogether. A certain number of clerks who have completed four years’ service are admitted each year without nomination. The number of such admissions is left to the discretion of the committee; in 1927-23

the number of such new admissions was 20. The fact that the Stock Exchange is owned by the shareholders and controlled by their elected trustees and managers, while a separate body, the stock exchange committee, appointed by the members, controls and regulates business, has constituted what is known as dual control. The committee has no funds of its own and cannot initiate or control the expenditure of the money subscribed by the members. While the arrangement has worked remarkably smoothly, it is nevertheless anomalous and various

efforts have been made to terminate it. But none of them has succeeded.

Since Nov. 23, 1904, every member

admitted with

two sureties has been obliged to become the owner of at least one share and every member with three sureties must hold three shares; under this arrangement the dual control is not likely to be abolished for a long time to come One of the most interesting innovations on the stock exchange has been the introduction in 1928 of a pension scheme for members’ clerks. The scheme was floated by the Clerks’ Provident Fund with the blessing of the committee, but it is really unofficial and voluntary. Members, however, have generously supported the scheme, which in time will no doubt be generally adopted.

The London Stock Exchange contains two notable monuments, the Boer War memorial and the memorial to those who fell in the World War. By custom, each market has a special place allotted to it; for instance, the space immediately in front of the World War memorial is the market for British Government securities and other gilt-edged stocks. Dealers or jobbers in these securities take up their posts in this space every day, and dealers in other classes of securities similarly occupy the floor space allotted to

their particular markets. In this way the locality of a market can be readily and easily found by the brokers who go to the house to

buy or sell securities for their clients. There is an important distinction between brokers and dealers. Brokers are not allowed to deal on their own account, nor can dealers act as brokers. Their functions are defined by a rule which was last amended in 1908 and took effect as from Feb. 1, 1909. The dealer or jobber occupies a position similar to that of the wholesale dealer in

commodities. He keeps a stock of particular securities, say oil shares, and his function is to buy oil shares when they are offered to him and to sell them if they are wanted. He quotes two prices for a share, a buying price, which is the lower, and a selling price, which is the higher, and the difference represents his profit. A broker acts for the public which desires to buy or sell securities. Ordinarily, both for buying and selling securities, though under certain circumstances only for buying, a commission is charged. On receiving an order to deal in a certain security, a broker goes to a jobber in that market, and asks for a price, mentioning the amount of stock which he desires to deal in, but he does not disclose whether he is a buyer or a seller. The jobber “makes a price,” z.e., gives two prices; at one he Is prepared to buy and at the other to sell. If the broker is satisfied with the price, or if it conforms with the price limit fixed by his client, he will tell the jobber that he sells or buys as the case may be, at the price quoted. On the other hand, if he is dissatisfied, the broker will ask for a closer price, and if the jobber is anxious to do business, will make a closer price, and the barbership is the most important rule affecting the Stock Exchange gain is then made. A jobber’s business requires special qualificapassed in the present century. In the ordinary way the only tions. It has been said that a jobber is born, not made. There is method by which a person may become a member is to obtain a much truth in this. The most successful jobbers have a flair for nomination (by purchase) from an existing member who must the business. They must be men of good nerve, cool judgment, retire in his favour. Nominations may be obtained from a former and ready to deal under any ordinary conditions. They must be member, or, if he has not disposed of his nomination, from the men of financial standing, considerable experience, with an underlegal personal representative of a deceased member. Nomina- standing of market psychology. The number of members (1928) is nearly 4,000 and these tions, which are personal and non-transferable, are usually pur-

chased, and the cost may be as high as £2,000. To-day (1928) the cost is about £1,150. A candidate for membership must be recommended by three members, who become sureties for him

employ about 2,000 clerks who have the right of entry to the

house. The hours of business are nominally from 10.45 AM. to 4 P.M. No bargains, however, are marked after 3.30 for inclusion

STOCK

NEW YORK]

4-21

EXCHANGE

in the lists published in the evening of the same day. Late bargains |account to account have been greatly reduced, but speculation gre marked and published the following day. During the war and has not diminished. The speculators have merely changed their owing to pressure of business, this excellent rule was abolished.

for some time after, it was compulsory to mark all bargains, but

methods. The banks, instead of lending money to members of the stock exchange as largely as formerly, for relending to their

Bargains are to-day recorded at the option of dealers or on

clients, now lend freely to their own customers on stock exchange

request by brokers for their clients.

During the period of com-

pulsory marking, the stock exchange had to issue a list of

collateral. This is a safer method, for a bank rarely allows its client to borrow

more

than he can

repay.

Another

popular

securities which were not included in the official list. This list is device of speculators is to gamble during one account only. If known as the supplementary list. Fortunately this continues to be published, though it is not so useful as it might be owing to

markets are rising, a speculator will buy at the beginning of an

that since 1914 Saturday has become

account and sell towards the end, and vice versa. Speculation is cheaper in this form, for by completing his operation in one account, the operator pays only one commission. During one of the periods of stock exchange depression before the war a movement was started and carried to a successful conclusion for

to an increasing extent a day of clearing up. The banks have shortened their hours of work on a Saturday by closing at noon instead of at x o'clock, and this would have to be altered before the stock exchange would be justified in opening on a Saturday.

fixing a scale of minimum commissions. It was fixed on a generous scale, for after the war little change was made in spite of the great increase in all other prices and costs. The inflation of capital values, of course, helped to swell considerably the volume of

optional marking. Since the war broke out no sessions have been held on a Saturday, and it seems unlikely that they will ever be resumed unless the public insistently demands it. This is improbable, for the reason

The movement towards making Saturday more and more a holiday is the result of the increasing intensity of business. The motor car and the telephone make it possible to transact far

business.

(C. J. Mı.)

New York—The New York Stock Exchange traces its origin to a small group of stock-brokers in New York who, shortly more business in a day than was possible 30 years ago, and the after the American Revolution, bought and sold securities under hustle of modern business life renders more rest essential. More- an old buttonwood-tree which once stood in lower Wall street. over, on the stock exchange great improvements in working In 1792 this group of curb-brokers signed an agreement as to the practices have been introduced in recent years, and the efficiency methods to be followed in the business; in 1817 the gradual inof dealers’ and brokers’ staffs is much higher. The volume of crease in the volume of trading led to the formation by these work they transact in a day is far larger than before the war, stock-brokers of a definite association, and the hiring of indoor the population of investors having enormously increased. Except quarters for their market. The purpose of the Exchange, then as now, can best be exin the gilt-edged market, every bargain a broker executes for his client is “for the account,” unless otherwise specified. This means plained by reference to its present constitution, which declares that the bargain will be completed—z.e., the stock handed over “Its objects shall be to furnish exchange rooms and other facilities and paid for—on the next settling day. The usual period of for the convenient transaction of their business by its members; the account is a fortnight, but there are four 21-day accounts in to maintain high standards of commercial honor and integrity the course of a year. Settling days are usually fixed for a Thurs- among its members; and to promote and inculcate just and equiday, the passing of tickets—ticket day—takes place on a table principles of trade and business.” Legally, the Exchange is Tuesday, and making-up day is Monday, prices for the settle- a voluntary association; it has never obtained a charter or asment of current securities being fixed at 11.30 aM. Brokers sumed the form of an incorporated body. Ever since the reorganion executing an order for a client send to him a contract zation of the Exchange in the ’7os, membership has been limited note which sets forth the details of the transaction, the price to 1,100 members; thus, one wishing to become a member of the obtained or to be paid, the amount of brokers’ commission, of Exchange must purchase a membership (or ‘‘seat”) from the esstamp and transfer fee, and the amount of the contract stamp. tate of a deceased member, or from some living member who Later, as settlement day approaches, a further note is sent to a is retiring from the business. Candidates for membership in the client who has bought stock, requesting him to forward the pur- Exchange must also be formally elected by the committee on adchase money. In the case of a speculative transaction the same missions, after this committee has investigated their previous procedure is adopted, except that the client, if he has bought business careers and records. They must also agree without qualistock, is required not to pay the total purchase money, but fication to obey and abide by the constitution and rules of the merely the difference between the price which he gave and the Exchange, carrying as they do powers of broad and sweeping price fixed on making-up day if the latter is lower than the character over all phases of their business as Exchange members. The legislative and judicial powers of the Exchange are vested former. If, however, the security has risen in price, the client receives a cheque for the difference between the price at which in its governing committee of 42 members; each governor holds he bought and the making-up price. A rate of interest or con~ office for four years and each year ten governors come up for tango, is charged for the facilities of buying and holding stock election. In addition to the governors, the officers of the Exwithout paying for it. Contangoes vary in accordance with the change consist of a president, treasurer, assistant to the president, current rate of interest. Usually they are higher on the more secretary, first assistant secretary, accountant and economist. speculative securities than on the investment type. The rate of a Routine work of the Exchange is supervised by standing subcontango is also affected by the state of the “open” account, as it committees of the governing committee, while special or temporary matters may be handled by special sub-committees of that is called, in a particular share. If there is a large “bull” account—ie., a large number of body. Where circumstances have rendered it more convenient and speculative purchases for a rise—and dealers are anxious to dis- desirable, certain regular routine functions of the market have courage further buying, the contango may rise to 10% or more. been organized in the form of subsidiary corporations, all the Rates are generally lower on the more active shares and higher stock of which is held by the governors as trustees for the memon the less active, which means that there are fewer people bers; for example, the Stock Clearing Corporation handles and ready to carry the latter type of share. Shares in which the supervises the work of clearing and settling Exchange contracts, market is narrow and difficult, cannot be contangoed. Some etc., the New York Quotation Company supervises the distribuspeculators sell for a fall as well as buy for a rise. Facilities for tion by tickers of the quotations which are collected on the Floor technically lending shares to speculators who have sold them are of the Exchange; the New York Stock Exchange Building Comuso provided, and the rate of interest charged for lending stock pany holds title to the physical assets of the Exchange; and the is called “backwardation.” ‘This varies with the size of the New York Stock Exchange Safe Deposit Company provides safe-

‘bear” account, as a speculative sale is called. If the “bull” account open in a stock is larger than the “bear,” there will be

& contango rate and no backwardation rate, and vice versa. ce the war the facilities for carrying over bargains from

keeping facilities for the securities held by Exchange members. The constitution and rules of the New York Stock Exchange

were first drafted in r817. During the intervening century, the New York securities market was probably subjected to intense

422

STOCK

EXCHANGE

pressure from a greater variety of sources than any great se- | curities market in history. In addition to foreign and domestic wars, there was added experience with all manner of currency difficulties, booms, depressions, periods of intense activity and periods of practical stagnation. In consequence the code of rules which govern Exchange members in their relationships and their business has been fully tested by extreme and various forms of economic pressure, and they are for this reason all the more fundamentally adequate and sound to-day. In 1928 the market value of securities listed on the New York Stock Exchange amounted to approximately $82,000,000,000. Ready purchasing and selling within this enormous field of investment were facilitated by the branch offices of Stock Exchange member firms, connected with the New York head offces by private wires; there were in 1928 962 of such branch offices located in 292 cities representing 41 States of the Union and four foreign countries. Share quotations were distributed on 5,547 stock tickers and bond prices on 889 bond tickers. To study the gradual accession of different sorts of securities to the New York Stock Exchange market is to review the whole panorama of American economic development for more than a century past. The original New York securities market sprang from the trading in Alexander Hamilton’s U.S. 6% Government bond issue which funded the revolutionary debt, as well as dealings in the original stock of the first U.S. Bank. Shortly afterward, shares of the earliest fire and marine insurance companies and of the earliest local incorporated banks were added to the list. Another wave of economic development brought into the market many State bonds which represented canals and turnpikes, the construction of which the various States of the Union were undertaking. In 1836 occurred the first trading in steam railway securities, which for the greater part of a century was to constitute the principal occupation of the market, as the enormous railway systems spread across the great plains and over the Rockies to the Pacific. The discovery of petroleum in Pennsylvania and coal in this and other eastern States was also soon reflected in the market by the appearance there of oil and mining shares. After the Civil War, in addition to the great railway consolidations of the time, industrial and utility securities were listed. A final stage was reached in 1915, when the market began not only to reabsorb and distribute among American investors American securities long held by the creditor countries of Europe, but also to list foreign government (and subsequently foreign corporate) securities of Europe and other continents. Thus to-day the New York Stock Exchange is not only the leading security exchange of America, whose listings broadly reflect the whole panorama of American economic life, but also an international securities market of constant activity and steadily expanding scope. (E. H. H. S.)

Paris—The Paris bourse, unlike the London stock exchange, is subject to Government control and supervision. It is an influential body, and is an institution of great financial and political strength. Agents de change, who are the members of the bourse, are nominated by decrees countersigned by the minister of fnance or by the minister of commerce and industry. The agents de change must be Frenchmen, and in full-possession of civic and political rights. They form the aristocracy of the bourse. They constitute what is known as the parquet, a privileged space on the floor of the bourse to which only they have access. The rest of the bourse is known as the coulisse. The parquet of the bourse elects a chambre syndicale or committee, which makes the rules for the conduct of business. Although in law the liabilities

of individual members are no concern of the bourse, in practice the chambre syndicale meets the liabilities of any defaulting member, Each member owns what is called a charge, for which he has paid a sum varying from 1,500,000 f. to 2,000,000 f. to his predecessor by a private arrangement. In addition a member must deposit 250,000 f. as caution money and 120,000 f. in the caisse commune of the chambre syndicale. Agents de change enjoy a monopoly in regard to various kinds of legal business, and they possess other privileges not shared by members of the coulisse. They may buy or sell certain securities for cash, whereas

the coulissiers may

[PARIS

only deal for delivery in the settlement.

Securities dealt in by the coulisse are known as valeurs en banque

and the coulisse is often described as the marché en banque. The agents de change issue the official price list of securities each day

but the coulisse issues an unofficial list of its own. Being less restrictive and broader, the coulisse provides much the bigger market, and its business is much larger in volume than that of

the parquet. The market for foreign securities is in the coulisse, some of the members of which are very wealthy. Practically all Continental securities are in bearer form; that is to say, they are not registered or inscribed, but change ownership by passing from hand to hand. Great care is taken to protect dealings in bonds which may pass so easily. The agents de change, for instance, publish the Bulletin officiel des oppositions, which gives the designations and the numbers of securities dealings in which are suspended because they have been stolen or lost. It is imperative for those dealing in Continental bonds to examine this

list before taking delivery of bonds in case they may be on the “stopped” list. As in London, the settlement of transactions takes place every fortnight, in the middle and at the end of the month.

Dealings in French Government securities, however, are

paid for, and the securities are taken up, at the end of every month. The Paris Bourse has not the same international importance as London. Before the war the French investor confined his investments to French securities. Russian bonds, certain Brazilian and Argentine and other South American securities, and a few United States bonds, Rio Tinto copper shares, oil shares, mostly Russian, and South African gold mining shares. Turkish and Egyptian securities have had a certain vogue, as well as sundry issues of the lesser European States and munici-

palities. Occasionally the French have taken to big speculative ventures. Inspired by the success of the Suez canal investment, for instance, many Frenchmen supported the Panama Canal Company, but huge sums were lost in that enterprise. That disaster gave a severe blow to speculative enterprise in France, where it has never been really liked, for the average Frenchman prefers to invest, and not to speculate or gamble. The banking houses of France are all represented in the bourse, and much of the investment business of the bourse is really done through the banks. During the period of currency depreciation in France a great deal of money was invested abroad in spite of the prohibition on the export of capital, but the major part of this money was invested in very high-class British and American securities, and an inconsiderable part was deposited with banks at interest. Business begins on the Paris bourse at 11 o’clock and lasts until 3 o’clock. It is usually opened on Saturdays, but in the summer months it remains closed on that day. Unofficial business may be conducted outside the official hours, and at times many transactions are entered into after the bourse has been closed. The last great reorganization of the Paris bourse took place in 1898. There had been much criticism of the monopoly given to the 60 stockbrokers in Paris. The number was increased to 79, and a new table of brokerage was drawn up, and other articles were modified. It effected, however, no real change in the bourse organization, and the public demand for real reorganization was really turned, but not satisfied. However, the parquet wisely allowed certain breaches of their monopoly privileges, which served in effect to reduce the dissatisfaction with their monopoly conditions. Remisiers are allowed to make contracts by themselves provided that they record every day their transactions on the pad of an agent, who in return for a percentage of the brokerage hands them an official contract. Another violation of the law

which has been accepted is the transaction of business for future delivery by the parquet. It was due to the competition of the curb-brokers. Germany.—The

Berlin Bérse, like the Paris bourse, is sub-

ject to Government control and to legal enactments. It does not enjoy the freedom of the London or New York stock exchange,

and speculation is frowned upon and discouraged on the German bourses. The official hours of the bourse are from 12 to 2 and on Saturdays from rr to r o'clock,

Dealings, however, are al-

STOCKHOLM wed to take place for 30 minutes after the official closing hour, and the prices are published in the papers. These quotations, however, are not official, and are not subject to the control of the

hourse committee.

During the months of July and August, which

are regarded as holiday months, no session of the bourse is held on Saturdays. There is no entrance fee for a new member, and bourse no fixed annual subscription. The finance committee of the

to the amount axes the annual payment of a member according’

and volume of business of each firm. Certain fees are charged

in respect of the partners who wish to visit the stock exchange, and, as in London, fees have to be paid for each authorized clerk and employee. The application of a new member must be sup-

rted by three members of the bourse, and each member supporting the application has to guarantee the candidate in the sum of

423

for some of these there is an active market. The American railway market, however, which before the war was one of the most active

in the bourse, has now dwindled to small proportions. A large number of foreign bonds are now dealt in, and a part of many of the placings of German and other foreign bonds in the United States has also been issued in Amsterdam, and they are quoted

on the bourse there.

In recent years the yield from the duty

STOCKHOLM,

the capital of Sweden, on the east coast,

payable on stock exchange transactions has varied from rather less than 5,000,000 florins to nearly 6,000,000 florins.

(C. J. Mı)

not far south of the junction of the Baltic Sea and the Gulf of Bothnia. The population of Stockholm in 1751 was 61,040; in 1850, 93,0703 in 1880, 176,875; in 1900, 300,624; in 1928, 466,000.

Origin.—Before Stockholm arose, Björkö, Sigtuna and Upp«ooo Reichsmarks. Members of the Berlin bourse are not necesisle of sarily rich men; membership may be granted to men of relatively sala were places of great importance. Björkö (“the capital of kind a was Birka, called authors out foreign by more birches”), appointed are (makler) brokers The small resources. of its speaks history least; at occasionally They lived king resources. the their where for than of regard for their character carry on business under conditions laid down by the Government, relations with Dorestad in the Netherlands, and the extensive and it is subject to the supervision and control of high State refuse heaps of the old city, as well as the numerous sepulchral authorities. In 1896 legislation was passed which severely re- monuments, show that the population must have been large. But stricted business on the Berlin bourse. It was intended to put a though situated at a central point on Lake Mälar, it was destroyed, check on speculation in stocks for future payment and delivery. apparently before the beginning of the 11th century (exactly This forced speculators to transact their business abroad, espe- when or by whom is uncertain); and it never recovered. Sigtuna, dally in London, Brussels and Amsterdam. Since the war con- lying on the shore of a far-reaching northern arm of Lake Malar, Sweden, ditions have become freer. The method of doing business on the also a royal residence and the seat of the first mint in beginthe at Olaf King by employed were workmen are English where securities sell or buy to Orders peculiar. Berlin bourse is Stocksettled at official prices which are fixed every day. The fixing of ning of the r1th century, was destroyed in the 12th century. a these prices is determined by the relation of the current demand holm was founded by Birger Jarl, it is said, in or about 1255, at fleets less than time pirate were common they had when been, and checking in therefore, trouble, no to the supply. The public have the price they pay or receive, as the case may be. The Frankfort the government was anxious to establish commercial relations with hourse holds two sessions, a morning and an evening session, but the towns which were now beginning to flourish on the southern though dealings are carried on later than in Berlin, it is not a coast of the Baltic. The city was originally founded as a fortress more important stock exchange. The securities dealt in are simi- on the island of Stadholm. The castle was erected at the northlar, and the official prices quoted are virtually the same. During eastern corner, and the city was surrounded with walls having forthe stabilization process, the bourse was overrun by “free” brokers tified towers on the north and south. It came to be called Stockand jobbers—~a result of large-scale dismissals of clerical staffs holm (“the isle of the log,” Latin Holmia, German Holm); the by the banks. The bourse authorities, however, took steps to true explanation of the name is not known. During the middle ages check this influx, and the “free” jobbers and brokers largely de- the city developed steadily, and grew to command all the foreign clined. Improvements were made at the same time in the technical commerce of the midlands and north, but it was not until modern equipment and practices of the bourse, greatly facilitating the times that Stockholm became the capital of Sweden. The meclearing system of dealing in securities. Business is nowadays diaeval kings visited year by year different parts of the kingdone on normal lines, but the market has not recovered its former dom. Situation.—Stockhokm is famed for the beauty and physical activity and importance owing to the great destruction of capital caused by the inflation of the currency during and after the characteristics of its situation. The coast is here thickly fringed with islands (the skärgård), through which a main channel, the war. Amsterdam.—The Amsterdam bourse as it exists to-day was Saltsjö, penetrates from the open sea, which is nearly 40 m. from founded in 1876, and up to quite recent times its members, like the mainland. A short stream with a fall normally so slight as to those of the London stock exchange in earlier days, had to trans- be sometimes reversed by the tide, drains the great lake Malar act their business in a building which also housed persons engaged into the Saltsj6. The scenery of both the lake and the skärgård in commercial business. In 1876 the bourse consisted of 435 is similar, the numerous islands low, rocky, and generally wooded, members, whereas the present (1929) number is nearly 800; the the waterways between them narrow and quiet. The city stands entrance fee, which was then 25 guilders, is now 2,000 guilders, at the junction of the lake and the sea, occupying both shores and in the same period the annual subscription has been raised and the small islands intervening. From the presence of these from 30 to 80 guilders. The bourse, members of which must be islands a fanciful appellation for this city is derived—“‘the Venice Dutch or nationalized Dutch, is open from 1.30 to 2.45 (Amster- of the North’: but actually only a small part is insular. There dam time). There are members and authorized clerks, as in are three main divisions, Staden, the ancient nucleus of the London, but there is no line of demarcation between brokers and city, properly confined to Stadholmen (the city island) which jobbers. Some firms combine broking and jobbing, and others divides the stream from Malar into two arms, Norrstrém and work as bankers and brokers. The banks are all members of the Söderström; Norrmalm on the north shore of the channel, and bourse, and have their clerks therein, but they also do business Södermalm on the south. Staden.—Ancient origins are apparent in the narrow and through other members. Transactions are all for cash, except those in the shares of the Netherlands Trading Company, in winding streets, though the individual houses are not very old, which there is a monthly settlement. Three quotations are made owing to the ravages of frequent fires. A few, however, preserve during the day in less active stocks, on the basis of which business antique narrow fronts with gables, as in some of the North Geris done. The Amsterdam bourse is particularly interested in oil man towns. The old market, still called Stortorg (great market) shares, especially Royal Dutch; the shares of various Dutch East is now one of the smallest in Stockholm, At the north angle of the Indies trading and planting companies; the securities of one or two island is tbe Royal Palace (Slott). The original building was leading Dutch industries; and one or two artificial silk shares. Be- destroyed by fire in 1697, the body of Charles XI. being with fore the World War an important international market existed. difficulty rescued from the flames. A new palace after designs s disappeared during the war, but lately a number of Belgian, of Nicodemus Tessin the younger (d. 1728) was not completed, French and German industrial shares have been introduced, and owing to wars and the general distress, until 1754; while a res-

424

STOCKHOLM

toration carried out in 1901 included many ornamental details devised by the architect and executed at the expense of King

Oscar II.

The new town hail designed by Ostberg and recently

completed combines Swedish traditional styles with Italian influences. West of the palace are the offices of the majority of the ministries, some of them in the former buildings of the Royal Mint.

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Pop. (1920) 7,873 (82% native white), 1930 Federal

district; and 730 ac. of the Middlesex Fells Reservation. The manufactures include shoes, shoe stock, cutting dies, chemicals and druggists’ supplies. Steam power was first applied to the manufacture of shoes here, by John Hill and Company, who introduced many labour-saving devices, notably the heeling machine (1862). Stoneham was settled about 1668. It was set off from Charlestown and incorporated as a town in 17265. STONEHAVEN (locally Stenehive), seaport of Kincardineshire, Scotland. Pop. (1931), 4,185. The town is picturesquely situated on the Carron. On the decay of Kincardine, the original

capital, Stonehaven became the county town in 1600, and suffered

heavily during the covenanting troubles, Montrose setting it on fire in 1645.

STONEHENGE,

a circular group of huge standing stones

(see STONE MonuMENTS) situated on Salisbury Plain, Wiltshire, England, about 7 m. N. of Salisbury. The amenities of this, the most important antiquity in the British Isles, have recently been marred by the erection of bungalows, aerodromes and teahouses. But now, thanks to the activities of The Stonehenge Preservation Committee (1927), an undertaking is near com-

pletion (1928) for purchasing and vesting in the National Trust the land for about a mile radius round Stonehenge, and the work of demolishing the buildings is in hand. In rors Sir Edmund

Antrobus sold Stonehenge to Sir Cecil Chubb, who generously presented it to the nation, and since that date it has been under the charge of H.M. Office of Works. Professor Gowland in rgor restored to a vertical position the leaning upright (No. 56) of the great inner trilithon, and in 1919 and 1920 H.M. Office of Works re-erected uprights 29, 30, r and 2 securing lintels. Neither Roman historian nor Saxon chronicler makes mention of Stonehenge. Perhaps the earliest reference to it is in the writings of Henry of Huntingdon (died 1154), who cites Stonehenge as the second of the four wonders of England, but confesses ignorance of its origin. Geoffrey of Monmouth relates in his Historia Britonum (written before 1139) that Ambrosius Aurelianus, desirous of setting up a memorial to those slain in the

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Jones in his treatise on Stonehenge, written at the command of James I. and published in 1655, timidly puts forward the suggestion that Stonehenge was built by the Druids, but goes on to state with more emphasis that it is a Roman temple inscribed to Coelus. In opposition to this, Dr. Charleton, a court physician, propounded the theory in 1663 that Stonehenge was the work of Danes. It was John Aubrey (1626—1697) who first claimed Stonehenge as a Druidical temple, and this theory was elaborated by William Stukeley in 1742. Thus originated a belief which up to the present day has found favour with the public, although there is no evidence to support it. As late as 1872 James Fergusson contended that Stonehenge was a sepulchral monument of the Saxon period. ` Stonehenge is approached by an ancient banked trackway, the so-called Avenue, on the north-east. As viewed to-day, it consists of an encircling earthwork and the remains of four series of stones, viz.: an outer circle of sarsens with lintels; an inner bluestone circle; a horse-shoe of five great sarsen trilithons; and an inner ovoid of bluestones. There are also two sarsen stones lying north-west and south-east of the circle close to the inner edge of the earthwork; a recumbent slab of sarsen, the so-called Slaughter

Stone, near the south-east edge of the north-eastern causeway in the ditch; an upright sarsen, the Hele Stone, situated in the Avenue; and a recumbent block of micaceous sandstone, known as the Altar Stone, within the bluestone ovoid. The outer circle has a diameter of 100.75 ft., and consists of thirty large upright sarsens, carefully dressed into shape by pounding with stone mauls, of which sixteen remain standing. Their average height above ground is 134 ft., depth below ground 44 ft. and

weight 26 tons. Their flat sides face inwards and they are secured by means of sarsen lintels, each lintel dovetailing with its fellow, and a mortice at each end of every lintel fitting over one of the two conical tenons on each upright. The inner circle of bluestones has a diameter of 764 ft. To-day nine of the stones are standing, while eleven are overthrown. Recent excavations by the Society of Antiquaries of London have shown that the original number of stones in this circle exceeded the previously estimated number of forty. The five great sarsen trilithons are arranged in a horse-shoe with the opening to the north-east, and rise gradually in height towards the south-west. Only two are standing

to-day. The height above ground of the great upright (No. 56), raised and made secure in 1gor, is 22 ft. The inner ovoid con-

STONE

MONUMENTS

439

sisted of dressed bluestones, of which twelve are visible now. The

the Aubrey Holes was not a barrow, but the site of an upright stone with encircling ditch. Between this “barrow” and the stone circles were numerous postholes, and within the circles the ground

posed. The bluestones now remaining are of two varieties—dia-

was honeycombed with others. Some were as old as, or older than, the erection of Stonehenge, but the date of most of them is

original number is uncertain, but excavation has proved that the series formed an ovoid and not a horse-shoe as was formerly sup-

hase and rhyolite, but fragments of basic tuffs and agglomerates, grey wackes and argillaceous flagstones and slates may have be-

only

as uncertain as is their purpose. Stonehenge, as we see it to-day, is probably contemporary with the Avenue and is a reconstructed Stonehenge; an earlier and more simple circle of sarsens, contemporary with the ditch, hav-

weapons, but within recent years careful and systematic excava-

ing preceded it. The blocks of sarsen, Tertiary sandstone, were

longed to stones now missing.

In the past Stonehenge has been a battleground on which archaeologists

have

fought

with

assumptions

as

their

tion, if it has not furnished definite evidence as to the purpose

and date of construction of the monument, has at least added

considerably to our knowledge.

The Avenue, first described in 1723 by Stukeley, approaches Stonehenge on the north-east, but its banks do not coincide with the sides of the causeway across the ditch which encircles Stone-

henge. This suggests that it is a more recent structure. It con-

sists of a broad road with lateral ditches and a slight bank be-

tween road and ditch. From Stonehenge it runs a straight course for 1,700 ft. in a north-easterly direction. Then, according to

Stukeley, it branches, one arm curving westwards to meet the Cursus, the other “directly east, pointing to an ancient ford of the river Avon.” In rg2i, by the aid of photographs from the ait, Crawford was able to trace the continuation of the Avenue from its furthest fixed point on the ridge between the Old and New King Barrows to the Stonehenge-Amesbury road opposite West Amesbury Farm. These photographs were verified by excavation, and excavation has since traced the Avenue across the road to the farm buildings, but there are no indications either on the surface or on air-photographs that it was continued across the river. The ait-photographs also tend to disprove the existence of 2 western brahch. At its Stonehenge end the Avenue measurés

72 ft. from ditch to ditch, but as it progresses it varies in width, and measures 1104 ft. at West Amesbury. Col. Hawley during his excavations for the Society of Anti-

quaries (1920-26) uncovered the eastern half of the ditch sur-

rounding Stonehenge, and cleared the north-eastern causeway, which was found to be studded with postholes. He also discovered a smaller southern causeway (Inigo Jones mentioned three cause-

ways, forming an equilateral triangle). The ditch is circular with a diameter of 300 ft., flat-bottomed, irregular, averages 5 ft. in depth, and has a bank on its inner side. The only objects found in its silting have been abundant red-deer antler picks, a. few rough flint implements of Upper Palaeolithic facies, and two fragments of pottery. The chips of sarsen and bluestone struck off when the stones were dressed and set in place, are restricted to the lower

level of the turf mould above the chalk silting. In all, Col. Hawley cleared that half of the area inside the ditch which lies east of a north and south diameter. He discovered three important new features: a circle of holes parallel with and close inside the ditch and named by him Aubrey Holes, in honour of John Aubrey who recorded certain depressions along this line; and two new circles of holes, Z and Y, nearer to but still outside the outer sarsen circle. There are probably fifty-six Aubrey Holes, of which number thirty have been excavated. They are circular in plan, and average 3 ft. 8 in. in diameter and 2 ft. 84 in. in depth. A small amount of cremated human bones was found in most of them, usually in a small pocket by the side of the hole. Sarsen and bluestone chips were present throughout their filling, but evidence is lacking as to whether stones or posts once stood n them. The Z and Y holes were wedge-shaped with rectangular bottoms. The Y holes averaged 2 ft. 114 in. in depth and 5 ft.

obtained from the Marlborough Downs; for sarsens in the immediate neighbourhood were scanty and small of size. The bluestones were brought from Prescelly in Pembrokeshire—a locality rich in stone circles. Two theories as to the purpose of Stonehenge exist to-day, the sun-worship theory and the sepulchral. The former was promulgated by Sir Norman Lockyer in 1901, but for many reasons, too many to recapitulate here, is probably erroneous, and the sepulchral theory is more likely to be the correct one. But all is surmise and analogy our only guide. Stonehenge is a stone circle, albeit an elaborate one, and most of those stone circles that have been carefully excavated have been proved to be sepulchral. With regard to the date of erection of the present Stonehenge, we have also to rely chiefly on analogy. Most stone circles and their contemporaries, long barrows, can be ascribed to the Aeneolithic period. We may here suggest a Bronze Age date. As regards the primary structure and the earthwork, the flints found in the ditch are no criterion, because they are implements roughly fashioned for rough work. The two pieces of pottery, however, found in the first silting of the ditch are almost certainly of the type called neolithic, and since the silting in the ditch must have been rapid we can speculate on a Stonehenge of the late Neolithic period superseded by an improved Stonehenge in the early Bronze Age. BrsriocrapHy—Among the many writings on Stonehenge may be mentioned William Stukeley, Stonehenge and Avebury (1740; reprinted, 1840); Hoare, Ancient Wiltshire (1812); Long, Stonehenge and its Barrows (1876); W. H. Flinders Petrie, Stonehenge: Plans, Description and Theories (1880); Norman Lockyer, Stonehenge and other British Stone Monuments, Astronomically Considered; Stone, Stonehenge (1924); Kendrick, The Druids (1927). For complete bibliography of Stonehenge see The Wiltshire Archaeological and Natural History Magazine (Dec. 1901). For'bibliography of the Avenue see Antiquity, Vol. I., p. 342. For account of excavations see Gowland, Archaeologia, LVIII., p. 37; Hawley and Newall, Antiquaries Journal, I., IL., ITI., IV., V., VI. and VIII.; H H. Thomas “Prescelly origin of the bluestones” Antiquaries Journal, ITI. p. 239; O. G. S. Crawford, “Air Survey and Archaeology” (Ord. Survey Papers, New Series V.). (R. C. C. C.)

STONE MONUMENTS, PRIMITIVE.

The term primi-

tive stone monument implies an ancient or rudimentary memorial or mark. Some represent men or things. Others are tabernacles, provided, either with pious or magical intent, that a

power or a soul may be tnduced to dwell therein.

At first, they were memorial—to keep in memory the site of a certain event, or definite spot—perhaps to mark a route, perhaps to delimit the bourn of forbidden ground. They would be signposts, of a welcoming, funereal or warning character. Natural existing marks were doubtless first used; later, wooden posts where trees were plentiful. Stone heaps or boulders where available, would replace wood as less subject to decay and more diffcult to remove treacherously. Such marks become sacred by natural evolution, so that men fear to remove them. This process varies according to the people’s standard of magic or religion. Retribution is to be feared should a memorial be defaced or a boundary stone moved. During Woolley’s excavation at Ur 6} in. by 3 ft. g in. at the top. The Z holes averaged 3 ft. 6 in. in 1924 there was found, in what appeared to be a museum or in depth and 5 ft. ro} in. by 3 ft. 8 in. at the top. They were records department attached to a convent of the Kassite period constructed after the erection of the outer sarsen circle, but in (c. 1600 B.c.), such a bourn (now in the Baghdad Museum), phoall probability no stone or post ever stood in them. The Hele tographs of which were exhibited in 1925 in the basement of the Stone was found to have an encircling ditch, with postholes to Assyrian Department at the British Museum. On this stone were the west of it and three other stone holes between it and Stone- graven the boundaries of the property it had presumably once

henge. The Slaughter Stone had been buried in its present position marked, the names and no doubt once stood upright in a hole to the west of it. The “deed,” and a short isolated sarsen on the south-east just inside the ditch had no en- gods whose emblems circling ditch. The so-called “barrow” on the south in the line of mony be destroyed.

of the owner and of the witnesses to the imprecation threatening the curses of the. were carved upon the stone should this testiThe stage from the bourn to the idea of

440

STONE

MOUNTAIN

MEMORIAL—STONE

a witness-stone is almost imperceptible. The stone becomes something on which solemn oaths can be sworn, as is exemplified by pillar-stones and their folk-lore, especially such as have a hole through which may be passed the clasped hands of two persons making a contract. The La Fail at Tara and other stones on which Irish kings and chiefs took their oaths at their inauguration,

and the Bocca della Verita in Rome, display the persistence of such an idea into historic times.

Similar traditions have clung for

longer periods to witness-stones or pierres de justice among the primitive stone monuments of Brittany, Cornwall, Wales, Scotland and Ireland. Once a memorial pillar or a witness-stone became invested with such a sacral character it would easily itself become the object of propitiatory rites, especially if marked with sacred emblems. Thus the drivers travelling the lonely desert routes uniting India, China, Tibet, Russia and Persia pour libations of wheel oil on the anthropomorphic stone wayside cairns and sacred wooden pillars set up at certain stages of their road. (See also Genesis xxviii., 16—22.)

As to the representation of the human form or of its lifegiving organs, the more primitive idea is not the symbology associated with fertility cults, but the intention to represent a particular man or a supernatural being in the likeness of man however crude. This is demonstrable, because although standingstones or menhirs rudely hewn into effigies, recognizably female by their indications of femininity (and almost certainly intended to represent or symbolize a Mother Goddess), are compatible with a very primitive knowledge of physiology, and call for no

stones

(where stone was

RIVER

available)

as more

permanent

than

marked trees or wooden posts or cairns of loose stones. It is diff. cult to disentangle, from among a welter of stone monuments

(such, e.g., as those at Carnac which range from small unhewn pil-

lars 2 feet high to elaborately chambered barrows), primitive commemorative menhirs that may have survived from an earlier day,

The more primitive-seeming stone monuments—menhirs in isolation—are almost invariably found in districts where the elaborate

chambered barrow, the cromlech and the stone avenue are equally

characteristic. In the Naga Hills, lying between Assam and Burma, we can observe a rather primitive society erecting just such menhirs as we see in the megalithic districts of Western

Europe, to mark social occasions and events of their lives. Such primitive

monuments

as

standing-stones

are

erected

by men

according to a prescribed etiquette to commemorate. -contemporary

events of their own lives and need not necessarily be either funereal or in the nature of witness-stones or boundary-marks. It is arguable that the stone-raising Nagas, like the. peasants of

Ireland or Brittany with their cults of the stones, are merely keeping alive customs which originated in a more complex society, and certain other Naga customs connected with the use of evans and the symbolism of horns bear this out: i When, therefore, we come to deal with such stone monuments

as are really rude human

effigies, we are far away from the

symbolical ideas already discussed. Primitive folk to-day provide the disembodied spirit with an effigy, preferably near his grave,

thus preventing him from taking up his

ad in an already

esoteric or philosophical explanation, the case with phallic (see PHALLICISM) representations is rather different. A religion call-

occupied body.

Go

ing for the recognition of that symbol as representative of fertility (as distinct from fecundity) presupposes a society cognizant of the respective parts played by the male and female functions in nature in the production of offspring, and long familiar with husbandry and cattle-raising, whereas in very primitive societies the physical association of the sexes, though regulated by custom, is often unrelated to paternity. The child is known to be physiologically produced by its mother. Socially it may belong to its maternal uncle (see AVUNCULATE), uterine relationship between brothers and sisters being easily demonstrable. Even when the observed association of maternal fecundity with post-initiate sexual connection brings about recognition of cause and effect in specific cases, there is still some way to go intellectually before the symbol of male fertility can take the natural place in. the ideology of magic or religion that is taken by the crude representation of a human form with female breasts. The stone pillar that is recognizably a phallus is not on the same primitive plane with the menhir having indications of eyes, nose, mouth and breasts, but rather with the esoteric symbology of the holed stone. Mystery dramas, in which the initiate actually passes through the circular gate of exit from*“his mother’s womb” to that new life, and domestic altars on which phallus and holed stone are not the accessories of indecent rites but the emblems of an exalted interpretation of the twin principles. of life, must have been sufficiently common to perpetuate, as appears to have been the case, the esoteric significance of these symbols through long ages. We see the origin of the doubly solemn nature of an asseveration or contract made by passing the hand through a holed stone, and of the idea of passing sick children bodily through such stones. The cult of the lingam stone in India to-day illustrates this point. Thus, no doubt, many of the rude stone monuments anne. acteristic of Brittany, Cornwall, Wales, Scotland, Ireland, etc., came to have their connection in folk-lore and folk memory with fertility cults, the furtive practice of whose associated rites might well be condemned by the unthinking as fundamentally indecent, and by the early Christian Church as subversively pagan. Such monuments, therefore, are not so much primitive in themselves as relics of a highly elaborate order of ideas. The ideas connected with pillar and holed-stone cults probably go back to 4000 or 5000 B.c., although not introduced into Western Europe till somewhere about 2500 to 2000 B.c. Long before that, however, men probably put up small rude bourns and memory

lateral enclosures, or dolmens—those remains of what have once

Other rough stone monuments as avenues, Coneis and quadribeen stone chambers or artificial grottoes covered over by mounds of earth or stones—are not strictly primitive, as has been demon-

strated by the excavations at Carnac, in Bepo (see CARNAC, Megalithic Monuments). BIBLIOGRAPHY. —W. G. Wood-Martin, Pagan Telahā, paragraphs on “Pillar-Stones” and “Holed-Stones” pp. 302-13 (1895, Bibliography), Traces of the Elder Faiths of Ireland, vol. II. Chap. vi. on “Stone Worship” (1902 Bibliography); Sir Arthur J. Evans, The Mycenaean Tree and Pillar Cult and its M‘editerranean Relations (1901) ; G. Henderson, Survivals in Belief among the Celts (1911); Z. Le Rouzic, Carnac, Menhir-Statues avec signes figuratifs et amulettes ou idoles des dol-

mens du Morbihan (1913); J. H. Hutton, “The Use of Stone in the Naga Hills,” Journ. Roy. Anthrop. Inst., Vol. LVI., pp. 71~82 (1926) J. W. Layard, “Degree-taking Rites in "South West Bay, Malekula,” ibid., Vol. LVIII., p. 139, 1928. See also Bibliographies. to ae on CARNAC, MEGALITHIC CULTURE, STONEHENGE, etc.' (V.C.C. C.)

STONE MOUNTAIN MEMORIAL. Stone Kouna situated about 15 m. north of Atlanta, Ga., is a solid grey granite monadnock, shaped like a half parabola, 867 ft: high; nearly a mile long, and without a tree, shrub, or patch of earth to disguise the stone. In 1916 the sculptor, Gutzon Borglum (q.v.), conceived the plan of carving upon this mountain side a gigantic memorial to the valour and loyalty of the South to the lost. Confederate cause. The design, 200 ft. high and 1,300 ft. long, was to represent the army of the Confederacy with Robert E. Lee and other south| ern leaders at its head. Work was begun by Borglum in 1917, interrupted by the World War, and continued in 1923-25 when a dispute with the Stone Mountain Monumental Association, which

raised the funds, resulted in his dismissal. In. 1926 Augustus Lukeman was employed as Borglum’s successor. ‘Borglum’s head of Lee was unveiled in 1924 and a section of Lukeman’s work was unveiled in 1928, but the total then accomplished represented but a corner of one section of the complete design. Funds may ultimately be raised to complete the monument. | STONE RIVER, BATTLE OF, a battle of the American Civil War, called the battle of Murfreesboro by the Confederates, fought on Dec. 31, 1862, and Jan..2, 1863. After his appointment in October to command the Army of the Cumberland, Gen. W. S. Rosecrans, with Chattanooga as his objective, moved from Nashville upon Gen. Braxton Bragg, who left the winter quarters he had established at Murfreesboro and met the Union army on Stone river immediately north of Murfreesboro, on the last day of December.

The plan of attack on each side was to crush the

enemy’s right. Bragg’s left, commanded by Lieut.-gen. W. J.

SLONEWORT—STORK Hardee, overlapped and bore back the Union right under Maj -

gen. A. McD. McCook, and Maj.-gen. T.L Crittenden, command-

called back from his attack on McCook, The Union right was Maj.-gen. G. H. Thomas’s corps There was practically no fightthe Confederates renewed the attack, Maj.-gen. J. C. Breckinridge with Bragg’s right attempting

ing the Union left, was hurriedly the Confederate right to support crumpled up on the centre, where checked the Confederate attack. ing on Jan. 1, but on the 2nd

44I

The materials required for the game are very few and very simple; and although with the exception of the ball they can be easily and quickly made by any carpenter they may now be obtained from most of the outfitters. Two bats, a ball, and two

wickets comprise the materials. The bats are wooden, made like a racket, the diameter of the round part being not more than 7żin., and, including the handle, the bat must be not more than 18in. in length. The ball is usually known as “best tennis No. 3,” but in vain to displace one of Crittenden’s divisions which had estab- a hard lawn tennis ball will serve the purpose. Each of the two lished itself during the rst on high ground across the river. On wickets consists of a board rft. square fastened to a stout post the night of the 3rd Bragg withdrew and the Union army occupied which must be firmly fixed in the ground in such a way that the Murfreesboro. T actically a drawn battle, Stone River was top of the board is 4ft. 8in. above the ground; a tripod is often strategically a Union victory. The losses on both sides were substituted for the post. The wickets must be fixed at a distance of r6yds. from each heavy: of 37,712 Confederates present for duty, 1,294 were killed, 7,945 were wounded, and about 2,500 were missing ; and of other, and a bowling crease not more than iyd. in length must be 44,800 Union soldiers present for duty, 1,677 were killed, 7,543 marked at a spot royds. from each wicket, for this is where the bowler stands. The bowling is underhand, and the number of were wounded, and 3,686 were missing. See A. F. Stevenson, The Battle of Stone’s River (Boston, 1884); balls to an over, originally ten, has been reduced to eight. A batsand W. J. Vance, Stone’s River, the Turning-Point of the Civil War man may be bowled, caught, or run out (the ball hitting the face (1914). of the board), or may be given out “body before’; runs are made STONEWORT, the common name for Algae (q.v.) of the just as in cricket. In order that the batsman shall be out, division Charales, so called from the deposit of lime in their super- “bowled,” the ball must hit the face or edge of the wicket (but not the stump), without having previously touched the ground— ficial membranes. They grow in frésh and brackish water. STONINGTON, a borough of Connecticut, U.S.A. Pop. in other words the ball must be a full pitch. On all points for (1930), 2,006. There is a good harbour. In the 18th and roth which there are no special rules, the laws of cricket, as far as centuries whaling and sealing were important industries. possible, hold good for stoolball. The game can be played on any Nathaniel B. Palmer, who discovered Palmer Land in the piece of ground which is fairly level and not so rough as to be Antarctic early in the r9th century, was a whaling captain of dangerous; the minimum space required would be about half the Stonington. The village was a military depot during the Revolu- size of an ordinary cricket ground. The ancient form of the game was once very popular in Engtion, and in Aug. 1775, was bombarded bya British frigate. In 1801 it was incorporated as a borough, the first in the State. An land, and was commonly considered to be the ancestor of cricket. Writing in 1801, Joseph Strutt gives a description of it. attack by a British squadron in Aug. 1814, was repulsed. See W. W. Grantham, Stoolball Illustrated and How to Play it. STONY POINT, a township in Rockland county, N.Y., U.S.A. Pop. (1930) 3,458. Area, about 30 sq. miles. It was (W. A. BE.) STORACE, STEPHEN (1763-1796), English composer, was named from a rocky promontory which juts into the Hudson. During the Revolutionary War it was of considerable strategic im- born in London but studied (under his father, Stefano Storace, an portance. The Americans occupied it in Nov. 1776, and about two- Italian contrabassist) at the Conservatorio di Sant’ Onofrio, at years later erected a blockhouse upon it. The garrison, however, Naples.” His first opera, Gli Sposi malcontenti, was produced at was very small, and on May’31, 1779, it was taken by the British, Vienna, in 1785. Here he made the acquaintance of Mozart, in who immediately erected much stronger fortifications. On the whose Nozze di Figaro his sister, Anna Selina Storace, first sang night of July 15-16, it was recovered by Gen. Anthony Wayne, the part of Susanna. Here also he produced a second opera, Gli in command of about 1,350 picked American troops, the gar- Equivocit, founded on Shakespeare’s Comedy of Errors, and a rison (under Lieut.-Col. Henry Johnson) losing 63 in killed, 70 Singspiel entitled Der Doctor und der Apotheker. In England, in wounded and 543 taken prisoner. The American loss was only after creating a favourable impression by bringing out his Sing-

15 killed and 83 wounded. The Americans, however, had no thought from the first of holding the place and evacuated it on July 18; whereupon it was reoccupied by the British, but late in October they, too, abandoned it. In the “old Treason house” in

the township Gen. Benedict Arnold and Major John André met

before daylight on Sept. 22, 1780, to settle upon plans for the

surrender of West Point by Arnold to the British. See H. P. Johnston, The Storming of Stony Point (1900); E. H. Hall and F. W. Halsey, Stony Point Battle-Field (1902) ; atid D. Cole and E. Gay, History of Rockland County (1884).

STOOLBALL. Of the ancient game of stoolball very little indeed is known, and it has nothing whatever in common with the modern gatne which, since 1916, has made astonishing progtess. During the war a simple but not strenuous outdoor game was

spiel at Drury Lane, under the title of The Doctor and the Apothe-

cary, Storace attained his first great success in 1789, in The Haunted Tower, an opera which ran for fifty nights in succession. The music of The Pirates (1792) affords one of the earliest instances of the introduction of a grand finale into an English opera. Storace’s music is pre-eminently English. He doubtless learnt something from his sister Anna (1766-1817), a brilliant singer who died leaving £50,000. Storace himself died on March

1g, 1796. STORAGE, COLD: see REFRIGERATION AND ICE MANUFACT

STORAGE BATTERY: see ACCUMULATORS. STORK

(Ciconia alba), a well-known bird, which is a summer

visitor to most parts of the European continent, breeding from very badly neéded for wounded officers, soldiers and sailors; and southern Sweden to Spain and Greece. It reappears again in Asia the idea occurred to Maj. W. W. Grantham, who was stationed at Minor, the Caucasus, Persia, and Turkestan, but farther east it Brighton, that the old game of stoolball adapted to modern re- is replaced by C. boyciana, which reaches Japan. Though occaquirements, would be suitable for the purpose. The game was sionally using trees for the purpose, the stork generally places its soon played in scores of hospitals and convalescent homes, in nest on buildings, and is everywhere a cherished guest, popular England and France. ‘He made a few simple rules adapted from belief ascribing good luck to the house to which it attaches itself:

cricket, and the. first public match took place on the County ticket ground of Hove in 1917. In 1924 .a, Stoolball Association was formed at Lord’s, and by the end of 1927 it was estimated that nearly 3,000 clubs

had become members. In Sussex alone the game is played in hun-

dreds of villages, and by large numbers of schools of all kinds, women’s institutions and girl guides associations. It has been introduced into Iceland; Japan, Siberia, Switzerland and Finland.

To consult its convenience a stage of some kind, often a cart-

wheel, is in many places set up. Its food, consisting mainly of frogs and insects, is gathered in marshes and pastures, across which it may be seen stalking with an air of quiet dignity; but in the pairing season it indulges in grotesque gestures—leaping from the ground with extended wings in a kind of dance, and, though

voiceless, clattering its mandibles.

Apart from its size—a stork

stands more than 3ft. in height—its contrasted plumage of white

442

STORM—STOSS

and black, with its bright red bill and legs, makes it a conspicuous and beautiful object. In winter the storks of Europe retire to Africa—some of them reaching Cape Colony—while those of Asia visit India. A second species, with much the same range, is the black stork, C. nigra, of which the upper parts are black, brilliantly glossed with purple, copper and green, while it is white beneath, the bill, legs, and the bare skin round the eyes being red. The bird breeds in lofty trees. Two other dark-coloured species are the African C. abdimii and C. episcopus, which is found in Africa, India, Java, and Sumatra. The New World has only one true

went a short imprisonment for boasting about his work in the former reign. In 1563 he was again arrested, but managed to escape to Flanders, where he became a pensioner of Philip IT, of

Spain. The duke of Alva authorized him to exclude certain classes

of books from the Netherlands and, in 1570, while engaged in this work, he was decoyed on to a ship at Antwerp and conveyed to Yarmouth. In spite of his claim that he was a Spanish subject, he was tried for high treason, and executed at Tyburn on June r, 157I. In 1886 Story was beatified by papal decree.

STORY, JOSEPH

(1779-1845), American jurist, was born

stork, Dissura maguari, which inhabits South America and re-

at

sembles C. boyciana, differing therefrom in its greenish-white bill and black tail. Both these species are very like C. alba, but are larger and have a bare patch of red skin round the eyes. The storks form the family Ciconiidae, and, together with the ibises (g.v.), are ranked as a sub-order of Ciconiiform birds (see ORNITHOLOGY). In all the storks the eggs are white, and pitted with granular depressions.

from Harvard in 1798, and was admitted to the bar at Salem

STORM, THEODOR

WOLDSEN

(1817-1888), German

poet and novelist, was born at Husum, Schleswig, on Sept. 14, 1817, studying jurisprudence at Kiel and Berlin, where he formed a close friendship with the brothers Theodor and Tycho Mommsen. Storm is hardly less remarkable as a lyric poet than as a novelist. As the former, he made his début, with the two Mommsens, with Liederbuch dreier Freunde (1843); but his

Gedichte (1852; 12th edition, 1900) first obtained for him general recognition. As a novelist he gained his first great success with Jmmensee (1852; 51st edition, 1901); and this was followed by numerous other short stories. He is at his best when dealing retrospectively with episodes and incidents from his own earlier lite. Later he passed to psychological problems with Aquis submersus (1877) and Zur Chronik von Grieshuus (1884), and made a deep impression with his fantastic Schimmelreiter (1888). Storm’s

Gesammelte

Schriften appeared in 19 vols. between

1868

and 1889; new edition in 8 vols. (1898); Sämtliche Werke (A. Koster,

1919). His correspondence with E, Mérike was published in 1891, with G. Keller in 1904 and with Paul Heyse (1917). See E. Schmidt, Charakteristiken, i. (1886); also P. Schiitze, Theodor Storm, sein Leben und seine Dichtung (1887); F. Wehl, Theodor Storm, ein Bild seines Lebens und Schaffens (1888); A. Biese, Th. Storm und der

moderne Realismus (1888); and P. Remer, Theodor Storm als nord-

deutscher Dichter (1897); C. J. A. Biese, Theodor Storms Leben und Werke (Leipzig, 1917); R. Pitnou, La vie et Poeuvre de Th. Storm, 1817-1888 (1920).

STORM. A gale is classed as a storm when the wind reaches force 10 on the Beaufort Scale (q.v.). (For magnetic storms see TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM.) oes

STORMBERG, ACTION OF (Dec. 10, 1899): see SoutH AFRICAN WAR. 7 STORNOWAY (Norse, Stjarna vagr, “Stjarna’s Bay”),

the principal town of the county of Ross and Cromarty. Pop. (1921), 4,079. It is situated on the east coast of Lewis, at the head of a harbour accessible for steamers of 3,000 tons. Stornoway, which was made a burgh of barony by James VI., is the. centre of the Outer Hebrides fishery district and during the herring season the population is very largely increased. Steamers run daily in summer to Mallaig and weekly to Glasgow, Belfast, Leith and Liverpool.

STORY, JOHN

(c. 1510-1571), English martyr, was edu-

cated at Oxford, where he became lecturer on civil law in 1535, being made later principal of Broadgates Hall, afterwards Pembroke college. He appears to have disavowed his Roman Catholic opinions just after the accession of Edward VI., but having been chosen a member of parliament in 1547 he gained notoriety by his opposition to the act of uniformity in 1548. For crying out “Woe unto thee, O land, when thy king is a child,” he was imprisoned by the House of Commons, but he was soon released and went into exile. Returning to England in 1553, he resigned his position at Oxford, which was now that of regius professor of civil law, and was made chancellor of the dioceses of London and of Oxford and dean of arches. Story was one of Queen Mary’s

most active agents in prosecuting heretics, and was one of her proctors at the trial of Cranmer at Oxford in 1555. Under Elizabeth he was again returned to parliament, but in 1560 he under-

Marblehead

(Mass.),

on

Sept. 18,

1779.

He

graduated

(Mass.), in 1801, a Democrat. In Nov. 1811, at the age of 32, he became, by President Madison’s appointment, an associate justice of the US. Supreme Court. This position he retained until his death. Soon after Story’s appointment, the Supreme Court began to bring out into plain view the powers which the Constitution

had given it over State courts and State legislation. The leading place in this work belongs to Chief Justice John Marshall, but Story has a very large share in that remarkable

series of decisions and opinions, from 1812 until 1832, by which

the work was accomplished. In addition to this he built up the department of admiralty law in the U.S. courts; he devoted much attention to equity jurisprudence, and rendered invaluable services to:the department of patent law. In 1819 he attracted much attention by his vigorous charges to grand juries, denouncing the slave trade, and in 1820 he was a prominent member of the Massachusetts Convention called to revise the State Constitution. In 1829 he became the first Dane professor of law at Harvard university, and continued until his death to hold this position. He died at Cambridge (Mass.), on Sept. 10, 1845. Among his publications are: Commentaries on the Law of Bailments (1832); Commentaries on the Constitution of the United States (1833), a work of profound learning which is still the standard treatise on the subject; Commentaries on the Conflict of Laws (1834), by many regarded as his ablest work; Commentaries on Equity Jurisprudence (1835-36); Equity Pleadings (1838); Law of Agency (1839) 3;Law of Partnership (1841) ; Law of Bills of Exchange (1843) ; and Law of Promissory Notes (1845). f See The Life and Letters of Joseph Story (Boston and London, 1851),- by his son, W. W. Story.

STORY, WILLIAM WETMORE

(1819-1895), American

sculptor and poet, was born at Salem (Mass.), Feb. 12, 1819. A graduate of Harvard college (1838), he studied law under his father, Justice Joseph Story and for six years he only wrote poetry and criticism, modelled and painted to amuse himself. A request that, he make the public monument to his father resulted in a journey abroad, which caused him to find that his “heart had gone over from the Law to Art.” Thereafter he spent his life in Italy, where he died, Oct. 7, 1895. What Hawthorne

called “his perplexing variety of talents and accomplishments” prevented his high contemporary reputation from becoming permanent. His statue of Cleopatra is most famous because of the enthusiastic description in Hawthorne’s Marble Faun; typical of the majority of his sombre feminine figures are Semiramis and Medea in the Metropolitan Museum. His Poems (1885), He and She; or, A Poet’s Portfolio (1884) and A Poets Portfolio: Later Readings (1894) show his love of beauty, but, like his statues, they lack vitality. as do his other books. See Henry James, William Wetmore Story and His Friends (1903) ; and Lorado Taft, History of American Sculpture (1924).

STORY: see SHORT STORY. STOSS, VEIT (1438 or 1440-1533), German sculptor and

wood carver, was born in Nuremberg.

In 1477 he went to Cracow,

where he was actively engaged until 1499.

It was here that he

carved the high altar for the Marienkirche, between 1477 and

1484. On the death of King Casimir IV. in 1492 Stoss carved his tomb in red marble for the cathedral in Cracow. He also executed the marble tombstone of the archbishop Zbigniew Ollsnicki in the cathedral at Gnesen and the Stanislaus altar for the Marienkirche at Cracow. In 1496 he returned to Nuremberg, where he did a

great deal of work in completing altars. His main works are: a relief with the Coronation of the Blessed Virgin in the Germanic museum

at Nuremberg,

a statue of the Blessed Virgin in the

STOSSEL—STOW cirFrauenkirche, the Annunciation in the Lorenzkirche, and the museum. c Germani the in cular rosary

MIKHAILOVICH (1848-1915),

STÖSSEL, ANATOLI

July 1o, Russian general, born at St. Petersburg (Leningrad), on

about 40 m.

command at Port Arthur. After a prolonged defence (see Russo-

Japanese War) he surrendered the city to the Japanese (Jan. 2,

STOTHARD,

THOMAS

(1755-1834),

English

Stossel

subject

STOURBRIDGE, (1931) 19,903.

town in Worcestershire, England.

There is an endowed grammar

Pop.

school founded

by Edward VI., and a bluecoat or hospital school. The principal

manufactures are in iron, leather and skins; there are glue works and fire-brick works. Coal and fite-clay are mined. The manufacture of glass was established in 1556. Annual fairs are held. The town was originally called Bedcote, a name retained by the manor.

on Aug. 17, 1755, the son of a

After a delicate childhood,

well-to-do innkeeper in Long Acre.

Stour are (3) a tributary of

which it joins at Stourport, and (5) a small tributary of the upper Avon, rising west of Banbury.

in the outbreak of the Russo-Japanese War (1904) he was placed

painter, was born in London

Other rivers named

the Hampshire Avon, (4) a left bank tributary of the Severn,

1348, entered the Russian army in 1864. He served in the RussoTurkish War of 1877-78 and in the Boxer campaign of 1900. At

1905). He was tried by court-martial and imprisoned. was released in May 19009. He died in January 1915.

44.3

he was apprenticed in Spitalfields to a draughtsman of patterns

STOURPORT,

market

town, Worcester,

England.

Pop.

(1931) 5,949. At Redstone is a hermitage excavated out of the red sandstone bank of the Severn.

), New Zealand judge SIR ROBERT (1844for brocaded silks. In 1778 he became a student of the Royal | andSTOUT, at Lerwick, Shetland 1844 28, Sept. on born was statesman, Academy, of which he was elected associate in 1792 and full at the parish school. He teacher pupil a became he where ‘Isles, He librarian. academician in 1794. In 1812 he was appointed (July 4, 1871) as

went to New Zealand in 1863, was admitted barrister and solicitor of the supreme court of New Zealand, from 1874-1876 was law lecturer there. In 1875 he was elected and Ossian and for Bels Poets; and in 1780 he became a regular Liberal M.P. for Caversham, and in Feb. 1878 became attorneycontributor to the Novelist’s Magazine, for which he executed general and minister of lands and minister of immigration in Sir Peregrine to 148 designs, including his 11 admirable illustrations George Grey’s ministry. He resigned in 1879 but returned to pubPickle and his graceful subjects from Clarissa and Str Charles life in 1884 as member for Dunedin East. On the defeat ‘lic , pocket-books for plates designed Grondison. He contentedly Harry Atkinson’s Government he joined Sir Jules Vogel Sir of tickets for concerts, illustrations to almanacs, portraits of popular in forming a ministry (Aug. 16-28, 1884), but after another players—and into even the slightest and most trivial sketches he government had held office for a few days (Aug. 28infused a grace and distinction which render them of value to| Atkinson a second Stout-Vogel government was formed which 3) ‘Sept. the collectors of the present time. He is at his best in domestic lasted three years. In both the Stout-Vogel governments Sir or ideal subjects;the heroic and the tragic were beyond his powers. Robert Stout was premier and attorney-general. At the general | sketchy rather and His oil pictures are usually small in size, in 1887 he lost his seat. In 1893 he was elected as an in handling; but their colouring is often rich and glowing, Stothard election t Liberal for Inangahua, at a by-election, and at the independen perhaps . “Vintage,” The Rubens. having been a great admirer of of 1893 and 1896 he was elected for Wellington elections general He his most important oil painting, is in the National Gallery. transferred his legal practice. In 1898 he rehe to which was a contributor to Boydell’s Shakespeare gallery, but his best- city, from 1899 to 1926 was Chief Justice. and seat, his signed Pilgrims,” y Canterbur known painting is the “Procession of the principal measures were the Land Act of Stout’s Robert Sir also in the National Gallery, the engraving from which, begun Act (drafted in co-operation with BalTax Land first the 1877, James by finished and ti Schiavonet by Luigi, continued by Niccolo in 1878), and the Civil Service Relaw became which and lance a by Heath, attained an immense popularity. It was followed made K.C.M.G. As a member of was he when 1886 of Act companion work, the “Flitch of Bacon,” which was drawn in form in 1881 he helped Allen Holmes appointed commission royal a colour. in out carried sepia for the engraver but was never which was enacted in 1882 procedure, civil of code the form to one Crusoe, Among his illustrations are the two sets to Robinson of New Zealand one of the procedure and court edition, and made the supreme for the New Magazine and one for Stockdale’s plates to The Pilgrim’s Progress (1788), to Harding’s edition of Gold- the simplest in the world. He was also interested in educational smith’s Vicar of Wakefield (1792), to The Rape of the Lock (1798), and temperance reform. He became member of the New Zeato the works of Gessner (1802), to Cowper’s Poems (1825), to The and of the Victoria University Decameron, the superb editions of Roger’s Italy (1830) and Poems land university senate in 1884 from 1903 to 1923 was chanand . Wellington, college council, (1834). Stothard also decorated the grand staircase of Burghley House, cellor of the university. He was elected a member of the Legislanear Stamford (1799-1803); the mansion of Hafod, North Wales, tive Council of New Zealand in 1926. the upper hall of the Advocates’ Library,

died in London on April 27, 1834.

Among his earliest book illustrations are plates engraved for

(1810) and the cupola of Edinburgh (now occupied by the Signet Library), with Apollo and

the Muses, and figures of poets, orators, etc, (1822). His designs for a frieze and other decorations for Buckingham Palace were not

executed, owing to the death of George IV.

magnificent shield presented to the duke chants of London, and executed with his etchings from the various subjects which Museum is a collection, in four volumes,

He also designed the

of Wellington by the merown hand a series of eight adorned it. In the British of engravings of Stothard’s

works, made by Robert Balmanno.

An interesting but most indiscriminately eulogistic biography of Stothard, by his daughter-in-law, Mrs. Bray, was published in 881, A. C. Coxhead’s Thomas Stothard, R. A., an Illustrated Monograph (1906), contains a short biographical chapter, and an accurately dated summary of the various books and periodicals illustrated by Stothard; see also Austin Dobson, Eighteenth Century Vignettes,

ist series (1892).

:

:

.

STOUR, the name of several English rivers, an ancient word

of doubtful’ etymology.

(xz) The East-Anglian Stour rises in

south-east Cambridgeshire and flows 60 miles to the North Sea at Harwich. (2) The Kentish or Great Stour -rises on the south of the North Downs, one branch, the East Stour, rising near

Hyde but flowing away from the sea, while the western branch

tises near Lenham and the two unite at Ashford. Passing Canterbury, the Stour again divides, one branch reaching the English

Channel in. Pegwell Bay, while the smaller enters the North Sea

at Reculver, The Stour is navigable to Fordwich.

Its length is

STOUT: see Beer; BREWING. STOVES: see Housenotp APPLIANCES; Gas Sroves; FUR-

NACES; HEATING AND VENTILATION.

STOW, JOHN

(c. 1525-1605), English historian and anti-

quary, was the son of Thomas Stow, a tailor, and was born about rg2s in London, in the parish of St. Michael, Cornhill, He learned the trade of his father, but possibly did not practise it much after he grew up. In 1549 he “kept house” near the well within Aldgate, but afterwards he removed to Lime Street ward, where he resided till his death. About 1560 he made the acquaintance of the leading antiquaries of his time, including William Camden, and in 1561 he published his first work, The woorkes of Geffrey Chaucer, newly printed with divers addicions whiche were never in printe before. This was followed in 1565 by his Summarie of Englyshe Chronicles, which was frequently reprinted, with slight variations, during his lifetime. In 1580 Stow published his Annales, or a Generale Chronicle of England from Brute yay until the present yeare of Christ 1580. The work by which Stow is best known 'is his Survey o f London, y published in 1598, not only interesting from the quaint simplicit but of of its style and its amusing descriptions and anecdotes, unique value from its minute account of the buildings, social

condition and customs

of London in the time of Elizabeth.

444

STOWE— STOWELL

Through the patronage of Archbishop Parker, Stow was enabled to print the Flores historiarum of Matthew of Westminster in 1567, the Chronicle of Matthew Paris in 1571, and the Historia brevis of Thomas Walsingham in 1574. At the request of Parker he had himself compiled a “farre larger volume,” An history of this island, but the manuscript is lost. Stow remained poor all his life, and was authorized by James I. to appeal for alms in 1604. He died on April 6, 1605, and was buried in the church of St. Andrew Undershaft, where is his monument. A number of Stow’s manuscripts are in the Harleian collection in the British Museum. Some are in the Lambeth library (No. 306); and from the volume which includes them were published by the Camden Society, edited by James Gairdner, Three Fifteenth-Century Chronicles, with Historical Memoranda by John Stowe the Antiquary, and Contemporary Notes of Occurrences written by him (1880). Of the many editions of Stow’s Survey of London, see that with notes by C. L. Kingsford (Oxford, 1908).

STOWE,

HARRIET

ELIZABETH

(Berrcuer)

(1811-

ligious poems, and towards the end of her career gave some public readings from her writings. In 1852 Prof. Stowe accepted a professorship in the Theological seminary at Andover (Mass.),

and the family made its home there till 1863, when he retired

wholly from professional life and removed

to Hartford.

After

the close of the war for the Union, Mrs. Stowe bought an estate

in Florida, chiefly in hope of restoring the health of her son, Capt. Frederick Beecher Stowe, who had been wounded in the war, and there she spent many winters. After the death of her

husband in 1886, she lived in the seclusion of her Hartford home,

where she died on July 1, 1896. husband at Andover.

She is buried by the side of her

See the Life and Letters of Harriet Beecher Stowe

(1897) which

were edited by Annie Fields. Recent lives are C. E. and L. B. Stowe, Harriet Beecher Stowe: the Story of Her Life (1911), and a biography

for girls (1913) by Martha F. Crow.

See also “Harriet Beecher Stowe”

in John Erskine’s Leading American Novelists (1910). The Riverside edition of Mrs. Stowe’s works was published in 1899 and 1906 in 16 volumes (with an additional volume of biography). (H. E. S.)

STOWELL, WILLIAM SCOTT, Baron (1745-1836), English judge and jurist, was born at Heworth, near Newcastle, on Oct. 17, 1745, the son of a “coalfitter” (or tradesman engaged in the transport of coal). His younger brother John became the famous Lord Chancellor Eldon. Scott was educated at the Newher childhood was one of the most intellectual in New England. castle grammar school and Corpus Christi College, Oxford. In At her mother’s death, in 1815, she came most directly under the 1774 he was Camden reader of ancient history, and in 1779 he influence of her eldest sister, Catherine, a woman of keen in- graduated as doctor of civil law and, after the customary “year tellect, who a few years later set up a school in Hartford, to which of silence,” commenced practice in the ecclesiastical courts. His Harriet went, first as a pupil, afterwards as teacher. In 1832 her professional success was rapid. In 1783 he became registrar of the father, who had for six years been the pastor of a church in court of faculties; in 1788 judge of. the consistory court and Boston, accepted the presidency of the newly-founded Lane advocate-general; and in 1798 he was made judge of the high Theological seminary at Cincinnati. Catherine Beecher, who court of admiralty. Sir William Scott twice contested Oxford was eager to establish what should be in effect a pioneer college| University—in 1780 without success, but successfully in 18or. for women, accompanied him; and with her went Harriet as an He also sat for Downton in 1790. Upon the coronation of George assistant, taking an active part in the literary and school life, IV. (1821) he was raised to the peerage as Baron Stowell, Lord contributing stories and sketches to local journals, and com- Stowell retired from the bench—from the consistory court in piling a school geography. She was married Jan. 6, 1836, to one August 1821, and from the high court of admiralty in December of the professors in the seminary, Calvin Ellis Stowe. In the 1827. He died on Jan. 28, 1836. Lord Stowell was twice married midst of privation and anxiety, due largely to her husband’s pre- —in 1781 to Anna Maria, eldest daughter of John Bagnall of carious health, she wrote continually, and in 1843 published The Early Court, Berks., and in 1813 to the dowager marchioness of Mayflower, or Sketches of Scenes and Characters among the Sligo. The doctrines of international law with the assertion and Descendants of the Pilgrims. She lived 18 years in Cincinnati, illustration of which the name of Lord Stowell is identified are separated only by the Ohio river from a slave-holding community, these: the perfect equality and entire independence of all states coming in contact with fugitive slaves, and learning from friends (“Le Louis,” 2 Dod. 243)—a logical deduction from the Austinian and her own visits the life of the South. When, therefore, in philosophy and still one of the fundamental principles of ‘English 1850, Mr. Stowe was elected to a professorship in Bowdoin col- jurisprudence; that the elementary rules of international law bind lege, Brunswick (Me.), and removed his family thither, Mrs. even semi-barbarous states (the “Hurtige Hane,” 2 Rob. 325); Stowe was prepared for the great work which came to her, bit that blockade to be binding must be effectual (the “Betsey,” by bit, as a religious message which she must deliver. There she t Rob. 93); and that contraband of war is to be ‘determined by wrote, for serial publication in the National Era, an anti-slavery “probable destination” (the “J onge Margaretha,” xı Rob. 189). paper of Washington (D.C.), the story of Uncle Tom?s Cabin; In the famous Swedish convoy. case (the “Maria,” 1 Rob. 350; or, Life Among the Lowly. The publication in book form see, too, the “Recovery,” 6 C. Rob. 348-9) Lord Stowell asserted (March 20, 1852) was a factor which must be reckoned in sum- that “a prize court is a court not merely of the country in which it ming up the moving causes of the Civil War. The book sprang sits but of the law of nations.” “The seat of judicial authority,” into unexampled popularity, and was translated into at least 23 he added, in words which have become classic, “is indeed locally languages. Mrs. Stowe reinforced her story with A Key to Uncle here, in the belligerent country, but the law itself has no locality.” Tom’s Cabin, in which she accumulated a large number of docu- His dictum concerning the right of a belligerent to sink a neutral ments and testimonies against the great evil; and in 1853 she ship, when unable to take her before a prize court, was’ much made a journey to Europe, devoting herself especially to creat- quoted in 1904 in reference to the sinking of the “Knight ing an entente cordiale between English and American women on Commander” by the Russians in the Far East: the question. In 1856 she published Dred: a Tale 0 f the Dismal The judgments of Lord Stowell were, almost without exception, Swamp, in which she threw the weight of her argument on the confirmed on appeal, and they are to this day the international deterioration of a society resting on a slave basis. The establish- law of England, and have become presumptive though not conment of the Atlantic Monthly, in 1857, gave her a constant ve- clusive evidence of the international law of America. “I have hicle for her writings; also the Independent of N ew, York, taken care,” wrote Justice Story, “that they shall form the basis and later the Christian Union, of which papers successively her of the maritime law of the United States, and Ihave no hesita-

1896), American writer and philanthropist, seventh child of Lyman and Roxana (Foote) Beecher, was born at Litchfield (Conn.), June 14, r811. Her parents were descended from founders of New Haven; and the community in which she spent

brother, Henry Ward Beecher, was one of the editors.

From this time she led the life of a woman of letters, writing novels, of which The Minister’s Wooing (1859) is best known, and many studies of social life in the form both of fiction and essay. Her Pearl of Orr’s Island (1862), Sarah Orne Jewett credited with having revealed to her the literary value of the country folk. Mrs. Stowe published also a small volume of Ye-

tion in saying that they ought to-do so.in that of every civilized country in the world.” See W.

a

C. Townsend,

a:

a

Lives of Twelve Eminent

Sa

|

Judges, vol. ii.

(2 vols., 1846); W. E. Surtees, Sketch of the Lives of Lords, Stowell Reports of Prize Cases from 1745 to 1859 (1876; new ed. E. S. Roscoe,

and Eldon (1846) ; E. S. Creasy, First Platform of International Law:

2 vols.; ments.

x905),

contains

|

the most ‘important ‘of .Stowell’s : ,

judg-

445

STOWMARKET—-STRACHEY

Eng. trans. by H. L. Jones, Loeb Classical Lib. (5 vols. 1922~28). For fragments of the Historical, Memoirs see Leipziger Studien XI., 1891. See also Miiller’s Fragmenta kistoricorum graecorum, iii. 490 Sqq-; Bunbury’s History of Ancient Geography,’ vol. il. chs. 21, 22; an F. Dubois’s Examen de la géographie de Strabon (Paris, 1891) should also be consulted. mod

sTOWMARKET, a town in Suffolk, England. Pop. 4,296. The church of St. Peter and St. Mary is Decorated and Early English, with a tower and wooden spire. The ancient vicarage

has associations with Milton through his tutor, Dr. Young.

the principal town of Co. Tyrone, Ireland.

STRABANE,

Pop. (192 1) 5,107. It stands at the junction of the rivers Mourne in and Finn, which thenceforward form the Foyle. The trade corn is considerable. Linen is the principal industry.

STRACHAN, JOHN (1778-1867), first bishop of Toronto,

was born at Aberdeen, Scotland, on April 12, 1778. After taking his degree at Aberdeen he emigrated in 1799 to Canada. There he

STRABO [StRABON] (born c. 63 B.c.), Greek geographer, was horn at Amasia in Pontus, a city which had been much Hellenized. He studied at Nysa under the grammarian Aristodemus, under the grammarian

Tyrannio

at Rome,

under

was ordained (1803) and appointed to the parish of Cornwall,

Strachan was appointed to the executive council of Upper Canada in 1815. He was soon the leading spirit in that dominant group known in Upper Canadian history as the Family Compact.

the

philosopher Xenarchus, and he studied Aristotle with Boethus. He also states that he saw P. Servilius Isauricus, who died at Rome in advanced years in 44 B.c., from which it has been inferred that he visited Rome early in life. He also tells us that he was at Gyaros (one of the Cyclades) when Augustus was at Corinth on his return to Rome from the East in 29 B.c., and that

ex25acthe death of Juba, king of Mauretania, which took place in A.D. 21 Although he had seen a comparatively small portion of the regions which he describes, he had travelled much. As he states himself: “Westward I have journeyed to the parts of Etruria opposite Sardinia; towards the south from the Euxine to the borders of Ethiopia.” His Geography was finally revised between AD. 17 and 23. “Works.—His earliest writing was an historical work now lost, which he himself describes as his Historical Memoirs. He tells us (xi. 9, 3) that the sixth book of the Memoirs was identical with the second of the Continuation of Polybius; probably, therefore, books i-iv. formed an introduction to the main work. Plutarch, who calls him “the Philosopher,” quotes Strabo’s Memoirs (Luc. 28), and cites him as an historian. (Sulla, 26). Jose-

In 1820 he was appointed by Sir Peregrine Maitland a member

of the legislative council in order that the governor might have a confidential medium through whom to make communication to the council. At the instance of the lieutenant-governor he went to England in 1824, to discuss various colonial questions with

he accompanied the prefect of Egypt, Aelius Gallus, on his pedition to Upper Egypt, which seems to have taken place in 24 B.C. These are the only dates in his life. which can be curately fixed. The latest event mentioned in his work is

the colonial secretary.

He paid a second visit to England in

1826~27 to obtain a'royal charter for King’s College.

In 1827

Strachan became archdeacon of York.

The break-up of the Liverpool ministry in 1827 interrupted Strachan’s plans for placing the government endowments for religion’ and education under the Episcopal Church. Adverse

criticism-and a suggestion from the colonial office led to his resig-

from the executive council, but he declined to resign from | nation the legislative council.

phus calls him “the Cappadocian,” and often quotes from him. The Geography is the most important work on that science which antiquity has left us. It. follows Eratosthenes, who had frst laid down a scientific basis for geography. The earlier book was too small to contain the description of separate countries which Strabo included. The historical notices are all his own. He regarded Homer as the source of all wisdom and knowledge—indeed, his description of Greece is largely drawn from Apollodorus’s commentary on the Homeric “Catalogue of Ships”—and treated Herodotus with undeserved contempt, classing him with | Ctesias and other “marvel-mongers.” Strabo chiefly employed Greek authorities (the Alexandrian geographers Polybius, Poseidonius and Theophanes of Mytilene, the companion of Pompey) and made comparatively little use of Roman authorities. He probably amassed his material in the library of Alexandria, so that Greek authorities would naturally furnish the great bulk of his, collections, and then returned to of Agrippa, a map Rome, where he perhaps used the chorography. l of the Roman Empire set up in the Porticus Vipsaniae. is seventh the which of books, seventeen of consists The Geography imperfect. The first two are introductory, the next eight deal with

two to Italy and Europe, two being devoted to Spain and Gaul,three to Greek lands. Sicily, one to the north and east of Europe, and The eleventh book’ treats of the main divisions of Asia and the’ more

easterly districts, the next three of Asia Minor. Book xv. deals with India and. Persia, book xvi. with Assyria, Babylonia, Syria and Arabia, ws aN and the closing book ‘with Egypt and Africa.

Editions —The Aldine (Venice, 1516), was unfortunately based on

a very corrupt ms. The first substantial improvements in the text were due to Casaubon’ (Geneva, 1587;' Paris, 1620), whose text re-

mained the basis of subsequent editions till that’ of Coraés (Paris, 1815-19), who removed many- ‘corruptions, -The mss., were first scientifically collated by: Kramer (Berlin, 1844-52), who, demonstrated that Par. 1,397 was the best authority for the first nine books (it contains no more) and Vat. 1,329 for the remainder.

|

and in 1812 to York.

Of later editions

On the death of Bishop Stewart of Quebec the Cariadian see Y

was divided, and Strachan was made bishop of Toronto in August

1839. He energetically opposed the act of 1840, which sought to settle the Clergy Reserves question by dividing the ‘proceeds among the different religious denominations, the larger share still remaining with the Church of England. The university of King’s College was finally established, with certain modifications of its charter, in 1843, ‘Bishop Strachan ‘

being the first president. The renewed agitation finally resulted in the elimination of all religious tests bythe act of 1849, which

also changed the name to that of ‘the university of Toronto. Strachan at once took steps to found another university which

should be completély ‘under the control of the Episcopal Church,

hence the establishment of Trinity University, which was opened in 1852. Bishop Strachan also raised once more the question’ of

the disposal of the Clergy Reserves. The Reserves were completely’ secularized in 1854, provision, being made ‘for the lifeinterest of beneficiaries at the time. Bishop Strachan devoted the latter years of his long life entirely to. his episcopal duties, and by introducing the diocesan synod he furnished the Episcopal

Church in Canada with a more democratic organ of government.

He died in November 1867.

STRACHEY, JOHN ST. LOE (1860-1927), British journalist, was born at Sutton Court, Somerset, on Feb. 9, 1860, the second son of Sir Edward Strachey, 3rd Bart., and Mary

Isabella, ‘daughter of John Addington Symonds. He studied at Balliol College, Oxford, and was called to the bar, but adopted journalism as his profession. After writing for some timéfor the Saturday Review, the Economist, and other papers, he became in

1886, with Mr. Charles’ Graves, editor of the Liberal Umonist, and in ‘the same year assistant editor of the Spectator.’ After the

death of R. H. Hutton and the retirement of Meredith Townsend (1897) he became proprietor of the Spectator, which, ‘under his editorship not only maintained but increased its great influence upon English opinion. St. Loe’ Strachey: also edited (1896-97) The Cornhill Magazine. He resigned from the editorship of the

in 1925, but continued to contribute to its columns. ' Spectator

“His publications include The Manufacture of Paupers: (19077; The Problems and Perils of Socialism (1908); The Practical Wisdom of the Bible (1908); A: New: Way of Life (1909); The Madonna: of

the Barricades (a novel, 1925) ; American Soundings (1926).

_), British writer, -son the most important are those of 'C.’Miiller (Paris,:1853) and Meineke `- STRACHEY, LYTTON (1880rator, was born ‘on administ 1893) Indian (Oxford, the , selections. of Strachey volume Richard Sir ‘of (Leipzig, 1866—77).° Hy F. Tozer’s, is useful: Napoleon I., an-admirer of Strabo,: caused a French trans- March 1, 1880, and educated at Ttinity’college, ‘Cambridge: He lation of, the Geography to be made by Coraés, Letronne and others was an occasional contributor to’ the monthly and ‘quarterly (Paris, 1805-19) ; German translation by Grosskurd (Berlin, 1831-34) ; t

446

STRACHWITZ—STRAFFORD

reviews, and published a short but illuminating book on Landmarks operas. A serenata for voices and two orchestras, Qual prodigo in French Literature (1912). He achieved wider renown by ch'io miri, was used by Handel as the basis of several numbers in Eminent Victorians (1918), vivid, polished and unusually caustic Israel in Egypt, and was printed by Chrysander (Leipzig 1888); portraits of Cardinal Manning, Florence Nightingale, Dr. Arnold the MS., however, formerly in the possession of Victor Schoelcher, and General Gordon. In Queen Victoria (1921) Strachey’s bio- from which Chrysander made his copy, has entirely disappeared, graphical power and his ironic style showed themselves broad- The well-known aria Pietà, signore, also sung to the words Se; ened and mellowed, the result being a most successful blend of miei sospiri, cannot possibly be a work of Stradella. sympathy and detachment in depicting the queen, her family The finest collection of Stradella’s works extant is that at the and her epoch. The two books set up a fresh standard for modern Biblioteca Estense at Modena, which contains 148 MSS., includEnglish biography which a good many contemporary writers were ing four operas, six oratorios and several other compositions of a quick to acknowledge. A collection of essays, Books and Char- semi-dramatic character. acters, appeared in 1922, his “Leslie Stephen” lecture on Pope in See Heinz Hess, Die Opern Alessandro Stradellas (Leipzig, 1903), which includes the most complete catalogue yet made of Stradella’s 1925, and Elizabeth and Essex in 1928. extant works; Catelani, Delle Opere di A Stradella instenti nelp STRACHWITZ, MORITZ KARL WILHELM AN- archivio

TON, GraF von (1822~1847), German poet, was born on March

13, 1822, at Peterwitz near Frankenstein in Silesia. After studying

in Breslau and Berlin he settled on his estate in Moravia, where he devoted himself to literary pursuits. When travelling in Italy in 1847 he was taken ill at Venice, and died on Dec. 11 at Vienna in his 25th year. He had already revealed a lyric genius of remarkable force and originality. His first collection of poems, Lieder eines Erwachenden, appeared in 1842 and went through

several editions. Neue Gedichte were published in 1848. Strachwitz’s collected Gedichte 1891); a convenient reprint wil

appeared first in 185o (8th ed. be found in Reclam’s Universal-

bibliothek. See A. K. T. Tielo, Die Dichtung des Grafen Moritz von Strachwitz (1902).

STRADELLA,

ALESSANDRO

(?1645-1682),

Italian

composer, one of the most accomplished musicians of the 17th century, was probably born at Naples. The generally accepted

story of his life was first circumstantially narrated in Bonnet-Bourdelot’s Histoire de la musique et de ses effets (1715). According to this account, Stradella was engaged by a Venetian nobleman to instruct his mistress, Ortensia, in singing. Stradella eloped with Ortensia to Rome, whither the outraged Venetian sent two paid bravi to put him to death. On their arrival in Rome the assassins learned that Stradella had just completed a new oratorio, over the performance of which he was to preside on the following day at S. Giovanni in Laterano. They determined to kill him as he left the church; but the beauty of the music conquered them, and they

warned the composer of his danger. Thereupon Stradella fied with

Ortensia to Turin, where, notwithstanding the favour shown to him by the regent of Savoy, he was attacked one night by another band of assassins, who, headed by Ortensia’s father, left him on the ramparts for dead. Through the connivance of the French ambassador the ruffians escaped; and Stradella, recovering from his wounds, married Ortensia, by consent of the regent, and removed with her to Genoa. Here he believed himself safe; but a year later he and Ortensia were murdered in their house by a third party of assassins in the pay of the implacable Venetian.. Research has, however, driven several holes in this picturesque story. The first certain date in Stradella’s life is 1672, in which year he composed a prologue for the performance of Cesti’s opera La Dori at Rome; he probably spent a considerable time at Rome about this period, since his cantatas and other compositions con-

tain frequent allusions to Rome and noble Roman families. There is, however, no proof that he ever performed the oratorio S.

Giovanni Battista in the Lateran. Documents in the archives at Turin relate that in 1677 he arrived there with the mistress of Alvise Contarini, with whom he had eloped from Venice. We hear of Stradella last at Genoa. An opera by him, Le Forza dell’ amor paterno, was given there in 1678, and his last composition, Il Barcheggio (4.e., a “Water-Music”), was performed on June 16, 1681 in honour of the marriage of Carlo Spinola and Paola Brignole. That he died at Genoa in Feb. 1682 is established by documents in the archives at Modena. !

musicale della r. biblioteca palatina di Modena (Modena, 1865) ; and Sedley Taylor, The Indebtedness of Handel to other Com. posers (Cambridge, 1906).

STRADIVARI, ANTONIO (1644-1737), Italian violinmaker, was associated throughout his life with Cremona, where he brought the craft of violin-making to its highest pitch of perfec-

tion. The obscure details of his life have been thoroughly worked

out in the monograph on him by W. H. Hill, A. F. Hill and Alfred Hill (1902). He was still a pupil of Nicolas Amati in 1666, when

he had begun to insert his own label on violins of his making, which at first follow the smaller Amati model, solidly constructed,

with a thick yellow varnish. It was not till 1684, that he began to produce larger models, using a deeper coloured varnish, and beautifying them in various details, his “long” patterns (from 1690) representing a complete innovation in the proportions of the instrument; while from 1700, after for a few years returning to an earlier style, he again broadened and otherwise improved his model. He also made some beautiful violoncellos and violas. The most famous instruments by him are:——Violins: the “Hellier” (1679), the “Selliére” (before 1680), the “Tuscan”

(1690), the “Betts” (1704), the “Ernst” (1709), “La Pucelle” (1709), the “Viotti” (1709), the “Vieuxtemps” (1710), the “Parke” (1711), the “Boissier” (1713), the “Dolphin” (1714), the “Gillot” (1715), the “Alard,” the finest of all (1715), the

“Cessot” (1716), the “Messiah” (1716), the “Sasserno” (1717), the “Maurin” (1718), the “Lauterbach” (1719), the “Blunt”

(1721), the “Sarasate” (1724), the “Rode” (1722), the “Deurbroucq” (1727), the “Kiesewetter” (1731), the “Habeneck” (1736), the “Muntz” (1736). Viòlas: the “Tuscan” (1690), two of 1696 formerly belonging to'the king of Spain, the “Archinto” (1696), the “Macdonald”? (1701r), and the “Paganini” (1731). Violoncellos: the “Archinto” (1689), the “Tuscan” (1690), the “Aylesford” (1696), the “Cristiani” (1700), the “Servais” (1701), the “Gore-Booth” (1710), the “Duport” (1711), the “Adam” (1713), the “Batta” (1714), the “Piatti,” the finest of all (1720), the “Bandiot” (1725), the “Gallay” (1725). Antonio Stradivari’s sons Francesco (1671-1743) and Omobono (1679-1742) ‘were also violin-makers, who assisted their father, together with Carlo Bergonzi, who appears to have succeeded to the possession of Antonio’s stock-in-trade. The Stradivari method of violin-making created a standard for subsequent times; but the secret of his varnish, soft in texture, and shading from orange to red, though much debated, has never been discovered. (See also Vio.) STRAFFORD, THOMAS WENTWORTH, Earl oF (1593—1641), English statesman, son of Sir William Wentworth,

of Wentworth Woodhouse, near Rotherham and of Anne Atkins,

was born ọn April 13, 1593, in London. He was educated at St. John’s College, Cambridge, was admitted a student of the Inner

Temple in 1607. In 1614 he represented Yorkshire in the Addled

Parliament, but, so far as is now known, it was not till the parliament of 1621, in which he sat for the same constituency, that he took part in the debates. Wentworth was returned for Pontefract to the: parliament of Stradella’s best operas are i Floridoro, also known as I] Moro 1624, but appears to have taken no part in the proceedings. In per amore, and II Trespolo tutore, a comic opera in three acts the first parliament of Charles I., June 1625, he again represented which worthily carried on the best traditions of Florentine and Yorkshire, and opposed the demand made under the influence of Roman comic opera in the 17th century. The oratorio S. Giovanni Buckingham for subsidies for a war ‘with Spain, and was conseBattista displays the same skill in construction and orchestration quently, after the dissolution in November; made sheriff of (so far as the limited means at -his disposal permitted) as the Yorkshire, in order to exclude him. from the parliament which met

STRAITS QUESTION in 1626. Yet his position was very different from that of the reguiar opposition. He was anxious to serve the Crown, but he disapproved of the king’s policy. After the dissolution of the parliament he was dismissed from the justiceship of the peace and the office of custos rotulorum of Yorkshire, to which he had

been appointed in 1615. He refused in 1627 to contribute to the forced loan, and was imprisoned in consequence. In the parliament of 1628 Wentworth joined the popular leaders in resistance to arbitrary taxation

and imprisonment,

but

he was jealous for the prerogative of the Crown, to which he looked as a reserve force in times of crisis. A moderate bill supported by Wentworth for securing the liberties of the sub-

ject was wrecked between the uncompromising demands of the parliamentary party, who would give nothing to the prerogative, and Charles’s refusal to make the necessary concessions, and the

leadership was thus snatched from Wentworth’s hands by Eliot and Coke. Later in the session he fell into conflict with Eliot, as he desired to modify the Petition of Right. On July 22, 1628, Wentworth was created Baron Wentworth, and received a promise of the presidentship of the Council of the North at the next vacancy. He was now at variance with the parliamentary party both on the constitutional and on the

religious question. In December he became Viscount Wentworth and president of the Council of the North. In the speech delivered at York on his taking office he said, almost in the words of

Bacon: “Whoever,”

he said, “ravels forth into questions the

right of a king and of a people shall never be able to wrap them up again into the comeliness and order he found them.” The session of 1629 ended in a breach between the king and

the parliament which made the task of a moderator hopeless. He stood definitely for the maintenance of the king’s prerogative.

The Policy of Thorough.—In January 1632 Wentworth was

named lord-deputy of Ireland, and he arrived in Dublin in July 1633. He reformed the administration, getting rid summarily of the inefficient English officials. He obtained the necessary grants from parliament, and secured its co-operation in various useful legislative enactments. He set on foot a new victualling trade with Spain, established or promoted the linen manufacture, and

encouraged the development of the resources of the country

in many directions. The customs rose from a little over £25,000 In 1633-1634 to £57,000 in 1637-1638. He raised an army. He swept the pirates from the seas. He reformed and instilled life into the Church and rescued church property. His strong and even administration broke down the tyranny of the great men over the poor. Such was the government of “Thorough,” as

Strafford expresses it. Yet these good measures were carried out

by arbitrary methods, and their aim was the benefit to the English

exchequer; Strafford suppressed the trade in cloth “lest it should be a means to prejudice that staple commodity of England.” Extraordinary acts of despotism took place, as in the case of Esmond, Lord Chancellor Loftus and Lord Mountnorris, the last of whom Strafford caused to be sentenced to death in order to obtain the resignation of his office, and then pardoned. Strafford broke Charles’s promise that no colonists should be forced into

Connaught, and, raking up an obsolete title—the grant in the

14th century of Connaught to Lionel, duke of Clarence, whose heir Charles was—he insisted upon the grand juries in all the counties finding verdicts for the king. High-handed as Went-

worth was by nature, his rule in Ireland made him more highhanded than ever. As yet he had never been consulted on English affairs, and it was only in February 1637 that Charles asked his

opinion on a proposed interference in the affairs of the Con-

lent. In reply, he assured Charles that it would be unwise to undertake even naval operations till he had secured absolute power at home. He wished that Hampden and_his followers “were

well whipped into their right senses.” When the Scottish Puritans

rebelled he advocated the most decided measures of repression,

he became Charles’s principal adviser. In January 1640 he was created earl of Strafford, and in March he went to Ireland to hold a parliament, where the Catholic vote secured a grant of subsidies to be used against the Presbyterian Scots. An Irish army was to be levied to assist in the coming war. When in April Strafford returned to England he found the Commons holding back from a grant of supply, and tried to enlist the peers on the side of the king. On the other hand he induced Charles to be content with a smaller grant than he had originally asked for. The Commons, however, insisted on peace with the Scots. Charles, on the advice of Vane, returned to his larger demand of twelve subsidies; and on May 9g, at the privy council, Strafford, though reluctantly, voted for a dissolution. The same morning the Committee of Eight of the privy council met again. Vane and others were for a mere defence against invasion. Strafford’s advice was for a vigorous prosecution of war. Bill of Attainder.—The Long Parliament assembled on Nov. 3, 1640, and Charles immediately summoned Strafford to London. Under safe conduct from Charles, he arrived on the oth and on the toth proposed to the king to forestall his impeachment, now being prepared by the parliament, by accusing the leaders of the popular party of treasonable communications with the Scots. But Pym immediately took up the impeachment to the Lords on the rith, Strafford came to the house to confront his accusers, but was ordered to withdraw and committed into custody. On Nov. 25, the preliminary charge was brought up, whereupon he was sent to the Tower, and, on Jan. 31, 1641, the accusations in detail were presented. These were, in sum, that Strafford had endeavoured to subvert the fundamental laws of the kingdom. Behind the legal aspect of the case lay the great constitutional question of the responsibility to the nation of the leader of its administration. The Commons, convinced that the destruction of

Strafford was essential to the liberties of the kingdom, dropped the impeachment, and brought in and passed a bill of attainder, though, owing to the opposition of the Lords and Pym’s own preference for the more judicial method, the proċedure of an

impeachment was practically adhered to. Strafford might still have been saved but for the king’s ill-advised conduct. The revelation of the army plot on May 5, caused the Lords to pass the attainder. Nothing now remained but the king’s signature.

Charles yielded, giving his assent on May to. Strafford met his

fate on May 12, on Tower Hill, receiving Laud’s blessing, who was then also imprisoned in the Tower, on his way to execution. Thus passed into history ‘‘the great person,” as Clarendon well

calls him, without doubt one of the most striking figures in the annals of England. Strafford’s patriotism and ideas were fully as noble as those of his antagonists. Like Pym, a student of Bacon’s wisdom, he believed in the progress of England along

the lines of natural development, but that development, in opposition to Pym, he was convinced could only proceed with the increase of the power of the executive, not of the parliament, with a government controlled by the king and not by the people

Strafford was married three times: (1) in 1611 to Lady Margaret Clifford, daughter of Francis, 4th earl of Cumberland; (2) in 1625 to Lady Arabella Holles, daughter of John, rst earl of Clare; (3) in 1632 to Elizabeth, daughter of Sir Godfrey Rhodes. He left three daughters and one son, William, 2nd earl of Strafford. See the article on Strafford in the Dict. Nat. Biog. by S. R. Gardiner; Strafford’s Letters, ed. by W. Knowler (1739); R. Browning’s Life of Strafford, with introduction by C. H. Firth (1892); Papers

relating ‘to Thos. Wentworth ed. by C. H. Firth for the Camden Society (1890), Camden Miscellany, vol. ix.; Private Letters from the Earl of Strafford to his third Wife (Philobiblon Soc. Biog. & Hist.

Misc.’ 1854, vol. i.) ; Lives by H. D. Traill (1889) in “English Men of Action Series,” and by Elizabeth Cooper (1886) ; Cat. of State Papers, Domestic and Irish, esp. 1633~1647 Introduction; Hist. MSS. Comm. MSS. of Earl Cowper; Strafford’s Correspondence, of which the volumes published by Knowler represent probably only a small selection, remains still in MS. in the collection of Earl Fitzwilliam at .Wentworth Woodhouse; also H. O’Grady, Strafford and Ireland

in February 1639 sending the king £2,000 as his contribution to’ (Dublin, 2 vols., 1923). the expenses of the coming war, but he deprecated action before STRAITS QUESTION, the English army was trained, and advised concessions in religion. Wentworth

arrived

in England

in September

1639,

after

Charles's failure in the first Bishops’ War, and from that moment

44-7

E

,

THE, The Straits Question is composed of diverse elements—political, economic, sentimental.

In its simplest form it consisted in the desire of Russia to control

44.8

STRAITS

SETTLEMENTS

the straits of the Bosphorus and Dardanelles—the doors to the Black Sea—and to obtain the sacred city of her religious dreams —Constantinople. Although forming a part of the greater Eastern Question (q.v.), it was not co-extensive with that question; but throughout the 19th and early 2oth centuries was solely concerned with the narrower issue of the disposal of Constantinople and the Straits in event of a break-up of the Ottoman power in Europe. Moreover, compared with other great political issues, the Straits Question is of very recent date. ` Peter the Great.—Although known to the Ancient World as an economic and strategic problem in a very rudimentary form, it only emerged as an actual political problem in the 18th century, and then thanks to the initiative and imperialistic ambitions of a Russian tsar—Peter the Great. By his establishment of arsenals in the Crimea, and on the shores of the Sea of Azov, and by his foundation of a Russian navy, Peter the Great initiated that southward expansion of Russia so energetically furthered by his successors. If not the first to perceive that nature had placed a severe handicap upon Russia in her struggle with the other nations by virtually excluding her from access to an ice-free sea, Peter was undoubtedly the first Russian tsar to understand the full complications of that handicap. Unless Russia were to ‘secure access to an ice-free sea, she would start on an unequal footing with other nations in the race for world-power. Ever since Peter the Great’s death Russia has unswervingly pursued the aim of obtaining a free outlet from the Black Sea to the Mediterranean for her military and mercantile marine. Since the attainment of that object presupposed the destruction of the Ottoman power in Europe, and the acquisition of Constantinople by Russia, the Mediterranean powers—France, England and Austria, as well as the Sultan, were concerned to frustrate 'the Russian design. Hence throughout the rgth century the Straits Question resolved itself into a contest between Russia and the Western Powers for the eventual possession of Constantinople and the Straits. Throughout the contest Turkey was little more than'a tool in the hands of the rival protagonists, while Austria, whose interests were less directly threatened than those of France and England by a possible Russian acquisition of Constantinople, essayed intermittently to play the honest broker. Later, the: emergence of a united Italy introduced a new factor. International Policy The diplomatic negotiations which centred from time to time round this problem were long and tortuous; but it is only possible to describe in bfief outline the general trend of those negotiations, and of the policies pursued

a revision of the Paris Treaty) for her support to be of real value. As the century advanced, various discussions were initiated

(notably in i 1885 and 1894) over a possible alteration. in the existing regime of the Straits; but always without result. England held tenaciously to her traditional belief that the presence of a Russian fleet in the Mediterranean would be a menace to the Suez Canal. In 1894 Lord Rosebery, then Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs and about to succeed to the premiership, actually declared to the Austrian Ambassador, Count Deym, that any attempt by Russia to change the existing situation in regard to the Straits would be looked upon by the British Government as affording a casus belli. Nor was Sir Edward Grey (later Viscount Grey of Fallodon) more sympathetic towards Isvolsky’s

suggestion in 1908 that the time had perhaps come for a revision of the Convention of 1841 in a sense favourable to Russia. It

was doubtless urgent necessity that forced Sir Edward Grey in 1915 to reverse England’s traditional policy by assenting to the conclusion of the Straits Agreements, by which Russia was promised the fulfilment of her long-cherished ambitions at the conclusion of peace. The Straits Convention of 1923.— , The empiricist and sensualist conception of knowledge, which we must, therefore, presuppose a persistent element within apthey represent, is thus confronted with the question whether the pearance itself and oppose it to all that is merely changeable. The concept of something persistent is, accordingly, “the condiconcept of substance, not being reducible to empirical sources, retains any “objective” significance or is merely “subjective” as a tion of the possibility of all synthetic unity of perceptions, t.e., of kind of natural illusion of the human understanding. Locke starts experience; and in proportion to this persistent element, all being with the assumption that true reality belongs only to the simple, and all change in time can be viewed only as a modus of the sensible “ideas,” to the sensations of colour, sound, etc., whereas existence of that which remains and persists.” (Kritik der reinen the understanding cannot create any new reality, but can merely Vernunft, 2nd. ed.; p. 225 seq.) Recent Epistemology.—The contrast between Hume’s and connect these ideas in certain modes with one another. Such a mode of connection is represented by the concept of substance. Kant’s conceptions of substance, reappears in the recent episte-

What the senses deliver individually, is thereby connected; the changing states. and properties being united in one “substratum,” or “bearer.” But the idea of a persistent thing as “bearer” of the

changeable qualities is, in itself, utterly empty; it represents a

mere form of knowledge to which no content corresponds. Not

mology. The further pursuit of the road of Hume leads to em-

piricism and positivism; the further pursuit of the road of Kant, to logical idealism. For positivist epistemology as. developed in Avenarius’ Kritik der reinen Erfahrung (1888-90) and in the writings of Ernst Mach (Beiträge zur Analyse der Empfindungen,

502

SUBSTITUTIONS—SUCEAVA

1886; Die Mechanik în ihrer Entwicklung, 1883; Prinzipien der Wärmelehre, 1896), the concept of substance has an essentially biological significance. It serves the “economy of thought” inasmuch as it is a means of correlating a multiplicity of experiences, and giving them one name. But the unity of substance is a merely nominal unity. What we call material substance, is only “ʻa relatively constant sum of sensations of touch and light associated with sensations of space and time.” Tbis constancy can never be considered absolute, only relative, so that the identity of the “thing” is a mere function. In the place of the substantial identity of things we must set the constancy of certain relations, especially of mathematical relations. “A body consists in the fulfllment of certain equations which obtain between sensible elements. These equations are the truly constant element.” (See CATEGORY.) Critical idealism essentially agrees with this result, but differs from empiricism and positivism in the explanation which it gives. It, too, emphasises the fact that, the further the scientific cognition of nature progresses, the more the concepts of things are replaced by concepts of relations, The concept of substance resolves into the concept of function. But the concept of function is not con-

sidered as the expression of a mere “togetherness” of experienced facts, but as a genuine achievement of thought. It is the original form of connection as such, and of experience itself. The concept of substance, is, therefore, to be replaced ultimately by that of invariance. The whole of experience is never a mere aggregate of perceptual data linked up by purely external, habitual associations, but is organized and unified according to definite theoretical viewpoints. Without such viewpoints, no single predication of fact, especially no kind of exact measurement, would be possible.

(Ernst Cassirer, Substance and Function, 1923.)

SUBSTITUTIONS:

see Groups.

(E. Cr.)

SUBWAY, a subsurface passage. The term is generally used in America in connection with urban underground electric transportation to represent a railway operating either in a tube, a steel framework built in an open cut and then covered, or in any‘other type of tunnel. See ELECTRIC RAILWAYS; Raitways, Tuse; New York (City), Transportation and Communication; and TUNNEL.

SUCCESSION: see Law or Succession, SUCCESSION DUTY. In the English fiscal system, a tax

commissions and conferences. See History of the Peace Conference

(ed. H. V. Temperley,

SUCCINIC

1924),

(C. A. M.)

vols. iv. and v, passim.

ACID is an organic compound occurring in

amber (3 to 4%), from which fossilised gum it is obtained by distillation. It is also found in other resins, in lignites, in fossi]. ised woods and in many plants belonging to the Compositae anq Papaveraceae. It occurs in the animal kingdom, as in the thymus gland of calves and in the spleen of cattle. Chemically, succinic acid or ethylenesuccinic acid, CO:H-CH:-CH2-C0:Ħ, is a saturated dibasic acid which crystallises in colourless prisms or

plates melting at 186° C, and boiling at 235° C. Its vapour readily

loses water to form succinic anhydride (I.) which crystallises in

plates melting at 120° C. CH CO

| CH; CO/ (L)

CH: C CIN

CH, - CO” (IL)

O

CH

COS

CH,-CO” (IIL)

The acid itself is soluble in water and its salts with the alkali and alkaline-earth metals are also soluble in water. Barium suc-

cinate is precipitated from aqueous solution by alcohol; ferric succinate is insoluble in water and is sometimes employed in the analytical separation of iron from other metals. When heated with phosphorus trisulphide, sodium succinate yields thiophen. Succinic acid is produced during the bacterial fermentation of ammonium tartrate or calcium malate. It arises from the ozidation of fats and fatty acids by nitric acid. It may be prepared synthetically from ethylene, C:H4, through ethylene dichloride, CsHuCle, ethylene dicyanide or succinonitrile, C:Ħ4(CN)z. The

last compound yields the acid on hydrolysis. Maleic acid, now produced industrially by the catalytic oxidation of benzene, yields succinic acid on reduction with sodium amalgam. succinyl chloride (formula II.) is obtained by the interaction of phosphorus pentachloride and succinic acid. Succinic anhydride (formula I.), also produced by heating the acid or its salts with acetic anhydride or by heating succinyl chloride with anhydrous oxalic acid, is employed as an intermediate in colour making,

placed on the gratuitous acquisition of property which passes on the death of any person, by means of a transfer from one person to another person. (See Lecacy Duty and Succession Dutiss.)

when it yields two brands of Rhodamine S (see Dves, SyNTHETIC) by condensation with dimethyl- or diethyl-meta-aminophenol,

wholly or partly out of another State which has ceased to exist, thus forming a wholly distinct political entity, but inheriting certain obligations, e.g., the repayment of a public debt, inherent in its origin. As neither Turkey nor Russia have ceased to exist, although their forms of State have changed, the only modern States to which this term can strictly be applied are

hydride in ammonia, crystallises in colourless octahedra melting

SUCCESSOR

STATE, a term applied to a State formed

those which the Treaties of St. Germain and Trianon describe as “States to which territory of the former Austro-Hungarian Monarchy is transferred and States arising from the dismemberment of that Monarchy.” These States were taken by the authors of the above treaties to be Czechoslovakia, Poland, Rumania and

Yugoslavia. East Galicia, which, like these four States, had been recognized as its successor by the Austrian “Liquidierungskabinett” of Oct. 1918, failed to maintain its existence, and the plea

of the Austrian republic to be considered a Successor State was rejected by the Powers at St. Germain, who affirmed its identity with the old Austria. The Successor States were acquitted of moral identity with the old monarchy, and were thus not called on to pay reparations, but were required instead to pay “‘contributions towards the Allied cost of liberation” on a scale based on pre-war taxation. Among other obligations was the signing of the Minorities Treaties. Italy signed no Minorities Treaty, but consented to regulate the financial position of the territories which she had inherited from Austria and Hungary on a basis

similar to that taken for the Successor States.

Among Italy,

Austria and Hungary, the equitable partition of both the assets and the liabilities of the old Austro-Hungarian Monarchy led to various clauses in the peace treaties, followed by international

NR2-CeHsOH.

f

Succinimide (formula III.), produced by heating succinic an-

at 125-126° C, and readily soluble in water. This imide when distilled with zinc dust furnishes pyrrole (g.v.). Succinonitrile, CN-CH2-CH2-CN, obtained as above and also by electrolysis of potassium cyanoacetate, is a colourless solid melting at 54°—55° C. On reduction with sodium and alcohol

it is converted into the ptomaine alkaloid, putrescine (tetramethylenediamine), NH»-[CH2]4.NH2, and into pyrollidine (tetrahydropyrrole, see PYRROLE). Methylsuccinic acid or pyrotartaric acid,

CO.H-CH.-CH (CH;)-COeH, formed during dry distillation of tartaric acid, by heating pyruvic acid with concentrated hydrochloric acid, or by the reduction with sodium amalgam of citraconic and mesaconic acids, is obtained in colourless prismatic crystals soluble in water and melting at 112° C. It forms an anhydride and its sodium salt heated with phosphorus trisulphide yields @-methylthiophen.

Isosuccinic acid (ethylidenesuccinic acid), CH3-CH(CO:H)2, an isomeride of ordinary succinic acid, is obtained on hydrolysing a-cyanopropionic acid, CH3-CH(CN)-CO.H, or by the action of

methyl iodide on ethyl sodio-malonate, CHNa(CO2-C:Hs)2. It crystallises in prisms melting at 120° C, and soluble in water.

Unlike ordinary succinic acid, it does not yield an anhydride on heating, but loses carbon dioxide and passes into propionic acid.

Reference: T. E. Thorpe, Dictionary of Applied Chemistry, Vol.

VL, 1926.

(G. T. M.)

SUCEAVA, a town of the Bukovina, Rumania, on the river Suceava.

Pop. (1928), 11,300. It was from 1401 the seat of the

£03

SUCHET—SUCRE metropolitan of Moldavia and until 1565 the capital; its r4th century church contains the grave of the patron saint of the Bukovina. It was many times besieged by Poles, Hungarians, Tatars and Turks, and also suffered in the World War. Near by is the early 17th century monastery of Dragomirna in the Byzantine style.

SUCHET, LOUIS GABRIEL, Duc D’A.zurera DA Va-

LENCIA (1770-1826), marshal of France, one of the most brilliant of Napoleon’s generals, was the son of a silk manufacturer at Lyons, where he was

born on March

2, 1770.

As chef de

bataillon he was present at the siege of Toulon in 1793, where

he took General O’Hara prisoner.

During the Italian campaign

of 1796 he was severely wounded at Cerea on Oct. rr. After serving under Joubert in Tirol in 1797, and also in Switzerland

under Brune in 1797-98, he was made chief of the staff to Brune, and restored the efficiency and discipline of the army in Italy. In

July 1799 he was made general of division and chief of staff to Joubert in Italy, and was in 1800 named by Masséna his second in command. His action contributed to the success of Napoleon’s crossing the Alps, which culminated in the battle of Marengo on the rath of June. In the campaigns of 1805 and 1806 he greatly increased his reputation at Austerlitz, Saalfeld, Jena, Pultusk and

Ostrolenka. He obtained the title of count on March 19, 1808, married Mlle. de Saint Joseph, a niece of Joseph Bonaparte’s wife, and soon afterwards was

ordered

to Spain.

Here he was

commander of the army of Aragon and governor of the province, which in two years he brought into complete submission. He annihilated the army of Blake at Maria on June 14, 1809, and on

April 22, 1810, defeated O’Donnell

at Lerida.

Suchet, now a

marshal of France, in 1812 conquered Valencia, and received the title of duc d’Albufera da Valencia (1812). When the tide set aga.nst the French Suchet defended his conquests step by step till compelled to retire into France, after which he took part in Soult’s defensive campaign. By Louis XVIII. he was made a peer of France, but, having rallied to Napoleon during the Hundred Days, he was deprived of his peerage in 1815. He died near Marseilles on Jan. 3, 1826. Suchet left unfinished Mémoires dealing with the Peninsular War; these were printed by St. CyrNogués in 1829-34. See C. H. Barault-Roullon, Le Maréchal Suchet (Paris, 1854); Choumara, Considerations militaires sur les mémoires du Maréchal Suchet (1840). See also bibliography in article PENINSULAR WAR.

SU-CHOW, formerly TSIN-TSUAN-TSIUN, a free city in the province of Kansu, just within the extreme north-west angle of the Great Wall, near the gate of jade. It was completely destroyed by the Mohammedan or Dungan rising (1865—72), but it was recovered by the Chinese in 1873 and has been rebuilt. The neighbourhood is very fertile; rice, wheat, maize, melons, rhubarb,

etc., are grown in large quantities. (See Soo-CHow; Sur-Fv.) SUCKLING, SIR JOHN (1609-1642), English poet, was born at Whitton, in the parish of Twickenham, Middlesex, and baptized there on Feb. r0, 1609. His father, Sir John Suckling (1569-1627), had been knighted by James I. and was successively master of requests, comptroller of the household and secretary of state. He amassed a considerable fortune, of which the poet became master at the age of eighteen. He was sent to Trinity College, Cambridge, in 1623, and was

entered at Gray’s Inn in

1627. He was intimate with Thomas Carew, Richard Lovelace, Thomas Nabbes and especially with John Hales and Sir William Davenant, who furnished John Aubrey with information about his friend. In 1628 he left London to travel in France and Italy, returning, however, before the autumn of 1630, when he was knighted. In 1631 he volunteered under Gustavus Adolphus and was present at the battle of Breitenfeld and in many sieges. He returned in May, 1632. He was handsome, rich and generous; the best cardplayer and best bowler at court; with a gift for verse. In 1634 he was beaten by Sir John Digby, a rival suitor of the daughter of Sir John Willoughby. Under the proclamation of 1632 against absentee landlordism, enforced by the Star

Chamber, he retired to his estates in 1635. This leisure resulted In A Sessions of the Poets (ms. 1637) and a tract on Socinianism entitled An Account of Religion by Reason (pr. 1646). Suckling

applied to his dramas the accessories of the masque. His Aglaura (pr. 1638) was produced at his own expense with elaborate

scenery. Other plays are The Goblins (1638), Brennoralt, or the Discontented Colonel (1639) and Tke Sad One, left unfinished at the outbreak of the Civil War.

Suckling forthwith raised a troop of a hundred horse, at a

cost of £12,000, and accompanied Charles on the Scottish expedition of 1639. He shared in the earl of Holland’s retreat before

Duns, and was ridiculed in an amusing ballad

(pr. 1656), in

Musarum deliciae. He was elected for Bramber (1640) to the Long Parliament; and wrote to Henry Jermyn, afterwards earl of St. Albans, advising the king to disconcert the opposition leaders by making more concessions than they asked for. In May 1641 he conspired to rescue Strafford from the Tower and to bring in French troops. The plot was exposed, and Suckling fled beyond the seas. Aubrey’s statement that he took poison in May or June 1642 in fear of poverty is generally accepted. Suckling’s minor pieces have at times exquisite felicity of expression. ‘“‘Easy, natural Suckling,” is Millamant’s comment in Congreve’s Way of the World (Act Iv., sc. i.). Among the best known are the “Ballade upon a Wedding,” on the marriage of Roger Boyle, afterwards earl of Orrery, and Lady Margaret Howard, “I prithee, send me back my heart,” “Out upon it, I have loved three whole days together” and “Why so pale and wan, fond lover?” from Aglaura. “A Sessions of the Poets,” describing a meeting of the contemporary versifiers under the presidency of Apollo to decide who should wear the laurel wreath, is the prototype of many later satires. A collection of Suckling’s poems was first published in 1646 as Frag-~ -menta aurea. The so-called Selections (1836), published by the Rev. Alfred Inigo Suckling, author of the History and Antiquities of Suffolk (1846-48), with Memoirs based on original authorities and a portrait after Van Dyck, is really a complete edition of his works, of which W. C. Hazlitt’s edition (1874; revised ed., 1892) is little more than a reprint with some additions. The Poems and Songs of Sir John Suckling, edited by John Gray and decorated with woodcut border and initials by Charles Ricketts, was artistically printed at the Ballantyne Press in 1896. In 1910 Suckling’s works in prose and verse were edited by A. Hamilton Thompson. For anecdotes of Suckling’s life see John Aubrey’s Brief Lives (Clarendon Press ed., ii. 242).

SUCRE, ANTONIO

JOSE DE (1795-1830), was born on

Feb. 3, 1795, at Cumuna, Venezuela, where his family had for generations held a position of importance. He had only a meagre education and turned early to the profession of arms. In 1811 he was placed in charge of the republican engineers at Margarita, with the rank of lieutenant. In 1821 he acted as Bolivar’s agent in the campaign against Spain in the presidency of Quito. There in 1822 he defeated the Spanish forces at the battle of Pichincha which definitely ended the power of Spain in that province. In March 1823, Perl accepted Bolivar’s offer of services in her struggle for independence, and a month later Sucre went to Lima as Colombia’s commissioner. Bolivar arrived at Callao on Sept. 1, and was appointed by congress to the command of the patriot forces. During the preliminary stages of organization Sucre served as Bolivar’s heutenant. In Feb. 1824, Spanish troops re-occupied Lima. Congress immediately declared Bolivar “supreme political chief”; and he in turn placed Sucre in command of his troops. At the end of July 1824, the army which Bolivar had been organizing gathered near Lake Reyes in the Peruvian uplands, and on Aug. 6, Sucre defeated the Spanish army. under Canterac in the battle of Junin. Withdrawing to Cuzco, Canterac waited for additional troops, and then marched upon Sucre. After two months of manoeuvring, Sucre, on Dec. 9, faced the combined forces of Spain under Viceroy La Serna on the plain of Ayacucho and utterly routed them. After the battle Sucre and Canterac signed a treaty of capitulation arranging for the total evacuation of Lower Perú by the Spaniards. Carrying his work of reconquest into the district of Charcas or Upper Perú—now Bolivia— Sucre convened a deliberative assembly, which on Aug. 6, 1825, declared Upper Perú independent of Spain and proclaimed it

a new State under the name of República Bolívar.

The liberator was named first president, Sucre to be chief executive in his absence. In Dec. 1825, Bolívar transferred his

504

SUCRE—SUDAN

[GEOGRAPHY

authority to Sucre, who resigned May 25, but was immediately | ites and iron-bearing schists occur, but their age is not known, elected provisional president. In Feb. 1826, the Bolivian conThe Sudan contains the basin of the Senegal and parts of three

gress adopted the famous Constitution which Bolivar had drawn up for them, and in October Sucre was elected constitutional president. It was an awkward position. The native leaders ob-

jected to the presence of a foreigner; Sucre fretted at the limi-

tations to his power, and doubted the practicability of Bolivar’s Constitution. A mutiny of soldiers at Chuquisaca in April 1828, followed by an invasion from Peru, crystallized his determination to resign. On Aug. 2, 1828, he made his last address to Congress and soon afterward moved to Quito resolved to retire to private life. But in Jan. 1830, he was chosen president of a constituent congress called by Bolivar as a last expedient to preserve the unity of Great Colombia, and was one of the special commissioners appointed to consider ways and means. The plan ‘failed, and on his way back to Quito, he was killed by assassins in the forest of Berueros, near the town of Pasto, Colombia, on June 4, 1830. Sucre stands to-day with Bolivar and San Martin as a great liberator. See also W. S. Robertson, (New York, 1921).

The Rise of Spanish-American Nations (W. B. P.)

SUCRE, capital of Bolivia. Pop. (1924, estimate), 16,194, of whom many are Indians and mestizos. The city is in an elevated valley opening southward on the narrow ravine through which flows the Cachimayo, the principal northern tributary of the Pilcomayo. Its elevation, 9,338 ft., gives it an exceptionally agreeable climate. Fertile valleys provide fruit and vegetables, while the vineyards of Cinti supply wine and spirits. The city has broad streets, a central plaza and a prado. The cathedral, dating from 1553, was noted for its wealth; the’ president’s palace and halls of congress are no longer used as such; the cabildo, or townhall; a mint dating from 1572; the courts of justice, and the university of San Xavier, founded in 1624, are historic. Sucre is the seat of the archbishop of La Plata and Charcas, the primate of Bolivia. It is isolated by the difficulty of the roads leading to it. An automobile road, however, now runs to Potosi and the railway lacks only some so kilometres of

completion (1928). The Spanish town was founded in 1538 on the site of an Indian village called Chuquisaca, or Chuquichaca (golden bridge), and

was called Charcas and Ciudad de la Plata by the Spaniards, though the natives clung to the original Indian name. It was the first city of Spanish South America to revolt against Spanish rule—on May 25, 1809. In 1840 the name Sucre was adopted in

honour of the first president of Bolivia (g.v.). SUCROSE: see Sucar: Manufacturing and Refining. SUDAN (Arabic Bilad-es-Sudan, country of the blacks), that

other hydrographic systems, viz., the Niger, draining southwards to the Atlantic; the central depression of Lake Chad; and the

Nile, flowing northwards to the Mediterranean., Lying within the Tropics, and with an average elevation of not more than

1,500 to 2,000 ft. above the sea, the climate of the Sudan is hot.

and, in the river valleys, very unhealthy.

Cut off from North

Africa by the Saharan desert, the inhabitants, who belong, in the main, to the negro family proper, are thought to have received their earliest civilization from the East. Arab influence and the Muslim religion began to be felt in the western Sudan as early as the oth century, and had taken deep root by the end of the 11th. The existence of native Christian States in Nubia hindered for some centuries the spread of Islam in the eastern Sudan, and throughout the country some tribes have remained

pagan.

It was not until the last quarter of the 19th century that

: the European nations became the ruling force. The terms western, central and eastern Sudan are indicative of geographical position merely. The various States are politically divisible into four groups: (1) Those west of the Niger; (2)

those between the Niger and Lake Chad; (3) those between Lake

Chad and the basin of the Nile; (4) those in the upper Nile

valley.

|

The first group fell under the control of France at the end of last century, and are now included in Senegal and French Sudan.

(See SENEGAL; SuDAN, FRENCH; also FRENcH West Arnica.)

The second group of Sudanese States is almost entirely within the British protectorate of Northern Nigeria. The third, or central group of Sudanese States, is included in French Equatorial Africa

(q.v.). The fourth group consists of the States conquered during

the r9th century by the Egyptians, and now under the joint control of Great Britain and Egypt. These countries are known col-

lectively as the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan (see below). THE ANGLO-EGYPTIAN

SUDAN

Boundaries and Area.—The region which, before the revolt of the Arabized tribes under the Madhi Mohammed Ahmed in

1881-84, was known as the Egyptian Sudan, has, since its reconquest by the Anglo-Egyptian expeditions of 1896-98, been under the joint sovereignty of Great Britain and Egypt. It is bounded north by Egypt (the 22nd parallel of N. lat. being the dividing line), east by the Red sea, Eritrea and Abyssinia, south by the Uganda Protectorate and Belgian Congo, ‘west by French Congo. North of Darfur is the Libyan desert, in which the western and northern frontiers meet. Here the border is undefined.) As thus constituted, the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan extends north to south about 1,200 m. in a direct line, and west to east about 1,000 m., also in a direct line. It covers 950,000 sq.m., being. about one-fourth the area of Europe. In what follows the term Sudan is used to indicate the Anglo-Egyptian condominium only. Physical Features.—The Sudan may be divided, broadly, into two zones. The northern portion, from about 16° N., is

region of Africa which stretches, south of the Sahara and Egypt, from Cape Verde on the Atlantic to Massawa on the Red sea. It is bounded south (1) by the maritime countries of the west coast of Africa, (2) by the basin of the Congo, and (3) by the equatorial lakes, and east by the Abyssinian and Galla highlands. The name is often used in Great Britain, in a restricted sense, to designate only the eastern part of this vast territory, but it is practically the south-eastern continuation of the Sahara desert; properly applied to the whole area indicated, which corresponds, the southern region is fertile, abundantly watered, and; in places, roughly, to that portion of negro Africa north of the Equator densely forested. West of the Nile there is. a distinctly marked under Mohammedan influence. The Sudan has an ethnological intermediate zone of steppes. In the southern district, between rather than a physical unity, and, politically, it is divided into a 5° and 10° N., huge swamps extend on either side of the Nile large number of. States, all now under the control of European and along the Bahr-el-Ghazal. Powers. From south to north the Sudan is traversed by the Nile, at a Within the limits assigned it has a length of about 4,000 M., eXgeneral level of from 1,600 to 600 ft., and all the great tributaries tending southwards at some points 1,000 m., with a total area of that river are either partly or entirely within its borders. The of over two million square miles, and a population, approximately, most elevated district is a range of mountains running parallel of 40 millions. Between the arid and sandy northern wastes and to the Red sea. They present their steepest face eastward, the well-watered and arable Sudanese lands there is a narrow transitional zone of level grassy Steppes, partly: covered with attaining heights within the Sudan of 4,000 to over 7,000 feet. Jebel Erba, 7,480 ft., and Jebel Soturba, 6,889 ft. (both between mimosas and acacias. Otherwise, the Sudan may be described as a moderately elevated region, with extensive ‘Open or rolling 21° and 22° N.), the highest peaks, face the Red sea about 20 m. inland. From the Nile, westward, extend vast plains, which, in plains, level plateaux, and abutting, at its eastern and western ends, on mountainous country. It was supposed to be indicated by the line which, according to the Crystalline rocks, granites, Turkish firman of 1841, describes a semi-circle from the Siva Oasis gneisses and schists, of the Central African type, occupy the to Wadai, approaching the Nile between the Second and Third Catgreater part of the country. Toward the south-east, slates, quartz- aracts, This line. is disregarded by the Sudan government. ' f

Kordofan and Dar Nuba (between 10° and 15° N.), are broken

by hills reaching 2,000 feet. Farther west, in Darfur, the country is more elevated, the Jebel Marra range being from 5,000 to 6,000 ft. high. In the south-west, beyond the valley of the

Bahr-el-Ghazal, the country gradually rises to a ridge of low hills which form the water-parting between the Nile and the Congo.

a from the Nile system, the Sudan has two other rivers,

the Gash and the Baraka, intermittent streams rising in the eastern chain of mountains in Eritrea, and flowing in a general northerly direction. The Gash enters the Sudan near Kassala,

and north of that town turns west towards the Atbara, but its waters are dissipated before that river is reached. The Gash, nevertheless, fertilizes a considerable tract of country. The Khor Baraka lies east of the Gash. It flows towards the Red sea in the neighbourhood of Trinkitat (some 50 m. S. of Suakin), but about 30 m. from the coast forms an inland delta.. Except in seasons of great rain, its waters do not reach the sea.

The Coast Region.—The

coast extends along the Red sea,

north to south, from 22° N. to 18° N., a distance following the indentations of the shore of over 400 miles. The most prominent

headland is Ras Rawaya (21° N.), which forms the northern shore of Dokhana bay. There are few good harbours, Port Sudan and Suakin being the chief ports. South of Suakin is the shallow bay of Trinkitat. A large number ‘of small islands lie off the coast. A belt of sandy land covered with low scrub stretches inland 10 to 20 miles. Beyond this plain rise the mountain

ranges already mentioned.

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Their seaward slopes often bear a

considerable amount of vegetation. The Desert Zone.—Between the coast and the Nile lies the Nubian desert, a rugged, rocky, barren waste, scored with khors or wadis, along whose beds there is scanty vegetation. Along either bank of the Nile is a narrow strip of cultivable land. West of the Nile, except for a few oases, the country is even mote desolate than the Nubian desert. The Intermediate Zone and the Fertile Districts—The

country enclosed by the Nile, the Atbara and the Blue Nile, the so-called Island of Meroé, consists of very fertile soil. The fork between the White and Blue Niles, the Gezira, is also fertile land. South of the Gezira is Sennar, a well-watered country of arable and grazing lands. West of the Nile, Korddfan, which comes between the desert and the plains of the Bahr-el-Ghazal, is largely barren and steppe land. South of 10° N. there is everywhere abundance of water. Darfur is mainly open, steppe-like country, with extensive tracts of cultivable land and a central mountain massif, the Jebel Marra. Climate.—The country lies wholly within the Tropics, and as the greater part of it is far removed from the ocean and less than 1,500 ft. above the sea, it is extremely hot. The heat is greatest in the central regions, least in the desert zone, where the difference between summer and winter is marked. Nevertheless, the dryness of the air renders the climate healthy. The steppe countries, Kordofan and Darfur, are also healthy, except

after the autumn rains. At Khartoum (Khartum), centrally sitvated, the minimum temperature is about 40° F, the maximum 113°, the mean annual temperature 80°. January is the coldest and June the hottest month. Violent sandstorms are frequent from June to August. Four rain zones may be distinguished. The northern (desert) region is one of little or no rain. There are, perhaps, a few rainy. days in winter and an occasional storm in the summer. In the central belt, where “the rainy season” is from mid-

is an open growth of samr, hashab (Acacia verek) and other acacia trees.

Between

Khartoum

and 12° N. forest belts line

the banks of the rivers and khors, in which the most noteworthy tree is the sunt (Acacia arabica). Farther from the rivers are open woods of heglig (Balanites aegyptiaca), hashab, etc., and dense thickets of laot (Acacia nubica) and kittr (Acacia mellifera). These open woods cover a considerable part of Kordofan, the hashab and talh trees being the chief producers of gum arabic.

On the Blue Nile the forest trees alter, the most abundant being

the babanus (Sudan ebony), and the silag (Amogeissus letocarpus), while gigantic baobabs, called tebeldi in the Sudan, and tarfa (Séerculia cinerea) are numerous. In southern Kordofan and in the higher parts of the Bahr-el-Ghazal the silag and ebony are also common, as well as African mahogany (homraya, Khaya senegalensis) and other timber trees. In the Ghazal province also are many rubber-producing lianas, among them the Landolphia owariensis. There are also forest regions in the Bahr-elJebel, in the Mongalla Mudiria and along the Abyssinian-Eritrean frontier. East of the Bahr-el-Jebel and north of the Bahr-elGhazal are vast prairies covered with tall coarse grass. Cotton is indigenous in the valley of the Blue Nile, and in some districts bamboos are plentiful. The castor-oil plant grows in almost every province. Fauna.—Wild animals and birds are numerous. Elephants are abundant in the Bahr-el-Ghazal and Bahr-el-Jebel forests, and are found in fewer numbers in the upper valley of the Blue Nile. The hippopotamus and crocodile abound in the swamp regions, which also shelter many kinds of water-fowl. The lion, leopard, giraffe and various kinds of antelope are found in the prairies and in the open woods. In the forests are numerous bright-plumaged birds and many species of monkeys, mostly ground monkeys—the trees being too prickly for climbing Snakes are also plentiful, many poisonous kinds being found. In the steppe regions of Kordofan, Darfur, etc., and in the Nubian desert, ostriches are fairly plentiful. Insect life is very abundant, especially south of 12° N., the northern limit of the tsetse fly. The chief pests are mosquitoes, termites and the serut, a brown fly about the size of a wasp, with a sharp stab, which chiefly attacks cattle. Inhabitants.—The population, always sparse in the desert and steppe regions, was never dense, even in the more fertile southern districts. Excluding Darfur, the population before the Mahdist rule was estimated at 8,500,000. After the desolation of the Mahdia, an estimate made in 1905 put the population at 1,853,000. This included 11,000 foreigners, of whom 2,800 were Europeans. Since that year there has been a rapid increase, and in 1926 the population was officially estimated at close on six million.

The northern portion of the Sudan is occupied by Hamitic and

Semitic tribes, chiefly nomads, and classed as Arabs. In the Nile valley north of Khartoum the inhabitants, especially the so-called Nubians, are of very mixed origin. Elsewhere, the inhabitants north of 12° N. are of mixed Arab descent. In the Nubian desert the chief tribes are the Ababda and Bisharin. In the region south of Berber and Suakin are the Hadendoa. The Jaalin, Hassania and Shukria inhabit the country between the Atbara and Blue Nile; the Hassania and Hassanat are found chiefly in the Gezira. The Kabbabish

occupy the desert country north of Kordofan,

which is the home of the Baggara tribes. In Darfur the inhabitants are of mixed Arab and negro blood. Of negro Nilotic tribes there are three or four main divisions. The Shilluks occupy the country along the west side of the June to September, there are some 10 in. of rain during the Nile northward from about Lake No. The Dinkas are widely year. The number of days, on which rain falls rarely exceeds, spread over the Bahr-el-Ghazal province. South of Kordofan however, 15. The rainfall increases to about 20 in. per annum and west of the Shilluk territory are the Nubas, apparently the In the eastern and south-eastern regions. In the swamp district original stock of the Nubians. In the south-west of the Bahrand throughout the Bahr-el-Ghazal, heavy rains (40 in. or more el-Ghazal are the Bongos and other tribes, and along the Nilea year) are experienced. The season of heaviest rain is from Congo water-parting are the A-Zande or Niam-Niam, a comparaa, a eo April to September. In the sudd region the temperature averages tively light-coloured race. Social Conditions.—In contrast with the Egyptians, a most about 85° F, the air is always damp, and fever is endemic. Flota—tIn the deserts north of Khartoum, vegetation is industrious race, the Sudanese tribes, both Arab and negro, are, almost confined to stunted mimosa and, in the iess arid districts, as a general rule, indolent. Where wants are few and simple, where scanty herbage: Between the desert and the cultivated Nile lands houses need not be built nor clothes worn to keep out. the cold,

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there is little stimulus to exertion. Many Arabs “clothed in rags, with only a mat for a house, prefer to lead the life of the free-born sons of the desert, no matter how large their herds or how numerous their followings.” Following the establishment of British control, slave-raiding and the slave trade were stopped, but domestic slavery continues. A genuine desire for education is manifest among the Arabic-speaking peoples, and slow but distinct moral improvement is visible among them. The Dongolese people are the keenest traders in the country. The Arab tribes

[GEOGRAPHY

superseded by are maintained the Nile. On operation. There is an nected by land

the railways, but elsewhere wells and Trest-houses along the principal routes between the towns and some of these roads a motor car service is jn

extensive telegraphic system. Khartoum is conlines with Egypt and Uganda, thus affording direct telegraphic connection between Alexandria and Mombassa (2,09 miles). From Khartoum other lines go to Kassala and the Req sea ports.

In some places the telegraph wires are placed 16 ft.

are all Mohammedans, credulous and singularly liable to fits of religious excitement. Most of the negro tribes are pagan, but

6 in. above the ground, to protect them from damage by giraffes, Agriculture and Other Industries.—North of Khartoum

some of them who live in the north have embraced Islam. Divisions and Chief Towns.—The Sudan is divided into mudirias (provinces) and these are subdivided into mamuria. The mudirias are Halfa, Red sea, Dongola and Berber in the north (these include practically all the region known as Nubia); Khartoum, Blue Nile and White Nile in the centre; Kassala and Fung in the east; Darfur (until recently under native rule), Kordofan and Nuba mountains in the west; and Bahr-el-Ghazal, Upper Nile (formerly Fashoda) and Mongalla in the south. The mudirias vary considerably in size. The capital, Khartoum, is built in the fork formed by the

agricultural land is confined to a narrow strip on either side of

junction of the White and Blue Niles. Opposite Khartoum, on the west bank of the White Nile, is Omdurman, the capital of the Sudan during the Mahdia. On the Nile, north of Khartoum, are the towns of Berber, Abu Hamed, Merawi (Merowe), Dongola and Wadi Halfa. On the Red sea are Port Sudan and Suakin. Kassala is on the river Gash, east of the Atbara and near the Eritrean frontier. On the Blue Nile are Kamlin, Sennar, Wad Medani, a thriving business centre and capital of the Blue Nile mudiria, and Roseires, which marks the limit of navigability by steamers of the river. Gallabat is a town in the Kassala mudiria, close to the Abyssinian frontier, and Gedaref lies be- | tween the Blue Nile and Atbara. El Obeid, the chief town of Kordofan, is 230 m. S.W. by S. of Khartoum. Duiem, capital of the White Nile mudiria, is the river port for Kordofan. El Fasher, the capital of Darfur, is 500 m. W.S.W. of Khartoum. All the towns named, except Roseires, are situated north of 13° N. In the south of the Sudan there are no towns properly so called. Fashoda, renamed Kodok, is the headquarters of the Upper Nile mudiria. i Communications—North of Khartoum the chief means of communication is by railway; south of that city by steamer. There are two trunk railways, one connecting the Sudan with Egypt, the other affording access to the Red sea. The first line runs from the Nile at Wadi Halfa across the desert in a direct line to Abu Hamed, and thence along the right (east) bank of the Nile to Khartoum. At Khartoum the Blue Nile is bridged, and the railway is continued south through the Gezira to Sennar, where it branches west to cross the White Nile at Kosti and run on to El Obeid. The length of the line from Halfa to Khartoum is 575 m.; from Khartoum to Obeid 350 miles. The railway from the Nile to the Red sea starts from the Halfa-Khartoum line at Atbara junction, and runs to Port Sudan and Suakin; a branch leaving at Haiya for Kassala and (shortly) Gedaref. The total distance to Port Sudan from Khartoum is 493 miles. Besides these main lines a railway, 138 m. long, runs from Abu Hamed,

on the right bank of the Nile, to Kareima (opposite Merawi), in the Dongola mudiria below the Fourth Cataract. The railways are owned and worked by the State.

In connection with the Khartoum-Halfa railway, steamers ply on the Nile between Halfa and Shellal, where the railway from Alexandria ends. The distance by rail and steamer between Khartoum and Alexandria is about 1,490 miles. Steamers run on the Nile between Kerma and Kareima, and above Khartoum the Government maintains a regular service of steamers as far south as Gondokoro, in the Uganda Protectorate, and Rejaf, for the

Belgian Congo. During the flood season there is also a steamship service on the Blue Nile as far as Roseires. Powerful dredgers and sudd-cutting machines are used to keep open communications in the Upper Nile and Bahr-el-Ghazal. The ancient caravan routes, Korosko—Abu Hamed and Berber—Suakin, have been

the Nile and to the few oases in the Libyan desert. In the Gezira, and in the plains of Gedaref between the Blue Nile and the Atbara, there are wide areas of arable lands, as also in the neighbourhood of Kassala, along the banks of the Gash; and these have recently been converted, by great irrigation works, into fertile cotton lands, with remarkable effects on the prosperity of the country.

In Kordofan and Darfur cultivation is confined to

the khors or valleys.

The chief grain crop is durra, the staple

food of the Sudanese. Two crops are obtained yearly in several districts. On Jands near the rivers the durra is sown after the

flood has gone down, and also at the beginning of the rainy season. Considerable quantities of wheat and barley are also grown. Other food-stuffs raised are lentils, beans, onions and melons. The

date-palm is cultivated along the Nile valley below Khartoun,

especially on the west bank in the Dongola mudiria and in the neighbouring oases. Dates are also a staple product in Darfur and Kordofan. Ground-nuts and sesame are grown in large quantities for the oil they yield. The Sudan was the original home of Egyptian cotton, and the cotton now grown is equal to the produce of the Delta. For watering the land by the river banks sakias (water-wheels) are used, oxen being employed to turn them. In rgro a system of

basin irrigation was begun in Dongola mudiria. In 1925 was completed a canal scheme for irrigating the Gezira, drawing its waters from the new Makwar reservoir on the Blue Nile, near Sennar. It commands an area of 300,000 acres. The Gash irrigation in the Kassala district is steadily expanding. Gum and rubber are the chief forest products. The gum is obtained from eastern Kordofan and in the forests in the upper valley of the Blue Nile. The wood of the sunt tree is used largely for boat-building, and for fuel, and the mahogany tree yields excellent timber. Elephants are hunted for the sake of their ivory. The Dongola breed of horses is noted for its strength and hardiness. The camels are bred in the desert north of Berber, between the Nile and the Red sea, in southern Dongola, in the Hadendoa country and in northern Kordofan. The camel, horse

and ostrich are not found south of Kordofan and Sennar. The negro tribes living south of those countries possess large herds of cattle, sheep and goats. Fowls are plentiful, but of poor quality. Donkeys are much used in the central regions; they make excellent transport animals. Mineral Wealth.—In ancient times Nubia, ż.e., the region between the Red sea and the Nile south of Egypt and north of the Suakin-Berber line, was worked for gold. In 1905 gold-mining recommenced in Nubia, in the district of Um Nabardi, which is in the desert, about midway between Wadi Halfa and Abu Hamed; and the producing stage was reached in 1908. Small quantities of gold-dust are also obtained from Kordofan. Gold is found in the Beni-Shangul country south-west of Sennar. There is lignite in the Dongola mudiria and iron ore is found in Darfur, southern Kordofan and in the Bahr-el-Ghazal. The district of the Hofratel-Nahas (the copper mine) is rich in copper, the mines having been worked intermittently from remote times. Trade.—As an export, cotton is ahead of all the others taken together. It is followed by gum, cotton-seed, sesame, and hides

and skins. Live stock, dates, ivory and gold are also exported. The Red sea ports trade largely with Arabia and engage in pearl fishery. The principal imports are cotton goods, food-stuffs (flour,

sugar, tea and coffee), timber, tobacco, coal, railway materials, iron and machinery. The value of the trade, which during the

SUDAN

ARCHAEOLOGY]

Mahdist rule (1884-98) was a few thousands only, had increased in 1905 to over £1,500,000. In 1927 the exports of Sudan produce were valued at £5,000,000, of which more than half was cotton; the total imports at £6,155,000. Great Britain takes the major

art of the exports, and provides over one-third of the imports.

Economic Development.—Since the pacification of the Su-

dan, the two chief advances in its prosperity have been the provision of an efficient sea-base for its trade, and the extension of its cotton cultivation. Until 1906, when the railway to the Red sea was opened, trade was gravely hampered by the heavy cost of transit through Egypt. At Port Sudan, in 1927, the trade handled was over £9,500,000 in value, by shipping with a tonnage in the vicinity of four million tons; and railway developments are keeping pace with the popularity of the port. The production of long staple cotton of the best Egyptian type has been stimulated by the settlement and irrigation of the Gezira. Its canal scheme cost about 12 millions, obtained on loan guaranteed by the British Government, and the land is worked on the basis of a partnership between the Government, the Sudan Plantations syndicate and the

Sudanese cultivators. The syndicate breaks up new land, provides villages and cultivating plant, and collects the produce. The cultivator gets the whole of the rotation food crops, 40% of the value of the cotton, and free land and water. The Kassala cotton area on the inland delta of the Gash was

developed by a railway financed under the guarantee of the British Government, and it is worked by the Kassala Cotton company, under an arrangement similar to that which operated in the Gezira. In the Tokar area cotton is grown between the Red sea mountains and coast, and with the help of a small railway sent to

the harbour of Trinkitat. The total export of ginned cotton in 1927 was 642,024 cantars, and of cotton seed 57,847 tons; their gross value being taken at £3,693,000. ADMINISTRATION

Government.—Pending the settlement between Great Britain and the new Egyptian Government of the status of the Sudan, the convention of Jan. ro, r899, still holds good, by which the governor-general of the Sudan is appointed by the king of Egypt, on the recommendation of the British Government. He is assisted by a council of six to eight members (largely official), who advise him in executive and legislative matters, subject to his power of veto. The country is divided into provinces (mudirias) each under a governor (mudir) who is responsible to the governorgeneral. The administrative service, formerly staffed mainly by British officers, is now recruited by restricted competition from England. The minor officials are mostly Egyptian or Sudanese, with a small admixture of Syrians; the Egyptians have been much reduced in number since the troubles of 1924. Revenue is derived from the customs and earning departments (railways, steamers, posts and telegraphs), supplemented by substantial receipts from taxes on land, date-trees, trade-licences, royalties on gum, ostrich feathers, ivory, rubber, senna and other forest produce, excise and arms licences and shooting fees. The tariff comprises a 10% ad valorem duty on most articles, with from 16s. to £1 per kilo. on tobacco, and an all-round export duty of 1% ad. valorem. The Government has always been largely dependent on the Egyptian Treasury, both for loans and for the liquidation of its annual deficits; but recently it has looked for its loans to the British market, while it endeavoured to develop its own financial resources to meet the expenditure on its defence, éducation, public works and administration. The State revenue was £126,596 in 1899; by 1926 it had tisen to £5,858,000, with an expenditure of £5,482,000. Justice.—The Sudan judicial codes, based, in part, on those of

India, and, in part, on the principles of English law and of Egyptlan commercial law, provide for the recognition of “customary law” so far as applicable and “not repugnant to good conscience.”

In each mudiria criminal justice is administered by a court, consisting of the mudir (or a judge) and two magistrates, which has

general competence. The magistrates are members of the administrative staff, who try minor cases without the help of the mudir

507

no judge is available by the mudir or his representative); minor civil cases are tried by magistrates. From the decision of the judges an appeal lies to the High Court at Khartoum, composed of a chief justice and four puisne judges. Jurisdiction in all legal matters as regards personal status of Mohammedans is administered by a grand cadi and a staff of subordinate cadis. The police force of each mudiria is independently organized under the control of the mudirs. Education.—Education is in charge of the department of public instruction. Elementary education, the medium of instruction being Arabic, is given in kuttabs or village schools. There are primary schools in the chief towns where English, Arabic, mathematics, and, in some cases, land-measuring are taught. There are also Government industrial workshops, and a few schools for girls. The Gordon college at Khartoum undertakes a suitable variety of vocational teaching, along with the training of teachers and judges in the Mohammedan courts, and has annexed to it a secondary school. The college also contains the Wellcome laboratories for scientific research. Among the pagan negro tribes Protestant and Roman Catholic missions are established. These missions carry on educational work, special attention being given to industrial training. Defence.—The defence of the country used to be entrusted to the Egyptian army; but in 1924 the Egyptian units were removed, and the defence force is now composed of local material under British officers. A small force of British troops is also stationed in the Sudan—chiefly at Khartoum. They are under the command of the governor-general in virtue of an arrangement made in 1905, having previously been part of the Egyptian command. ARCHAEOLOGY

Archaeological study in the Sudan, retarded for many years by political conditions, gave rich returns. The work, which had been begun by Cailliaud, Champollion, Lepsius and others, was interrupted by the rise of the Mahdist power; and with the frontiers of Egypt itself menaced by dervishes, the country south of Aswan was necessarily closed to the student of antiquity. Even after the dervishes had been overthrown at the battle of Omdurman (1898) it was some time before archaeologists awoke to the sense of the historical importance of the regions thus made accessible to them. What aroused them was the danger of submergence with which many ancient sites were threatened by the raising of the Aswan dam. A large sum of money was assigned by the Government, partly for the preservation of the visible temples in the area to be submerged, partly for an official expedition under the charge of Dr. G. A. Reisner, which was to search for all remains of antiquity hidden beneath the ground. At the same time the University of Pennsylvania dispatched the Eckley B. Coxe, jun., expedition, which devoted its attention to the southern half of Lower Nubia, from Halfa to Korosko, while the Government excavators explored from Korosko to Aswan. Thus material was acquired which throws a flood of light on the archaeology at once of Egypt and the Sudan. For though all except the southern twenty miles of Lower Nubia has been attached for purposes of administration to Egypt proper, yet this political boundary is purely artificial. The natural geographical and ethnical southern frontier of Egypt is the First Cataract; Egyptian scribes of the Old Empire recognized this truth no less clearly than Diocletian, and Juvenal anticipates the verdict of every modern observer when he describes the “‘porta Syenes” as the gate of Africa. The reconnaissances of Dr. Wallis Budge, Prof. A. H. Sayce, Mr. Somers Clarke, Prof. J. Garstang and more recent investigators, cover the well known monuments left by Egyptian kings whose history is tolerably familiar from other sources. The inscriptions of these kings and their officials have been collected by Prof. J. H. Breasted. But, while the central and southern Sudan is almost a virgin field for the archaeologist, the

exploration of Lower Nubia has made important progress. The Sudan is primarily and above all the country of the black

races, of those Nilotic negroes whose birthplace may be supposed (or judge). The governor-general possesses revising powers in all to have been near the Great Lakes. But upon this aboriginal stock cases. Civil cases of importance are heard by a judge (or where were grafted, in very early times, fresh shoots of more vigorous

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and intellectual races coming, probably, from the East. Lower Nubia was one of the crucibles in which several times was formed a mixed nation which defied or actually dominated Egypt. There is some scientific ground for dating the earliest example of such a fusion to the exact period of the Egyptian Old Empire. The Ethiopians who usurped the crown of the Pharaohs from 740-660 B.C. were of a mixed stock akin to the modern Barabra; the northern Nubians who successfully defied the Roman emperors were under the lordship of the Blemyes (Blemmyes), an East African tribe, and the empire of the Candace dynasty, no less than the Christian kingdoms which succeeded it, included many heterogeneous racial elements. The real history of the Sudan will, therefore, be concerned with the evolution of what may be called East African or East Central African civilizations. From the purely Egyptological standpoint there is much of value to be learned from the Sudan. The Egyptian penetration of the country began, according to the evidence of inscriptions, as early as the Old Empire. Under the 12th dynasty colonies were planted’ and fortresses established down to the Bahr-el-Hagar. During the 18th dynasty the political subjugation was completed, and the newly-won territories were studded with cities and temples as far south as the Fourth Cataract. Some 200 years later the priests of Amen, flying from Thebes, founded a quasi-Egyptian capital at Napata. But after this date Egypt played no part in the evolution of the country. Its history, therefore, as an independent civilization may be said to date from the 8th century B.c., though future researches may be able to carry. its infant origins to a remoter past.

Of the 1,000 years or more of effective Egyptian occupation many monuments exist, but on a broad, general view it must be pronounced that they owe their fame more to the accident of survival than to any special intrinsic value. For, excepting Philae, which belongs as much to Egypt as to Ethiopia, Abu Simbel is the only temple which can be ranked among first-rate products of Egyptian genius; although Dr. Reisner’s discoveries leave little doubt that the archaic culture first detected at Nagada and Abydos, and then at many points as far north as Giza, extended southwards into Nubia at least as far as Gerf Husein. This was wholly unexpected, and if, as seems probable, the evidence stands the test of criticism, it is a new historical fact of great importance. The government expedition found traces between Aswan and Korosko of all the principal periods from this early date down to the Christian era. The specimens obtained are kept in a separate room of the Cairo Museum, where they form a collection of great value. The work of the Pennsylvanian expedition opened a new chapter in the history of the African races. No records, indeed, were discovered of.the founders of the first great Ethiopian kingdom from Piankhi to Tirhakah, nor has any fresh light been thrown upon the relations which that remarkable king, Ergamenes, maintained with the Egyptian Ptolemies. But the exploration of sites in the southern half of Lower Nubia has revealed’ the existence of a wholly unsuspected independent civilization which grew up during the first six centuries after Christ. The history of the succeeding periods, moreover, has been partially recovered and the study of architecture enriched by the excavation of numerous churches dating from the time of Justinian, when Nubia was first Christianized, down to the late mediaeval period when Christianity

was extirpated by Mohammedanism:

The civilization of the first six centuries A.D. may be called

“Romano-Nubian,” a term which indicates its date and suggests something of its character. It is the product of a people living on the borders of the Roman empire who inherited much of the Hel-

lenistic tradition in minor arts, but combined it with a remarkable power of independent origination. The sites on which it has been

observed range from Dakka to Halfa, that is to say, within the precise limits which late Latin and Greek writers assign to the Blemyes, and there is a good reason to identify the people that evolved it with this hitherto almost unknown barbarian nation. Apart from this, however, the greatest value of the new discoveries

[ARCHAEOLOGY

new types of statues, bronzes, ivory carvings and painted pottery —all of the highest artistic value—but also a large number of stone stelae inscribed with funerary formulae in the Meroitic script. Tn the course of sixty years the small collection of Meroitic inscriptions made by Lepsius had not been enlarged and no progress had been made towards decipherment. But the cemeteries of Shablul and Karanog alone yielded 170 inscriptions on stone, besides some inscribed ostraka. This mass of material brought the

task of decipherment within the range of possibility, and evey without any bilingual record to assist him, Mr. F. LI. Griffith rapidly succeeded in the first stages of translation. As further explorations bring more inscriptions to light the records of Ethjopia will gradually be placed on a firm documentary basis and the names and achievements of its greatest monarchs will take their

place on the roll of history. Ancient Monuments South of Halfa.—Ruins of pyramids, temples, churches and other monuments are found along both

banks of the Nile, almost as far south as the Fourth Cataract, and again in the “Island of Meroé.”

In the following list the ruins are

named as met with on the journey south from Wadi Halfa. Oppo-

site that town, on the east bank, are the remains of Bohon, a town founded under the r2th dynasty, and with a fine temple of 18th dynasty work. Forty-three miles farther south are the ruins of the twin fortresses of Kumma and Semna. At Amara, some 80 m. above Semna, are the ruins of a temple with Meroitic hieroglyphics. At Soleb, 143 m. above Halfa, are the ruins of a fine temple commemorating Amenophis (Amenhotep) III. (c. 1414 B.C.), to whose queen, Taia, was dedicated a temple at Sedeinga, a few miles to the north. At Sesebi, 40 m. higher up the Nile, is a temple of the heretic king, Ikhnaton, re-worked by Seti I. (c. 1327 B.c.). Opposite Hannek, at the Third Cataract on Tombos island, are extensive ancient granite quarries, in one of which lies an unfinished colossus. On the east side of the river, near Kerma, are the remains of an Egyptian city. Argo island, a short distance higher up, abounds in ruins, and from Old Dongola to Merawi (a distance of roo m. by the river) are numerous ruins of monasteries, churches and fortresses of the Christian era in Nubia— notably at Jebel Deka and Magal. In the immediate neighbourhood of Jebel Barkal (the. “holy mountain” of the ancient Egyptians), a mile or two above the existing village of Merawi (Merowe), are many pyramids and six temples, the pyramids having a height of from 35 to 60 feet. They mark the site of Napata, the religious capital of ancient Ethiopia, from which spread the worship of Amen. On the left bank of the Nile, opposite Merawi, are the pyramids of Nuri, and a few miles distant, in the Wadi Ghazal, are the ruins of a great Christian monastery, where were found ‘gravestones with inscriptions in Greek and Coptic. Thirty

miles north of the town of Shendi are the pyramids of Meroé, in three distinct groups. From one of these pyramids was taken “the treasure of Queen Candace,” now in the Berlin museum. Excavation is busy with this ancient site, and, among a vast number of tombs, shrines and dwellings there stand out the Temple of the Sun (600 B.C.) and the pylon of a great temple to Amen. (300 B.C.), the most perfect ruins in the Sudan, associated with the Ethiopian kingdom of Queen Candace. They comprise three temple groups, in good preservation, at Nagaa, and a mass of buildIngs at Mussawarat,. belonging to the 2nd or 3rd century AD. Farther south, Christian remains are:to be seen on the east bank of the Blue Nile, about 13 m. above. Khartoum, at Soba, at Ceteina, on: the White Nile, and at Wad-el-Hadad; some miles north of Sennar, on the Blue Nile. Between the Nile at Wadi Halfa and the Red sea are the remains of towns inhabited by the ancient miners who worked the district. The most striking of these towns is Deraheib (Castle Beautiful), so named from the picturesque situation of the castle; a large square building with pointed arches. The walls of some 500 houses still stand. i BwrrocrAarany.—For topography: The Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, edit. by Count Gleichen (2 vols., London, 1905). For administration,

finance and trade: The annual Reports on Egypt and the Sudan since 1898, the annual Reports of the Central Economic Board, Sudan documentary record of past ages. For the graves yielded not only | Government, the Sudan Gazette, and the annual Sudan Almanac. For

consists in the fact that they are laying the foundations for a new

SUDAN

HISTORY]

ethnography: H. A. MacMichael, A History of Arabs in the Sudan (1922), and Tribes of Northern and. Central Cordofan (1912). For archaeology: E. A. Wallis Bridge, The Egyptian Sudan (1907); J. H. Breasted, Temples of Lower Arabia (1906), and Monuments of Sudanese Nubia (1908). Also the various reports of the Eckley B. Coxe, jun., expeditions and its successors. For general considerations: see P. E. Marshall, The Sudan in Evolution (1921) ; A. A. R. Dugmore,

The Vast Sudan (1924).

(F. R. C.; X.)

HISTORY

From the Earliest Time

to the Egyptian

Conquest.—

The southern regions of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan are without recorded history until the era of the Egyptian conquest in the roth

century. In the northern regions, known as Ethiopia or Nubia, Egyptian influence made itself felt as early as the Old Empire. In process of time powerful States grew up with capitals at Napata and Meroé (see ante sec. Archaeology and ETurop1a and Ecypt).

The Nubians—that is the dwellers in the Nile valley between

Egypt and Abyssinia—did not embrace Christianity until the 6th century, considerably later than their Abyssinian neighbours.

The

Arab invasion of north Africa in the 7th century, which turned Egypt into a Mohammedan country, had not the same effect in Nubia, the Muslims, though they frequently raided the country, being unable to hold it. On the ruins of the ancient Ethiopian

States arose the Christian kingdoms of Dongola and Aloa, with capitals at Dongola and Soba (corresponding roughly to Napata and Meroé).

These kingdoms continued to exist until the middle

of the 14th century or later (see DoncoLa). the Beni Omayya tribe, under pressure from begun to cross the Red sea as early as the settle in the district around Sennar on the

Meanwhile Arabs of the Beni Abbas, had 8th century and to Blue Nile, a region

which probably marked the southern limits of the kingdom of Aloa. The Omayya, who during the following centuries were reinforced by further immigrants from Arabia, intermarried with the negroid races, and gradually Arab influence became predominant and Islam the nominal faith of all the inhabitants of Sennar. In

this way a barrier was erected between the Christians of Nubia and those of Abyssinia. By the 15th century the Arabized negro races of the Blue Nile had grown into a powerful nation known as the Funj, and during that century they extended their conquests north to the borders of Egypt. The kingdom of Dongola had already been reduced to a condition of anarchy by Muslim invasions from the north. Christianity was still professed by some of the Nubians as late as the 16th century, but the whole Sudan north of the lands of the pagan negroes (roughly 12° N.) was then under Muslim sway. At that time the sultans of Darfur (q.v.) in the west, and the sultans or kings of Sennar (the Funj rulers) in the east, were the most powerful of the Mohammedan potentates. The first of the Funj monarchs acknowledged king of the whole of the allied tribes, of which the Hameg were next in importance to the Funj, was Amara Dunkas, who reigned c. 1484-1526. During the reign of Adlan, c. 1596-1603, the fame of Sennar attracted learned men to his court from such distant places as Cairo and Baghdad. Adlan’s great-grandson Badi Abu Daku attacked the Shilluk negroes and raided Kordofan. This monarch built the great mosque at Sennar, almost the only building in the town to survive the ravages of the dervishes in the roth century. In the early part of the 18th century there was war between the Sennari and the Abyssinians, in which the last named were defeated with great slaughter, a victory over the “infidels” which became celebrated throughout the Mohammedan world. Towards the end

399

lished themselves at Dongola, and to keep busy the Albanians and Turks in his army, whose fidelity was doubtful. Mehemet Ali gave the command of the army sent to Nubia to his son Ismail, who at the head of some 4,000 men left Wadi Halfa in October 1820. Following the Nile route he occupied Dongola without opposition, the Mamelukes fleeing before him.

(Some of them went to Darfur and Wadai, others made their way to the Red Sea. This was the final dispersal of the Mamelukes.) With the nomad Shagia, who dominated the district Ismail had two sharp encounters, one near Korti, the other higher up the river, and in both fights Ismail was successful. Thereafter the Shagia furnished useful auxiliary cavalry to the Egyptians. Ismail remained in the Dongola province till February 1821, when he crossed the Bayuda Desert and received the submission of the meks (kings) of Berber, Shendi and Halfaya, nominal vassals of the king of Sennar. Continuing his march south Ismail reached the confluence of the White and Blue Niles and established a camp at Ras Khartum. (This camp developed into the city of Khartum.) At this time Badi, the king of Sennar, from whom all real power had been wrested by his leading councillors, determined to submit to the Egyptians, and as Ismail advanced up the Blue Nile he was met at Wad Medani by Badi who declared that he. recognized Mehemet Ali as master of his kingdom. Ismail and Badi entered the town of Sennar together on June 12, 1821, and in this peaceable manner the Egyptians became rulers of the ancient empire of the Funj. In search of the gold-mines reported to exist farther south Ismail penetrated into the mountainous region of Fazokl, where the negroes offered a stout re~ sistance. In Feb. 1822 Ismail set out on his return to Dongola, having received reports of risings against Egyptian authority. The Egyptian soldiery had behaved with barbarity. Ismail, Nair Mimr, the mek of Shendi, had been a sort of hostage, and entertained hatred of the pasha. On Ismail’s return to Shendi, Oct. 1822, he demanded of the mek 1,000 slaves to be supplied in two days. The mek, promising compliance, invited Ismail and his

chief officers to a feast in his house, around which he had piled

heaps of straw. Whilst the Egyptians were feasting the mek set fire to the straw and Ismail and all his companions were burnt to death. Ismail’s death was speedily avenged. A second Egyptian army, also about 4,000 strong, had followed that of Ismail’s up the Nile, and striking south-west from Debba, had wrested, after a sharp campaign, the province of Kordofan (1821) from the sultan of Darfur. This army was commanded by Mohammed Bey, the Defterdar, son-in-law of Mohammed Ali. Hearing of Ismail’s murder the Defterdar marched to Shendi, defeated the forces of the mek, and took terrible revenge upon the inhabitants of Metemma and Shendi, most of the inhabitants,- including women and children, being burnt alive. Nair Mimr escaped to the Abyssinian frontier, where he maintained his independence. 4 Character of Egyptian Rule—Having conquered Nubia, Sennar and Kordofan the Egyptians set up a civil Government, placing at the head of the administration a governor-general with practically unlimited power. Khurshid pasha (governor-general 1826-39) gained a great reputation both for rectitude and vigour, but, with rare exceptions, his successors did not conceive that the welfare of the people was any part of the task of government. About this period Mohammed Ali leased from the sultan of Turkey the Red sea ports of Suakin and Massawa, and thus got into his hands the trade routes of the eastern Sudan. The pasha of the 18th century the Hameg wrested power from the Funj and of Egypt practically monopolized the trade of the country except the kingdom fell into decay, many of the tributary princes refusing that in slaves, for which border lands were raided annually. From toacknowledge the king of Sennar. The disorders resulting from the negro population the army was so largely recruited that in this decline continued up to the time of the conquest of the coun- a few years the only non-Sudanese in it were officers. The Egyptry by the Egyptians. tian rule proved harmful to the country. The governors-general From the Egyptian Conquest to the Rise of the Mahdi. and the leading officials were nearly all Turks, Albanians.or Cir~The conquest of Nubia was undertaken in 1820 by order of cassians, and, with rare exceptions, the welfare of the various Mehemet Ali, the pasha of Egypt, and was accomplished in the peoples of the Sudan formed no part of their conception of govtwo years following. His leading motive was, probably, the desire ernment. to obtain possession of the mines of gold and precious stones Numerous efforts were made to extend the authority of Egypt. Which he believed the Sudan contained. Mehemet Ali also wished In 1840 the fertile district of Taka, watered by the Atbara and to crush the remnant of the Mamelukes, who in 1812 had estab- Gash and near the Abyssinian frontier, was conquered and the

SUDAN

510

town of Kassala founded. In 1837 the pasha himself had visited the Sudan, going as far as Fazokl, where he inspected the goldfields. The successors of Mohammed Ali, in an endeavour to make the

country more profitable, extended their conquests to the south, and in 1853 and subsequent years trading posts were established on the Upper Nile. The Government monopoly in trade had ceased in 1849 on the death of Mohammed Ali. The pioneer European merchant was John Petherick, British consular agent at Khartoum. Petherick sought for ivory only, but those who followed him soon found that slave-raiding was more profitable than elephant hunting. The viceroy Said, who made a rapid tour through the Sudan in 1857, found it in a deplorable condition. The viceroy ordered many reforms to be executed and proclaimed the abolition of slavery. The reforms were mainly inoperative and slavery continued. The European merchants above Khartoum had sold their posts to Arab agents, who oppressed the natives in every conceivable fashion. Ismail Pasha, who became viceroy of Egypt in 1863, again gave orders for the suppression of the slave trade,

and to check the operations of the Arab traders a military force was stationed at Fashoda (1865), this being the most southerly

[HISTORY

was at the head of a gang of slave-traders in the Bahr-el-Ghazal In 1878 there was further trouble in Darfur and also in Kordofan and Gordon visited both these provinces, breaking up many com.

panies of slave-hunters.

Meantime Suliman (acting on the ip.

structions of his father, who was still at Cairo) had broken oy into open revolt against the Egyptians

in the Bahr-el-Ghazal

The crushing of Suliman was entrusted by Gordon to Romol Gessi (1831-81), an Italian who had previously served under Gordon on the Upper Nile. Gessi, after a most arduous campaign (1878—79), defeated and captured Suliman, whom, with other ringleaders, he executed. The slave-raiders were completely broken up and over 10,000 captives released. A remnant of Zo. beir’s troops under a chief named Rabah succeeded in escaping westward (see Rasam). Having conquered the province, Gessi

was made governor of the Bahr-el-Ghazal, becoming pasha. When Gordon left the Sudan he was succeeded at Khartoum by Raouf Pasha, under whom the old abuses of the Egyptian administration were

revived.

At this time the high European

ofñcials in the Sudan, besides Gessi, included Emin Pasha (q.v.),

governor of the Equatorial Province since 1878, and Slatin Pasha (q.v.), governor of Darfur. Gessi found his position under Raouf point then held by the Egyptians. Ismail, however, was ambitious to extend his dominions and to develop the Sudan on the lines he intolerable, resigned his post in Sept. 1880 and was succeeded had conceived for the development of Egypt. He obtained (1865) by Frank Lupton, an Englishman and formerly captain of a Red from the sultan of Turkey a firman assigning to him the adminis- sea merchant steamer. At this period (1880—82) schemes for the tration of Suakin and Massawa, the lease which Mohammed Ali reorganization and better administration of the Sudan were elabhad of these ports having lapsed after the death of that pasha. orated on paper, but the revolt in Egypt under Arabi (see Ecver: Ismail subsequently (1870-75) extended his sway over the whole History) and the appearance of a Mahdi intervened. The Rise and Power of Mahdism.—Venality and the extorcoast from Suez to Cape Guardafui but on the rise of the Mahdi (see infra) Egyptian authority was withdrawn (1884) from the tion of the tax-gatherer flourished anew after the departure of Gordon, while the feebleness of his successors inspired in the coast regions south of Suakin. Baker and Gordon.—At the same time that Ismail annexed Baggara a contempt for the authority which prohibited them the seaboard he was extending his sway along the Nile valley to the pursuing their most lucrative traffic. When Mohammed Ahmed equatorial lakes, and conceived the idea of annexing all the country (g.v.), a Dongolese, proclaimed himself the long-looked-for Mahdi between the Nile and the Indian ocean. An expedition was sent (guide) of Islam, he found most of his original followers among (1875) to the Juba river with that object, but it was withdrawn the grossly superstitious villagers of Kordofan, to whom he at the request of the British Government, as it infringed the rights preached universal equality and a community of goods, while of the sultan of Zanzibar. Meanwhile, on the main Nile, control denouncing the ‘“Turks’—at that time the Sudanese called all of all territories south of Gondokoro had been given to Sir Samuel foreigners Turks—as unworthy Muslims on whom God would Baker, who, reaching Gondokoro on May 26, 1870, formally an- execute judgment. The Baggara perceived in this Mahdi one nexed that station, which he named Ismailia, to the khedival who could be used to shake off Egyptian rule. The new Mahdi domains. Baker remained as governor of the Equatorial Provinces married the daughters of their sheikhs and found m Abdullah, a until Aug. 1873, and in March 1874 Col. C. G. Gordon took up the member of the Taaisha section of the tribe, whom he appointed same post. Both Baker and Gordon made strenuous efforts Khalifa (lieutenant), his chief supporter. The Mahdi’s capture of El Obeid on Jan. 17, 1883, and the towards crushing the slave trade, but their endeavours were largely thwarted by the inaction of the authorities at Khartoum. Under annihilation in the November following of an army of over 10,000 Gordon the Upper Nile region as far as the borders of Uganda men commanded by Hicks Pasha (Col. William Hicks [g.v.] came more or less effectively under Egyptian control. On the formerly of the Bombay army) made the Mahdi undisputed maswest the Bahr-el-Ghazal had been overrun by Arab or semi-Arab ter of Kordofan and Sennar. The next month, Dec. 1883, saw the slave-dealers who reduced that region to a state of abject misery. surrender of Slatin in Darfur, whilst in Feb. 1884 Osman Digna, The most powerful of the slave traders was Zobeir Pasha, who, his amir in the Red sea regions, inflicted a crushing defeat on some having defeated a force sent from Khartoum to reduce him to 4,000 Egyptians at El Teb near Suakin. In April following Lupton obedience, invaded Darfur (1874). The khedive, fearing the Bey, governor of Bahr-el-Ghazal, was sent captive to Omdurman, power of Zobeir, also sent an expedition to Darfur, and that where he died on May 8, 1888. Gordon at Khartoum.—On learning of the disaster to Hicks country, after a stout resistance, was conquered. Zobeir claimed to be made governor-general of the new province; his request Pasha’s army, the British Government (Great Britain having been being refused, he went to Cairo to urge his claim. At Cairo he was since 1882 in military occupation of Egypt) insisted that the Egyptian Government should evacuate such parts of the Sudan as they detained by the Egyptian authorities. Though spasmodic efforts were made to promote agriculture still held, and Gen. Gordon was despatched, with Lt.-col. Donald and open up communications the Sudan continued to be a constant H. Stewart, to Khartoum to arrange the withdrawal of the Egypdrain on the Egyptian exchequer. A project to link Wadi Halfa tian civil and military population. Gordon’s instructions, based to Khartoum by railway was abandoned (1877) after som. of largely on his own suggestions, were not wholly consistent; rails had been laid in five or six years at a cost of £450,000. In they contemplated vaguely the establishment of some form of

Oct. 1876 Gordon left the Equatorial Provinces and gave up his appointment. In Feb. 1877, under pressure from the British and Egyptian Governments, he went to Cairo, where he was given the governorship of the whole of the Egyptian territories outside Egypt; namely, the Sudan provinces proper, the Equatorial Provinces, Darfur and the Red sea and Somali coasts. Gordon remained in the Sudan until Aug. 1879. During his tenure of office he did much to give the Sudanese the benefit of a just and considerate Government. He pacified Darfur and then received the

submission

of Suliman

Zobeir

(son of Zobeir

Pasha), who

stable government on the surrender of Egyptian authority, and among the documents with which he was furnished was a firman creating him governor-general of the Sudan. Gordon reached Khartoum on Feb. 18, 1884, and at first his mission, which had aroused great enthusiasm in England, promised success. To

smooth the way for the retreat of the Egyptian garrisons and civilians he issued proclamations announcing that the suppression

of the slave trade was abandoned, that the Mahdi was sultan of

Kordofan, and that the Sudan was independent of Egypt. He enabled some thousands of refugees to make their escape to

SUDAN

HISTORY]

SII

The khalifa, when defeated, fled to Kordofan where he was killed in battle in Nov. 1899. In Jan. r900 Osman Digna, a fugitive, was captured. As in 1903 and 1908, other Mahdis arose, valley at first hostile to its propaganda. Gordon telegraphed to but they were captured and hanged. The Anglo-Egyptian Condominium.—Of the cause which Cairo asking that Zobeir Pasha might be sent to him, his intention being to hand to Zobeir the government. Zobeir (g.v.), a led to the reconquest of the Sudan the most weighty was the Sudanese Arab, was probably the one man who could have with- necessity of securing control of the Upper Nile, Egypt being stood successfully the Mahdi. Owing to Zobeir’s notoriety as a wholly dependent on the waters of the river for its prosperity. slave-raider Gordon’s request was refused. All hope of a peaceful France was endeavouring to establish her authority on the river between Khartoum and Gondokoro, as the Marchand expedition retreat of the Egyptians was thus rendered impossible. The Mahdist movement now swept northward and on May from the Congo to Fashoda demonstrated. The Sudan having been reconquered by “the joint military 20, Berber was captured by the dervishes and Khartoum isolated. From this time the energies of Gordon were devoted to the de- and financial efforts” of Great Britain and Egypt, the British fence of that town. After delay, an expedition was sent up the Government claimed “by right of conquest” to share in the Nile under the command of Lord Wolseley. It started too late to settlement of the administration and legislation of the country. achieve its object, and on Jan. 25, 1885, Khartoum was captured To meet these claims an agreement between Great Britain and by the Mahdi and Gordon killed. Col. Stewart, Frank Power Egypt was signed on Jan. 19, 1899, establishing the joint sov(British consul at Khartoum) and M. Herbin (French consul), ereignty of the two States throughout the Sudan. The reorganiwho (accompanied by 19 Greeks) had been sent down the Nile zation of the country had already begun, supreme power being by Gordon in the previous September to give news to the relief centred in an official termed the “governor-general of the Sudan,”

Aswan and collected at Khartoum troops from some of the outlying stations. By this time the situation had altered for the worse nd Mahdism was gaining strength among tribes in the Nile

force, had been decoyed ashore and murdered (Sept. 18, 1884). The fall of Khartoum was followed by the withdrawal of the British expedition, Dongola being evacuated in June 1885. In the same month Kassala capitulated, but just as the Mahdi had practically completed the destruction of the Egyptian power he died. The Khalifa’s Rule.—The Mahdi was at once succeeded by the

khalifa Abdullah, whose rule continued until Sept. 2, 1898, this period in the history of the Sudan being known as the Mahdia. On the date named the khalifa’s army was completely overthrown by an Anglo-Egyptian force under Sir H. (afterwards Lord) Kitchener. (See Ecypt: Egypt and Sudan, Campaigns in.) The Mahdi had been regarded by his fanatical adherents

as the only true commander of the faithful, endued with Divine power to conquer the whole world. He had at first styled his followers dervishes (i.e., religious mendicants) and given them the jibba as their characteristic garment or uniform. Later on he commanded the faithful to call themselves ansar (helpers), and at the time of his death he was planning an invasion of Egypt. He had liberated the Sudanese from the extortions of the Egyptians, but the people soon found that the Mahdi’s rule was even more oppressive. Gradually all chiefs and amirs not of the Baggara tribe were got rid of except Osman Digna, whose sphere of operations was on the Red sea coast. Abdullah’s rule produced complete agricultural and commercial ruin. He was also almost constantly in conflict either with the Shilluks, Nuers and other negro tribes of the south; with the peoples of Darfur, where at one time an anti-Mahdi gained a great following; with the Abyssinians; with the Kabbabish and other Arabic speaking tribes who had never embraced Mahdism, or with the Italians, Egyptians and British. Notwithstanding all this opposition the khalifa found in his own tribesmen and in his black troops devoted

adherents and he successfully defended his position. The attempt to conquer Egypt ended in the total defeat of the dervish army at Toski (Aug. 3, 1889). The attempts to subdue the Equatorial Provinces were but partly successful. Emin Pasha, to whose relief H. M. Stanley had gone, evacuated Wadelai in April 1889. The

greater part of the region and also most of the Bahr-el-Ghazal

relapsed into a state of chaos. Pilgrimages to the Mahdi’s tomb at Omdurman tuted for pilgrimages to Mecca.

were substi-

The arsenal and dockyard and

the printing-press at Khartoum were kept busy (the workmen being Egyptians who had escaped massacre). Otherwise Khartoum

was deserted, the khalifa making Omdurman his capital. The population of the country dwindled from warfare and disease, small-pox being endemic. The European captives were

kept prisoners at Omdurman. Besides ex-officials like Slatin and Lupton, they included several Roman Catholic priests and sisters, and numbers of Greek mer-

chants established at Khartoum.

Although several were closely

Imprisoned, loaded with chains and repeatedly flogged, it is a noteworthy fact that none was put to death. From time to time a Prisoner, among them Slatin, made his escape.

who by the terms of the agreement is appointed on the recommendation of the British Government. Thus in effect Great Britain controlled the Sudan. Lord Kitchener, the sirdar (commander-in-chief) of the Egyptian army, under whom the Sudan had been reconquered, was the first governor-general. On Kitchener’s departure to South Africa, at the close of 1899, he was suc-

ceeded as sirdar and governor-general by Maj.-gen. Sir F. R. Wingate, who had served with the Egyptian army since 1883. Wingate remained as governor-general and sirdar until Dec. 1916, when he was appointed high commissioner for Egypt. With Wingate served Slatin Pasha as inspector-general and his knowledge of native affairs was most valuable. But Slatin was an Austrian, and

on the outbreak of the World War his services were lost to the Sudan. Under a just and firm administration, which from the first was essentially civil, though the principal officials were officers of the British army, the Sudan recovered in a surprising manner from the woes it suffered during the Mahdia. At the head of every mudiria (province) was placed a British official, though many of the subordinate posts were filled by Egyptians. An exception was made in the case of Darfur, which, before the battle of Omdurman, had thrown off the khalifa’s rule and was again under a native sovereign. This potentate, the sultan Ali Dinar, was recognized by the Sudan Government, on condition of the payment of an annual tribute. During the World War Ali Dinar revolted; an expedition

under Lt.-col. P. V. Kelly inflicted a crushing defeat on the Darfurians outside the capital, El Fasher, on May 22, 1916. The Sultan fled and was killed in action in the following November. Darfur had meanwhile been incorporated as a province in the Sudan. The first duty of the new administration, the restoration of public order, met with comparatively feeble opposition, though tribes such as the Nuba mountaineers, accustomed from time immemorial to raid their weaker neighbours, gave some trouble. The delimitation (1903-04) of the frontier between the Sudan and Abyssinia helped in the restoration of order in a particularly lawless region but occasional raids by Abyssinians across the border for slaves were reported as late as 1926. With good administration and public security the population increased steadily. The Sudan Government devoted much attention to the revival of agriculture and commerce, to the creation of an educated class of natives, and to the establishment of an adequate judicial system. It was made easier by the decision to govern, as far as possible, in accordance with native law and custom, no attempt being made to Egyptianize or Anglicize the Sudanese. The Arab-speaking and Mohammedan population found their religion and language respected, and showed a marked desire to profit by the new order. To the negroes of the southern Sudan, who were exceedingly suspicious of all strangers—whom hitherto they had known almost exclusively as slave-raiders—the very elements of civilization had, in most cases, to be taught. In these pagan regions the Sudan Government encouraged the work of missionary societies, both Protestant and Roman Catholic, while discouraging propaganda work among the Muslims.

512

SUDAN

Basis of Prosperity.—In their general policy the Sudan Government adopted a system of light taxation. Prosperity was largely the result. A short route to the sea being essential, a railway from the Nile near Berber to the Red sea was built (1904— 06). It shortened the distance from Khartoum to the coast by nearly 1,000 miles. Sir Eldon Gorst (high commissioner in Egypt) after a tour of inspection declared in his report for 1909, “I do not suppose that there is any part of the world in which the mass of the population have fewer unsatisfied wants.” The next development came out of the search for new cottonfields by the British Cotton Growing Association. Experiments had been made in 1911 as to whether long staple cotton could profitably be grown in the Gezira (the “island” between the White and Blue Niles immediately above Khartoum). At that time a railway was being built from Khartoum along the edge of the Gezira to Sennar and thence to Kordofan. This railway was opened in 1912; it brought the Gezira within easy reach of Khartoum besides rendering more easily accessible the rich gum and cattle areas of Kordofan. In the same year the Cotton Growing Association experts who had visited the Sudan reported enthusiastically upon its cotton growing possibilities, with the result that in 1913 the British parliament guaranteed a loan of £3,000,000 for irrigation and railway schemes. Just at this time (1913-14) the value of any project which would give to large areas adequate water supplies by means of artificial irrigation received a striking demonstration. The 1913 rains were very bad and the river flood was the lowest recorded for more than a century, so that all over the northern Sudan, and particularly in the Gezira area, famine conditions obtained during the following winter. The situation was saved by the Government importing corn from India, and it is probable that this contributed more than any other factor to the quiet in the Sudan during the World War. The World War and After.—Fortunately rains and Nile flood alike were excellent in 1914. But Sudanese came into touch with European thought as well as European markets. The agitation among the Egyptian Nationalists for the ejection of the British from the Sudan was not without effect, and the national self-consciousness which is dormant in every race showed signs of awakening among that section of the people, mainly town dwellers, most receptive of new ideas. Happily 1920 was a year of prosperity, rich harvests and increasing trade, and the interests of the classes in question was largely centred on money making and the possibilities of the Gezira irrigation scheme, on which preliminary work was being actively prosecuted. The Sudan, too, had the advantage of very able and sympathetic government under Sir Lee Stack who had succeeded Sir Francis Wingate as governor-general and sirdar. He was fully in sympathy with a recommendation made by the Milner Commission in 1920 that a policy should be pursued of “decentralization and the employment, wherever possible, of native agencies for the simple administrative needs of the country.” This was indeed no new policy in the Sudan, but its authoritative restatement had value. The only hindrance to an ordered and healthy political evolution in the Sudan, came as a reaction from political disturbances in Egypt. The Milner Commission recommended that whatever

[HISTORY

Pasha (prime minister of Egypt) in which the position of the Sudan as well as Egypt was discussed.

No agreement was reached

whereupon MacDonald sent a despatch (Cmd. 2269 of 1924) to the British High Commissioner in Cairo in which, referring to the

Sudan, he said: ... In the meantime, the duty of preserving order in the Sudan rests, in fact, upon His Majesty’s Government, and they will take

every step necessary

for this purpose.

Since going there they have

contracted heavy moral obligations by the creation of a good system of administration; they cannot allow that to be destroyed; they regard their responsibilities as a trust for the Sudan people: there can be no question of their abandoning the Sudan until their

work is done. His Majesty’s Government have no desire to disturb existing arrangements, but they must point out how intolerable js a status quo which to conspire against and loyally worked reached, the Sudan such conditions to

enables both military and civil officers and officials civil order, and unless the status quo is accepted out until such time as a new arrangement may be Government would fail in its duty were it to allow continue. ...

The failure of Zaghlul in London left him without any con-

structive policy for dealing with the Sudan, and the forces of disorder asserted themselves. On Nov. 20, 1924, Sir Lee Stack succumbed to a murderous attack made on him in the streets of Cairo. An ultimatum was thereupon presented by the British Government and among its terms was the immediate withdrawal

of all Egyptian troops from the Sudan, t.e., all purely Egyptian units and the Egyptian officers of the Arab and Sudanese units, The demand was refused, and on Nov. 23 orders were issued for their compulsory removal. Some of them departed without demur; others adopted an attitude of passive resistance. At this

stage some black Sudanese detachments stationed in Khartoum, probably misunderstanding the exact position of affairs, and certainly instigated by the Egyptian officers and by sympathisers among their own officers, mutinied on Nov. 27, and it was not until the 29th that order was restored. The evacuation of the Egyptian units and personnel was followed by the creation of a Sudan defence force, consisting of Sudanese and Arab units which had hitherto been incorporated in the Egyptian army. The new force undertook allegiance solely to the governor-general of the Sudan who was no longer also sirdar of the Egyptian army. By

the end of 1924 conditions had been restored to normal. Sir Geoffrey Archer, a man of much experience of African races, became governor-general in Jan. 1925. He put into fuller practice

the principle of decentralized control—that is, leaving the administration as far as possible in the hands of the native authorities. On account of ill-health Sir Geoffrey resigned his post in 1926; Sir John Maffey, who succeeded him, adopted fully Archer’s devolutionary policy and in 1927 a measure was passed (‘Powers of Sheikhs ordinance”) which strengthened the authority of the chiefs over their tribes as judges in criminal and civil cases. A notable event was the opening in Jan. 1926 of the Sennar dam, which brought a great part of the Gezira under irrigation. A particularly satisfactory feature of this work was its popularity among the native owners and cultivators. While 1925 and 1926 were both years of drought in the northern Sudan, the material progress of the people continued; the Government established a central reserve of grain and controlled prices. Among the pagan negroid tribes of the southern Sudan probably change was made in the relation between Great Britain and Egypt, British predominance in the Sudan should not be affected. Accord- the greatest agent in development was the building of roads as ingly, when in Feb. 1922 the independence of Egypt was declared, adjuncts to river transport; by 1928 thousands of miles of road provision was made for the maintenance of the status quo in were in use by motor traffic in the dry season. This opened up the Sudan. But the Nationalist party in Egypt demanded the hand- markets and led to the introduction of money, and the cultivation ing over of the Sudan to Egypt and again conducted an active of food crops and of cotton. Whether they desired it or not these anti-British campaign of propaganda in the Sudan. There the backward races felt the impact of new methods and agencies. The position was complicated by the fact that the military garrison first steps in their transformation, the stopping of inter-tribal warwas furnished by the Egyptian army, consisting partly of purely fare and the establishment of public order, were slowly accomEgyptian units but mainly of locally recruited units officered by plished, mainly by the personal influence of British officials. One Egyptians and Sudanese with a small addition of British officers. difficulty was that the Government had not forces sufficient effecA “White Flag League” with funds from Egypt had been started tively to control the border region. To help in this matter there in the Sudan, and a few disturbances occurred, including mutinies were in 1914 and again in 1926, territorial rearrangements in the of the Egyptian Railway Battalion at Atbara, and of Sudanese south (see UGANDA). In administered areas peaceful progress was cadets in Khartoum, in Aug. 1924, but the country was quiescent. not uninterrupted. There was a somewhat serious rising among 4 ‘In Sept. and Oct. 1924 conversations took place in London be- section of the Dinkas in Mongalla province in 1919, during which tween the prime minister (Ramsay MacDonald) and Zaghlul the governor, Maj. C. H. Stigand, and Maj. R. F. White lost their

SUDAN lives, their small force being attacked by spearmen in the long grass. Punitive measures followed in 1920 and the Dinkas gave little trouble thereafter; some of them took to cotton growing and coffee planting. There was unrest among the Nuer of the Bahr-el-Ghazal province in 1927 and Capt. V. H. Fergusson, district commissioner, with several other persons, was murdered in

December of that year. Aeroplanes were used in the retributory action taken. In March 1928 a new draft treaty between Great Britain and Egypt was rejected by the Egyptian cabinet; whereupon the British Government reminded the Egyptian Government that under the agreement of 1899, Great Britain continued to control the Sudan. By an exchange of notes on May 7, 1929, an agreement, satis-

factory to both parties, was reached by the British and Egyptian Governments

in regard

to Nile irrigation

schemes.

It was

agreed that no measures, such as supplying the needs of the northern Sudan, should be taken which would prejudice the interests of Egypt, and that there should be co-operation between the Egyptian and Sudanese irrigation services. The immediate

513

of the Niger contains patches of forest, but it consists mainly of open land well adapted to agriculture and stock-raising. The fauna includes the lion, elephant, hippopotamus, wild boar, panther and various kinds of antelope. The climate is tropical. Of the old native States included in the colony, Bambuk lies between the Senegal and the Faleme and Bafing. It is traversed from north-west to south-east by the steep and wall-like range of the Tamba-Ura mountains. The soil in a large part of the country is of remarkable fertility; rice, maize, millet, melons, manioc, grapes, bananas and other fruits grow abundantly; the forests are rich in a variety of valuable trees; and extensive stretches are covered with abundant pasturage of the long guinea-grass. The inhabitants, a branch of the Mandingo race, own large herds of cattle and sheep. The reports which reached Europe during the 17th and 18th centuries of a country in Upper Senegal rich in gold, referred to this district, where both alluvial and quartz deposits have been found. Towns.—Kayes (pop. 10,000, of which 200 are Europeans) is situated on the Senegal at the point at which that river ceases to be navigable from the sea—a distance of 460 m. from

effect of the agreement was to allow the Egyptian authorities at once to proceed with the construction of a dam across the White Nile at Gebel Aulia, 30 m. above Khartoum—a project of special importance to Egypt, and in no way affecting the Gezira scheme of the Sudan Government.

St. Louis. Bamako

PAIGNS IN, 1882-1899.

Trade and Agriculture.—The chief exports are gum (which comes largely from the northern districts such as Kaarta), rubber, gold, kola nuts, leather and ostrich feathers. A goodly proportion of the exports from the middle Niger are shipped from Konakry in French Guinea. Under the direction of French officials, cotton-growing on scientific methods was begun in the Niger basin in 1904. American and Egyptian varieties were introduced, the American varieties proving well adapted to the soil. Indigenous varieties of cotton are common and are cultivated by the natives for domestic use, weaving being a general industry. Large works are planned at Segu, at Nyamina and at Sansandig, in view of cotton-growing on a large scale; the execution of the irrigation works is made difficult by the scarcity of labour. Gold is found in the basin of the Faleme and of the Tankisso. The people are great agriculturists, their chief crops being millet, maize, rice, cotton and indigo. Tobacco is cultivated by the river folk along the banks inundated by the floods. Wheat is grown in the neighbourhood of Timbuktu, the seed having been, in all probability, brought from Morocco at the

(pop. 16,000, of which 600 are Europeans),

chosen in 1904 as the capital of the colony, is on the upper Niger at the head of its navigable waters, and is in railway communication with Kayes; the military and administrative buildings stand on the healthy plateau of Koulouba, which overBrsLIoGRAPHY.—Summaries of ancient and mediaeval history will looks the commercial town and the river. Segu, where Mungo be found in The Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, edit. Lord E. Gleichen Park first reached the Niger, is a series of townships stretching (1905); E. A. Wallis Bridge, The Egyptian Sudan (1907); H. A. for 15 km. along the river (pop. 6,000). Before the French Macmichael, A History of the Arabs in the Sudan, 2 vols. (Cambridge, occupation the possessor of Segu was the ruler of the surround1922). The Egyptian conquest and events up to 1850 are summarized in H. Deherain, Le Soudan égyptien sous Mehemet Ali (1898). For ing country; and the town was the headquarters of the emirs the middle period of Egyptian rule see Sir S. Baker, Ismailia (1874) ; Omar and Ahmadu. Sansandig stands on the north bank of the Colonel Gordon in Central Africa, edit. G. Birkbeck Hill (4th ed., Niger below Segu. It was visited by Mungo Park in 1796, and 1885), being extracts from Gordon’s diary (1874-80); R. Buchta. Der Sudan unter ägyptischer Herrschaft (Leipzig, 1888) ; Romolo Gessi Lieut. E. Mage and Dr. Quintin, French officers, witnessed its Pasha, Seven Years in the Soudan (1892). The rise of Mahdism and stand in 1865 against a siege by Ahmadu, sultan of Segu, from events down to 1900 are set forth in F. R. Wingate, Mahdiism and whom it had revolted. Before its conquest by the Tuareg, in the the Egyptian Sudan (1891), containing translations of letters and first half of the roth century, Sansandig was an important mart. proclamations of the Mahdi and Khalifa. For this period see Journals Communications.—There is regular communication by rail of Major General Gordon at Khartoum (1885); E. Power, Letters from Khartoum during the Siege (1885), and the following four books and river between Dakar, the principal port of Senegal, and Timwritten by prisoners of the dervishes are especially valuable: Father buktu, the journey occupying 10 to 12 days. A railway linking J. Ohrwalder, Ten Years’ Captivity in the Mahdi’s Camp 1882-92 the Senegal and Niger rivers starts at Kayes on the Senegal, passes (1892); Slatin Pasha, Fire and Sword in the Sudan (1896); Father south-east through Bafulabé and Kita, whence it goes east to Paolo Rosignoli, J miez dodici Anni di prigionia in mezzo at dervice del Sudan (Mondovi, 1898) ; C. Neufeldt, A Prisoner of the Khaleefa Bamako on the Niger, and follows the left bank of that river to (1899); G. Dujarric, L’Etat mahdiste du Soudan (1901). For the Kulikoro, the terminus, from which point the Niger is navigable Fashoda incident, besides the British and French official despatches, down stream all the year round for a distance of goo m., while see R. de Caix, Fachoda, la France et Angleterre (1899); A. Lebon, from Bamako the Niger is navigable up stream to Kurussa, a disLa Politique de la France, 1896-98 (1901); G. Hanotaux, Fachoda tance of 225 m., for most of the year. The Senegal-Niger rail(1910). See also Lord Cromer, Modern Egypt (1908)—for Sudanese history for the years 1881-1907. The annual reports on the Sudan way, opened in 1905, is 347 m. long. Steamers ply on the Niger between Kabara, the port of Timbuktu, and Kulikoro and published by the Foreign Office, London, are of much value. (F. R. C.) Bamako. There is a complete system of telegraphic communiSUDAN, CAMPAIGNS IN: see Ecypr anD SUDAN, CAM- cation with all the French colonies in West Africa.

SUDAN, FRENCH, one of the colonies of French West

Africa, of which the area is now 1,672,000 sq.km. (a third of French West Africa); population, 2,635,000, of which 1,500 only are Europeans. The colony of Upper Volta was separated from it in 1919; French Sudan, for several years called Upper Senegal and Niger, took its present name in 1920. Those tribes living north and east of the Niger are mainly of Berber (Tuareg) stock; the inhabitants of the Niger bend are chiefly Negroids, such as the Mandingo, with Fula in certain districts. The colony, as a whole, consists of a great plateau of granite and sandstone, rarely more than 1,600 ft. high. Hydrographically

the western portion belongs to the basin of the Senegal, the central to that of the Niger. At Mopti, 200 m. S.W. of Timbuktu, the Niger receives the Bani, which rises in about 94° N. and with its tributaries drains a very large area. In its lower courses Its divergent channels, uniting with offshoots from the Niger, form in the flood season an immense lake. The lakes or widenIngs of the Niger itself occupy vast areas; Lake Debo, the Lake of Horo, the Lake of Dauna and Lake Faguibini are all to the south or west of Timbuktu, and are permanent. Towards the south the country is somewhat mountainous. The country west

time of the Moorish invasion.

(See Trmpuxtv.)

The oil of the

karite er shea-butter tree, common in the southern and western regions, is largely used. Cattle are plentiful; there are several

SUDANIC

514

LANGUAGES—SUDERMANN

good breeds of horses; donkeys are numerous and largely used as transport animals; wool-bearing sheep—distinct from the smooth-haired sheep of the coast regions—are bred in many districts, the natives using the wool largely in the manufacture of blankets and rugs. The imports are valued at 86 millions, and the exports seem to reach nearly the same figure. (A. BE.)

SUDANIC LANGUAGES.

This term is applied to a num-

ber of languages spoken by Negro and other peoples from Abyssinia to Nigeria. At present sixteen main divisions are recognized. 1) Nilo-Chad, a group with thirty languages, including Zebu, Kunama, Kanuri; 2) Nilo-Abyssinian (15 languages), including Shilluk, Nuer and Dinka.

3) Nilo-Equatorial (26 languages) in-

cluding Bari, Turkana, Suk, Nandi, Masai. 4) Kordofan (10 languages) including Talodi and Lumun. s) Nilo-Congo (109 languages) including Madi, Mangbetu and Lega. 6) Ubangian group (25 languages) including Zande, Gola and Seri. 7) Chari-Wadain (12 languages) including Bongo, Kaba and Sara. 8) Charian (15 languages) including Sokoro, Bwa, and Mana. 9) Nigero-Chad (31 languages) including Kuri, Fali, Bata, Angas and Hausa. 10) Nigero-Cameroons (66 languages) including Gwala, Nde, Kpe, Ejik, Ibo, Nupe, Yoruba. 11) Lower-Niger group consists of Idyo or Boni. In the r2th or Voltaic group are 53 languages including Tem, Mampuru, Kasena, Ga, Kulango, Semu. In the 13th or Ivory Coast Dahomy group are 48 languages inclusive of the Ewe group, the Tchi group and the Fanti and Abron. The 14th or Niger-Senegal group has 36 languages including Mandingo, Vai and Mende. The 24 languages spoken on the Ivory-Liberian

coast (15th group) include Bete, Kwa and Ne. To the 16th or Senegal-Guinea group belong 24 languages, comprising Timne, Walof, Kisi. Certain traces are found of the noun classifications

conspicuous in Bantu languages.

The distinction between noun

and verb is weak. Kanuri, Hausa and Peul are sometimes written by the use of Arabic letters. See A. Meillet and M. Cohen, Les Langues du Monde (1924); W. Schmidt, Die Sprachfamilien und Sprachen-Kreise der Erde (1927).

SUDAN PLANTATIONS SYN DICATE, LTD., a British joint-stock company formed in 1904, with a capital of £80,000, as the Sudan Experimental Plantations Syndicate, Ltd. In 1928 the capital stood at £2,250,000. By an agreement with the Sudan Government, the syndicate was to develop an area of about 100,000 acres of the Gezira plain, irrigated by a barrage across the Blue Nile. The Sudan Government had to provide the land and the major canalization, and the syndicate and the native tenant cultivator were each entitled to receive a share of the proceeds of the crops. The World War supervening, the building of the Sennar dam was delayed, but by means of additional pumping stations the area under cotton was Increased to some 22,500 acres. The agreement was to be in force until 1925, but since the completion of the Sennar dam a new agreement has taken its place, extending to 1950, and providing for certain reductions in the syndicate’s share of the crop as compared with its participation of 25% under the old agreement. The syndicate prepares and irrigates the land, letting it to natives, who plant cotton and various leguminous crops under supervision, under three years’ rotation. The syndicate acts as bankers to the tenants, to whom they make loans on the security of their crops.

The shipments of cotton to the United Kingdom have grown: 1914-15 Gezira 1926-27 Gezira

Bales 3:935 . 113,168

Zeidab Zeidab

Bales 3,109 3042

The syndicate has in operation four factories of 80 gins each, handling 750 bales per day; two more factories are in course of erection. The cotton, of the Sakellaridis type, is a long and silky staple, commanding a high price. The area under cultivation is to be 150,000 acres in 1929-30. The cotton exported from the Sudan in 191r was 22,823 bales; in 1926 it had increased to 122,130 bales, of the approximate value of £3,500,000. (L. C. M.)

SUDATORIOUM, in architecture, the vaulted sweating-room

(sudor, sweat) of the Roman thermae, referred to in Vitruvius

(v. 2), and there called the concamerata sudatio.

In order to

obtain the great heat required, the whole wall was lined with vertical terra-cotta flue pipes of rectangular section, placed side

by side, through which the hot air and the smoke from the

hypocaust, or hollow floor, passed to the roof.

(See Bartus.)

SUDBURY, SIMON OF (sometimes called Stmon Typo. BALD or TyBaLp) (d. 1381), archbishop of Canterbury, was born

at Sudbury, in Suffolk, studied at the University of Paris, and became one of the chaplains of Pope Innocent VI., who sent him

in 1356, on a mission to Edward III. of England, and in 136: appointed him bishop of London. From 1375, when he was made archbishop of Canterbury, he was a partisan of John of Gaunt. In July 1377 he crowned Richard II.; in 1378 John Wycliffe

appeared before him at Lambeth.

Chancellor of England from

1380, Sudbury was regarded by the peasants, who were in revolt, as one of the authors of their distress, and the Kentish Insurgents damaged his property at Canterbury and Lambeth, and, dragging

him from the Tower of London, beheaded Tower hill on June 14, 1381.

the archbishop on

See W. F. Hook, Lives of the Archbishops of Canterbury.

SUDBURY, in northern Ontario, Canada, produces 90% of

the world’s supply of nickel and almost all the copper produced

in Ontario. The smelter of the International Nickel company is

at Copper Cliff, a suburb to the west, and the Mond company’s smelter and sulphuric acid plant is 8 m. to the east at Coniston A Government school of mines and a Jesuit college are situated

here. Deposits of lead and zinc are also being opened up. Pop. (1931), 18,518.

SUDBURY,

a market town of England, chiefly in Suffolk,

but partly in Essex.

Pop. (1931)

7,007.

It lies on the river

Stour (which is navigable up to the town). All Saints’ parish church is chiefly Perpendicular—the chancel being Decorated. It possesses a fine oaken pulpit of 1490. St. Peter’s is Perpendicular, with a finely carved nave roof. St. Gregory’s, once collegiate, is Perpendicular. It has a rich spire-shaped font-cover of wood, gilded and painted. The grammar school was founded by William Wood in 1491. There are some old half-timbered houses, including one very fine example. Coco-nut matting is an important manufacture; silk manufactures were transferred from London during the roth century, and horsehair weaving was estab-

lished at the same‘time.

Before the Conquest the borough was

owned by the mother of Earl Morcar, from whom it was taken by William I., who held it in 1086. It was alienated from the Crown to an ancestor of Gilbert de Clare, 9th earl of Gloucester. In 1271 the earl gave the burgesses their first charter confirming to them all their ancient liberties and customs. They were incorporated in 1553. Weavers were introduced by Edward III.

SUDD, a vegetable obstruction on the Upper Nile. It is composed of compacted masses of plants consisting chiefly of a grass, Vossia procera, with Saccharum Spontaneum, which cover a large area of the Ghazal swamps. Loosened by storms, these plants reach the main channel near the Sobat R. junction, lodge on some obstruction and form a dam, sometimes 25 m. in length

and nearly 20 ft. below the surface. These peaty blocks of decayed vegetation and soil are compressed by the current so that in parts they can support an elephant. At length the pressure of the water forms a side channel or causes the sudd to burst. (See NILE.) See O. Deuerling, Die Pflanzenbarren der afrikanischen Flüsse (Munich, 1909), and H. G. Lyons, The Physiography of the Nile and its Basin (Cairo, 1906).

SUDERMANN,

HERMANN (1857—1928), German writer,

was born at Matziken, East Prussia, on Sept. 30, 1857, of a Mennonite family long settled near Elbing. His father owned a small brewery, but owing to a financial crisis was obliged to apprentice his son, at the age of 14, to a chemist. Young Suder-

mann was able, however, to study at Tilsit and afterwards at Koenigsberg university. He then went to Berlin, where he acted as tutor in several houses, and worked as a journalist on the

Deutsches Reichsblatt (1881-2), afterwards turning to novelwriting. His novels Im Zwielicht (1886), Frau Sorge (1887), Geschwister (1888) and Der Katzensteg (1890) revealed neither beauty nor emotional power, but invariably showed keen obser-

SUE—SUETONIUS TRANQUILLUS yation, a vivid touch and dramatic

techħique.

applied to the Alamannic Suebi (Schwaben), with whom it remains a territorial designation in Wurttemberg and Bavaria.

The tale is his

chief concern, and he shows a masterly control of tension, as in Tolanthes Hochzeit (1892); Es War (1894) and Das Hohe Lied (1908) showed a falling off, but the old mastery reappeared in Litauische Novellen (1917). More instantly popular, and later more bitterly decried, were

BrstiocrapHy.—Ancient

Caesar,

B.G.

i. 37,

51

SUECA, a town of eastern Spain, in Valencia. Pop. (1920),

Part of the great success of Magda was no interpreted

are

Germania, 38 et seq.; K. Zeuss, Die Deutschen und die Nachbarstamme, pp. 55 et seq., 313 et seq.; C. Bremer in Pauls Grundriss (2nd ed.), iii. ors—os0; H. M. Chadwick, Origin of the English Nation, 216 et seg. (Cambridge, 1907).

and Heimat (1892), better known as Magda, made him known doubt due to the fact that the title-rédle was

authorities

et seq., iv. i. et seg., vi. 9 et seq; Strabo, p. 290 et seg.; Tacitus,

plays, of which Die Ehre (1880) brought him immediate fame, throughout Europe.

SIs

17,915. Sueca is separated from the Mediterranean Sea (7 m. east) by the Sierra de Cullera. It is a modern town, although

by

His

many of the houses have the flat roofs, view-turrets (miradores)

dramas, Sodoms Ende (1891), Johannisfeuer (1900), Es Lebe Das Leben (1912), Der Sturmgeselle Sokrates (1903), Stein Unter Den Steinen (1915) and numerous others ending with Der Hasenfellhindler (1925) were uniformly successful on the stage. During the World War he wrote the cycle of three plays collec-

and horseshoe arches characteristic of Moorish architecture. Sueca has a thriving trade in grain and fruit from the Jucar valley, which is irrigated by waterways created by the Moors.

Modjeska, Bernhardt, Duse, and Mrs. Patrick Campbell.

SUEDE FINISH, a nap produced by separating the surface

tively entitled Die Entygdotterte Welt. His last novels were Der tolle Professor (1926) and Purzelchen (1928). He belonged to the realistic movement of the last quarter of the 19th century, and

was not very sympathetic to the new methods and new outlook of

post-war literature. He died at Berlin on Nov. 22, 1928.

SUESSULA, an ancient town of Campania, Italy. It commanded the entrance to the Caudine pass. (See CAUDINE Forks.) Traces of the theatre may still be seen. Oscan tombs were ex-

See W. Kawerau, Sudermann (1897); H. Landsberg, Sudermann (1902); H. Jung, Sudermann (1902); H. Schoen, Sudermann, Poete dramatique et romancier (1905) ; and I. Axelrod, Sudermann (1907).

His dramatic works were collected in 1923. See also his autobiography Das Bilderbuch meiner Jugend (Eng. trans., N.Y. 1924).

SUE, EUGÈNE

[Josera MARIE] (1804-1857), French nov-

elist, was born in Paris on Jan. 20, 1804. He was the son of a distinguished surgeon in Napoleon’s army, and is said to have had the empress Josephine for godmother. Sue himself acted as surgeon both in the Spanish campaign undertaken by France in 1823 and at the battle of Navarino (1828). In 1829 his father left him

a fortune, and he settled in Paris. His naval experiences supplied much of the materials of his first novels. In the quasi-historical

style he wrote Jean Cavalier, ou Les Fanatiques des Cevennes

(4 vols, 1840) and Latréaumont (2 vols., 1837). He was strongly affected by the Socialist ideas of the day, and these prompted his most famous works: Les Mystéres de Paris (10 vols., 1842-1843) and Le Juif errant (10 vols., 1844-1845), which were among the most popular specimens of the romanfeuilleton. He followed these up with some singular and not very edifying books: Les Sept péchés capitaux (16 vols., 1847—1849), which contained stories to illustrate each sin, Les Mystères du peuple (1849-1856), which was suppressed by the censor in 1857. Some of his books, among them the Juif errant and the Mysteres de Paris, were dramatized. After the revolution of 1848 he sat for Paris (the Seine) in the Assembly, and was exiled after his protest against the coup d’état of Dec. 2, 1851. His later works were inferior. Sue died at Annecy (Savoy) on Aug. 3, 1857.

SUEBI or SUEVI, a collective term applied to a number of peoples in central Germany, the chief of whom were the Marcomanni, Quadi, Hermunduri, Semnones; and Langobardi; these tribes inhabited the basin of the Elbe. Tacitus uses the name Suebi in a wider sense to include not only the tribes of the basin of the Elbe, but all the tribes north and east of that river, including even the Swedes (Suiones). From the 2nd to the 4th century A.D. the name Suebi is seldom used except with reference to events in the neighbourhood of the Pannonian frontier, and here probably means the Quadi. From the middle of the 4th century it appears in the regions south of the Main, and the names Alamanni and Suebi are used synonymously. The Alamanni (g.v.) seem to have been joined by one or more other Suebic peoples, some of whom accompanied the Vandals in their invasion of Gaul and founded a kingdom in northwest Spain. Besides the Alamannic Suebi we hear of a people called Suebi, who shortly after the middle of the 6th century settled north of the Unstrut. There is evidence also for a people

called Suebi in the district above the mouth of the Scheldt.

fibres of leather on a carborundum or emery wheel. Although this processing may be directed either at the grain of leather or the flesh surface, it is more often applied to the latter. Suede finish usually indicates chrome or alum tanning as opposed to vegetable tanning, and the resulting leather is soft, pliable and strong. It is used for shoes, hats, coats, gloves, belts and handbags.

It

is likely that both these settlements were colonies from the Suebi of whom we hear in the Anglo-Saxon poem Widsith as neighbours of the Angli. The question has been raised whether these Suebi should be identified with the people whom the Romans called

Heruli. After the 7th century the name Suebi is practically only

cavated, and vases, bronzes, etc., have been found. Suessula lay on the Via Popilia. On the hills above Cancello to the east of Suessula was situated the fortified camp of M. Claudius Marcellus, used as an outpost against Hannibal in Capua. (See Punc Wars.)

SUETONIUS

TRANQUILLUS,

GAIUS,

Roman

his-

torian, lived during the end of the rst and the first half of the 2nd century A.D. He was the contemporary of Tacitus and the younger Pliny, and his literary work seems to have been chiefly done in the reigns of Trajan and Hadrian (A.D. 98~138). His father was military tribune in the XIIIth legion, and he himself began life as a teacher of rhetoric and an advocate. To us he is known as the biographer of the twelve Caesars (including Julius) down to Domitian. As Hadrian’s private secretary (magister epistolarum), he must have had access to the Imperial archives, e.g., the transactions of the senate. He was a correspondent of the younger Pliny, who as governor of Bithynia took Suetonius with him. Hadrian’s biographer, Aelius Spartianus, tells us that Suetonius was deprived of his private secretaryship because he had not been sufficiently observant of court etiquette towards the emperor’s wife during Hadrian’s absence in Britain. The Lives of the Caesars is rather a chronicle than a history. It gives no general picture of the period. It is the emperor who is always before us, yet the portrait is drawn without real insight. The personal anecdotes are very amusing; but the author panders too much to a taste for gossip. None the less he is next to Tacitus and Dio Cassius the chief (somtetimes the only) authority. The language is clear and simple. Of his De viris illustribus, the lives of Terence and Horace, fragments of those of Lucan and the elder Pliny and the greater part of the chapter on grammarians and rhetoricians, are extant. Other works by him (now lost) were: Prata (=Xetudves =patch-work), in ten books, a kind of encyclopaedia; the Roman Year, Roman Institutions and Customs, Children’s Games among the Greeks, Roman Public Spectacles, On the Kings, On Cicero’s Republic. Editio princeps, 1470; editions by great scholars: Erasmus, Isaac Casaubon, J. G. Graevius, P. Burmann; the best complete annotated edition is still that of C. G. Baumgarten-Crusius (1816) ; recent editions by H. T. Peck (New York, 1889); Leo Preud’homme (1906); M. Ihm (1907) of the De viris illustribus, R, P. Robinson, (Paris 192%). Editions of separate lives: Augustus, by E. S. Shuckburgh (with useful introduction, 1896); Claudius, by H. Smilda (1896) ; Julius Caesar, by Butler and Cary (Oxford 1927) ; Vespasian, by Braithwaite (Oxford 1927). The best editions of the text are by C. L. Roth (x886), and A. Reifferscheid (not including the Lives, 1860). On the De viris illustribus, see G. K6rtze in Dissert. philolog. halenses (1900), vol. xiv.; and, above all, A. Macé, Essai sur Suétone (1900), with an exhaustive bibliography. There are English translations by Philemon Holland (reprinted in the Tudor Translations, 1900), by Thomson and Forester (in Bohn’s Classical Library), and by Page and Rouse in the Loeb series (1912).

SUEZ—SUEZ

516

SUEZ, a port of Egypt on the Red Sea and southern terminus of the Suez Canal. Pop. about 20,000. Suez is supplied with water by the fresh-water canal, which starts from the Nile at Cairo and was opened in 1863. Before this, water had to be brought from “the Wells of Moses,” a small oasis 3 m. distant. About 2 m. south of the town are the quays constructed on the Canal and connected with the town by an embankment. On one of the quays is a statue to Thomas Waghorn, the organizer of the “overland route” to India. The ground on which the port is built has all been reclaimed from the sea. The accommodation provided includes a dry dock 410 ft. long, 100 ft. broad and nearly 36 ft. deep. There are separate basins for warships and merchant ships, and in the roadstead at the mouth of the canal is ample room for shipping. Suez is a quarantine station for pilgrims from Mecca. In the 7th century a town called Kolzum stood, on a site adjacent to that of Suez, at the southern end of the canal which then joined the Red Sea to the Nile. On the Ottoman conquest of Egypt in the 16th century Suez became a naval as well as a trading station, and here fleets were equipped which for a time disputed the mastery of the Indian Ocean with the Portuguese. According to Niebuhr, in the 18th century a fleet of nearly twenty vessels sailed yearly from Suez to Jidda, the port of Mecca and the place of correspondence with India. The overland mail route from England to India by way of Suez was opened in 1837. The regular Peninsular and Oriental steamer service began a few years later, and in 1857 a railway was opened from Cairo through the desert. The present railway follows the canal from Suez to Ismailia and Zagazig, whence branches diverge to Cairo and Alexandria. SUEZ, COMPAGNIE UNIVERSELLE DU CANAL

MARITIME DE. The first concession of territory to M. Ferdi-

nand de Lesseps was in 1854 followed in 1856 by a second. In 1858 the Suez Canal Company was formed and the first ground was broken at Port Said on April 25, 1859. After many vicissitudes and in the face of much opposition the work was completed in ten years and on Nov. 17, 1869, 68 ships passed through from the Mediterranean to the Red Sea. The original public list opened on Nov. 5, 1858, and offered 400,000 shares at Fr. 500 per share. Questions concerning the regulation of measurements and tonnage to fix the dues upon traffic passing through the canal were finally adjusted by the findings of an International Commission at Constantinople in 1873. Traffic through the canal has increased steadily year by year; in 1923 2,839 ships out of a total of 4,621 were British and the figures for 1927 were, total net tonnage 28,962,048; total number of ships, 5,545, British ships 3,085. Thus, in that year British ships represented a percentage of 57-1. The canal is managed in Egypt. The number of employees there in 1928 was 3,011 and the work includes the prolongation of breakwaters, incessant dredging and the widening and straightening of the canal. There are 2,466 workmen so engaged and

their salaries (including a share of the profits) amounted in 1928 to £800,000, as contrasted with the £200,000 paid in 1914 to 2,650 workmen. The concession to the Suez Canal Company expires on Nov. 17, 1968. For details as to the depth, width at bottom and breadth between the banks of the Suez Canal, see Lloyd’s Register of Shipping. (L. F. O.)

SUEZ

CANAL,

an artificial waterway, about room. long,

connecting Port Said, on the Mediterranean sea, and Suez, on the

Red sea, which enables ocean-going ships to traverse the isthmus between Asia and Africa, thereby shortening the maritime route from Europe to the Orient by the sailing distance around the continent of Africa. At various eras such communication existed

by way of the Nile. The fertile Wadi Tumilat extending east of the Nile valley almost to the head of the gulf (which in ancient times reached north to the Bitter lakes) afforded an easy road between the Nile and the Red sea. Aristotle, Strabo and Pliny attribute to the legendary Sesostris (g.v.) the distinction of being the first of the pharaohs to build such a canal. From an inscription at Karnak it seems that the canal existed in the time of Seti I. (1380 3.c.). The channel of this canal is still traceable in parts of the Wadi Tumilat, and its direction was frequently

CANAL

followed by the engineers of the fresh-water canal. Pharaoh Necho (609 B.C.) ‘began to build another canal, but it was not completed—according to Herodotus 120,000 men perished in the undertaking. Darius (520 B.c.) continued the work of Necho rendering navigable the channel of the Heroopolite gulf, which had become blocked. Up to this time there appears to have been no connection between the waters of the Red sea and those of the

GENERAL

VIEW OF THE SUEZ

CANAL

NEAR

On the left, the main railway line from Port Arabian desert stretches away to the right

ISMAILIA Said

FROM THE AIR

to Cairo

and

Suez: the

Bubastis-Heroopolis canal; vessels coming from the Mediterranean ascended the Pelusiac arm of the Nile to Bubastis and then sailed along the canal to Heroopolis, where their merchandise had to be transferred to the Red sea ships. Ptolemy Philadelphus (285 B.C.) connected the canal with the waters of the sea, and at the spot where the junction was effected he built the town of Arsinoé. The dwindling of the Pelusiac branch of the Nile rendered this means of communication impossible by the time of Cleopatra (31 B.c.). Trajan (A.D. 98) is said to have repaired the canal, and, as the Pelusiac branch was no longer available for navigation, to have built a new canal between Bubastis and Babylon (Old Cairo), this new canal being known traditionally as Amnis Trajanus or Amnis Augustus. According to H. R. Hall, however, “It is very doubtful if any work of this kind, beyond repairs, was undertaken in the times of the Romans; and it is more probable that the new canal was the work of ‘Amr” (the Arab conqueror of Egypt in the 7th century). The canal was certainly in use in the early years of the Muslim rule in Egypt; it is said to have been closed c. A.D. 770 by order of Abi Ja‘far (Mansur), the second Abbasid caliph and founder of Baghdad, who wished to prevent supplies from reaching his enemies in Arabia by this means. ‘Amr’s canal (of which the Khalig which passed through Cairo and was closed in 1897 is said to have formed part) had its terminus on the Red sea south of the Heroopolite gulf near the present town of Suez. It is not certain that it was ever restored, although it is asserted that in the year rooo Sultan Hakim rendered it navigable. If so it must speedily have become choked up again. Parts of the canal continued to be filled during the Nile inundations until Mohammed Ali (A.D. 1811) ordered it to be closed; the closing, however, was not completely effected, for in 1861 the old canal from Bubastis still flowed as far as Kassassin. This part of the canal, after over 2500 years of service, was utilized by the French engineers in building the fresh-water canal from Cairo to Suez in 1861-63. This canal follows the lines of that of ‘Amr (or Trajan).

Maritime Canal Projects.——The idea of a canal across the isthmus of Suez was entertained as early as the 8th century A.D. by Hartn al-Rashid, who is said to have abandoned the scheme, being persuaded that it would be dangerous to lay open the coast of Arabia to the Byzantine navy. After the discovery of the Cape route to India at the close of the 15th century, the Venetians suggested the scheme to the Egyptians, but the Turks intervened. In 1671 Leibnitz in his proposals to Louis XIV. of France regarding an expedition to Egypt recommended the idea, and the Sheikh al-Balad Ali Bey (c. 1770) approved. Bonaparte when in Egypt in 1798 ordered a survey, and the engineer, J. M. Lepère, reported a difference in level of. 29 ft between the Red sea and the Mediterranean.

This view was combated by Laplace

SUEZ

CANAL

and Fourier and was disproved in 1846-47 by the Société d’Etudes pour le Canal de Suez, organized in 1846 by Prosper Enfantin,

the Saint Simonist. Saint Simonist

Canals at Panama and Suez were part of the

programme

for the regeneration

of the world.

The expert commission appointed by this society reported by a majority in favour of Paulin Talabot’s plan, according to which the canal would have run from Suez to Alexandria by way of airo. a Lesseps, 1854.—The society was in a state of suspended animation when in 1854 Ferdinand de Lesseps came to the front as the chief exponent of the idea. He had been associated with the Saint Simonists.

His opportunity

came

in 1854 when,

on

the death of Abbas Pasha, his friend Said Pasha became viceroy of Egypt. From Said on Nov. 30, 1854, he obtained a concession authorizing him to constitute the Compagnie Universelle du Canal Maritime de Suez, which should construct a ship canal through the isthmus, and soon afterwards in concert with two French engineers, Linant Bey and Mougel Bey, he decided that the canal

should run in a direct line from Suez to the Gulf of Pelusium,

passing through the depressions that are now Lake Timsa and the Bitter lakes, and skirting the eastern edge of Lake Menzala.

In

the following year an international commission appointed by the viceroy approved this plan with slight modifications, the chief being that the channel was taken through Lake Menzala instead

of along its edge, and the northern termination of the canal moved some 174m. westward where deep water was found closer to the shore. This plan, according to which there were to be no locks, was the one ultimately carried out, and it was embodied in a second and amplified concession, dated Jan. 5, 1856, which laid on the company the obligation of constructing, in addition to the mari-

time canal, a fresh-water canal from the Nile near Cairo to Lake Timsa, with branches running parallel to the maritime canal, one to Suez and the other to Pelusium. The concession was to last

for 99 years from the date of the opening of the canal between the Red sea and the Mediterranean, after which, in default of other arrangements, the canal passes into the hands of the Egyptian Government. The confirmation of the sultan of Turkey being required, de Lesseps went to Constantinople to secure it, but found himself baffled by British diplomacy; and later in London he was informed by Lord Palmerston that in the opinion of the British Government the canal was a physical impossibility, that if it were made it would injure British maritime supremacy, and that the proposal meant French interference in the East. Although the sultan’s confirmation of the concession was not actually granted till 1866, de Lesseps in 1858 opened the subscription lists for his company, the capital of which was 200 million francs in 400,000 shares of 500 francs each. In less than a month 314,494 shares were applied for; of these over 200,000 was subscribed in France and over 96,000 were taken by the Ottoman empire. From other countries the subscriptions were trifling, and England, Austria and Russia, as well as the United States of America, held entirely aloof. The residue of 85,506 shares was taken over by the viceroy. (These formed part of the 176,602 shares which were bought for the sum of £3,976,582 from the khedive by England in 1875 at the instance of Lord Beacons-

field [g.v.].) On April 25, 1859, the work of construction was formally begun, the first spadeful of sand being turned near the site of Port Said, but progress was not very rapid. By the beginning of 1862 the fresh-water canal had reached Lake Timsa, and towards the end of the same year a narrow channel had been formed between that lake and the Mediterranean. In 1863 the fresh-water canal was continued to Suez. Forced Labour.—So far the work had been performed by native labour; the concession of 1856 contained a provision that atleast four-fifths of the labourers should be Egyptians, and later In the same year Said.Pasha undertook to supply labourers as required by the engineers of the canal company, which was to house and feed them and pay them at stipulated rates. Although the wages and the terms of service were better than the men obtained normally, this system of forced labour was strongly disap-

proved of in England, and the khedive Ismail who succeeded Said on the latter’s death in 1863 also considered it as being contrary

517

to the interests of his country. Hence in July the Egyptian foreign minister, Nubar Pasha, was sent to Constantinople with the proposal that the number of labourers furnished to the company should be reduced, and that it should be made to hand back to the Egyptian Government the lands that had been granted it by Said in 1856. These propositions were approved by the sultan and the company was informed that if they were not accepted the works would be stopped by force. Naturally the company objected, and in the end the various matters in dispute were referred to the arbitration of the emperor Napoleon III. By his award, made in July 1864, the company was allowed 38 million francs as an indemnity for the abolition of the corvée, 16 million francs in respect of its retrocessions of that portion of the fresh-water canal that lay between Wadi, Lake Timsa and Suez (the remainder

had already been handed back by agreement), and 30 million francs in respect of the lands which had been granted it by Said. The company was allowed to retain a certain amount of land along the canals, which was necessary for purposes of construction, erection of workshops, etc., and it was put under the obligation of finishing the fresh-water canal between Wadi and Suez to such dimensions that the depth of water in it would be 24 metres at high Nile and at least 1 metre at low Nile. The supply of Port Said with water it was allowed to manage by any means it chose; in the first instance it laid a double line of iron piping from Timsa, and it was not till 1885 that the original plan of supplying the town by a branch of the fresh-water canal was carried out. The indemnity, amounting to a total of 84 million francs, was to be paid in instalments spread over 15 years. The abolition of forced labour was probably the salvation of the enterprise, for it meant the introduction of mechanical appliances and of modern engineering methods. The work was divided into four contracts. The first was for the supply of 250,000 cubic metres of concrete blocks for the jetties of Port Said; the second, for the first 60 kilometres of the channel from Port Said, involved the removal of 22 million cubic metres of sand or mud; the third was for the next length of 13 kilometres, which included the cutting through the high ground at El Gisr; and the fourth and largest was for the portion between Lake Timsa and the Red sea. The contractors for this last section were Paul Borel and Alexandre Levalley, who ultimately became responsible also for the second or 60 kilometres contract. For the most part the material was soft and therefore readily removed. At some points, however, as at Shaluf and Serapeum, rock was encountered. Much of the channel was formed by means of dredgers. At Serapeum, a preliminary shallow channel having been dug out, water was admitted from the fresh-water canal, the level of which is higher than that of the ship canal, and the work was completed by dredgers from a level of about 20ft. above the sea. In 1865 de Lesseps, to show the progress that had been made, entertained over 100 delegates from chambers of commerce in different parts of the world, and conducted them over the works. In the following year the company, being in need of money, realized ro million francs by selling to the Egyptian Government the estate of El Wadi, which it had purchased from Said, and it also succeeded in arranging that the money due to it under the award of 1864 should be paid off by 1869 instead of 1879. Its financial resources still being insufficient, it obtained in 1867 permission to invite a loan of roo million francs; but though the issue was offered at a heavy discount it was only fully taken up after the attractions of a lottery scheme had been added to it. Two years later the company got 30 million francs from the Egyptian Government in consideration of abandoning certain special rights and

privileges that still belonged to it and of handing over various hospitals, workshops, buildings, etc., which it had established on the isthmus. The Government liquidated this debt, not by a money payment, but by agreeing to forego for 25 years the interest on

the 176,602 shares it held in the company, which was thus enabled

to raise a loan to the amount of the debt. Altogether, up to the end of the year (1869) in which the canal was sufficiently advanced

to be opened for traffic, the accounts of the company showed a

total expenditure of 432,807,882 francs, though the International

Technical commission in 1856 had estimated the cost at only 200

SUEZ

518 millions for a canal of larger dimensions. The Opening,

celebrated in Nov.

1869.—The

1869.

formal

opening of the canal was

On the 16th there was an inaugural

ceremony at Port Said, and next day 68 vessels of various nation-

alities, headed by the “Aigle” with the empress Eugénie on board, began the passage, reaching Ismailia (Lake Timsa) the same day. On the roth they continued their journey to the Bitter lakes, and on the 2oth they arrived at Suez. Immediately afterwards regular traffic began. In 1870 the canal was used by nearly 500 vessels, but the receipts for the first two years of working were considerably less than the expenses. The company failed to raise a loan of 20 million francs in 1871, and it was only saved from bankruptcy by a rapid increase in its revenues.

CANAL to 5 francs a ton. Under this arrangement they were fixed at 3 francs per ton at the beginning of 1906. In 1928, as from A pril 1, the rates were reduced to 7 francs for loaded ships and 4:50 francs for ships in ballast, per Suez Canal net ton of 100 cubic feet. For

SUEZ CANAL | Ta

The total length of the navigation from Port Said to Suez is room. The canal was originally constructed to have a depth of 8 metres with a bottom width of 22 metres, but it soon became evident that its dimensions must be enlarged. Certain improvements in the channel were started in 1876, but a more extensive plan was adopted in 1885 as the result of the inquiries of an international commission which recommended that the depth

should be increased first to 84 metres and finally to 9 metres, and that the width should be made on the straight parts a minimum of 65 metres between Port Said and the Bitter lakes, and of 75 metres between the Bitter lakes and Suez, increasing on curves to 80 metres. To pay for these works a loan of roo million francs was issued. In the early days of the canal, except in the Bitter lakes, vessels could pass each other only at a few crossing places or gares, which had a collective length of less than a mile; but owing to the widenings that have been carried out, passing is now possible at any point over the greater part of the canal, one vessel stopping while the other proceeds on her way. From March 1887 navigation by night was permitted to ships which were provided with electric search-lights. By these measures the average time of transit, which was about 36 hours in 1886, has been reduced by more than one-half; in 1927 the average passage, including stoppages was only 15 hours 6 minutes. The maximum speed permitted in the canal itself is 12 kilometres an hour. Dues; Neutrality.—The dues which the canal company was authorized to charge by its concession of 1856 were ro francs a ton. In the first instance they were levied on the tonnage as shown by the papers on board each vessel, but from March 1872 they were charged on the gross register tonnage, computed according to the method of the British Merchant Shipping Act 1854. The result was that the shipowners had to pay more, and, objections being raised, the whole question of the method of charge was submitted to an international conference which met at Constantinople in 1873. It fixed the dues at ro francs per net register ton (English reckoning) with a surtax of 4 francs per ton, which, however, was to be reduced to 3 francs in the case of ships having on board papers showing their net tonnage calculated in the required manner. It also decided that the surtax should be gradually diminished as the traffic increased, until in the year after the net tonnage passing through the canal reached 2,600,000 tons it should be abolished. De Lesseps protested against this arrangement, but on the sultan threatening to enforce it, if necessary by armed intervention, he gave in and brought the new tariff into operation in April 1874. By an arrangement with the canal company, signed in 1876, the British Government, which in 1875 by the purchase of the khedive’s shares, had become a large shareholder, undertook negotiations to secure that the successive reductions of the tariff should take effect on fixed dates, the sixth and last instalment of so centimes being removed in Jan. 1884, after which the maximum rate was to be ro francs per official net ton. But before this hap-

pened British shipowners had started a vigorous agitation against the rates, which they alleged to be excessive, and had even threatened to construct a second canal. In consequence a meeting was arranged between them and representatives of the canal company

in London in Nov. 1883, and it was agreed that in Jan. 1885 the

dues should be reduced to 93 francs a ton, that subsequently they should be lowered on asliding scale as the dividend increased, and that after the dividend reached 25% all the surplus profits should be applied in reducing the rates until they were lowered

Ej Matariya

Railways +err ĜĈanals zonama

passengers the dues remain at to francs a head, the figure at which

they were originally fixed. By the concessions of 1854 and 1856 the dues were to be the same for all nations, preferential treatment of any kind being

forbidden, and the canal and its ports were to be open “comme passages neutres” to every merchant ship without distinction of

nationality. The question of its formal neutralization by international agreement was raised in an acute form during the Egyptian crisis of 1881-82, and in August of the latter year a few weeks before the battle of Tel-el-Kebir, navigation upon it was sys-

pended for four days at the instance of Sir Garnet Wolseley, who was in command of the British forces. At the international conference which was then sitting at Constantinople various proposals were put forward to ensure the use of the canal to all nations, and ultimately at Constantinople on Oct. 29, 1888, Great Britain, Germany, Austria, Spain, France, Italy, the Netherlands, Russia and Turkey signed the Suez Canal Convention, the purpose of which was to ensure that the canal should “always be free and open, in time of war as in time of peace, to every vessel of commerce or

of war, without distinction of flag.” Great Britain, however, in signing, formulated a reservation that the provisions of the convention should only apply so far as they were compatible with the actual situation, namely the “present transitory and exceptional condition of Egypt,” and so far as they would not fetter Abu Halab Qof Shaluf the liberty of action of the Brit8a ish government during its occupation of that country. But by the Anglo-French agreement of April 8, 1904, Great Britain declared her adherence to the stipulations of the convention, and agreed to their being put in force, except as regards a provision by BY COURTESY OF LA COMPAGNIE UNIVERSELLE DU CANAL MARITIME DE SUEZ which the agents in Egypt of the THE SUEZ CANAL, SHOWING LOOK. signatory Powers of the convenOUT STATIONS ALONG ITS COURSE tion were to meet once a year to take note of the due execution of the treaty. (X.) The World War.—lIn 1909, the Company approached the Egyptian Government with a request for the prolongation of

their concession (due to expire in 1968). The Egyptian parliament unanimously rejected the offer.

The World War in 1914

changed this situation. The defence and direction of the canal— its enormous plant and its expert personnel—were handed over to the British military authorities. The canal became the strategical frontier of Egypt, guarded by the armies and navies of France and

SUFFOLK of the British Empire.

Its waterway was open to the ships of

Allied and neutral powers for the whole of those four eventful

years, except during a few hours of fighting on Feb. 3, 1915, when

519

In 1514 the title of duke of Suffolk was granted by Henry

VIII. to Charles Brandon

(see SUFFOLK,

CHARLES

BRANDON,

IST DUKE OF) and it became extinct on the death of his second son

a Turkish army that had marched across the desert from Damascus to invade Egypt was routed—never to return. From end to

end the banks of the canal resembled one long armed camp, of which all traces had in 1925 disappeared; and the only signs visible

Charles in July 1551. In the same year it was revived in favour of Henry Grey, marquess of Dorset, who had married Frances, a daughter of the first Brandon duke. Grey, who became marquess of Dorset in 1530, was a prominent member of the reform-

to future generations of that great upheaval will be the three war

ing party during the reign of Edward VI.

He took part in the

monuments at Port Said, Ismailia and Suez, and the railway which

attempt to make his daughter, Jane, queen of England in 1553, Lord Allenby laid from Kantara to Jerusalem for the subjugation but as he quickly made his peace with Mary he was not seriously of Palestine. punished. In 1554, however, he took part in the rising headed Development.—Since the war, the engineering programmes, by Sir Thomas Wyat; he was captured, tried for treason and which had been seriously interrupted, have been taken in hand beheaded in February 1554, when the dukedom again became with redoubled vigour. These programmes include the building extinct. In 1603 Thomas Howard, Lord Howard de Walden, of jetties and of “bassins,” and the widening, deepening and son of Thomas Howard, 4th duke of Norfolk, was created earl straightening of the canal, a process which will be continued until of Suffolk, and the earldom has been held by his descendants to the two largest ships that use Eastern and Far Eastern ports the present day. (See SUFFOLK, Tuomas Howarp, rst earl of.) can cross one another in the canal without tying up. SUFFOLK, CHARLES BRANDON, rsr Duxe oF (c. Another great improvement is the creation of a new city oppo- 1484-1545), was the son of William Brandon, standard-bearer of site to Port Said, to which the name of Port Fuad has been Henry VII., who was slain by Richard III. in person on Bosgiven. To this new centre of activity all the company’s engineer- worth Field. He was high in Henry VIII.’s favour, and held a ing and repair shops were transferred, an operation which greatly succession of offices in the royal household. On May 15, 1513 he reduced the congestion in Port Said. On this, the Asiatic side of was created Viscount Lisle, having entered into a marriage conthe canal, all the employees and work-people now resident in tract with his ward, Elizabeth Grey, Viscountess Lisle in her own Port Said will eventually live; and in this hope the company right, who, however, refused to marry him when she came of age. drew up a far-reaching scheme for a kind of garden city with He distinguished himself at the sieges of Terouenne and Tournai avenues and boulevards, shops and schools, hospitals, churches in the French campaign of 1513. At this time Henry VIII. was and mosques, and with dwelling houses and apartments suitable secretly urging Margaret of Savoy, regent of the Netherlands, to for all classes of a very international community. This city was marry Brandon, whom he created duke of Suffolk. Brandon took inaugurated by H.M. King Fuad in person in Dec. 1926. part in the jousts which celebrated the marriage of Mary Tudor, Control and Finance.—Although the British Government Henry’s sister, with Louis XII. of France, on whose death he was holds seven-sixteenths of the shares, the company is, as a sent to congratulate the new king Francis I. An affection between matter of fact, predominantly French for purposes of adminis- Suffolk and the dowager queen Mary had subsisted before her tration. On the board of management there are one Dutch, marriage, and Francis charged him with an intention to marry ten British and 21 French directors, and they work in closest har- her. Henry was anxious to obtain from Francis the gold plate mony. Of the ten British directors, three represent the British and jewels which had been given or promised to the queen by Government in respect of their large holding of shares, and seven Louis and he practically made his acquiescence in Suffolk’s suit represent the shipping and commercial interests of Great Britain, dependent on his obtaining them. The pair cut short the difficulwhich now supplies about 57% of the total traffic through the ties by a private marriage. Suffolk was only saved from Henry’s canal. Next in order of importance comes the Dutch mercan- anger by Wolsey, and the pair eventually agreed to pay to Henry tile marine, with 10% of the total; and third on the list we find £24,000 in yearly instalments of £1,000, and the whole of Mary’s Germany (whose flag was not seen on the canal between 1015 dowry from Louis of £200,000, together with her plate and jewels. and 1920) providing 9-6%, France 6% and so on. The capital They were openly married at Greenwich on May 13. The duke sum (£4,000,000) invested by Great Britain in Suez Canal shares had been twice married already, to Margaret Mortimer and to in 1875 has been repaid about eight times in dividends and in- Anne Browne. Anne Browne died in 1511, but Margaret Mortiterest. In 1926 His Majesty’s Government received £950,000 mer, from whom he had obtained a divorce on the ground of and in 1927 £1,550,000, free from all taxation at the source. The consanguinity, was still living. He secured in 1528 a bull from French Government owns no shares in this pre-eminently French Pope Clement II. assuring the legitimacy of his marriage with enterprise, but it benefits to no small degree by the prosperity of Mary Tudor, and of the daughters of Anne Browne. Suffolk was the company, whose business was taxed in 1926 to the extent of present at the Field of the Cloth of Gold in 1520, and in 1523 about 77,000,000 francs. The value of a share (250 francs) was he was sent to command the English troops at Calais. He laid 18,000 francs in March 1928. (See PALESTINE, OPERATIONS IN.) waste the north of France. Suffolk was in favour of Henry’s BIBLIOGRAPHY.—J. Charles-Roux, Le Canal de Suez (1901) ; Voisin divorce from Catherine of Aragon, and after Wolsey’s disgrace Bey, Le Canal de Suez (1902); Georges Douin, L’Attaque du Canal his influence increased daily. He was sent with the duke of de Suez (1922); Etienne Micard, Le Canal de Suez (1922); Suez Norfolk to demand the great seal from Wolsey; the same nobleCanal Co., Bulletins Décadaires (1910-25). (I. M.) men conveyed the news of Anne Boleyn’s marriage to Queen SUFFOLK, EARLS AND DUKES OF. These English Catherine, and Suffolk acted as high steward at the new queen’s titles were borne in turn by the families of Ufford, Pole, Brandon, coronation. He was commissioned by Henry to dismiss Catherine’s Grey and Howard. Robert, son of a Suffolk landowner, John household. He received a large share of the plunder after the de Peyton, acquired the lordship of Ufford in that county and suppression of the monasteries. In 1544 he was for the second was known as Robert de Ufford. He held an important place in time In command of an English army for the invasion of France. the Government of Ireland under Edward I. and died in 1298; He died at Guildford on Aug. 24, 1545.

his son Robert (1279-1316) was created Baron Ufford in 1309. Robert’s eldest surviving son, another Robert (c. 1298-1369), was created earl of Suffolk in 1337, and was present at the battles of

There is abundant material for the history of Suffolk’s career in the Letters and Papers of Henry VIII. (ed. Brewer in the Rolls Series).

lam, the 2nd earl, who took part in the suppression of the Peasants’ Revolt in 1381, the earldom became extinct, his extensive estates reverting to the Crown. In 1385 the earldom of Suffolk and the lands of the Uffords Were granted by Richard IT. to his friend Michael Pole (c. 1330-

SUFFOLK, CHARLES HOWARD, ors Eart oF (16751733), who succeeded to the title in June 1731, married Henrietta,

See also Dugdale, Baronage of England (vol. ii. 1676); and G. E. C.,

Crecy and Poitiers. On the death, without heirs, of his son Wil-

Complete Peerage. An account of his matrimonial adventures is in the appendix to a novel by E. S. Holt, The Harvest of Yesterday.

1389), a son of Sir William atte Pole. (See Pore FAMILY.)

a daughter of Sir Henry Hobart, bart., of Blickling, Norfolk. Both husband and wife were in the household of the prince of Wales, who, as George II., acknowledged Mrs. Howard as his mistress. She was formally separated from her husband before

520

SUFFOLK

173i when she became countess of Suffolk. The earl died on Sept. 28, 1733, but the countess, having retired from court and

matried the Hon. George Berkeley (d. 1746), lived until July 26, 1767. Among Lady Suffolk’s friends were the poets Pope and Gay and Charles Mordaunt (earl of Peterborough). A collection of Letters to and from Henrietta Countess of Suffolk, and her Second Husband, the Hon. George Berkeley, was edited by l. Me as (1824). See also L. Melville, Lady Suffolk and her Circle 1924).

SUFFOLK, THOMAS

HOWARD,

tst Eart oF (1561--

1626), second son of Thomas Howard, 4th duke of Norfolk, was born on Aug. 24, 1561. He behaved very gallantly during the attack on the Spanish armada and afterwards took part in other naval expeditions, becoming an admiral in 1599. Created Baron Howard de Walden in 1597 and earl of Suffolk in July 1603, he was lord chamberlain of the royal household from 1603 to 1614 and lord high treasurer from 1614 to 1618, when he was deprived of his office on a charge of misappropriating money. He was tried in the Star Chamber and was sentenced to pay a heavy fine. Suffolk’s second wife was Catherine (d. 1633), widow of the Hon. Richard Rich, a woman whose avarice was partly responsible for her husband’s downfall. She shared his trial and was certainly guilty of taking bribes from Spain. One of his three daughters was the notorious Frances Howard, who, after obtaining a divorce from her first husband, Robert Devereux, earl of Essex, married Robert Carr, earl of Somerset, and instigated the poisoning of Sir Thomas Overbury (g.v.). The earl died on May 28, 1626. SUFFOLK, WILLIAM DE LA POLE, Duke or (13961450), second son of Michael de la Pole, second earl of Suffolk, was born on Oct. 16, 1396. Suffolk served in all the later French campaigns of the reign of Henry V., and in spite of his youth held high command on the marches of Normandy in 1421-22. In 1423 he joined the earl of Salisbury in Champagne, and shared his victory at Crevant. He fought under John, duke of Bedford, at Verneuil on Aug. 17, 1424, and throughout the next four years was Salisbury’s principal lieutenant in the direction of the war. When Salisbury was killed before Orleans on Nov. 3, 1428, Suffolk succeeded to the command. After the siege was raised, Suffolk was defeated and taken prisoner by Jeanne d’Arc at Jargeau on June 12, 1429. He was soon ransomed, and during the next two years was again in command on the Norman frontier. He returned to England in November 1431, after over fourteen years’ continuous service in the field. Suffolk had already been employed on diplomatic missions by John of Bedford; anxious for peace, he attached himself to Cardinal Beaufort. The question of Henry VI.’s marriage brought him to the front. Humphrey of Gloucester favoured an Armagnac alliance. Suffolk brought about the match with Margaret of Anjou. When he returned to England in June 1444, after negotiating the marriage and a two years’ truce, he received a triumphant reception. He was made a marquess, and in the autumn sent again to France to bring Margaret home. The French extorted from him a promise to surrender all the English possessions in Anjou and Maine, a fatal concession. Humphrey of Gloucester died in February 1447, within a few days of his arrest, and six weeks later Cardinal Beaufort died also. Rumour, though without sufficient reason, made him responsible for Humphrey’s death, while the peace and its consequent concessions rendered him unpopular. So also did the supersession of Richard of York by Edmund Beaufort, duke of Somerset, in the French command. Suffolk’s promotion to a dukedom in July 1448, marked the height of his power. The difficulties of his position may have led him to give some countenance to a treacherous attack on Fougéres during the time of truce (March 1449). The renewal of the war and the loss of all Normandy were its direct consequences. When parliament met in Nov. 1449, the opposition showed its strength by forcing the treasurer, Adam Molyneux, to resign. Molyneux was murdered by the sailors at Portsmouth on Jan. 9, 1450. Suffolk boldly challenged his enemies in parliament, appeal-

ing to the long and honourable record of his public services. The

Commons now presented articles of accusation dealing chiefly with

alleged maladministration and the ill success of the French policy

there was a charge of aiming at the throne by the betrothal of his son to the little Margaret Beaufort. Suffolk denied the accusa. tions as false, untrue and too horrible to speak more of. Ultimately the king sentenced him to banishment for five years.

Suffolk left

England on May 1. He was intercepted in the Channel by the

ship “Nicholas of the Tower,” and next morning was beheaded in a little boat alongside. Popular opinion at the time judged Suffolk as a traitor. This view was accepted by Yorkist chroniclers and Tudor historians who had no reason to speak well of a Pole.

Later legend made

him the paramour of Margaret of Anjou, which story appears in the Mirrour for Magistrates, and Shakespeare’s 2 Henry yI, (Act. rrr. sc. li.). Suffolk’s best defence is contained in the touching letter of farewell to his son (Paston Letters, i. 142), and in his noble speeches before parliament (Rolls of Parliament, y, 176, 182). The policy of peace which he pursued was just and

wise; he foresaw its risk to himself.

Suffolk’s wife, Alice, was widow of Thomas, earl of Salisbury, and granddaughter of Geoffrey Chaucer. By her he had an only son John, second duke of Suffolk. BrsriocraPHy.—Suffolk is necessarily prominent in all contemporary authorities.

The most important are J. Stevenson’s Wars of the Eng-

lish in France, Thomas

Beckington’s

Correspondence, T

Wright's

Political Poems and Songs, ii. 222-234 (for the popular view) —these three are in the Rolls Series; and the Paston Letters. Of French writers E. de Monstrelet and Jehan de Waurin are most useful for his

mulitary career, T. Basin and Matthieu

d’Escouchy for his fall (all

these are published by the Société de l’Histoire de France). For modern accounts see especially W. Stubbs, Constitutional History (favourable), The Political History of England (1906), vol. iv,, by . Oman (unfavourable), and G. du Fresne de Beaucourt’s Histoire

de Charles VII. See also H. A. Napier’s Historical Notices of Swincombe and Ewelme (1858).

SUFFOLK, an eastern county of England. Area 1,488-6 sq. miles. Much of the county is formed by low hills, rising occasionally over 4oo ft. They are a continuation of the Chilterns and they form the main watershed of the county. They consist of chalk, covered to the east by boulder clay, with glacial sand interspersed with patches of London clay, Pliocene deposits and alluvium. Alluvium also appears in the fens in the north-west. Subsidence has let the sea far into the land along the rivers. Palaeolithic implements have been found in fair abundance in some of the gravels in the north-west of the county, less abundantly from there southward to the Stour and only sporadically in other parts of the county. In Neolithic times the middle of the county with its boulder clays was probably for the most part forested, and this accounts for the fact that most of the artefacts

of this age have been found on the higher chalk lands of the west and on the lighter soils near the coast especially in the north and south extremities of the county. In other parts they are found ‘generally along the river-valleys that are floored with gravel. A marked feature of pre-historic Suffolk is the number of beaker-

pots of the late Neolithic or early Metal age which have been found there. These have been found particularly around the estuaries of the Stour, Orwell and Deben, where presumably, the

immigrants landed first. It is thought that they then pushed up the rivers into the north-western part of the county and here a number of other beakers have been discovered. Bronze implements have been found in much the same places as the Neolithic, except that they are scarce in the north-east. In the centuries

immediately preceding the Christian era Suffolk was invaded by Brythonic tribes, and traces of their handiwork have been found here. Along with Norfolk it formed part of the kingdom of the Iceni, and it was ravaged by the Romans after the unsuccessful revolt of Boudicca (Boadicea). The Roman road‘ from Colchester to Venta Icenorum crossed the county from near Stratford St. Mary to Scole.

Just north of the Gipping this road threw

out a branch in the direction of Dunwich, whence it led northwest again to cross the Waveney near Bungay. To the west there ran from north to south from Norfolk the continuation of the Peddar’s way. The ancient track of the Icknield way ran along the chalk hills of the north-west. On the Suffolk coast the Romans built two forts to guard the Saxon shore—the first has left traces

521

SUFFOLK at Burgh castle, the other, which was at Walton near Felixstowe, has been washed away by the sea. The county of Suffolk (Sudfole, Suthfolc) was formed from the south part of the kingdom of East Anglia which had been settled

was for the most part parliamentarian, and joined the Association

of Ely. The county has now become part of the new diocese of St. Edmundsbury and Ipswich. There were a number of religious houses in the county, and the most important remains are those

Yarmouth

of the Eastern

Counties.

Within

the county there are several

interesting examples of domestic architecture of the reigns of Henry VIII. and Elizabeth. Hengrave hall (c. 1530), 4 m. N.W. by the Angles in the latter half of the sth century. The most from Bury St. Edmunds, is a building of brick and stone, enclosimportant Anglo-Saxon settlements appear to have been made ing a court-yard. Another is Helmingham hall, a Tudor mansion at Sudbury and Ipswich. It suffered severely from the Danish of brick, surrounded by a moat crossed by a drawbridge. West incursions and after the treaty of Wedmore formed part of Stow manor is also Tudor with a fine gatehouse. The Reform bill of 1832 gave four members to Suffolk, at the Danelaw. The whole shire lay within the diocese of Dunwich, which was founded c. 631. In 673 a new bishopric was estab- same time disfranchising the boroughs of Dunwich, Orford and lished at Elmham to comprise the whole of Norfolk which had Aldeburgh. For parliamentary purposes the county now constiformerly been included in the see of Dunwich. The latter came tutes five divisions, each returning one member, viz., Lowestoft to an end with the incursion of the Danes, and on the revival of division, Eye, Bury St. Edmunds, Sudbury and Woodbridge. Christianity in this district Suffolk was included in the diocese Ipswich returns one member, and part of the borough of Great

of the great Benedictine abbey of Bury St. Edmunds;

the col-

lege of Clare, originally a cell to the abbey of Bec in Normandy and afterwards to St. Peter’s Westminster, converted

into a college of secular canons in the reign of Henry VI., still retaining much of its ancient architecture, and now used as a boarding-school; the Decorated gateway of the Augus-

tinian priory of Butley; and the remains of the Grey Friars monastery at Dunwich. A peculiarity of the church architecture is the use of flint for purposes of ornamentation. Another characteristic is the round towers, the principal examples being those of Little Saxham and Herringfleet, both Norman. The Decorated is well represented, but by far the greater proportion of the churches are Perpendicular. The church of Blythburgh in the east and the ornate building at Lavenham in the west may be noted as typical, while the church of Long Melford, another fine example, should be mentioned on account of its remarkable. lady chapel. Special features are the open roofs and woodwork (as at St. Mary’s, Bury St. Edmunds, Earl Stonham. and Stonham Aspall, Ufford and Blythburgh), and the fine fonts. The Normans built castles in the county at Eye and Walton, and there are remains of the entrenchments and part of the walls of Bungay, the ancient stronghold of the Bigods; the ruins of Mettingham, built in the reign of Edward IJI.; Wingfield, surrounded by a deep moat, with the turret walls and the drawbridge still existing; the ruin of Framlingham, with high and massive walls, originally founded in the 6th century, but restored in the r2th; the outlines of the fortress of Clare castle, anciently the baronial residence of the earls of Clare; and the Norman keep of Orford castle. Probably the establishment of Suffolk as a separate shire was scarcely completed before the Conquest, and although it was reckoned as distinct from Norfolk in ‘the Domesday survey of 1086, the fiscal administration of Norfolk and Suffolk remained under one sheriff until 1575. The shire court was held at Ipswich. In 1086 Babergh was rated as two hundreds, Cosford, Ipswich and Parham as half hundreds, and Samford as a hundred and a half. Hoxne hundred was formerly known as Bishop’s hundred and the vills which were included later in Thredling hundred were within Claydon hundred. More than half the county was included in the ecclesiastical liberties of St. Edmund and St. Aethelreda of Ely, and in these the king’s writs did not run. In 1173 the earl of Leicester landed at Walton with an army

of Flemings and was joined by Hugh Bigod against Henry II. Since 1290 the county was constantly represented in Parliament by two knights. In 1317 and the succeeding years a great part of the county was in arms: for Thomas of Lancaster. Queen Isabella and Mortimer having landed at Walton found all the district in their favour. In 1330 the county was raised to suppress the supporters of the earl of Kent; and again in 1381 there was a serious rising of the peasantry chiefly in the neighbourhood of Bury St. Edmunds. Although the county was for the most part Yorkist it took little part in the Wars of the Roses. In 1525 the artisans of the south strongly resisted Henry VIII.’s forced loan. It was from Suffolk that Mary drew the army which supported her claim to the throne. In the Civil Wars the county

falls within the county.

|

Suffolk was early among the most populous of English counties. Fishing fleets had left its ports to bring back cod and ling from Iceland and herring and mackerel from the North sea, while it carried on a trade with Flanders. From the 14th to the 17th century it was among the chief manufacturing

counties of Eng-

land owing to its cloth-weaving industry, which was at the height of its prosperity during the isth century. In the 17th and r8th centuries its agricultural resources were utilized to provide the rapidly-growing metropolis with food. In the following century various textile industries, such as the manufacture of sail-cloth, coconut fibre, horse-hair and clothing were established; silk-weavers migrated to Suffolk from Spitalfields, and early in the roth century an important china factory flourished at Lowestoft. In the 18th century Suffolk was famed for its dairy products, but the high price of grain during the wars of the French Revolution led to the breaking up of the pastures and it is now one of the principal grain-growing counties in England. In 1926 the acreage of land under crops and grass was 742,693; 552,383 of which were arable. Barley is the chief grain crop with 126,179 ac., wheat next, 97,866 ac., and then oats with about half as much acreage as wheat. Mangolds, turnips, and swedes occupied 47,271 acres and sugar beet 35,000 acres. Beans and peas covered nearly 50,000 acres. The acreage of clover and rotation grasses for hay was 55,589. Suffolk punch horses are famous and the native breed of cows is of the polled variety. Milk is sent to London and other towns, while a large number of cattle are also fattened in the county. Sheep, usually a cross between the old Norfolk horned and the Southdown are reared on the drier soils, while large numbers of pigs are also bred. The most important manufactures relate to agriculture. They include that of agricultural implements, especially at Ipswich, Bury St. Edmunds and Stowmarket, and that of artificial manures at Ipswich and Stowmarket, for which coprolites are dug. Malting is extensive, with small manufactures, including silk, cotton, linen, woollen and horsehair and coconut matting. The L.N.E. railway serves the county. Suffolk comprises 21 hundreds, and, since 1888, for administrative purposes Is divided into the counties of East Suffolk (557,353 ac.), population (1931) 294,977, and West Suffolk.(390,916 ac.), population, 106,137. The following are the municipal boroughs: (1) East SUFFOLK. Aldeburgh, Beccles, Eye, Ipswich, a county borough and the county town, Lowestoft, Southwold. (2) West SuFFoLkK. Bury St. Edmunds, Sudbury. There is one court of quarter sessions for the two administrative counties, which is usually held at Ipswich for East Suffolk, and then by adjournment at Bury St. Edmunds for West Suffolk. The boroughs of Bury St. Edmunds, Ipswich and Sudbury have separate courts of quarter sessions. See A. Suckling, The History and Antiquities of Suffolk (1846-48) ; William White, History, gazetteer and directory of Suffolk (1855); John Kirby, The Suffolk Traveller (1735); A. Page, Supplement to the Suffolk Traveller (1843); Victoria County History: Suffolk; Christopher Marlowe, People and Places in M arshland (1927).

SUFFOLK, a city of south-eastern Virginia. Pop. 9,123 in

1920 (40% negroes); and had grown to 10,271 in 1930 by the Federal census. Suffolk peanut sales amount to $25,000,000 annually. There are seven peanut factories, several oyster-packing

SUFFRAGAN—SUFIISM

522

plants, and other industries. Suffolk was founded and incorporated in 1742, and chartered as a city in 19r0. Since 1919 it has had a city-manager form of government. St. Luke’s church near by

(built in 1632) is one of the oldest churches in the United States.

SUFFRAGAN

(1) a diocesan bishop in his relation to the

metropolitan; (2) an assistant bishop.

(See BISHOP.)

SUFFRAGE, the right or the exercise of the right of voting

in political affairs; in ecclesiastical use, the short intercessory prayers in litanies spoken or sung by the people as distinguished

from those of the priest or minister.

(See ELECTORAL SYSTEMS;

ELECTORS; REPRESENTATION; VOTE AND VOTING; REGISTRATION:

and, for the Women’s Suffrage Movement, WOMEN’S SUFFRAGE.) SUFFREN SAINT TROPEZ, PIERRE ANDRE DE (1729-1788), French admiral, was born in the Chateau de Saint Canat (Aix) on July 17, 1729. He entered the Order of Malta and also the close and aristocratic corps of French naval officers as a cadet in October 1743, in the “Solide,” one of the line of battleships which took part in the confused engagement off Toulon in 1744. He was next in the “Pauline” in the squadron of M. Macnémara on a cruise in the West Indies. In 1746 he went through the duc D’Anville’s disastrous expedition to retake Cape Breton, which was ruined by shipwreck and plague. Next year (1747) he was taken prisoner by Hawke in the action with the French convoy in the Bay of Biscay. When peace was made in 1748 he went to Malta to perform the cruises with the galleys of the Order of Malta technically called “caravans,” a reminiscence of the days when the knights protected the pilgrims going from Saint Jean d’Acre to service rarely went beyond islands. Suffren was present 1757 he was again a prisoner the French ship “Caméléon,”

Jerusalem. In Suffren’s time this a peaceful tour among the Greek at the taking of Minorca, but in of the English. After the peace, on he chased the Barbary pirates, and

from 1767 to 1771 he returned to his “caravan,” becoming a commander of his Order. In the years 1778 and 1779 he served with the squadron of D’Estaing (qg.v.) on the coast of North America and in the West Indies. He led the line in the action with Admiral John Byron off Grenada, and his ship, the “Fantasque” (64), lost 62 men. His letters to his admiral show that he strongly disapproved of D’Estaing’s half-hearted methods. In 1780 he was captain of the “Zéle” (74), in the combined French and Spanish fleets which captured a great English convoy in the Atlantic. His candour towards his chief had done him no harm in the opinion of D’Estaing. It is said to have been largely by the advice of this admiral that Suffren was chosen to command a squadron of five ships of the line sent out to help the Dutch who had joined France and Spain to defend the Cape against an expected English attack, and then to go on to the East Indies. He sailed from Brest on March 22 on the cruise which has made him unique among French admirals, and he was by experience as well as by temperament impatient with the formal manoeuvring of his colleagues, which aimed at preserving their own ships rather than at taking the English. On April 16, 1781, he found the English expedition on its way to the Cape under the command of George Johnstone (17301787), at anchor in Porto Praya, Cape de Verde Islands. Remembering how little respect Boscawen had shown for the neutrality of Portugal at Lagos, he attacked at once. He pushed on to the Cape, which he saved from capture by Johnstone, and then made his way to the Ile de France (Mauritius), then held by the French. D’Orves, his superior officer, died as the united squadrons, now eleven sail of the line, were on their way to the Bay of Bengal. The campaign, which Suffren now conducted against the English admiral Sir Edward Hughes (1720?—1794), included many severe encounters. Four actions took place in 1782: south of Madras (Feb. 17), near Trincomalee (April 12), off Cuddalore (July 6), and at Trinco-

malee

(Sept. 3). The English lost no ships in these actions:

neither did they take any. Suffren attacked with unprecedented vigour on every occasion, but was ill-supported by some of his captains. He maintained his squadron without a port to refit, and anchored at Trincomalee. His activity encouraged Hyder Ali, who was then at war with the Company. He refused to re-

turn to the islands to escort the troops coming out under command of Bussy, maintaining that his proper purpose was tø cripple the squadron of Sir Edward Hughes. During the north-east monsoon he would not go to the islands but refitted in the Malay ports in Sumatra, and returned with the south-west monsoon in 1783. Hyder Ali was dead, but Tippoo Sultan, his son, was still at war with the Company. Bussy arrived and landed. The operations on shore were slackly conducted by him, and Sufren was much hampered, but when he

fought his last battle against Hughes

(April 20, 1783), with

fourteen ships to eighteen he forced the English admiral to retire

to Madras, leaving the army then besieging Cuddalore in a very dangerous position. The arrival of the news that peace had been made in Europe put a stop to hostilities, and Suffren returned to France. While refitting at the Cape on his way home, several of the vessels also returning put in, and the captains waited on him. Suffren said in one of his letters that their praise gave him more pleasure than any other compliment paid him. In France he was received with enthusiasm, and an additional ofñce of vice-admiral of France was created for him. He had

been promoted bailli in the Order of Malta during his absence. He died on Dec. 8, 1788, when he was about to of a fleet collected in Brest. Long afterwards it he was killed in a duel with the prince de Mirepoix of a refusal to restore to their naval rank two who had been dismissed from the service.

take command was stated that in consequence of his relatives

The standard authority for the life of Suffren is the Histoire dy Bailli de Sufren by Ch. Cunat (1852). The Journal de Bord du Bailli de Sufren dans l’Inde, edited by M. Mores, was published in 1888. There is an appreciative study in Captain Mahan’s The Influence of Sea Power upon History, 1660-1783 (1890).

SUFIISM. (éasawwuf) is formed from the Arabic word Safi, which was applied, in the 2nd century of Islam, to men or women

who adopted an ascetic or quietistic way of life. The word Sifi from suf (wool) refers to garments worn by such persons. Mysticism in Islam goes back to Mohammed who, notwithstanding his condemnation of Christian monkery, was led by the example of the hermits and of the Hanifs, to preach the efficacy of ascetic exercises, such as prayer, vigils and fasting. Again,

while Allah is described in the Qur’an as the one God working his arbitrary will in unapproachable supremacy, other passages lay stress on his all-pervading presence and intimate relation to his creatures, e.g., “Wherever ye turn, there is the face of Allah”

(ii. 109), “We (God) are nearer to him (man) than his neckvein” (l. 15). The germs of mysticism latent in Islam from the first rapidly developed in the two centuries following the prophet’s death in consequence of Messianic hopes and presages, the luxury of the upper classes and the hard mechanical piety of the orthodox creed. The terrors of hell, so vividly depicted in the Qur’'än awakened in many an intense consciousness of sin, which drove them to seek salvation in ascetic practices. Sifiism was originally a practical religion, not a speculative system, and the early Sufis were closely attached to the Muslim doctrine, but they took up and emphasized certain Qur’dnic terms, such as dhikr (praise of God) consisting of recitation of the Qur’dn, repetition of the Divine names, etc., and tawakkul (trust in God), now defined as renunciation of all personal initiative and volition, leaving one’s self entirely in God’s hands. Quietism soon passed into mysticism. Towards the end of the 2nd century the doctrine of mystical love was set forth in the sayings of a female ascetic, Rabi‘a of Basra. Henceforward the use of symbolical expressions, borrowed from the vocabulary of love and wine, becomes increasingly frequent

as a means of indicating holy mysteries which must not be di vulged. This was not an unnecessary precaution, for in the course of the 3rd century, there sprang up a speculative and pantheistic movement which was essentially anti-Islamic. A little later Abi

Sulayman al-Darani in Syria and Dhw'l-Niin in Egypt developed the doctrine of gnosis (ma'rifat) through illumination and ecstasy. The step to pantheism was first decisively taken by the Persian Abū Yazīd (Bāyezīd) of Bistām (d. A.D. 874), who introduced the doctrine of annihilation (fand), i.e. the passing away of individual consciousness in the will of God.

SUGAR

523

ITS EVOLUTION In the evolution of Sufiism, influences outside of Islam made themselves powerfully felt. Christian influence had its source, not in the Church, but in the hermits and unorthodox sects, to whose ideal of unworldliness Stfiism owed much. More than one safi doctrine—that of tawakkul in particular—show traces of Christian teaching. The monastic strain which insinuated itself into Sifiism in spite of Mohammed’s prohibition was derived, partially at any rate, from Christianity. But Buddhistic influence

God is the sole reality (al-Haqq) and is above all names and definitions. He is not only absolute Being, but also absolute

called “Theology of Aristotle,” which was translated into Arabic about A.D. 840, is full of Neoplatonic theories, and the mystical writings of the pseudo-Dionysius were widely known throughout western Asia. It is not mere coincidence that the doctrine of

ecstasy by music, dancing, drugs and various kinds of hypnotic

Good, and therefore absolute Beauty.

It is the nature of beauty

to desire manifestation; the phenomenal universe is the result

of this desire, according to the famous Tradition in which God says, “I was a hidden treasure, and I desired to be known, so I created the creatures in order that I might be known.” As things can be known only through their opposites, Being can only be known through Not-being, wherein as in a mirror Being is remay also have been at work. Buddhism flourished in Balkh, flected; and this reflection is the phenomenal universe, which accordingly has no more reality than a shadow cast by the sun. Transoxiana and Turkestan before the Mohammedan conquest, The Sifi theosophy as it appears in Persian and Turkish and in later times Buddhist monks carried their religious practices poetry tends to abolish the distinction between good and evil— these in settled had who Muslims the among and philosophy countries. The use of rosaries, the doctrine of fand, which is the latter is nothing but an aspect of not-being and has no real probably a form of Nirvana, and the system of “stations” existence—and it leads to the deification of the hierophant who (magdmat) on the road thereto, would seem to be Buddhistic in can say, like Husain b. Mansur al-Hallaj, “I am the Truth.” their origin. The third great foreign influence on Sifiism is the Sufi fraternities, living in a convent under the direction of a Neoplatonic philosophy. Between A.D. 800 and 860 the tide of shaykh, became widely spread before A.D. 1100 and gave rise to Greek learning, then at its height, streamed into Islam. The so- Dervish orders, most of which indulge in the practice of exciting

Gnosis was first worked out in detail by the Egyptian Sufi, Dhul-Nun (d. av. 859), for Stflism on its theosophical side was largely a product of Alexandrian speculation. By the end of the 3rd century Sifi mysticism was fast becoming an organized system, with rules of discipline and devotion which the novice was bound to learn from his spiritual director, to whose guidance he submitted himself absolutely, as to one regarded as being in intimate communion with God. At the head of these

suggestion (see DERVISH). BIBLIOGRAPHY.—The foremost authority is Professor R. A. Nicholson, whose writings [Selected poems from the Divani Shamsi Tabriz, translated with an introduction, etc. (Cambridge, 1898) ; Enquiry concerning the origin and development of Sifiism (J.RAS., 1906, 303 sqaq.) ; Translation of the Kashf al-Mahjiub, the oldest Persian treatise on Süfiism (London, I911); Studies in Islamic Mysticism (Cambridge, 1921); The Idea of Personality in Sifiism (Cambridge, 1923); together with his more popular treatise The Mystics of Islam (London, 1914)] have caused most previous works to have merely an anti-

quarian interest. He also published the text and translation of The Mathnawt of Jaldlu’ddin Rimi (Books I. and II, London, 1925, 1926).

An excellent

introduction

to the study of Islamic mysticism

is given in E. J. W. Gibb’s History of Ottoman Poetry, 1, 33 sqq. directors stood a mysterious personage called the Qutb (Axis); (London, 1900). Professor L. Massignon’s La Passion d’al-Hallaj,

on the hierarchy of saints over which he presided the whole order of the universe was believed to depend. During the next two hundred years (A.D. 900-1100), various manuals of theory and practice were compiled: the Kitab al Luma‘ by Abt Nasr al-Sarraj, the Out al-Oulaib by Abii Talib al-Makki, the Risdla of Qushayri, the Persian Kashf al-Mahjub by ‘Ali ibn ‘Uthman al-Hujwirt, and the famous Jkyé by Ghazali. They all expatiate on the discipline of the soul and describe the process of purgation which it must undergo before entering on the contemplative life. The traveller journeying towards God passes through a series of ascending “stations”; in the oldest extant treatise these are: (1) repentance, (2) abstinence, (3) renunciation, (4) poverty, (5) patience, (6) trust in God, (7) acquiescence in the will of God. After the “stations” comes a parallel scale of “states” of spiritual feeling (ahwdl), such as fear, hope, love, etc., leading up to contemplation (mushdhadat) and intuition (yagin). It only remained to provide Siifiism with a metaphysical basis, and to reconcile it with orthodox Islam. The double task was finally accomplished by Ghazali (g.v.). He made Islamic theology mystical, and since his time the revelation (Raskf) of the mystic has taken its place beside tradition (naql) and reason (‘agl) as a source and fundamental principle of the faith.

martyr mystique de TIslam, followed by Essai sur les origines du lexique technique de la mystique musulmane (Paris, 1922), is a mine of erudition. Some account of Sifiism is also given by D. B. Macdonald, The religious attitude and life in Islam (Chicago, 1909), and I. Goldziher, Vorlesungen iiber den Islam (Heidelberg, 1925).

into undue relief, as in the sayings attributed to Bäyazīd (d. A.D.

tion in the laboratory, they both contain

874), e.g., “I am the winedrinker and the wine and the cupbearer”; “I went from God to God, until they cried from me in

100% of sucrose.

SUGAR.

This name applies to over 100 substances, having

distinctive properties and scientific names; for example, sucrose, glucose, fructose, lactose, maltose. Of the numerous sugars which occur in plants, sucrose (g.v.) is the most abundant and has been extracted commercially from sugar cane, sugar beet, maple tree, Indian maize, sorghum grass, and several species of palm. As it occurs in solution in the sap or juice, man’s task is to extract the juice, and to convert the dissolved sucrose into the marketable crystals we call sugar. Therefore, cane sugar, beet sugar, maple sugar, etc., consist essentially of sucrose, admixed with small percentages of impurities derived from the plant-juices. These impurities account for differences in colour, odour, and flavour of raw cane and beet sugars. When refined these sugars MANY SHADES OF OPINION are colourless and odourless, have equal | sweetening power, contain about 99-8% of The Siifis comprise many shades of opinion—from asceticism sucrose, and cannot be distinguished by and quietism to pantheism. The pantheistic type which prevails in chemical analysis. After further purificaPersia throws the transcendental and visionary aspects of Sufiism

The Sugar Cane.—This plant is a gigantic grass, sometimes attaining, under

me, ‘O Thou I?” The peculiar imagery which distinguishes the poetry of the Persian Sifis was developed by Abu Sa‘id ibn Abi’l-Khayr (d. A.D. 1049) in his quatrains which express the

cron en conemans oreen « 2avourable conditions of growth, a height co ) of 20 ft. (See Plate, fig. 1.) The average

relation between God and the soul by glowing and fantastic allegories of earthly love, beauty and intoxication. Henceforward, the great poets of Persia, with few exceptions, adopt this symbolic

RIEM

genus Saccharum, and is a perennial. It requires a moist and warm

the celebrated Mathnawi of Jalaluddin Rimi

be grown successfully in sub-tropical countries.

FIG.

1—SUGAR

CANE length of stalk is about 12 ft. The plant

belongs to the natural order Gramineae,

language. The whole doctrine of Persian Stifiism is expounded in climate. Some varieties can only thrive in the tropics, others can (g.v.) but in a

The time

discursive and unscientific manner; its leading principles may be

quired to reach maturity varies with climate and averages

stated briefly as follows:—

months.

re-

13

The stems of different varieties vary in diameter from

524

SUGAR

one half to nearly three inches, and are divided transversely by

nodes (fig. r).

|

The stem has a hard, very thin skin or rind, varying in colour from pale yellow or green to deep purple and sometimes striped with two colours. The interior of the stem is solid, consisting of colourless fibrous tissue in which the juice is stored. The leaves are from 3 to 4 ft. in length and from 2 to 3 in. in width, a single leaf springing from each node, and on alternate sides of the stem. Although the plant usually bears flowers and seed, it has always been propagated from cuttings of the stem, the attached “eyes” or buds (fig. 1) then forming a cluster or stool of canes. When harvested, the canes are cut at the ground-level, the leafy upper joints (tops) cut off and reserved for planting material, and the long stems transported to the sugar factory. They contain from 11 to 16% of sucrose, with a general average of 13%. The root-stock, left in the ground, remains alive and sends up new stems in successive years. On reaching maturity, FROM HERIOT, “MANUFACTURE OF most

varieties

produce

an

immense

num-

ber of flowers, of microscopic size, forming

SUSAR” (LONGMANS GREEN& CO.)

F!6- 2-—SUGAR BEET

a feathery plume called the arrow. This is borne on a stalk which grows erect from the top of the stem, to a height of 2 or 3 Ít. Since 1890, great efforts have been made to produce improved varieties of cane, following the example set in the beet sugar industry. For this purpose, the cane was raised from seed, and hybrid varieties obtained with greater resistance to disease.

The Sugar Beet.—This plant belongs to the natural order

Chenopodiaceae, genus Beta, and belongs to the same family as the red garden beet and mangel-wurzel. The modern sugar beet (fig. 2) was evolved from a white beet (Beta Alba) formerly grown as a forage crop in Silesia. By systematic seed-selection, extending over many years, the sucrose content was gradually increased from about 5% in the Silesian root, to 20%, or even more. At the same time, the tap-root was much reduced in size, and the purity of the sap increased by a reduction in the saline impurities. The plant is a biennial, developing root and foliage and storing up sucrose during the first year’s growth. During the second year, it sends up tall, branched shoots which flower and bear seed, after which the plant dies. The tap-root consists of colourless parenchyma tissue, In which the juice is stored, and alternate layers of fibrous tissue. The external skin is usually white, but, in some varieties, pink. Fine root-threads extend from the sides and apex of the tap-root, to supply the plant with water and mineral plant-foods. The large leaves spring from the top, or crown of the tap-root, and spread laterally just above the ground. The flowers are very small, greenish in colour, and finally develop into the fruit or seed-ball. This is commonly called the seed, but contains from one to seven embryos (true seeds), and is used for propagating the plant. All modern varieties are derived from two standard types of “improved” sugar beet, namely, Vilmorin’s Blanche Ameliorée produced in France, and Klein Wanzleben produced in Germany. Although some varieties may contain over 20% of sucrose, the average sucrose-content is 16%, as compared with 13% for the sugar cane. The Cane and Beet Compared.—The record production for beet was 2-19 tons of commercial sugar per acre in Germany in 1910-11, and for cane 5-5 tons per acre in Java in 1925-26; or about 24 times that for beet. The corresponding crops were 12 tons of washed beets and 42 tons of canes per acre. For the Chemistry of the Sugars, see articles: CARBOHYDRATES; SUCROSE; GLUCOSE; and FRUCTOSE.

sugars, contain about 99-8% of sucrose. With progress in sugar technology, it became possible to produce white sugars, of high purity, from cane and beet juices by a direct process (not useq in the refinery). They are termed “direct consumption sugars” Extraction

oi the

Juice.—From

the

earliest

times, the

juice has been extracted by crushing the canes between rollers and a simple form of mill consists of three horizontal rollers, one

being placed above the other two (see one of the four mills shown in section in fig. 3). Slow rotary motion of the top-roller is transmitted to each of the two lower rollers (front and back rollers)

by toothed gearing, causing the three rollers to rotate at the same speed of 2 to 24 rev. per min. The canes are crushed between

the top and front rollers, and again, between the top

and back rollers; while the extracted juice flows down the surfaces of the two lower rollers and falls into a receiver below, whence it flows to a strainer and pump. The modern cane-mill, fig. 3, is a combination of three or more of these

mills, with

mechanical

transporters

for carrying the

crushed cane (megass or bagasse) from one mill to the next, and from the last mill to the furnaces, where it is used as fuel. In order to prepare a uniform and compact feed entering the first mill, the canes are first reduced to small pieces by passing through one or more machines, called knives, crushers and shredders. In fig. 3, the first mill is preceded by a crusher, consisting of two rollers having interlocking teeth which cut the canes into short lengths, squeezing them and extracting much Juice. The heavy pressure applied by the mill-rollers is produced by hydraulic power acting on the sliding bearings of each top-roller, forcing these rollers vertically downwards upon the feed passing over the lower rollers. One top-roller may thus apply a pressure of over 500 tons. The extraction is greatly increased by spraying water upon the bagasse as it passes from one mill to the next, thus diluting the unextracted juice in the bagasse, and facilitating its extraction in the following mill. In fig. 3, water is sprayed upon the bagasse behind the third mill; the very dilute juice extracted by the fourth is pumped to a spraying-pipe behind the second (see pipe-line and arrow); and the dilute juice extracted by the third mill is pumped to a spraying-pipe behind the first. The juice extracted by the crusher and first two mills flows to a tank from which it is pumped to another part of the factory. By this system of spraying with water and dilute juice, the mill shown in fig. 3 will extract from 95 to 96% of the total sucrose in the canes. The addition of a shredder between the crusher and the first mill will increase the extraction to 97 or even 98%, according to the quantity of saturation water applied between the mills. A more powerful milling plant consists of two sets of knives, followed by a crusher, a shredder and five mills, and extracting about 99% of the sucrose in the canes. The bagasse, leaving the last mill, contains about 45% water, 50% fibre, and 2 to 4% unextracted sucrose. Under normal conditions, no other fuel is required for steam production. The extracted juice is a dark, opaque liquid, having an acid reaction. It contains from 12 to 16% of dissolved sucrose, and small percentages of glucose, fructose, organic acids, colouring matters, nitrogen compounds, pectin, gum and mineral matters. It also holds in suspension finely. divided fibre, wax, clay and

air-bubbles; the last slowly rising to the surface, forming a thick white foam. Chemical Treatment of the Juice.—As the dissolved nonsugars are colloidal (see Cottors), the juice must undergo some form of chemical treatment before it can be filtered satisfactorily. The natural acidity of the juice must also be neutralized, because sucrose decomposes on heating acid juices, the sucrose combining with water and breaking up into two simpler sugars, glucose and fructose, as shown in the equation:— Ci2H22011-+H20 = CeH1206-+- CeHi20s. MANUFACTURING AND REFINING This is termed inversion of sucrose, and the resulting mixture of Formerly, white sugar could be produced only by the combined glucose and fructose is termed invert sugar. | The object of chemical treatment is fourfold:—(1) To neuoperations of the “raw sugar factory” and the “refinery.” Raw sugars, made from cane and beet juices, contain about 96% of tralize the natural acidity (as just explained); (2) to remove sucrose. Refined white sugars, made by further treatment of raw suspended impurities, thus rendering the juice transparent; (3)

SUGAR

525

CANES ENTERING

2ND

CRUSHER

NN

MILL

3RD MILL

ZIJ

SF

ee ae | ea

15T MILL

aa aae rman

cebu

f neh

enneen tat

oeBe

Be a

aE aa

WATER

a

aaa

ee

4TH MILL

EXTRACTED JUICE BY COURTESY

OF THE

MIRLEES

WATSON

CO.

FIG.

3.—MULTIPLE

CANE-MILL

to precipitate dissolved non-sugars, thus increasing the purity | entering the drum of No. 1 condenses on the exterior of the tubes, of the juice; and (4) to decolourize the juice in the manufacture transmitting its latent heat to the juice inside the tubes and causing it to boil. The steam thus generated passes into the steamof white sugar. The chemical agents used are :—quicklime (CaO), usually added drum of No. 2 and there acts in the same manner. The steam in the form of lime-cream (CaH,O:); sulphur dioxide gas (SO2); generated here by the boiling juice passes to a condenser and aircarbon dioxide gas (CO2); and, occasionally, phosphoric acid pump, which maintain a vacuum of about 25 inches in No. 2. This (H;PO.). The effect of these chemical agents is completed by vacuum fixes the boiling point of the juice here, also the temperaheating the juice to boiling point in an apparatus called a juice- ture at which steam (leaving No. 1) can condense on the tubes in heater, the juice flowing continuously through a number of brass No. 2, also the pressure of that steam and the boiling point of the

tubes heated externally by steam. Certain impurities, previously dissolved in the juice, are thus rendered insoluble and form a dark coloured precipitate which can be separated in various ways:

juice in No. 1. Consequently, the high vacuum and low boiling point in No. 2 produce a lower vacuum and higher boiling point in No. 1. Multiple effect evaporation is applicable to any number of connected vessels. In fig. 4 the level of the boiling juice in No. 2 is maintained constant at B by drawing in juice from No. 1; similarly, the level in No. 1 is maintained constant at A by drawing in juice from an ` external supply-tank. At the same time, concentrated juice, or syrup, is drawn off continuously from No. 2 by a pump, and at

(a) by causing it to rise to the surface (with the escaping airbubbles), forming a scum which is removed by skimming ladles; (b) by allowing it to subside (after separation of the air) and removing it as a sediment; (c) by filtration through cloth or other filtering media; (d) by centrifugal action. In the manufacture of raw sugar, about two gals. of lime-cream (15° Beaumé) are added per 1,000 gals. of juice; the mixture is such a rate that the density of the syrup in No. 2, and of that heated to boiling point and discharged into settling tanks (sub- drawn off, remains constant at about 30° Beaumé. This syrup siders or clarifiers), each holding 1,000 gal. or more, and filled in contains from 55 to 60% of dissolved solids (including sucrose). rotation. After subsidence for about an hour, the clear juice is It is, therefore, an unsaturated solution, free from crystals. Crystallization of the Syrup.—tThe final stage of evaporadrawn off into one gutter, and the sediments into another. The sediments are usually resubsided in additional tanks, more clear tion, accompanied by the crystallization of the syrup, is carried juice being then drawn off. The final sediments are pumped out in the Vacuum Pan. This apparatus 1s shown in the Plate, fig. through filter-presses (see article FILTRATION), yielding clear 5 (centre). Part of the interior, with steam-heated tubes, is shown filtered juice and cakes of solid matter. The clear juices flowing on the left. Above, and to the right, is the condenser (shown in from the first subsiders, resubsiders and filter-presses, are mixed section) wherein the vapour generated by the boiling syrup is and pass to the multiple-effect evaporator (to be described later). condensed by sprays of water. A vacuum of about 26” is mainIn the manufacture of white sugar, a more thorough purification of the juice is essential, and two methods are used, (a) acid sulphitation and (b) carbonation. As the latter method is mainly To CONDENSER used for treating beet juice it will be described under that heading. AND AIR-PUMP In the former, a, from 4 to 5 gal. of lime-cream are added per 1,000 gal. of juice, and sufficient sulphur dioxide gas to precipitate this lime, with the formation of a granular precipitate of calcium sulphite (CaSO;), as shown in the equation TO SYRUP PUMP CaO -}S0; = CaS0;.

The gas may be added either before or after liming, the final

result being the same. The juice is then heated and subsided. Evaporation of Water.—A large quantity of water must be evaporated from the purified juice before the dissolved sucrose can begin to crystallize. To avoid destruction of sucrose at high temperatures the juice is boiled in closed vessels under a vacuum, thus lowering the boiling point. Further, in order to economize

and air-pump (to right of pan), thereby lowering the boiling point

lower part of each vessel contains numerous vertical brass tubes, their open ends passing through perforations in two horizontal

of the syrup to about 130° F. Cane and beet sugar factories are equipped with three or four pans, each discharging from ro to 20 tons of crystals after each boiling operation is completed. Sufficient syrup is first drawn into the pan to occupy only

fuel, multiple effect evaporators are used. Fig. 4 is a sectional view of a double-effect evaporator. The

plates. The space between these plates forms a steam-drum, with steam-inlet. The shaded space below the drum and inside the tubes is filled with the boiling juice. The large space above the drum is filled with steam generated by the boiling juice. Steam

FROM HERIOT, “MANUFACTURE OF SUGAR” (LONGMANS GREEN & CO ) FIG. 4.—DOUBLE-EFFECT EVAPORATOR (VERTICAL

SECTION)

tained inside the pan by the combined action of the condenser

a part of its total capacity, and steam is admitted to the coils which are covered by the syrup. After a period of rapid boiling, the syrup becomes supersaturated and microscopic crystals begin to form. This is called the graining point, and it is important to

SUGAR

526

produce a sufficient quantity of grain as rapidly as possible, in order that the crystals may be of nearly uniform size during all

the dry white sugar contains from 99-5 to 99-9% of sucrose, The mother-liquor separated in the centrifugals contains a high

stages of growth. Having formed the grain, the operator reduces the supersaturation by drawing in small charges of unsaturated syrup from the supply-tank, at suitable intervals, thus preventing

percentage of sucrose. It is reboiled in the vacuum pan where it

further formation of grain but causing the previously formed grain to grow until the pan is filled in from 3 to 4 hours. To make a large-grained final product, the operator starts with a smaller volume of syrup, yielding a proportionally smaller quantity of grain, thereby increasing the rate of growth of each grain. Conversely, to make a small-grained final product, he starts with a larger volume of syrup, yielding a larger quantity of grain, thereby reducing the rate of growth of each grain. The time available for growth can be extended by transferring half the contents of a full pan to a second, empty pan, the two halves being then boiled simultaneously with further additions of syrup to each, causing continued growth of the original grain until both pans are filled. During the process of boiling, the operator is guided by the appearance of small samples of the crystallized

second grade mother-liquor.

syrup which he removes from the pan at short intervals by means

of a proofstick. The samples are spread upon a sheet of glass and examined by transmitted light from a lamp. When the pan is full, the mixture of crystals and mother-liquor (called massecuite) is finally concentrated until it contains from 9 to 11% of water. It is then semi-fluid and contains about 65% by weight of crystals and 35% of mother-liquor. Air is now admitted to the pan, the bottom gate opened, and the massecuite discharged. Separation of Crystals from Mother-liquor.—This operation, called curing the sugar, is effected by centrifugal action in a number of machines operating simultaneously. Each consists of a vertical metal drum, or “basket,” which can be rotated on a central vertical spindle at a speed of 800 to 1,200 revs. per min. The cylindrical wall of the drum is made of perforated steel plate and fitted with a lining of woven copper-gauze. After the drum is set in motion, a charge of massecuite enters through a central opening at the top, and the centrifugal action forces the massecuite against the wire-gauze liner which acts as a strainer, allowing the fluid mother-liquor to pass through but retaining the crystals. The separation is complete in about 2 mins. The plate shows the positions of the vacuum pan, massecuite-receiver, centrifugals and band-conveyor. In the manufacture of raw sugar, the above treatment yields sugar containing from 95 to 98% of sucrose and about 1% of water. The colour, moisture and odour of this sugar are due to residual mother-liquor adhering to the crystals and which cannot be completely separated by centrifugal action alone. The band-

crystallizes, forming second grade massecuite. centrifugals where it separates

into second

This is treated in grade crystals ang

Fhe last is reboiled in the vacuum

pan to form third grade massecuite which is discharged into large

cylindrical crystallizers, each fitted with a slowly rotating central shaft carrying stirrers (fig. 5). The mother-liquor, from which no more sucrose can crystallize, is called molasses. It is a highly concentrated solution containing sucrose and various organic and

inorganic impurities derived from the original cane juice. By-products.—These include: (a) the crushed cane (bagasse or megass) which is used as fuel; (0) filter-press cakes, which are used as fertilizer; (c) molasses, which is used for the production of alcohol, or as fertilizer, cattle-food, or fuel.

THE MANUFACTURE OF SUGAR FROM THE BEET The diffusion process extracts sucrose in preference to other constituents of the juice. The roots are reduced to thin shreds (slices

ve

eee

or cossettes) and the slices immersed in warm water in vertical cylindrical vessels (diffusers). These have a capacity of from 500 to 2,500 gals. each, according to the

size of the factory, from xo to 14 diffusers forming one battery. Fig. 6 represents a DIFFUSION JUICE plan of a circular battery of 12 diffusers, FROM HERIOT, “MANUFACTURE OF and fig. 7 shows a vertical section of two of

SUGAR” (LONGMANS GREEN * the diffusers, with connecting pipes. Each

FIG 6.—PLAN OF A CIR- has a small door at top for charging with CULAR DIFFUSION BAT- fresh slices, and a large discharge-door at

TERY

bottom

for removing

the spent slices.

Liquids pass from the bottom of any one diffuser to the top of the next (see arrows in fig. 7), the slices remaining stationary in each As all the water used for diffusion must afterwards be evaporated before the contained sucrose can crystallize, this water is passed through many diffusers, extracting sucrose from the slices in each, until it attains a sufficiently high density and sucrose-content to be drawn off, being then called diffusion juice. In fig. 6 diffuser No. 1 has been longest in action, so that the extraction is nearly complete. It is less complete in No. 2, still less in No. 3, and so on up to No. ro where extraction is just beginning, this diffuser having just been filled with fresh slices and also with liquid entering it from No. 9. Water is entering

No. rı (see arrow in fig. 6) in order to complete the extraction, and this water displaces an equal volume of liquid (already in

No. 1) into No. 2, that already | in No. 2 into No. 3, i and: so on up to No. ro, where it displaces an equal volume of diffusion juice (see arrows and dotted line in fig. 6). A part of this displaced ing to a measuring tank, and the

“MANUFACTURE OF SUGAR” GREEN & CO ) FIG, 7.—TWO DIFFUSERS (VERTICAL

FROM

HERIOT,

« LONGMANS

SECTION) juice flows through a pipe leadremainder passes forward into

No. 11 (just filled with slices), causing diffusion to, begin m No. xr. The extraction in No. r is now complete, and the spent slices are discharged. displacements

BY COURTESY OF THE MIRLESS WATSON CO. FIG. 5.—CRYSTALLISER

(VERTICAL

SECTION)

conveyor (Plate, fig. 5) carries the sugar from the centrifugals to a storage-bin from which the sugar gravitates through chutes into bags placed upon weighing machines. In the manufacture of white sugar, the separation of the motherliquor is carried much further by spraying water over the layer of sugar in the centrifugal drum whilst this is rotating at full speed. Indeed, two sets of centrifugals may be employed. To conceal any yellowish tint in the sugar, this is sprayed with ultramarine and water (called blueing the sugar) before the machine is stopped. After passing through a rotary drier (described later)

Water is now forced into No. 2, causmg

of liquids from No.

2 into No. 3, from No. 3

into No. 4, and so on up to No. 11, where it displaces an equal volume of diffusion juice. Part of this juice passes to the

measuring tank and the remainder goes forward into No. 12 (just filled with slices), causing diffusion to begin here. The extraction in No. 2 is now complete, and the spent slices are discharged. Water is now forced into No. 3 (continuing as before). The same series of operations is repeated round and round the battery. Fresh water is added to each diffuser in tum

at one part of the battery; diffusion juice is drawn off from each diffuser in turn at another part; spent slices are discharged from each diffuser in turn; and fresh slices enter each diffuser in tum. A diffusion battery may sometimes be arranged in two parallel lines

SUGAR instead of in a circle. The tops of the diffusers project just above

the floor, and the battery is operated from this position. The motions of the liquids are controlled by three valves attached to — the top of each diffuser,

The efficiency of extraction is proportional to the number of diffusers in action at one time and to the volume of water added to the battery per 100 kilo. of fresh slices. An extraction of 99% of the sucrose in the roots is easily obtained. Several forms of apparatus for continuous diffusion have been patented, the most successful being the Raabe System. It is a long, cylindrical vessel,

527

sucrose) about 90 tons of washed crystals (99%

sucrose)

are

obtained by the separation of ro tons of dissolved sugar and impurities in the wash-syrup. This is called the affinatzon process. The washed raw sugar then passes to large cylindrical vessels (melting tanks) each holding from 5 to ro tons of sugar and sufficient hot water to give a liquor containing about 60% by weight

of sugar when all has dissolved.

The melting tanks are fitted

with mechanical stirrers and perforated steam-coils

for heating.

The resulting solution is termed washed raw sugar liquor. It is dark brown in colour and contains numerous insoluble impurities divided transversely into numerous compartments, through which | in suspension. To remove these, it is filtered through cloth in leaf-filters, filter-presses or bag-filters (see article FILTRATION). the slices and diffusion liquids move in opposite directions. Chemical Treatment of the Juice—The method used is The filtered liquor is transparent but strongly coloured. Decolourizing the Liquor.—This is effected by the action of called Double Carbonatzon, and its essential feature is the formation of an abundant precipitate of calcium carbonate (CaCOs3) in bone-char (g v.) in char-filters, large vessels measuring from 20 to the juice, after the addition of quicklime (CaO) and carbon di- 50 ft. in height, and from 5 to ro ft. in diameter. The darkoxide gas (CO2). These chemical agents are produced simultane- coloured liquor enters at the top, and percolates through the char ously in a lime-kiln attached to the factory. A mixture of lime- in from 3 to 6 hours, the rate of descent being regulated by the instone (CaCO;) and coke is added at the top of the kiln and let-cock. In passing through the char, the liquor is completely degravitates very slowly to the bottom. The combustion of the coke colourized and flows into a gutter leading to the first liquor tank. produces a temperature of 1,000° to 1,300° C and the limestone After operating for several hours, the char begins to lose its decomposes, aS shown in the equation:—CaCO;=CaO+COk,. power, and the treated liquor becomes slightly tinted, this being The gases rising to the top of the kiln are drawn off by a pump run into a second gutter leading to the second liquor tank. When and forced through a gas-washer and thence through pipes to the the tint increases to a predetermined limit, the liquor-inlet cock tanks containing the juice. The quicklime is removed from the is closed, and a cock admitting hot water is opened, this water bottom of the kiln in small quantities at suitable intervals. displacing the tinted liquor remaining in the char, and gradually The raw diffusion Juice is pumped through heaters into liming diluting it. When the outflowing tinted liquor begins to decrease tanks where from 2 to 3% of lime is added, either in the form of in density it flows into two other receivers, one for light liquor quicklime (CaO) or as lime-cream (CaH20,). After thorough until the density falls to 18° Beaumé, and another for char water stirring, the mixture gravitates to tall, rectangular, closed tanks until the density falls to o-5° Beaumé. About 1 ton of water is (carbonation tanks), fitted with a gas-distributor at bottom for required per ton of char, and the operation is called sweetening injecting the carbon dioxide gas, juice inlet and outlet cocks, a off. After further washing with hot water, which runs to waste, steam-coil for regulating the temperature of the juice, and a chim- the char is dried and strongly heated in a char-kiln, thereby reney at top for carrying off any unabsorbed gas. As the gas bubbles storing its activity so that it can be used again. This cycle of through the strongly alkaline juice, a gelatinous precipitate is first operations is repeated several times a week for a few years; at formed, this gradually decomposing with the formation of a granu- the end of this time the char is of poor decolourizing power and lar precipitate of calcium carbonate, the final result being repre- is therefore discarded as “spent char.” Crystallization.—The colourless first liquor is boiled and sented by the equation:—CaO+CO.=CaCQ;. This treatment (frst carbonation) is continued until the alkalinity of the juice is crystallized in the vacuum pan (Plate, fig. 5) in the same manner _ reduced to about o-1% of lime, when the opaque juice is pumped as cane syrup, but the size to which the crystals grow depends through filter-presses (see FILTRATION). The clear, filtered juice on the class of refined sugar to be made. A very large grain is reis still alkaline and passes to another set of carbonation tanks for quired for crystal or coffee sugar; a medium grain for granulated; a second treatment with the gas (second carbonation). This is and a mixed small grain for cube (or loaf) and caster sugars. In continued until the alkalinity is reduced to 0-03 or 0-06% lime, each case, the product discharged from the vacuum pan is a mixcausing a further precipitation of calcium carbonate, which is ture of crystals and mother-liquor (massecuite) which must unremoved by a second filtration, yielding a transparent, light-col- dergo further treatment. oured juice which, in some factories, is treated with sulphur In the manufacture of granulated, crystal and coarse caster dioxide gas (SO2), followed by filtration, in order to bleach it. sugars, the masseculte from the vacuum pan is treated as in the The subsequent operations—evaporation of water, crystalliza- manufacture of white granulated sugar direct from cane and beet tion of the syrup, and separation of crystals from the mother- juices. The final operations of drying, sifting and bagging are liquor—have been described above under “‘cane sugar.” shown in Plate, fig. 3. The moist white sugar leaving the centrifu-

By-products.—These include: (a) beet-pulp, used as fodder, either in the moist state or after drying; (b) filter-press cakes, which are sometimes used as fertilizer but more usually discarded; (c) molasses, which is used in the production of alcohol and cattlefodder; (d) waster waters of no commercial value.

REFINING OF RAW CANE AND BEET SUGARS This consists of three main operations: (1) dissolving the raw sugar in water; (2) decolourizing the resulting solution; and (3) re-crystallization. . Dissolving

(or “Melting”)

the Raw

Sugar.—This

usually

includes two operations. First, washing the raw sugar crystals to remove adhering molasses. Second, dissolving the washed raw sugar in hot water and filtering the resulting liquor to remove inSoluble impurities. The raw sugar is mixed with syrup to form

a magma which is fed into centrifugal machines (described above). These separate the magma into two parts:—(a) washed

raw sugar crystals and (b) affination syrup or wash-syrup. The crystals are sprayed with water in the centrifugal to remove adhering wash-syrup, after which the machine is stopped and the washed raw sugar discharged. From 100 tons of raw sugar (96%

gals is carried by the band-conveyor (Plate, fig. 5 [bottom]) to the raised extremity of the revolving sugar drier (Plate, fig. 3 [top]). The interior of the drier is fitted with narrow shelves (parallel to its axis) so that as the drum rotates, the sugar is repeatedly carried upwards on the shelves and then dropped, whilst a current of hot air is drawn through the drum by means of a fan (shown on the right). On reaching the lower extremity of the drum, the sugar becomes dry and contains about 999% of sucrose. It gravitates to the revolving sifter below, Plate, fig. 3, which is made in three sections, each section having wire-gauze of different mesh. The crystals are thus sorted into three sizes or grades :—fne, medium and coarse which fall into three cone-shaped hoppers be-

low. Any lumps (accidentally produced) pass beyond the sieve and fall into a fourth hopper. The sifted sugar next gravitates from these hoppers to automatic weighing machines from which

bags are suspended (Plate, fig. 3). The attendant opens a shutter which allows the sugar to flow into a bag, and, when the correct weight has entered, the machine automatically closes the shutter. The attendant then unfastens a strap holding the bag to the machine and the filled bag drops a few inches upon a band-conveyor which carries it to a sewing machine by which it is stitched up.

SUGAR

528

Cube sugar, sometimes called loaf sugar, is made by two alternative methods which can only be very briefly described here. Method (a). The production of rectangular slabs of white sugar, measuring about 20”x10”#”, these being then cut up into single cubes by machinery. This method includes the Scheibler process (now little used) and the more modern Adant and Hubner processes. In the Adant process, the hot massecuite is run into a number of rectangular metal moulds, where it sets during partial cooling.

Cuba is capable of producing more sugar, but prices of recent years have not been sufficiently remunerative

The filled moulds are then transferred to a centrifugal

machine of special construction, the mother-liquor separated by spinning, and the slabs of sugar washed with pure syrup entering at the centre of the machine. The latter is then stopped, the moulds removed, and the slabs of white sugar dried and cut up into small cubes (see Plate, fig. 4). The Hubner process is a modification of Adant’s, and, whilst it economizes time and labour, gives a slightly reduced yield. Method (b). The sugar is moulded directly into cubes instead of into slabs. The massecuite discharged from the vacuum pan is spun in the ordinary type of centrifugal (Plate, fig. 5 [bottom]). The crystals are washed white and discharged into a mixer where they are thoroughly mixed with white ‘sugar-liquor to form a magma. This flows into rows of small cubical pockets on the surface of a slowly rotating horizontal drum. During every half-revolution of this drum, the magma is compressed inside each pocket forming single cubes, and rows of these cubes are ejected from the drum when the pockets reach their lowest positions. The empty pockets are refilled with magma on further rotation to their highest positions. The cubes fall from the drum upon a travelling band which carries them slowly through a drying chamber to the packing cases without any handling. Icing sugar and the finest grade of caster sugar are made from some of the foregoing grades by grinding in mills. By-products.—These include: (a) spent char, which is used as fertilizer; (b) molasses which may be fermented to yield alcohol or used in the manufacture of cattle-food, or purified to make edible syrup, or freacle. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—H. Claassen, Beet Sugar Manufacture (Eng. trans., 1910, J. Wiley, New York); H. C. P. Geerligs, Practical White Sugar Manufacture (1915); T. H. P. Heriot, Manufacture of Sugar from the Cane and Beet (1920); N. Deerr, Cane Sugar (1921r, full bibl.); H. C. P. Geerligs, Cane Sugar and its Manufacture in Java (1924); G. Fairrie, Sugar (1925, Liverpool). The third and sixth are more suitable for the general reader. (T. H. P.H.)

to encourage in-

creased production. During 1927 and 1928 an attempt was made by the Cuban Government to raise and stabilize the price of sugar by artificial crop restriction. This experiment failed and the crop restriction policy has been dropped. British Sugar—About one-fifth of the total production of sugar is produced in British Dominions, as under :— 1927-28 British West Indies Demerara . Australia Fiji . Mauritius . Natal . Canada :

.

United Kingdom

British India

Tons 253,000 I1I4,000 493,000 05,000

IQI3-14 e—a

Tons 120,000 102,009 255,000 100,000

2I5,000

250,000

221,000

86,000

27,000 208,000

10,000 Nil

1,626,000 3,200,000

923,000 2,291,000

LAY

LLY Te reeen

re

4,826,000

ee

3,214,000

British India consumes the whole of her crop, but the other parts of the Empire export nearly all the sugar they make, and this forms an increasing proportion of the raw material for the refineries of the United Kingdom and Canada. The imports of empire-produced raw sugar into the United

Kingdom have increased from 67,000 tons in 1913, to 333,000 tons in 1925 and to 556,000 tons in 1928. This increase has been largely brought about by Imperial Preference (g.v.). The quantity of sugar produced from an acre of land varies with conditions of weather, soil, labour and quality of cane, In parts of India, where primitive methods are still employed, less than one ton of sugar is made from one acre of cane. On the other hand, the production in Java sometimes exceeds 5 tons to the acre, and in parts of the Hawaiian Islands as much as 12 tons per acre have been produced. The following figures show some approximate average yields :— Hawaii (cane). Java (cane) Cuba (cane) India (cane) i Philippines (cane) . Europe (beet). . United Kingdom (beet)

tons per acre

NO U H

PRODUCTION AND TRADE m Sugar is produced in Europe, Asia, Africa, America and Auswj H PHN tralia. In Europe and in parts of North America it is made from State Assistance.—This assistance may be either by way of the sugar beet and in the other continents, from the sugar cane. a direct subsidy, as in England and the Irish Free State, or by When impurities have been removed by refining, no difference means of a customs duty as in most of the European beet-growing can be detected either by taste or smell, the chemical analysis of countries. Producers in such countries often form a “Cartel,” refined beet and cane sugar being identical. by which is meant an agreement among themselves to raise the Output.—The quantities of cane and beet sugar produced in price of sugar to the consumer in their own country to a level recent years have been, according to Willett and Gray :— just within the limit of the duty. Any sugar which they may make in excess of their home requirements is then exported at 1927-28 | 1926-27 1925-26 | 1913-14 or below the world’s price. The producers may lose on the sugar exported, but the profits made on their sales at home are ample tu 16,300,000 | 16,100,000 | 16,300,000 9,900,000 recoup them for their loss. 9,000,000] 7,700,000] 8,300,000 8,800,000 In the United Kingdom, the beet sugar-industry, stimulated by 25,300,000 | 23,800,000 | 24,600,000 | 18,700,000 the subsidy and preference in Excise Duty provided under the The large increase in cane sugar is due to high prices during British Sugar (Subsidy) Act of 1925, has expanded, and in the the World War. The European beet sugar crops, on the other season 1927-28 the production of sugar was 225,000 tons. The hand, were curtailed severely and in 1919-20 amounted to only total amount of assistance granted by the Government to the 2,609,000 tons as compared with 8,000,000 tons made in 1913~14 British beet sugar industry during the period commencing Oct. 1, 1924 and ending Sept. 30, 1928 was 26/104d. per cwt. of sugar —a decrease of 674%. The chief producing countries are:— produced, made up as follows :— Sr

|

| ernie

| aana mananaia

Tons

Cuba f : British India . Java .

On each cwt. of sugar produced

4,480,000 cane 3,600,000

23

Germany

2,950,000

3)

Russia . Czechoslovakia United States

1,360,000 1,364,000

,, ,,

T,174,000

,,

1,785,000 beet

Subsidy on sugar oS i Subsidy on molasses equivalent to ; The excise duty being lower than the duty on imported refined: sugar by

19/6d. 3/14 4/3 a

26/ 103d.

PLATE

SUGAR

Oe RE

REI

Van

TrA thos Mt na

Piet

Bato

8 EI

WA,

AEA

Me

tons

et BNC NCC Bi ti SaAEE

Pe

i

Hi Fy

$ 5 s

$

Woe va: ge

a

es Aiii

mm

BY COURTESY

OF

GEOFFREY

FAIRRIE

FROM

IN SUGAR

The large bundle of stalks in the foreground

piled across strong ropes.

o

A

“SUGAR”

STEPS l. Field of sugar cane.

maa aa Ag

is

It will be hoisted on carts and transported

to the factory 2. First step in harvesting field of sugar beets. Ploughs drawn by mules cut tap-root where it is small and loosen surrounding earth so that beets may be pulled easily by hand 3. Machinery used in the final operations of sugar

making.

While moist,

sugar is carried to revolving sugar drier (top) fitted with narrow shelves. Sugar is carried repeatedly upward on shelves while current

MANUFACTURE of hot air is drawn through drum for drying.

Sugar next drops into

revolving sifter (centre) where it is sorted into three sizes or grades.

It then gravitates to automatic weighing machines which bags are suspended 4. Cutting sugar slabs into cubes with modern machinery

(bottom)

from

5. Vacuum pan (top) where colourless first liquor 1s boiled and crystallized. Different pans are required for different grades of sugar. The product discharged from the vacuum pan goes into the (bottom) where it undergoes further treatment

Massecuite

Receiver

SUGAR

529

ES Dg PISOAR ¥ CaFi i = EB. 10mag os Aaay 2

PHILIPPINE AISLANDS

AME RICANYix A VENEZU a zSOLOMBI/ T

GALAPAGOSIRB A003a one

SS

Ol

BRAZIL Eap Bouvia A

© SUGAR PRODUCING t

a BY COURTESY

OF FARR

& CO.,

COUNTRIES mae] CANE SUGAR

BEET SUGAR

N.Y.

MAP

SHOWING

-THE

SUGAR

PRODUCING

As from Oct. 1, 1928 the assistance was reduced to 19/4d. per cwt. and on Oct. 1, 1931 a further reduction to 11/94d. per cwt. will take place. The primary object of the act was to aid agriculture, and the grant of the subsidy iis contingent upon the factories paying certain minimum prices for their beets. The ‘United Kingdom and Canada aid sugar producers within the Empire by preferential tariffs. That is to say, sugat produced in the British Empire pays a lower import duty than other sugar when it enters the United Kingdom or Canada. In the United Kingdom this preference amounts to 3/9d. per cwt. on raw sugar and in Canada to about 1/— per cwt. more. The United States in order to encourage the production of :— (t) Beet sugar in the U.S.A. (2) Cane sugar in Louisiana ,, the Philippines ) 2) », Porto Rico (4) ” ”? C a z », Hawaii

COUNTRIES

OF

THE

WORLD

The United States, the United Kingdom, and British India together consume nearly one-half of this amount. The countries which consume the largest quantity of sugar per head of the population are Australia, New Zealand, the United States and Denmark. In each about 1 cwt. per person is used, the tonnage being :— Tons

United States AustraliaNew Zealand . Denmark

i

.

.

i

:

5,500,000 325,000 70,000 185,000

The next largest consumers are:— Per head in lb.

| all American Colonies

levies no duty upon the sugar produced by these countries, whereas an import duty of 11/— per cwt. is charged upon sugar imported

from other localities. Cuban sugar is allowed to enter the United States on paying 20% less duty than other foreign sugar. Prominent among the countries which receive no artificial stimulus is Java, where production has steadily increased, due partly to the fact that labour is pas and =e to the highly organized state of the industry. Sugar Consumption.—Before. the - war, the voids consumption of sugar increased with almost clock-like regularity. The average yearly increase over a period of 60 years was 34% and in 1913 the quantity used was 19,000,000 tons. This expansion

was arrested by the war, but consumption now shows definite signs of expansion, and in 1927 amounted approximately to 26,000,000 tons distributed roughly, as follows:— ~Tons 9,650,000

8,150,000

7,200,000,

675,000

450,000°

26,125,000

i

United Kingdom Canada Switzerland

.

Argentine Holland Sweden Austria

.

In the Far East the question of prices is a more important factor than anywhere else in determining the consumption of sugar, and a rise in price in the western markets is invariably checked by the drifting thither of sugar not required by the Far East. In most countries it is consumed after it has been refined, a noticeable exception being India, where sugar is, still largely consumed in a primitive form known as “Gur,” practically, the same as the old-fashioned sugar candy. The United Kingdom consumes annually about 1,750, 000 tong of sugar, and as she produces only a small crop herself, has ‘to import large quantities. It is drawn from all parts of the world, and is imported partly in the refined form, but chiefly as raw sugar to be refined in London, Liverpool and the. refineries of the Clyde. i The following are details of the imports of sugar into the United Kingdom, showing sources of refined and unrefined sugar for 1928 as compared with 1913:— ,

SUGAR

539 Refined Czechoslovakia . Holland

Germany Others

.

From places outside Europe

Total Refined Unrefined Germany : Czechoslovakia . Total above

and other

places in Europe

Cuba . . San Domingo Mauritius B.W.I. Australia

1913

Tons 100,425 88,101

Tons 198,064 178,567

1,079

465,453

197,256

921,360

7,051

Total all Europe

Peru

1928

.

79,276

24,488

1,185

221,744

922,545

a 21,282

472,026 160,858

44,555

682,730

702,780 208,359

224,227 9,412

99,933

27,487

133,075 150,604 450,000

20,075 47,736

Total above and other places outside Europe

2,337:365

363,985

Total Raws

2,381,920

1,046,715

2,603,664

1,969,260

Total Raw and Refined

f

BEET—SUGER

Sugar Taxes.—Sugar is taxed in most countries for the purposes of revenue, and in some a protective tax on imported sugar is levied. In the United Kingdom the import duty is payable according to polarization, and during the present century, the amount charged upon sugar exceeding 98° polarization has varied as follows :— Amount of duty per cwt.

4/ 2d. 1/10

September . April . April April

9/4

14/25/8 11/8

Raw sugar not exceeding 98° polarization produced in the British Empire pays a duty lower by £3.11.3 per cwt. than non-European sugar of the same polarization; this preferential tariff has been stabilized for ten years ending in 1935, and the excise duty payable upon beet sugar produced in the United Kingdom under the British Sugar (Subsidy) Act, 1925, is the same as the import duty on sugar of empire origin. The budget of 1928 reduced the import duty on raw sugar not exceeding 98° polarization by the equivalent of $d. per Ib. on refined sugar. Import and Excise duties in other parts of the world are as follows, expressed in shillings per cwt.:— Additional excise duty Import duty payable alike by home produced and imported sugar Holland : Czechoslovakia Poland France Germany . Sweden

Nil 2ifye

U.S.A. Canada

a

Belgium

23/od.

af ó 57

8/9

Sugar Prices.—Prior to 1914 the price of raw sugar fluctuated between 9/— and 11/6d. per cwt., which was sufficiently remunerative to maintain the equilibrium between supply and demand. Occasional crop failures raised prices above that level, and the effect upon production was immediate. The highest price for raw sugar in recent years, was paid on

May 19, 1920, when Cuban raw sugar was sold to New York at a price equal to 140/— per cwt. After violent fluctuations during

1921-24 there was a decline through overproduction, and at the end of May 1929 the price was 8/6 per cwt. BIBLIOCRAPHY.— (Technical)

and its Manufacture

H. C. Prinsen

Geerligs, Cane Sugar

(1924); F. Murke, Condensed Description of the

Manufacture of Beet Sugar (1921). (Non-Technical) G. T. Surtace The Story of Sugar (1920); G. Fairrie, Sugar (L’pool, 1925); Q Martineau, Sugar, Cane and Beet (rev. by F. C. Eastwick, 192»). (Statistical and General) The Weekly Statistical Sugar Trade Journal (N.Y.); Licht’s Monthly Report (Magdeburg); The International Sugar Journal (monthly); the Monthly Circular of the West India Committee. (A. S. EL)

SUGAR

IN COOKERY

As sugar is an important soluble carbohydrate and is easily assimilable, it is valuable in the diet. Candy contains a high proportion of sugar (or glucose), but no dish for the table should do so. In adding sugar to fruit, more is needed if it is cooked

with the fruit than if added when the cooking is completed. Cane

and Beet Sugars

sugars used in cookery.

(Sucrose).—These

are the principal

They dissolve in one-third their own

bulk of cold water, and in a smaller amount of hot water. Their melting point is 320° F. If cooled at that point, they become barley sugar; if cooked beyond that point they become burnt sugar or caramel. Fine granulated or castor sugar is generally used in cookery. For icings, méringues and whips, powdered or pulverized (icing) sugar is used, the finest form being confectioners’ sugar. All powdered sugars must be rolled and sifted fine before using. These sugars are all pure white refined products. Brown and yellow sugars, which are produced by evaporation, are also used in cookery when there is no objection to a dark colour, and some of them have a delicious flavour. They vary in both colour and flavour, the best known being Demerara or coffee sugar, and dark brown or Barbadoes sugar. Other Sugars.—Glucose is less sweet than sucrose, and the commercial form is cheaper. It is used in many manufactured candies, jams and syrups to economize, but is not much used in the home. Commercial grape sugar is a dextrose. Maple sugar (sucrose) is much prized for its special flavour, but is made in comparatively small quantity, as is also palm sugar. Ame is a Japanese sweetening material that contains dextrin and maltose. Saccharin is not a sugar, and has no food value, but it is very sweet and is sometimes substituted for sugar, usually on a physiclan’s orders. ; ;

Caramel or Burnt Sugar.—This is marketed ready prepared,

for use as “browning” for sauces, gravies, stews and the like, and also as a flavouring in such dishes as caramel custard (custard with caramel below or around it): It can be prepared at home by melting granulated sugar in a saucepan over a low fire, with constant stirring. It may be used at once as it is, or after removing from the fire, boiling water (4 cup water to 1 cup sugar) may be added very slowly, again with constant stirring. Return this mixture to the fire and cook to a rich dark brown (8 to ro minutes). This hardens on standing, but can be melted over hot water. , (See also TREACLE, Honey.)

SUGAR BEET: see Beet. SUGAR-BIRD, the English name of the West India birds of the genus Certhiola (belonging to the Passerine family Coerebt-

dae) for their habit of frequenting the curing-houses where sugar is kept, attracted thither by the flies. In their figure and motions they resemble a nuthatch, while their coloration—black, yellow, olive, grey, and white—recalls a titmouse.

SUGER

(c. 1081-1151), French ecclesiastic, statesman and

historian entered the abbey of St. Denis about rogr. Until about 1104 he was educated at the priory of St. Denis de l’Estrée, and

there first met his pupil King Louis VI. In 1118 he was sent by Louis VI. to the court of Pope Gelasius II. at Maguelonne, and lived from rz2z to 1122 at the court of his successor, Calixtus II. On his return Suger was appointed abbot of St. Denis, devoting himself to reforms.

During the second

crusade he was 4

regent of the kingdom. Suger wrote a panegyric on Louis VI. (Vita Ludovici regis), and was part-author of the Historia gloriosi regis Ludovici (Lows

SUGGESTION VIL). In his Liber de rebus in administratione sua gestis, and its

531

supplement Libellus de consecratione ecclesiae S. Dionysii, he

to some weakening or inhibition through the influence of many opposed or incompatible tendencies and ideas, even if these do

treats of the improvements he had made to St. Denis, describes the treasure of the church, and gives an account of the rebuilding.

not rise into explicit consciousness. This third view seems justified by the facts that no sharp line

for history, frequently resulting in quasi-official chronicles.

of hypnotized or hysterical subjects, and that under favourable conditions many of the most striking results of suggestion (e.g., hallucinations, contractures, inability to move, insensibility of

Suger’s works served to imbue the monks of St. Denis with a taste See O. Cartellieri, Abt Suger von Saint-Denis (Berlin, 1898); A. Luchaire, Louis le Gros (Paris, 1890); F. A. Gervaise, Histoire de

Suger (Paris, 1721).

SUGGESTION.

By the older writers on psychology the

words “suggest” and “suggestion” were generally used in senses

very close to those of common speech. Modern studies in mental pathology and hypnotism (g.v.) have led to the use of these words by psychologists in a special and technical sense. The

hypnotists of the Nancy school rediscovered and gave general currency to the doctrine that the most essential feature of the

hypnotic state is the unquestioning obedience and docility with which

the hypnotized

subject

accordance with every command

accepts,

believes

and

acts

in

or proposition of the hypno-

tizer. These commands were called “suggestions”; and the subject that accepted them in this fashion was said to be “suggestible.” It is made clear, chiefly by French physicians, that a high degree of “‘suggestibility” is a leading feature of hysteria. It is also becoming widely recognized that the suggestibility

of hypnosis and of hysteria is conditioned by a peculiar state of the brain, namely a cerebral or mental dissociation, which in

hypnosis is temporarily induced by the operations of the hypnotist, and in hysteria arises from some deficiency of energy in

can be drawn between the suggestibility of normal men and that

various sense-organs, and so forth) may be produced in subjects who present at the time no other symptom of the hypnotic or hysterical condition. If, then, we recognize, as we must, that the alogical production of conviction is the essence of suggestion, and that this frequently occurs in normal minds as well as in those suffering from various degrees of dissociation, it becomes necessary to define the conditions which are resident, on the one hand, in the recipient of the suggestion, and, on the other hand, in the source from which the suggestion comes. (a) Defect of knowledge. The usual well-trained mind is

relatively insuggestible, firstly because it possesses large stores of knowledge and belief; secondly, because this mass of knowledge and belief is systematically organized in such a way that all its parts hang together and mutually support one another. On the other hand, the young child, the uncultured adult, and especlally the savage, are apt to be suggestible in regard to very many topics, firstly, because they have relatively little knowledge; secondly, because what little they have is of a low degree of organization; z.e., it does not form a logically coherent system

the whole psycho-physical system. But as to the range of sug- whose parts reciprocally support one another. Suggestion in such gestion great differences of opinion still obtain. Firstly, it is cases may be said to be conditioned by primitive credulity or maintained (notably by Professor Pierre Janet, whose studies of the suggestibility of ignorance. (6) But the same person will not hysterical patients are celebrated) that suggestibility is a con- be found to be equally suggestible at all times under similar exdition peculiar to hysterical subjects. In view of assertions of ternal conditions. A man is least suggestible when his mind physicians that they find more than 90% of all subjects hyp- works most efficiently; every departure from this state, due to notizable, it would seem that this stigmatization of suggestibility fatigue, bodily ill-health, emotional perturbation, drugs or any as in every case a morbid symptom, is erroneous. A second group other cause, favours suggestibility. (c) Persons of equal degrees consists of writers who admit that suggestion may operate in of knowledge or ignorance will be found, even at their times of normal minds, but that it is a process of very exceptional nature. greatest mental efficiency, to be unequally suggestible owing to They hold that suggestion, whether it occurs in morbid or in differences of native disposition; one person is by nature more healthy subjects, always implies the coming into operation of some open than another to personal influence, more easily swayed by obscurely conceived faculty or region of the mind which is others, more ready to accept their dicta and adopt their opinions present in all men, but which usually lies hidden beneath our more for his own. Differences of this kind are probably the expression commonplace mental activities. This submerged faculty is of differences in the native strength of one of the fundamental variously called the secondary or submerged stratum of con- instinctive dispositions of the human mind. sciousness, the subconscious or subliminal self (see SUBLIMINAL Considered from the side of the agent, suggestion is favoured SELF). These writers insist upon the more startling of the effects by whatever tends to render him impressive to the subject or producible by suggestion, such as paralysis, contracture, hyper- patient—great bodily strength or stature, fine clothes, a conaesthesia, increased power of recollection, hallucinations (q v.), fident manner, superior abilities of any kind, age and experience, etc.; and they regard dissociation as. the process by which the any reputation for special capacities, high social position or the supernormal faculty (or faculties) is liberated from the normal occupation of any position of acknowledged authority; in short, waking self. all that is summed up by the term “personality,” all that conA third view connects itself with, and bases itself upon, the tributes to make a personality “magnetic” or to give it prestige view of Professor Bernheim and his colleagues of the Nancy renders it capable of evoking on the part of others the submissive school of hypnotism. According to this view all men are normally suggestible attitude. A group of persons in agreement is capable suggestible under favourable conditions, and the hypnotic subject of evoking the suggestible attitude far more effectively than and the hysteric patient differ from the normal human being any single member of the group, and the larger the group the chiefy in that their normal suggestibility is more or less (some- more strongly does it exert this influence. Hence the suggestive times very greatly) increased, owing to the prevalence of the force of the popularly accepted maxims and well-established state of cerebral dissociation. social conventions; such propositions are collective suggestions According to this third view, suggestion may be defined as the which carry with them all the immense collective prestige of communication of any proposition from one person (or persons) organized society, both of the present and the past; they embody to another in such a way as to secure its acceptance with convic- the wisdom of the ages. It is in the main through the suggestive ton, in the absence of adequate logical grounds for its acceptance. power of moral maxims, endowed with all the prestige of great The ideą or belief so introduced to the mind of the recipient is moral teachers and of the collective voice of society, that the held to operate powerfully upon his bodily and mental processes child is’led to accept with but little questioning the code of morals i proportion to the degree of its dominance over all other ideas of his age and country; and the propagation of all religious and or mental processes; and the extraordinary character of the other dogma rests on the same basis. The normal suggestibility effects, both bodily and mental, of suggestion in hypnotic and of the child is thus a principal condition of its docility, and it is hysterical subjects is held to be due to the fact that, in these in the main by the operation of normal suggestion that society conditions of mental dissociation, the dominance of the suggested moulds the characters, sentiments and beliefs of its members, idea is complete and absolute; whereas in the absence of such and renders the mass of its elements harmonious and homogeneous dissociation the operation of the suggested idea is always subject to the degree that is a necessary condition of its collective mental

SUHL—SUICIDE

532

life. Normal suggestion produces its most striking effects in the form of mass-suggestion, z.e., when it operates in large assemblies or crowds, especially if the members have but little positive knowledge and culture. Conditions very favourable to mass-suggestion prevailed during the middle ages of European history; for these “dark ages” were characterized by the existence of dense populations, among whom there was free intercourse but very little positive knowl-

another.

As to “occupational” suicide, the data are too meagre

to allow

of definite inferences.

Climatic

influences

appear to

be uniformly at work in most countries, the rate rising with the

lengthening of the days and the increase of temperature and declining to minimum in winter. Religion appears to have a modi. fying influence on suicide, Jews being less prone to self-destryc. tion than Roman Catholics and Roman Catholics than Protestants when living under similar conditions. Thus in Switzerland, the

edge of nature, and who were dominated by a church wielding immense prestige. Hence the frequent and powerful operations of suggestion on a large scale. From time to time fantastic beliefs, giving rise to most extravagant behaviour, swept over large areas of Europe like virulent epidemics—epidemics of dancing, of flagellation, of hallucination, of belief in the miraculous powers of relics or of individuals, and so forth. At the present time, modified instances are the popular pilgrimages to Lourdes, Holywell and other places that acquire reputations for miraculous curative powers.

suicide-rate is invariably much higher in the Protestant than in the Roman Catholic cantons. According to the late Dr, Ogle,, suicide is more common among the educated than the illiterate classes, and the latest statistics for England and Wales show it to be considerably higher in the two highest groups arranged accord. ing to social well-being than in the three lower ones. In the United States the suicide-rate for whites is considerably higher than that for negroes. Loss of interest in life itself is probably a powerful factor. There is the striking fact that the rate for unoccupied males in England and Wales is enormously greater than for those Auto-suggestion.—Although auto-suggestion does not strictly who are occupied. Generally speaking the rate is higher in the fall under the definition of suggestion given above, its usage to cities and large towns than in the rural areas. denote a mental process which produces effects very similar to Suicide by Sex and Age.—Men are much more prone to comthose producible by suggestion is now so well established that it mit suicide than are women. In England and Wales, the propormust be accepted. In auto-suggestion a proposition is formulated tions are about three to one—the rate for males in the quinquenin the mind of the subject rather than communicated from an- nium 1921—25 being 154 per million against 54 for females. In other mind, and is accepted with conviction in the absence of New Zealand, the disproportion was even greater, the respective adequate logical grounds. Generally the belief is initiated by some rates being 192 and 46. In Germany, Italy and the Netherlands external event or some bodily change, or through some interpreta- the ratio of male to female suicides was nearly as high as in Engtion of the behaviour of other persons; e.g., a man falls on the land and Wales. Even in Japan, the male suicide rate is fifty per road and a wagon very nearly passes over his legs, perhaps grazing cent above that for females. In Europe, as in other parts of the them merely; when he is picked up, his legs are found to be world for which statistics are available, the suicide rate rises with paralysed. The event has induced the conviction that his legs are age, the maximum being attained after 50. With women, however, seriously injured, and this conviction operates so effectively as the rise is not so regular as with men, there being a more decided to realize itself. Or a savage, suffering some slight indisposition, rise at the earlier years 15 to 20 years. In 1926 the figures at ageinterprets the behaviour of some person in a way which leads him groups were in England and Wales :— to the conviction that this person is compassing his death by means of magical practices; accordingly he lies down in deep despondLO-15 | 1§-20 | 20-25 | 25-35 |35-45 |45-55 |55-65 pt ency and, in the course of some days or weeks, dies, unless his Males friends succeed in buying off, or in some way counteracting, the 54 | 117 | 207 | 522 | 779 | 780 | 547 Females 80 | 203 | 272 | 340 | 258 | 136 58 malign influence. Or, as a more familiar and trivial instance of auto-suggestion, we may cite the case of a man who, having taken Methods Employed.—The modes adopted by suicides to bring a bread pill in the belief that it contains a strong purgative or about their own destruction follow fairly well defined lines, men emetic, realizes the results that he expects. adopting the cruder methods and women avoiding in general those BIBLioGRAPHY.—H. Bernheim, De la Suggestion, et de ses applicamodes which involve the spilling of blood or personal disfiguretions @ la thérapeutique (2nd ed., Paris, 1887); Pierre Janet, The ment. There are, however, what may be termed new fashions in Major Symptoms of Hysteria (London, 1907); Otto Stoll, Suggestion und Hypnotismus in der Volkerpsychologie (2nd ed., Leipzig, 1904); suicide, while a determining factor is often the accessibility of the Boris Sidis, The Psychology of Suggestion (New York, 1898); W. M. means to achieve the desired end. The following brief table shows Keatinge, Suggestion in Education (London, 1907); F. W. H. Myers, what happened in England and Wales in the case of the adoption Human Personality and its Survival of Bodily Death (London, 1903; of coal-gas as a means of self destruction. 2nd ed., abridged, 1907); A. Binet, La Suggestibilité (Paris, 1900); Suicides G. W. Jacoby, Suggestion and Psychotherapy (1912) ; E. Stemplinger, Sympathieglaube und Sympathiekuren in Altertum und Neuzeit (1919); P. Janet, Les Médications psychologues: études sur les méthodes de la psychothérapie (3 vols., 1919) ; C. Lloyd Tuckey, Treat- | |—————______ EEment by Hypnotism and Suggestion (1921); E. Coué and J. L. Orton, | Conscious Auto-Suggestion (1924); C. Baudouin, Psychologie de la Total . Suggestion et de Autosuggestion (Neuchâtel, 4th ed., 1924; trans. E. By hanging and C. Paul, Suggestion and Auto-Suggestion, 1924) ; L. Satow, Hypn drowning notism and Suggestion (1923) ; L. S. Penrose, “Some Experiments upon » Cutting. Inhibition and Suggestion” in Britisk Journal of Psychology, vol. 16 4, Corrosives

(1926). See also literature under HYPNOTISM.

(W. McD.)

SUHL, a town in Prussian Saxony, situated on the Lauter, in the Thuringian Forest. Pop. (1925) 15,557. Suhl, which obtained civic rights in 1527, formed a part of Saxony assigned to Prussia by the Congress of Vienna in 1815. The armourers of Suhl, mentioned in the oth century, enjoyed their highest vogue from 1550 to 1634. The knights of south Germany especially prized the swords and armour of this town.

_ SUICIDE, the act of intentional self-destruction.

At the

present time it is held to be reprehensible, if not indeed criminal, in ethics and in law. This was not always the case. Even in Euro-

pean countries it is not so very long ago that suicide was esteemed infinitely more honourable than disgrace. | i

Factors Affecting.—Much nas been written as to the strik-

ing differences in the suicide-rate

between

one

country

and

», gaseous poisons

in England and Wales Years 1900-6 Males

[l

Females

Zo

A

Both sexes

Jo

17,455 5,124

100 | 5,752 30 940

I00 |23,207 x6 | 6o64

3,231 2,240 98

600 18 13 | 1,517 06 28

0 | 3,83x 26 | 3,757 ors} x26

3305

19 | 1,037

33 | 5:242

Females

7,782

By hanging

1,072

», drowning

,, cutting.

», corrosives

.

„ gaseous poisoning

.

23

16 16 o5

|’ Both sexes

% Total

%

I00 26

|.

%

100 | 29,402 I00 14|

5,463

18

2,362

30|

6,066

21

1,366

17|

3,022

10]

725

1,218

g|

4,677

16

2,876

The most notable feature is, of course, the enormous rise in the suicides from gaseous poisoning during the present century, The following are, in order of preference, the methods adopted in recent years In some other countries

SUIDAS South Carolina Mississippi . North Carolina Alabama .

Males United States

rt

Italy

Firearms

Switzerland

I

Firearms

2 Hanging

2

Hanging

2

Firearms

3 4

3 4

Drowning Poison

3

Drowning a

Poison gas Corrosives

1

Hanging

1

Italy

Poison gas

t

2 Corrosives 3 Firearms

2 3

1

Drowning Hanging

Hanging

3

Poison Bs

4 Drowning

belligerents closely affected by war conditions show beyond any

possibility of doubt the profound effect produced upon the suiciderate by the World War. To the theory that nervous strain is one of the prime causes which lead to self-destruction, they give a complete and emphatic contradiction—while

one of, if not the, most potent of the factors at work. The following table shows the suicide rate per 1 million in the years immediately preceding, during and after the World War:

For example, in Eng-

at any rate up to the beginning of the present century. For England and Wales the rates were:— 1871-75 ae 1891-95 IQOI~O5

a

4 a

i a 2

oe.

@

&

ee eo

Be,

”

.

- 130 ,,

Belgium (1922) .

3

é

.

.

-

:

.

-

.

200

» 3 ”

35)

2

3 ” ” 29

228

”?

”

”

©- 243

y

2»

”

-. 275°

»

2

7)

It has been stated that in any given country suicide is more frequent in the hotter months of the year and one would naturally conclude that in warmer countries the rate would be higher than in the colder ones. A glance at the above table shows that such is far from being the case. Within the United States the range of the rate from State to State was as great as that shown in the preceding table. The four States with the lowest and with the

highest rates in 1925, were:—

IQII-14 1915-18 IQ2I-25

Men

Women

152 III 154

49 44 54

Thus, while the fall during the war for men was one of 37 per

cent, for women it was ro per cent. Here, finally are the, percentage declines in the general suicide-rate during the years I9g15—-18 in the eleven countries under review: New Zealand Italy . Japan. . United States

Scotland. Australia

.

..

.

.

.

.

.

. .

.

To

9g 9°5 .«. IO e OS

. I9 . Ig

Switzerland . ©. Germany ` a. England and Wales Union of South Africa. Sweden. o. . .

-= g . . «., .

To,

2I TBA 26 28 30

(S. o J.)

SUIDAS,

Greek lexicographer.

Nothing is known of ‘him,

except that ‘he must have lived before Eustathius (xath-13th century), who frequently quotes him. Under the heading “Adam” the author of the lexicon (which a prefatory note states to be “by Suidas”) gives a brief chronology of the world, ending with the death of the emperor John Zimisces (975), and under “Constantinople” his successors Basil and Constantine are mentioned. It would thus appear that Suidas lived in the latter part of the roth century. The lexicon of Suidas is arranged alphabetically with some slight deviations. It partakes of the nature of a dic-

534

SUI-FU—SUKHOMLINOV

tionary and encyclopaedia. It includes numerous quotations from ancient writers; the scholiasts on Aristophanes, Homer, Sophocles and Thucydides are also much used. The work deals with scriptural as well as pagan subjects, and doubtless the writer was a Christian. A prefatory note gives a list of earlier dictionaries. Although the work is uncritical, interpolated, and very unequal, it contains much information on ancient history and life. Editio princeps, by Demetrius Chalcondyles (1499); later editions by L. Küster (1705), T. Gaisford (1834), G. Bernhardy (1834-53) and I. Bekker (1854); see A. Daub, De S. Biographicorum origine et fide (1880) and Studien zu den Biographika des S. (1882); and J. E. Sandys, Hist. of Classical Scholarship (1906), p. 407.

SUI-FU (Su-cHow-rvu), a Chinese river port at the junction of the Minkiang and the Kin-sha-kiang, in south-west Szechwan. In the south of the province are favourable conditions for breeding the wax insect on the insect trees. The insects are taken at the end of April, travelling by night along the hillsides, to secure coolness and delay hatching, to the district of Kia-ting-fu, on the Minkiang, north of Sui-fu, where the insects are put on the trees, appear to contract a disease and secrete wax. The wax is dealt in at Sui-fu. The town receives medicinal herbs and extracts, musk, etc., from Tibet, and metals from Yunnan; it exports cotton goods, chiefly to Yunnan. A recent estimate of the population gives a total of 125,000.

SUIJO-SUNAYE (sand-picture-on-water): see BON-SEKI. | SUINA, a group of non-ruminating artiodactyle ungulate

name would suggest. It sometimes precedes the sarabande. The suite concludes with a gigue, in the finest examples of

which the melodic binary form is combined with a light fugue

style. The gigue is generally in some triplet rhythm, e.g., 2a 8 22. but examples in a graver style may be found in slow square time with dotted rhythms, as in Bach’s first French suite and the

sixth Partita of the Klaviertibung. In Couperin’s first volume of Ordres, the gigue is followed by an enormous number of pieces which cannot have been intended to be all played on the same occasion, though they were all in the same key.

Suites on a large scale begin with a prelude in some larger form. Bach’s French Suites have no preludes; his English Suites

all have a great first movement which, except in the first suite, is in full da capo concerto form. His Partitas cover a wider range both in their preludes and their other contents. Some large suites have finales after the gigue, the great chaconne for violin solo

being the finale of a partita (see VARIATIONS). Examples illustrating the suite: (a) Allemande

GON eet

ee oiee a a io “a ae

Abr

os

of dance tunes in melodic forms (see Sonata Forms). It consists essentially of four principal movements with the insertion of one | or more lighter movements between the third and the last. The first movement is the allemande, in slow common time and rich flowing rhythm, beginning with one or three short. notes

before the first full bar. The second movement is the courante, of which there are two kinds. The French courante begins with one or three notes before the main beat, and is in a triple time (2) which, invariably at the cadences and sometimes elsewhere, drops into a crossing triple rhythm of twice the pace ($). In homage to Couperin, Bach often uses the French courante, but he is happier with the Italian type of corrente, a brilliant continuously running piece in quick triple time (4 or $). The sarabande is a slow movement in triple time beginning on the full bar, and with at least a tendency to the rhythm

a

a

Baca.

(b) French Courante 6

mammals typified by the swine (Suidae), but also including the hippopotamus (Hippopotamidae), and certain extinct forms. (See ARTIODACTYLA; Hippopotamus; Peccary; SWINE.)

SUI-SEKI (stone-in-water): see BoN-SEKI. SUITE (Suite de pièces; Ordre; Partita), in music, a group

Baca. Fourth Violin Solo.

W

A aee

aa

A

a

=I

First English Suite.

y r

r

ai

(c) Italian Courante

Piteas A,DRR; ys TR

a's

a

ł

p bana

(d) Sarabande

Bacu. Sixth Violoncello Suite.

2 24 dy dtgise diss cho jo d [i

le.

~_e9_2

Cpe an =

A

pe ee ee

Pee

| fot |

A

2?

meam jd

Le

eirrmmsnes

gry

“2

gee So

ee 2

EO

S|

Hom

|

Beles | of which Handel’s aria Lascia ch'io pianga is a familiar example. Bach’s sarabandes are among the most simply eloquent and characteristic of his smaller compositions.

Then come the galanteries, from one to three in number. These are the only suite-movements (except some of Couperin’s courantes) which can have an alternative section and a da capo. The commonest galanteries are: (1) the minuet, often with a second minuet which is called “trio” only when it is in real three-part writing; it is a little faster than the stately minuet in Mozart’s Don Giovanni, and it always begins on the full bar. (2) The gavotte, a lively dance in a not too rapid alla breve time; the gavotte always begins on the half-bar. A second alternating

For another type of Gigue see SonaTA Forms, Ex. 1, and fora Gavotte see RONDO, Ex. 1.

The later uses of the word “suite” comprise almost all sets of

pieces mamly in forms smaller than those of the sonata, especially such pieces as have been selected from ballets or from incidental music to plays. (D. F. T.) ), Czech violinist and composer, SUK, JOSEF (1874was born at Křečovice, Bohemia, on Jan. 4, 1874. He studied at Prague conservatorium, taking composition with Dvorak, whose gavotte is frequently founded on a pedal or drone-bass, and is daughter Ottilie he afterwards married. He was a member of the then called musette. (3) The bourrée, which is not unlike the celebrated Bohemian Quartet. He became (1924) director of the gavotte, but quicker, and beginning on the last quarter of the bar. Conservatorium at Prague. His principal works are the sym(4) The passepied, a lively dance in quick triple time, beginning phonic poems: Prague, op. 26, Asrael, op. 27, Summer Tale, op. on the third beat. These dances are not always cast in binary 29, and Zrani, op. 34 (1924); incidental music to the dramatized form, and there are famous examples of gavottes and passepieds fairy-tale, Raduz and Mahulena; Meditation on the choral St. en rondeau. Other less common galanteries are: (5) the loure, Wenceslaus, Legend of Dead Victors (a war work); piano pieces, a slow dance in $time and dotted rhythm; (6) the polonaise, a settings of Serbian folk-songs, and chamber music, including a leisurely triple-time piece, with cadences on the second instead of string quartet op 35a.

(as in later polonaises) the third beat of the bar; (7) the air, a

short movement, quietly flowing, in a more florid style than its

SUKHOMLINOV,

VLADIMIR

(1848-1926),

general and war minister, was born in 1848.

Russian

He took part in

SUKHUM-KALEH—SULGRAVE the Russo-Lurkish war as a staff officer (1877-78), and was head of the officers’ cavalry school in St. Petersburg from 1886-97,

being now promoted

general. He was Russian war minister from 1909-16, and it was under him that the Russian orders for

mobilization were given at the outbreak of the World War.

He

MANOR

535

well forested, with bays affording anchorage, but also with reefs. They furnish trepang and turtle. The people, who are mostly pagan, though Mohammedans live along the coast, are poor and miserably housed Royal Packet Navigation vessels call at Banggai. The Sula and Banggai isles once formed part of the territory

played a disastrous role in the administration of the Russian

of the Sultan of Ternate and came under Dutch influence when,

army, but it was only in 1916, under pressure of public opinion, that the Tsar Nicholas II. dismissed him from office. He was

in 1683, the Dutch stripped the Sultan of his possessions. (E. E. L.)

finally tried and sentenced to penal servitude on the charge of

SULCI, an ancient town (mod. S. Antioco), on an island on

the south-west of Sardinia and of Carthaginian origin. Its walls, of rectangular blocks of stone, can be traced for more than a mile. Phoenician and Roman antiquities, including statues, inscriptions, gems and a cistern of fine masonry, perhaps dating from the Punic is in the Abkhasian $.5.R. Pop. (1926) 20,032. Sukhum Bay is period, have been found. The Phoenician tombs are cut in the sheltered by mountains and is never frozen, but the anchorage is rock, each measuring about 14 ft. square and 8 ft. high, and poor. There is no railway link with the interior, though a line is approached by a staircase: some are converted into dwellings. under construction (1928); the site is marshy and malarial. It is Curious sculptured stelae found in these tombs are in the museum the ancient Greek Dioskurias, and was in Turkish possession until of Cagliari. The goddess Tanit is represented, often in a form 1329, since when it has been Russian except for temporary Turk- resembling Isis. The Roman tombs are simply rock trenches. ish occupation in 1854 and 1877. There are catacombs originally Punic tombs, connected by SUKKUR, a town and district in Sind, Bombay. The town passages in which was discovered the body of the martyr St. stands on the right bank of the Indus 24 mi. S.E. of Shikarpur. Antiochus, from whom the modern town takes its name. The Pop. (1921) 42,759. The river is now crossed by a cantilever church is cruciform, with heavy pillars and a dome: it is Byzanbridge carrying the North-Western railway to Kotri. tine. A fort occupies the highest point—the acropolis of the The DISTRICT OF SUKKUR was created in 1901 out of part of Punic period. The isthmus which, with bridges, connects the Shikarpur district, the remainder of which was formed into the island with the mainland, is in part artificial. At Tratalias, on district of Larkana. Area, 5,606 sq.m.; pop. (1921) 510,292. It the mainland is the fine Romanesque church of S. Maria (12this chiefly alluvial plain, but there are slight hills at Sukkur and 13th cent.), formerly the cathedral. At Sulci, the Carthaginian Rohri. A considerable part of the district is irrigated, the princi- admiral Hannibal took refuge after his defeat by C. Sulpicius, but pal crops being wheat, millets, rice, pulses and oil seeds. Earthen, was crucified. (See Punic Wars.) In 46 B.c. the city was punleathern and metal ware, cotton cloth and tussore silk are manu- ished by Caesar for having helped Pompey’s admiral Nasidius. (T. A.) factured, also pipe-bowls, snuff-boxes and scissors. Lines of the North-Western railway serve the district, and there is a branch SULEIMAN: see SOLIMAN. from Sukkur towards Quetta. Sukkur is the site of the proposed SULEIMANTYE, an Iraqi town on the Persian frontier, on Lloyd Barrage of the Indus. The scheme, which is estimated to the caravan route from Baghdad to Tabriz. Pop. (mostly Kurds) probably somewhat over 10,000. There was formerly a large trade cost £12,000,000 will provide irrigation for 5-3 million acres. SULA ISLANDS, a chain of islands (Sulla, Xulla, Dutch with Persia. The town gives its name to the administrative diviSoela), east of Celebes, Dutch East Indies, really an extension sion. of the eastern peninsula of that island. There are three large SULGRAVE MANOR, the early English home of the islands, Taliabu, Mangola and Sula Besi, and several smaller ones. ancestors of George Washington. Situated 254m. N.W. of HelmTaliabu and Mangola, very long and narrow, extend west and don in Northamptonshire, England, it is a notable shrine. east (with Lisamatula), 135 miles. Both are mountainous, thickly Laurence Washington, twice mayor of Northampton, bought the forested, and thinly populated. Taliabu, the largest in area, very property from King Henry VIII. in 1539, on the dissolution of little known, is said to contain mountains from 3,000 to 4,000 ft. high, and hot springs. Mangola, which is much narrower than Taliabu, has Mt. Buja in its western part. Sula Besi, the smallest uw a P Si ren, of the three, is well populated and cultivated. Wallace considers g EEN p there is an approximation between the birds of the Sula isles and those of Buru, indicating that intervening land has disap-

treason, but was freed by an amnesty granted by the Bolsheviks and went to Finland. In 192r he began the publication of his memoirs, which were completed in 1924. SUKHUM-KALEH, a Russian seaport on the Black Sea. It

w,

Ry n

Tey

è 4y «SPR d »; 2 as = s! Ms

47

`

ym

peared. The babirusa and crested baboon the Sula islands Weber’s Line, suggested sion between the Oriental and Australian place of the Wallace Line, passes east of

of Buru are found in as an alternative divizoological regions, in the Sula Islands, but The islands produce good timber for shipbuilding

west of Buru. and the natives are good navigators. Damar is collected in the forests; rice, maize, tobacco and sugar-cane are grown on Sula Besi, where cultivation is far superior to that of the other islands, and the sago palm is common, forming the staple food on Taliabu and Mangola. Coal of inferior quality is found on Sula Besi, Where the natives weave sarongs and plait mats. The population of the islands is estimated at 16,458, with 20 Europeans and Eurasians. The people resemble the natives of Buru and Ceram; Wallace thinks the Sula islanders are Malays from eastern

Celebes. Most of the natives are pagans, but Mohammedanism is making headway, particularly in Sula Besi, the capital of which island, Sanana (pop. 1,725) is the residence of the Gezaghebber In charge of the islands, which form part of the residency of Ternate. Sanana, formerly the haunt of pirates, has a, good roadstead, and is a port of call for vessels of the Royal Packet Navigation company. The Banggai or Peling islands, which lie off the western end of Taliabu, and also form part of the residency of Ternate, are little known, except that Peling is mountainous and

Re

e R LIRE SUT sre ge ye SE bee

:

SULGRAVE MANOR, NORTHAMPTONSHIRE, GEORGE WASHINGTON

THE

ANCESTRAL

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the smaller religious houses. It had previously belonged to the priory of St. Andrew, Northampton. Laurence Washington, from whom George Washington was seventh in direct descent, and his children and grandchildren lived in the manor house until 1610.

!

Sulgrave Manor was purchased, in Jan. 1914, for £8,400, by the British committee for the celebration of roo years of peace between Great Britain and the United States (1814-1914), and is vested in three ex-officio trustees: the American ambassador in London, the British ambassador in Washington and the regent of the Mount Vernon Ladies’ Association of the Union.

SULIDAE—SULLA

536

It is partly restored to its original condition, and furnished with choice furniture of the period. A formal reopening took place, on June 2r 1921. In 1927 the restoration was completed by the rebuilding of the western wing, which had been demolished in the t8th century. The funds were collected by the American Society of Colonial Dames, which body had, two years previously, raised a permanent endowment of over £20,000.

On the gable of the central porch are the royal arms of the Tudors; and in the right spandrel of the arch of the main doorway, the Washington Arms, three mullets and two bars, which

were the origin of the Stars and Stripes, the American national flag. The furnishings are gifts from British and American donors, and include an original Gilbert Stuart portrait of George Washington and many other treasures.

(L. oF F.)

SULIDAE: see GANNET. SULIMAN HILLS, a mountain system on the north-west frontier of India. The chief mäss of the range is known as Takht-i-Suliman or Solomon’s throne. The legend of the mountain is that Solomon visited Hindostan to marry Balkis, and that as they were returning through the air, on a throne supported by genii, the bride implored the bridegroom to let her look back for a few moments on her beloved land. Solomon directed the genii to scoop out a hollow for the throne on the summit of the mountain. The hollow is a cavity some 30 ft. square cut out of the solid rock, at the southern extremity of the mountain and is a place of pilgrimage for both Hindus and Mohammedans. The shrine is about 2 m. S. of the highest peak. The whole mountain culminates in two points, 11,070 ft. and 11,300 ft. high. SULINA, the second Black sea port of Rumania, and the only free port for imports. Pop. (1928) 8,000. Grain is brought down the Danube for ocean-going steamers. The port: is under the European Danube Commission. The depth of water at the Sulina entrance to the Danube is 24 feet. The mouth is generally blocked with ice in the winter.

SULITJELMA,

a mountain (6,158 ft.) on the frontier be-

tween Norway and Sweden. It is covered with a snow-field from which many glaciers descend. The mountain is famous as a source of pyrites, rich in copper, which occurs as lodes in schists. From Sjonstaa steamers on the Langvand and a light railway give communication between the sea and Furulund, the mining

centre. SULLA, LUCIUS CORNELIUS (138~78 3.c.), surnamed FELIX, Roman general, politician and dictator, belonged to a minor and impoverished branch of the famous patrician Cornelian gens. He was quaestor in 107 under Marius, for whom he commanded the cavalry in the Jugurthian war. The surrender of Jugurtha was made to Sulla, and was the beginning of the rivalry with Marius. Sulla won the enthusiastic devotion of his troops. From to4 to ror he served again under Marius in the war with the Cimbri and Teutons and fought in the last great battle in the Raudian plains near Verona. In 93 he was elected praetor after a lavish squandering of money and he delighted the populace with an exhibition of a hundred lions from Africa. Next year (92) he went as propraetor of Cilicia with special authority from the senate to make Mithradates VI. of Pontus restore Cappadocia to Ariobarzanes, one of Rome’s dependants in Asia. This he did, subsequently receiving an embassy from the Parthians asking alliance with Rome. In gr he returned to Rome, now one of the leading

men on the senatorial side. He outshone Marius in the Social War by defeating the Samnites and taking Bovianum. ` Consul.—Sulla was consul in 88, and finished the révolt by the

victory after victory against the armies of Mithradates and accumulating boundless plunder. Athens, the headquarters of the Mithradatic cause, was taken and sacked in 86; and in the same

year, at Chaeroneia, the scene of Philip II. of Macedon’s victory more than two and a half centuries before, and in the year following, at the neighbouring Orchomenus, he scattered immense hosts of the enemy with trifling loss to himself. Crossing the Hellespont in 84 into Asia, he was joined by the troops of C. Flavius Fimbria, who soon deserted their general, a man sent out by the Marian

party, now again in the ascendant at Rome. The same year peace was concluded with Mithradates. Sulla returned to Italy in 83, landing at Brundisium.

Marius

had died in 86, and the revolutionary party, specially represented by L. Cornelius Cinna, Cn. Papirius Carbo and the younger Marius, had massacred Sulla’s supporters wholesale, confiscated his property, and declared him a public enemy. They had large forces ready to meet him, but Sulla’s declaration that he did not intend to deprive the Italians of the franchise cut the ground from under their feet, and only the Samnites remained in arms. In the following year (82) he won a decisive victory over the younger Marius near Praeneste (mod. Palestrina) and then marched upon Rome, where again, just before his defeat of

Marius, there had been a great massacre of his adherents, in

which the learned jurist Q. Mucius Scaevola perished. Rome was at the same time in extreme peril from the advance of a Samnite army, and was barely saved by Sulla, who, after a hardfought battle, routed the enemy under Pontius Telesinus at the

Colline gate of Rome.

With the death of the younger Marius,

‘who killed himself after the surrender of Praeneste, the civil war was at an end, and Sulla was master of Rome. Then came the memorable “proscription,” when for the first time in Roman history a list of men declared to be outlaws and public enemies was exhibited in the forum, so starting a reign of terror. Dictator.—The title of “dictator” was revived and Sulla was in fact emperor of Rome. After celebrating a splendid triumph for the Mithradatic War and assuming the surname of ‘Felix’ he carried in 80 and 70 his great political reforms (see Rome: His-

tory). Their effect was to establish the senate by law in the position which it had held’ unchallenged by custom until the Gracchi, to systematise the provincial arrangements, and to set up a permanent organization for the courts of justice. The mainstay of his political system was to be the military colonies which he had established with grants of land throughout every part of Italy, to the final ruin of Italian agriculture. . In 79 Sulla resigned his dictatorship and retired to Puteoli (mod. Pozzuoli), where he died in the following year, probably, from the bursting of a blood-vessel in a fit of passion. The “halflion, half fox,” as his enemies called him, the “Don Juan of politics” (Mommsen), the man who carried out a policy of “blood and iron” with a grim humour, amused himself in his last days with actors and actresses, with dabbling in poetry and completing his Memoires (see H. Peter, Historicorum romanorum reliquiae). He was accorded a magnificent public funeral, his body being removed to Rome and buried in the Campus Martius. His monument bore an inscription written by himself, to the effect that he had always fully repaid the kindnesses of his friends and the wrongs done him by his enemies. His reforms, mechanically excellent, were all falling to pieces before his death, except the quaestiones perpetuae, which became the basis of Roman criminal

justice. He tried in vain to put the clock back. Brstiocrapuy.—tThe ancient authorities for Sulla and his time are

capture of Nola. Meanwhile he had obtained by lot the command against Mithradates; Marius wanted -that, and in order to get it entered into a coalition with Sulpicius Rufus, who had a plan of revolutionary legislation to carry out. Sulpicius, quite unconstitutionally, transferred the command to Marius by vote of the assembly. Rioting took place at Rome at the prompting of the

his Life by Plutarch (who made use of the Memoirs); Appian, Bel.

popular leaders, Sulla narrowly escaping to his legions in Campania, whence he marched on Rome, being the first Roman who entered the city at the head of a Roman army. Sulpicius was put to death, and Marius fled. Sulla, leaving things quiet at Rome, quitted Italy in 87, and for the next four years he was winning

tribunicia potestate a Lucio Sulla imminuta” in Skrifter utgifna af k, humanistika Vetenskapssamfundet i Uppsala, v., 1897, in which 1t 3s argued against Mommsen that Sulla did not deprive the tribunes of the right of proposing rogations. See also Mommsen’s History of Rome,

civ.; for the references in Cicero see Orelli’s Onomasticon

Tullianum

Modern treatises by C. S, Zacharii, L. Cornelius S. als Ordner des

römischen Freystaates (1834) ; T. Lau, Lucius Cornelius Sulla (1855); E. Linden, De bello civili Sullano (1896); P. Cantalupi, La Guerra civile Sullana in Italia (1892); C. W. Oman, Seven Roman Statesmen (1902); F. D. Gerlach, Marius und Sulla (1856); J. M. Sunden, “De

vol. iii, bk. iv., ch. 8, 9; Drumann, Geschichte Roms, 2nd ed. by Groebe, ii. 364-432; Pauly-Wissowa, Realencyklopadie, iv.

SULLIVAN SULLIVAN, SIR ARTHUR

SEYMOUR

(1842-1900),

English composer, was born in Lambeth on May 13, 1842, being the son of a cultivated Irish musician who was bandmaster at the Royal Military College, Sandhurst, from 1845 to 1856, and taught at the Miltary School of Music at Kneller Hall from 1857 till his death in 1866. His mother, née Mary Coghlan (1811-1882), had Italian blood in her veins. Arthur Sullivan was brought up to music from boyhood, and he had learnt to play every wind instrument in his father’s band by the age of eight. He also had

a fine treble voice, and became a chorister of the Chapel Royal. In 1856 he won the Mendelssohn scholarship at the Royal Academy, where he studied under Sterndale Bennett, Arthur O’Leary

and John Goss. In 1858 he was sent to study at Leipzig, where he had for teachers Moscheles and Plaidy for pianoforte, Hauptmann for counterpoint, Rietz and Reinecke for composition, and F. David for orchestral playing and conducting. After two years’ hard study he returned to London in April 1361 and at his instigation Schumann’s first symphony was introduced at one of the Crystal Palace winter concerts. The fol-

lowing year his own Tempest music was performed at the same concerts. Then followed his Kenilworth cantata (remembered chiefly for the charming duet, “How Sweet the Moonlight”), the

Sapphire Necklace overture, and the five beautiful songs from

Shakespeare, which include “Orpheus with his Lute,” “Oh Mis-

tress Mine” and “The Willow Song.” His attractive personality,

combined with his undoubted genius and brilliant promise, brought him many friends. Costa, who was conductor at Covent Garden, gave him the post of organist, and in 1864 he produced there his Lile Enchantée ballet. Other works followed, and in 1867 he first showed his genius for light operatic music in his collaboration with F.C Burnand in Cox and Box and in Contrabandista. In 1871 Sullivan had become acquainted with W. S. Gilbert (g.v.), and in 1872 they collaborated in a piece for the Gaiety Theatre, called Thespis; or, The Gods Grown Old, which was a great success in spite of the limited vocal resources of the performers. In 1875 R. D’Oyly Carte, then acting as manager for Selina Dolaro at the Royalty, suggested to Gilbert collaboration with Sullivan in a piece for that theatre. Gilbert had already suggested to Sullivan an operetta with its scene in a law court, and within three weeks of his completing the libretto of Trial by Jury the music was written. The piece succeeded beyond all expectation; and on the strength of its promise of further successes D’Oyly Carte formed his Comedy Opera Company and took the Opéra Comique Theatre. There in 1877 The Sorcerer was produced, George Grossmith and Rutland Barrington being in the cast. In 1878 H.M.S. Pinafore was brought out at the Opéra Comique, and ran for 700 nights. In America it was enthusiastically received and pirated right and left and the two authors, with

537

Beauty Stone (1898), with a libretto by A. W. Pinero and J. Comyns Carr; and particularly in The Rose of Persia (1900), : with Basil Hood. In 1872 Sullivan’s Te Deum for the recovery of the prince of Wales was performed at the Crystal Palace. In 1873 he produced at the Birmingham Musical Festival his oratorio The Light of the W orld, in 1877 he wrote his incidental music to Henry VIII., in

1880 his sacred cantata The Martyr Golden Legend was brought out at for the opening of D’Oyly Carte’s Shaftesbury Avenue, now the Palace

of Antioch, and in 1886 The the Leeds Festival. In 1891, new English opera-house in Theatre, he wrote his “grand

opera” Ivanhoe to a libretto by Julian Sturgis. The attempt to put an English opera on the stage for a long run was doomed to failure, but Ivanhoe contains many admirable pages. In 1892 he composed incidental music to Tennyson’s Foresters. In 1897 he wrote a ballet for the Alhambra, called Victoria and Merrie England. Among his numerous songs, the best known are “Orpheus with his Lute,” ‘““Thou’rt Passing Hence” and, most famous of all, “The Lost Chord.” This last, hackneyed as it became, was probably the most successful English song of the roth century. The hymn tune, “Onward, Christian Soldiers!” (1872) shows Sullivan in another light. In 1876 he accepted the principalship of the National Training School of Music, which he held for six years; this was the germ of the subsequent Royal College. He was conductor of the Leeds Festivals from 1879 to 1898, besides being conductor of the Philharmonic Society in 1885. He died on Nov. 22, 1900 and was buried in St. Paul’s cathedral. Among works which he left unpublished may be mentioned a Te Deum written for performance at the end of the Boer War, and an unfinished Savoy opera to a libretto by Basil Hood, which, completed by, Edward German, was produced in rgor as The Emerald Isle. Sullivan was the one really popular English composer of any artistic standing in his time. One of the most agreeable companions, broad-minded, and free from all affectation, he was intensely admired and loved in all circles of society; and though he suffered during many years from a painful ailment, he enjoyed life without being spoilt by success. See A. Lawrence, Sir Arthur Sullivan: Life Story, Letters and Reminiscences (1899); H. Saxe-Wyndham, Arthur Seymour Sullivan (1926); Herbert Sullivan and Newman Flower, Sir Arthur Sullivan, His Life, Letters and Diaries (1928).

SULLIVAN, JOHN (1740-1795), Ametican soldier, was born in Somersworth (now Rollinsford), N.H., on Feb. 17, 1740. He practised law at Berwick, Maine, and at Durham, N.H., was a member of the New Hampshire Provisional Assem-

bly (1774), and also a member of the first Continental Congress. In June, 1775, he was appointed brigadier-general in the ConBoston. In the same D’Oyly Carte, went over to the States in 1879, with a company tinental Army, and aided in the siege of army in Canada, and American the of command took he year, of their own, in order to produce it in New York. To secure from that province. retreat a effecting in skill great the American rights for their next opera, they brought out The exhibited by General Pirates of Penzance first at New York in 1879. In 1880, in Lon- Soon afterward, having been superseded in command in the battle part took and army on’s Washingt rejoined he Gates, don, it ran for nearly 400 nights. In 1881 Patience was produced r he at the Opéra Comique, and was transferred later in the year to of Long Island, where he was taken prisoner In Decembe in command the Savoy Theatre. There all the following operas came out: was exchanged, and succeeded General Charles Lee the Tolanthe (1882), Princess Ida (1884), The Mikado (1885), Rud- as major-general of the right wing of Washington’s army. In 22, digore (1887), The Yeomen of the Guard (1888), The Gondoliers battle of Trenton he led an attack on the Hessians, and on Aug. on Loyalists and British the against attack night a led he 1777, some(1889). The vogue of the new type of light opera owed battle thing to such admirable performers as George Grossmith, Rut- Staten Island. He commanded the American right in the In land Barrington, Miss Jessie Bond, Miss Brandram, and later of Brandywine and took part in the battle of Germantown. in and Island, Rhode in command in placed was he 1778 March W. H. Denny and Walter Passmore; but these artistes only took with ion co-operat his for made were plans summer advantage of the opportunities provided by the two authors. In the following Newport. place of the old adaptations of French opéra bouffe they had sub- the French fleet under Count d’Estaing in an attack on

stituted a genuinely English product, humorous and delightful, without a tinge of vulgarity or the commonplace. But disagree-

The Indian raids in western New York, especially the atrocities

in the Wyoming and Cherry valleys caused a retaliatory expedition

ments arose between them which caused a dissolution of partner-

to be sent to “chastise and humble the Six Nations,” and Sullivan

Chieftain (1894)—largely an adaptation of Contrabandista; The

1779, and in November

the expedition. With about 4,000 men, he ship. Sullivan’s next Savoy opera, Haddon Hall (1892), had a was chosen to lead (now libretto by Sydney Grundy; and the resumption of Gilbert’s defeated the Iroquois and their Loyalist allies at Newtown orcollaboration in 1893 in Utopia, Limited, and again in 1896 in Elmira, N.Y.), burned their villages, and destroyed their of conduct his for criticized severely Although crops. The Grand Duke, was not as successful as before. Sullivan’s chards and of Congress in October thanks the received he expedition, the The in qualities characteristic its showed music, however, still Sullivan was resigned from the army.

SULLIVAN—SULLY-PRUDHOMME

538

again a delegate to the Continental Congress in 1780-81 and from 1782 to 1785 he was attorney-general of New Hampshire. He was president of the State in 1786-87 and in 1789, and in 1786 suppressed an insurrection at Exeter immediately preceding the Shays Rebellion in Massachusetts. He presided over the New Hamp-

next to princes of the blood.

He declined the office of constable

because he would not become a Roman Catholic.

Sully encour.

shire convention which ratified the Federal Constitution in June 1788. From 1789 until his death at Durham, on Jan. 28, 1795, he

aged agriculture, urged the free circulation of produce, promoted stock-raising, forbade the destruction of the forests, drained swamps, built roads and bridges, planned a vast system of canals and actually began the canal of Briare. He strengthened the French military establishment; under his direction Évrard began

was United States district judge in New Hampshire.

the construction of a great line of defences on the frontiers. Sully

See O. W. B. Peabody, “Life of John Sullivan” in Jared Sparks’s Library of American Biography, vol. ii. (1844) ; G. S. Conover, Journals of the Military Expedition of Major John Sullivan against the Six Nations (1887) ; Oscar E. Risine, A New Hampshire Lawyer in General

Washingion’s Army

SULLIVAN,

(Geneva, N.Y., 1915).

a city of south-western Indiana, U.S.A., on

federal highway 41, 26 m. S. of Terre Haute; the county-seat of Sullivan county. It is served by the Chicago and Eastern Illinois, the Chicago, Milwaukee, St. Paul and Pacific, and the Illinois Central railways. The population was 4,489 in 1920, and 5,306 in 1930. It is in one of the principal coalfields of the State, and there are oil-wells near by. The city was founded in 1842 and incorporated in I909.

SULLY,

JAMES

(1842-1923), English psychologist, was

born on the 3rd of March 1842 at Bridgwater, and was educated at the Independent college, Taunton, the Regent’s Park college, Göttingen and Berlin. He was originally destined for the Nonconformist ministry, but in 1871 adopted a literary and philosophic career. He was Grote professor of the philosophy of mind logic at University college, London, from 1892 to 1903, when he was succeeded by Carveth Read. An adherent of the associationist school of psychology, his views had great affinity with those of Alexander Bain. His monographs, as that on pessimism, are ably and readably written, and his text-books, of which The Human Mind (1892) is the most important, are models of sound exposition. He died at Richmond, Surrey, on Oct. 31, 1923. Works.—Sensation and Intuition (1874), Pessimism (1877), Ilustons (1881; 4th ed., 1895), Outlines of Psychology (1884; many editions), Teacher’s Handbook of Psychology (1886), Studies of Child-

spas

1902).

h Childrens Ways

(1897), and An Essay on Laughter

SULLY, MAXIMILIEN DE BETHUNE, Dwc pz (1560-

1641), French statesman, was born at the chateau of Rosny near Mantes, on Dec. 13, 1560, son of Francois de Béthune, baron de Rosny (1532-1575). Brought up in the Reformed faith, Maximilien joined the court of Henry of Navarre in 1571. He was taken to Paris by his patron, and was studying at the college of Bourgogne at the time of the St. Bartholomew massacre, from which he escaped by discreetly carrying a book of hours under his arm. On the outbreak of civil war in 1575 he enlisted in the Huguenot army. In 1576 he accompanied the duke of Anjou on an expedition into the Netherlands in order to regain the former Rosny estates, but being unsuccessful he attached himself for a time to the prince of Orange. Later rejoining Henry of Navarre in Guienne, he displayed particular ability as an engineer. In 1583 he was Henry’s special agent in Paris. In 1584 he married Anne de Courtenay, a wealthy heiress, who died, however, in 1589. On the renewal of civil war Rosny again joined Henry of

opposed the king’s colonial policy as inconsistent with the French genius, and likewise showed little favour to industrial pursuits, although on the urgent solicitation of the king he established a few silk factories.

He fought in company

with Henry IV. in

Savoy (1600-1601) and negotiated the treaty of peace in 1602: in 1603 he represented Henry at the court of James I. of England;

and throughout the reign he helped the king to put down insur. rections of the nobles, whether Roman Catholic or Protestant. It was Sully, too, who arranged the marriage between Henry Iv, and Marie de Médicis. The political rôle of Sully practically ended with the assassination of Henry IV. on May 14, 1610. Although a member of the council of regency, his colleagues were not disposed to brook his domineering leadership, and after a stormy debate he resigned

as superintendent of finances on Jan. 26, 1611, and retired to private life. The baton of marshal of France was conferred on him on Sept. 18, 1634. He died at Villebon, on Dec. 22, 1641.

Sully was hated by Catholics because he was a Protestant, by Protestants because he was faithful to the king. He was an excellent man of business, inexorable in punishing malversation

and opposed to the ruinous expenditure which was the bane of European monarchies. He was implicitly trusted by Henry IV., and contributed greatly to the recovery of France. Sully left a curious collection of memoirs bearing the title, Mémoires des sages et royales oeconomies d’estat, domestiques, politiques, et militaires de Henry le Grand. ... The Mémoires are very valuable for the history of the time, though they contain fictitious matter such as a mission by Sully to England in 1601, and the “grand design” for a Christian republic. The best edition of the original is that in J. F. Michaud and J. J. F. Poujoulat, Nouvelle collection des mémoires relatifs à Vhistoire de France (1854), vols. xvi.—xvii. An English translation by Charlotte Lennox appeared in 1756 and was later revised and republished (4 vols., London, 1856). See E. Lavisse, Sully (Paris, 1880) ; G. Fagniez, Économie sociale de la France sous Henri IV. (Paris, 1897).

SULLY, THOMAS

(1783-1872), American artist, was born

at Horncastle, England, on June 8, 1783. His parents, who were actors, took him to America, when he was nine years old, settling

at Charleston (S.C.), and he was first instructed in art by a French miniature painter. Afterwards he was a pupil of Gilbert Stuart in Boston, and in 1809 he went to London and entered the studio of Benjamin West. He returned in 1810, and made Philadelphia his home, but in 1837 again visited London, where he painted a fulllength portrait of Queen Victoria for the St. George’s Society of Philadelphia. Sully was one of the best of the early American painters. He died in Philadelphia on Nov. 5, 1872. Among his

portraits are those of Comm. Decatur (City Hall, New York); the actor, George Frederick Cooke, as Richard III. (Pennsylvania Navarre, and at the battle of Ivry (1590) was seriously wounded. Academy of the Fine Arts, Philadelphia); Lafayette (IndependHe counselled Henry IV.’s conversion to Roman Catholicism, ence Hall); Thomas Jefferson (U.S. Military Academy, West but steadfastly refused himself to become a Roman Catholic. Point, N.Y.) and Charles and Frances Anne Kemble, and Reverdy Rosny became a member of the king’s council of finance in Johnson. SULLY-PRUDHOMME, RENE FRANCOIS AR1596, and appears to have been sole superintendent as early as 1598. He authorized the free exportation of grain and wine, MAND PRUDHOMME (1839-1907), French poet, born 1n reduced legal interest, from 84 to 64%, established a special court Paris, March 16, 1839, was educated at the Lycée Bonaparte, for trial of cases of peculation, forbade provincial governors to where he took his degree as Bachelier és Sciences. An attack of raise money on their own authority, and otherwise removed many /ophthalmja interrupted his studies and necessitated an entire abuses of tax-collecting, abolished several offices, and by his change in the course of his career. He found employment for a honest, rigorous conduct of the country’s finances was able to time in the Schneider factory at Creuzot, but he soon abandoned an save between 1600 and 1610 an average of a million livres a year. occupation to which he was eminently unsuited. He subsequently His achievements were by no means solely financial. In 1599 entered a notary’s office in Paris. It was during this period that he was appointed grand commissioner of highways and public he composed those early poems which were not long in acquiring works, superintendent of fortifications and grand master of artil- | celebrity among an ever-widening circle of friends. In 1865 he lery; in 1602 governor of Mantes and of Jargeau, captain-general published his first volume of poems, which was favourably reof the queen’s gens d’armes and governor of the Bastille; in 1604 viewed by Sainte-Beuve, to whose notice it had been brought by governor of Poitou; and in 1606 duke and peer of Sully, ranking Gaston Paris. It was at this moment that the small circle of

SULMONA-—SULPHONIC which Leconte de Lisle was the centre were preparing the Parnasse, to which Sully-Prudhomme contributed several pieces. In 1866 Lemerre published a new edition of the Stances et poèmes and a collection of sonnets entitled Les Épreuves (1866). From this time forward Sully-Prudhomme devoted his life entirely to poetry. It was in the volume of Les Epreuves that the note of

melancholy which was to dominate through the whole work of his life was first clearly discernible. In 1869 lation of the first book of Lucretius with Solitudes. In 1870 a series of domestic serious paralytic illness resulting from the

he published a transa preface, and Les bereavements and a strain and fatigue of

the winter of 1870, during which he served in the Garde Mobile,

shattered his health. In 1872 he published Les Ecuries d’Augias,

ACIDS

539

includes sulphonal, methyl sulphonal known under the trade name of “trional” and ethyl sulphonal known as “tetronal,” both of which are scheduled as poisons.

Sulphonal, or acetone diethyl sulphone

(CH3)2C(SO2C:Hs)s,

crystallizes in prisms melting at 125° C, which are practically insoluble in cold water, but dissolve in 15 parts of hot and also in alcohol and ether. It is the sulphonalum of the B.P. and the sulphomethanum

of the U.S.P.

It is prepared

by condensing

acetone (g.v.) with ethyl mercaptan in the presence

of hydro-

chloric acid, the mercaptol (CH3)2.C(SC2Hs)2 formed being sub-

sequently oxidized by potassium permanganate. Dose Io to 30 grains. Trional (CH3) (CoH; )C(SO2C2Hs) is slightly more soluble in cold water than Sulphonal (1 in 320). Dose ro to 20 grains. Tetronal (C,Hs)2C(SOeCsHs)2 is less soluble in cold water than sulphonal (rin 550). Dose 10 to 20 grains. All three substances are

Croquis italiens, Impressions de la guerre (1866-72) and Les Destins, La Révolte des heurs in 1874, in 1875 Les vaines Tendresses, in 1878 La Justice, in 1886 Le Prisme, and in 1888 Le white crystalline powders, odourless and almost tasteless. Bonheur. All these poems were collected and republished under Sulphonal was discovered by Baumann and introduced into medthe title of Poésies, occupying four volumes of his Oeuvres (6 ical practice in 1888. The derivatives trional and tetronal were vols., 1883—1904). After the publication of Le Bonheur he practic- introduced soon afterwards. These drugs came into general use ally ceased to produce verse, and devoted himself almost entirely as hypnotics and were found specially valuable in calming motor to philosophy. He published two volumes of prose criticism L’ex- excitement. They have been very largely used in mental cases and pression dans les beaux arts (1884) and Réflexions sur lart des asylum practice. Their low solubility and slow absorption cause a vers (1892). Various monographs by him appeared from time to delayed action. They have been recommended for calming the time in the philosophical reviews, and among them a remarkable motor excitement in chorea, but great care is necessary if they are series of essays (Revue des deux mondes, Oct. 15th, Nov. rsth, used for this purpose owing to the tender age of choreic patients 1890) on Pascal, and a valuable study on the “Psychologie du and to the toxic action of the drugs. ! Cumulative action may occur if the drugs are given in frelibre arbitre” in the Revue de métaphysique et de morale (1906). He was elected to the Academy on the 8th of December 188r. quently repeated doses since owing to the slow absorption a large On the roth of December r901 he was awarded the Nobel prize quantity may accumulate in the alimentary tract. Absorption over for literature, and devoted most of the money to the foundation a large area may then occur and give rise to toxic symptoms some of a prize for poetry to be awarded by the Société des gens de time after the initial doses were administered. They should be lettres. He was one of the earliest champions of Captain Dreyfus. taken with a large quantity of hot water about four hours before In 1902 he wrote, in collaboration with Charles Richet, Le Prob- the time it is desired that sleep should ensue. Constipation should leme des causes finales. During his later years he lived at Chate- be guarded against to avoid retention of the unabsorbed drug. nay in great isolation, a victim of perpetual ill-health, and mainly Owing to their slow absorption and consequent somewhat unoccupied with his Vrate religion selon Pascal (1905). He had certain and delayed action in producing sleep these drugs have in been partially paralysed for some time when he died suddenly on recent years become largely displaced by the barbituric acid (q.v.) hypnotics which have a rapid and more certain action. the 6th of September 1907. He left a volume of unpublished verse and a prose work, Le Lien social, which was a revision of Toxic Effects.—When first introduced it was thought that the an introduction which he had contributed to Michelet’s La Bible sulphonal group were harmless hypnotics. But an overdose will de Vhumamté. See C. Hémon, La Philosophie de Sully-Prud- cause a condition of deep stupor followed by loss of consciousness homme (1907), Sully-Prudhomme by E. Zyromski (Paris 1907). from which the patient cannot be roused (coma). This comatose SULMONA (anc. Sulmo), a city of the Abruzzi, Italy. condition may last some days and there is in this stage great danger Pop. (1921), 16,676 (town), 18,797 (commune). Sulmona is of the development of fatal broncho-pneumonia. situated at a height of 1,322 ft. above the sea on the Gizio, a Chronic sulphonal poisoning may follow the continued daily use tributary of the Pescara, which supplies water-power to its of full therapeutic doses, and symptoms may occur which simupaper-mills, fulling-mills and copper-works. Its cathedral of late organic disease of the nervous system. Thus headache, drowsiSan Panfilo has a 14th-century portal, and an r1th-century crypt. ness, vertigo and severe mental depression may result. The speech S. Maria della Tomba is a good Gothic church. S. Francesco della may become thick and articulation indistinct. The gait may become Scarpa occupies the site of an older and larger church, the ataxic and reeling in type like that of alcoholic intoxication or Romanesque portal of which still stands at the end of the Corso cerebellar disease. Paralytic symptoms such as squint, ptosis, dipOvidio, and forms the entrance to the market. Opposite is a lopia, nystagmus or facial weakness may occur. Skin rashes have picturesque aqueduct of 1256 with pointed arches, which supplies frequently occurred in patients who have been taking sulphonal in the Renaissance Fontana del Vecchio (1474). S. Agostino has a repeated doses; they may be of urticarial or erythematous type good Gothic portal. The Palazzo dell’ Annunziata, begun in 1320, and are often associated with severe itching and irritation (prushows an interesting and successful mixture of Gothic and rigo). Vesicular and bullous eruptions and purpura have been Renaissance styles. In the court of the grammar school is a described. A common symptom of chronic sulphonal poisoning is fine rs5th-century statue of Ovid, the most celebrated native the presence of altered blood pigment in the urine (haematoporof the town, whose memory is preserved among the peasants in phyrinuria), the urine becoming claret coloured. In some cases songs and folk-lore, and outside is a good monument to him by albumen and casts may appear in the urine due to the irritating Ettore Ferrari (1925). The Porta Napoli is an interesting gate action of the drugs on the kidneys. (W. H. Wr.) of the 14th century. Innocent VII. was a native of the town. Drug addiction (g.v.) is common. The mental depression not In the vicinity of the town is Monte Morrone where Pietro da infrequently leads to the taking of a large overdose. 7

Morrone lived as a hermit and founded a monastery for his

SULPHONIC ACIDS, organic acids containing sulphur and

hermits, who after his elevation to the papacy as Celestine V. (1294) took the name of Celestines; the monastery (S. Spirito) lis now a prison.

having the general formula, R-SO3H, where R is either an alkyl

Sulmo was devastated by Hannibal (211 B.c.). It was famous for its ironsmiths.

Charles V. bestowed it on Charles Launoy,

who had captured Francis I. at the battle of Pavia. has suffered much from earthquakes.

SULPHONAL

GROUP, THE.

The town

This group of hypnotics

or an aryl radical. (See CHEMISTRY, ORGANIC.) Aromatic Sulphonic Acids-—The acids of this more important group are obtained generally by digesting aromatic compounds

with concentrated sulphuric acid, the process being called sulphonation. Such operations are frequently conducted on a manufacturing scale as in the preparation of the sulphonic acids of

benzene (g.v.), naphthalene

(q.v.) and anthraquinone , (g.v.).

540

SULPHUR

The sodium salt of benzenesulphonic acid is of importance since on fusion with caustic soda it yields phenol. During the World War large quantities of synthetic phenol were made by this process in order to eke out the supply of coal tar phenol, which was then insufficient for the wholesale production of the ex-

plosive, picric acid (g.v.). Benzenedisulphonic acid, made from oleum (fuming sulphuric acid) and benzene, yields by alkali fusion the important colour intermediate, resorcinol. The sulphonic acids of naphthalene are manufactured on an extensive scale, for by alkali fusion naphthalene-a-sulphonic acid, made by low-temperature sulphonation, yields a@-naphthol, whereas naphthalene-f-sulphonic acid, prepared at 140° C, when similarly treated, furnishes 6-naphthol. Anthraquinone, the oxidation product of anthracene (@.v.), when sulphonated with oleum at high temperatures yields anthraquinone-6-sulphonic acid, the sodium salt of which (“silver salt”) is an important intermediate used in the manufacture of alizarin (g.v.) and the indanthrene vat colours. (See Dyes, SYNTHETIC.)

Sulphonation of anthraquinone is facilitated by a mercuric sulphate catalyst, and in this way anthraquinone-1:5- and -1:8disulphonic acids are produced. These disulphonic acids are also used as intermediates in the dye industry. Sulphonation may be effected by chlorosulphonic acid whereby sulphonic chlorides are

formed.

(See SACCHARIN.)

In addition to direct sulphonation, the sulphonic group may be introduced into the aromatic nucleus through the diazo-reaction

(see D1azo-CoMPOUNDS). Sulphonic acids of aromatic hydrocarbons are very soluble in water and when obtained crystalline are extremely hygroscopic. With phosphorus pentachloride they yield sulphonic chlorides, which are reducible to thiophenols. On distillation with sodium cyanide or ferrocyanide the sodium arylsulphonates give rise to nitriles. Sulphanilic acid, a sulphonic acid of aniline, is sparingly soluble in cold water and is to be regarded as an internal salt, ++

—

NH3-CgHy-SOs. This compound and the similar naphthylamine sulphonic acids are important colour intermediates. Aliphatic Sulphonic Acids are much less important than those of the aromatic series. They are obtained generally (i.) by the oxidation of mercaptans, alkyl disulphides, alkyl thiocyanates or alkyl sulphinic acids; (ii.) by the interaction of alkyl iodides and metallic sulphites; (iii.) by direct action of sulphur trioxide on hexane and its homologues (J. Worstall, 1898). They are either viscous liquids or crystalline solids, converted into sulphonic chlorides by phosphorus pentachloride and into alcohols and alkali sulphites by alkali fusion. | Hydroaromatic Sulphonic Acids——Camphor yields a characteristic sulphonic acid on sulphonation with sulphuric acid in acetic anhydride. The optically active camphor sulphonic acids from dextro- and laevo-modifications of camphor have been very useful in the resolution of racemoid bases. (See STEREOCHEMISTRY.) (G. T. M.)

SULPHUR,

a non-metallic

chemical element, also called

“brimstone,” has been known from remote times, and, owing to its inflammability, was regarded by the alchemists as the principle of combustion.’ Sulphur (symbol S, atomic number 16, atomic weight 32-064), is widely and abundantly distributed in nature, both in the free state and in combination. Various forms of free or native sulphur occur in volcanic areas, but they are all related to rhombic sulphur, the monoclinic form being unknown in a natural state. The crystals (see-fig.) are of hardness 1-2, and sp.gr. I-9g-2-1; they are transparent or translucent; highly re-

fractive with strong birefringence, and have a characteristic lustre. Although pure sulphur is yellow, impurities such as selenium o

arsenic sulphide give it a reddish tint.

|

pyrites of Rio Tinto (Spain). Atmospheric oxidation may affect sulphur itself, producing sulphuric acid, which in the presence of lime produces gypsum, and outcrops of sulphur in Sicily are often covered with this. Important deposits of sulphur in the world occur in Sicily in Miocene marls and limestone, in Transcaucasia and in the Transcaspian steppes, in Japan, Chile, Peru and in many States of the U.S A., especially in Louisiana. Sulphur iş A al also found occasionally in Carrara mari ble in Calabria, and in carboniferoys limestone in Galway.

In combination,

the element occurs

chiefly in sulphides and sulphates of metals. The former are of great impor-

RHOMBIC

SULPHUR

TAL, SHOWING MIDAL HABIT canic

exhalations

CRYS-

PYRA-

tance and value, e.g., copper pyrites, galena (lead), zinc blende, cinnabar (mercury). The sulphates include those of calcium (gypsum and anbydrite), barium (barytes), and magnesium (kieserite). Gaseous compounds occur in vol-

and in mineral

waters.

The

element is also

present in hair, wool, albumen (g.v.) and in certain vegetable oils, such as those of garlic and mustard.

Extraction.—As

quarried or mined, free sulphur is always

contaminated with clay, limestone, gypsum, etc., and its extraction: depends on melting it and running it off from the earthy residue (liquation). In Sicily the method formerly employed was wasteful, but has been improved; a mass of the ore is placed in a kiln and is melted either by setting fire to a portion or by external heating; the molten sulphur is run off into moulds of damp wood, but still contains a certain proportion of impurities. Further purification is effected by distillation from large

iron pots, the sulphur condensing in a stone chamber either as solid flowers of sulphur or as a liquid which is cast into sticks and sold as roll sulphur. In Louisiana and Texas the deposits are covered by quicksand and cannot be mined by ordinary methods. The Frasch process was devised for this purpose: four concentric pipes, of diameters to, 6, 3 and 1 inch, are sunk in a bore hole, and superheated steam is forced down the 3-inch pipe to melt the sulphur. Compressed air is driven down the centre pipe and causes the mixture of water and molten sulphur to rise in the outer pipes; this runs off into settling tanks and yields sulphur of over 994% purity. Sulphur is also obtained from pyrites either by distilling it in iron or fire-clay tubular retorts, whereby one-third of the sulphur

is obtained in the distillate (3FeS2=Fe;S4+-2S), or by a modification of the Sicilian process. Sulphur from pyrites, however, usually contains traces of arsenic. Milk of sulphur is produced by boiling sulphur with a suspension of lime until it has dissolved—s parts of sulphur require

about 2 parts of quicklime—and the solution is clarified, diluted, and nearly neutralised

by pure

dilute hydrochloric

acid; this

decomposes the calcium polysulphides, giving a very fine, almost white powder, which is washed and carefully dried. If too much acid is added, the calcium thiosulphate; which is formed together with the polysulphides, is also decomposed, and this gives a yellow, ‘coarser product.

Physical Properties.—Commercial sulphur melts at 113° C if quickly heated and boils at 444-53° C under atmospheric pressure. The orange-yellow vapour darkens with increase of temperature, being deep red at 500°, but above that it becomes lighter again and is straw-yellow at 650°. At 200° (under reduced pressure) the vapour density corresponds to Sg molecules; at soo° to Se, at: about 1,000° to Ss and at about 2,000° the molecules are completely dissociated to atoms. In carbon disulphide solution sulphur exists as Ss, as shown by boiling-point and freezing-point determinations. Sulphur is a bad conductor of electricity and becomes negatively electrified by friction. It is insoluble in water, it ignites in air at 363° and in oxygen at 280°, burning with a

Volcanic sulphur usually occurs as a sublimate on the walls of vents, probably as the result, of action between hydrogen sulphide and sulphur’ dioxide. Natural sulphureous waters, especially if characteristic blue flame and ‘forming sulphur dioxide, a gas with hot, readily deposit sulphur owing to atmospheric oxidation’ of a choking smell, and traces of the trioxide. Sulphur also combines the sulphuretted hydrogen. Free sulphur may also result from the directly with most elements to form sulphides. | weathering of pyrites, as in pyritic shales or lignites or from the Allotropic Modifications.—Sulphur can assume a number of

541

SULPHUR forms differing in external appearance, e.g., crystal structure, and

in physical properties, e.g., density. Of these the two most important are rhombic (a, Se, or Sy) and monoclinic (8, Sg, or Sir), since they provided the first instances of what E. Mitscherlich (1822) termed “polymorphism,” but is now called “allotropy”

(g.v.). Rhombic sulphur is readily obtained by allowing a solution of sulphur in carbon disulphide to crystallise. The monoclinic variety is formed as fine needles on the inside of the crust on molten sulphur which has been allowed to cool slightly. Both these varieties are soluble in carbon disulphide and sulphur chlo-

ride; above 96° Sa is more or less rapidly converted into Sg,

whereas below 96° Se changes gradually to Sa. If Se is heated quickly it melts at 114° before it has had time to change into Sg, but if it is heated slowly the change is completed and the Sg formed then melts at 119°. The density of Sa is 2-07 and that of Sg 1-96. Under higher pressures the two forms can only

co-exist at a definite temperature for any particular pressure (ie. the transition point is raised), and if the pressure is raised while the temperature is kept constant the rhombic form is produced, since it is the denser. This balanced state of affairs continues up to 151° and 1,288 atmospheres, above which the monoclinic form cannot exist at all. The fact that, by rapid heating, the rhombic variety persists up to 114° (under ordinary pressure) without changing into the monoclinic is due to this change being slow and not instantaneous.

Although the foregoing account covers the more obvious phenomena, the relationships are, in fact, extremely complicated, and at least three varieties of sulphur (called Sa; Sx, and Sy) are involved. The first, Sa, is almost certainly Ss, and constitutes

the greater part of both the rhombic and monoclinic varieties, but the other two (possibly Se, S4, or S2) form solid solutions

with Sa, and all three are involved in very complex equilibria in both the liquid and the solids. Owing to the slowness with which these equilibria are established, the physical conditions may be somewhat indefinite; thus pure Sa is calculated to have an “ideal” freezing point of 119°, but the presence of Sr and

S, depresses this to a varying extent (but never below 114°) according to the rate of cooling, z.e., according to whether the time has sufficed for them to attain their equilibrium values. Other forms differing in external appearance are the nacreous

(or pearly) variety

(Srm), formed when solutions of sodium

thiosulphate and potassium bisulphate interact, or when hydrogen disulphide is shaken with alcohol or ether, and a tabular variety (Six), formed in the aerial oxidation

of alcoholic solutions of

ammonium polysulphides. Both these are monosymmetric but have different angles from Sy; they change rapidly to Sy at the ordinary temperature, or to S,; above 96°, but Spy may be melted at 107° if rapidly heated. Engel’s variety (S,) is obtained by mixing sodium thiosulphate solution with hydrochloric acid, filtering, extracting the filtrate with chloroform, and evaporating the extract. It appears to be Se, but its connection with the other forms has not been estab-

lished. ‘It is intermediate in colour between S) and Sẹ (że.

Ss aid S,) and slowly changes into a mixture of these.

Apart from varieties possessing obvious external differences, more subtle differences have been detected. When sulphur melts the liquid is pale yellow, but on further heating it darkens, and at 160° C it rapidly becomes more viscous. At 180° the liquid is dark red and the viscosity attains a maximum. This behaviour has been traced to the existence of three different types of molecules in the liquid—S,, S, and §,; if the molten liquid is poured Into water, one obtains clear and elastic strings of plastic sulphur.

From 5 to 20% of this (depending upon the temperature and time of heating of the liquid) is found to be insoluble in carbon

shown to be tetratomic, i.e., Sa. Owing to its insolubility, the molecular weight of S, has not been determined;

constituent of the so-called amorphous

sulphur

it is the chief

(Sy) and of

milk of sulphur, and because of its increasing production at higher temperatures it occurs in greater proportion in sulphur which has been rapidly condensed, as in flowers of sulphur. Many of the above transformations are slow and afford instances of “dynamic” allotropy. (See ALLOTROPY.) COMPOUNDS Hydrogen sulphide or sulphuretted hydrogen results when hydrogen is passed over molten sulphur at 200°-350° C; at higher temperatures it begins to dissociate into its elements again; it is also formed when acids act on metallic sulphides, ferrous sulphide and dilute hydrochloric or sulphuric acid being most frequently used, but in this case the gas is contaminated with hydrogen. The purest hydrogen sulphide is obtained either by warming precipitated antimony sulphide with hydrochloric acid or by dropping water on to aluminium sulphide produced by a thermite process from sulphur and aluminium powder. It results from the putrefaction of organic substances containing sulphur or from the destructive distillation of coal; it is evolved when

organic compounds (such as paraffin wax) are heated with sulphur. Hydrogen sulphide, a colourless, poisonous gas having the odour of rotten eggs, is moderately soluble in water to give a very feebly acidic solution, which gradually deposits sulphur on exposure to the air; it is much more soluble in alcohol. It burns with a pale blue flame to give sulphur dioxide and water. The gas may be liquefied at 18° C by a pressure of 17 atmospheres, and the liquid boils at 61-8° under ordinary pressure, and solidifies at —83°. It is decomposed by the halogens or by sulphuric acid with the liberation of sulphur. It reacts with many metals to form sulphides, which are also produced by its action on aqueous solutions of metallic salts; the latter reaction is extensively utilised in chemical analysis. Hydrogen sulphide is also used as a reducing agent: in acid solution it reduces ferric to ferrous salts, chromates to chromium salts, and manganates to manganese salts; in alkaline solution it reduces many organic nitro-compounds to the corresponding amino-derivatives. It is rapidly attacked by oxidising agents, yielding primarily sulphur and water... When metallic polysulphides are acted upon by hydrochloric acid they give a mixture of hydrogen polysulphides, and by fractional distillation under reduced pressure two of these have been separated as oils, viz., the disulphide, HS2, b.p. 74°C, and the trisulphide, H2S3, b.p. 69°/2 mm. They are readily decomposed by the action of light or of water. | l Halogen Compounds.—Sulphur hexafluoride, SFs, formed by the action of fluorine on sulphur, is a tasteless, colourless and odourless gas, which may be condensed to a solid melting at —55° C; it is remarkably stable, being unaffected even by fused caustic alkalis, and is of considerable theoretical interest. Sulphur chloride, SeCle, occurs as a by-product in the manufacture of carbon tetrachloride from carbon disulphide .and chlorine, and may readily be prepared by passing chlorine over molten sulphur and condensing the issuing gas. It is an ambercoloured, fuming liquid with a very irritating smell; it boils at 139° and freezes at —80°. It is slowly decomposed by water to sulphur ‘and a'mixturé of sulphur acids. Its chief use is in the vulcanisation of rubber, since it dissolves sulphur very readily. Sulphur dichloride, SCle, had its entity definitely established by T. M. Lowry; L. P. McHatton, and G. G. Jones in 1927, before which it was frequently said to be a mixture of the mono-. and tetra-chlorides. Chlorine reacts very slowly with the monochloride,

but in the presence of a trace of iodine reaction becomes rapid,

disulphide and is Sy and the rest is a mixture of Sa and Sr. The material becomes opaque and brittle after a few days owing to the conversion of most of the Sz and some of the S~ into

and by taking advantage of this discovery (among others),:these authors were able to show that both SCl: and SCl, exist; the former, however, becomes unstable just about its melting point

to about 6% at 200° from about 3-5%-at’'120°, and it has been

a crystalline mass at —30°

crystalline Sx, or rhombic sulphur; the proportion of Sx and Sy (—83°) and gives SCL and lower chlorides; SCl, has a narrow © ee can be ascertained by taking advantage of the fact that at —80° range of existence but melts at —103°. C the latter becomes insoluble in carbon disulphide whereas the Sulphur tetrachloride, SCl, is formed by saturating S:Cl with former is still soluble. The proportion of S in sulphur increases chlorine at —22°; it is a yellowish-brown liquid, solidifying to C, and dissociating rapidly above

542

SULPHUR

—20°, It is violently decomposed by water: SCh+3H:0= H:50;+4HCIl1. Sulphur bromide, SeBr2, is a dark red liquid boiling at 56°

Sulphuryl fluoride, SO2F2, formed by the direct union of the dioxide with fluorine, is an extremely stable colourless gas solidi.

fying at —120°.

Sulphuryl

chloride,

SOxCh,

is obtained as

under o-2 mm. pressure and decomposing at about 200°. Sulphur forms no definite compound with iodine. Oxides.—Sulphur dioxide, SO2, occurs in gaseous exhalations

acid in the presence of a catalyst

of volcanoes and in solution in some volcanic springs. It is formed when sulphur burns in air or oxygen, when metallic sulphides are roasted, and when sulphuric acid is reduced by being heated with carbon, sulphur, or certain metals:

boiling at 69° C and decomposing readily with water: SO.Ch -+-2H20 = 2H C1- H:S0;4. Fluorosulphuric acid, SOQ2F.OH, from cooled sulphur trioxide

C+H2S04=

2502+ CO2-+2H:0 f

s+ 2H2SO4 = 3502+ 2H20 ; Cu+ 2HeSO4=

SO2-+ CuSO4-+

2H;0.

It is also a product of decomposition of many sulphur acids by dilute mineral acids. It is a colourless, incombustible gas with a suffocating odour; it dissolves readily in alcohol or water, the solution in the latter possessing acidic properties. The gas can be liquefied at —8° C and solidified at —73° C; the liquid is a good solvent for certain salts, giving definite compounds in some cases—é.g.,

KI,2SO2 and KI,4SO2.

It combines directly with chlorine (espe-

cially in the presence of camphor) to give sulphuryl chloride, and with many peroxides to give sulphates. In the presence of water it acts as a bleaching agent owing to its reducing properties, and these are also manifested in acid solution by the reduction of the manganates to manganese salts and of iodates or iodine

to iodides:

2KI03;+5S0.+4H,0 =1.12KHSO.+3H2SO,,

lowed by I,+2H:0+S02.=H2SO.+2HI.

fol-

Owing to its reduction

of chlorine, it is used as an “antichlor.” It is prepared industrially for the manufacture of sulphuric acid (g.v.), for use as a bleaching agent and disinfectant, and for use in refrigerating machines. The solution of sulphur dioxide in water is called sulphurous acid, but the acid (probably HSO) cannot be isolated because the solutions lose sulphur dioxide on concentration. A hydrate, SO2,7H2O can be obtained on cooling, but it is unstable above 7°. The salts of the acid are termed bisulphites or sulphites according as one or two of the hydrogen atoms are replaced by metals. The sulphites of the alkali metals, e.g., NagSOs, are soluble in water and give an alkaline reaction; the other sulphites are more or less insoluble; the bisulphites are either neutral or feebly acidic in solution, and as solids they probably exist as metabisulphites (Na2S20;+H,0—2NaHSO3). The sulphites are formed by the action of sulphur dioxide on oxides, hydroxides or carbonates, whereas excess of the gas produces the bisulphites. The acid is probably an equilibrium mixture of two tautomeric forms O:S(OH)2 and O2S(OH)H, and a study of the organic derivatives of the salts suggests that they are chiefly of the second (unsymmetrical) type. | Lhionyl fluoride, SOF2, is obtained by decomposing arsenic fluoride with thionyl chloride; it is readily. decomposed by water into hydrofluoric and sulphurous acids. Thionyl chloride, SOClk, results from the action of phosphorus pentachloride on sodium sulphite, or of chlorine monoxide on sulphur at low temperatures; it is a colourless, highly refractive liquid, boiling at 78°, and fumes in moist air giving hydrochloric and sulphurous acids: SOClh+2H2O0=H2SO0O;+2HCL Thionyl chloride is manufactured by adding sulphur trioxide to sulphur chloride at 75—80° C, sulphur is eliminated and the other volatile product is sulphur dioxide:

SO3+S2Clz=SOClk+S0O,+S.

The process is rendered

continuous by passing in chlorine to reconvert the sulphur into chloride. Sulphur trioxide is obtainable from the distillation of concentrated sulphuric acid with phosphoric oxide, but is chiefly prepared by the direct union of oxygen and sulphur dioxide in presence of a catalyst, such as platinised asbestos. (See SutpHuric AcD.) It exists in two forms; the a-form results from the condensation of the vapour and melts at 17° and boils at 46°; the 8-form either melts or undergoes transformation at a higher temperature

(about 1927). 1927). phuric

50°), and has an asbestos-like appearance (A. Smits, 1926, They are probably SO3 and S,Og, respectively (G. Oddo,

The trioxide combines violently with water to give sulacid and with concentrated sulphuric acid to give pyrosul-

described under sulphur dioxide,

2502ClLOH =SO2Cle-+H2SO.;

or by heating chlorosulphuric

(é.g., mercuric sulphate):

it is a colourless

fuming liquid

and excess of hydrofluoric acid, or by distilling calcium fluoride with sulphuric acid, boils at 162° and is comparatively stable: it is slowly decomposed by water, an equilibrium being set up: HFSO;+H,022H2S0.:+-HF. Chlorosulphonic acid, SO2C1LOH, is formed by the direct union of hydrogen chloride and sulphur trioxide or by distilling sulphuric acid with phosphoryl chloride: = HC14-HPO;-++ 2C1LSO3H; it is a colourless, fumPOC],O.-+ 2H,S ing liquid, boiling at 155°, and is violently decomposed by water:

it was used to provide smoke screens in naval warfare. Pyrosyj-

phuryl chloride, S20sCle, is obtained by the action of sulphur trioxide on phosphoryl or sulphuryl chloride or on dry sodium chloride, or by distilling chlorosulphonic acid and phosphorus pentachloride; it is a colourless, oily, fuming liquid boiling at 153° and is readily decomposed by water: §$20;Cl.+ 3H2O == 2H2SO4-+

2HCl.

Sulphur sesquioxide, S203, formed as blue drops on adding dry flowers of sulphur to the cooled molten trioxide, sets to blue-green crystals and is rapidly decomposed by warmth. It is decomposed by water but not to hyposulphurous acid, H2S,0. Persulphuric anhydride, S2O7, a thick, viscous liquid solidifying to long needles at o° C, is formed by the action of the silent discharge on a mixture of oxygen and the trioxide, or by the action of ozone on the trioxide. l Sulphur Acids.—Apart from sulphurous acid (see above) and sulphuric acid (q.v.) many other acids are known. Hyposulphurous or hydrosulphurous acid, HS:04, has not been isolated, since its solutions are very unstable. The sodium salt

is obtained (P. Schutzenberger, 1869) by dissolving zinc in a concentrated solution of sodium bisulphite: Zn-+-4NaHSO;= Na2S204+ ZnSO3-++NazS0O3+ 2H20; the sulphites separate as a less soluble double salt and the hydrosulphite is crystallised from the solution. The pure zinc salt is obtained by the action of the metal on a solution of sulphur dioxide in absolute alcohol, and the sodium salt can be obtained by passing sulphur dioxide over sodium hydride. The “sodium hyposulphite” of photography is strictly a thiosulphate. Sulphoxylic acid, H2SO:2, is unknown, but an important derivative, sodium formaldehyde-sulphoxylate (known as “rongalite”), is obtained from formaldehyde and sodium bisulphite: there are two products of the reaction, and fractional crystallisation from alcohol separates the formaldehyde-bisulphite compound, CH,0-NaHSO; from the formaldehyde-sulphoxylate, NaHSO;-CH.0-2H,0. Both rongalite and sodium hydrosulphite are extensively employed as powerful reducing agents. The composition of the latter was for long a matter of dispute but was settled by C. Bernthsen in 1881. The mono-zinc salt of hydrosulphurous acid is used under the name “‘decrolin.” Permono- and perdi-sulphuric acids, HSO; and H;S:0s, result from the electrolysis of solutions of sulphuric acid or bisulphates and by the action of hydrogen peroxide on concentrated sulphuric acid. They have been isolated in a state of purity by the action of the theoretical amounts of chlorosulphonic acid on hydrogen peroxide, the hydrogen chloride formed being pumped off under reduced pressure: H.02-+-HSO;3Cl=HC1+H-,SO; 3 H:0:+ 2HSO;Cl = 2HC1+H2S20s.

The mono-acid melts at 45° and the di-acid at 65°. Potassium persulphate, K,S.0s, was first obtained in 1891 by H. Marshall by electrolysing solutions of potassium bisulphate, and

the existence of the permonosulphate was detected by Caro (1898) in solutions of the perdisulphate which had become partially hydrolysed:

K2S20s--H.0 = KHSO;-- KHSOu.

In the elec-

trolysis, it is necessary to secure overvoltage (e.g., by use of a phuric acid. It is applied either directly or as the latter acid in smooth platinum electrode), to have high anode potential and the dye industry. It frequently chars organic matter. high current density, to cool the anode solution, and to separate

SULPHUR | the anode (by the use of a divided cell) so that the per-acids

formed by anodic oxidation shall not be reduced at the cathode. Potassium and ammonium

salts are more suitable than sodium

salts, and ammonium persulphate, being less soluble than the

potassium salt, is more easily crystallised. The yields of the per-

acids depend largely on conditions: if sulphuric acid is used, that

of sp.gt. 1-42 gives a maximum yield of the perdi-acid, and weaker or stronger solutions favour the permono-acid.

Solutions of both free acids slowly decompose to hydrogen eroxide and thence to oxygen on standing. Concentrated sulphuric

acid “hydrolyses” the di-acid to the mono-acid: H2S,03+H,0=

H,SOs+HS0., but dilute acid is almost without effect. Caro’s acid, on the other hand, is fairly stable in concentrated sulphuric

acid and an equilibrium is set up, which shows that the acid may be formed from hydrogen peroxide and sulphuric acid: H,SO;+H,O—H202+HSO. The constitutions of the acids are

probably HO $O2-0-OH and HO-S02-0-0-S02,0H.

These explain

certain differences: (1) Caro’s acid is only monobasic, the perox-

idic hydrogen atom in ~O-OH not being acidic, whereas the sulphonic hydrogen atom in SO2OH is. (2) Caro’s acid oxidises aniline to nitrosobenzene, CgsH;-NH2—-C,.H;-NO, in virtue of its

0.0H group, whereas the perdi-acid does not—the

action is

unique. (3) Caro’s acid oxidises solutions of iodides immediately, whereas acid solutions of persulphates act only slowly. Both types of acids oxidise ferrous salts but do not react with permanganates. Thiosulphuric acid, H2S.0s3, is unstable in solution, but its salts are perfectly stable, the sodium salt, NasS,03,5H2O, being the well-known “hyposulphite” of photography; this is prepared by boiling sulphur with milk of lime, exposing the deep yellow solution of polysulphides to atmospheric oxidation, and converting the resulting calcium thiosulphate to the sodium salt by addition of sodium carbonate or sulphate. Thiosulphates are readily decomposed by mineral acids with liberation of sulphur and sulphur dioxide and formation of other sulphur acids, including trithionic acid. They form many double salts and give with ferric chloride a dark violet coloration which fades on standing. The acid is said

to possess the structure O:S(SH) (OH), but in the absence of definite evidence it is better to formulate it afOSS

H.

The thionic acids.are a group of general formula HeS,06¢, where mn may be 2, 3, 4, 5, and possibly 6. Dzthionic actd, HeS20¢ is formed by passing sulphur dioxide into an aqueous suspension of freshly precipitated manganese dioxide or, better, ferric hydroxide; addition of barium hydroxide precipitates the barium salt, and if this 1s treated with dilute sulphuric acid, the resulting solution of dithionic acid can be concentrated to sp.gr. 1-35 but then decom-

poses (as do its salts when treated with hydrochloric acid) to sulphuric acid and sulphur dioxide. All the salts are more or less soluble in water. Trithionic acid, H2S:05¢, may be obtained in the form of its

salts by the action of sulphur dioxide on potassium thiosulphate solution, by warming silver potassium thiosulphate solution, or by adding iodine to a mixture of sodium thiosulphate and sulphite (Spring’s reaction) : NasSO3-+-Na2S203+- Ip = NazS3Og-+2Nal. The salts and the solutions of the acid are unstable. Tetrathionic acid, H.S,Og, is obtained by the action of dilute sulphuric acid on the barium salt, obtained by digesting barium thiosulphate with iodine—compare the fundamental reaction of lodometric titrations: 2Na,S202+],=NaS,O0g+2Nal. The free}

243

the form of the hypothetical pyrosulphurous acid giving sulphoxylic acid and pyrosulphoxylic acid (both of these are hypothetical, and the latter is distinct from thiosulphuric acid):

H:S+H:S:0;—S(OH):+-HO.S-0-S-.0H. (2) Hydrolysis of pyrosulphoxylic acid gives more sulphoxylic acid: H2S203+H,0—

2H2S02. (3) Sulphoxylic acid and hydrogen sulphide then react: H2S0.+H.S—>28+2H20. (4) The finely divided sulphur thus formed is very reactive and rapidly gives thiosulphuric acid with sulphurous acid (S-+-H:SO3=HS,03) which, in the dilute feebly acidic solution, is sufficiently stable to have a temporary existence. (s) Thiosulphuric acid 2H.S.03;>H2S+H2S30¢.

decomposes to give trithionic acid: (6) This acid reacts with (a) finely divided sulphur or (b) thiosulphuric acid to give tetra- and pentathionic acids: (a) H2S;0g—>H2S40s—>H2S30¢6; (0) H2S306+H25203 —+H,$.,0,+H.503

and

H2S40¢+H28203 = H:S;06-+

H:S0;.

Tri-

thionic acid is thus the first of the thionic acids to be formed, and

pentathionic acid is a later product. . Pharmacology and Therapeutics.—The sulphur preparations mentioned in the British Pharmacopoeia are: (1) Sulphur sublimatum, flowers of sulphur, from which are made (a) confectio sulphuris, a mixture with potassium bitartrate, and (6) unguentum sulphuris. (2) Sulphur praecititatum, milk of sulphur, used with potassium bitartrate in the lozenge trochiscus sulphuris. (3) Potassa sulphurata, liver of sulphur, chiefly sulphides of potassium. (4) Calx sulphurata, sulphurated lime, mostly calcium sulphide, a greyish powder obtained when calcium sulphate and carbon are heated together. Sulphuris iodidum forms the basis of an ointment in the U.S.P. Sulphur as an ointment is used in skin affections such as scabies (itch) or acne, but “sulphurated lime” is more efficient in the latter case and in the treatment of boils. Internally, it is a mild laxative, being used as milk of sulphur. Sulphur and sulphurous waters (as at Harrogate, Aix-la-Chapelle, and Aix-les-Bains) are effective for congested conditions of the liver and intestines, haemorrhoids, gout and gravel. Its ability to rid the lungs of mucus, is utilised in chronic bronchial affections. In chronic rheumatism sulphur waters are effectual both internally and as baths. The sulphur dioxide produced by burning sulphur is a powerful disinfectant and is used for fumigating rooms which have been occupied by persons suffering from infectious diseases. The use of sulphur dioxide or sulphites as a preservative in foods is to be deprecated and is illegal in many countries. Owing to the ancient French custom of fumigating wine-casks by burning sulphur in them, a small proportion of sulphur dioxide is allowable in wines, and in Great Britain 450 parts per million parts of wine has been fixed as a legal limit. (A. D. M.) SULPHUR, SPECIAL APPLICATIONS OF. Sulphur is a convenient source of sulphur dioxide gas, which is the basis for the manufacture of sulphuric acid and sulphite pulp. In a number of industries sulphur plays an essential part and has no substitute. This is the case in the vulcanization of rubber, and for many agricultural and horticultural purposes, such as insecticides and fungicides, and for the making of lime-sulphur solutions. Among the properties of sulphur are fusibility, acid resistance, a number of physical forms, extremely low electrical con| ductivity and general chemical resistance. There are few | solvents for sulphur and it is not acted upon by water, but for | certain purposes its inflammability is detrimental. As an Impregnant.—All forms of pulp and paper products

acid decomposes when its solutions are concentrated. can. be impregnated with molten sulphur and the more absorbent Wackenrodet’s Solution.—When hydrogen sulphide is re- | types take up three or four times their dry weight. Pre-formed peatedly passed into a saturated aqueous solution of sulphur diox- | pulp and paper articles, when impregnated with sulphur become ide at 0° C, the resulting solution contains colloidal sulphur (also } very strong, weather-resistant and converted into much denser called Sé, but S3-H.O according to Spring) and small quantities of | and harder materials. Among the applications of such paper all the thionic acids, especially pentathionic acid, H,S;Os, The | products are flat fibre boards so treated as to prevent warping and reactions involved are very complex and have. been studied inter | make them resistant to acid and other destructive agencies. Spool-

alios by H. Debus (1888), F. Foerster, F. Raschig, A. Kurtenacher, | heads, advertising signs and many other articles of paper, fibre or and H. Bassett and R. G. Durrant (1927), but in every case. it | pulp can be. hardened and weather-proofed by means of sulphur has been found necessary to postulate the existence of one or more | impregnation. hypothetical compounds, such as SO, SOs, SO, H:S:0z, etc., Practically all species of wood may be impregnated with molten for which there is only indirect evidence. The views of Bassett | sulphur under proper conditions, the more resistant species re-

and Durrant may be summarised. ERC E gE Mn ene

(1) Sulphur dioxide reacts in | quiring the application of vacuum

and pressure.

The general

544

SULPHURIC

ACID

Sulphur in its more complex phases, especially organic, is of procedure is very similar to that so widely used for the creosoting of wood, but the effect is quite different. With sulphur there is industrial as well as biologic interest. Allyl isothiocyanate, a sulvery little change in colour, but a marked increase in weight and phur compound, is found in mustard oil and is responsible for the a phenomenal hardening and strengthening effect. Pieces of soft irritating action of the ordinary mustard plaster. An important wood with a high sulphur content appear almost as though petri- derivative dichloroethyl sulphide, was brought into prominence fied. It converts a soft wood into a very hard and durable prod- during the World War as mustard gas. Sulphur may be responsible uct, comparing favourably with the heaviest and densest tropical for the efficacy of certain organic compounds used as flotation oils woods. By the addition of various sulphur soluble dyes, attractive in the recovery of valuable ores. This is notably the case with the colours are imparted. Wood so treated is much less absorbent various xanthates. Cellulose xanthate is one of the products in the to moisture and withstands the action of acid and other destruc- process of manufacturing artificial silk, or viscose rayon. An altive agencies. Tests made on wood structures in contact with the ground indicate that sulphur acts as a preservative even though not in itself particularly toxic. Its toxicity toward wood-rot fungi may. be increased by the addition of certain substances that are recognized preservatives and which have been found to be mis-

cible with molten sulphur. The applications for sulphur-treated wood are numerous and include floor blocks, especially, where

buminoid substance known as keratin occurs in practically all animal and human appendages such as hair, hoof, horn, fur, wool, feathers and nails, and since the keratins are very highi in cystine, human hair containing about 14%, its importance is readily seen, Various complex organic sulphur compounds play an important part in the human body, and are vital to our welfare and probably

to life itself. (W. H. K) acids are used, fence posts, railway ties, etc. Stone and concrete SULPHURIC ACID, oil of vitriol, H}SO,, is commercially of the greatest importance. The urgency of the market demand are likewise subject to sulphur impregnation. Textiles and fabrics may likewise be impregnated with he for this acid is recognized as one of the most accurate and and have the advantage of being readily formed or shaped before sensitive indications of the general state of the trade. processing. Fabric coverings saturated with molten sulphur may Pure sulphuric acid is an oily, colourless, heavy liquid (sp. gr. be spirally wound on metal pipes or other objects in order to 1-85), freezing at 10-8° C and boiling with partial decomposition produce extremely dense, impervious coverings. These were under at 338° C. It is highly corrosive, charring many organic substances, largely owing to its great avidity for water. So much heat test in 1928 for the prevention of underground corrosion. Sulphur Introfiers.—The term “introfier” has been applied to is evolved that on mixing with water it is unsafe to add water to certain organic substances having a most peculiar effect on the the strong acid, the acid being always poured slowly into water penetrance of molten sulphur. They may be used to advantage with thorough stirring. When the vapour is heated to 450° C it in practically all the examples of sulphur impregnation heretofore is completely dissociated into water and sulphur trioxide, the described and are also valued in making certain sulphur composi- latter decomposing into sulphur dioxide and oxygen on further tions. Some of the substances which not only increase the rate but heating. The hot concentrated acid is a weak oxidizing agent, the ultimate limit of penetrance of molten sulphur are naptha- converting carbon into carbon dioxide, sulphur into dioxide, and lene, its chlorinated and hydrogenated derivatives, anthracene, many metals, such as copper, into their sulphates with evolution of sulphur dioxide. The cold dilute acid dissolves certain of the triphenyl phosphate and other compounds. Other Special Uses.—In view of the fact that one of the more electropositive metals such as zinc and iron with evolution of problems of the steel industry is the removal of sulphur, it is hydrogen. Sulphuric acid is dibasic, giving rise to two series of interesting to note that it is deliberately added to steel for special salts, acid and normal. Most sulphates are readily soluble in purposes, notably for the making of screw stock. Likewise, in water, the commonest exceptions being those of calcium, stronpetroleum refining, sulphur-compounds present in many crude tium, barium and lead. Its efficacy in many common chemical oils must be removed to make them fit for refining. But for some processes depends on its power of liberating other acids from their uses an oil containing sulphur is desirable. This is the case with compounds, not because it is necessarily stronger (see CHEMICAL metal-cutting oils, used largely by the metal-working industries AcTIon), but because it is less volatile. Its value in organic for thread cutting, turret lathes and other machine work. Sulphur chemistry depends partly on its great affinity for water, whence is incorporated with an animal or vegetable oil base and subse- its use in nitration processes (see Dyes, SYNTHETIC; and EXPLOSIVES), and partly on its power of forming sulphonic acids with quently added in proper proportion to a petroleum oil. Sulphur cements which are applied hot, consist of sulphur with many aromatic compounds (see CARBOLIC AcIp, Inpico, and various inert mineral fillers and are useful for anchoring metal NAPHTHALENE). in stone, such as bolts in engine foundations, iron railings and the Manufacture.—Sulphuric acid has been known for many censecuring of chains to granite blocks for buoys, setting electrical turles, having been originally prepared, probably by Arabian insulator pins, doorknobs and a great many other purposes. They chemists, by condensing the fumes evolved on heating the natare particularly useful for pointing up acid proof brick in. order urally occurring sulphates of iron or alumina. A method of prepato protect lime mortar, cementing floor blocks in acid-pickling ration by burning sulphur with saltpetre was described by Basil rooms, the pouring of pipe joints both water and acid, and for Valentine in the 15th century. Lead chambers for carrying out setting bushings in abrasive wheels. this reaction were introduced by Roebuck of Birmingham in 1746. Other uses for sulphur are the manufacture of ih: colours, It was first manufactured on a commercial scale in Bohemia as a preservative for dried fruits and, in the form of tapers, for and at Nordhausen in Germany by heating weathered pyritic locating ammonia leaks and sulphuring wine casks. In col- shales, a method adopted from the practice of the early alchemists. loidal form, sulphur is valuable as an intravenous injection for the This acid fumed strongly in the air, whence its old name of treatment of ‘certain diseases, and as a recognized curative agent “fuming” or Nordhausen sulphuric acid. A great extension in dermatology, especially for scabies, ringworm, acne, favus, arose from Liebig’s discovery in 1840 of a method of rendering the

prurigo and psoriasis. The boiling point of sulphur, 444-6° C is phosphorus content of mineral phosphates available in soluble used in thermometry for scale determination, ‘while molten sulphur form for plant growth by treatment with sulphuric acid, this is an excellent heating medium. Synthetic resins result from the process affording the greatest outlet for this acid. Subsequently, interaction of sulphur or sulphur chloride with phenol, and it a more highly concentrated form of acid became essential to the imparts the dark amber colour to glass bottles. Sulphur is used manufacture of dyes and the refining of: oil, and the “contact” in making sheep and cattle dips, while it is admixed with the salt given to stock. It is also used for the stoving of wool, and the sulphuring of hops, silks, sponges, feathers and other commodities and is employed for making plaster cast moulds. Sulphur compounds are used for the so-called oxidation of silver, bronze and other metals, as well as for the bleaching of brooms, straw, wicker

process was developed to meet this requirement.

furniture and the tanning of leather.

pyrites most

The original raw material was brimstone from Sicily, but by the middle of the 19th century this source had been largely replaced by iron pyrites which occurs abundantly in many countries, for

example, in North Wales and County Wicklow, Ireland; but after the introduction of the wet: process for copper extraction the generally used in Great Britain and the eastern

SULPHURIC

PROCESSES]

States of America was the copper-containing variety found in immense quantities in South-Western Spain where it is mined by the Rio Tinto, Tharsis and other companies. In recent years, however, the enormous production of brimstone (see SULPHUR) in the United States by the “Frasch” process coupled with changed economic conditions in copper extraction has led to renewed use of brimstone.

Spent oxide from the purification of coal gas and

zinc blende or “concentrates” from the Australian lead-zinc ores are sulphur-containing materials which furnish sulphur dioxide in appropriate furnaces. Large quantities of acid are produced in

America from the waste gases from copper smelters, and during the World War a promising process was developed in Germany whereby sulphur dioxide is produced from naturally-occurring calcium sulphate, gypsum or anhydrite by calcining with clay in a rotary kiln, yielding cement as a by-product. Brimstone and spent oxide contain free sulphur, whereas in pyrites and blende the

sulphur is present as sulphides of iron and zinc respectively; nevertheless, the latter materials will burn in air without extraneous heat, although with blende it is necessary to use fuel in the finishing stages in order to assist in its complete desulphurization.

Whatever the nature of the raw material the resulting burner gas should preferably contain 7-8% (by volume) of sulphur dioxide with 9-94% of oxygen, the remainder being inert nitrogen. Actually it is easy to get as much as ro or 11% of sulphur dioxide

in the gas obtained by burning brimstone and still leave an adequate excess of oxygen

for the next stage.

With blende it is

dificult to maintain more than 6% of dioxide; in the case of this material and of pyrites some atmospheric oxygen combines with the zinc or iron originally associated with the sulphur, while in the case of spent oxide an appreciable amount is consumed by the carbonaceous matter. Burner gas from brimstone is the purest; that from pyrites always contains arsenic, lead, selenium and other impurities originally present in the ore; that from blende has only a small amount of arsenic but often contains a little fluorine; whilst that from spent oxide, though containing little more arsenic than the gas from brimstone, always includes in addition to harmless carbon dioxide a certain amount of tarry matter and ammonia which lead to a high consumption of nitrogen compounds in the next stage.

For the large-scale production of sulphuric acid from burner gas there are two processes: (1) the contact process, wherein oxidation is brought about directly by passing the burner gas over a suitable catalyst, and (2) the chamber process, in which oxidation is brought about by an intermediate reaction with oxides of nitrogen acting as oxygen carriers between air and sulphur dioxide. The disadvantages of the latter process are that it is impossible to produce high-strength acid directly, and also that unless pure brimstone is used the impurities (e.g., arsenic) originally contained in the raw material are found in the finished acid. Further, except for certain modern modifications, the

plant has the disadvantage of occupying a large ground space in proportion to output, but it has the great advantage of high efficiency, the yield regularly exceeding 98% of the sulphur in the burner gas; it is also controlled with very little labour. The contact process, on the other hand, will give directly acid of any required strength up to about 25% oleum. Moreover, in the preliminary purification of burner gas all harmful impurities are removed, so that a pure acid can be obtained directly from such material as arsenical pyrites or blende. The plant is, however, more costly, the labour and power charges heavier and the efficiency lower, so that whereas the Contact type of plant now holds the field almost exclusively for the manufacture of concentrated and fuming acid, the Chamber process can still compete in acid of no more than 80% strength, as required by most consuming trades except oil refining and the manufacture of dye-

respectively.

Since the reaction is improved by the use of low

of increasing the velocity of the reaction without itself undergoing any change. Such a substance is called a catalyst. (See CATALYSIS.) It must be emphasized that a catalyst does not change the final equilibrium between the reacting substances at any given temperature: its function is purely that of an accelerator. For this reaction the various catalysts include metallic platinum and oxides of iron and vanadium, of which the first is much the most widely used. Platinum and vanadium operate effectively at 425450° C, which is the optimum temperature. Iron oxide becomes effective only at 600° C, so that the maximum yield of SOs attainable is only about 70%. Catalysts are peculiarly susceptible to “poisoning”? by impurities commonly present in burner gas. Arsenic and halogens even in minute quantities render a platinum catalyst quite inactive, although the oxides of iron and vanadium are less sensitive. Consequently a preliminary purification of burner gases is essential. There are many types of contact plant of which the best known are the Badische (using this term to describe processes which were developed in England by Squire and Messel as early as in Germany, while actually the Badische Gesellschaft itself now employs a modification of the process developed in the United States), Grillo, Tentelew and Mannheim. Excepting the Mannheim plant, which employs ferric oxide as preliminary, all these employ platinum as catalyst, and they differ only in the nature of the plant used for scrubbing and purifying the gases and in the carrier employed for the platinum; in the Grillo process the platinum is spread over the surface of calcined magnesium sulphate, whereas in the other processes it is carried on asbestos fibre. All types of contact plant (excepting the Mannheim, where the hot burner gas passes directly up rectangular shafts packed with oxide of iron) consist first of coolers followed by or combined with scrubbing towers in which the gases are washed with cold sulphuric acid, then another wash-tower, round which is circulated very weak sulphuric acid or an alkaline solution to remove traces of halogens (chlorine and fluorine). The washed gases pass through one or two filters which may be large rectangular boxes (as much as 30’ sq. x 12’ in depth) constructed of sheet lead packed with finely graded coke. The cold filtered gases are then dried by passing up another tower, again built of lead and lined with acid-resisting brick, through which pure 95% sulphuric * acid is circulated. After filtering through graded coke to stop mechanically carried spray, the gases are passed through a Root’s blower which creates a draught throughout the whole apparatus. Where brimstone is burned much of the foregoing plant may be omitted, but only after this complicated purification are the gases permitted to enter the contact chambers, which are cast-iron or steel vessels containing shelves or trays packed with platinised material. The heat generated by the reaction is utilized by tubular heat exchangers to heat the cold incoming gas, so that in a welldesigned plant no extraneous heat whatever is required to maintain the correct temperature. In the latest type of plant two catalyst chambers are used in series together with two heat-exchangers. A remarkable change takes place in the appearance of the gases after passage through the contact chambers; whereas the Incoming gas is colourless and invisible with an unpleasant sulphurous smell, the product issues as a dense, white, intensely acid fume of trioxide, practically without odour. After cooling, this fume is always absorbed in 98% sulphuric acid, since it is only very slowly absorbed by water. A portion of this solution is continuously diluted with water and

returned to the absorbers. The surplus may be sold as “fuming” acid or oleum, or it may be diluted with water to any required strength. The absorption is carried out in steel towers packed with quartz, over which 98% acid is circulated by centrifugal pumps, or alternatively the gases are actually bubbled through the acid in a series of steel vessels. Although lead is generally used in plant construction up to the stage of the contact chambers, nothing but steel or cast iron can be employed in the later stages for lead is very rapidly attacked either by sulphur trioxide or by fuming acid.

Contact Process.—Although the reaction is very slow, sulphur

i

545

temperatures, it is beneficial to employ some substance capable

stuffs and explosives.

dioxide is oxidized appreciably to trioxide by air at atmospheric temperature. At higher temperatures, however, the reaction proceeds more rapidly but is limited by the reverse change. For example, with a 7% burner gas the maximum yields, according to Haber, are 99%, 85%, and 60% at 435°, 550°, and 645° C

ACID

h

546

SULPHURIC

ACID

[NOMENCLATURE

Chamber Process.—In this process the oxidation of sulphur dioxide to trioxide is brought about by means of oxides of nitrogen, and the name is still applied generally, although the reaction

Glover tower with cold strong sulphuric acid in which oxides of nitrogen are readily soluble. The nitrous vitriol leaving the firs

is frequently brought about in plants differing considerably from the rectangular lead chambers formerly in exclusive use. There has been considerable controversy over the nature of the reactions occurring in the chamber process. The simplest theory, that of Berzelius, suggests that nitric oxide, NO, is the essential “carrier” which takes up oxygen from the air to form nitrogen peroxide, NO,. The latter then gives one of its atoms of oxygen to the sulphur dioxide, converting it into sulphur trioxide, which combines with water forming sulphuric acid. In yielding an atom of oxygen, nitrogen peroxide becomes again reduced to nitric oxide, which repeats the cycle of changes indefinitely except for losses which are inevitable under factory conditions. The foregoing interaction between nitrogen peroxide and sulphur dioxide only takes place in the presence of water. Nitrosyl sulphate, nitrosulphonic acid, or “chamber crystals,” postulated by Lunge as an essential intermediate stage of the reaction, may appear under certain conditions in the later stages of the process when the supply of water to the chambers is insufficient. A chamber plant of normal type includes burners to supply

turned to the cycle. To compensate for inevitable loss through in. complete absorption, quite apart from secondary reactions which may lead to destruction of a portion of the nitrogen oxides, it js necessary to replenish these oxides continuously. Formerly this was done by decomposing nitrate of soda with sulphuric acid in cast iron pots heated at the end of the pyrites burners. Alterna. tively nitric acid is trickled down the Glover tower or a mixture of ammonia gas and air is passed over a hot platinum gauze which

sulphur dioxide, with dust collecting chambers when necessary, followed as closely as possible (in order to avoid heat losses) by a Glover tower, which consists of a lead shell lined internally with vitrified brick and surmounted by two lead-lined cisterns. Internally the tower is packed with brick chequer work or flints supported on semi-circular arches. Down this tower are fed two qualities of acid—-weak acid produced in the chambers at 60-70% strength which is concentrated by the heat of the burner gases (the steam driven off passing on to the chambers), and acid from the Gay Lussac tower at the other end of the process. The latter acid contains dissolved oxides of nitrogen which are expelled by the hot burner gas and returned to the leaden chambers, while the acid reaches the base of the Glover tower concentrated to about 80% H.SO, and practically free from oxides of nitrogen. This acid is then cooled in water-jacketed lead coolers, a portion being returned to the Gay Lussac towers for re-absorption of the nitrogen oxides escaping from the chambers, while the remainder is available for sale. From the Glover tower the gases pass into the lead chambers which are large rectangular boxes of sheet lead, generally about 25ft. wide, 20 to 3oft. high, and up to r4oft. in length, and are usually arranged consecutively in sets of at least three. The lead sheets are supported in a frame-work of timber or steel, and the leaden joints are made by “burning” or heating the lead at the junction with a blowpipe flame so that it just melts and then resolidifies. Lead of the very highest degree of purity, 99-99%, is to be preferred for this purpose. The chambers are generally erected on columns well above the ground so as to avoid unnecessary pumping of acid. Excepting in the first chamber, to which steam is largely supplied by the evaporation from the Glover. tower, it is necessary to supply water to convert the sulphur trioxide produced into sulphuric acid which falls like a shower of rain to the floor of the chambers. This water was formerly supplied in the form of steam, but is now generally sprayed in a finely atomised form. The lead chambers afford sufficient time and space for the alternate cycles of oxidation and reduction to complete themselves until the whole of the sulphur dioxide has been converted into sulphuric acid, and they dissipate the heat evolved in the reaction. By the time the residual gases leave the last chamber the whole of the sulphur dioxide should have been completely removed as sulphuric acid, whereas practically the whole of the nitrogen oxides should still be present unchanged. These are recovered by passing them up one or more Gay Lussac towers, which are similar to the

act as absorbers for the nitrogen oxides which are liberated in the earlier ones, the nitrous acid being returned to the first tower. Water is fed down the middle towers to maintain them at the requisite strength for the reaction. Other types of apparatus have been introduced in which, instead of the gas merely coming into contact with films of liquor flowing over tower packings, the acid is bubbled or passed through nitrous vitriol which is simultaneously agitated by revolving drums which fill the vessels with a continuously renewed spray or film of acid. Where non-arsenical acid is required from an acid produced from arsenical pyrites, the impurities are removed by treatment with sulphuretted hydrogen; this precipitates arsenious sulphide and most other impurities, which are then removed by filtration or by oil flotation methods. Concentration.—The concentration of chamber acid is of small commercial importance, because strong acid can be produced more cheaply by the contact process, but concentration is still of value in connection with such manufactures as dyes and explosives where, after nitration with mixed nitric and sulphuric acids, a dilute sulphuric acid remains which must be recovered. An installation suitable for small outputs consists of a number of basins of silicon-iren or fused silica arranged in two or three rows in cascade fashion and heated from below, but where larger quantities of acid are being concentrated, plant of the Kessler or Gaillard type is employed. The Kessler, of which there are many modifications, consists of a producer-gas fired, over-heat pan, generally built of volvic lava, inside a heavy lead dish and provided with baffles in the roof so as to cause the fire gases which enter at one end to strike down on the layer of acid which flows in the opposite direction. At the other end of the pan is a small packed tower down which the incoming vitriol is fed on its way

Glover tower but of at least double the capacity, and of lighter lead since at this stage the acid is quite cold. The towers are

tower is returned to the Glover where its nitrogen oxides are re.

catalyses the oxidation of ammonia to oxides of nitrogen. The amount of fresh nitre required should not be more than 24-34, of the sulphur burned. Both in America and on the continent of Europe Glover and Gay Lussac towers have been constructed without any lead casing but simply of acid-resisting brick or volyvic

lava set in acid-resisting cement. Attempts have been made to do away with chambers altogether,

the oxidation of sulphur dioxide taking place largely in the liquid phase by means of the nitrous compounds dissolved in vitriol, as in

the Opl plant where the reaction between burner gas and nitrous vitriol takes place in a series of towers, the later ones of which

to the pan. The exit gases are passed through a fine coke-packed scrubber to remove acid mist. These fumes are usually removed

by a Cottrell electrical precipitator, lead electrodes being used. The Gaillard tower consists of an empty tower of 6’ to 9’ internal

diameter and 40’ to 50’ high, built of volvic lava or acid-resisting brick, into the top of which weak sulphuric acid is sprayed meeting the hot gases from a coke-fired producer. The exit gases from the Gaillard tower are usually passed up a scrubbing tower to

remove acid vapour and are then put through a Cottrell precipitator. The Gaillard tower is suitable for dealing with dirty waste

acids, but will not produce economically more than 93% vitriol, whereas the Kessler plant furnishes 95-96% vitriol.

Nomenclature.—The ordinary commercial grade of acid made from pyrites by the chamber process at 77-80% strength 1s

known as common or brown oil of vitriol (B.O.V.); similar acid

lined with acid-resisting brick and packed either with coke, earthenware rings or narrow strips of glass with the alternate layers at right angles to one another. It is preferable to have at least

free from arsenic, either as the result of a de-arsenication process, or by preparation from a non-arsenical material such as brimstone,

draught of the whole process.

of 93-96% acid is known as rectified vitriol (R.O.V.). Acid of 100% strength, ie., exactly H.SQ,, is called “monohydrate”;

two Gay Lussac towers with a fan between them controlling the These towers are fed from the

is called best brown oil of vitriol (B.B.O.V.). The stronger grade

SULPHUR

SPRINGS—SUMACH

547

excess of sulphur trioxide readily dissolves in this, giving rise to | by the consuls, but Marius and Sulpicius got up a riot, and the still stronger acid known as “fuming” sulphuric acid or “oleum.”| consuls, in fear of their lives, withdrew the justitiwm. The proThe grade of oleum is expressed by stating the percentage of | posals of Sulpicius became law, and, with the assistance of the free sulphur trioxide, SOs, which it contains apart from that com- | new voters, the command was bestowed upon Marius. Sulla, who bined with water to form H.SO,; thus 20% oleum means acid con- | was then at Nola, immediately marched upon Rome. Marius and

taining 20 parts of SO; and 80 parts of H.SO,. The usual commer- | Sulpicius, unable to resist him, fled from the city. Marius mancial grades of oleum are 20% and 60-65%, both of which are | aged to escape to Africa, but Sulpicius was discovered in a villa liquids at ordinary temperatures, while intermediate and higher | at Laurentum and put to death; his head was sent to Sulla and strengths are solids. More dilute grades of acid are sold for use | exposed in the forum. Sulpicius appears to have been originally a in electrical storage batteries; these are sold by specific gravity as |moderate reformer, who by force of circumstances became

one

measured by the hydrometer, the usual strength for batteries for | of the leaders of a democratic revolt. Although he had impeached wireless sets and motor cars being 1-215 to 1-250 or 28-33% of | the turbulent tribune C. Norbanus, and resisted the proposal sulphuric acid.

to repeal judicial sentences by popular decree, he did not hesi-

are used.

Sulpicius as an orator, Cicero says (Brutus, 55): “He was by far

Sulphuric acid is generally sold in glass carboys holding 10 | tate to incur the displeasure of the Julian family by onnoasing gallons, which are protected by straw packing inside an iron frame | the candidature for the consulship of C. Julius Caesar who had work or steel drums, but chiefly in steel tank wagons. Acid | never been praetor and was consequently ineligible. His franchise should not be transported in steel, however, at less than 75% | proposals, as far as the Italians were concerned, were a necessary strength. For bulk transportation of weaker acid, lead-lined tanks | measure of justice; but they had been carried by violence. Of

Documents of the League of Nations International Economic | the most dignified of all the orators I have heard, and, so to speak,

Conference Geneva (1927) give the output of sulphuric acid in | the most tragic; his voice was loud, but at the same time sweet oe was rapid nz ie of ses. a cei2 1925 as follows:— and voluble, but not redundant or diffuse; he tried to imitate of

aa

pee

mo

eee

United States

.

France. . Belgium. Holland.

.

Poland. Spain

ee

oe

ees

a ee

. 6,300,000

Serbia

- 1,840,000 740,000 150,000

Czechoslovakia . Hungary i Austria -

. .

320,000

230,000

Switzerland.

‘Italy

Crassus, but lacked his charm.” Sulpicius left no written speeches,

ee

-

those that bore his name being written by a P. Canutius (or Can-

100,000

.

Total

+

.

nutius). He is one of the interlocutors in Cicero’s De oratore.

210,000 See Appian, Bell. civ. i. 55-60; Plutarch, Sulla and Marius; Vell. 80,000 | Pat. ii. 18; Livy, Epit. 77; E. A. Ahrens, Die drei Volkstribunen (Leip70,000 | zig, 1836); Mommsen, Hist. of Rome, bk. iv. ch. 7; Long, Decline of

50,000 | the Roman Republic, vol. ii. ch. 17. SULTANPUR, a town of British India, on the river Gumti,

1,075,000 14,580,000

The output in Germany in 1913 was 2,700,000 tons. The plant capacity is doubtless much greater than the above figures: in Great Britain, for example, it is above 2,000,000 tons per annum.

midway between Benares and Lucknow. Pop. (1921), 8,846. The district has an area of 1,713 sq.m. and in 1921 the population was 1,003,912.

BreviocRapHY.—W. Wyld, Sulphuric Acid, Raw Materials (1923); and The Manufacture of Sulphuric Acid: Chamber Process (1924); F. D. Miles, The Manufacture of Sulphuric Acid: Contact Process (1923); J. W. Parkes, The Concentration of Sulphuric Acid (1924); A.E. Wells & D. E. Fogg, Manufacture of Sulphuric Acid in the United States (1920). (C. S. I.) `

SULPHUR SPRINGS, a city of Texas, U.S.A. Pop. (1920) 5,388 (21% negroes), 5,417 in 1930 by the Federal census. Lignite is mined near by and natural gas is available.

SULPICIA, the name of two Roman poetesses. The earlier

lived in the reign of Augustus, and was a niece of Messalla, the patron of literature. Her verses, which were preserved with those of Tibullus and were for long attributed to him, are elegiac poems addressed to a lover called Cerinthus, possibly the Cornutus addressed by Tibullus in two of his Elegies (bk. ii., 2 and 3; see Schanz, Gesch. d. rom. Litt. § 284; F. Plessis, La Poésie latine, pp 376-377 and references there given). The younger Sulpicia lived during the reign of Domitian. Martial (x. 35, 38), praises her wifely devotion, which was the subject of her poems. An extant poem (70 hexameters) discovered in 1493, and attributed to her, is probably sth Century, or even later. Editions by O. Jahn (with Juvenal and Persius, revised by F. Biicheler, 1893) and in E. Bahrens, De Sulpiciae quae vocatur satira (1873) ; see also Teuffel, Hist. of Roman Literature (Eng. trans., 1900), p. 233, 6. There are English translations by L. Evans in Bohn’s Classical Library (prose, with Juvenal and Persius) and by J. Grainger

(verse, 1789).

SULPICIUS RUFUS, PUBLIUS (c. 121-88 8.c.), Roman

orator and statesman, legate in 89 to Cn. Pompeius Strabo in the Social War, and in 88 tribune

of the plebs.

Soon afterwards

Sulpicius, hitherto an aristocrat, declared in favour of Marius and the popular party. He was deeply in debt, and it seems that

Marius had promised him financial assistance in the event of his

being appointed to the command in the Mithridatic War.

To

secure the appointment for Marius, Sulpicius brought in a fran-

chise bill by which the newly enfranchised Italian allies and freedmen would have swamped the old electors (see further Rome). The majority of the senate were strongly opposed to the proposals; a justitium (cessation of public business) was proclaimed

SUMACH (RHUS CORIARIA); FROM SEED, FRUIT, CLUSTER OF FRUIT

LEFT

TO

RIGHT:

FLOWER,

BRANCH,

SUMACH or SUMAC, the name given to numerous shrubs and small trees of' the botanical genus Rhus (family Anacardiaceae )which comprises about 150 species, natives chiefly of warm regions. They have a milky or resinous juice; simple or compound leaves; small flowers, with the parts in fours or sixes; and small, dry, one-seeded, often hairy, sometimes highly-coloured fruits, usually in dense clusters. The name sumach is given also to the commercial preparation of the dried and ground leaves of the Sicilian or tanners’ sumach

548

SUMATRA

(R. Coriaria) of southern Europe, long used in making leather. | liferous, and erosion of the ranges exposes their mineral conIn North America the sumachs are represented by about 15 “tents. Gold and silver are known in close association, lead in species. Several have poisonous foliage, as the poison-ivy (g.v.); association with silver, copper, and tin, antimony and cobalt the non-poisonous sumachs include some of the most attractive marine schists, yielding fossil fish and plants, give petroleum: American shrubs. Among those found in the eastern States and there are iron deposits, and in the stratified rocks coal, in the Canada are the handsome staghorn sumach (R. hirta), sometimes Lampong and Padang highlands district of Eocene age, and in 30 ft. high, and the smaller smooth sumach (R. glabra), some- Bencoolen district of Miocene. The coal-fields exist in and not times 20 ft. high, both of which in autumn display highly coloured under the Tertiary strata, rendering their contents easier of fruit and foliage. The dwarf or mountain sumach (R. copallina) access. The crystalline rocks (granites, basalts, and their allies) is a small shrub in the North and a tree 30 ft. high in the South. are of various geological ages, and they are exposed by denuda. Its leaves, as also those of the two preceding, were formerly much tion, or pushed through by intrusion. Intrusion causes change in used in tanning. The aromatic sumach (R. aromatica), 3 ft. to some sedimentary rocks, sandstone changing into quartzite, lime8 ft. high, with pleasant-scented foliage, occurs in the eastern stone into marble, and clay, or shale, under pressure, into slates. States; its western counterpart, the skunk-bush (R. trilobata), The river system of Sumatra is extensive and of great value to with ill-scented foliage, is found from Illinois to Oregon and the country. Owing to the proximity of the mountains to the southward. The mahogany sumach (R. integrifolia), the laurel west coast, the rivers there run in valleys with a steep slope, have sumach (R. laurina), and the sugar-bush (R. ovata) are elegant a very short lower course, and are unnavigable, except near the shrubs, native to southern California. mouth. in the case of a few. The eastern rivers run through The lacquer-tree (R. vernicifera), of Japan, yields Japan lac- alluvial plains, have extensive drainage areas (they are often imquer. The wax-tree (R. succedanea), also of Japan, furnishes peded by silt), and form the principal, and often the only means wax used in candle-making. R. javanica, of eastern Asia, and R. of communication, and are of such value to the community, that hirta var. dissecta, a North American form, are planted for their many of the districts they water are named after the rivers. ornamental foliage. South of 3° N., there are extremely important rivers, the first, in SUMATRA, lying between 5° 39’ N. and 5° 57’ S., so that order, being the Asahan, which drains the lake of Toba, and is the Equator divides it into two nearly equal parts, is the western- navigable by steamers for a portion of its length, next the Panej most, and, after Borneo, the largest of the Great Sunda islands, (Bila and Barumun), with a very wide mouth, then the Rokan, of the Malay archipelago, and forms part of the Dutch East over 120 m. long, and flowing into Malacca straits through a wide, Indies. Its axis runs from south-east to north-west, Sunda strait to muddy estuary, is navigable for 70 m. inland; the Kampar, Malacca passage; it is 1,060 miles in length, and its greatest width a very long river, navigable for ocean steamers for 18 miles, is 248 miles. W:th its dependencies, Sumatra has an area of the Indragiri, which is navigable for ocean steamers as far as 180,380 sq.m. (alone, 167,480 sq.m.) and is nearly four times Kulachenako, and for river steamers as far as Cheranti. The as large as Java, almost as large as Spain, and thirteen times the Jambi, which springs from the peak of Indrapura, is the most size of the Netherlands. The economic development of Sumatra, beautiful and largest of all the rivers of Sumatra, having a maxithough it is far behind that of Java, is much further advanced mum navigability of just under soo m.; the Musi is the only than that of any other of the islands of the Dutch East Indies. one which bears comparison with the Jambi. Ocean-going vesIn relief, Sumatra consists of a high mountain chain which sels can reach Palembang, 54 m. from its mouth, steam launches runs along the western coast, descending eastwards to a huge and motor boats navigate the river for 200 m., and small boats for tract of flat, alluvial land, seamed with many large rivers and 330 miles. Below Palembang the Musi splits up into a number their scores of tributaries. Its great mountain chain is a link of channels which spread out amidst a vast unhealthy swamp between the mountain system of Lower Burma, which is con- covering an area of some 4,600 m. These subsidiary channels tinued by way of Preparis and Great Coco islands, the Andaman slowly deposit their suspended quota of mud among the manislands, and the Nicobars, to Sumatra, and thence to Java, groves, thus gradually creating new land, and slowly the whole and on through the Lesser Sunda islands to the Moluccas. This coast-line is advancing sea-wards and tending to fill up the Malacca (Sumatran) chain extends for a distance of over 1,000 m., straits and join Sumatra to the Malay peninsula. But this tenand contains numerous volcanic peaks of heights from 5,000 to dency may be counteracted by a sinking of the land. over 12,000 ft. The whole system is known as Bukit Barisan, or On the coast, there are- small semi-circular bays, but few the Barisan mountains, and consists in general of two or more large indentations, the principal being Koninginne bay, which, folded chains running parallel to each other, with a valley be- in Emmahaven, gives a good harbour, and Tapanuli bay (Sibolga). tween, which is broken up into separate sections by the intru- North of Tapanuli and south of Indrapura none of the indentasion of volcanic massifs, and along this valley lies a string of tions provides immunity from the south-west monsoon. The north mountain lakes, from south to north—Ranau, Korinchi, Sing- coast has precipitous cliffs crowned with dense vegetation in karan, Maninjau and Toba. By far the largest of these is Lake some parts; in others sandy beaches, and well cultivated plains, Toba, which is 45 m. long, by 15 wide, with a depth of 450 whilst the bay of Oleh Leh gives shelter for shipping. The metres, and which has a large island, Pulau Samosir. southern coast consists, mainly,’ of two large indentations, The line of volcanoes commences’ with Krakatoa, in Sunda Lampong bay and Semangko bay, the eastern shore of the former strait, then continuing southwards, Sinabung (7,930 ft.), in the being mountainous‘and little indented, whilst the western is much centre of the island, in the Battak country, as also are Sibayak cut up; the centre of the bay has a good harbour (Teluk (7,075 ft.), and Pusuk Bukit (6,562 ft.); Berapi (5,875 ft.), Man- Betong). Semangko has a mountainous coast-line, with little dailing group; Pasaman (9,844 ft.), Talang (8,399 ft.), Merapi, indentation. The whole of the east coast is formed of morasses (9,484 ft.), and Singalang-Tandikat (9,479 ft.), all in the Pa- and sandbanks, which break up into innumerable islands, large dang highlands; Korinchi, or the peak of Indrapura (12,484 ft.), and small, particularly about the central portion, and the coastin the Korinchi group; Kaba (6,528 ft.), in the Rejang group; line is deeply indented in many places and very irregular. The and Dempo (10,326 ft.), in the Pasuma group. In all ninety indentations are not permanent, the coast is constantly advancvolcanoes have been discovered, twelve of them now active. ing, and it is difficult to establish practicable ports or landingSumatra, like Java and Borneo, is formed largely of strata of places. Belawan, in the north, is the best harbour, and other the Tertiary period, although it contains also two schistose for- harbours, also on the.northern part of this coast, are Sigli, Lho mations, one of which is anterior to the carboniferous period. Seumawe, Langsa, and Tanjong Balei. Sumatra has a chain of The Tertiary series are more complete than in Java; the nume- islands off the west coast which rise from the edge of the subrous volcanoes, so characteristic of the whole archipelago, are marine platform and serve as a kind of outer barrier. They have due to the quaternary period. The western mountain ‘system is an area of 5,769 sq.m., several are thickly populated and some composed largely of Archaean rocks, with occasional longitudinal are of considerable size, whilst many are of volcanic origin and bands of Jurassic and Cretaceous rock. The whole ridge is metal- most have rocky, reef-bound coasts, dangerous of approach.

SUMATRA Climate.—The

549

climate of Sumatra resembles that of Java

Ecophoridae, two specimens of the curious genus Homopsyche, and the moth Pentacitritus transversa. Lizards, large and small, tricts and often for many miles inland the heat is tempered by frogs, tortoises and turtles abound, crocodiles frequent the cooling land and sea breezes, the -wind generally being north- mouths of rivers and are also found up-stream, there are many east by day and south-west by night all the year round. The varieties of poisonous snakes, the rocks around the coast yield wind system of north Sumatra differs from that of the greater many kinds of shell-fish, and the sea, ponds, and rivers numerous part of the Dutch East Indies, the north-east monsoon blowing sorts of edible fishes. The striking difference in species between from December to March, and the south-west monsoon from the fauna of Sumatra and Java led A. R. Wallace to assert that May to October. During the south-west monsoon the strong the first severance of Sumatra from Java is very ancient; that squalls from the north-west known as “Sumatras,” accompanied since the epoch of the first (volcanic) disturbance several disby thunder, lightning, and rain, blow in the Malacca strait, and tinct elevations and depressions may have taken place, and the islands may have been more than once joined with each other they have been known to occur during the north-east monsoon. On the west coast the influence of the north-east and south-west or with the mainland (of Asia), and again separated, and that monsoons is felt as far south as 4° N.; between 4° N., and 2° N. successive waves of immigration may thus have modified their there is a region of calms and light variable winds, which have animal productions and led to those anomalies in distribution a westerly tendency from March to November, when the north- which are so difficult to account for by any single operation of west monsoon is blowing along the remainder of the western elevation or submergence. Flora.—The flora of Sumatra bears a strong resemblance to coast, że., from 2° N. to 5° 57’ S., and an easterly tendency from May to September, the period of the south-east monsoon on the that of India and the Malay peninsula in the northern part of western coast. Southern Sumatra has the highest temperatures, the island, and to that of Java in the south, but it has also many and the mean annual temperature, for the lowlands, is about varieties distinct from either, and not only different varieties, 80°, At Toba, in the Battak country (3,772 ft.), this is 69-6°, but different genera from those of Java. The pine (Pinus Merand higher altitudes show a corresponding reduction. On the kuesit), not found elsewhere in the East Indies, is found as far whole, temperature in Sumatra is slightly higher than in Java. south as the Equator, and the distribution of vegetation does March, April and May are the hottest months; January and not appear to depend so closely on altitude as in Java. A striking February the coolest, but the difference does not exceed 2°. The feature of the vegetation is the flower of the huge Rafflesia, known from 20 to 24 inches in diameter. There are immense different wind distribution causes a variation of the seasons. Thus in north Sumatra October is the wettest month and Febru- areas of savannah country, covered with coarse grasses, chiefly ary and March are the driest, whilst elsewhere the wettest months alang-alang and glaga, which stifle other forms of vegetation and are December, January, and February, and from July to Septem- give shelter to hordes of wild animals. These tracts occur as low ber is the dry period. Accordingly the rainfall varies consider- as within 700 ft. of sea level. Myrtles, eucalyptus, bamboo, ably. The annual average rainfall for north Sumatra is 95-71, rhododendrons and moss-loving orchids are well known, palms for east Sumatra 106-27, and for west Sumatra 122-32 inches. abound, and orders strongly represented are Dipterocarps, The west monsoon gives the heavier rainfall and the fall is Begonias, Nepenthes, Oxalidaceae, Melastomaceae, Myristicaceae, Chryobalanaceae, Connaraceae, Cyrtandraceae, Amyridaaccentuated in west Sumatra by the high mountains. Fauna.—Notwithstanding the proximity of the island to Java ceae, Epacridaceae, Eriocaulaceae and Ternstromiaceae. There the fauna of Sumatra shows a greater resemblance to that of are zones of vegetation, differing with altitude, but the general Borneo than to that of Java, this being particularly noticeable tendency is for all forms to grow at a lower level than is the as regards the fauna of the east coast of Sumatra, whilst that case in Java. The Sumatran forest begins at a height of from of the west coast and the islands adjacent is more allied to the 300 to 400 feet, and it extends to all but the highest mountain Javan fauna. The orang-utan, common to Sumatra (in the north- peaks, this wealth of vegetation producing very beautiful mouneast), and Borneo, is unknown in Java; the siamang (Hylobates tain scenery. The forests contain the finest timber-producing syndactylus) is found in Sumatra only; there are ape species woods in the archipelago; there is not only a great variety of common to Borneo and Sumatra, also the elephant, tapir and trees, but they possess both stature and beauty. Deciduous trees Malayan bear, all of which are unknown in Java, though, on the such as the oak, chestnut, etc., grow on lower slopes than in Java, other hand, Sumatra shares the tiger with Java, whilst it is un- and apart from “ebony, ironwood, camphor-wood, and sandalknown in Borneo. The one-horned rhinoceros of Java is unknown wood, there are also many species of resin and wild rubberin Sumatra, which shares a two-horned variety with Borneo; the producing trees. The forestry service of Java has been extended wild ox, or banteng (Bos sundaicus), known in Java, seems to within recent years to Sumatra, which is divided into five districts be lacking in Sumatra, which has, however, a species of antelope, for this purpose, and all wasteful exploitation of timber is (kambing-utan), found only in the loneliest districts of the moun- checked, where this is possible. Population.—The following table gives the area and populatains. The Sumatran fauna also includes the apes Hylobates agilis, Semnopithecus melalophus, Cercocebus cynomolgus and tion of the several administrative divisions and of the island as a Macacus nemestrinus, fox-nosed monkeys (Tarsius); the slow whole. loris (Nycticebus); tupai (Tupaja); and the flying maki, or lemur (Galeopithecus volans); the flying fox, the kerbau, or Division Area Population, 1927 and is hot and extremely moist, but in most eastern coastal dis-

buffalo (Bos bubalus), the Malayan deer (Cervus muntjac); wild dog; wild pig; Sumatran hare (Lepus netscheri); and civet cat. Species of birds exist in Sumatra which are unknown in

Java—the great Argus pheasant, the fire-backed and ocellated Pheasants, crested partridge, small Malacca. parrot (Psitticus incertus), great helmeted hornbill (Buceroturus galeatus), pheasant ground cuckoo (Carpococcyx radiatus), rose-crested bee-eater (Nyctiornis amicta), and the great and green-crested gapers. Other Sumatran birds include the woodpecker, pigeon, and trogon. Insects, which also show a marked difference from those of Java, comprise the beautiful Papilio memnon butterfly, the Papilio cöon, and other species of this section, the Kallima paralekta (which attaches itself to and is able to imitate the leaf of a certain plant so closely as to secure itself from the attacks of enemies), flocks of Cyrestes, Melontis suradeva, a new species

of Amnosia, Eurhinia fulva, one of the prettiest species of

Sumatra East Coast Sumatra West Coast Lampong Districts Palembang Bencoolen . Tapanuli .. . ; . Achin and Dependencies . Jambi a e . Indragiri (the mainland territory of Riouw and Lingga Dependencies) .

Total

.

sq.km. 93,500 50,723 28,268 85,918 25,886 | 38,227 | 55,549 | 44,452

| 32,391 (with ouw-Lingga)

454,914

1,183,283 1,598,262 239,985 844,626 27033730 895,146 782,403 179,691

«=

; “ge Pe p3 EN Ri-| 224,145 (with Riouw-Lingga)

6,219,004

i

The population includes 19,259 Europeans and Eurasians, and 229,775 foreign Asiatics, including :Chinese. One-third of the

599

SUMATRA

Europeans and four-fifths of the Chinese live in the East Coast Government. Sumatra has a very small urban population. Arabs, Chinese and Indians of many races have long been settlers round the coast, where, also, there were once Hindu-Javanese colonies, and the mixture of blood which has resulted, and European contact, has given a much higher civilization than that which prevails in the interior, where the Hindu-Javanese infuence was little felt in many regions, and even Islamic culture failed to penetrate, leaving the people in their ancient state of animistic barbarism. Many of the indigenous tribes of the interior are still in a state of development comparatively low, but simple education is spreading under advancing Dutch influence, barbarous customs are disappearing rapidly, lack of clothing is giving place to garments of Malayan style, a higher standard of living is beginning to assert itself, also improved methods of agriculture, and there are the beginnings of industry, whilst both Christianity and Islam are tending to replace the animism of savagery. The whole of the indigenous population had, probably, a common Malayo-Polynesian origin, but to-day all the races may be classified as Malay, in a wide sense, the pre-Malay blood of the country having been absorbed thoroughly, whilst there is no race of true Negrito type. Of these Malayan divisions the Achinese (qg.v.) inhabit the ancient kingdom of Achin in the north-western promontory and the whole of the north of the Gayo country. Gayos.—The Gayos live in the northern central portion of the country, between the Achinese and the Battaks, with the Alas on their west, living mainly in the valley of the Simpang Kiri. The Gayos, numbering about 60,000, are essentially a highland and insular race, and form an ethnographical unit, all speaking one language. Akin to the Battaks, they are agricultural and pastoral, a friendly and honest race, living in well-built houses of wood, in small scattered villages, and are the equal in civilization of the Chams of Indo-China. Their chief crop is rice, maize, cotton and sugar-cane are grown, horses and cattle are reared, and forest products are collected, and there is an export trade to the coast in the latter, and in horses and cattle. Forest tracks, only, exist and transport is difficult, much being carried on the backs of the natives. Mohammedan by religion (with an animistic substratum), they are clever craftsmen in wood-carving and plaiting, and they make weapons. They are patriarchal. Battak Groups.—The Battaks number 500,000, and inhabit the mountainous region about Lake Toba, the residency of Tapanuli, and a large part of the northern coast. They are divided into several groups, differing considerably in language and customs. Of Malay-Polynesian origin, the Battaks are nearly one-third Mo-

hammedan,

80,000 are Christian, and the remainder Animist.

Their old-time cannibalism, which was largely punitive and ritualistic, and slavery have disappeared. Their standard of culture is high; they possess a written language of their own, build compact and picturesque houses, with horned roofs (on piles, many families inhabiting one house), and have rice barns, and a communal hall, and the houses are beautifully decorated, the Battaks being clever craftsmen in wood, ivory and copper, whilst they understand iron smelting. They are good agriculturists, rice cultivation, wet and dry, being their chief occupation, though maize, coffee, fruit and vegetables are grown, and horses, cattle, buffaloes and pigs are reared, and they weave and dye cotton garments, make their own jewellery, also pottery, and there are amongst them keen traders and shop-keepers, teachers and even doctors. Society is patriarchal, marriage exogamic, women are in a subordinate position, but are treated kindly, and polygamy is practised. There are village councils, a nobility, land belongs to a family, or village, but tenure differs. Menangkabau Malays—South of the Battaks, in the Padang highlands and surrounding districts are found the Menangkabau Malays. At one time their ancient and powerful kingdom (which, legend says, rose on the ruins of a Hindu empire) covered the greater part of central Sumatra. They sent out emigrants to the Malay peninsula, and represented the highest form of Malayan civilization. Although converted to Islam, the Menangkabau Malays retained their ancient custom of the Matriarchate, z.e., descent and inheritance in the female line, which is said to be preserved

nowhere in a purer form than amongst these Malays. A wif, remains after marriage with her kinsfolk on the mother’s side, the

husband, having no home of his own, only visits his wife, anq resides in his mother’s house. Names, privileges and property derive from the mother’s side. The eldest man of the elder female line is termed Mamak, and he is the keeper of all the

possessions of the family. Land is unalienable, and always comes back into the possession of the family or village. Marriage he. tween members of the same tribe is not allowed. Houses, raised

from the ground, are very ornate and picturesque, with horned ridge-poles and finely-carved wooden fronts, sometimes painted, Several families bearing the same patronymic live in the same

house, and several houses, their rice-barns, a communal house, a

mosque,

school, an inn and market form a village. There are

priests and nobles; the people live by trade, agriculture, hunting

and fishing. Their language is one of the chief branches of Malay (with a few words of Sanskrit origin). At one time the Javanese script was used; now this is Arabic. Literature is legendary and poetical. Native chronicles derive the Menangkabau dynasty from Alexander the Great; and the Achinese princes derived their ancestry from a missionary of Islam. Other Peoples.—South of the Menangkabaus, in the Indrapura region, live the Korinchis, a small community, partly Mohammedan, partly Animist, and east of these, in Jambi, Malays, using the term as denoting a seafaring race (Mohammedans), speaking Malay and having the usual Malay characteristics, not fond of work, prone to finery, devoted to sport and gaming, friendly and

intelligent, and living in tribes. In Rejang-Lebong there are the Rejangs, a rather truculent people, who work in the gold and silver mines of their country, are Mohammedans, possess a script of Indian origin, and have Hindu antiquities scattered amongst them. In the south are the Lampongs, who were largely under Hindu influence and attained a high degree of civilization which they have retained. Pepper culture, for the European market, is the chief occupation, and many plantation owners are men of wealth, employing a great deal of outside labour. Among the primitive tribes, there are the Kubus of the Jambi mountains, who are nomadic and quite savage, almost dwarfs, and have frizzled hair denoting negritic blood. All are extremely shy and isolated peoples, but quite peaceable, nomadic or semi-nomadic, primitively clothed, living by fishing and hunting and rude agriculture. (For “island peoples” see Nias, MENTAWEI, BATU, SIMALUR.) Enggano people are Animistic Malays, fishers and agriculturists. Administrative Divisions and Towns.—The northern part of Sumatra is administered by the Government of Achin and

Dependencies (q.v.), the capital of which is Kota Raja (¢.v.), with Oleh-Leh as its port. Other ports are Sigli, Idi, Lho Seumawe (pop. 1,725), and Langsa, on the north-east coast, Meulaboh (pop. 1,732), and Singkel, on the west coast. Apart from Lhoinga on the north coast, Chalang, on the west coast, and Tapatuan, which have a controleur, Kuala Simpang near the southern boundary on the east coast, Meuredu, Bireuen and Kota Chane (Alas country), Blang Kejeren (Gajo country), Lokop and Takengun, a mountain station (4,000 ft.), in the interior, there are no towns worthy of mention. Exports in 1926 were 19,016,628 and imports 9,636,745 guilders. On the east coast, below Achin from 4 m. N. to the Equator, and extending inland to the central mountains and Lake Toba in the north, and to the western mountains in the south, is the Government of the

East Coast of Sumatra, the largest administrative unit in the island, with its capital at Medan, and with its chief port Belawan

(Deli) (g.v.). A railway runs from Kuala Simpang, where it links up with the Achin coastal railway, to Tanjong Balei (pop. 7,970), the capital of the Sultanate of Assahan. It is the seat of the Sultan of Assahan, who has two palaces here, and, situated at the mouth of the Assahan river, is a port of call for vessels of the Royal Packet

Navigation Company

(which call also at Belawan, Bengkalis,

Labuan Bili and Bagan Si-Api Api), with a trade in copra, rubber

and gambier.

The railway ends here, but a long motor road

runs inland to Si Paré Paré. Other motor roads follow more or less the line of the coastal railway; they also connect other

SUMATRA centres. South of these railways and roads there are no communications

save

riding-tracks

and

the rivers.

Towns

are:

Bengkalis, on the island of that name (pop. 2,398), Pasir Pen-

garajan, and Gunung Sahilan, in the interior, Labuan Bili, on the coast, Siak Sri Indrapura, on the Siak, and Pakan Baru, roo m. up

the Siak, which is a port of call for vessels of the Royal Packet Navigation Company, and is connected by road with Gunung Sahilan. East Coast imports (1926) amounted to a total of 9o,387,313 and exports were 277,453,450 guilders. Below Achin, on the west coast, opposite the East Coast Government, is Tapanuli (q.v.), a residency, its capital and chief port being Sibolga (pop. z822). Other ports are Barus and Natal, and all three are ports

of call for Royal Packet Navigation Company steamers.

Coffee,

J57

Lingga, the capital of which is Rengat (assistant resident), and which had, in 1926, imports valued at 6,991,360 guilders and exports 17,248,462 guilders; then Jambi (g.v.), the capital and port of which is Jambi (pop. 16,164) (imports [1926] 11,324,513 and exports 26,293,699 guilders); and then Palembang (g.v.), with capital and port the town of the same name (pop. 62,438), (imports [1926] 41,775,831 and exports 89,827,248 guilders). The whole of the south-eastern extremity of Sumatra is occupied

by the residency of the Lampongs (g.v.), capital and port Teluk Betong (pop. 14,980), and which is a great pepper-growing centre. Imports (1926) were 1,173,722 and exports 15,492,735 guilders. Agriculture.—Agriculture is divided into two classes, native

Imports (1926) 5,072,923 and

and European. Native agriculture is occupied chiefly with rice cultivation, rice being the main food staple. Both sawah, wet,

South of Tapanuli the residency of the West Coast of Sumatra has its border. With the exception of a few alluvial plains along the coast it is very mountainous, comprising the beautiful region of the Padang highlands (q.v.), with large lakes, Maninjau and Singarak, and many high mountains. Coffee, nutmegs, ground-nuts, coco-nuts (copra is a chief export) and cinchona are grown, apart from the usual native crops. There are coal-fields by the sides of the Ombilin river, near Sawah Lunto. Gold and silver are mined. The capital and chief port is Padang (q v.) (pop. 41,238), and other ports are Ayerbangis and Priaman. Royal Packet Navigation Company vessels call at all these ports and ocean steamers at Padang. Priaman is connected by rail with Padang, and from it the railway extends to Sungai Limau along the coast. A coastal highway from Padang passes southward

and ladang, dry, methods are used. Government helps cultivation with irrigation and agricultural advice. Sumatra does not grow sufficient rice to feed its population and has to import rice from

rubber and nutmegs are grown. exports 14,899,537 guilders.

along the coast through Painan and Balai Salasa to Indrapura. Another road goes inland to Solok (pop. 1,965), Sawah Lunto (pop. 14,353), headquarters of the coal-mining district, SijunjunJung and Sungai Dareh near the eastern boundary. A railway line from Padang runs inland to Padang Panjang (pop. 6,842) and 2,368 ft. above sea-level, where there is a small hotel and an industrial school for native girls and a good centre for mountain scenery. From there it branches northwards to Fort de fro Kock (pop. 12,624) (assistant resident), with hotels, an interesting old Dutch fortress, and the chief excursion centre for the Padang highlands. A good motor road connects with Sibolga, in Tapanuli, and thence to Lake Toba and across the island to Arnhemia. The railway extends inland to Pajokumbu (assistant kU h

oy

resident) (pop. 5,121) (1,680 it., as.), another excursion centre, which has a quaint native market, is a tobacco-growing centre and has a small hotel. In 1926 West Coast imports amounted to 22,563,046 and exports 259,775 guilders.

to

27,-

The residency of Bencoolen extends along the coast from the

British India, Saigon and Siam. Another food crop is maize (grown by the Battaks as a primary crop). Coffee, tobacco, pepper, cotton, kapok, cloves, nutmegs, coco-nuts, gambier, groundnuts and betel-nuts are grown for export, generally being sold to Chinese middlemen. Of very recent years there has been a great expansion of native-grown rubber. Cattle-, pig- and horsebreeding is carried on in a primitive fashion (the Battak-bred horse is small; the Padang breed is larger), fishing is a common occupation (there is a considerable dried fish export trade, mostly in Chinese hands), whilst shells, trepang and prawn-spawn are exported, and such forest products as wild rubber, jelutong, rattan and resins are collected for export, while ebony, sandal-

wood and ironwood are cut for sale. European agriculture is estate cultivation, the chief products

being rubber and tobacco. Rubber is grown chiefly on the East Coast, with imported labour—Javanese, Chinese, Indian, etc. At the end of 1926 there were 238,563 hectares of rubber planted in Sumatra. The total crop for 1925, including native-grown rubber, was 133,660 tons. The tobacco centre is on the East Coast. Sumatra tobacco is a thin silky-looking leaf, of excellent colour and quality. It fetches a high price in Holland. In 1926, 19,008 hectares were under cultivation and the crop was 20,049 tons of estate leaf tobacco. Coffee produced in 1926 was 36,313 tons. Tea is also an important crop. In 1926 there were 15,802 hectares planted and production was 8,558 tons. Tea-growing is a young industry but the quality is so high that it bids fair to prosper The intensive cultivation of the oil palm during the past seven years has been remarkable. The cultivated area is 28,642 hectares and the production for 1926 was 9,483,990 kg. of oil and 1,627,230 kg. of kernels. As against 36% of fatty acids in African palm

oil, Sumatra oil contains only duced on the West Coast. The production, in 1926, was 1,326 tion of agave fibres surpasses

12%. Cinchona (quinine) is proplanted area is 2,181 hectares, and tons. A rapidly extending cultivathe production of the much older Java plantations. Production in 1926, from large estates on the East Coast, was 22,000 tons. Extensive areas are being planted with manila hemp, until now grown exclusively in the Philippine islands. Two East Coast estates in 1926 produced 2,800 tons of

gambier. Coca (cocaine) is grown on the East Coast.

Native rubber production in 1925 was 53,000 tons. Pepper production in 1926 was about 23,000 tons and copra production, chiefly native, 33,366 tons. Padang shipped 14,607 buffalo hides and 8,879 cloves, coco-nuts, tea and rubcow hides also 1,317 tons of damar, 100 tons of gum benzoin and NAVIGATION PACKET ber are grown, and Bencoolen has BY COURTESY OF ROYAL 1,000 tons of rattan, whilst Palembang shipped (1926), 3,633 tons gold and silver deposits in the riea iperd arte a ahh: ; 3 Ry pur

ste

"Ei

ENN i reks EIAN

E

rate

Boreoat

BY

COURTESY

OF

(1,

2) YERKES

OBSERVATORY,

(3)

J.

EVERSHED,

(4)

THE

ASTRONOMER

STUDIES

OF

ROYAL

SOLAR

1. Solar prominence observed at Yerkes Observatory, Wisconsin, on October 10, 1910. 2. Another observation of the same prominence made on the same day, also at Yerkes Observatory. 3. Prominences of the sun observed May 26, 1916, at Srinagar. Kashmir, India. 4. The inner corona and

PROMINENCES prominence photographed at a total solar eclipse, May 29, 1919, observed at Sobral, Brazil. The red flame rose from a height of 130,000 miles to more than 500,000 miles above the surface of the sun in less than seven hours

SPECTROSCOPIC INVESTIGATION]

SUN

č 6I

scope, the spectrum formed consists of a continuous background on which dark lines appear exactly in the positions of the bright lines which the interposed vapour would give by itself. This 26.38 days, while near the equator the period was only 24-5 days. is called an absorption spectrum. The glowing vapour absorbs, Individual sunspots appear spasmodically, remain visible for from the light passing through it, precisely those colours which periods varying from a few days to several months, and then it can itself emit. Absorption lines are not absolutely dark. They disappear. This apparently capricious behaviour, however, con- contain the light emitted by the glowing vapour. The Solar Spectrum.—The spectrum of the sun is an absorption tributes to a striking regularity which is revealed only when large numbers of spots and a great length of time are considered. spectrum. This gives us immediately a piece of knowledge which Samuel Heinrich Schwabe, in 1843, found that if the number of the telescope was powerless to reveal; namely, that the sun has spots appearing per year (or the total area covered by them) an atmosphere of glowing vapours surrounding the brilliant photowere plotted against time, as in the diagram, a markedly periodic sphere. Further, it enables us to ascertain the elements which relation was shown, the number reaching a maximum approxi- make up this atmosphere by simply comparing the positions or mately every 113 years. It was afterwards discovered that a wave-lengths, of the absorption lines with those of the emission similar regularity characterized the location of the spots. At a lines produced by known substances in the laboratory. In this time of minimum those of a new cycle began to appear in the manner the presence in the solar atmosphere of 66 elements higher latitudes, both north and south, of their appointed belts, known on the earth (including a few doubtful identifications) and as the cycle progressed the place of outbreak gradually moved has been established. The remaining elements are mainly the towards the equator. The dotted lines in the figure illustrate this. heaviest ones, which might be expected to sink to the interior Sunspots are often accompanied by exceptionally bright areas of the sun. The existence of the solar atmosphere is revealed in another on the photosphere, known as faculae. They are most easily seen near the limb, where the brightness of the photospheric back- way during times of total eclipse. When the moon has just covered the last remnant of photosphere, the crescent of the ground is diminished. On the comparatively rare occasions on which the sun is ob- atmosphere which still remains exposed for a few seconds gives served in eclipse, red flames are seen apparently rising from a bright line spectrum, for the glowing vapours there have no various points on the circumference of the dark moon. They be- bright photosphere behind them. On account of its evanescence, long in reality to the sun, and are known as prominences. They this spectrum is known as the flash, and it is, of course, essentially are not seen through the telescope alone in full daylight, because identical with the Fraunhofer, or absorption, spectrum in the the intense photospheric light, diffused by our atmosphere as by positions of its lines. Careful observation at such times enables a screen of ground glass, acts as a veil through which prominences the heights reached by the various substances to be determined. and stars alike are invisible as individual objects although their ‘It is found that the majority are confined to the lowest atmosradiation contributes to the sum total of the light of day. Prom- pheric layer, not more than 500 miles high, known as the inences assume various shapes and sizes, sometimes reaching reversing layer. Hydrogen, helium, and calcium charged with heights of hundreds of thousands of miles. On such occasions they positive electricity (gonised calcium), however, reach much greater heights, extending up to 8,000 or 9,000 miles, and form a relatively can easily be seen by the naked eye during eclipses. The most striking solar eclipse phenomenon, however, is the thick upper stratum of the atmosphere, which is known as the corona, a pearly white halo enveloping the sun and extending in chromosphere on account of the red colour imparted to it by the more or less definite rays or streamers to a distance of several glowing hydrogen. Prominences are eruptions of hydrogen. The portion of the solar atmosphere just outside the sun’s limb of its radii. The brilliance of the corona diminishes fairly rapidly with distance from the sun’s limb, and although its total brightness might be expected to give a bright line spectrum in full daylight. is not far short of that of full moon, it is still less able than the It does not do so, however, because of the diffused photospheric prominences to maintain the individuality of its appearance in light in the earth’s atmosphere which masks the bright radiations. full daylight. No two aspects of the corona seen at different Pierre Jules César Janssen and Joseph Norman Lockyer, in 1868, eclipses are identical, but here again the apparent arbitrariness independently succeeded in partially overcoming this difficulty. is subject to conformity with a rather vague but unquestionable If the dispersion of the spectroscope (i.e., its power of separating relation with the sunspot period. At sunspot maximum the corona the colours) is increased, the intensity of the continuous spectrum appears to extend from the sun’s limb to roughly the same distance at any one point is diminished, while the lines in a bright line all around. At sunspot minimum, on the other hand, the poles spectrum are merely drawn farther apart without loss of brightof the sun are marked by comparatively small tufts of light, ness. Janssen and Lockyer found it possible so to weaken the while from the equatorial regions long streamers shoot out to great diffused daylight that the bright lines of the chromosphere and distances. There is also a not fully determined relation between prominences became visible. When the spectroscope is directed towards the corona, it is the corona and prominences of certain types. found that a great deal of the coronal light yields the ordinary SPECTROSCOPIC INVESTIGATION Fraunhofer spectrum and is therefore reflected sunlight. But General Considerations ——The spectroscope is an instrument there is also light which must originate in the corona itself, for by means of which a beam of light is analysed into its constituent it gives a spectrum of which part is continuous and part is comcolours, or wave-lengths. The analysed radiation of a substance posed of bright lines which have not yet been matched terrestrially is called its spectrum, and the instrument is constructed to show The name coronium has been given to a hypothetical element each colour radiated as a thin vertical line; hence the term which has been held to radiate the lines, but it is now generally spectrum line is often used to denote a particular colour. When, believed that coronium is a familiar element in disguise. Elements in the laboratory, a substance is vaporised and made luminous, have a habit of changing their spectra when certain changes are the light it emits, when analysed by the spectroscope, appears as made in the conditions of their radiation. Spectra and Physical Conditions-——This change of spectrum a collection of isolated lines and is characteristic of the substance. On the other hand, a glowing solid, liquid, or gas under great with change of physical conditions is one of the most important pressure or of great depth, such as is found in the stars, radiates phenomena of spectroscopy. We shall at this stage consider three light of all wave-lengths (within rather ill-defined limits), appear- of its aspects without inquiring into their theoretical foundations. ing in the spectroscope as a continuous band of colour ranging They are, respectively, the effect on a line spectrum of tem- ' from red to violet in the order of the colours of the rainbow. This perature, a magnetic field, and motion of the source of light. When a luminous compound body is gradually raised in temis known as a continuous spectrum. Again, when a beam of light which, if analysed, would form a continuous spectrum, is allowed perature, changes of spectrum of two kinds take place successively. to pass through a less brightly glowing vapour which, acting alone, First, the spectrum of the compound gives place to the lines of would give a line spectrum, and is then received by the spectro- the constituent elements as the compound becomes dissociated

of latitude about 5° and 40° N. and S. respectively. Within each

of these regions R. C. Carrington found, as the result of a large number of observations, that the mean rotation period was

562

SUN

[BOLOMETRIC INVESTIGATION

by heat; secondly, the earliest elementary lines to appear slowly

in the spectra of the two limbs and are therefore readily distin.

into “high tempersture” lines and “low temperature” lines. These observations have an important application when the spectra of the photosphere and a sunspot are compared. The spectrum of the spot contains evidence of compounds of which only the separated elements contribute to the photospheric spectrum, and, furthermore, the spot spectrum shows a strengthening of “low temperature” and weakening of “high temperature” lines when compared with the spectrum of the photosphere. The obvious conclusion is that the vapours over a sunspot have a lower temperature than the rest of the solar atmosphere. A source of light placed in a magnetic field (ż.e., a region such as the neighbourhood of the poles of a magnet, in which a freely suspended compass needle is constrained to lie in a definite direction) has each of its spectrum lines split into a number of component lines, lying side by side. Unless the field is a very strong

Doppler effect is to the detection of atmospheric currents in the

fade out, while new lines come into view and are gradually strengthened. Spectrum lines may therefore be roughly classified

one, the components are too close together to be seen as distinct

individuals and the lines merely appear to be broadened. By means of special appliances, however, the existence of the separate components can be detected. In 1908 George Ellery Hale, using such appliances, found that the lines in the spectrum of a sunspot were of just the composite character that would result from the existence of a magnetic field in the spot in a direction perpendicular to the sun’s surface. Further observation showed that all sunspots are magnets, some presenting a north, and others a south pole to the surrounding space. In each pair of spots, the leader and the follower in the journey round the sun’s axis had opposite polarities. Indeed, many apparently single spots were found by this magnetic criterion to have invisible companions. Moreover, there was a reversal of polarity in the southern solar hemisphere as compared with the northern; thus, if the leader of a pair were a N-pole in the northern hemisphere, it would be a S-pole in the southern hemisphere, and vice versa and, with few exceptions, this order would characterise all spots from one minimum to the next of a sunspot sphere, and vice versa, and, with few exceptions, this order would be reversed, so that the approximate period of a complete set of sunspot phenomena turned out to be, not 11 but 22 years. More refined investigations of the same kind have shown that the sun as a whole is a magnet, just as the earth is. Its field, however, is much weaker than that of a spot, being only 50 gausses at its strongest observable region (the base of the reversing layer) as compared with about 4,000 gausses in large spots.

guished from the displaced solar lines.

One of the most difficult and important

applications of the

sun itself. Solar storms not infrequently occur, of incomparably greater fury than the hurricanes and tornadoes of the earth, and the violent motions of the solar gases are revealed by distortions

and displacements of the spectrum lines.

Eruptive prominences

are often the results of such storms. But there are more syste. matic movements also which have been brought to light in the same way, and of these perhaps the most interesting are the move. ments occurring near sunspots. The researches of John Eversheq and Charles Edward St. John have shown that in the lower atmospheric levels gases move upwards and outwards from a spot,

while in the higher levels the movements are inwards and down-

wards, as if a spot were a sort of whirlpool into which the high

level gases are drawn. Indeed, there is definite evidence of high level circulatory movements round the axes of spots, which point strongly to the same conclusion. SPECTROHELIOGRAPHIC

INVESTIGATION

It has been said that the absorption lines in the solar spectrum contain light emitted by the glowing atmospheric gases; it is the photospheric light that is absorbed. The spectroheliograph is an instrument which gathers the light in a particular spectrum line and builds up a picture of the solar atmosphere in the light of that line, showing thereby how the substance producing the line is distributed in the solar atmosphere. The construction of the instrument is explained in the article SPECTROHELIOGRAPH.

Some of the results which it produces are shown in Plate I, figs.

4 and 5. It is clear that the evidence of the spectroscope and spectroheliograph points the way to a fairly complete knowledge of solar meteorology, from which it appears that the structure of the solar atmosphere is anything but uniform. Atoms congregate in clouds, or flocculi, particularly in the regions of sunspots, where they form the faculae observed through the telescope. Different substances are differently distributed, and the distribution of each substance is in a state of continual flux. The restless turmoil of the solar atmosphere stands in striking contrast to the comparative quietude and regularity of our own air. Yet even in the sun the motions are not wholly chaotic. On the large scale there is a consistency which points to a fundamental equilibrium. There is a fairly well defined limit to the ascent of each substance above the photosphere; we never find sodium so high as hydrogen, for example. Spectroheliograms are markedly characteristic in gauss.) 0-5 roughly is field (The maximum value of the earth’s mottled structure of The third of the effects mentioned above—that of motion of the appearance for each substance; the coarse from the finersource of light, or Doppler effect, as it is called—has had many the calcium clouds is immediately distinguishable them may be of each as inconstant hydrogen, of layers grained observer an between and various applications. When the distance of law and order to and a source of light is decreasing the wave-length of every line in detail. Once more there is a foundation emitted is lessened by an amount proportional to the wave-length the superficial irresponsibility. itself and to the rate of approach. When the distance is increasing BOLOMETRIC INVESTIGATION the wave-length is augmented in a similar manner. This shows The Suws Total Radiation—One of the most important characitself by a displacement of the spectrum lines compared with their normal positions, and the amount and direction of the displace- teristics of the sun is its practice of radiating energy. Of the 3-79X 1088 ergs which it discharges every second in the form of ment indicate the velocity of approach or recession. This effect has been used to measure the speed of the sun’s light, heat, and other ethereal vibrations, its attendant planets million, so that motion among the stars. The displacement of spectrum lines, when and their satellites receive about one part in 120 properly analysed, shows that the solar system is moving at a the significance of the process is cosmic rather than human. This enormous quantity of energy is sent forth regularly and ceaselessly, speed of about 12 miles per second among the stars. Another application of the Doppler effect to the sun is the and goes no one knows whither or to what end. In seeking further verification of the speed of rotation by observing the rates of knowledge of this fundamental process the first step to be taken approach of the east limb and recession of the west limb. The is the measurement of the precise rate of radiation, for which values obtained agree very well with those indicated by the spots, purpose use has been made of various instruments bearing the and the observations can be extended beyond the belts to which generic name, bolometer. Owing to natural limitations we can measure only the radiation the spots are confined. The same spectra can be used for a further purpose; namely, to determine what lines in the solar spectrum received by a small area of the earth’s surface, but, knowing the are produced by absorption in the earth’s atmosphere.

Our atmos-

dimensions of the solar system, we can readily deduce the total

phere, though not luminous, is able, in great thickness, to absorb certain lines (known as telluric lines) proper to its constituents,

amount. The general method is to convert the sun’s radiation into heat, which can be accurately measured—making an allow:

which are mixed with the true solar lines in the ordinary Fraunhofer spectrum. Such lines, however, occupy identical positions

absorption by the earth’s atmosphere.

ance, which must be estimated from separate investigation, for The result ‘s usually ex-

Prate LMI

FRANKLIN

YEREX

TOTAL

ECLIPSE

OF

THE

SUN

Corona. From a photograph The sun in total eclipse at 9 a.m. January 24, 1925, showing the long streamers of the the sun itself is hidden by made from High Bridge Park, New York City, over ooking the Harlem River. Although the landscape the moon the Corona gives sufficient light for photographing

SUN

CONSTITUTION]

pressed as the solar constant, which is defined as the amount of energy which would fall perpendicularly per square centimetre per minute on a surface placed just outside the earth’s atmos-

phere. The value of this constant, according to Charles Greeley Abbot, is about 1-94 calories (81 million ergs), but it is subject to slight variations which are related to the sunspot periodicity and possibly to other factors also. The rate of radiation appears to increase with the prevalence of sunspots, but further observations are required to determine the relation precisely. The question of the source and maintenance of this ceaseless effux of energy will be dealt with in a later section of this article. For the present we will limit ourselves to the consideration of the immediate use which can be made of the measurements in the light of ascertained physical principles. It is known that surfaces

in a certain condition—known black body—when

as that of a perfect radiator or

they radiate energy,

do so at a rate strictly

proportional to the fourth power of their absolute temperature.

There are strong theoretical reasons for believing that the sun radiates as a black body, and its absolute temperature is therefore calculable. Now the sun cannot be uniform in temperature throughout, so that it is necessary to consider what region has the temperature so determined. Since the greatest part of the radiation is in the form of visible light, this region must be the photosphere, and the photosphere is a relatively thin superficial

layer at the base of the atmosphere.

Thus the temperature

measured from the total radiation is that of the outside of the sun. It is called the effective temperature, and has a value of

5,750 absolute centigrade degrees. The Sun’s Analysed Radiation—The bolometer also provides the data for another method of estimating the sun’s effective tem-

perature. The radiation from a black body is distributed among the various wave-lengths in its continuous spectrum in a manner definitely related to the temperature of the body. Thus, if the bolometer be passed along the solar spectrum, and the amount of energy at each point in the continuous background thereby measured, the distribution of energy throughout the spectrum

may be determined and the absolute temperature deduced.

(AI-

lowance must again be made for absorption by the earth’s atmosphere, which is not uniform for all wave-lengths.) There are two partially independent methods of analysing the observations to obtain the temperature, which yield the respective values, 6,150° and 5,800°-6,300°. If the sun behaved exactly as a perfect radiator, these determinations would agree with one another and with the result obtained from the undissected radiation. The slight departures from agreement show that the sun is not quite in this condition, but is sufficiently near to it to enable us to say with confidence that the temperature near its surface is about 6,000°. CONSTITUTION OF THE SUN Modern View of the Sun’s Constitution—The chief facts concerning the sun which have so far been brought to light are now before us, and the question arises: What idea of the sun do they lead us to form? Following the independent investigations of Arthur Stanley Eddington and James Hopwood Jeans, we think of a vast concourse of broken fragments of atoms in violent movement, held together by gravitational attraction. An atom, it should be remarked, is now pictured as a sort of miniature solar system, in which a number of electrons, or units of negative electricity, revolve round a positive nucleus. The net amount of positive electricity in the nucleus is, in the normal atom, exactly equal to the sum of the negative charges constituting the revolving electrons, and one element is distinguished from another by the amount of this charge. Thus, the hydrogen atom consists of a nucleus with one unit of positive charge and a single satellite electron; the helium nucleus has two units of positive charge and two satellite electrons; and so on, up to uranium, the heaviest known element, which has 92 units of charge in the nucleus and 92 revolving electrons. By certain methods some of the electrons can be detached, one by one, from their orbits and set free. The remainder of the atom is then said to be ionised. Atoms can thus be singly, doubly, and, in general, multiply ionised, according to the number of electrons which are so detached.

In such states, however,

they

563

are unstable and recapture electrons to make up their deficiency at the earliest opportunity. Positive nuclei and electrons, then, are the material units of which the sun is believed to be composed. Whether the nuclei are entirely of the kinds existing on the earth, or whether in the

interior of the sun there are also heavier ones, is a question on which opinions differ; the direct evidence of the spectroscope, of course, reveals the composition of the sun’s atmosphere only. Since the sun is radiating energy, conditions of stability require that it shall get hotter towards the centre, so that the effective temperature of 6,000° represents approximately the minimum solar temperature. Now from laboratory experiments and deductions therefrom, we know that high temperature is one of the agencies through which atoms are ionised: the interior of the sun must therefore be pictured as a swarming crowd of electrons and lonised atoms, the degree of ionisation of the atoms and the speed of their motions increasing as the centre is approached. Near the centre, in fact, the nuclei are almost, if not quite, stripped bare of their satellite electrons. In the ceaseless and inconceivably rapid motions electrons are captured by nuclei and set free again millions of times per second. Both the cause and effect of this process is radiation. Every time an electron is captured the energy of its former motion is liberated as a unit beam, or quantum, of radiation; every time a quantum falls on an atom tuned to receive it a satellite electron absorbs its energy and flies into momentary freedom. Ionised atoms, electrons, and radiation thus take part in a process of continual interchange, rapid beyond conception and without pause or diminution of intensity. But there is an important difference in the behaviour of the atoms and electrons on one hand and the radia-

tion on the other. The headlong careering of the former is kept within a limited range by the gravitational consolidation of the whole mass, while electrostatic forces preserve a constant proportion between the number of nuclei and the number of electrons in each region. Radiation, however, is not so controlled. It works its way from the centre, where it is most intense, out to the surface and thence to space at the observed rate of 3-79 x 10%8 ergs per second. The sun loses radiation at this enormous rate, and has been doing so for countless millions of years, while the electrons and atomic nuclei remain chained within its boundaries. How is it possible for the process of interchange to be maintained? There appears to be only one answer to this question. Electrons and nuclei must in some measure cancel one another, producing fresh radiation by their complete or partial annihilation. Such a process is theoretically possible. It has never been known to occur on the earth, and the only evidence that it occurs in the sun and stars is that otherwise we cannot explain the prodigal generation of radiant energy which those bodies manifest. What conditions give rise to a process which terrestrial circumstances do not countenance is at present an unanswered question. The picture of the sun which we have so far drawn will fit almost any star, and indeed will be found with greater elaboration of detail in the article Star. We proceed to particularise for our own luminary. The temperature at the centre of the sun has been estimated at 30 or 60 million degrees, according to the view taken of the conditions of stability and generation of energy. The density at the centre is at least 20 times the mean density. The rate of radiation corresponds to a loss of mass of more than

4,000,000 tons per second—an enormous loss, but one which the sun will be able to sustain, if no sudden change occurs, for millions of years to come. Application to Detailed Features—Such, in outline, is the idea which is now held of the sun’s constitution. The concepts out of which it is formed are atomic nuclei, electrons, and radiation. If it were complete, the existence of sunspots, prominences and the corona, the sun’s rotation, equatorial acceleration and magnetic field, and the phenomena of the atmosphere would follow as inevitable consequences. They do not do:‘so because we have either not yet specified sufficient fundamental concepts or failed to realise the full potentialities of those we have specified. Yet some progress has been made, especially in the consideration of the atmosphere, where, thanks largely to Megh Nad Saha, Ralph

564

ISLANDS

SUN-BIRD—SUNDA

Howard Fowler, Edward Arthur Milne, and Henry Norris Russell, ideas consistent with those applied to the interior have shown how

‘The Nectariniidae form the subject of a Monograph by G. E. Shelley SUN-BITTERN (Eurypyga helias), a South American bird

the more prominent of the observed phenomena arise. The atom of each element requires a certain amount of energy to detach each

the size of a small curlew. The plumage is variegated with black

of its electrons successively, and the conditions favouring detachment, or ionisation, are high temperature and low pressure. Thus

legs long. It frequents the banks of rivers and feeds on fish and insects. When alarmed, and also EERST

the spectrum lines of sodium are produced only up to a certain

height because, in the lower pressures above that height, all the

atoms of sodium are ionised, in which state they produce different spectrum lines lying outside the range of wave-length which the transparency of our atmosphere allows us to observe. The precise connection between the degree of ionisation and the physical

conditions has been formulated, and this enables the temperature and pressure in the sun’s atmosphere to be estimated from the observed heights reached by the various elements. It appears that the pressure in the sun’s atmosphere is very low—less than one thousandth of that of the earth’s atmosphere—while the temperature is not far below that of the photosphere. When the selective pressure of radiation also is taken into account the relatively great heights reached by the chromospheric gases become intelligible, and in the hands of Milne a consistent theory of the chromosphere is in process of construction (see CHROMOSPHERE). Although there is at present no sign of an explanation of sunspots along the lines of the general solar theory, the work of Hale has greatly clarified our ideas of the nature of those objects. Hale pictures a vortex motion just below the photosphere, in which the revolution of electrified particles produces a magnetic field. Photospheric matter is projected upwards along the axis of the vortex,

becoming

cool by sudden

expansion

and so appearing

brown, buff, grey, and white; the bill is slender and straight, the

È iZ A

ee

Ti

AN

nero a]

„ijg

in courtship it displays its wings

and tail in a striking'way. Itin-

T om, sahit.1$ habits Guiana and Brazil. There aT pA ty a is a large species, Æ. major, in |a 7 ei A ax Colombia and Central America. eet eee

s, Mat

Its only ally is the kagu (Rhin-

THE SUN BiTTERN

chetus jubatus)

of New Cale.

donia, a larger bird, with a pendant crest; this has the same habit of display when excited.

SUNBURY, a city of Pennsylvania, U.S.A., the county seat of Northumberland county; 40 m. (in an air line) N. of Harris. burg, at the confluence of the west and the north branches of the Susquehanna river; served by the Pennsylvania, the Lackawanna and the Reading railways. Pop. (1920) 15,721 (98% native white); in 1930 it was 15,626. Sunbury takes the place of the old Indian village Shamokin, long the principal one in the province, where a Moravian mission was maintained from 1747 to 175.. Because of the strategic importance of the spot Ft. Augusta was erected here by the provincial government in 1756, and it was a refuge to many fugitives from the Wyoming Massacre. Sunbury was surveyed in 1772 and was incorporated as a borough

in 1797.

SUNBURY-ON-THAMES,

an urban district in the Spel-

darker than the rest of the photosphere. This forms the umbra of a spot, and the outspreading and circulation of the material in the atmosphere constitutes the penumbra. Vilhelm Firman

thorne parliamentary division of Middlesex, England, 17 m. § W.

Koren

Bjerknes has supplemented this view by assuming that

has grown considerably as a residential district. There are pump-

during each 11-year cycle there exist, immediately beneath the photosphere, two vortex rings, one in each hemisphere, each lying along a circle of latitude. When, at a certain point, a ring rises up to the photosphere and is intersected by it the two sections of the ring form spots, which thus occur in pairs and appear to have opposite rotations and therefore opposite magnetic polarities. Periodic movements of the rings in latitude, occurring as part

ing works and filtration beds for the water-supply of London. To the north-east is Kempton park, the manor-house of which was a royal residence early in the 14th century. The park is famous for its race-meetings, the principal fixture being the Jubilee Handicap, established in 1887. The manor was granted by Edward the Confessor to Westminster Abbey, and passed in the 13th century to the see of London and in the 16th to the Crown; but was not so held later than 1603.

of a definite system of circulating currents of solar matter slightly

below the photospheric level, account for the observed latitudinal migration of the spots. This conception is very attractive, but can be regarded at present only as a very plausible hypothesis. It remains to be shown how such rings have developed in a sun

having the constitution described above. BrstiocrapHy.—The latest authoritative book devoted exclusively to the sun is Eclipses of the Sun by S. A. Mitchell (1925); this deals comprehensively with solar observation and theory in a non-technical way. The chapter on “The Constitution of the Sun,” by C. E. St. John, in the biography of Sir Norman Lockyer (1928) contains a valuable résumé of modern ideas. For general accounts see chapters in Astronomy, by H. N. Russell, R. S. Dugan, and J. Q. Stewart (1927); F. J. M. Stratton, Astronomical Physics (1925) and H. Dingle, Modern Astrophysics (1927). (H. D.)

SUN-BIRD, the name of a group of small birds forming the passerine family Nectariniidae. They inhabit the Ethiopian, Indian and Australian regions. One species occurs in Baluchistan, which is perhaps outside of the Indian region, but the fact of its being found there may be a reason for including that country within the region. They are considered to have their nearest allies in the Meliphagidae (see Honry-Eater). Some of them

are popularly

called

“humming-birds”

by Anglo-Indians

and

colonists, but with that group the sun-birds have nothing to do.

The most wonderful combination of the brightest colours— scarlet, purple, blue, green and yellow—is often seen in one and

the same bird. One group, however, is dull in hue. Graceful in form and active in motion, sun-birds flit from flower to flower,

feeding on small insects and nectar; but this is usually done while perched and rarely on the wing as is the habit of humming-birds.

The extensible tongue is converted into an almost tubular organ.

The nests of the sun-birds, domed with a penthouse porch, and suspended from the end of a bough or leaf, are neatly built.

of St. Paul’s Cathedral, London, on a branch of the S. railway. Pop. (1931) 13,329. It is a favourite riverside resort and

SUN CHUANG-FANG

(1885-

), one of the group of

men who rose to prominence and obtained a brief tenure of power in China during the years of strife which succeeded the death of Yuan Shi-kai. He was born in Lingcheng in the Province of Shantung and received military training at the Peiyang College and in Japan. In 1921 he obtained command of a Division under Wu Pei-fu, and two years later was appointed military governor of Chekiang. During 1924 and 1925 he extended his authonity over Kiangsu, and, after defeating the Northern troops, announced the consolidation of five provinces, Kiangsu, Chekiang, Anhwel,

Kiangsi and Fukien, into an independent State under himself as governor-general. He made gestures of good-will towards the foreign enclaves within his jurisdiction, and, expressing shame for the insanitary condition of his cities, pleaded for foreign co-operation. Early in 1927 he was swept aside in the advance of the

Southern Army, and, in spite of resistance rendered by rem-

forcements from Shantung, ‘he found himself a fugitive and his five provinces in Nationalist hands. He fought on tenaciously at Hsuchowfu with the remnants of his army, but without success.

SUN COPYING

or Puoro Copryinec, the name given that

branch of photographic

contact printing which is carried out

without the aid of a camera-made negative.

(See BLUE PRINT.)

SUN CURE: see HELIOTHERAPY. SUNDA ISLANDS, the collective name of the islands from

the Malay Peninsula to the Moluccas, including the Great Sunda

Islands—i.e., Sumatra, Java, Borneo, Celebes, Banka and Bill-

ton, and the Lesser Sunda Islands, Bali, Lombok, Sumbawa, Flores, Sumba and Timor, etc. Sunda Strait is the channel separating Sumatra from Java and uniting the Indian Ocean with the Java Sea. Its narrowest part, between the south-eastern extremity of Sumatra and the

SUNDARBANS—SUNDAY town of Anjer in Java, is 14 m. wide. In the middle is the low-

lying well-wooded island of Dwars-in-den-Weg (“right in the way”), otherwise Middle Island or Sungian, which divides the strait into two channels each about 4 m. wide. In 1883 Sunda Strait was the scene of the eruption of Krakatoa (g.v.), a volcanic

island farther west in the strait.

SUNDARBANS

or SUNDERBUNDS, a tract of country

in Bengal, India, forming the seaward fringe of the Gangetic delta. It extends for about 170 m. along the sea face of the Bay of Bengal, from the estuary of the Hooghly on the west to that of

the Meghna on the east, and runs inland for a distance of 60 to

565

some of the inconveniences in modern life caused by the 1677 Act, which however did permit the sale of milk before 9 a.m. and after 4 p.m, and of victuals in cook shops and fried fish shops (Bullen v. Ward, 1905, 14 L.J.K.B., 916). Other statutes followed but are all repealed. Still law are the Acts of 1762 (2 Geo. ITI. c. 15 s. 7), allowing fish carriages to travel on Sunday in London and Westminster; 1827 (8 Geo. IV. c. 75), repealing s. 2 of the Act of 1677 as far as regards Thames boatmen. The Bread Acts of 1822 (3 Geo. IV. c. 106) allow bakers in London, and of 1836 (6 and 7 Will. IV. c. 37) allow bakers out of London, to carry on their trade up to 1.30 P.M. Since an Act of 1871 (34 and 35 Vict.

It is intersected from north to south by large tidal

c. 87) no prosecution for penalties under the Act of 1677 can be

rivers or estuaries, which are connected by numerous interlacing

instituted except with the consent in writing of the chief officer of a police district or the consent of two justices or a stipendiary magistrate. (Thorpe v. Priestnall, 1897, 1, Q.B. 19.)

89 miles.

‘channels. The whole tract is a network of estuaries, rivers and creeks, which enclose a large number

of flat, marshy islands.

Many are covered with forest and a dense undergrowth standing in soft mud, half in and half out of the water. The area under

forest is about 3,000 sq. miles. The characteristic tree is the sundri

(Heritiera littoralis), from which the name of the tract has probably been derived.

Along the sea face the forest Is composed of

Since 1871.—The result of the Act of 1871 has been in substance to make the Lord’s Day Acts a dead letter as to Sunday trading. In London Sunday markets are usual in all the poorer districts, and shopkeepers and hawkers are allowed freely to ply their trades for the sale of eatables, temperance drinks and

mangrove, which in some places are separated from the sea by a line of sand dunes. Cultivation is confined to the north, where over 2,000 sq.m. have been settled, but the population is very

tobacco. The Factory and Workshop Act (1901) forbids the employment of women, young persons or children on Sunday in a factory or workshop (s. 34). The Shops Acts 1912—22, which regulate certain conditions of

tically uninhabited. The chief wild animals are tigers, of which many are man-eaters, leopards, deer and wild pig; crocodile infest the estuaries.

employment for shop assistants and ensure them a half-day holiday, tacitly imply that the 1677 Act is still in general operation with regard to shops. The intention to exclude Sunday from the operation of the 1912 Act may be assumed from the power given by s. I to exclude shops of any specified class from the operation of a closing order which would be in conflict with the Sunday Observance Act. Fishing is permissible on a Sunday, except that one may only

sparse. South of the area of cultivation, the Sundarbans are prac-

SUNDAY, the Lord’s day in the Christian world, the first

day of the week, and the day set apart for divine worship in Christendom, in memory of the Resurrection. Early apostolic writings bear witness to the sanctity of the day dedicated to the duties laid down in the fourth commandment, the equivalent in the Christian religion of the Jewish Sabbath (Saturday). Eventually the Roman emperor Constantine enjoined Sunday rest from labour, except agricultural, by constitutions, the first of which was decreed in A.D. 321, and most of which are contained in the code of Justinian. English Laws.—In the 7th century A.D. the laws of Wihtred, king of Kent, provided that if a servant, contrary to his lord’s command, did servile work between sunset on Saturday evening and sunset on Sunday evening, he should pay a fine to his lord; they forbade a servant to make a journey of his own on horseback on Sunday under penalty of a fine or the lash, and a freeman to work during the forbidden time, under certain penalties

including the payment of half the fine to the informer, who also was entitled to the profits of the Sabbath-breaker’s labour. On the other hand, Ina, king of Wessex, in the same century ordained that if a slave worked on Sunday by his lord’s command he should become free, and the lord be liable to a fine of 30 shillings. By a series of statutes, many of which are still the law of the country, it is illegal to work or to take part in certain forms of pastime on a Sunday, which in English law is reckoned from midnight to midnight. The first such prohibition in a statute is in 28 Edw. III. c. 14 (repealed) by which in 1354 the sale of wool at the staple was forbidden on a Sunday. Although the church had sufficient temporal power to visit Sabbath-breakers with its displeasure, Sunday observance was not ordained by statute until the reign of Edward VI. by the Act of Uniformity of 1551. By I. Eliz. c. 2 (1558) everyone had to go to church on a Sunday or be liable not only to the censures of the church but to a fine of twelvepence. The penalty was not formally repealed until 1846

(gand ro Vict. c. 59). It is still the law of England that members of the Church of England are required to attend divine service on Sunday, and though in practice this law has not been enforced for generations, obedience to the law has been upheld by the High Court in the analogous case of Ascension Day as against a later Act relating to compulsory education attendance (Marshall and Bell v. Graham, 1907, 2 K.B. 112). By the Sunday Observance Act 1677 tradesmen, artificers, labourers “or other person whatsoever” are forbidden to carry on their ordinary businesses under penalty of a fine of 5s or two hours in the stocks in default. Acts have been passed to obviate

fish for salmon with rod and line (Salmon Fishery Act 1861). By the Game Act 1831, it is a crime to take or kill game on a Sunday, but the prohibition does not apply to rabbits. The law with regard to Sunday entertainments and performances is based upon the Sunday Observance Act 1781 (21 Geo. IIT. c. 49) by which heavy pecuniary penalties were imposed upon anyone who promoted any public entertainment or debate to which people were admitted only by payment. A bill to permit certain public entertainments on a Sunday was introduced in April, 1931. Sunday is a dies non for the sitting of the courts or meetings of public bodies, though parliament has at times sat on a Sunday in national emergencies, and Saturday sittings of the House of Commons have been extended into the small hours of the Sab-

bath. Process may not be served nor persons arrested except in cases of treason, felony, or breach of the peace (1677 Act), but a justice may issue an arrest or search warrant. Contracts on a Sunday.—Though at common law a contract

made on a Sunday is valid, the technical restrictions imposed by statute on Sunday labour, especially those contained in the Sun-

day Observance Act 1677, render most contracts made and com-

pleted on that day void or voidable (Smith v. Sparrow, 1827, 4 Bing. 84). But any contract in respect of labour, business, or work not done in the course of a man’s ordinary calling is binding. A cheque drawn on a Sunday is binding on the drawer; in an action on a bill of exchange drawn on a Sunday the drawer was given judgment against the acceptor (Begbie v. Levy, 1830, x C. and J. 180). The position in regard to these matters has been clearly laid down by the Bills of Exchange Act.

Computation of Time.—Where

any limit or period of time

fixed in the High Court exceeds seven days the Sundays included in it (except in divorce proceedings) are counted in computing

the time, provided that if the last day fall on a Sunday, the period must be computed so as to cover the next following working day. But where the period fixed is less than six days Sunday is not counted, so that five days from a Saturday would’ commence on the following Monday and end on the Friday. ,

In Scotland and the British dominions the laws as to Sunday have followed more or less the same course, except that native customs have been interfered with as little as possible and par(W. La). ticular Acts have been passed to meet special needs.

566

SUNDAY

SCHOOLS—SUNDERLAND

United States.—In the United States Sunday legislation, beginning with an enactment of the Virginia colony in 1617, was quite general in colonial times, and Sunday laws of varying types have been passed by all the States. Their general trend is to prohibit the carrying on of any business on Sunday that is neither necessary nor charitable in nature. In some States general provisions to this effect are in force; others prohibit the conduct of particular trades and occupations. Many States forbid Sunday sports, prohibiting games and theatrical performances from being conducted for profit. Violation of the Sunday laws entails three effects. It subjects the violator to the criminal penalty prescribed by statute. It makes unenforceable contracts, including promissory notes, executed or to be performed on Sunday. In a few States, it subjects the violator to a civil disability, thus preventing a traveller on Sunday from recovering for a negligent injury done to him inasmuch as his own illegal act was a cause of the injury. The criminal enforcement of Sunday laws throughout the United States is notoriously lax. (J. M. La.)

SUNDAY

SCHOOLS. Late in the 18th century the educa-

tional problems arising from the industrial revolution led to a new religious effort in the form of the Sunday School movement. Robert Raikes (qg.v.) established his first Sunday school in Gloucester, England, in 1780. The idea, however, did not originate with Raikes. Among earlier pioneers in this field were Joseph Alleine, the Puritan Father, who founded Sunday schools in England in the 17th century, and John Wesley, who held Sunday classes in Savannah, Georgia, in 1737. Yet, by reason of his achievements in organization, Raikes is justly regarded as the founder of the English Sunday school. In its early days the Sunday school was of especial educational value because of its combination of secular and religious instruction; sometimes sessions were held on Saturday, as well as Sunday. But with improved economic conditions and the establishment of day schools the Sunday schools became more restricted to religious instruction. Early in the r9th century the Sunday School movement became firmly established in the United States, and expanded rapidly following the organization in 1824 of the American Sunday School Union and again after the introduction in 1872 of the international uniform Sunday school lesson system. From Great Britain and the United States, Sunday schools have spread widely in other parts of the world. Their numerical status, as presented at the tenth international (quadrennial) convention, held at Los Angeles in 1928, is shown in the following: SUMMARY

OF SUNDAY

da e

Central America South America West Indies. . Asia . 2... Africa of ote Malaysia . . . Oceania

Total

STATISTICS,

No. of Sun- | No. officers

Guide Se Grand division

Europe . North America

SCHOOL

and teachers

No.

; pupils E

1928

Total enrollment

854,905 | 8,462,845 | 9,317,750 90,621 195,343 | 2,459,799 | 17,510,830 | 19,970,629 381 2,976 1,930 37,427 13,148 1,422 12,898

- | 356,146

SUNDERLAND,

1,832 11,695 17,364 96,564 63,477 8,161 89,720

20,930 19,098 159,160 170,855 188,694 171,330 1,470,818 | 1,567,382 789,658 726,181 100,463 108,624 790,710 880,430

3,603,517 | 29,411,435 | 33,014,952

CHARLES

SPENCER, 3p Eart or

(c. 1674~1722), English statesman, was the second son of the and earl, but on the death of his elder brother Henry he became heir and in 1702 succeeded to the peerage. He married in 1700 Anne Churchill, daughter of the famous duke of Marlborough. Through the influence of Marlborough he was foisted (1706) into the ministry as secretary of state for the southern department. From 1708 to 1710 he was one of the five Whigs, called the

Junta, who dominated the government.

sunderland made the acquaintance of George I. in 1706 and

when the elector became king he was made lord-lieutenant of Ireland. In August 1715 he joined the cabinet as lord keeper of the privy seal, in April 1717 he secured the position of secretary of state for the northern department and in March 1718

he became prime minister, but his connection, though slight, with

the South Sea bubble led to his political ruin. In April 1721 he

resigned his offices, but he retained his influence with George I until his death on April 19, 1722. For the career of Sunderland see W. Coxe, Memoirs of Marlborough (1847-48); Earl Stanhope, History of England (1883), and Ls Leadam, Political History of England, 1702-1760

(1909).

SUNDERLAND, ROBERT SPENCER, 2ND Ear OF (1640-1702), English politician, was the only son of Henry Spencer (1620-1643), rst earl of Sunderland, who was killed a the battle of Newbury in 1643. Robert was educated abroad and at Christ Church, Oxford. In February 1679 he entered political life as secretary of state for the northern department. He voted

for the exclusion of James, duke of York, from the throne, and made overtures to William, prince of Orange, and consequently in 168r he lost both his secretaryship and his seat on the privy council. Early in 1683, however, through the influence of the duchess of Portsmouth, Sunderland returned to power. When in February 1685 James became king, he retained his position of secretary, to

which was soon added that of lord president of the council, While he was serving James II., he was receiving a pension from France, and was furnishing William of Orange with particulars about affairs in England. But although he had in 1687 openly embraced the Roman Catholic faith, he hesitated to approve the fierce acts of the King’s devotees, and in October 1688 he was dismissed.

Sunderland then took refuge in Holland, but in 1691 he was permitted to return to England, and he declared himself a Protestant and began to attend the sittings of parliament. William III. visited

him at Althorp in 1691, and it was on his advice that the king chose all his ministers from one political party, the modern sys-

tem. (See CABINET.) From April to December 1697 he was lord chamberlain. He died at Althorp on Sept. 28, 1702.

SUNDERLAND,

seaport, municipal,

county and parlia-

mentary borough, Durham, England; at the mouth of the river

Wear, on the L.N.E, railway, 261 m. N. from London. Pop. (1931) 185,870. The borough includes the township of Bishopwearmouth, which lies on the south bank of the river; and that of Monkwearmouth, situated on the north bank. The borough has been considerably extended in recent years, its present area being 6,305 acres. Adjacent to Monkwearmouth is the urban district of Southwick, within the parliamentary borough. A great castiron bridge crosses the river with a single span of 236 ft. and

a height of 100 ft. above low water. It was designed by Rowland Burdon, opened in 1796, and widened under the direction of Robert Stephenson in 1858. The only ancient building is the church of St. Peter, Monkwearmouth, in which part belongs to the Saxon building attached to the monastery founded by Benedict Biscop in 674. The church of St. Michael, Bishopwearmouth, is on an ancient site, but was rebuilt in the roth century. There are six parks in the borough, and four public libraries. The prosperity of Sunderland rests on the coalfields of the neighbourhood, the existence of which gave rise to an export trade in the reign of Henry VII. For 5 m. above its mouth the Wear resembles on a reduced scale the Tyne in its lower course. The harbour of 150 ac. is formed by two stone piers. It is constantly undergoing improvement and the south pier is now 2,844 ft. long. There is a total length of quayage of 12,000 ft. There are several

graving docks (area, 104 ac.), the largest, built in 1925, being 515 ft. long. The parliamentary borough returns two members. History.—The history of Sunderland is complicated by the

name Wearmouth (Wiramuth, Wermuth) being applied impartially to the Monk’s town on the north bank of the Wear; the Bishop’s town on the south and the neighbouring port now known

as Sunderland. In both Monk’s and Bishop’s Wearmouth the settlement was connected with the church. Benedict Biscop m 674 founded the Benedictine monastery of St. Peter on the north bank of the river.

The abbey, where Bede was educated, was

destroyed by the Danes and probably not rebuilt until Bishop Walcher (1071-81) settled Aldwin and his companions there. Bishop William of St. Carileph (1081-99) transferred monks there from Durham and Wearmouth became a cell of the larger

house. There seems no doubt that the borough, identical with that

567

SUNDEW—SUNIUM to which Bishop Robert de Pinset granted his charter, was in reality Sunderland, the name Wearmouth being used to cover Rishop’s and Monk’s Wearmouth and the modern Sunderland. The shipping trade of Bishop’s Wearmouth showed a steady increase. In 1382 there was probably a dock here and from the 16th

the Selånger River, 360 m. N. by W. of Stockholm, the terminus

of a branch from Ange on the northern railway. Pop. (1928), 17,637. It was rebuilt in brick and stone after a fire in 1888.

SUNFISH, a name sometimes given to the Centrarchidae, a

family of perch-like fishes inhabiting the fresh waters of North

America, and especially to the common sunfish or pumpkin-seed (Eupomotis gibbosus), abundant, especially in ponds, from Maine to Florida. three ports in Durham where precautions were to be taken to Minnesota and southward near the Atlantic coast This favourite of juvenile angagainst pirates, while no mention is made of Sunderland. Monk’s lers has a strikingly coloured, fe ce Wearmouth remained purely agricultural until 1775, when a —— ovate, compressed body——whence shipbuilding yard was established and prospered to such an extent DES Ata, Sat os RN ae | the popular name pumpkin-seed j e g L yd, enh wey ‘a | that by 179§ five similar yards were at work. |. beF a FE eee | —which is sometimes 8 in. long, EE a ee Sunderland was at farm in 1183 and rendered 100 shillings and | S17 4 8 AcE7 AA A i though usually smaller, greenish the town of Sunderland rendered 58 shillings tallage in 1197 dur- 1 (OY haw fe N I l and bluish olive above, spotted ing the vacancy of the see. In 1382 Thomas Menvill held the orange on the sides, and with of lease a granted SOCIETY vacante, sede 1464, in IV. Edward horough. orange below. The female de(EUPOthe borough. Bishop Morton incorporated Sunderland in 1634, THE COMMON SUNFISH stating that it had been a borough from time immemorial, under MOTIS GIBBOSUS) OR PUMPKIN- posits her eggs in a nest scooped in the muddy bottom of shallow SEED the name of the New Borough of Wearmouth. SUNDEWV,, in botany, the popular name for a genus of plants, water by the male, who guards it until the young are hatched. Drosera, so called from the drops of viscid, transparent secretion The name sunfish is applied also to the Molidae, marine fishes borne by the tentacles which cover the leaf-surface. It is a cos- of the order Plectognathi. These curious fishes appear tailless, mopolitan genus of slender glandular herbs, with leaves arranged the body ending abruptly behind the dorsal and anal fins; they ina basal rosette or alternately on an elongated stem, and is repre- have a small mouth, with a single sharp edged tooth-plate in each sented in Great Britain by three species, and in North America by jaw. Mola include two species, large, stout, deep-bodied fishes seven species, found in spongy bogs and heaths. They are in- with a rough skin; they are oceanic, inhabiting warm seas, and cluded in the family Droseraceae, and comprise about 100 species, may often be seen resting at the surface; they reach a length of 8 ft. and a weight of perhaps two tons. The oblong sunfish (Ranmost numerous in Australia. The common sundew (D. rotundifolia) has extremely small zania truncata) is longer and more compressed, smooth, with roots, and bears five or six radical leaves horizontally extended in tessellated scutes; it reaches 2 feet. SUNFLOWER. The common sunflower, known botanically a rosette around the flower-stalk. The upper surface of each leaf is covered with gland-bearing filaments or “tentacles,” of which as Helianthus annuus, a member of the family Compositae, is a there are on an average about 200. Each gland is surrounded by native of the Great Plains region of the United States. It is an a large dew-like drop of the viscid secretion. A small fibro-vascular annual herb with a rough hairy stem 3 to 15 ft. high, broad coarsely bundle consisting mainly of spiral vessels, runs up through the toothed rough leaves 3 to r2 in. long, and heads of flowers 3 to 6 stalk of the tentacle and is surrounded by a layer of elongated in. wide in wild specimens and often 1 ft. or more in cultivated. parenchyma cells outside of which is the epidermis filled with a Double forms are in cultivation, one (globosus fistulosus) having purple fluid. The glandular head of the tentacle contains a cen- very large globular heads. The plant is valuable from an economic tral mass of spirally thickened cells (tracheids) in immediate con- as well as from an ornamental point of view. The leaves are used tact with the upper end of the fibro-vascular bundle. Around these as fodder, the flowers yield a yellow dye and the seeds contain is a layer of large colourless thin-walled cells which reach the oil and are used for food. It is cultivated in Russia, England and other parts of Europe, in Egypt and in India for the seeds, the surface at the base of the head and act yellow sweet oil obtained by compression from which is considered as absorbing cells. Outside these are two equal to olive or almond oil for table use. Sunflower oilcake is layers filled with purple fluid. used for stock and poultry feeding, and is exported by Russia to Insects are attracted by the leaves; a Denmark, Sweden and elsewhere. The genus Helianthus contains fly alighting on the disk, or even only about 6o species, chiefly natives of North America, a few being touching one or two of the exterior tenfound in Peru and Chile. They are tall, hardy annual or perennial tacles, is immediately held by the viscid herbs, several of which are of easy cultivation in gardens with secretion; the tentacles to which it is admoderately good soil. H. decapetalus is a perennial about 5 ft. hering begin to bend, and thus pass on high with solitary heads about 2 in. across in slender twiggy their prey to the tentacles next succeeding branchlets; H. multiflorus is a beautiful species with several handthem inwards, and the insect is thus carried some double varieties; H. orygalis is a graceful perennial 6 to 10 by a curious rolling movement to the ft. high, with drooping willow-like leaves and numerous comparacentre of the leaf. The tentacles on all tively small yellow flower-heads. H. atrorubens is a smaller plant, sides become similarly inflected, and the 2 to 5 ft. high, the flower heads of which have a dark red or purple insect, bathed in the abundant secretion, is disk and yellow rays. There are many fine forms of this, some of drowned in about a quarter of an hour. ROUNDLEAVED SUNDEW, which grow 6 to 9 ft. high and have much larger and finer flowers Closely allied to Drosera is Drosophyl- (DROSERA ROTUNDI: eo than the type. Other fine species are H. giganteus, to to 12 ft.; lum lusitanicum, which catches such vast FoLIA) WHOLE PLANT; numbers of flies in a state of nature that A. SINGLE LEAF EN- and H. mollis, 3 to 5 ft. H. tuberosus is the Jerusalem artichoke. SUNG DYNASTIES: see Cuma, History; CHINESE PAINTthe Portuguese cottagers call it the fly-LARGED TO SHOW ING; CHINESE SCULPTURE. catcher, and hang up branches of it in their GLANDULAR HAIRS

century, Bishop’s Wearmouth seems to have been completely

identified with Sunderland: in 1567 Wearmouth was one of the

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houses for this purpose. Its long narrow leaves are thickly covered with stalked glands, which resemble in the main the tentacles of Drosera, save in that they are incapable of movement, and that the secretion is more fluid. There are many minute colourless sessile glands, which, when stimulated by the absorption of nitrogenous matter, excrete an acid digestive secretion similar to that

of the sundew.

SUN-DIAL: see D1at.

SUNDSVALL, a seaport of Sweden in the district (Jän) of

Vesternorrland, on a wide bay of the Baltic, at the north of

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SUNIUM, a cape at the S. extremity of Attica, with a temple of Poseidon as landmark for ships, the modern Cape Colonna. The rocky promontory was fortified by wall and towers, in 413 B.C., against the Spartans in Decelea; but was soon after seized by fugitive slaves from the Laurium mines. In the 4th century

it was still a fortress. The temple, probably built in the time of Pericles, in the place of an earlier one, similar but of tufa or “poros” stone, is shown by an inscription to be dedicated to Poseidon, not, as formerly supposed, to Athena, whose temple, of peculiar plan, with colonnade on two sides only, lies about a

SUNLIGHT

568

TREATMENT—SUNSHINE

quarter of a mile away to the N.E. Of Poseidon’s temple there are still standing nine columns of the S. side, two of the peristyle on the N., one of the antae and an inner column of the pronaos, of local white marble, which has suffered from the weather.

SUNLIGHT

TREATMENT.

(See also HELIOTHERAPY;

VITAMINS.) In countries where, relatively, there is much persistent cloud, in extreme northern or southern lands where night is long in winter, on the sunless slopes of mountains or in sunless valleys, in factory towns where smoke defiles the atmosphere with its soot particles, in slums where the houses are crowded together and men, women and children are herded in dark damp rooms with vitiated air it is found that resistance to infective disease is low, rheumatism and tuberculosis are rife, expectation of life is below normal, infant mortality is high. To these conditions, no doubt, many causes contribute but it is generally believed a deficiency of

sunlight is a powerful factor.

The tendency at the present day

regarding the attributes of the sun’s rays is to lay much stress upon the invisible ultra-violet rays of the solar spectrum as well as upon the invisible infra-red and the visible rays. Treatment by Direct Sunlight.—This is difficult or impossible under such conditions as have been mentioned above; some methods of supplying it are by the provision of open spaces and playing fields in the neighbourhood of crowded areas, establishment of open-air schools, cult of outdoor sports, etc. But even if sunlight be available the atmospheric conditions may permit of liitle penetration by the ultra-violet rays. Hence, methods have been adopted to supply these from abundant supplies such as the electric arc and the mercury-vapour quartz lamp, and to minimize

screening effects by the use in buildings of such material as glass made of quartz which admits a maximum of ultra-violet and other beneficial rays, by the use of lighter and more porous clothing, or even by exposure of much of the body. Thus in one way or another, whether as a curative or preventive measure against disease there is a great movement towards supplying, naturally or artificially, that sunlight which is deficient. As a preventive measure the use of sunlight is modern, but the curative side has been recognized for centuries, having been used by the Chinese, Egyptians and the South American Indians and is represented by the numerous health spas and resorts throughout the world. Mode of Action of Direct Sunlight.—The rays of sunlight,

when analysed by the prism, range between the infra-red (heat) rays of relatively long wave-length and slow frequency to the ultra-violet (chemical) rays of shorter wave-length and greater frequency Within this range the penetrating power of the infrared and of ultra-violet rays into human tissues is definitely less than that of the visible rays. Hence heat from the visible rays of sunlight passes through the skin and, largely, is taken up by the blood and distributed by way of the circulation throughout the body; infra-red heat rays warm the superficial layers of the skin and from them heat is carried to other parts. Ultra-violet light

produces its effects in the skin itself and its action is manifested by the inflammation, peeling and tanning that exposure to the sun occasions in most persons. The pigment of coloured races prevents the penetration of ultra-violet rays deeper than the pigment layer and thus is a protection in tropical countries. Warmth.—The increased warmth, when moderate, stimulates metabolism, induces a sense of well-being, increased appetite and mental activity; when greater, as in the height of summer or in the tropics, leads to sweating, desire for cool drinks and cool breezes and disinclination for food, particularly sugars and fats the oxidation of which supplies a large proportion of animal heat; and when excessive it leads to the pathological condition of sunstroke or heat-stroke (g.v.). Ultra-violet Rays.—But the ultra-violet rays are now known

to have special qualities. For long it has been known that the skin has the property of regulating heat loss and so contributing towards

maintenance

of a stable body temperature

in warm-

blooded animals. Recently it has been shown experimentally that even a short exposure to ultra-violet radiation modifies the bactericidal power of the blood and its leucocytic content. Moreover, the discovery that vitamin D (see Vrramıns) can be produced in ergosterol—an impurity apt to be present in all cholesterols but

found originally in ergot of rye (q.v.)—has indicated a variety of action of which the full importance is, probably, still unknown, In investigations on rickets (g.v.) it was found that cod liver oj js beneficial; later, that ultra-violet irradiation is beneficial, even in the absence of cod liver oil, and ultimately that ultra-violet rays act on the non-saponifiable part of a natural fat, że., the stero]

and produces vitamin D. From this it appears that the ultra. violet rays of summer sunlight act upon the ergosterol impurity in the cholesterols present in all animal cells and build up a store of vitamin D for our use during the winter when the ultra-violet radiation of sunlight is deficient. The fact that ergosterol when exposed to ultra-violet radiation produces vitamin D has been turned to practical and commercial account. Under the rays ergosterol changes from a white crystalline solid to a pale yellowish oily fluid which possesses the highest vitamin D potency known. Thus artificially produced, there can be supplied to foodstuffs (e.g., milk, butter, margarine) in their preparation an element deficient when produced in winter but normally present in sufficient quantity when produced in summer. Under natural conditions we eat foods containing ergosterol and this is acted upon in our bodies by the ultra-violet radiation reach-

ing our skin, or (e.g., in the consumption of New Zealand butter) we incorporate during the relatively sunless period in England vitamin D formed in the New Zealand sunny period. Experiments and Theories.—The subject is a very complicated one but there is no doubt that the mortality from many diseases normally reaches its highest point in England in the winter months of January, February and March. Confidence in the therapeutic value of sunlight is strengthened by the beneficial results accruing in the monkey-house of the Zoological Gardens, London, where electric lamps of fused quartz have been installed to allow of the passage of ultra-violet rays to the animals. It must be noted, however, that this artificial sunlight must be used with great caution and for short periods as otherwise it has proved harmful. Indeed there is reason to believe that while a moderate exposure to ultra-violet radiation builds up vitamin D an excessive exposure destroys it. A natural extension of knowledge recently acquired concerning the effects of sunlight has been into the fields of animal and plant rearing. So far investigations have been conducted, mainly, by replacing ordinary glass by special glass admitting a maximum of the beneficial rays and the results are hopeful. Here it may be mentioned that the output of ultraviolet radiation from an electric system, though dependent upon the current and voltage between the poles of the arc, varies widely according to the type of electrode used. A positive carbon electrode with an iron core, disposed below the negative plain carbon electrode, instead of above, is a powerful source of ultra-violet radiation. Lastly, mention must be made of Dr. Rollier of Leysin, Switzerland, and of Sir Henry Gauvain of the Treloar hospital for cripples at Alton, Hants., England, pioneers in the modern sun| light treatment of disease and of a remarkable journalistic success in the Sunlight and Health Supplement to The Times news| paper issued in London on May 22, 1928, to which the writer of this article is much indebted. (W. S. L.-B.) | SUNN or INDIA HEMP (Crotalaria juncea), a plant which is a native of India and Ceylon. It frequently receives other names, ¢.g., false hemp, Bombay hemp, etc. The plant is an annual, requires a light soil, and is easily cultivated. Sometimes the seed is sown in October for the winter crop, and sometimes i May or June for the summer crop. When the seeds are sown In ' May, the bright yellow flowers appear in August, when the plant may be gathered. It is not unusual, however, to defer this operation until the seed is ripe, especially if a fibre of great strength 1s desired. The fibre has an average length of 3 to 4 feet. It is extensively used for rope and cordage and also for paper-making m its native country, but it has made little progress elsewhere.

SUNNIS (Suwnites): see Istam. SUNSHINE. As a meteorological element sunshine requires

some conventional definition. There is uninterrupted continuance of gradation from the burning sunshine of a tropical noon to the pale luminosity that throws no shadow, but just identifies

SUNSHINE the shape of the sun through the thin clouds of northern skies. The Campbell-Stokes Sunshine Recorder.—In the British Isles the sun is allowed to be its own timekeeper and the scorch of a specially prepared card used as the criterion for bright sunshine. The practice arose out of the use of the sunshine recorder which depends upon the scorching effect of a glass sphere in the sun’s rays. The original form of the instrument was suggested by J. F. Campbell of Islay in 1857. He used a glass sphere within

a hemispherical bowl of wood. The scorching of the wood along successive lines of the bowl as the sun alters its declination from

solstice to solstice leaves a rugged

monument

of the duration

and

intensity of the sunshine during the half-year, but does not lend itself to numerical measurement. The design of a metal frame

to carry movable cards and thus F!S. 1—CAMPBELL-STOKES SUNgive a decipherable record of SEIR- TESO MER each day’s sunshine is due to Sir G. G. Stokes. The excursions of the sun to the north and south of the equator are limited by the tropical circles, and the solar record on the hemispherical bowl will be confined within a belt 23° 27’ north and south of the plane through the centre parallel to the equator or perpendicular to the polar axis. Thus a belt 46° 54’ in angular width will be suitable for a sunshine recorder for any part of the world. Whatever place be chosen for the observation the same belt will do if it is set up perpendicular to the earth’s polar axis. As examples of the cutting of the belt for different latitudes we may put side by side the recorder as used in temperate latitudes (fig. 1) and the special form designed in the Meteorological Office, London, for use on the National Antarctic Expedition, 1901-1904 (fig. 2). A belt cut for a particular latitude is serviceable for some 10° on either side of that latitude if the cards are not trimmed too closely to the cutting of the belt. The belt must always be adjusted round the parallel to the polar axis. If the cut of the belt is too oblique for the latitude of the place where it is exposed, and the cards are cut strictly to the belt, the northern side of the

569

basis of recorders of quite different types.

The Jordan recorder

uses ferro-cyanide paper and the sun keeps the time of its own record by the traverse of a spot of light over the sensitive paper, arranged as a cylinder about a line parallel to the polar axis. The effect thereby recorded is a photochemical one, and the composite character of the sun’s radiation, modified by the selective absorption of the atmosphere, makes the relation of the record to that of the sun’s scorching power dependent upon atmospheric conditions, so that the two records give different aspects of the solar influence on different occasions. Other recorders prefer to use the thermal or photographic effects of the sun’s rays and record duration by a clock instead of allowing the sun to keep its own time. In the Marvin sunshine recorders of the United States weather bureau an electrical contact is made by the thermal effect of the sun and the duration of the contact is recorded. An instrument which gives a corresponding result is described by W. H. Dines (Quart. Journ. Roy. Met. Soc. xxvi. 243). These define sunshine by the effect necessary to produce or maintain a certain thermal effect, but the definition once accepted there is no uncertainty as to the record. The Callendar sunshine recorder gives a record of the difference of temperature of two wires, one solarized and the other not, and it is therefore a continuous record of the thermal effect of solar and terrestrial radiation. Exposure.—We now consider what the daily sunshine record for a particular station means. An ideal exposure has an uninterrupted view of those parts of the horizon in which the sun rises or sets; and elsewhere the view of the sun must not be obstructed by the ground, buildings, trees or any other obstacle; but ideal exposures are not always to be obtained. In mountainous districts particularly it may be impossible to find a site in which the sun is not obstructed for an appreciable part of the day. In these circumstances it becomes a question whether the amount of sunshine recorded should be referred to the maximum possible for an uninterrupted horizon or the maximum possible for the particular exposure. The answer to the question really depends upon the purpose for which the information is wanted. As a climatological factor of the locality the shadow cast by the surrounding hills is of importance, it is part of the difference between the fertility of

cut will be below the horizon and the southern side above it,

some sunshine may be lost near sunrise or sunset in the winter because there is no card to receive it. The part projecting above the horizon in summer will partly shadow the globe, and faint sunshine may be lost, for at most only half the globe can be solarized at sunset. But the loss due to this cause is unimportant. Stokes designed the complete belt to use successively three cards of different shape for different times of the year. The equinoctial card forms a portion of a cylinder round the polar axis for spring and autumn, the summer card and the winter card each forms a part of a cone making an angle of 16° with the polar axis. Measurement of the Sunshine Record.—It was mentioned that the Campbell-Stokes recorder involves a conventional definition of sunshine. The recorded day of sunshine is less than the actual time during which the sun is above the horizon by FIG.2.—ANTARCTIC SUNSHINE RE- about twenty minutes at sunrise CORDER and sunset on account of the want of burning power of a very low sun. Some further convention is

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FIG. 3.—DAILY SUNSHINE FOR JULY. FIG. 4.—DAILY SUNSHINE OCTOBER is, of course, in many respects exclusively local,.and indeed the possible duration of sunshine at any station is a local characteristic which it is desirable to know. Consequently as evidence of the peculiarity of the site the recorded sunshine might be referred to the total possible with a free horizon. On the other hand, taking the record of sunshine as an indication of the clearness of the sky for the purposes of general meteorology, the screening of the sun:

by hills must be regarded simply as limiting the time during which observation is possible and the duration of the sunshine recorded necessary in order to obtain a tabulation of the records which should be referred to the possible duration at the particular site. Sunshine Records for the British Isles.—The interest in the will serve as the basis of a comparison of results for climatological purposes. The spot which is scorched on the card by the sun is use of sunshine recorders is more widely extended in the British hot quite limited to the image of the sun, and a few seconds of Isles than elsewhere, and it is, so far as the public are concerned, really strong sunshine will produce a circular burn which is hardly the most important meteorological element, but it is singular that distinguishable in size from that produced by a minute’s record. up to the present a knowledge of the total amount of sunshine Consequently with intermittent sunshine exaggeration of the recorded during the day, the week, the month or the year isall that actual duration of burning is very probable. is apparently required. In figure 3 the mean daily duration of sunshine for the month Other Types of Sunshine Recorder.—There are, however, various other conventions as to sunshine which are used as the of July 1928 is represented by a number of isohels or lines of

SUNSHINE

570 equal sunshine, the figures being given in hours. similar data for October 1928.

Figure 4 gives | tions of New Mexico and Arizona, and portions of Nevada and

Further, figure 5 represents the | the interior of southern California, have averages in excess of

average weekly distribution of sunshine in different sections of the | 80%, Yuma, Arizona, having the maximum amount of recorded sunshine in the country, 88% of the possible. British Isles according to the average of twenty-five years. (X.) Small areas of the northern portions from the Upper Lakes westward to Washington, much of the lower Ohio Valley and 10 15 20| 25 30 35 40 45 50 3 8l 10 15 20] 25 30 35_40 45 |503 8] nearby portions of the Great Lakes, and small portions of the AUTUMN |WINTER| |_SPRING | SUMMER | AUTUMN |WINTER| | SPRING |SUMMER |AUTUMN BO) essen nen

fr

North Atlantic States have annual percentages ranging between

Pep Rigs ee pnt et el

50 and 60%, while only limited portions of the far North-west

the districts around Lake Superior, and the area from the upper Ohio Valley north-eastward to northern New England have aver. ages less than 50% of the possible. In general during the colder months the percentages of the possible sunshine are less than during the warm season, but even

then a large part of the central and southern areas west of the Mississippi River have amounts in excess of 60% of the Possible,

while the warmer months mainly have decidedly high percentages,

FIG. 5.—AVERAGE BRITISH ISLES

WEEKLY

SUNSHINE

IN

DIFFERENT

PARTS

OF

THE

The United States.—Continuous records of sunshine in the United States are kept at nearly two hundred different points well distributed over the country, the records being obtained by means of the Marvin electrical sunshine recorders, the character of which is described on page 569. Sunshine data may be expressed either in the actual hours of sunlight at each individual station, or in percentage of the hours of actual sunshine as compared with that possible. Both systems have their advantages, but in the contrasting of different climates it appears that data on the percentages of possible sunshine actually received afford the better comparison of different regions, since the possible hours vary greatly for different seasons and localities, and their values must be made known before comparisons are feasible. Considering first the annual sunshine, it becomes apparent that the United States, as a whole, is a country of abundant sunshine, nearly two-thirds of the entire area receiving annually on the average more than 60% of the possible amount, a proportion exceeded by only a few of the localities commonly referred to as having sunny climates. Over a large part of the south-west, extending westward from central Texas, and including the western portions of Oklahoma and Kansas, nearly to the Pacific Coast, the annual amounts average more than 70% of the possible, and localities in the far south-west, including extreme western Texas, the southern por-

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FIG. 6.—PERCENTAGES OF THE POSSIBLE AMOUNTS OF SUNSHINE IN THE UNITED STATES JN JANUARY, BASED ON MANY YEARS OF OBSERVATION

the summer months particularly having values ranging from 60 to 80% in nearly all parts, and even exceeding 90% of the possible in portions of interior California and nearby areas of Nevada. The accompanying charts (Figs. 6 and 7) show the percentages of the possible sunshine in all parts of the country for January and July, and indicate the approximate sunshine conditions for winter and summer respectively. (C. F. M.)

Sunshine Results for Other Parts of the World.—Maps showing the average annual distribution of sunshine over Europe and North America are given in Bartholomew’s Physical Atlas,

Monthly and annual percentages of sunshine at points in the United States and in the vicinity of the Mediterranean Sea. Stations Albany, N.Y

Atlanta, Ga. . Bismarck, N.D. Boise, Ida. Chicago, IL . Columbus, O.

.

Omaha, Neb.

.

Denver, Colo. . . El Paso, Tex. Los Angeles, Calif. . Memphis, Tenn. . New Orleans, La. Oklahoma City, Okla.

.

Portland, Ore. . Sacramento, Calif. Salt Lake City, Utah ‘} San Antonio, Tex, . Tampa, Fla. . Washington, D.C. Yuma, Ariz. .

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Cairo,

area Lgypt

.

Lisbon, Portugal

Madrid, Spain . Nice, France Rome, Italy

SUNSTONE—SUNSTROKE e the largest totals, over yol. iii. Atlas of Meteorology. Over Europcentral Spain. In North 2,750 hours per annum, are shown over the New Mexico in annum per hours 3,250 exceed America, values ble is region. For other parts of the world the information availa of charts. not sufficiently extensive for the construction upon Sunshine Records of the Smoke of Great

Effect to time as Cities—Much discussion has taken place from time artificial by altered be climate of a locality can

to whether the

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platinum

571

HEATSTROKE

strip which

is shielded

from

radiation.

The

energy

absorbed by the first platinum strip raises the temperature and consequently increases the resistance of the strip. The increase in resistance is accurately measured by a galvanometer in the bridge circuit and the amount of radiant energy can be deduced. Ultraviolet rays have marked biological effects, in particular those of pigmentation of the skin and of destroying certain bacteria. References to recent researches will be found in the Annual Reports of the British Medical Research Council, published by H.M. Stationery Office, London. Among recent results may be mentioned the discovery that ultraviolet rays between 0-28 and 0-30 microns are capable of activating ergosterol and producing vitamin D. (See a series of articles by various authors in a Supplement to Nature, April 21, 1928; see also RADIOLOGY; RADIO-THERAPY; SUNLIGHT-TREATMENT.)

SUNSTONE, a variety of the mineral felspar (g.v.) exhibit-

ing a brilliant spangled appearance in certain directions, due to minute scales of iron oxide arranged parallel to a cleavage. It is somewhat similar to aventurine (qg.v.). The best known locality in Tvedestrand, Norway. It is also found near Lake Baikal, Siberia, and at several localities in the U.S.A., especially at Middletown, Pa., and Statesville, N.C.

SUNSTROKE

FIG. 7.— PERCENTAGES OF THE POSSIBLE AMOUNTS OF SUNSHINE IN THE

UNITED STATES IN JULY, BASED ON MANY YEARS OF OBSERVATION

means. One question of the kind to which the sunshine recorder

gives an incontrovertible answer is as to the effect of the smoke

AND

HEATSTROKE,

a term applied to

the effects produced upon the central nervous system, and through it upon other organs of the body, by exposure to the sun or to overheated air. Although most frequently observed in tropical regions, the condition occurs also in temperate climates during hot weather. A moist, still atmosphere greatly increases the liability to heatstroke. Sunstroke has been chiefly observed and investigated among soldiers in India, where formerly, it constituted a considerable item of sickness and mortality. While any one exposed to great solar heat may suffer from sunstroke, anxiety, worry or overwork, irregularities in food, intemperance, the wearing of tight garments, marching in close order and living in overcrowded and insanitary dwellings are predisposing causes. A similar condition affects persons whose occupation exposes them to excessive heat, such as stokers, laundry workers, etc., particularly in hot weather. In the tropics Europeans, especially recent arrivals, are more readily affected than natives. But natives are not exempt. The symptoms of heatstroke, which depend upon disorganization of the normal heat-regulating mechanism, vary in their intensity and to some extent in their form. A case of average severity usually begins with sickness, giddiness, mental excitement followed by drowsiness, and passes into syncope in which there are pallor and coldness of the skin, a weak, quick and intermittent pulse, and gasping or sighing respiration. The internal temperature is raised even as high as 108° F or more. The pupils are often contracted. Death may quickly occur; but if timely treatment is available recovery is probable. Attacks of sunstroke are apt to leave traces of their effects especially upon the nervous system. A liability to severe headache, which may depend upon chronic meningitis, epileptic fts, mental irritability and alterations in the disposition are among the more important. Heat is ever afterwards ill borne and there also is an

of great cities in diminishing the sunshine in the immediate neighbourhood. This is not a question which comes out merely by taking averages. The answer can be seen directly by comparing the daily cards at the different localities. Thus it appears that the direct effect of the local contamination of the London atmosphere results in the diminution of the recorded sunshine for the whole year by 37%, and it is clear that the contamination extends in some degree as far as Kew, where the loss amounts to about 10%. There is evidence of various kinds to show that the effect of the smoke cloud of cities can be traced sometimes for great distances. Ultraviolet Light——A beam of sunshine contains radiation having a wide range of wavelengths. The human eye is only sensitive to about one octave of wavelength, from 0.4 microns (0.0004 mm.) to 0.8 microns (0.0008 mm.), corresponding to violet and red light respectively. Roughly one-half of the energy of a beam of sunshine is contained within the limits of visible light, and most of the remainder is accounted for by infra red or heat rays. Rays whose wavelengths are between 0.4 microns and about o.or4 microns are known as ultraviolet rays. Such rays are present in the solar beam, but with relatively small intensity. They are of little or no meteorological importance, so far as our present knowledge extends, but they are of very considerable importance in photography and in their actions on living organisms of all kinds. These rays are readily absorbed or scattered by impurities in the atmosphere, and even by relatively clear air, and one of the most serious effects of the smoke of great cities is the removal of the ultraviolet rays from the solar beam. to the action of stimulants. Ordinary window glass also absorbs completely the ultraviolet abnormal susceptibility should be adopted to prevent attacks in eans Treatment.—M window of types Special microns. 0.31 below rays of wavelength must necessarily be exposed to the sun. glass are however obtainable which transmit fairly freely ultra- the case of those who of loose, light coloured clothing, prowearing the in consist These violet light down to 0.2 microns. Ordinary sunlight contains no tection of the head and back of neck, supply of sufficient water rays of wavelengths below about o.29 microns. up for fluid lost by sweating, avoidance of Sir Leonard Hill states (Sunshine and Open Air, page 47) or cold tea to make Sleeping in the open air in very hot excesses. other and that of the radiation reaching the outer limits of the earth’s alcoholic should be at atmosphere some 40 per cent of the longer ultraviolet rays and seasons is recommended. In an attack the patient available. place cool and airy shaded, most the into removed once moun20 per cent of the shorter ultraviolet rays reach high level stimulants, diffusible of use the position, recumbent tain resorts, and 23 per cent of the longer, and 7 per cent of the Rest in the such as ammonia or ether, etc., together with friction or warmth shorter ultraviolet rays reach sea level. to the extremities may be sufficient, but in severe cases by applied The intensity of solar radiation of different wavelengths can cold (cold baths, be measured by means of a spectrobolometer, in which a beam of far the best results are obtained by the use of ice-cold water). The sunlight is first spread out into a spectrum, and the light within a rubbing the surface with ice, enemata of and stimulation of narrow band of wavelengths is allowed to pass on to a platinum effect is a marked lowering of the temperature applied to the turpentine or Mustard function. strip. The strip of platinum forms one branch of a Wheatstone’s the respiratory adjuvant. useful a is chest or neck the of nape similar exactly bridge. The opposite branch is formed by an

572

SUN YAT-SEN—SUPERANNUATION

SUN YAT-SEN (1867-1925), Chinese republican leader. Dr. Sun (known in China by the more familiar title of Sun Wen) may truly be described as the Father of the Chinese republic. His father, a poor farmer living at Hsiang Shan near the island of Macao, was a convert to Christianity (under the London Missionary society) and his son continued to describe himself as a Christian till his death, before which he gave instructions that he should be buried with Christian rites. In 1891 Sun entered upon a medical course at the newly formed medical school in Hongkong of which he was the first graduate in 1894. It was here that his life-long friendship with Sir James Cantlie began. Through a Chinese fellow student, Sun came into association with a secret revolutionary society. He was concerned in a revolutionary plot in 1895, but escaped, though the other conspirators were executed. Then began a long period in Sun’s life, when, like Mazzini, he was working outside his native country with the object of bringing about a revolution. In 1898 he adopted the three fundamental principles of Nationalism, Democracy and Socialism; the five spheres in which they were to be worked out were: the executive government, the legislative field, the judicial field, the civil examinations and the department of censorship or impartial scrutiny of public matters and officials. It was not, however, until r90s5 that Sun publicly declared his adherence to these ideas and worked them out in fuller detail. He attempted to use the reaction after the Boxer outbreak of rg00 as a means of establishing a democratic government and ending the Manchu régime, but this attempt as others proved abortive. In 1905 the Chinese Revolutionary League was formed in Europe and Japan, and through this Dr. Sun enlisted the support of a great number of Chinese not resident in China. During this period he raised large sums of money, and was thus able to spread his ideas through secret agencies in China itself. A large price, finally amounting to £100,000, was placed upon his head. On one occasion in 1896 he was kidnapped while in London and held at the Chinese legation for several days. His release came about through a note to Sir James Cantlie, which was smuggled out of the legation. Lord Salisbury then took the matter up. Sun’s personal influence had much to do with the inner organization of the revolution of r9rz against the Manchu government (see Cuna, History). While there was a widespread feeling that the dynasty had outlived its usefulness, there was little understanding of what was involved in establishing a republic and only the efficient organization of the Kuo-min-tang (Sun’s creation, known as the Republican party) was able to turn the anti-Manchu tide into a pro-republican movement. Sun was in England when the revolution began. He returned to China, and on Jan. 5, 1912, he took the oath of office as provisional president of the new republic, at the request of the national convention in Nanking. On Feb. 12 an imperial edict announced the abdication of the emperor and the substitution of republican for monarchical Government. Yuan Shih-K’ai was entrusted with the task of carrying through the changes involved, and Sun, realizing the impossibility of uniting the country under his own presidency, resigned his presidency in favour of Yuan. He accepted the post of DirectorGeneral of Transport and Trade, but was always more of the propagandist and inspirer than the practical administrator. He became increasingly restless under the leadership of Yuan Shih-K’ai, and in 1917, after the latter’s coup d’état and death, he put himself at the head of a movement for an independent

republic of South China. The strength of his support had always

been drawn from Kwang-tung province, and he soon found it impossible to co-operate with the military leaders in Canton. He therefore resigned from his position as president of the republic of South China. The military régime was maintained largely by Kwang Si troops until 1921 when Ch’en Ch’iung-ming drove them out and called in Sun again. The following year he determined on an advance in force against the north, while Ch’en Ch’iung-ming desired to consolidate the work begun in the province of Kwang-tung. This led to an open breach and Sun was once more driven from his native province, finding refuge in Shanghai. In Feb. 1923 he called to’ his

aid troops from Kwangsi and Yunnan and thus defeated his one

time colleague and subsequent rival, General Ch’en. From tha time until his death he was acknowledged as the chief executiya of the province, but his effective sway did not extend far beyond Canton.

He used and permitted violent methods, more particy.

larly in the attack upon the Merchants Volunteer corps and the looting and burning of a considerable part of the city of Canton in March 1924. In this way he lost much of the support which had been given to him and to the Kuo-min-tang by Chinese over. seas. But his socialist views ensured him the support of the mass of the workers, and he repeatedly secured rises in wages for the Canton workers. “So far as local support was concerned Sun’s star seemed to be declining in the autumn of 1924, but he was still idolized by the student class and in his own party where his was a name to conjure with. It was then that Feng Yii-hsiang brought about his coup

whereby Wu Pei-fu (a determined enemy of Sun’s) was routed and Chang Tso-ling co-operated with Feng to put the old Anfy leader Tuan Ch’i-jui in the position of Chief Executive in Peking.

Sun had been cultivating friendly relations with the parties now predominant, and he was called to Peking to confer with them in regard to the calling of a people’s conference and other matters

connected with the establishment of the new régime. He died of cancer on March 12, 1925, at Peking. An impressive memorial, built at Nanking, received his remains in 1929. His public works include a number of speeches, articles and pamphlets, more particularly the following: The Doctrine of Sun Wen; The Internatzonal Development of China; The Principles of Democratic Government (statement of 25 outstanding points). See Sir

James Cantlie and C. S. Jones, Sun Yat Sen and the Awakening of

China (1912) ; P. Linebarger, Sun Yat Sen and the Chinese Republic (1925); Sun Yat Sen, Memoirs of a Chinese Revolutionary (1927).

SUPERANNUATION. The custom of providing pensions for aged employees who, after meritorious service, are no longer able to discharge their duties efficiently, has become increasingly common since the middle of the roth century. The problem of mitigating the hardships of old age has been attacked from many angles and a great variety of solutions has been tried. In England superannuation schemes for discharged seamen and soldiers date back to the middle ages; these were followed by systems applicable to civil servants and other public officials, and to employees of statutory undertakings. Finally the custom of making some kind of provision for old age has gradually spread to the employers of labour on a large scale and even to businesses with relatively small staffs. Simultaneously the question has received attention on national lines; this aspect of the subject is treated under OLD AGE PENSIoNS, the present article being limited to the examination of superannuation schemes in which the title to benefits has its roots in service given to a particular employer during the pensioner’s working life. At the outset the granting of a pension is often merely an eleemosynary act dictated by the employer’s wish to reward meritorious service, or to safeguard an old servant from penury in his declining years. Later, the occasional grant in these circumstances having become a custom, superannuation allowances come to be looked upon as a right by the officials, and as a means of securing efficiency by the employer, who realizes that the retention of aged officials no longer fitted to perform their duties adequately—especially if they hold responsible posts on the directing staff—seriously jeopardizes the conduct of his business. In such a case a definite scheme prescribing the ages between which retirement shall normally occur (generally between 60 and 65), laying down scales and conditions of benefit and defining the class of officials to be included is soon recognized, both by the employer and by the employees, to be essential. With regard to finance the need for sound principles was unfortunately in the past not realized so soon. The expenditure on pensions, being almost negligible in the early years, was often charged to current revenue, and until this burden became heavy as the numbers on the pension roll grew, causing expenditure to increase at an alarming rate, the need for making provision for accruing liabilities was not appreciated. Generally speaking, prudential considerations

dictate that appropriate sums should be set aside and accumulated

at compound interest throughout a person’s service, while the hia-

SUPERANNUATION bility for superannuation is accruing, in order that when he retires the sum in hand shall be sufficient to provide for his superannuation allowances.

By this method full provision being made before

the pension commences, the burden of superannuation is met pari passu with payments of salary during service. The accumulation of the appropriate reserves can be effected either in a privately managed superannuation fund or by an assur-

ance company on behalf of the managers of the scheme. Under the former arrangement it is usual to institute a trust fund

definitely alienated from the ordinary business transactions of the employer. In Great Britain such funds enjoy certain privileges in

regard to income tax upon their interest income. Similarly concessions are allowed in respect of contributions whether paid by the employer or employee to a superannuation scheme. Provident Funds.—The simplest form of superannuation scheme is a fund supported by periodical contributions (of fixed

amount or varying with salary) generally paid in equal shares by the employer and the staff. On retirement the employee is entitled to withdraw the contributions paid by himself and on his behalf

by his employer, with their accumulations of interest. A development of this plan is an arrangement for the accumulated sum at retirement to be applied as purchase money for an annuity payable for the remainder of life; the amount of pension available

in a particular case is not ascertainable in advance, but depends on the rate of interest earned while the contributions are accumulating in the fund and the annuity rates current at the date of retirement. Superannuation Pensions Schemes.—The superannuation schemes which definitely provide for pensions are, however, generally considered to be more appropriate to the requirements of both the employer and the staff than the simple system described

above. The pension may be of fixed amount, or may vary with length of service; in the latter case the amount of pension may be uniform for each year of service, or be related to the salary eared by the official during the whole or last few years of service. Systems under which the pension depends both on the duration of service and also on salary have become increasingly popular owing to their elasticity in application to the differing circumstances of a salaried staff consisting of many grades. There are, however, many schemes in which fixed pensions or, pensions which grow by uniform increments for each year of service have been adopted as peculiarly appropriate to the needs of the case, e.g., where a scheme is limited to workmen. In systems based on salary it is common practice to express the pension as a specified proportion (¢.g., gz) of pensionable salary for each year of service, subject to a maximum (e.g., fortysixtieths). There are numerous methods of defining pensionable salary, the most popular being probably the terminal salary, t.e., that earned in the last year before retirement or, in order to avoid fortuitous inequalities of treatment, the average of the last few years of service. Another plan often adopted is to take the average salary throughout service. Where the employee contributes a fixed percentage of his salary throughout his service, and the employer makes annual payments equal to the aggregate contributions made by his staff, it has been argued that from the standpoint of equity the resulting pension should be related to the contributions which have been paid by, or on behalf of, the beneficiary and that accordingly the average salary method should

De

objects of an employer is to secure efficiency his contributions may fairly be allocated in the best way to achieve this purpose; and it is generally agreed that since even under the terminal salary method the employee, whatever his rank, receives at least: full

value for his own contributions and some part of the employer’s subvention, the unequal distribution of the latter is not a valid criticism of the fairness of the scheme viewed as a whole. The average salary system approximates more nearly to giving each employee the equivalent of his own contributions increased proportionately out of the employer’s grant, but if exact equivalence is desired the scheme has to be framed on other lines. In such a case each contribution secures a definite amount of de-

ferred pension, varying with the amount of the contribution, the age of the employee and the age at which the pension is to commence. On retirement instalments of pension purchased throughout service are aggregated. The system, generally known as the “money purchase” plan, is easy to work and is often adopted, especially in America and where it is found convenient to re-insure the liabilities for pension with an assurance company in lieu of instituting a private superannuation fund.

Subsidiary Benefits.—Apart from normal superannuation the

claims of persons who become incapable of work owing to illhealth before reaching the normal pension age have also to be considered. The hardship of loss of income is obvious, and generally the rules provide for some compensation to be given. In contributory schemes the return (with interest) of the official’s own contributions is commonly allowed, but many schemes go further and permit pensions (proportionate to duration of service) to be granted if permanent breakdown occurs after a prescribed minimum period of service. Difficulties may arise in administering a subsidiary benefit of this kind since the test of permanent incapacity is not easy to fix; if it is too rigid, cases of hardship arise, but the financial implications on the stability of the scheme caused by a lax interpretation are very serious. For this reason it is generally considered undesirable to provide for breakdown

pensions unless the authority in whom administration is to be vested is prepared to assume responsibility for financial soundness. If an official dies in harness or resigns, voluntary return of at least his own contributions is customarily made; sometimes a minimum payment on death of a year’s salary is guaranteed. Sub-

sidiary benefits of the types described above are relatively costly, the effect of giving such concessions being to diminish the resources available for the main benefit, viz., ordinary pensions; to secure a fair balance between these opposing claims is often not easy when a scheme is being framed. Financial Principles.—As indicated above, the need for sound financial arrangements was often overlooked when the earliest schemes were started; in the following section the underlying principles of contributory schemes are briefly examined. In order that a fund may be in a position to meet its obligations it is essential that the capital in hand, together with the real value of contributions payable in the future, is not less than the present value of future benefits. If this equivalence is maintained, the accumulated fund will continue to increase over many years. until the expenditure on benefits becomes stabilized. Where, for example, the number of new entrants each year is constant over a long period the position will eventually be reached when the current expenditure will exactly balance the combined income from conbe adopted. But a practical objection to this is that the pension tributions and interest. When this occurs the active and retired based on average salary is likely to be insufficient to enable a staff will have reached a stationary condition and very substantial senior officer to maintain a reasonable standard of comfort after reserves are necessary since in many cases the current expenditure

retirement unless the scale is fixed so high as to be over-generous to the lower-paid ranks. In this connection it has to be remembered that while all new entrants, with trifling exceptions, start In junior grades entitled to low salaries, their progress varies

widely. Judged on the principle that an official, retiring after long service, ought to be able to maintain approximately the style of living to which he has been accustomed, anomalies appear inevitable ‘under the average salary system, and for this reason the terminal salary system has become increasingly popular. With regard to the contention that the average salary system is fairer to the. lower paid grades, it may be said that: as one of the main

on benefits grows to more than twice as much as the contribution

income, and the interest on a fund, which may amount to more than double the current salary bill of the firm, is required ta secure equilibrium. The fund should be sufficient without relying on the contributions of future entrants, and its solvency should not be jeopardized if it is decided to close the fund to new entrants. In the past the reasons why large funds should be built up were not always appreciated, and it sometimes happened where a sound fund had been accumulated that an uninformed decision was taken to increase benefits without regard to the enhanced liabilities, often with disastrous results. This experience was not

574

SUPEREROGATION— SUPERINTENDENT

confined to one country in particular.

Many instances in which a

scheme having been started on unsound lines had to be reconstructed later can be found both in the British Empire and in

America.

In this connection reference can usefully be made to

the Report of the New York City Pensions commission (1916) and to the history of superannuation schemes in the British railways. Thus, during the latter part of the roth century the practice of providing superannuation benefits for railway officials, especially for salaried staff, spread over most of the British railways. Certain important weaknesses were disclosed in 1910 by a departmental committee (Report on Superannuation and Similar Funds of Railway Companies: Parliamentary Paper Cd. 5349); in many cases the benefits had been increased without

full understanding of the financial implications and in certain instances little provision was made for accruing liabilities, so that the emerging charge under the company’s guarantee would ultimately have become a very grave addition to the normal running expenses. The number of funds has since been materially reduced when the railways were amalgamated in a few large groups after the World War, and the opportunity was taken, where necessary, to readjust the financial arrangements. Before a scheme is launched the actuary has to estimate the contribution required to provide the benefits, basing his calculations on the various elements affecting the problem; the principal of these are the rate of interest which will be earned on wellsecured investments, the rates of mortality likely to be experienced by the active staff and pensioners respectively, the proportion of staff who will resign voluntarily or who will be retired on health grounds before reaching the normal pension age, and the rate of progression of salaries (on the average) from age to age during service. Such an estimate must necessarily be tentative since experience as to all or many of these elements may change in the future; it is necessary, therefore, that the financial structure of the scheme should be reviewed periodically by an actuary and, if the valuation discloses a deficiency or a disposable surplus, appropriate action should be taken to restore equilibrium. Back-Setvice.—At the initiation of a scheme the determination of the terms on which existing officers should be included presents some difficulty. To put such persons into the position which they would have occupied had they become contributors to the scheme when they joined the staff is very costly, but some credit for back-service is generally deemed essential, otherwise the pension available in many cases would be too meagre for subsistence. In practice the problem has been dealt with in various ways; for example it is not unusual to provide for all back-service to count at one-half of the standard rate, the whole of the cost of the concession being borne by the employer. Even so the liability cast upon the fund at the outset is substantial and ordinarily its redemption is carried out over a period of years. Life Office Schemes.—Assurance companies offer many facilities to employers desirous of setting up superannuation schemes, and often an arrangement for the liabilities to be reinsured with a company is preferred in lieu of instituting a private superannuation fund. There is a wide choice of contract, and though generally speaking it is not possible to secure quite so much elasticity (e.g., in regard to disability) as under a self-contained scheme the method is popular because it is simple to work and because it protects the employer from the effects of fluctuations of experience. Again it is peculiarly adapted to occupations where migration from one employer to another is customary, and for this reason is common in America where, generally speaking, immobility is thought to be a clog on efficiency. Provident schemes and money purchase schemes can successfully be ar-

ranged with a life office, each contribution (whether fixed or a

percentage of current salary) securing a pension, as the case may be, in accordance in the policy. Common forms of policy periodical contributions, deferred annuities on attainment of a specified age (with premiums in the event of earlier death), ances securing a lump sum (with or without age or earlier death.

definite endowment or with a scale prescribed provide in return for of a fixed sum payable or without returns of or endowment assurbonuses) at a specified

In those cases where the contribution is based on salary the amount of the annuity or the sum assured is fixed in relation to the salary current when the policy is taken out, supplementary contracts being effected when increases of salary occur. A varia. tion of the deferred annuity system provides an annuity of fixed amount for each year’s service; the increment of pension being secured by the contribution (increasing year by year) paid in the related year of service. Examples of the life offices schemes are provided by the Federated Superannuation system for universities under which a percentage of salary is paid by the professor. together with a contribution from the college, as a premium io provide for such superannuation benefits as may be chosen through any one of a number of assurance companies constituting a panel )

and by the Federated Superannuation scheme for nurses and hos-

pital officers; in both of these cases the plan was definitely adopted after a comprehensive review of other alternatives. In

America

the superannuation

of certain

classes of teachers js

arranged on similar lines, contracts being effected on especially

favourable terms owing to subventions from the Carnegie foundation for the advancement of teaching, instituted in 1905. Another plan, which had its origin in America, is to make provision for

pensions by a group assurance covering several provident benefits for the staff of a particular undertaking. These group policies at the outset afforded protection against death only, and were gradually extended to disability and superannuation.

Appended to this article is a short list of publications from

which more detailed information can be obtained. Of these the reports deal with the subject primarily from the point of view of public or quasi-public services, whereas the books are more

helpful to an employer contemplating setting up a superannuation

scheme for his staff.

BrsLtiocrAPHY.—Report of the Departmental Committee appointed by the Board of Trade on Superannuation and Similar Funds of Railway Companies (Cmd. 5349, London, H.M. Stationery Office 1910) : Report on the Pension Funds of the City of New York (New Vork, Commission on Pensions, 1916); Report of the Sub-Committee of the Executive Committee of King Edward’s Hospital Fund for London on Pensions for Hospital Officers and Staffs (London,.1919) ; Report of the Departmental Committee on the Superannuation of Persons employed by Local Authorities in England and Wales (Cmd. 329, London HM. Stationery Office, 1919) ; Report on Superannuation of School Teachers (Cmd. 1962, London, H.M. Stationery Office, 1923); Report of the Departmental Committee on the Superannuation of Local Government Employees (Ref. 32-267, London, H.M. Stationery Office, 1928), Luther Conant, Junr., Critical Analysis of Industrial Pension Systems (New York, 1922); H. Dougharty, Pension, Endowment and Life Assurance Schemes (London, 1927); H. H. Edwards and R. Murrell, Staff Pension Schemes in Theory and Practice (London, 1927); B. Robertson and H. Samuels, Pension and Superannuation Funds (London, 1928). (G. S. W. E.)

SUPEREROGATION,

the performance of more than is

asked for, the action of doing more than duty requires (late Lat. Supererogatio, payment beyond what is due or asked). In the theology of the Roman Church, “works of supererogation” are those which are performed beyond what is required by God, thus forming a reserve store of works of merit which can be drawn upon for the dispensation of those whose works fall short of the standard. See Catholic Encyclopaedia, article “Supererogation.”

SUPER-HETERODYNE

RECEPTION,

a means

of

radio reception in which the received current is combined with the current from a local oscillator (g.v.) and changed into a current of intermediate frequency. This is then amplified and detected to reproduce the original signal wave.

SUPERINTENDENT, a term which, apart from its general

use for an official in charge, has a distinct religious connotation, being applied, e.g., to the head of a Sunday school and to the chief minister in a Methodist circuit. In its most important historical sense it refers to certain ecclesiastical officers of reformed churches of the Lutheran model. In the confusion of the Reformation the name of superintendent was given to a class of men who discharged many of the functions of the older bishops, while bearing a character which in several respects was new. Only in Denmark was the name of bishops reserved for the new officers after the Lutheran model had been adopted and the older bishops had been deposed. and imprisoned.

SUPERIOR It is still used there, though no claim is made that it is the sign of formal apostolical succession. In Scotland the First Book of Discipline provided not only for ministers, teachers, elders and deacons, but also for superintendents and readers. The superintendents (who were appointed because of the scarcity of Protestant pastors) took charge of districts corresponding in some degree with the episcopal dioceses, and made annual reports to the general assembly of the ecclesiastical and religious state of their provinces, in the churches of which they also preached. Duties of Superintendents——The distinctive character borne

by the new officers was determined by the cardinal principles which

Luther had laid down in his work regarding the religious functions of the state. He conceived of the secular government as an ordi-

nance of God, and as being set to direct and control the external

fortunes of the Church. He hoped that righteous magistrates would at all times form a sound court of appeal in times of ecclesiastical disorder, and that they would guard the interests of truth

and justice more securely than had been done under papal jurisdiction. The superintendents, who now had to undertake large

575

Saxony about 1527. He assigns the duties of the office, and summons the newly appointed officer to give diligent heed to the conduct and teaching of the pastors under him, faithfully to warn them of all errors, and, in case they prove obstinate, to report them to the electoral court. He must further give close attention

to the due observance of the marriage laws, for in this matter the previously appointed visitors to the principality had reported grave laxity. Some of the smaller principalities appointed but a single superintendent for their territory, who, instead of being answerable to a consistory, sat as spiritual member on the territorial council, whilst in towns the superintendent was summoned to the town council whenever Church matters arose for discussion.

In larger

states there were various classes of superintendents with their respective duties severally assigned. In modern times the functions of the superintendent have been somewhat confused in consequence of the introduction into Lutheran Church theory of inconsistent elements of Presbyterian and synodal type.

appointed by the civil power and to be answerable to it. They

See T. M. Lindsay, History of the Reformation (1906), i. 400-416; and the articles “Kirchenordnung” and “Superintendent” in HerzogHauck’s Realencyklopädie für protestantische Theologie und Kirche.

The character of the office and duties of the superintendent

U.S.A., at the western end of Lake Superior, opposite Duluth

administrative responsibilities in the Church, were therefore to be

were to stand as intermediaries between the prince or magistrates on the one hand, and the ministers in their districts on the other.

were not everywhere the same. Luther shrank from imposing any stereotyped forms and asked that the special circumstances of each separate district should be consulted. He hoped that as few changes as possible would be made, and trusted that the reformed doctrines would spread peacefully throughout the country. After the Diet of Speyer (1526) the civil authorities were invited to reorganize the Church in their respective dominions as they thought best. In the free towns superintendents were answerable to the city fathers for their good order. There were difficulties in the territories of the German princes, and in the case of Saxony Luther proposed to the elector that his first step should be to send out a commission of visitation which should report on the moral and spiritual condition of his principality, district by district. His proposal was carried out, and Luther himself became one of the visitors (1527-1528). He found the people in a state of such religious indifference and ignorance, and the clergy living often in such grossness, that his faith in their fitness to govern themselves ecclesiastically sank even lower than before, and he resisted all schemes for self-government such as had been proposed by

SUPERIOR, a city in the north-western corner of Wisconsin, (Minnesota), with which it is connected by bridges; a port of entry and the county seat of Douglas county. It is on Federal highways 2 and 53, and is served by the Chicago, Milwaukee, St. Paul and Pacific, the Chicago, St. Paul, Minneapolis and Omaha, the Duluth, South Shore and Atlantic, the Great Northern, the Northern Pacifc and the Soo Line railways, and many lake steamers. Pop. (1920) 39,671 (27% foreign-born white), and was 36,113 in 1930 by Federal census. The city occupies a spacious site (36-1 sq.m.) on gently rising ground facing three bays

(Superior, Allouez and St. Louis), It has 29 m. of water front, and shares with Duluth (qg.v.) one of the finest natural inland harbours of the world, ranking second only to New York among the ports of the United States in the amount of commercial tonnage handled (52,712,269 tons in 1927). There is ample waterpower, and the manufacturing industries are important, with an output in 1927 valued at $23,063,094. Superior has a cheap fuel supply and power is furnished by electricity generated on the St. Louis river. Superior is an important grain market. Flour is the principal product, and shipbuilding is important. Among steel Francis Lambert. The church organization which he devised for ships, the type, now almost entirely extinct, known as the “‘whaleSaxony provided no place for democratic or representative ele- back” originated here; and iron and wooden ships, launches and ments: the grasp of the state must at all times be felt. The super- small pleasure craft are also made. Other manufactures are railintendent must speak at all times as a minister of the state, and way cars, casks, cooperage, saw and planing mill products, furnithe state must be represented in the synod to which he makes his ture, wooden ware, windmills, gas-engines, and mattresses and first report, for upon the synod there must sit not only the pastors wire beds. Much iron and copper ore is shipped from the Duluthbut also a delegate from every parish. If any appeal should be Superior harbour; and large quantities of coal, brought by lake made from the decisions of the synod it must be heard in the court boats, are distributed from here throughout the American and of the electoral prince, for he, as supreme civil ruler, possessed Canadian North-west. Superior is the seat of a State Teachers the jus episcopale, the right of oversight of the churches. Luther college (established 1893). Pierre Esprit Radisson and Medard Chouart des Groseilliers proposed that he should exercise this right by appointing a consistorial court composed in part of theologians and in part of canon probably visited the site of Superior in 1661, and it is practically lawyers, and it was thus that in 1542 the Wittenberg ecclesiastical certain that other French coureurs-des-bois were here at different consistory was formed. Other principalities adopted the model, times before Daniel Greysolon, Sieur Du Lhut (Duluth), estabso that the institution became common throughout the Lutheran lished a trading post in the neighbourhood about 1678. About 1820 the Hudson’s Bay Company established a post here, but churches. In this scheme

the superintendent

(or superattendant)

was

charged with such part of the duty of the older bishops as had

been purely administrative.

He must concern himself with the

there was no permanent settlement until after the middle of the

roth century. Attention was directed to the site by a survey made by George R. Stuntz, a government surveyor, in 1852, and in

discharge of their duties by the pastors of the churches, as well as 1853 a syndicate of capitalists, at the head of which was William with their character and demeanour. He must supervise their Wilson Corcoran, the wealthy Washington banker, associated with conduct of public worship, as well as give them licence to preach. whom were Senators Stephen A. Douglas (for whom the county He must take cognizance of their ministry to the indigent in their was named), R. M. T. Hunter and J. B. Bright, Ex-Senator parishes, and of their management of the schools. He must | Robert J. Walker, Congressmen John C. Breckinridge and John further direct the studies of candidates for the pastoral office. He L. Dawson, and others, largely Southern politicians and members was answerable to the civil authorities to report all evil-living and | of Congress, bought lands here and platted a town which was named Superior. The proprietors secured in 1856 the construction false teaching. The earliest occasion of the appointment of such a superin- of a military road to St. Paul, Minnesota, 160 m. long. The town tendent would seem to be found in the decisions of Prince John of grew rapidly, and in 1856-1857 had about 2,500 inhabitants. The

576

SUPERIOR,

LAKE—SUPERNATURALISM

panic of 1857 interrupted its growth, and the population dwindled so that in 1860 there were only a few hundred settlers on the town-site. The Civil War increased the depression, and the lands of those who had taken part against the Union were confiscated. In 1862 a series of stockades was built as a protection from the Indians. Within the area under the government of the town of Superior, which was at first co-extensive with the county, West Superior was platted in 1883 and South Superior soon afterwards. A village government was established in September 1887, including the three settlements mentioned, and in April 1889 Superior was chartered as a city. The harbour was surveyed in 1823-1825

by Lieut. Henry Wolsey Bayfield (1795-1885)

of the British

Navy. In 1860-1861 it was resurveyed by Captain George G. Meade, who was engaged in the work at the outbreak of the Civil War. A branch of the Northern Pacific railway was built to Superior in 1881.

SUPERIOR, LAKE, the most north-westerly of the Great

Lakes of North America, and one of the largest bodies of fresh water in the world, is bounded on the east and north by the Province of Ontario, on the west by the State of Minnesota, and on the south by Wisconsin and Michigan. Physiography.—It has deep, extremely cold, clear water, and high and rocky shores along a large portion of its coast. Its general form is that of a wide crescent convex towards the north, but its shores are more irregular in outline than those of the other lakes. Following the curves of its axis from west to east the lake is about 383 m. long, and its greatest breadth is 160 miles. Its maximum recorded depth is 1,180 ft., and its mean height above sea-level 602 ft.,about 21 ft.above that of Lakes Michigan and Huron, to which it is joined at its eastern extremity through the river St. Mary. The lake receives the waters of 200 rivers, and drains a territory of 49,080 sq.m., the total area of its basin, including the water surface of the lake, being 80,900 sq. miles: The largest river which “empties into it is the St. Louis, at its western end. The principal rivers on the north shore are the Pigeon, which forms the international boundary line, the Kaministikwia, the Nipigon, which drains the lake of the same name and together with the lake is

about 200 m. long, the Pic, the White and the Michipicoten. No large rivers empty into Lake Superior from the south. There are not many islands in the lake, the largest being Isle Royal, 44 m. long, Michipicoten island in the eastern part; St. Ignace, in the northern part, off the mouth of the Nipigon river; Grand island between Pictured Rocks and Marquette; Manitou island east of Keweenaw Point, and the Apostle Group, to the north of Chequamegon bay. The boundary between the United States and Canada follows a median line approximately to about mid-lake; thence it sweeps north-westward, so as to include Isle Royal within the territory of the United States, and continues near the north shore, to the mouth of Pigeon river, which it follows westward, leaving the

whole west end of the lake in U.S. territory. Resoutces of Region.—The Lake Superior region is rich in minerals that have been extensively worked. The lake is, as it were, surrounded by iron, which is the probable cause of very strong magnetic fields of influence. Native silver as well as silver ores exist around Thunder bay, native copper was formerly worked on Isle Royal, and rich copper mines are worked on the south shore, while nickel abounds in regions of the country north of the lake. Coasts and Currents.—It has a picturesque coastline, the north shore particularly being indented by deep bays surrounded by high cliffs; the islands also rise abruptly to considerable heights, the north shore furnishing the boldest scenery of the Great Lakes. On the south coast, opposite the broadest part of the lake, are precipitous walls of red sandstone, extending about

14 m., famous as the Pictured Rocks, so called from the effect of wave action on them There aré no appreciable tides and little current. A general set of the water towards the outlet exists, especially on the southern shore. From the Apostle islands to the |

north coast. Autumn storms raise dangerous seas. The level varies with the season, and also from year to year, the maximum varia. tion, covering a cycle of years, being about 4 feet. The discharge of the lake is computed to be 75,200 cu.ft. per second at mean stage of water, and is controlled by dikes and sluice gates at the head of St. Mary’s falls.

Navigation.—The

season

of navigation,

controlled by the

opening and closing of the Sault Ste. Marie canals, averages about eight months—from the middle of April to the middle of Decem.

ber. The lake never freezes over, though the temperature of the water does not, even in summer, rise far above freezing point. The bays freeze over and there is border ice, often gathered by wind into large fields in the bays and extremities of the lake. Harbours.—Lake Superior is fairly well provided with natural harbours, and works of improvement have created additional harbours of refuge at various points. Marquette, Mich., Presque Isle Point, Mich., Agate Bay, Minn., Grand Marais, Minn., and Ashland, Wis., are on bays which have protective breakwaters across their mouths. Duluth, Superior, Port Wing, Wis., Ontonagon, Mich. and Grand Marais, Mich., are harbours with entrances formed by parallel jetties extending across obstructing bars. On the Canadian side Fort William, in the mouth of the Kaminis. tikwia, and Port Arthur, 4 m. distant, an artificial harbour, are the

only important shipping points, being the lake terminals of two great trans-continental railway systems, though the whole north

shore is liberally supplied with natural harbours. Commerce.—The traffic on Lake Superior grows constantly in volume. The data collected at United States and Canadian locks at the Sault was as follows in 1927: passengers 55,115; coal 17,107,500 tons; flour 938,344 tons; wheat 9,926,945 tons; other grain 2,948,295 tons; iron ore 50,098,068 tons; miscellaneous 2,334,912 tons.

The total traffic was 83,354,064 tons, valued at

over $1,000,000,000. The increase in the past 20 years has been about 100% in both tonnage and value. The principal freight shipped eastward consists of flour, wheat and other grains, through Duluth-Superior from the United States, and through Fort William-Port Arthur from the Canadian prairies; copper ore from the mines on the south shore; iron ore in immense quantities from both shores, the principal ore-shipping ports being Ashland, Two Harbors, Marquette and Superior, and lumber produced on the tributary rivers. West-bound freight consists largely of coal for general distribution and for terminal railway points. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—Bulletin No. 37, Survey of Northern and Northwestern Lakes, Lake Survey Office, Detroit (April 1928); Transportation on the Great Lakes, Government Printing Office (1926); Annual Report of the chief of engineers, U.S. army, Government Printing Office (1926); House Document No. 253, 7oth Congress, rst Session, Government Printing Office (1928).

SUPERMAN, means generally an ideal man. The term plays an important rôle in the philosophy of Nietzsche (g.v.) who is mainly responsible for the vogue which the term has.

SUPERNATURALISM, a term that may be used for the

attitude of mind in which experience of the unfamiliar or uncanny appears to invest it with a distinct character, as if it be-

longed to a world of its own. On the psychological side it involves the somewhat complex mood known as awe, in which, as W. McDougall shows, various primary feelings such as fear, wonder and submissiveness commingle in no very fixed proportions. On the institutional side it provides raw material alike for magic and for religion. As Hartland puts it, commenting on Marett’s

use of the term, supernaturalism furnishes the original “theoplasm, god-stuff.” Primitive notions of the type of mana (qv.) refer to this special class of experience in which the subject feels powerfully moved and the object seems powerfully moving, so that both inwardly and outwardly wonders happen, whether for better or for worse. It is certain, on the other hand, that the

savage does not spend all his time in wonderland, but distinguishes another world, another level of experience, which as the

Polynesians phrase it, is noa, “commonplace”—the routine of every day. Our word “natural” has to-day very similar associa-

eastward of Keweenaw point this current has great width, and tions, though as a matter of fact, if Hubert and Mauss are right, towards the eastern end of the lake spreads out in the shape of a. the Greek physis, literally “growth,” from which our conception fan, a branch passing to the northward and westward reaching the | of nature is derived, originally meant much the same as mana,

SUPERNORMAL

CHILDREN—SUPERSTITION

namely, the occult force that makes things grow and develop. If it is felt that the word “nature” ought to be reserved for the whole

order of the universe, as being really rational and whatever appearances there may be to the contrary, pedantic term “super-normalism” may be substituted; cannot be denied that psychologically and historically

intelligible the more though it men have been inclined to view the regular course of things, and certain

strange and moving interruptions aspects of mind and being.

of it, as sharply contrasted

BrpLiocRAPHY.—R. R. Marett, The Threshold of Religion (1914); E. S. Hartland, British Association Report, Address to Section H. (1906); H. Hubert et M. Mauss, “Esquisse d’une théorie générale de la Magie” in L’Année Sociologique, vol. vii. (1904); W. McDougall, An Introduction to Social Psychology (oth ed., 1915). See also MANA. (R. R. M.)

SUPERNORMAL CHILDREN, EDUCATION OF, the specialized education of children of high intelligence to give them the fullest opportunity to develop to the limit their mental

capacity, has attracted widespread attention in the United States, especially since the World War. The results of scientific studies of human heredity and the wide range of mental differences disclosed by the application of intelligence tests to millions of children and adults have exploded the absurd doctrine of human

equality. There is a growing recognition of the importance of making the most of our resources of genius, and an increasing interest in the identification and training of gifted children. That the reform movement in this direction is already under way is indicated by the fact that the 1920 and 1924 Yearbooks of the National Society for the Study of Education were both devoted to the education of gifted children. An enquiry which was sent out In 1925 to 413 cities of more than 20,000 population brought the information that 173 of 220 cities replying were making special provision of one kind or another for children of superior ability. In 33 of the 173 cities the special provisions involved little more than an effort to identify the gifted in order that they might be allowed to skip an occasional grade. In the remaining 140 cities, however, a great variety of experiments was under way. The practice of employing “coaching” teachers to prepare bright pupils for grade skipping is fairly common. The little city of Winnetka, Ill., has abandoned class instruction in favour of a system of individual teaching which is intended to

allow each pupil to make as rapid progress as his ability permits.

The Winnetka plan has aroused keen interest throughout the country, but has not been extensively adopted. An argument against it as a method of meeting the needs of the gifted is that it does not provide differentiated curricula for children of different grades of ability. Some 5o or more cities have attacked the problem in a more fundamental way by adopting the “multiple track” plan of classification of pupils by ability into X, Y and Z groups.

By this plan there are three tracks, instead of one, from

the first grade up to (and sometimes through) the high school, with a different curriculum for each. The “X” pupils usually include the ablest 5% or 10%. It is not a primary purpose of this plan to enable the bright pupils to complete the elementary or high school course at an earlier age. More important is the fact that the curriculum for the X group is greatly enriched and the methods of instruction considerably modified. Oakland, Cal., began the reorganization of its schools on this plan in 1918, Detroit In 1922, and New York city in 1928. There are in many cities

“opportunity” classes for the more exceptionally gifted. These classes are sometimes the sole provision, sometimes only one feature of a larger plan. The degree of ability necessary for admission Is not uniform, but the more commonly accepted standard is one

that cannot be met by more than five or ten children out of 1,000.

The purpose of the opportunity class is not to stimulate pupils

to accomplish more work of the usual kind, but rather to develop the intellectual initiative that will enable them to work on a higher level. Drill and other forms of routine are reduced to a minimum. Complete freedom of movement is allowed. For the greater part ' of his time each pupil works at a project of his choice, either alone or In co-operation with one or more. classmates. The spirit of enquiry and research is cultivated by extensive use of libraries,

laboratories, shops, museums, field investigations and other teach-

ing aids. It is possible who are functioning at average college student. are overcome, and the misfit in the ordinary Opportunity

classes are

577

to find twelve-year-olds in these classes a higher intellectual level than does the Curiosity is aroused, habits of idleness occasional gifted child who was a social classroom makes a normal adjustment. rapidly increasing in number

and will

doubtless become an accepted feature of city school systems.

SUPER POWER.

The term has come into wide use, particu-

larly in the United States, in connection with the extensive development of the electric power industry. It has been defined as “the systematic grouping and interconnection of existing power systems to the end that greater economy will be effected.” It means in its final form, generation at large, highly efficient plants, transmission in bulk at very high voltage, such as 220,000 volts and supply to existing power systems in large blocks. It may be regarded as a power bank in which deposits and withdrawals are made at widely different points. Technically, the basis of super power lies in the economy effected in interconnecting systems with peak loads coming at different times, thus reducing spare capacity and therefore investment, and bettering the load factor of the interconnected generating plants. (See ELECTRICAL POWER

TRANSMISSION; ELECTRICITY SUPPLY.) SUPERSTITION.

|

Like many words having a derogatory

sense, “superstition”? is often loosely and vaguely used, and is therefore not easy to define. To identify it, for example, with false belief or practice would be quite misleading. For in the first place, the field in which superstition is generally to be found, the magico-religious, is the very one in which the standard of truth and falsehood is most subjective and fluctuating; in the second, a custom or belief, religious or not, which is false may nevertheless be accepted at some times and places by men of enlightened intellect and conscience. To call a person superstitious, however, regularly implies more or less definite mental or moral deficiency. Thus, we should describe a man as superstitious who in a modern European or American community seriously believed that to break a mirror brought bad luck; but the original holders of that or a similar belief were perfectly reasonable in their views, according to their lights. Supposing that a shadow or reflection was in some sort a part of the soul, they naturally concluded that to break it, by breaking the substance upon which it was cast or reflected, was to injure the soul or life itself. They had merely been misled by a false inference. In like manner many savage customs and ideas, often described as superstitious by explorers or missionaries, turn out on investigation to be the product of quite sound reasoning, vitiated by the false premises on which it is based. To adhere irrationally to these premises after having their falsity clearly demonstrated might indeed be called superstition. The word in question being of Latin origin, light may be thrown upon it by the usage of a Latin author. Vergil, in a well-known passage (Aen. viii. 187), characterizes superstitio as uana (empty, groundless) and also as ueterum ignara deorum (having no knowledge of ancient gods, ż.e., of well-tried and long-established reli-

gious ideas). If we turn to the Greek equivalent ĉeriôaruovia, literally “fear of superhuman powers,’ we find Theophrastos (Characteres, 28—[16]) ridiculing the decdaiuwy, not for holding polytheistic views nor for believing in omens, but for spending much time in the worship of obscure and foreign deities, and paying a ridiculous amount of attention to petty omens, such as a more sensible man would disregard. We may now perhaps attempt to define superstition as the acceptance of beliefs or practices groundless in themselves and inconsistent with the degree of enlightenment reached by the com-

munity to which one belongs. It is clear that such a definition excludes, for instance, the mental attitude of one who, about the year was and of a

AD. 50, or in the middle ages, believed in astrology, ‘which accepted and defended by many, though not all, intelligent well-educated persons of the time; it also excludes the action savage who adores what is to Europeans a ridiculous and non-

existent godling.

But it includes, for example, those contempo-

raries of Plato who let themselves be deceived by the lower practitioners of Orphism,

or by those

ously to believe in mascots.

moderns

who

appear

seri-

Even so, a certain element of vague-

578

SUPER-TAX

ness is unavoidable, since agreement is far from being reached as to what ideas, and consequently what practices, especially those having reference to things not obviously material, are false and unenlightened. A long list might be drawn up of things which some would regard as false and outworn, others as plausible or even certainly true; it would range from theistic belief and religious observances of any sort to such matters as second sight and dowsing or water-finding. There still remain, however, a great number of ideas and actions which the consensus of educated modern opinion would regard as superstitious in the sense above defined. These remaining superstitions fall into two categories, survivals and accretions. Survivals.—It is well known (see ANTHROPOLOGY, FOLKLORE) that a great many customs characteristic of a less advanced stage in social and intellectual evolution survive into higher stages, either as meaningless and fossilized customs or because a new significance and use has been found for them. Thus many performances originally magical survive, more or less modified, as games for children or adults; a new use, the satisfaction of the play-instinct, has been found for them, but in their details they show, on investigation and comparison, traces of their original purpose. Again, the very old Northern European custom, in origin probably a fertility-rite, of decorating the house with greens at Christmas, survives simply because it is a pretty and picturesque traditional usage. Some such customs have become matters of etiquette. The need being still felt for some kind of conventional gesture to express friendly feeling or desire for better acquaintance, the old, probably magical, gesture of “handshaking” is still in use, and from childhood, we are taught to use the right, or lucky, hand for the purpose. The reason now given is that it is polite to use the right hand rather than the left; here as in many other instances what is now polite was once magically good. Such things as these can hardly be called superstitions; certain customs being still found necessary in various spheres of modern life, and the old ones being in themselves inoffensive, it saves mental effort to retain them, although their original meaning was something quite foreign to our conceptions. But alongside of these some things survive which are useless or even obnoxious, on any theory of conduct, expressed or understood, save one involving some now exploded doctrine. A good example is furnished by rest-days. The whole experience of mankind proves that it is advantageous to have occasional periods in which no avoidable work is done, since in the end the

worker actually achieves more than if he had not rested, in addition to tiring himself much less; and for this there are sound

superstitious, and many of their practices may fairly be deemed survivals, such as turning a chair around to “change the luck”

(imitative or homoeopathic magic) or wearing a mascot (fetishism?). But examples are not wanting of entirely new belief, based upon modern conditions and having no near parallel in savage or ancient custom. A popular English newspaper finds jt necessary, owing to its large circulation, to employ a number of presses. In order to check, and, where necessary, correct the

work done by each of these, it has its title printed ina slightly different manner by each machine, the difference consisting of a

varying number of small white dots in the large black lettering A few years ago a firm belief grew up among its less instructed readers that these dots conveyed racing “tips”; thus, if there were three dots in the letter D, they signified that in the third race of that day a horse whose name began with D was the likely winner. Here we have a definitely superstitious belief, although connected with no magical or religious idea, old or new. Clearly such a delusion would have been impossible but for two factors: (1) Instead of rationally crediting the paper with the possession of a

good deal of information on various subjects, gathered through reporters and by other such means, these readers manifestly supposed it to have a quasi-omniscience, embracing such unknowable

things as the result of a race not yet run. (2) Whereas it is in fact the custom of newspapers to state in plain language, in their sporting columns, which horse they think likeliest to win a given race, it seems to have been vaguely felt that it was more in keeping with the supposed oracular and infallible wisdom of the Press to adopt a symbolic style and set forth valuable information in a riddling form. The above example throws some light on the question whether superstition is declining in modern civilizations. The statement that it is rapidly disappearing is often and confidently made; but on examination of the instances given in support of such assertions, it will be found that what are really disappearing are certain old and traditional forms of belief or custom, which have rather gone out of fashion than been overcome by reason. For example, in Britain and America very little is left of the old rites connected with the last sheaf. This is only partly due to the spread of education among country people; probably not many farm labourers could say either what the old rites were or why they were irrational; it is rather the result of the rapid drift of population towards industrial centres, and the consequent influence on the country of town ideas. Now the townsman, not being a pro-

ducer of foodstuffs from the soil, is apt to laugh at the customs

connected with them as rustic; compare the contemptuous tone of such words as rustre, rusticus, hoor, &ypotxos, etc, The irrational custom has been irrationally displaced. Here, therefore, is no evidence of the growth of a more logical and critical mentality, less prone than the old to superstition; and it has already been shown that superstitious beliefs are actually in process of creation in the towns themselves. To take another example; while the traditional belief in witches seems practically confined to a few country districts and small towns, and the old methods of divination hardly survive at all, save as amusements, fortunework would be unlucky or would prevent or hinder the beneficent telling by various methods, mostly pseudo-scientific, including a effect to be expected from these conditions, Now the feeling that crude and degraded form of astrology, is by no means extinct, on certain days certain occupations, or all ordinary occupations, as may be seen by examining the advertisements of popular are particularly unlucky (or lucky) is quite common at far higher magazines and also the police-court reports. At best it may be stages than these. Those who appear seriously to believe in said that superstition appears to be yielding, although very slowly, the unluckiness of Friday for starting any work may rightly be to the gradual rise of the average intelligence which there is some called superstitious, for the ground of their conduct is ultimately reason to suppose exists, and that it may in time disappear with ! the savage notion of the incompatibility of ordinary occupations other irrationalities. BreriocraPHy.—For classical superstitions, see art. ABERGLAUBE in with the spiritual atmosphere, so to call it, of a tabu-day, in this. case a Church fast-day of comparatively modern origin. Not Pauly-Wissowa, Realencyklopddie. For others, see ANTHROPOLOGY, FOLKLORE, bibliography. dissimilar considerations apply to the quite wide-spread avoidance See also Lehmann, Aberglaube und Zauberei (1898); A. Wuttke, of the number thirteen, ultimately based upon very ancient ideas Der deutsche Volksaberglaube der Gegenwart (1900) ; Philip F. Waterof the peculiar character of this number. man, The Story of Superstition (1929). (H. J. R) Accretions.—Evidence of the survival, among a civilized popSUPER-TAX. A British tax imposed by the Finance Act of ulation, of a savage type of mentality is furnished abundantly 1909 in which D. Lloyd George made a further graduation of the by the occurrence of quite new superstitious practices in our own existing income tax by imposing a supplementary income tax or day and in circles, not always uncultured, of Europeans and “super-tax’’ upon persons whose incomes exceeded £5,000 a year. Americans. It is of course a commonplace that gamblers are This tax was not imposed upon the whole of the income but upon

physiological and psychological reasons. Moreover, it is the perfectly reasonable practice of members of the higher religions, such as Christianity and Islam, to set apart certain days (Sunday, Friday, etc.) for the intensified practice of their worship. But it is well known that, long before either an ethical religion appeared or the physiology of fatigue was studied, tabu-days, like the gennas of the Nagas, were observed by people in a savage or barbarous stage of culture, owing to the belief that, at regular or irregular intervals, the prevailing conditions were so magical that ordinary

SUPERTONIC—SUPPLY such part of it as exceeded £3,000 a year, thus creating a gradu-

ated super-tax. In later years this super-tax was amended again and

again, and in 1928 was renamed the surtax, the name already in use in the United States.

(See Income Tax: IN PRACTICE.)

SUPERTONIC, in music, the second degree of the diatonic scale, as D in the scale of C, that is, the note next above the

tonic, whence its name.

SUPILO, FRANO born of poor

(See Harmony; INTERVAL.)

(1870-1917), Yugoslav statesman, was

Croat parents

southern Dalmatia.

at Cavtat

(Ragusa

Vecchia)

in

In 1900 he became editor of Novi List, a

AND

DEMAND

579

lean very heavily upon it as a general explanatory formula. Long before there was any systematic analysis of economic processes men had observed that prices vary with supply and demand, and from the earliest days, traders have had to take account of that circumstance. The economist’s task has been to scrutinize

those characteristics of human behaviour and of the physical environment which which supply and cated interactions commodities and

determine the various forms or patterns in demand appear and to inquire into the compli-

of the demand for and the supply of different services.

Croat paper published at Fiume, which became a rallying ground

Elementary Principles.—Consider the familiar theorem that

for opposition to the intolerable régime of Count Khuen Héder-

the price of a commodity must be such as to make supply and demand equal. If supply is taken to mean the amount sold and demand the amount bought the theorem is mere tautology, for supply and demand become different names for the amount transferred from sellers to buyers at any price whatever. But if it be understood that demand means the amount which buyers would be willing to take at a specified price, that supply means

vary. In 1905, together with Trumbi¢, Cingrija and Smodlaka, he drew up the resolution of Fiume, which became the basis of political co-operation between Serbs and Croats in the critical period before the World War. When the Magyar coalition parties came into power in Hungary in April 1906 and placed the SerboCroat coalition in office at Zagreb, Supilo became a deputy at Budapest. : Within a year Magyarising tendencies produced an acute conflict between Budapest and Zagreb, and for a time Supilo was

the soul of Croat resistance. He thus became a marked man and was specially aimed at in the notorious forgeries by which the Austro-Hungarian Foreign Office attempted to prove Serbia’s revolutionary intrigues in Croatia and thereby to justify the annexation of Bosnia in 1908. At the Friedjung trial, however, in Dec. 1909 Supilo was triumphantly vindicated. He was the first to discover the secret negotiations with Italy which culminated in the Treaty of London (April 26, 1915) and earnestly warned Sazonov of the disastrous complications to which it would give rise; but he was unable to prevent the promise of wide Slav territories on the Eastern Adriatic to Italy in the event of victory. Supilo came into conflict with the Pan-Serb and reactionary tendencies of PaSi¢, and even withdrew from the Yugoslav Committee, which in the early stages of the War he regarded as unduly subservient to Belgrade. But before his premature

death (in London,

Sept. 23, 1917) he heartily endorsed the

Declaration of Corfu, issued in July 1917, which laid down the lines upon which the Yugoslav State was to be constructed.

SUPPE,

FRANZ

VON

(1820-1895),

Austrian

musical

composer, whose real name was Francesco Ezechiele Ermenegildo Suppé-Demelli, was born at Spalato, in Dalmatia, in 1820, and died at Vienna in 1895. Originally he studied philosophy at the university of Padua, but on the death of his father devoted himself to music, studying at the Vienna conservatoire. He began his musical career as a conductor in one of the smaller Viennese theatres, and gradually worked his way up to be one of the most popular composers of ephemeral light opera of the day.’ Outside Vienna his works never won much success. Of his sixty comic operas Fatinitza (Vienna, 1876; London, 1878) was the most

successful, while Boccaccio (Vienna, 1879; London, 1882) only enjoyed moderate favour. Suppé’s overture to Dichter und Bauer

ishis most successful orchestral work. He also wrote some church music.

SUPPLEMENTARY ESTIMATES: see Estimates. SUPPLY, provision; more particularly the money granted by

a legislature to carry on the work of government. In the United Kingdom the granting of supply is the exclusive right of the

House of Commons, and is carried out by two committees of the house, one of supply and the other of ways and means (see

PARLIAMENT). In the United States supply originates in the House of Representatives (see Unrrep States: Appropriation).

SUPPLY AND DEMAND.

Economics, or political econ-

omy, is sometimes defined as the science of supply and demand.

Although this is an inadequate definition it cannot be said to be altogether misleading. A very important part of Economics, and the part which probably has the best title to the name of science,

has to do with the operations of supply and demand and with the way in which variations of supply and demand are related to the

movements of prices and to changes in the production and dis-

tribution of wealth. The “law of supply and demand” was not

invented or discovered by the economists, however, nor do they

similarly the amount which sellers would be willing to part with at a specified price, and that demand and supply vary In some systematic and continuous way and in opposite directions as the price is raised or lowered, the theorem has meaning and significance, for there will be one price, and only one price, at which supply and demand will be equal. In another elementary theorem, namely that an increase of demand for a commodity will raise its price, that an increase of supply will lower it, and that a decrease of supply or of demand will have an opposite effect, other meanings are attached to changes of supply and demand. Here an increase of demand or supply means an increase of the amounts which will be taken at given prices, not an increase which is dependent upon a reduction of price. The general state of supply and demand, in the sense specified in the preceding paragraph, can be represented by lists or “schedules”? of “supply prices” and “demand prices.” In this other sense, however, supply and demand are regarded as independent variables, and a change of supply or demand means an alteration of the schedule of supply prices or demand prices, such as might come on the one hand from a change of consum-

er’s preferences or an enlarging of the market or, on the other hand, from a change of costs of production. It is proper to assume that at any given time the immediate general condition of supply right be represented by a schedule in which the progressively higher prices which are required to evoke a progressively larger supply are set forth. But if the commodity is one which can be produced more economically if produced in large quantities, the ultimate effect of an increase of demand, in the sense of an increase of the amounts which will be taken at specified prices, will ordinarily be to reduce the price per unit at which these larger amounts will be supplied. In a schedule of supply prices constructed on the assumption that sufficient time is allowed to permit the necessary economies to be effected, larger supply will be associated with lower prices. When the longperiod schedule of supply prices is of this type, the commodity is

said to be produced under conditions of decreasing costs or of

increasing returns. When, on the other hand, because of the scarcity of some necessary productive factor, increased supply cannot be had, even in the long run, except at a higher price, the condition is described as one of increasing costs or of diminishing returns. The factors which give rise to increasing returns should not be confused with the circumstance that in many industries certain outlays (e.g., for plant and equipment) have to be incurred in advance or with the further circumstance that in a growing industry such outlays are ordinarily considerably larger than the volume of output immediately in prospect would re-

quire.

Under

such

circumstances

the additional

or “prime”

costs incurred by reason of an increase of output may be relatively small. Furthermore, with a progressive increase of output there will be a progressive diminution of costs per unit of output, because the general, supplementary, or “overhead” costs will be spread over a large number of units. But although when the market is sluggish or when competition is especially keen, prices

may be cut to a point where they barely suffice to cover the addi-

580

SUPPLY

AND

TRANSPORT

tional or “prime” costs, this condition, which cannot be lasting, | other goods, as land is, then other goods will be produced unde; should not be confused with a true condition of increasing re- conditions of diminishing returns, unless this disadvantage can turns, for this last condition is to be found only when a gradual be offset by improvements in productive processes or by Cheaper increase of output is attended, in the long run, with genuine econ- supplies of other necessary productive instruments. For some omies. purposes it is convenient to assume that the aggregate supply of Interactions of Supply and Demand.—The results ob- reproducible goods, or of reproducible productive goods, is fixed tained by taking account only of the supply of and demand for a for the time being. The problems of supply and demand then particular commodity in relation to its price are no more than a have to do merely with the apportioning, by exchange, of an existfirst approximation to the truth. In isolating, for reasons of prac- ing stock of goods, or with the assigning of productive instrutical convenience, the factors which determine the price of any ments to the most important of their various possible uses. Thus one commodity, taken by itself, economists are accustomed to the increase of the supply of labour in a given industry or a given assume that the value of money, to both buyers and sellers, is locality may be taken to depend largely upon a possible transfer constant. This means that no account is taken of the way in of workers from other industries or other localities. Whether which changes in the amount of money which consumers expend labour in the aggregate may be said to have a supply price (ie, for the one commodity will affect their ability to buy other com- to be responsive in the long run to an increase of wages) isa modities, or the way in which an increase of the production of the question to which the Malthusian theory of population gave a one commodity will affect the ability of producers to supply more nearly unqualified afirmative answer than would be supother commodities. There are many instances of Joint or com- ported by the present opinion of scholars. (See also Drmanp, (A. Yo.) plementary demand, as for fruit and sugar or for automobiles and Economics, and PRICE.) petrol, and of joint supply, as of mutton and wool, of coal-gas SUPPLY AND TRANSPORT, MILITARY. In all ages and coke, of cotton and cottonseed. The general rule is, however, the operations of armies have been influenced, and in many cases that consumers’ outlays for any one commodity can be increased absolutely controlled, by the necessity of providing and disonly by reducing the amounts which they expend for other com- tributing food, forage, munitions, and stores for men and horses, modities, and that more of any one commodity can be produced In modern history these supplies have become more and more only by displacing other possible uses of productive resources. varied as weapons developed in complexity, power, and accuracy This general rule is not inconsistent with the fact that, making of workmanship. In proportion, the branches of an army which abstraction of the use of money as a medium of exchange, the are charged with the duties of “supply and transport” have besupply of any one commodity is an expression of the demand of come specialized as regards recruiting, training, and organization, its producers for other commodities and services. in consequence also of the progress with transport which provides There is a sense in which supply and demand, seen in the more reliable and efficient haulage. aggregate, are merely different aspects of a single situation. It HISTORICAL is for this reason that some of the older economists held that The predatory armies of the middle ages not only lived upon general overproduction is impossible—a theorem which, though not really erroneous, has proved to be misleading. The effective the country they traversed but enriched themselves with the demand of the producers of one commodity for other products plunder they obtained from it; and this method of subsisting depends not only upon how much they produce, but also upon the and paying an army reached its utmost limits in the Thirty Years’ War. During the last stages of this war Germany had been so relative demand of other producers for that particular commodity as compared with other products. Only so far as the demand thoroughly devastated that the armies marched hither and thither for a particular commodity is elastic is it true in any significant like packs of hungry wolves, every soldier accompanied by two sense that an increase of its supply is an effective increase of de- or three non-combatants—camp followers of all sorts, mistresses, mand for other commodities. There may be and often are mal- ragged children, and miserable peasants who had lost all and now adjustments of supply and demand.. Furthermore, production in sought to live by robbing others under the protection of the army. From these horrors there followed a revulsion to the other general may at one time outrun and at another time fail to keep pace with the expansion of money incomes. In either event there extreme. Unless ordered by higher authority for political reasons will be general fluctuations of prices, attended, as experience to sack a particular town or to pillage a particular district, the shows, by changes in the relative levels of the prices of different soldiers were rigidly kept in hand, rationed by their own supply officers and hanged or flogged if at any moment an outbreak of classes of goods and services. The general form of the relations of supply, demand, and price the old vices made the example necessary. After 1648 there were which obtain when all products are taken into account can be very few districts in Middle Europe that could support an army depicted mathematically in systems of equations, and thus the for even a few days, and the burden of their sustenance had to general character of the whole interdependent structure of prices be distributed over a larger area. Thus, at the mere rumour of can be laid bare. But empirical (statistical) studies of the rela- an army’s approach, the peasantry fled with all their belongings tions between the fluctuations of the production of various staple into the fortified places; armies soon came to be supplied from commodities and fluctuations of their prices have shown that the “magazines,” which were filled either by contract from the home first approximation previously referred to is generally a useful country or by inducing the peasantry—by means of good conduct and often a surprisingly accurate approximation. It is necessary, and cash payments—to bring their produce to market. These of course, to allow for the effects of contemporaneous changes magazines were placed in a strong position, and if one was not of the general purchasing power of money, and it is sometimes available, a siege had to be undertaken to meet the demand. Moreover, soldiers in Marlborough’s time were not so easily necessary to allow also for the effects of other important disturbing circumstances. But it is not necessary to take account of obtained as in the Thirty Years’ War, and they had to be housed complications of a secondary order of importance in order to and fed comfortably enough to make it worth their while to stay

obtain “empirical laws of demand”

for such commodities

as

wheat, cotton, sugar, beef and potatoes which appear to be fairly reliable, at least over periods of some years. Inelastic Supply.—The rule that supply and demand may be regarded as functions of or dependent upon price must be so interpreted, of course, as to allow for the circumstance that the supply of something is fixed and is in no way responsive to an increase of price. As the production of other goods increases the prices of these non-reproducible forms of wealth must inevitably increase, unless the demand for them falls off. If these non-

reproducible things are necessary instruments in the production of

with the colours instead of deserting.

From these and similar

conditions there grew up a system of supply and transport usually called the “magazine system,” under which an army was bound, under penalty of dissolution, to go no farther than seven marches from the nearest fortress, two days from the nearest field bakery, and so on. When an 18th century army foraged for itself it was because the regular supply service was interrupted, i.¢., when it

was in extremis, But the relative rarity of wars in the 18th

century, the habit of demanding nothing from the inhabitants of the country traversed by an army, and the virtual exclusion of

the people from the princes’ quarrels, gave Europe a century's

WORLD WAR]

SUPPLY

AND

581

TRANSPORT

replenished by delivering one day’s rations and forage every day at a point within easy reach of the troops.” No hard and fast rule can be laid down as to the source from robwithout it suppress to Europe old of attempts. of the armies supplies shall be drawn, and all local resources are utilized soon which and futile, bing a single Frenchman of a loaf of bread proved transport of the national army created by the Revolution, unencumbered by as fully as possible in order to save unnecessary during resources local from collected Food base. the from supplies Germany southern over swept trains, supply tents, magazines, and depots supply in stored be usually will on concentrati of period those a from indeed and Italy. The Revolutionary armies differed should first be of the old wars in this, that they did not devastate wantonly, nor for subsequent issue to the troops. Such supplies area of conimmediate the adjoining districts those from drawn in merciless were they But loot. of sake the for did they murder

respite in which to recover from the drain of the Thirty Years’ War. And therefore, when the French Revolution came, the

their exactions, and, moreover, the tides of their invasions flowed

in particular channels, so that the greater part of the invaded

country escaped. This had a considerable, sometimes even a pre-

dominant, influence on the strategy pursued, a retreat along their

own lines of communication being often in fact avoided by the French as being the worst fate that could befall them. Napoleon, however, systematized the wasteful

and irregular requisitioning

that his predecessors had introduced, and in his hands the supply service, like all else connected with the art of war, underwent a thorough reform. His strategy’ in the offensive passed through two distinct stages—(a) the swift and sudden descent into the theatre of war, and (b) the close grouping of his armies in view of the decisive blow. The first stage was characterized by extraordinarily swift movement, freedom from dependence upon supply columns (other than the reserves of ammunition) and thorough exploitation of the food resources of the traversed zone. If the troops suffered, as well as the inhabitants, this effect did not shake his purpose. But the second stage, which as a general rule

involved three or four days’ occupation, without considerable movement, of a restricted area, required other measures of supply. In this the army lived upon magazines, which were filled from the captured supply transport, from the available supplies in the area, and from the resources accumulated in requisitioned vehicles close to the head of the routes followed in the first period. These resources were collected in the towns within this concentration

area, and placed “out of reach of an insult” (that is, made safe against, raiders) with a garrison and field works to supplement the town walls and gates. From this centre of operations Napoleon never allowed himself to be severed, whereas to the preservation of the route between France and that centre of operations he gave very little thought and assigned few or no troops, and confusion of strategical thought has often ensued from a failure to perceive the essential distinction, in Napoleonic practice, between a centre of operations and a “base.” In the roth century, however, there came the inevitable reaction. Purely political wars, and the consequent indifference of the inhabitants to the operations of war, produced as before a return to the system of cash payments and convoy supply, especially in the Austrian army. As regards Europe, the introduction of railways enormously facilitated the supply and transport service, and campaigns were neither as barren nor as prolonged as they had been under the old conditions. The French and British armies did not, at least to the same extent, wage political wars, but their ceaseless colonial warfare imposed upon them the magazine and convoy system, and habituated them to it. The French, in 1870, stood still in the midst. of the rich fields of Lorraine, and as a prolonged halt is fatal to the system of living on the country, it would have failed, even had it been tried. The Germans, on the other hand, levied requisitions, civilian transport, and contributions in money in accordance with Napoleonic tradition, though (owing to the existence of railways) with much less than Napoleonic severity. Their system was adopted as the best for European warfare by all the great Powers, whose organizations and methods of transporting and issuing supplies became the same in principle. This principle was based on the Napoleonic distinction between supplies required during an advance and those required during a concentrated halt. This system has been considerably modified by the immense development of mechaaical transport. The principle of supply now followed is that “field units should always have with them or within reach two days’ rations and forage and an iron ration, and that the supply service should keep these stocks

1H. Camon, Guerre napoléonienne.

centration through which the army will not pass.

Supplies within

the area of concentration are left, as far as possible, for the use of the local inhabitants. Generally, then, a force operating in Europe would be maintained in food, forage, fuel, and petrol from the base by rail and mechanical road vehicles, due allowance having been made for such supplies as can be obtained locally by formation supply officers, by purchase, or on requisition. As regards requisitioning, the rule is that only officers of a service detailed for the duty are authorized to purchase or requisition, but in cases of emergency requisitions may be carried out by the officer commanding the troops for whom the supplies are required. Authority to requisition is not. delegated to any but a commissioned officer, and requisitioning on the part of a warrant officer, n.c.o., or man is treated as plundering, unless the case is one of extreme urgency and no commissioned officer is present. All purchases and requisitions should be made through the local civil authorities. Mobile reserves of supplies do not normally exist but would be found from reserve mechanical transport units and allotted to formations to meet special circumstances. When it is impracticable for a force on the move to be reached by a daily supply convoy, it will usually be accompanied by a supply column carrying supplies for several days. In such a case the radius of action of the force is limited by the amount of food accompanying it. In savage or undeveloped countries the conditions are far less favourable and each case has to be dealt with on its merits. Such warfare formerly used to necessitate an almost complete dependence on magazine supply, as communications were necessarily uncertain and difficult. These conditions are more or less being overcome by the development of cross-country mechanical vehicles. Nevertheless the supply difficulties in expeditions in the Sudan, West Africa, or on the Indian frontier still far outweigh

all difficulties of country or enemy. THE WORLD WAR:

WESTERN

(X.) THEATRE

The administration of supply and transport became of the first importance as the World War developed into a struggle between two groups of nations, each using the full resources of civilization to exhaust the other. In the last stage, supply was the determining factor; munitions, food, equipment, railways, roads, ships, had become the most important things, and victory inclined to the force which could best maintain supply, as well as men, at some particular point; which could best develop, conserve and transport its material. At the same time, in foodstuffs, forage, clothing, timber and metals, and in transport material, the world shortage was acute. Thus the work of administration was not only very heavy because of the number of combatants and the development in scale of equipment, but also because of the economic scarcity owing to world exhaustion. Position in 1914.—-When the armies first took the field in 1914, Germany was at a clear advantage. She had prepared for the war with meticulous care. The French administrative services in 1914 appeared much weaker than the German if examination were confined to plans and matériel. The troops were not as well provided for, the transport organization not as well planned. But if the human factor were taken into consideration, much of the handicap was made up. The French showed a genius for

improvization on the actual battle-field and a faculty for “getting there” with inferior means. Their food scales for man and (to give an example) spelt scarcity in British eyes: but sufficed. The British administrative services in 1914 were organized both in supply and transport. But the British was ‘small, and though its scale of transport was generous

beast they well force com-

pared with the French, the total was only 250 motor-cars,' 950

582

SUPPLY

AND

motor-lorries, and 40,000 horses. With railway transport it had at first no concern, as the French took charge of that. Progress During the War.—As the war developed, the Germans suffered from a steady deterioration as compared with the French and the British. The war had become a contest of matériel, in which Germany could not keep up. The French, on the other hand, were able to develop their supply and transport on more generous lines with the help of British and American resources. The British developed a complete machine of administration, helped by the fact that the nation took the view that all reasonable

expenditure was justified in securing for the troops the best possible chance of victory and the best possible comfort in the trenches. But the Germans, considering the depletion of their resources, kept up a wonderful efficiency in supply and transport. They realized, perhaps more clearly than the other armies, the importance of these services. Siege Warfare Conditions.——During the long period of

“trench warfare” which followed the battle of the Marne, the administrative systems of the three armies were adapted to new conditions, the chief of which were: an enormous increase of ammunition expenditure, and a great simplification of transport, which in a stabilized warfare could follow almost a civilian routine disturbed only by the chances of shell fire and aerial bombs. Administration thus, whilst it had to cope with the progressive increase in the scale and variety of supply per division, was given as a rule ample time to increase its transport facilities. It could add to its broad-gauge railway tracks, supplement them by light railways and tramways as well as by motor roads, and develop the canal systems as useful adjuncts. As the war opened out, with the development of great attacks on both sides, problems of supply and transport became more difficult. In facing such a German effort as the Verdun attacks of 1916, the French had a very difficult problem of transport, which was met by a motorlorry mobilization, the success of which was one of the great feats of the war. Re-organization of British System on Western Front.—

From 1914 up to the date of the first battle of the Somme (July 1916) the British administrative services had had no very severe tests, but had developed their system almost completely. In munitions, the British army was now better supplied than any other force in the field. It had control of its own railway services, and supplementing the French broad-gauge railway system on its front—which it had taken over and increased—had a system of light railways, and a greatly increased scale of motor transport. But the Somme battles showed that supply had been increased beyond the scale that transport could cope with. There followed in Nov. 1916 a reorganization of the system. One feature of this reorganization was good. The division of authority which put the administrative services really under two heads, one for the battle area and one for lines of communication, was done away with. The military railways, which had been hitherto somewhat starved, were reorganized according to the plans of a civilian expert and were generously supplied with staff and material. But here, what proved in the result to be a mistake in organization was made: railways were separated from the control of the quartermastergeneral (who kept control of other forms of transport) and put under a director-general of transportation. Thus there were two separate transport authorities. Errots of Dual Control.—After the battle of the Somme the line was practically stable for a long time. Whilst this almost stationary trench warfare continued, the weakness of the division of authority and the mistake of allowing any but the military idea to rule in an essential part of an army organization were not apparent. When the Germans attacked in ihe spring of 1918 the mistake showed very clearly, and the railways were brought again under the control of the quartermaster-general, after an interval during which the traffic to be carried and its priority was regulated by a committee composed ofstaff officers and officers of the transportation directorate. But the transport situation in the interval was very critical. The German advance had brought the British front lateral railway—St. Just-Amiens-St. Pol-Hazebrouck —under shell fire at many points. The Germans, whose strategy

TRANSPORT

[WORLD Wap

under Gen. Ludendorff was dominated largely by transport consid. erations, sought to paralyse completely the whole railway system

by continuous air attack on the British rear lateral—Eu-Abheville.

Etaples, especially at the points where it crossed the rivers Canche

and Somme.

Whole-hearted work in building “avoiding” lines

and bridges and the efforts of the motor transport just kept the position in hand until a British advance in front of Amiens ye. lieved the front lateral. Fortunately, the building up of a GH..

reserve of motor vehicles had just been brought to completion. Motor Transport System.—In the winter of 1917-18 the battles of Passchendaele had exposed a weakness in light railways—that they had to work along defined tracks which could be intensively shelled by the enemy—and therefore it was do. cided to trust more to motor transport. There was effected a complete reorganization of it, with the central idea of doing away as far as possible with the “earmarking” of motor vehicles for particular units or particular tasks and making its total strength completely mobile and elastic. Vehicles saved by this “pooling” were formed into a G.H.Q. motor reserve. In the spring of 1918 this G.H.Q. motor reserve was able to take up part of the traffic load and was largely responsible for saving the situation, Transport Values.—One of the most interesting problems of supply and transport is that of the relative value of roads (motor and horse traction), light railways, and broad-gauge railways,

Light railways (g.v.) at one stage of the war were perhaps over-

estimated. There was an inclination to regard them as all-sufficing. The British system ultimately gave to them what was considered their proper rôle, recognizing that they were most valuable when the fighting line was stabilized for some length of time, but tended to be less valuable as the war became one of movement. In the spring of 1918 the British army had 920 m. of. light railways in operation; in the summer, 100 m. less. Its advance was planned on the principle of concentrating labour in pushing forward the broad-gauge railways and then the roads from them, trusting to motor transport and to horse transport to carry on the load from broad-gauge railhead. Earlier in 1918, controversy on the subject was keen and the French were inclined to take a differing view. The Germans were tied to light railways, for they had not the means to extend their motor traction. Position in 1918.—The autumn of 1918 will be the most useful date to compare the administrative machines of the Allied armies. Both French and American systems kept a dividing line as regards administration between base and the fighting line. The British system had abolished that in 1916. The French divided the zone of the armies into the zone of the advance and the zone of supply (with sometimes an intermediate zone). In the zone of the advance, administration was in charge of the aide major-général chargé de la direction de l'arrière at headquarters. But his administration had no functions of procurement, only of distribution. In some points of administration the dividing line between the zone of advance and the zone of supply was

abolished, e.g., all motor transport and all light railways, wherever operating, were controlled from headquarters. The French system of supply and distribution was fashioned for war in the home country or near to it; when it was transplanted (for instance to Salonika) it was adapted nearer to the British system. The American system put administration on the fighting line under

an assistant chief of staff (G. 4) at G.H.Q., and on lines of communication under a general commanding service of supply (corresponding in some degree to the old British inspector-general of

communications). Under the American system the chiefs of the supply service were not at G.H.Q. but at the headquarters of service of supply. With both the French and the American systems, evacuation and hospitalization of casualties were purely “Q” services; in the

British army they were under the adjutant-general, assisted by the quartermaster-general. Some other differences came from geographical conditions. The Americans had to have their real supply base in France (for the British, the United Kingdom, and for the French, France was the ultimate supply base); so they

held great stocks in depots, r5 days of supplies in advance depots,

SUPPLY

WORLD WAR]

AND

depots, 45 days of supplies relied more largely on local and from European civilian their home bases nearer at

in the field underwent development as a result of the World War.

In 1918, of 17,600,000 ship tons used

authorities and experts, military and civil, have played a prominent part. The aim and end has been to produce a vehicle which, while answering all essential military requirements, would yet serve commercial needs. These interests are by no means easy to reconcile in thickly populated and highly civilized countries possessing complete road systems, but in the partially or altogether undeveloped portions of the British dominions or colonies there is and will remain a wide scope for transport of a crosscountry nature. Such possibilities gave special encouragement to British experiment and production, so that by 1928 certain

30 days of supplies in intermediate in base depots. The American army purchases (from the Allied armies sources) than did the armies with

hand. Gen. Pershing founded a general purchasing agency to control these purchases.

by the American army, only 7,600,000 tons came from the United States, and 10,000,000 tons were purchased locally, and to the end of the campaign

the American

British and French supplies. Relations with Navy.—tThe

army

drew

largely upon

British administrative machine

in one point was inferior to the American machine in 1918. Under the British system the navy had control of all supplies by ship

until discharged from the transport. The navy could put a supply

ship into any port it pleased and naturally was mainly guided by

shipping considerations. The American system put the supply ships under army direction when they came within the three-mile

limit from shore, and shipping could then be directed to the port

of supply which was most convenient from the army point of view

The French and the Americans used the railway regulating

stations as depots, the British used them as sorting stations only. Among the lessons of administration of the World War one

principle seems to be generally accepted—that it is wise to centralize all administration of supply and transport under one head over the whole war area, trusting to him to devolve and co-ordinate. Another conclusion is that if civilization has ever to face another great war it will be, even more than the contest

of 1914-18, a war of material, a struggle in which supply and (T. C.) transport will be the governing factors. THE WORLD

583

TRANSPORT

WAR:

EASTERN

THEATRES

Outside the main theatre in France and Flanders very different and varied conditions had to be encountered. In East Africa there

was bush; in West Africa, tropical jungle; in Macedonia, and to a lesser degree in Italy, mountainous regions; in Palestine, Damaraland and Mesopotamia, deserts where sand or mud had to be overcome; in Gallipoli, amphibious operations on a vaster scale than had eyer been attempted in modern times; while, in conditions, north Russia was entirely different from all these. It speaks volumes for the efficiency of the British transport organization and its adaptability that so kaleidoscopic a field was covered successfully, for the armies in the field were maintained

in every instance except that of Gallipoli until complete victory was won. Failures there were, and such failures arrest the attention, because of their very fewness. The campaign in Mesopotamia presented circumstances which as late as 1917 were not adequately appreciated. Scarcity of water tied the army to a line of advance either by the Tigris or Euphrates, rivers which in themselves provided admirable lines of communication had sufficient inland water transport been made available. To the paucity in this respect, added to a similar dearth of land transport, may be attributed directly the failure, ending in the surrender, of the Kut garrison and of the gallant efforts made towards its relief. Troops at Basrah could not be moved, and if they had been moved means did not exist for their maintenance. Moreover the army, tied as it was to the river, was not endowed with the power to manoeuvre. It is true that in the rainy season in lower Mesopotamia, movement is difficult or impossible, as the country becomes a vast sea of mud and no roads exist. Nor is any stone available in the country for road construction. The fact, however, remains that,

had the army engaged in the operations for the relief of Kut

been furnished with any appreciable amount of light mechanical transport, it would, through its increased radius of action, have been able to obtain its object. After the arrival of Gen. Maude,

who from the first devoted himself to putting transport matters in order, the advance was resumed and maintained without any

real pause until the occupation of Baghdad. MODERN

ORGANIZATION

Like every other component part of the military machine, the

system of supply and transport for the maintenance of an army

The experiences gained therein had naturally served to quicken experimental work, and consequently the decade following the close of hostilities was one of intensive research in the field of

road and cross-country

transport.

In these activities

British

satisfactory types had been evolved, notably the “subsidy-type”

six-wheeler with a chassis designed by the War Department, which it was found possible to produce at an economic cost. To apply the results obtained to the army is the stage which is now being entered upon. But such application can be but a gradual process, not only on account of the dictation of finance, but still more from the fact that no finality can be reached in the fields of scientific and mechanical research and automobile engineering—the output of which is, therefore, continually subject to modification and improvement. It is axiomatic to British military organization to provide for: the major problems that the army is capable of encountering and to modify or scale down such organization to meet minor or unusual circumstances as they arise. For the British army there can be no normal circumstances, for it has to be prepared to operate not only in Europe but in the deserts, mountains and bush of Asia or Africa; and no one system of transport has yet been devised that can cover all these various conditions. Certain general principles are thus laid down in the training manuals and a definite organization drawn up to fit the case of war in a civilized country where the enemy to be met is equal in armament and training. This organization is based on the premise that an army operating in the field must be able to be maintained wholly by resources sent up to it from behind. The extent to which the theatre of operations can contribute to those resources cannot be a known factor. In proportion as they may be able thus to help contribute are the mobility and striking power of the army enhanced. Such extraneous assistance cannot, however, be counted upon. It is, too, obvious that for armies of the size of those engaged in France and Flanders between 1914 and 1918 no areas, however rich, could provide more than a fraction of the foodstuffs or other commodities required. Again, the advent of automatic weapons and the enormous advance in the power and use of artillery have made the problem of the supply of munitions one that can only be solved by speedier and more flexible transport establishments. The progress made in mechanical traction and automobile engineering has rendered possible a recasting and extension of mechanical transport formations. Except in certain minor instances, mechanical transport was not, prior to the World War, included in any formation lower than the Army Corps. From some few traction engines working chiefly at the bases in South Africa in 1900 to 1902, mechanical transport steadily made its way forward from the lines of communication until it had reached, in 1914, the larger fighting formations. Post-war organization brought it into the division and it has now been introduced as an integral part of the actual fighting units throughout the whole of the army. The maintenance of such a mass of mechanical vehicles requires in its turn a comprehensive and closely developed organization composed of highly trained technical personnel. No loose or casual methods can suffice in fixing a system, which has necessarily such wide ramifications throughout the military organism; which system furnishes in fact the motive power by which the life of that organism is generated. Only by the soundness of its supply and transport methods can an army be endowed with mobility, and by mobility is meant not only the power to

move rapidly, but the power to move anywhere and to continue

moving.

554

SUPPLY

AND

Organization of the Supply Service in War.—The basic organization of the supply service, as far as food, forage and fuel, including petrol, are concerned, in any theatre of war consists of the establishment of a chain of depots into which flow those supplies which are received from overseas or obtained by purchase or requisition within the theatre itself. These depots are classified under four headings: Base or main supply depots are located at or near the base ports or bases of operations as the case may be. Advanced supply depots are established when the lines of communications are unduly long, and these may be required to provide the daily supply for the troops based on them or may hold a reserve of supplies for use in the event of communication with base supply depots being interrupted. Field supply depots are, when required, established in forward areas to be used primarily as a reserve to meet sudden unforeseen demands for supplies by field formations. These depots are often located at or near supply railheads (7.e., the point on the railway where supplies and stores are detrained and sent forward in road transport), especially during a rapid advance, when it is necessary to push reserves of supplies continually forward. Finally, there are the intermediate supply depots, which are situated on the lines of communication for the purpose of the subsistence and maintenance of troops on those lines, whether permanently located there or passing through. In conjunction with all these supply depots there may be field butcheries and bakeries. Ammunition Supply.—The essential difference between supply in the sense of food, forage and fuel on the one hand, and the supply of ammunition on the other, lies in the fact that the former is to all intents constant and regular and therefore must be maintained at a comparatively even flow, whereas the latter entirely depends on the intensity of the actual operations taking place, and is therefore spasmodic. The problem of ammunition supply is in itself the prime limiting factor in the development of the armament of the fighting troops, as it obviously serves little purpose to provide them with weapons that cannot be used to the maximum extent of their capacity. Two main principles govern it: first, that ammunition must be passed systematically from rear to front and that therefore troops in action should never have to turn their backs on the enemy to fetch further supplies. Second, that the control of ammunition should remain in the hands of higher formations as long as possible, thus enabling the higher commanders to keep control of the fighting. Ammunition depots are formed at the bases, on the lines of communication, and in forward zones. Special ammunition “dumps” are located in areas where they are likely to be needed in proximity to the artillery positions, but as a general rule it is preferable when possible to maintain ammunition “on wheels.” Transport of Field Units.—This is divided into three classes: 1. First line transport, which is an integral part of the war organization of fighting units, without which they cannot perform their tactical functions, and by which they must at all times be accompanied. Provision, therefore, must be made for the carriage of certain stores, supplies and equipment, for ammunition, and for water and medical service. Whether this transport is on a carrier pack, animal, wheeled, or mechanical basis must depend on the nature of the terrain; and according to where units are operating so must they be equipped. For the purposes of a “major” war, modern tendencies are towards a mechanization of first line transport, not only because of its lesser vulnerability to air and other hostile action, but also because of the possibilities it offers towards a general speeding up of movement and increased radius of activity. | . 2. Second line transport, which is essential to the war organization of field units, but by which they need not at all times be accompanied. In the case of the fighting units of divisions and cavalry divisions, this transport is concentrated in and operated by transport units of the Royal Army Service Corps, designated divisional R.A.S.C., which are equipped with medium lorries. The divisional R.A.S.C. consists of seven companies. One company is allotted to each of the three brigades in the division and one to divisional troops for the purpose of carrying supplies and baggage, in which therefore a total of four companies are engaged. There

TRANSPORT

[WORLD WAR

is a divisional ammunition company and a divisional repair unit

by which all field repairs of the wheeled mechanical transport in

the division and replacement of broken down or seriously damaged vehicles are carried out. There is also a horse transport company

which is held available, in the nature of a reserve, in case ground has to be traversed that is impossible for mechanical transport, 3. Third line transport consists of “maintenance companies”—

Royal Army Service Corps units equipped with heavy lorries. One

company is provided for every division and cavalry division in the force, and for army corps troops, army troops and G.H.Q. troops in accordance with their requirements. Working of the Supply and Transport System.—Supplies (and mechanical transport spare parts and stores) forwarded from the lines of communication are consigned by special trains to rail-

heads, z.¢., the places where they leave the railway and are carried

to their destinations by road. On reaching railheads they are taken over by the railhead supply officer, who issues them to the “main-

tenance companies” serving the divisions allotted to that railhead. The maintenance companies load in bulk for the brigades of their divisions, and their duty is to carry their loads as far as what are known as “refilling points,” spots previously selected for the meeting of the “maintenance company” and the divisional train.

The latter takes over the supplies for issue in detail to units of the division, and its duty is to carry them from the “refilling point” to “delivery points,” that is, to the first-line transport of the individual unit. Variations may and normally are made in this system

by the insertion of “rendezvous” between railhead and “refilling

points,” and of “meeting points” between refilling points and “delivery points”; and such insertions depend on the nature of the Operations, requirements of concealment from air observation, state of congestion of the roads, or the tactical situation at the time. Thus there are normally two definite échelons of transport between units and railhead which are available for the purposes of supply. This should permit troops to operate freely within roo m. of railhead. The “mobile” supplies available are therefore as follows, assuming the issue of rations to be from mid-day to mid-day as is normally the case: On the man, his iron ration and any unconsumed portion of the previous day’s issue. In the regimental firstline- transport, one day’s supplies. With the divisional R.A S.C, one day’s supplies. The total therefore is from two to two-and-ahalf days, excluding the iron ration. - Turning to the question:of ammunition, this is forwarded to ammunition railheads, located for various reasons quite apart from supply railheads. The maintenance company conveys both artillery and small arms ammunition, as in the case of supplies, to “refilling points.” At these the divisional ammunition company, which forms part of the divisional R.A.S.C., takes over the ammunition in their medium lorries. It normally carries the artillery ammunition to the batteries, but under certain circumstances it may be required to proceed to the divisional ammunition column— an artillery unit. The small arms ammunition is taken to the infantry or cavalry brigade reserve—this reserve being formed by a system of “pooling” a portion of the first-line transport of units. These

systems

are specially designed to allow of elasticity.

If

distances are short, one échelon of transport may be dispensed with. If they are long, it may be necessary to interpolate an additional échelon—the necessary vehicles being found by the higher

command from army corps or army resources. As previously emphasized, the state of communications or the lack of them may demand the employment of pack carrier or even air transport for the whole or a portion of the “carry.” But whatever the mode of conveyance, the principles remain the same. To sum up, they are: In the case of supplies, the maintenance within reach of the fighting troops of two days’ complete rations and the “iron ration,” and a daily delivery of one day’s rations, petrol and forage to units. In the case of ammunition, the principle is to

maintain, by a continuous replacement of expenditure, a definite

establishment in rounds per gun, per automatic weapon, and per rifle throughout the échelons. The maintenance system, in its application to non-divisional units, is similar to that described above. Consequently, all types of fighting units are on the same

UNITED STATES]

SUPPLY

AND

basis as regards first-, second- and third-line transport.

TRANSPORT

585

G-4, who co-ordinated the work of the supply departments at the general headquarters. These supply departments were: the wheeled mechanical vehicle is likely to go far to revolutionize the quartermaster corps, the engineer corps, the signal corps, the methods of war. For once a vehicle independent of roads is intro- motor transport corps, the transportation corps, the ordnance duced, the whole problem of movement and maintenance is department, the air service, the medical corps, the chemical war“speeded up” beyond anything previously conceived. It is a strik- fare service. In Feb. 1918, the line of communications was reoring instance of the all-pervading influence of “transport.” No ganized under the name of the services of supply with its single army can afford to maintain permanently more than a fraction of co-ordinating head, the commanding general, services of supply, with a general staff paralleling, in so far as necessary, the staff its transport or even of its purely fighting transport. The problem has been to achieve a design that, while wholly of Gen. Pershing. The principal functions of the services of supply were the procurement, storage and transportation of supmeeting military requirements has yet an economic commercial value. The solution has now been found and the time has there- plies, as well as the great construction projects necessary for the fore come when the operations of armies can be carried out at a large force overseas. Even the control and transportation of far greater speed than heretofore. For, like that of a fleet, the replacements of men, as well as animals, were placed under the speed of an army is that of its slowest component unit, which up jurisdiction of the services of supply, which had control of the to now has been the legs of the infantry soldier. If action is nine base ports. Similarly, an intermediate section, and an adquicker, then thinking must be quicker also. This involves astill vance section close to the army zone, were organized. Within closer co-operation and unity between those directing operations the advance section were organized advance depots and railway and those on whom the services of maintenance fall. regulating stations. These conditions have in their turn produced their own special The broad questions of policy of supply were handled by the problems. The provision of the necessary skilled personnel to assistant chief of staff, G-4, at the general headquarters and to carry out these duties is likely to be a matter of grave difficulty in supplement and co-ordinate American needs with those of the the future because the advent of ‘mass production” methods do Allies in Europe there was formed, first in Aug. 1917, the general not demand more than a comparatively low proportion of skilled purchasing board, composed of representatives from every supply mechanics and artificers among the employees of the great auto- department in the A.E.F. In the summer of 1918 the general mobile engineering firms. The main processes of construction purchasing agent became a member of the interallied board of and assembly have been so simplified that they can be carried out military supply. by workmen not possessing any specialized training. Such a type There was the closest co-operation between the services of of labour will be very far from satisfying war requirements, and supply abroad and the War Department in the United States. for a “major” war any technical personnel possessed by the army When policies had been determined by the general headquarters, will require to be supplemented from civilian sources. the commanding general, services of supply, was then authorized There remains to recall the question of petrol supply. The to communicate directly by cable and otherwise with the War storage and transport of this commodity, which is in fact the Department in the United States, and such other agencies as life-blood of the modern army, present special circumstances and were located in Europe, including the interallied board of military difficulties to be overcome. With animal transport, possibilities supply and our several representatives in neutral countries. The normally exist for obtaining some measure of foodstuffs within demobilization of the man-power and of industry was accomthe theatre of operations, while over limited periods animals can plished in short order, the former by a very carefully prepared perform their duties on short rations or even at need occasionally and progressive plan without any strain upon the water or rail on their own reserves of strength. No such conditions obtain with transportation or the demobilization camps available, while the motor vehicles. Without petrol they cannot move at all. Should latter was accomplished by co-operative reductions of plants, the supply fail for one day there can be no movement that day. personnel and output by industry itself and a curtailment, adjustThe revolution of road transport by mechanization has in fact ment or cancellation of contracts by the War Department. made “fuel supply” one of the most important questions. The return of the army to a peace-time organization received Brsr1ocRaPHY.—H. Foest, Der Dienst der Trains im Kriege (1908) ; early consideration by the general headquarters of the A.E.F. E. Taris, Automobile et les Armées Modernes (1908); T. A. le and the War Department and the National Defence Act of June Mesurier, Hist of the Commissariat in the Field (2 vols., 1909) ; W. D. Connor, Military Railways (1910) ; I. F. Marcosson, The Business of 4, 1920, was placed upon the statute books. In the main the War, the A.S.C. (1918); G. E. Badcock, History of the Egyptian National Defence Act endeavours to put into effect the valuable Expeditionary Force, 1916-18 (1925); R. A. O. C., Historical Record elements of organization which obtained in the former peace(1928). (R. H. B.) time army and war-time organization of the War Department and THE UNITED STATES ARMY of the A.E.F. The several principal components of the U.S. The development of supply and transport in the U.S. army army are given the same peace- and war-time organizations and has followed that of war itself and the progress in rapid com- the problems of supply and transport are thus standardized. The War Department general staff organization is quite communication. We shall here consider only the evolution of this parable to that which existed in the A.E.F. There is an assistant technique since 1917. At the start of the World War the War Department found chief of staff, G-4, who co-ordinates the activities of the supply itself insufficiently organized for handling the great problems of departments and makes studies of and recommendations for supply and transport brought about by the enormous expansion broad policies of supply and transport under the assistant secreof a small regular army into a national army of unexpected pro- tary of war who is charged by the National Defence Act with portions. As a consequence, there came into being the super- the “supervision of the procurement of all military supplies and agencies for war-time procurement, allocation, distribution and other business of the War Department pertaining thereto, and transport. The War Department itself supplemented the assist- the assurance of adequate provision for the mobilization of ance of these superagencies by forming the purchase, storage and matériel and industrial organizations essential to war-time needs.” The several supply branches and departments are: the quartertraffic division of the general staff, and by making its head the representative of the secretary of war in most matters before master corps, the ordnance department, the air corps, the medical the various supercontrol agencies of the Government. This corps, the chemical warfare service, the signal corps and the arrangement permitted an efficiency that would probably have engineer corps. At the headquarters of each of the several corps been impossible otherwise. As the war went on it became neces- areas, territorial departments and tactical divisions there are sary to ‘form an air service, a motor transport corps, a construc- assistant chiefs of staff (G-4) to co-ordinate the supply and on corps, an embarkation service and other agencies, and to transport policies and problems coming under the commands greatly increase the port and transport facilities of the quarter- concerned. Each supply branch or department has its representative at each of the headquarters above mentioned. me master corps army transport service. An improvement in the procurement of supplies has been On the staff of Gen. Pershing was the assistant chief of staff, Conclusion.—It would seem that the advent of an efficient six-

586

SUPRA-RENAL

EXTRACT—SUPREME

effected through the creation of the General Supply Committee of the Treasury Department, by the Act of June 17, 1910, which, in effect, budgets by means of this committee the requirements in supply of miscellaneous items of any two or more departments of the Government and in this way standardizes prices, quality and items, and makes contingent budgeted contracts subject to the current fiscal year calls for filling by the several departments of the Government. Another improvement is the creation of the Bureau of the Budget for budgeting of the financial estimates of the entire Government.

For the purposes of war-time plans and procurement the country has been divided, according to industrial density, into certain districts by the several supply departments and in order to meet local peace-time needs of troop supply with minimum transportation, convenient depots have been established. This system of districts and depots affords the necessary framework for wartime expansion with due regard to the requirements of existing industrial allocations. In the return of the army to a peace basis,

in accordance with the organization prescribed by the National Defence Act, it will be noted that certain of the war-time branches or services have been abolished as distinct and separate services. Among these may be mentioned the construction corps, the embarkation service and the motor transport corps, all of which have been absorbed by the quartermaster corps. The war-time air service has become the present air corps and. the war-time chemical warfare service has become the permanent peace-time service of that name. All problems and matters of transportation and the supply of the means and methods of transportation are handled by the quartermaster corps (transportation branch) which has control of water, animal (wheel, saddle and pack), motor and land transport except the small railways used by the engineer corps in certain construction projects. The matter of air transport is handled by the air corps. For proper maintenance and replacement of animal transportation the quartermaster corps maintains a remount service with certain breeding establishments and depots. The veterinary corps is a separate section of the medical department and is under the control of the surgeon general of the army.

suprarenine,

COUNCIL

adnephrine, paranephrine

parece ea

and renostyptine.

Supra-

renal snuf containing the dry extract with menthol and boric acig is of use in hay fever. Rhinodyne is of this type. Suppositories containing supra-renal extract are employed successfully to check

bleeding piles. The chemistry of adrenaline has been mainly elucidated by the

investigations of Pauly, Jowett and Bertrand; Jowett Proposing a constitution (see annexed HO formula) now accepted as cor. ee: rect. Many substances havine

HOC

> SE OE CENCE? ented constitutions have been Adrenaline.

synthesized, and resemble ad. renaline in increasing the blood

pressure. For example, the corresponding ketone, adrenalone (obtained in 1904 by Stolz) is active, and the methyl group can be *

replaced by hydrogen or another radical without destroying the ac.

tivity. It seems that the para-hydroxyl group is essential. For instance, para-hydroxyphenylethylamine, HO-C.H.CH:-CH,NH,, which is one of the active bases of ergot, closely resembles adrenaline (G. Barger, Journ. Chem. Soc., 1909, 95, pp. 1123, 1720: K W. Rosenmund, Ber., 1909, 42, p. 4778); as does also its dimethyl

derivative hordenine, an alkaloid found in barley (G. Barger, ibid., p. 2193). Adrenaline is optically active, the naturally occurring isomer being the laevo form; like nicotine, the laevo base has a much greater physiological activity than the dextro. (See ADRENALINE; ANIMAL EXTRACTS.)

SUPRA-RENALS:

see

Ducttess

GLAND;

Apptson’s

DISEASE.

SUPREME COUNCIL. This term was evolved to denote the organ of supreme control at the Peace Conference at Paris in

rọrọ. It was thought by some that this device was a new one,

and the phrase “Diplomacy by Conference” was coined to express it. But, in fact, a similar procedure was followed at Vienna during 1814-15 and subsequent years, with strikingly analogous results. The Peace Conference started by excluding all but the Great Powers from anything but formal deliberations. The original supreme organ was known as “The Council of Ten” and consisted BIBLIOGRAPHY .—Final Report of General John J. Pershing (1920); of the heads of the delegations of the Great Powers and of their see reports of the secretary of war and of chiefs of bureaux, branches respective foreign secretaries. This body was found too unwieldy, and departments, for the years referred to; Report of the AC. of S., G-4, A.E.F. (June 1, 1919); A E.F. Records, A.G O.; Hearings before and it was considered that its numbers caused leakage and the Committee on Military Affairs, House of Representatives, pt. I. undue publicity. To meet this difficulty President Wilson pro(1927); L. P. Ayres, The War with Germany (x919); Revised Statutes posed, and Mr. Lloyd George supported, the experiment of a of the U.S. for years referred to.

SUPRA-RENAL

EXTRACT.

(R. C. Co.)

In medicine, the sterilized

glycerin extract of the supra-renal gland of the sheep, the dose being 5 to 15 minims. The active principle adrenaline or epinephrine occurs only in the medulla of the gland. It forms minute white crystals, soluble in weak solutions of hydrochloric acid and is most frequently used in 1% solutions of the chloride. Adrenaline has no action on the unbroken skin, but applied to mucous membranes it causes blanching by stimulating the muscular fibres of the arterioles. It acts rapidly in a similar manner when hypodermically injected. The vessels of the uterus are strongly acted upon by it, but the effect on the cerebral vessels is slight, and the pulmonary vessels are unaffected. The heart is slowed and the systole increased. Adrenaline stimulates the salivary glands, produces a temporary glycosuria, and in poisonous doses causes haemorrhages into the viscera and oedema of the lungs. In Addison’s disease the use of supra-renal extract has been beneficial in some cases, but its chief use is in the control of haemorrhage. For this purpose it is given in conjunction with local anaesthetics such as cocaine in order to produce bloodless operations on the eye, nose and elsewhere. It is also useful in haemorrhage from small vessels, where it can be applied at the bleeding spot, as in epistaxis. In surgical shock and in chloroform syncope an injection of adrenaline often saves life through the rise of blood pressure produced. An attack of bronchial asthma may be cut short by a hypodermic injection of adrenaline solution. It should never be used in the treatment of haemoptysis. Similar commercial products on the market are hemisine, renaglandine,

Council of Four (“The Big Four”), who were the above-named, together with M. Clemenceau (France) and Sig. Orlando (Italy). The Japanese occasionally sent a representative when their interests were involved, thus making a fifth member. By this device business was transacted rapidly, informally and secretly. After the departure of President Wilson and Mr. Lloyd George on June 28, 1ọrọ, the Council of Four was superseded by a Council of Five which included Japan. The leading diplomat of each Great Power attended on behalf of his country. This arrangement ended in Jan. 1920, and the United States then withdrew her representative altogether. The Supreme Council (as it was now

called) did not, however, die at once, though it ceased to sit at Paris en permanence. Part of its functions were transferred to the Ambassadors’ Conference (g.v.) and part to the League of Nations (q.v.). Nevertheless attempts were repeatedly made to establish 4 system of “periodic reunions” between the premiers or leading men representing each Great Power. There were nine such meet-

ings in 1920, six in 1921 and two in 1922. At the Conference of London (Feb. 21—March 14, 1921) it became quite clear to the Great Powers that Germany had, in the military sense, become mcapable of resisting them. It was also doubtful whether any forcible measures could actually produce substantial sums by way of reparation. On this point, grave divergences appeared between England and France. The supreme test came at the Conference of Paris (Aug. 8-13, 1921). At that meeting there was a complete division between the French and British views over the assignment of territory in Silesia respectively to Germany and to Poland as a result of plebiscite. Finding agreement impossible

SUPREME Mr. Lloyd George appealed to the League of Nations to settle the Silesian boundary, and M. Briand agreed to accept the award of the League on behalf of France.

Mr. Lloyd George’s appeal showed quite clearly that the Supreme Council was no longer a body able to settle disputes be-

tween its members, in spite of the informal and unofficial character of its proceedings and of the close personal intimacy berween its members. None the less, two further meetings took

place. That at Cannes (Jan. 6-13, 1922) failed because M. Briand was overthrown by the majority in the French parliament, while the Council was actually sitting (Jan. 12). A desperate effort by Mr. Lloyd George to retrieve the situation by summoning a new Council at Genoa (April 1ro-May 19, 1922) failed because of French hostility to the proceedings. The failure of the Supreme Council would appear to have been inherent in the circumstances

of its origin and constitution. Like the similar organism created by Lord Castlereagh in 1814,

it was evolved to meet a certain need, and decayed when that need ceased to be imperative. It was necessary at Vienna in 1814 and at Paris in 1919 to devise some method by which the work of the Peace Conference could be rapidly thrown into shape and decided without too many plenipotentiaries encumbering the discussion and too much outside pressure embarrassing the decision. The fact is that “Diplomacy by Conference” appears to be

a method, a system or a means for oiling the wheels and for easing pressure. But it cannot, of itself, remove pressure or create

harmony and cannot at present be accepted as a permanent system

for conducting the affairs of the world. Brsriocrapay.—Sir A. W. Ward, S.P.C.K., “The Period of Congresses,” Helps for Students of History, Nos. 9, 10, 11 (1919); Sir M. Hankey, Diplomacy by Conference, Inst. of International Affairs (1920) ; Sir E. Satow, “Peace-making Old and New,” Cambridge Hist.

Jour. No. x (1923); C. K. Webster and H. W. V. Temperley, “The Congress of Vienna 1814-15” and “The Conference of Paris, 1919,”

Leaflet No. 56 of Hist. Assoc. (1924); H. W. V. Temperley, History of Peace Conference, Vol. 6, in index, pp. 691-92 (1924); A. J. Toynbee, Survey of International Affairs 1920-23, in index, p. 516 (1925).

SUPREME

COURT

OF JUDICATURE, in England, a

court established by the Judicature Act 1873, consisting of the “Court of Appeal” and the “High Court of Justice.” See Court; JUDICATURE ACTS.

SUPREME COURT OF THE UNITED STATES, THE. The Supreme Court of the United States is the highest

judicial tribunal of that Government,

A new

Government

in

Federal form was established by the Constitution of the United States. That instrument confined the authority of the central Government to those powers specifically or impliedly delegated; and all other powers were reserved to the respective States or to the people. Thenceforth there have co-existed two separate Governments, each exercising for different purposes sovereignty over

the same territory. This division of sovereign power required a tribunal with authority to adjudicate controversies in the light of the Constitution. It was foreseen that the exercise of power under the respective Governments would give rise to disputes which must be settled to preserve internal peace. To settle such controversies the Supreme Court was established.

This tribunal was created and its jurisdiction defined by sections t and 2 of Article IIT. of the Constitution, which reads: The judicial power of the United States shall be vested in one Supreme Court, and in such inferior Courts as the Congress may from time to time ordain and establish. The Judges, both of the

supreme and inferior Courts, shall hold their Offices during good Behaviour, and shall, at stated Times, receive for their Services, a Compensation, which shall not be diminished during their Continuance in Office. The judicial Power shall extend to all Cases, in Law and Equity, arising under this Constitution, the Laws of the United States, and Treaties made, or which shall be made, under their Authority;

—to all Cases affecting Ambassadors, other public Ministers and

Consuls ;—to all Cases of admiralty and maritime Jurisdiction ;— to Controversies to which the United States shall be a Party ;—to Controversies between two or more States ;—between a State and Citizens of another State ;—between citizens of different States ;— between citizens of the same State claiming Lands under Grants of different States, and between a State, or the Citizens thereof, and foreign States, Citizens or Subjects.

COURT

587

In all Cases affecting Ambassadors, other public Ministers and Consuls, and those in which a State shall be Party, the Supreme

Court shall have original Jurisdiction. In all the other Cases before mentioned, the Supreme Court shall have appellate Jurisdiction, both as to Law and Fact, with such Exceptions, and under such Regulations as the Congress shall make.

At an early day, however, the States insisted that their sovereignty be respected by denying the authority of the Supreme Court to hear any suit between a State and any individual, except possibly “Ambassadors, other public Ministers and Consuls,” though it might still hear suits between different States. For this reason the original grant of jurisdiction to the Supreme Court

was limited by the Eleventh Amendment, which became effective on February 7, 1795. This Amendment is as follows: The Judicial power of the United States shall not be construed to extend to any suit in law or equity, commenced or prosecuted against one of the United States by Citizens of another State or

by Citizens or subjects of any Foreign State.

The jurisdiction of the Supreme Court is both original and appellate. Its original jurisdiction is limited by the Constitution to “all Cases affecting Ambassadors, other public Ministers and Consuls;—and those in which a State shall be Party.” In all other cases it “shall have appellate Jurisdiction, both as to Law and Fact, with such Exceptions, and under such Regulations as the Congress shall make.” It is only its original jurisdiction that is safeguarded by the Constitution. Its appellate jurisdiction is determined by Congress, which sets up also the various Federal courts whose decisions shall be reviewed. The first Judiciary Act was passed on September 24, 1789. This Act provided for a Supreme Court consisting of a Chief Justice and five Associate Justices; it enumerated the various inferior courts and fixed their jurisdiction; and provided for appellate jurisdiction from the State courts in certain cases presenting Federal questions. Subsequent Judiciary Acts steadily evidenced a tendency to decrease the obligatory jurisdiction of the Supreme Court. This is seen particularly in the Judiciary Act of 1925. This Act gives to the court a strictly limited jurisdiction and confines its judgments to Constitutional questions and matters that are of national importance. The official title of the Chief Justice has varied in legislation as well as in the commissions issued to the different Justices. The first seven Chief Justices were commissioned under the title of “Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States,” but since that time the Chief Justices have been commissioned as “Chief Justice of the United States.” The judges of the Supreme Court, as well as all the Federal judges, are nominated by the President, confirmed by the Senate, and commissioned by the President. In the nomination of the judges, the President is left by the Constitution to his own discretion, as section 2 of Article II. of the Constitution provides that the President “shall nominate, and by and with the advice and consent of the Senate, shall appoint Ambassadors, other public Ministers and Consuls, Judges of the Supreme Court, and all other officers of the United States, whose Appointments are

not herein otherwise provided for.” The Constitution does not prescribe the qualifications for holding a judicial office. In the

confirmation or rejection of the President’s nominee, the Senate has sole discretion. Under the provisions of the Constitution in issuing the commission, however, the President exercises simply a ministerial power. The term of the judges is during good behaviour, so that the term is for life unless a judge shall resign or by conviction on impeachment be expelled from office, as provided in section 4, Article IL, of the Constitution. Only one Justice of the Supreme Court has been impeached—Samuel Chase, who was acquitted in 1805. ` | The Court consists (1930) of a Chief Justice and eight Asso-

ciate Justices. From its number of five in the original Judiciary

Act of 1789, it had been increased to six in 1807, to eight in

1837, and to nine in 1863. An Act of 1866 would have reduced

the Associate

Justices to six, but before

sufficient

vacancies

had occurred thus to reduce the Court, the Act of 1869 was passed, which reconstituted the Court with a Chief Justice and

588

SUQ-ASH-SHUYUKH—SURAKARTA

eight Associate Justices, as it remains at present. While the existence of the Court has generally been regarded as necessary in the Federal form of Government, yet no institution under the Constitution has been subject to more bitter opposition. Its powers, its jurisdictions, and its decisions have been under constant challenge by one political party or another. In spite of all manner of attack, the Court has held the confidence and respect of the people. Its decisions have influenced the growth and development of the nation. It has had to deal with problems which were in a large sense political and which involved the true relation between the States and the central Government. As long as this form of Government endures, these political, social and economic problems will recur and will continue to impose upon the Supreme Court the ultimate decision of the conflict between local and national interests. BIBLIOGRAPHY .—Charles Warren, The Supreme Court of the United States, 4 vols. (1922); Henry Cabot Lodge, The Federalist—a commentary on The Constitution of the United States, reprinted from the original text of Alexander Hamilton, John Jay and James Madison

(1886); Charles Evans Hughes, The Supreme Court of the United

States (1928); Felix Frankfurter and James M. Landis, The Business of the Supreme Court (1928); Charles Warren, The Supreme Court and Sovereign States (1924); Charles K. Burdick, The Law of the American Constitution (1922); Albert J. Beveridge, The Life of John Marshall, 4 vols. (1919). (W. J. Don.)

SUQ-ASH-SHUYUKH, a town in Mesopotamia in 31° N. and 46° 30’ E. The town lies on the lower Euphrates in a region which has probably always been of considerable fertility. There is communication with Basra by river and also by land routes, the railway lying a few miles to the southwest. The population is estimated at 12,000, most of whom are Arabs. The town is noted for the manufacture of the “aba,” the woollen cloak worn by the Mesopotamian Arab. There is also a good deal of local metal work and a boat building industry. The town is 63 miles above Qurna by river but the channel has now ceased to carry much water and is almost unnavigable, except at highwater.

SURABAYA

(Dutch Soerabaja), the chief port and naval

station in Java, D.E. Indies; pop. (1927), 249,674, including 24,593 Europeans. One of the most important centres of trade and commerce in the Far East, Surabaya is situated in the east of Java, on Surabaya strait, which divides Java from Madura, thus securing the shelter of that island for its roadstead, whilst its position on the Kali Mas, one of the mouths of the Brantas river, affords facility for transportation to the heart of the city. From the entrance to Surabaya the lofty ranges of the Tengger and Arjuna mountains are seen with Semeru, the highest active volcano in Java, in the far distance. A look-out station, Wilhelmina Tower, flanked by a small park is situated at the river’s mouth and from here railway, steam tramway and road run inland, in a southerly direction, past the old Ft. Prins Hendrik, to, first the old town, then the upper town, and beyond that to the suburbs of Gubeng and Wonokromo, where a new residential and well-planned Surabaya is fast arising. It ‘has electric trams and light, taxi-cabs, telephone system, cable communication with

Batavia, Semarang, and Balik Papan, in Borneo, and an air service to Batavia. `

Surabaya’s interests are wholly naval and commercial. The naval station on the south side of the canalized Kali Mas, with the commercial docks opposite, consists of an outer and inner naval basin, with torpedo boat harbour, dock-yards and cholera barracks. The commercial port consists of breakwaters on the west side of the Kali Mas enclosing a harbour basin. Alongside the

west pier of the Holland basin is for harbour for

the basin is a wharf, pier, 1,650 metres lighters, and in the three floating docks

920 metres (Genoa Quay), and long. The eastern part of the north-eastern corner there is a of 14,000, 3,500 and 1,499 tons capacity, also, north of the Genoa Quay, a wharf for the tankers of the Standard Oil Company. On the west border of the basin a new shipping canal has been made, the Kali Perak, and the Kali Mas has been improved as much as possible by widening and the construction of stone walls along the banks. All quays and warehouses are connected by direct, wide roads and railways with industrial centres in the hinterland.

Exports from Surabaya in 1926 were 212,352,634, and imports 204,817,021 guilders. The bulk of the chief product of Jaya sugar, is sold in Surabaya, with a few exceptions, all the sugar

estates on the island being amalgamated in the Java Sugar Pro.

ducers’ Association at Surabaya, which is the central sales’ agency for sugar. It is also an important market for coffee, tobacco, maize

and tapioca, whilst the Java hides are sold there chiefly, There is sleamer Communication with the chief ports of the world and with most of the ports of the archipelago; lying on the main route from Singapore and Batavia to Australia, Surabaya a]SO benefits from this traffic. (E. E. L.) SURABAYA, a residency in the east of Java, D.E. Indies. area, excluding that portion it gained when this residency Was divided between Surabaya and Semarang, 3,682 sq.m. It is bounded west by Semarang, south by Madiun, Kediri and Pasuruan, north by the Java sea and east by the Straits of Madura. Surabaya is one of the flattest residencies in Java, well watered by the Solo and the Brantas, and possessing a soil admirably adapted for the cultivation of sugar, the chief product, whilst tobacco, cassava (tapioca), coffee, coca, are grown, and the usual native crops—rice, pulses, fruit and vegetables. Cattle are bred extensively, forests in the western and Rembang portion

yield quantities of teak (there is a central lumber yard at Chepu),

and in this part too are extensive oil-fields with a large refining

installation of the Dordrecht Petroleum Company at Chepu. The population, excluding Rembang, is 2,555,596, almost entirely

Javanese. The capital is Surabaya, pop. 249,674 (g.v.). Other towns are Grissee, 25 m. N. of Surabaya (pop. 24,382), a port of the old Dutch East India Company, and one of the first places of Dutch settlement in Java, where there is a trade in edible birds’ nests; Mojokerto (pop. 18,990), a sugar industry centre, and the site of the Majapahit empire, with a museum of relics; Jumbang (pop. 14,068), a sugar centre; Lamongan and Sidoarjo. The main

railway line from Batavia crosses the residency, there are lines from Semarang to Surabaya City and thence to Pasuruan along the coast, and there is also excellent sea communication from the port of Surabaya. In 1618 the Dutch allied themselves with the Adipati of Surabaya, who favoured the Dutch against his overlord, the Sultan Ageng, and this helped to establish Dutch power in (E. E.L) Surabaya.

'-SURAJ-UD-DOWLAH

(d. 1757), ruler of Bengal. The

date of his birth is uncertain, but is generally placed between 1729 and 1736. His name was Mirza Mohammed, and he succeeded his grandfather Aliverdi Khan as nawab of Bengal on April 9, 1756. He was a cruel and profligate fanatic. Being offended with the English for giving protection to a native official who had escaped with treasure from Dacca, he attacked and took Calcutta on June 20, 1756. He then permitted the massacre known in history as “The Black Hole of Calcutta.” (See Cancutta: History,

and Innra: History.) This atrocious act was soon avenged. Calcutta was retaken by Clive and Admiral Watson on Jan. 2, 1757, and on June 23, Suraj-ud-Dowlah, routed at Plassey, fled to Rajmahal, where he was captured. He was put to death on July 4, 1757, at Murshidabad, by order of Miran, son of Mir Jafar, who had conspired against Suraj-ud-Dowlah.

SURAKARTA,

a residency of central Java, Dutch East

Indies; area 6,239 sq. kilometres.

It is extremely hilly, except

along the valley of the Solo, the principal river, which, with its tributaries, the Kaduan, etc., is of great value to the residency for agricultural purposes, watering the rich volcanic soil brought down

from the mountains which flank either side of the Solo valley from north to south, and making Surakarta one of the most fertile

portions of Java. In the west the mountains are dominated by the

Merbabu and Merapi groups: in the east by the Lawu group. Surakarta is bounded on the N. by Semarang, on the W. by Kediri and Jokjakarta, on the E. by Madiun, and on the S., a very small portion of coast-line, less than ten’ miles long, by the Indian Ocean. Surakarta is the chief tobacco-growing centre in Java, producing, in 1926, 10,000,068 kilos, or a third more than the

whole of the rest of Java and half as much as the whole of Sumatra. Coffee is also a very important crop, whilst sugar-cane 1s grown very extensively on the volcanic ground at the foot of the

SURAT—SURFACE y has also the usual native cultures

Merapi mountain: the residenc _rice, pulses, cassava, fruits and vegetables. The population of and is Surakarta is 2,257,177 (5,045 Europeans and Eurasians), almost entirely Javanese. The Susuhunan, or sultan of Surakarta resides in the capital, Syrakarta, pop. 156,162 (2,851 Europeans and Eurasians), also

Dutch Resiknown as Solo where, too, is the headquarters of the such as conveniences modern all dent. In the city, which has electric light and power, a telephone system, motor-cars and, old Dutch except in the oldest part of the town (where there is an quarter), native the as well as settlement, and Ft. Vastenburg,

fne, wide streets, well-planned and with magnificent shade trees at their side, with many modern shops and residential buildings.

Surakarta has also a zoological garden, some very interesting houses of native nobles, and a large market, whilst in the streets ng actors, of the purely native city the scenes of native life—strolli air, members of the with hideous masks, performing in the open Court, wearing curlous sugar loaf, stiff caps and the kris, accom-

panied by an umbrella bearer, hawkers selling their wares—is an

also absorbing sight. Surakarta is on the banks of the Solo, it is

on the main railway line from Batavia to Surabaya, which crosses

the residency in the centre, from west to east, and it is the start-

ing point of a line of railway to Semarang, via Gundih. A tram

for the line runs from Surakarta to Boyolati, the starting-point ascent to the sanatorium of Selo, 4,500 ft., on Mt. Merapi.

The Dutch agreement of 1755 recognized two native rulers in

Java, the sultan of Jokjakarta and the susuhunan of Surakarta.

ceased From about 1830 onwards the native princes of Java have

to be of any political importance.

See T. S Raffles, History of Java Daendels-Raffles (London, 1894).

(1817);

M. L. van De Venter, (E. E. L.)

SURAT, a city and district of British India in the northern division of Bombay.

The city is on the site where the English

frst established a factory on the mainland, and so planted the

seed of the British empire in India. In 1514 the Portuguese traveller Barbosa described it as an important seaport, and during the reigns of Akbar, Jahangir and Shah Jahan it rose to be the chief commercial city of India. At the end of the 16th century the Portuguese were undisputed masters of the Surat seas. But in 1612 Captain Best, and after him Captain Downton, destroyed the Portuguese naval supremacy and made Surat the seat of a presidency under the English East India Company, while the Dutch also founded a factory. In 1664 Sir George Oxenden bravely defended the factory against Sivaji, but its prosperity received a fatal blow when Bombay was ceded to the Company (1668) and shortly afterwards made the capital of the Company’s possessions and the chief seat of their trade. From that date also the city began to decline. At one time its population was estimated at 800,000, but by the middle of the 19th century the number had fallen to 80,000; in 1921 it had risen to 117,434. It is still of commercial importance,

The city is situated on the left bank of the river Tapti, 14 m. from its mouth, and has a station on the Bombay, Baroda and Central India railway, 167 m. north of Bombay. A moat and city wall indicates the dividing-line between the city, with its narrow streets and handsome houses, and the suburbs. The city is a centre of trade and manufacture. There are cotton mills, factories for ginning and pressing cotton, rice-cleaning mills and paper, ice and soap works. Fine cotton and silk goods are woven, and there are special manufactures of silk brocade, gold and silver wire, carpets, sandalwood and inlaid work. ' The DıstRICT oF SuraT has an area of 1,651 sq.m., and the population in 1921 was 674,351. The district has a coast-line of

80 m., consisting of a barren stretch; behind this is a rich, highlycultivated plain, nearly 60 m. in breadth, at the mouth of the Tapti, but narrowing to only 15 m. in the southern part, and on the north-east are the wild hills and jungle of the Dangs. The principal crops are cotton, millets, rice and pulses. The chief cen-

tres of trade are Bulsar and Surat. The district is traversed by the main line.of the Bombay, Baroda and Central India railway,

with a branch along the Tapti valley to join the Great Indian Peninsula railway at Almaner.

589

The Surat AGENCY consists 01 three native states: Dharampur

(g.v.), Bansda (qg.v.) and Sachin, together with the tract known as the Dangs. Sachin has an area of 49 sq.m., and a pop. (1921) of 19,997. There are 14 dangs or states, under Bhil chiefs, with an area of 653 sq.m. and a pop. of 24,576.

SURBITON,

an urban district in Surrey, England, 12 m.

S. of Waterloo, London; on the S. railway. Pop. (1931) 29,396.

It has a frontage upon the right bank of the Thames opposite to Hampton Court. The district is largely residential.

SURETY, in law, the party liable under a contract of guarantee (q.v.). In criminal practice sureties bound by recognizance CED are means of obtaining compliance with the order of a court of justice, to keep the peace or otherwise.

SURFACE.

(See PRINCIPAL.)

There is no agreed definition of a surface. We

may think of it as the boundary of a solid body, or as the division between two portions of space, or as the locus of an œ? set of points, selected by some law from the o#? points of space,. and having a certain amount of continuity; in each case a plane is the simplest example; but none of these gives a precise or satisfactory definition. A very simple model illustrates the kind of difficulty that arises. If a surface partitions space, it must have two sides: but a long strip of paper, with the ends joined after one has received a half-twist, forms a surface with only one side.

At an ordinary point O of a surface, there exists a tangent plane, the unique limit of the plane OPQ, when the adjacent points P,OQ—>O by any paths lying on the surface, the angle POQ remaining finite. Any point where this limit does not exist is singilar. The normal is the perpendicular to the tangent plane at its point of contact O. A surface can also be regarded as the locus of a point satisfying a geometrical condition expressed by a single equation between its rectangular cartesian coordinates, say f(xyz)=o. From this point of view, the definition of a surface depends on what types of function are admissible for f, and the question of continuity arises in another form. The surface is analytic if f is an analytic function, and in particular is algebraic if f is a polynomial. We shall use f as the name of the surface whose equation is f=o. We may also consider a surface as the locus of a curve varying according to some definite law. Thus a sphere is the locus of a meridian circle which rotates about the polar axis, or of a circle of latitude whose centre advances along the axis, while the radius first increases from zero and then decreases. Any surface can be thus regarded, for it is always the locus of its own sections by a fixed pencil of planes. In particular, a ruled surface is the locus of a variable line, whose different positions are the generators. There are two chief kinds of ruled surface: (1) If adjacent generators do not intersect, we have a skew surface; the simplest example is a hyperboloid of revolution, locus of a line which rotates about an axis which it does not meet. The shortest distance between adjacent generators determines a point on each, whose locus is the curve of striction of the skew surface. (2) If adjacent generators intersect, the surface is developable, and the locus of the point of intersection is the edge of regression, which is a cuspidal curve on the surface. The generators are the tangent lines to this curve. By the principle of duality, any surface is also the envelope of a continuous oo”? set of tangent planes, selected from the 0% planes of space by some definite law. From this aspect, a point is the simplest example. Exceptionally, a developable surface has only oo! tangent planes, each touching it along a generator, instead of at a point, viz., the intersection of the plane with its consecutive. If each tangent plane is rotated about its generator of contact through an ‘infinitesimal angle till it coincides with the consecutive plane, the whole surface is flattened out or developed into one plane, without tearing or stretching. Part of the plane is covered twice by the deformed surface, and part Is ; uncovered, the edge of regression furnishing the boundary. Whether regarded as a locus or an envelope, a surface f has 00% tangent lines, defined as the limit either of the join of two adjacent points or of the intersection of two adjacent tangent planes. To touch f imposes one condition on the œ+ lines of space, and f has in general œ? bitangents, each touching it at two distinct

SURFACE

590

[QUADRICS

If P (x, y, z) is a general point of space near O, at a distance points, and oo? inflexional tangents, each meeting f in three small of first order, then the perpendicular distances of P from adjacent points. Degree, Class, Rank.—The degree of an algebraic surface is all general planes through O, viz.: x, y, z and all general linea that of its equation, z.e., that of the polynomial f. It is the degree functions of them, are small of first order. If P lies on f, the of a plane section, and is also the number of intersections, real, coincident or imaginary, of f with any line. These are particular cases of more general properties of the degree. Two surfaces of degrees n, nı intersect in a curve of degree mm, or in an aggregate of curves of this equivalent total degree, when curves of contact and common multiple curves are counted a proper number of times. Three surfaces of degrees n, nı nı have n,m, distinct points of intersection, or the equivalent of this when points of contact and common multiple points are properly counted, The class of f is the degree of its equation regarded as an envelope, connecting the tangential coordinates of any one of its tangent planes. The properties of the class are dual to those of the degree; it is the class of the tangent cone drawn to f from a general point and the number of tangent planes through a general line. The rank is an intermediate numerical characteristic, the number of tangent lines that can be drawn through a given point and in a given plane through that point; it is the class of the plane section, and the degree of the tangent cone. Ií the polynomial f falls into rational factors f==fı. fz, of degrees nı, ng where ni-m =n, then each factor by itself represents a distinct algebraic surface, and if a point lies on either, its coordinates satisfy the equation of f; regarded still as a single surface, f is degenerate, breaking up into the components fj, fe. Polars.—The point P, dividing the segment PP» in the ratio \:; 1 has four homogeneous co-ordinates of the form xA=x-+ yx. The condition that Px lies on f is that A satisfies

Fee Mf NeAt = — =

An

n—l

t+++ +

eea A”a ae At +++

See

pene:

PTO

aaI ia

ommen

+f=0, + ete. Ox

does not exist, and all the first derived functions of f vanish there. If two roots of F=o are equal and finite, its discriminant vanishes. This equation of degree n(n—1)*in x, y, 2, w is satisfied if PP. touches f at Px; in general it represents the tangent cone from Po to f. Hence the class of f cannot exceed m(m—1)*.

It is

less than this if f has multiple curves; for the condition is satisfied if Pais a multiple point of f, and the cone vertex Py standing ona multiple curve separates itself from the tangent cone. If two roots of F=o are o, then PP» touches f at P, and f=o, Aof=o. The curve of contact of the tangent cone drawn from any point Po to f is the whole or part of the intersection of f with the first polar of Po, any residual intersection consisting of the multiple curves of f. This curve of proper contact passes through all the isolated multiple points of f. Curvature.—In

plane. Whenever we can safely neglect small quantities of second

and higher order, the surface can be replaced by its tangent plane.

If we neglect terms of third and higher orders only, f can þe

replaced by the quadric uı+uz, or more generally by any of the family q==uı+u4+uv, where v, is a general linear function These are the osculating quadrics of f at O, any one of which jg a second approximation to the surface. The sections of f andg

by any plane through O have the same curvature at O. Let O be an ordinary point of f, with z as tangent plane, and therefore x=y=0 as normal. Then f=z4-uz4- +--+ +4, and the simplest osculating quadric is gq==2-+v2, where ve is the result of putting z=0 in %2. A plane z=a small constant ¢, parallel and close to the tangent plane, cuts f approximately in the conic v= —f, with centre on the normal, called the indicatrix. If a plane through the normal meets the indicatrix in a diameter of length 27, the radius of curvature of the normal section

; I 2 is p, where — =

; ; An oblique plane meeting the tangent plane

in the same line, and making a finite angle @ with the normal, cuts f in a section of radius of curvature pcos, the projection

of p upon the plane (Meunier’s theorem). This vanishes for the tangent plane, when the section is singular.

The major and minor axes of the indicatrix lie on the principal normal planes, making sections of maximum and minimum radii of curvature, say pı, p2 For a normal section inclined at an angle 2

l

The surface A’o/, for r=1,-+-+, 2—1,is the rth polar surface of Po with regard to f; the first polar passes through all the multiple points of f. In particular, Af or Afo is its polar plane, and A?fo its polar quadric. The locus of points whose polar quadrics are cones is the Hessian of f. Its equation of degree 4(n—2) expresses that the determinant of second derived functions of f vanishes, If two roots of F=o are infinite, then Ps lies on f, and P on the tangent plane at Py; the two conditions are fo=o,Afo=o. The latter represents the tangent plane at Po, which is the polar plane of its point of contact. If Po is a multiple point, the tangent plane

Indicatrix;

second order; =o is the equation of the tangent plane, which in the neighbourhood of O lies infinitely closer to f than any other

6 to the first principal section, 5= Ss

where fo is f (x0, Yo, Zo, Wo) and A=x = +etc., ee Oxo

n

linear function u, being equal to — (uz+ .. . +un), is small of

order to examine a surface in

the neighbourhood of a particular point, we take this as origin O of rectangular cartesian coordinates, and arrange f in homogeneous functions of x, y, 2, say, f=uotu+t . .. +un. If f consists of a single homogeneous function un it represents a cone vertex O of degree n. If f is general, the condition that O lies on the surface is %=0.

in?

+ =

(Euler’s theo-

2

rem). According to the nature of the indicatrix, O is an elliptic hyperbolic or parabolic point of f. If it is elliptic, all the normal curvatures are of the same sign, and the surface bends away from the tangent plane on one side only. The part near O of the section by z=¢ is a small real closed curve for ¢ of one sign, and imaginary for ¢ of the opposite sign. The section by the tangent plane z=o has no real part in the neighbourhood except QO itself, which is a double point with imaginary tangents. The surface is synclastic. At a hyperbolic point, the surface is anticlastic. The principal curvatures are of opposite signs, and f bends away from the tangent plane on opposite sides in these directions. Two normal sections have inflexions, the curvatures vanishing; their planes pass through the inflexional tangents at O, which are parallel to the asymptotes of the indicatrix, and touch the section of f by the tangent plane, which has two real branches through O along which f crosses the plane. All sections near O have real branches there.

If there is a line lying on f, it is one of the inflexional tangents at each of its points. Conjugate tangent lines are those parallel to conjugate diameters of the indicatrix. At a parabolic point, the inflexional tangents coincide; the section by the tangent plane has a cusp.

These points lie on the

Hessian. The normal at O does not in general meet the normal at an adjacent point, unless this lies on a principal section, in which case the normals intersect at one of the two centres of curvature of f at 0. These coincide if the indicatrix is a circle; then O is an umbilc,

all normal sections have the same curvature and all adjacent

normals meet the normal at O. Quadrics.—A surface of degree 2 is a quadric q; in general its class and rank are each 2 also. The simplest example is the sphere (q.v.). Every plane section is a conic. Parallel sections are similar and similarly situated conics, whose centres lie on 4 line, a diameter of g. The diameters concur at the centre (which may lie at infinity), which bisects every chord of g through 1t.

SSRN eed OY RRR Alita Tih anii Ea amosan SSnok

591

SURFACE

SINGULARITIES]

There are three mutually perpendicular planes of symmetry, the

principal planes, intersecting by pairs in the principal axes which meet q in its vertices.

Through each point P of q there pass two generators, real or

involved by m=0, m==o. The simplest case is the conic node, an ordinary double point represented by f==m+ts+ +--+ Hun,

where u is a general quadratic function of x, Yy, 2, giving the proper tangent cone.

qat P, cutting q in this pair of lines. The generators fall into two

Any line through O meets f in two points coinciding at O, a generator of u, meets it in three points, and the six lines of closest

real) of planes of circular section; the points of contact of the tangent planes parallel to these are the wmbilics.

branches, the tangents being generators of w; that by a plane through a line of closest contact has an inflexion on one branch. The section by a plane touching the tangent cone has a cusp, the two branches merging into one cycle.

imaginary, lying wholly on q; their plane is the tangent plane to systems, any one generator meeting all those of the other system and none of its own. A quadric is determined by any three generators of one system, and may be defined as the locus of a line meeting three fixed skew lines. There are six directions (only two A quadric has three focal conics (two real), to each point S

of which there corresponds a directrix l, such that the distance of any point of q from S is proportional to its distance from } meas-

ured parallel to one of the planes of circular section; S and J are

contact given by uz=uz=0 meet it in four. The section of f by a

general plane through O has a double point with two quite distinct

If a general line through O meets f in s points there, in the simplest case O is an ordinary s-fold point with a proper tangent

cone

us, where

f=ws+uUsyit

-- + +n;

this involves

45(s+1)(s-+2) conditions. Any plane through O, or any surface

focus and directrix of the section of g by the plane S}, which is the

having O as an ordinary point, meets f in a curve having an s-fold

as a sphere of zero radius touching qg twice, the directrix being the chord of contact. A quadric is fixed when its three principal sections are

cones having no common sheet, the curve of intersection has ss, branches through O. If O is also se-fold on a third surface, the three have ssisz points of intersection absorbed at O. If the tangent cone breaks up, the simplest case is the binode,

normal plane at S to the focal conic. A focus can also be defined

given, ie., it is determined by its centre, trihedron of principal planes, and lengths of principal axes. It depends on nine para-

point there.

If O is s,-fold on the second surface, the two tangent

a double point whose quadric tangent cone consists of two biplanes, intersecting in the edge. The section by a general plane through O has a double point as for a conic node, that by a plane through the edge has a cusp, and that by one of the biplanes has a triple point. Taking the biplanes as planes of reference, we have u,= xy; then the equation says that either x or y is small of second order, or else both are small of orders between 1 and 2. A general one finite vertex, and g is an elliptic or hyperbolic paraboloid point of f near O is close to a definite one of the two biplanes, and, according as these parabolas lie on the same or opposite sides of in this sense, we can speak of two sheets of f, one touched by indisthe tangent plane at the vertex. If the principal axes vanish, g is each biplane; they are not separate sheets, but become closest of lines three are There x=y=o. edge the near tinguishable a quadric cone; if also the centre is at infinity, it is a cylinder. Finally, a degenerate quadric is a pair of intersecting, parallel or contact in each biplane; these are in general different from the edge, which meets f in three points only. coincident planes. The conic node and binode are ordinary singularities; z.e., the The hyperboloid of one sheet and hyperbolic paraboloid have real generators, and models can be constructed by threads or tangent cone, proper or degenerate, has no repeated sheet. At an extraordinary singularity, the tangent cone us not only breaks up,

meters. If the centre is finite, there are three main types of quadric, according to the types of the principal sections: ellipsoid (three ellipses), Ayperboloid of one sheet (one ellipse, two hyperbolas), Ayperboloid of two sheets (two hyperbolas, one section imaginary). If the centre is at infinity, one principal section is wholly at infinity; the other two are parabolas, meeting in the

wires; they are everywhere anticlastic. The ellipsoid, hyperboloid of two sheets and elliptic paraboloid have imaginary generators, and are everywhere synclastic. Referred to its principal axes, an ellipsoid of semi-axes, a, b, c has the equation 2

2

2

-+ A + - =1.

An elliptic paraboloid referred to its vertex as

2 den a can have the equation z + 7 origin

2g ee and the other types

of quadric can be represented by equally simple equations.

Cubic Surfaces.—A general cubic surface f is of class 12, or lower if it is singular. It possesses 27 lines lying on it, of which each meets 10 others, arranged in 5 intersecting pairs. There are 45 triangles lying on f, whose planes are tritangent, touching it at the vertices. We can also select, in 36 ways, a double-six from the 27 lines, consisting of two sets of six lines, each line meeting five of the other set and none of its own. Any plane through a lineJ cuts f in a residual conic meeting J in two points, at which the plane touches f. For two such planes, the conic touches /, at a parabolic point of f, lying on the Hessian.

There can be as many as four double points on a cubic surface.

If these lie at the vertices of the tetrahedron of reference, the equation can take the form I -+ = + = + : =o. Each of the six y v z edges of the tetrahedron absorbs four of the 27 lines, and there is one triangle of distinct lines, each meeting two opposite edges of the tetrahedron.:A cubic surface can have one double line; it 1g then skew, each plane through the double line meeting it in a residual generator. Two of these pass through each point of the

double line, and their plane meets f in a fixed line of the surface, the simple directrix.

Singularities.—A_ singular point of a locus is one at which

there is no definite, single tangent plane. If the origin O is singular,

and as above fs=m-++tn-+ - - - +n, the four conditions are those

but has a repeated sheet, uz, say, so that us=ur? s—2v. The simplest case is the unode, a double point with a repeated tangent

plane, f=u2+uj+ +--+ +2. The surface has two connected half-sheets, the general section having a cusp. There are three lines of closest contact; the section by a plane through one of these has a tacnode, that by the tangent plane has a triple point.

A general point O of a double curve is a binode of a special kind. The two sheets of f are quite distinct; every simple point of f near O belongs definitely to one sheet or the other, the points of the double curve belonging to both. There is no continuous passage at all from one sheet to the other near O; but on the double curve there lie a certain number of pinch-points, unodes of a special kind (which may be absorbed in higher singularities), at which the two tangent planes coincide, and the two sheets become connected. A tacnode of the surface is a double point where the general plane section has a tacnode, which is the plane singularity equivalent to two adjacent double points. Thus O has an infinite set of double points of f adjacent to it, one in every direction in the tangent plane, which may be considered as an infinitesimal double curve adjacent to O. In a similar way, a tacnodal curve is equivalent to two adjacent ordinary double curves. In general, a singular point, whether isolated or lying on a singular curve, is characterized, first, by its multiplicity, ż.e., the number of intersections of f with a general line through the point that are absorbed there; next, by the nature of the tangent cone and its sheets, and of the singularity of a general section; and further by the nature and arrangement of the higher singularities of special sections. By a series of suitable transformations, any singular point or curve of a surface can be analysed into an equivalent set of component singular points and curves of standard types, and any surface can be transformed into one having only elementary singularities, and in particular into one having no isolated singular points, but only ordinary multiple curves and

592

SURFACE

such points of higher singularity as necessarily lie on them; or alternatively into a surface having only a double curve and a number of triple points which are also triple for the double curve. The complete theory is complicated. Isolated singular points may give rise on transformation to singular curves; and a singular curve may give rise, from the transformation of its special points of higher singularity, to other singular curves, whose general points may be of more complicated nature (though not of higher multiplicity) than the general points of the original curve. _ Singular tangent planes are defined dually to the above. Any surface of degree = 3 must have singularities of one or other kind, or of both. A surface f of degree n with no singular points is of class m’=n(m—1)*; a surface of class n’ with no singular planes is of degree n=n’(n’—1)*. These two equations are incompatible unless n=’= 2, and f is a quadric. If f has no point singularities, it has in general two series of double and stationary tangent planes, and its reciprocal has a double and a cuspidal curve. The characteristic numbers of these modify the equations relating degree and class, and make them compatible. If f has higher singularities, there exists a complicated set of relations between the numerical characteristics; the simplest are the Pliicker equations for the general plane section and tangent cone. Curves on a Surface.—The interest of f depends partly on the simpler curves lying on it. There are always its plane sections, and its curves of total intersection with other surfaces; lower curves may arise as partial intersections, components of a total intersection that breaks up through acquiring additional singularities, the cutting surface either touching f or passing through one or more of its singularities. All curves on a plane are its total intersections, with cones standing on the curves. On a quadric, the conic section by a tangent plane acquires a double point at the point of contact, and breaks up into a pair of generators. A cubic surface contains 27 pencils of conics, cut out by planes through the 27 lines, and many other systems of curves of degrees 3, 4, and 5, cut out by quadrics containing various sets of the lines. Other important curves on f are defined by infinitesimal properties. An asymptotic curve is one whose tangent at any point is one of the inflexional tangents, parallel to an asymptote of the indicatrix. A curve of curvature is one whose tangent at any point is a principal tangent, parallel to an axis of the indicatrix. Two curves of each of these kinds can be drawn through any general point of f. A geodesic is a curve whose small arcs are each the shortest distance on the surface between their extremities. On a plane, these are lines; on a developable surface, curves which become lines when the surface is flattened out. An infinite number of geodesics can be drawn through a general point of f, one starting in any direction. Families of Surfaces—If an equation contains a parameter A, it represents a singly infinite family of surfaces; the most important case is the linear family or pencil, when the coefficients are linear functions of \ and the equation has the form f+Ad=o0. One and only one member of the family passes through each point of space. The total intersection of any two.of the family is the same, being that of f, 6. More generally, if f, are any two algebraic surfaces, the equation of any other containing their total intersection can be expressed as af+8¢=0, where a, 6 are

polynomials (Noether’s theorem).

In the same way, f-+A¢—+- py

gives an oo? linear family or met of surfaces; one and only one passes through any two given points; any three surfaces of the net have the same base, or set of common points and curves,

as f, $, Y.

If f is of degree n, it has N==4(n+1)(n+2)(n+3)—1 independent ratios of coefficients; all such surfaces form a linear family of N degrees of freedom, and one can be made to pass through W points in general position, each of which presents one independent condition to f. Thus a quadric can be drawn through nine points, and these determine it if they are general. However, seven points determine a net of quadrics, whose base consists of eight points, viz., the seven and another, associated with and determined by the seven, which offers no independent condition;

but the passage of the quadric through it is a necessary conse-

[PARAMETRIC

REPRESENTATION

quence of its passage through the others. Thus nine points do not

determine a quadric if any eight of them are an associated set of this nature. To have a given point as a double point imposes four conditions

on f; to contain a given line, n+x conditions. The number of independent conditions presented to f by an assigned element of any sort is the postulation of that element. The conditions for a combination of elements may force f to contain other fixeq ele-

ments, or to break up. If six out of nine points lie on a plane, the only quadric containing them all consists of this plane and the

plane of the other three points. Two surfaces are orthogonal if at every common point the

angle between them, ż.e., between their normals, is a right-angle, If three surfaces are mutually orthogonal, their curves of inter. section are curves of curvature on each surface. If three linear families are such that the three surfaces through any point are at

right angles to each other, they form an orthogonal system; f can form part of such a system only if it satisfies a certain differential equation of third order. In the same way, a cubic family, with

three members through any point, can be an orthogonal system, e.g., the confocal quadrics x2

FA

y2

BERN

g2

ELR”

I.

Among the infinite number of surfaces having the same boundary, z.¢., a given closed curve through which each is to pass, the minimal surface is that whose area is least. This is the form assumed by a soap film bounded by a wire in the form of the given contour. The same property must attach to any small portion of

the surface, and leads to a differential equation of second order,

the boundary conditions determining the arbitrary elements of the solution. A minimal surface is anticlastic everywhere. If it were synclastic at a point P, a plane near the tangent plane at P on one side would cut it in a small plane closed curve, approximately the elliptic indicatrix, whose area would be less than that of the cap on which P lies; and the total area could be reduced without affecting the given boundary. Parametric Representation; Genus.—The coordinates of any point on f can be represented as functions of two parameters. We may consider x, y as the parameters, and z given as an implicit function of these by the equation f=o. More often it is convenient to express each coordinate as an explicit function of two other parameters, says x= (u,v), y=W (u,v), z=x (u,v). In general, ¢, Y, x are many-valued functions; if there are 7 sets of values of x, y, z for each set of u,v, and we take wv. as coordinates of a point of a plane, then f is represented on this plane by an r, I point transformation. The nature of the representation depends largely on the form of the expression for the element ds of length of arc traced on the surface, given by

ds* = dx*4dy’+dz? = Edu?+2Fdu dv+ Gdv’, say, where E, F, G are certain functions of u, v. Here E? du, Gt dv are the elements of length along the curves represented by v= const., v=const., at the point whose parameters are u,v; while F depends also on the angle between these curves. If they are everywhere at right-angles, e.g., if they are the curves of curvature, then F=0. Rational surfaces are those which can be represented on a plane by a 1, I point transformation. Then the coordinates of any point

on f are rational functions of two parameters, the coordinates of the corresponding point of the plane. Of the different. plane representations of f, the lowest is that for which the curves in the plane corresponding to the plane sections of f are of lowest degree. Any two of these have » variable intersections, corresponding to the points of f on the common line of the two planes of section;

the remaining intersections are fixed, at points of the plane fundamental for the representation. An important family of curves on f are those corresponding to the lines of the plane. Any two of these

have one and only one variable intersection, the remainder falling

at points of f fundamental for the representation. All quadrics and cubics are rational. Surfaces of higher degree are not, unless they have a sufficient number of singular points and curves.

SURFACE

TENSION

There are several numerical characteristics of a surface that yanish if it 1s rational, and may be regarded as answering to the genus of a curve. The simplest is the genus as defined by Noether (Flichengeschlecht) , the number of linearly independent adjoint surfaces of degree n— 4, passing s—r times through every ordinary ;-fold curve of f, and s-* times through every ordinary isolated s-fold point, with other conditions at extraordinary singularities.

It is also the number of linearly independent double integrals of the form ff F(x,y,2)dady, where F is a rational function, and gy, are connected by f=0.

i(n=1)(n—2)(n—3). BrriocraPHy.—The

If f has no singularities, its genus is

best known

text-books

are:

G. Salmon,

A

Treatise on the Analytic Geometry of Three Dimensions (vol. i. 6th. ed, 1914; VOl. i., sth ed., 1915); J. G. Darboux, Leçons sur la Théorie Générale des Surfaces (1887—96). Full references are given in the Encyklopädie der mathematischen Wissenschaften, Band iii.

(H. P. Hv.)

SURFACE TENSION. phenomena—including

The title under which many surface

Capillarity—are

usually

considered.

When the surface of water (or other liquid) in a tank is carefully examined it is found not to be perfectly level. The statement that water finds its own

level is only approximate.

The

surface in fact becomes considerably curved near its edges where the liquid comes in contact with the wall of the tank. lt a vertical tube with a very narrow bore is placed with one end in the water, the liquid rises some distance above the level of the outer surface. The rise is greater the smaller the diameter of

the bore. The rise of oil through a wick is a phenomenon of the same kind. If a small quantity of mercury is poured on a horizontal plate it forms a drop. If the quantity is only a few cubic millimetres the drop is nearly spherical—a much larger quantity spreads out into a cake-shaped mass with a nearly flat top and with rounded edges. A drop of oil placed on a clean water surface spreads almost instantaneously so as to form a very thin film. The thinness of the film can be judged from the colours that flash out (see INTERFERENCE) or from the size of the area covered by even a small drop. ; The phenomena of soap bubbles and the formation of froth in solutions of soap are also familiar ones. In these cases, also, thin films are formed. The propagation of ripples of very short wave-length follows a

592

also act between the particles of matter because can act over very great distances.

these latter

(The earth is controlled in its

motion round the sun by gravitation.) Cohesion acts to any measurable extent only over minute distances. Sticks of chalk for drawing are made by highly compressing finely ground chalk and other materials. If a stick is broken and the two parts are

brought into their original position as nearly as possible by hand they do not stick together because the neighbouring particles are still so far apart as to exert no sensible attraction.

High pressure

is needed for them to begin sensibly to attract each other. Before considering in detail how these attractions arise we give a historical summary of the development of the subject. Historical.—(The following historical summary is taken from James Clerk Maxwell’s classical article in the ninth edition of this Encyclopaedia, as modified by the 3rd Lord Rayleigh in the tenth edition.) According to J. C. Poggendorff (Pogg. Ann. ci. p. 551), Leonardo da Vinci must be considered as the discoverer of capillary phenomena, but the first accurate observations of the capillary action of tubes and glass plates were made by Francis Hawks-

bee (Physico-Mechanical Experiments, London, 1700, pp. 139— 169; and Phil. Trans. 1711 and 1712), who ascribed the action to an attraction between the glass and the liquid. He observed that the effect was the same in thick tubes as in thin, and concluded that only those particles of the glass which are very near the surface have any influence on the phenomenon. Dr. James Jurin

(Phil. Trans., 1718, p. 739, and 1719, p. 1083) showed that the height at which the liquid is suspended depends on the section of the tube at the position of the meniscus, and is independent of the form of the lower part. Sir Isaac Newton devoted the 31st query in the last edition of his Opticks to molecular forces, and

instanced several examples of the cohesion of liquids, such as the suspension of mercury in a barometer tube at more than double the height at which it usually stands. This arises from its adhesion to the tube, and the upper part of the mercury sustains a considerable tension, or negative pressure, without the separation of its parts. He considered the capillary phenomena to be of the same kind, but his explanation is not sufficiently explicit with respect to the nature and the limits of the action of the attractive force. It is to be observed that, while these early speculators ascribe the phenomena to attraction, they do not distinctly assert that this attraction is sensible only at insensible distances, and that for all distances which we can directly measure the force is altogether insensible. The idea of such forces, however, had been distinctly different law from the propagation of deep sea waves. When camphor is scraped so that the fragments fall upon a formed by Newton, who gave the first example of the calculation clean surface of water, they rush about on the surface with very of their effect in his theorem on the alteration of the path of a rapid and rapidly changing motion. A minute quantity of oil light-corpuscle when it enters or leaves a dense body. placed on the surface brings them almost instantaneously to Alexis Claude Clairault (Théorie de la figure de la terre, Paris, 1808, pp. 105, 128) appears to have been the first to show the rest. These and many allied phenomena, can all be studied under necessity of taking account of the attraction between the parts one heading. They arise from the existence of surfaces separating of the fluid itself in order to explain the phenomena. He did not, one medium from another. The special forces which come into however, recognize the fact that the distance at which the attracplay are thence known as Surface forces. The rise in tubes of tion is sensible is not only small but altogether insensible. J. A. narrow bore—which are known as capillary tubes because the bore von Segner (Comment. Soc. Reg. Götting. i. [1751] p. 301) inis as “fine as a hair’—is due to these forces. From the special troduced the very important idea of the surface-tension of liquids, way in which the effects arise in this case the action is called which he ascribed to attractive forces, the sphere of whose action capillary action. This name, though often applied in other cases, is so small “ut nullo adhuc sensu percipi potuerit.” is hardly applicable except to the case of narrow tubes; while the In 1756 J. G. Leidenfrost (De aquae communis nonnullis term surface action is applicable in all. The forces which are con- qualitatibus tractatus, Duisburg) showed that a soap-bubble tends cerned in these phenomena are those which act between neigh- to contract, so that if the tube with which it was blown is left bouring parts of substances. These also produce the effects of open the bubble will diminish in size and will expel through the cohesion. Newton in the third edition of his Opticks refers to tube the air which it contains. them in the following passage:—‘The parts of all homogeneal In 1787 Gaspard Monge (Mémoires de PAcad. des Sciences, hard Bodies, which fully touch one another, stick together very 1787, p- 506) asserted that “by supposing the adherence of the strongly ... 1... infer from their Cohesion that their Par- particles of a fluid to have a sensible effect only at the surface ticles attract one another by some force, which in immediate Con- itself and in the direction of the surface it would be easy to tact is exceeding strong, at small distances performs the chymical determine the curvature of the surfaces of fluids in the neighOperations above mention’d, and reaches not far from the par- bourhood of the solid boundaries which contain them; that these ticles with any sensible Effect... . There are therefore Agents surfaces would be linteariae of which the tension, constant in all in Nature able to make the Particles of Bodies stick together by directions, would be everywhere equal to the adherence of two very strong Attractions. And it is the Business of experimental particles, and the phenomena of capillary tubes would then present Philosophy to find them out.” nothing which could not be determined by analysis.” He applied These forces must be distinguished from those of gravity which this principle of surface-tension to the explanation of the apparent

SURFACE

594

attractions and repulsions between bodies floating on a liquid. In 1802 John Leslie (Phil. Mag., 1802, vol xiv. p. 193) gave the first correct explanation of the rise of a liquid in a tube by considering the effect of the attraction of the solid on the very thin stratum of the liquid in contact with it. He did not, like the earlier speculators, suppose this attraction to act in an up-

ward direction so as to support the fluid directly. He showed that the attraction is everywhere normal to the surface of the solid. The direct effect of the attraction is to increase the pressure of the stratum of the fluid in contact with the solid, so as to make it greater than the pressure within the fluid. In 1804 Thomas Young (Essay on the “Cohesion of Fluids,” Phil. Trans., 1805, p. 65) founded the theory of capillary phenomena on the principle of surface tension. He also observed the constancy of the angle of contact of a liquid surface with a solid, and showed how from these two principles to deduce the phenomena of capillary action. His essay contains the solution of a great number of cases, including most of those afterwards solved by Laplace, but his methods of demonstration, though always correct, and often extremely elegant, are sometimes rendered obscure by his scrupulous avoidance of mathematical symbols. Having applied the secondary principle of surface tension to the various particular cases of capillary action, Young proceeded to deduce this surface tension from ulterior principles. He supposed the particles to act on one another with two different kinds of forces, one of which, the attractive forces of cohesion, extends to particles at a greater distance than those to which the repulsive force is confined. He further supposed that the attractive force is constant throughout the minute distance to which it extends, but that the repulsive force increases rapidly as the distance diminishes. He thus showed that at a curved part of the surface, a superficial particle would be urged towards the centre of curvature of the surface, and he gave reasons for concluding that this force is proportional to the sum of the curvatures of the surface in two normal planes at right angles to each other. The subject was next taken up by Pierre Simon Laplace

(Mécanique céleste, supplement to the tenth book, pub. in 1806). His results are in many respects. identical with those of Young, but his methods of arriving at them are very different, being conducted entirely by mathematical calculations. For those who wish to study the molecular constitution of bodies it is necessary to study the effect of forces which are sensible only at insensible distances; and Laplace has furnished us with an example of the metiiod of this study which has never been surpassed. He found for the pressure at a point in the interior of the fluid an expression of the form

p=K+3H(1/R+1/R’), where K is a constant pressure, probably very large, which, however, does not influence capillary phenomena, and therefore cannot be determined from observation of such phenomena; H is another constant on which all capillary phenomena depend; and R and R’ are the radii of curvature of any two normal sections of the surface at right angles to each other.

The next great step in the treatment of the subject was made by C. F. Gauss (Principia generalia Theoriae Figurae Fluidorum in statu Aequilibrit, Gottingen, 1830, or Werke, v. 29, Göttingen, 1867). The principle which he adopted is that of virtual velocities, a principle which under his hands was gradually transforming itself into what is now known as the principle of the conservation of energy. Instead of calculating the direction and magnitude of the resultant force on each particle arising from the action of neighbouring particles, he formed a single expression which is the aggregate of all the potentials arising from the mutual action between pairs of particles. This expression has been called the force-function. With its sign reversed it is now called the potential energy of the system. It consists of three parts, the first depending on the action of gravity, the second on the mutual action between the particles of the fluid, and the third on the action between the particles of the fluid and the particles of a solid or fluid in contact with it.

The condition of equilibrium is that this expression (which

TENSION we may for the sake of distinctness call the potential energy shall be a minimum. This condition when worked out gIVES not only the equation of the free surface in the form already estab. lished by Laplace, but the conditions of the angle of contact of this surface, with the surface of a solid. In 1831 Siméon Denis Poisson published his Nouvelle Théorie de action capillaire. He maintained that there is a rapid variation of density near the surface of a liquid, and he gave very strong

reasons, which have been ọnly strengthened by subsequent dis. coveries, for believing that this is the case. The result, however, of Poisson’s investigation is practically

equivalent to that already obtained by Laplace. In both theories

the

equation

of the liquid surface

is the same,

Involving 4

constant H, which can be determined only by experiment, The only difference is In the manner in which this quantity H de.

pends on the law of the molecular forces and the law of density near the surface of the fluid, and as these laws are unknown to ys

we cannot obtain any test to discriminate between the two theories. We have now described the principal forms of the theory of capillary action during its earlier development. In more recent

times the method of Gauss has been modified so as to take account of the variation of density near the surface, and its language has been translated in terms of the modern doctrine of the conservation of energy. See Enrico Betti, Teoria della Capillarita: Nuovo Cimento (1867); a memoir by M. Stahl, “Ueber

einige Punckte in der Theorie der Capillarerscheinungen,” Pogg,

Ann, CXXxixX. p. 239 (1870); and J. D. Van der Waals’ Over de Continuiteit van den Gasen Vloeistoftoestand. A good account of the subject from a mathematical point of view will be found in James Challis’s “Report on the Theory of Capillary Attraction,”

Brit. Assn. Report, iv. p. 235 (1834).

J. A. F. Plateau

(Statiqgue expérimentale

et théorique des

liquides, 1873), who made elaborate study of the phenomena of surface tension, adopted the following method of getting rid of the effects of gravity. He formed a mixture of alcohol and water of the same density as olive oil, and then introduced a quantity of oil into the mixture. It assumes the form of a sphere under the action of surface tension alone. He then, by means of rings of iron-wire, discs and other contrivances, altered the form of certain parts of the surface of the oil. The free portions of the surface then assume new forms depending on the equilibrium of surface tension. In this way he produced a great many of the forms of equilibrium of a liquid under the action of surface tension alone, and compared them with the results of mathematical investigation. The debt which science owes to Plateau is not diminished by the fact that, while investigating these beautiful phenomena, he never himself saw them, having lost his sight in about 1840. G. L. van der Mensbrugghe (Mém. de l’Acad. Roy. de Belgique, xxxvii., 1873) devised a great number of beautiful illustrations of the phenomena of surface tension, and showed their connection with the experiments of Charles Tomlinson on the figures formed by oils dropped on the clean surface of water.

Athanase Dupré in his sth, 6th and yth Memoirs on the

Mechanical Theory of Heat (Ann. de Chimie et de Physique,

1866—68) applied the principles of thermodynamics to capillary phenomena, and the experiments of his son Paul were exceedingly ingenious and well devised, tracing the influence of surface tension in a great number of very different circumstances, and deducing from independent methods the numerical value of the surface tension. The experimental evidence which Dupré obtained bearing on the molecular structure of liquids must be very valuable, even if our present opinions on this subject should turn out to require modification.

GENERAL

THEORY

OF CAPILLARY ACTION

It is found by experiment that the forces between molecules to which cohesion is due only act preceptibly across very short distances. If we regard the forces between two particles as acting

according to a law depending only upon their positions it must vary inversely as the distance according to a higher power than

SURFACE

TENSION

595

temperature) tends to a minimum; in other words, any change that takes place spontaneously involves a diminution of this energy. Hence, whenever the surface tension is positive there will be a tendency for the surface to decrease, and the diminution will in fact take place unless it is resisted by other forces. This less than one millionth. In order to illustrate the important bearing of this limitation diminution takes place not by a contraction of the liquid but by inrange consider a molecule, A, well within a substance. A sphere a passage of the surface molecules into the body of the liquid. The properties of the body are not changed thereby. In this respect the phenomenon is quite different from the case of a stretched india-rubber film. In the case of the liquid the surface tension remains constant during the contraction of the surface area; in the case of the stretched india-rubber it diminishes along with the contraction. We may express it otherwise by saying that if an imaginary straight line be drawn anywhere in the surface, when equilibrium exists there must be a force acting across the line in such a direction as to prevent further contraction of area. It is easy to show that this force per unit length of line is numerically the same as the surface-tension as defined above. Dupré has described an arrangement by which the surfaceFIG. 1 tension of a liquid film may be illustrated. A piece of sheet metal of a thousandth of a centimetre radius may be drawn round it is cut out in the form AA’ (fig. 2). A very fine slip of metal is and the molecules outside this sphere will have no sensible in- laid on it in the position BB’ and the whole is dipped into a fluence on A. Those within the sphere attract A but in the case solution of soap. When it is taken out the rectangle A.A’CC’ is of a homogeneous isotropic body their pulls will be uniformly filled by a liquid film. This film tends to contract on itself and distributed and the resultant force on A will be zero. There will, the loose strip of metal will, if let go, be drawn towards AA’. however, be a pressure throughout the sphere due to the attrac- If S is the area of one face of the film the potential energy is oS. tion: each spherical layer, being attracted, will compress the If AA’=b and AC= 4.

distance as cohesive forces undoubtedly do. A small error in the assumed value for s would lead to very considerable error in k and I. The intrinsic pressure at the breaking point of a solid in

tension should be the breaking stress itself.

The latter as

actually measured is, however, only a lower limit of K since flaws in the material and irregularities in the application of the tension will lead to fracture occurring at a value lower than the ideal stress. The effect of cohesion on the characteristic equation of a gas was allowed for by van der Waals who, following Laplace, took the intrinsic pressure as varying with the density square alone. The equation becomes

(pt+ap*)(v—b) = RT where at the same time b is introduced to represent the fact that the volume of the gas cannot be reduced to zero. Here K= ap which for water at ordinary densities is between 10-20 Atmos The fact that the equation turns out to be approximate only makes caution necessary. Moreover a is found to vary nearly inversely as the absolute temperature. We are obliged to assume, therefore, either that T is a function of the temperature or, what is more likely, that s is such a function. The latter assumption is indeed a very plausible one, for the least average distance of approach of the molecules must be affected by the motion of agitation amongst them and this increases as the square root of the absolute temperature. Besides these considerations it must be pointed out that the modification worked out by the Dutch school only partly allows for the effects arising from the molecular character of matter. Knowing the forces between two molecules at a given distance apart, the actual value of the intrinsic pressure could only be correctly obtained by summing up the components (normal to the interface at which the pressure is being calculated) of all the forces between every pair of molecules each being calculated for the actual positions in which the molecules instantaneously are. It is true, that with forces that vary so fast with distance it is only the molecules which are fairly near to a point whose

individual contributions are important: the contributions of the remainder may be estimated by an approximate method such as that followed by Laplace. Something has been done in this direction (Lennard-Jones, Faraday Society, “Discussion on (0-

SURFACE pesion,” 1927) but the fact remains that though the law of force is probably greater than the inverse fifth it may vary up to the Inverse seventh so far as present knowledge goes. If we take the higher of these two estimates the force between mole-

cules which are neighbours

that are next door to

and those

neighbours will be as 27 to 1, że, in the ratio 128 to x or that between any layer and the next

and next but one

contiguous

TENSION molecules.

597

Hence

O1= Tp2F (se) + worl (si) — 27 pipe

sts

== )‘

Young took the functions F as being identical being all the same function of zero instead of the molecular diameters;

whence

Fi2= T(p2— pi)? F(o) +] O12== const. X (p2—p1). Hence for three liquids taken pair by pair

layer as 2° to I, Że., in the ratio of 64 to 1. Hence all but a Or small percentage of the intrinsic pressure is due to the molecules in a small volume surrounding the point. This conclusion is

important solid) the for a thin Theory

since it signifies that in any material intrinsic pressure will be uniform at all layer of usually negligible volume near of Surface Forces.—This surface layer

(gas, liquid, points except its boundary. has theoreti-

cally no inner boundary but it may be taken, for most as being only a few molecules thick (mol. diameter order of 10° cm.). The most prominent peculiarity possesses more potential energy than the rest of the unit volume.

purposes, is of the is that it body per

Now increase of free energy at constant temperature is equal to the external work done on a system. If we write dW =odA

cis called the surface tension. To determine its value theoretically

we estimate dW for the formation of a surface of unit area. Now

if a body is split by a plane section and the two halves separated, a fresh surface is formed The attraction per unit area between the halves at any distance x is

arfYOW = K (x) say. oQ

The total work of separation is Í K (x) dx and in the process a

fresh area of 2 units is formed. in ordinary units

Hence expressing the work done (0 0)

20 = aTe f K(x)dx

(In previous editions many theorems were given [some of which date from Laplace] which depend, however, upon the lower limit being zero. It is sufficient to say that these theorems are not applicable to the formulae given here.) If a power law is taken as the law of force between molecules it follows that _ rel 0

V ort V azt V o31=0.

These simplified relations are known not to be true. On the other

hand if the power law is valid and is the same law for different substances the equations given here lead to

on = af(4

K _ 2075) o

s

j

For water at ordinary temperature, approximately

K=10,000 Atm.=10" dynes/sq.cm. o=75 dynes/cm. s=4X 107% cm. tO" Xa x IO

5

pays) (=) 2P1P2

G-ga- aa ass)

and the square root law should not be expected to be true excepting in special cases in which the molecular diameters of the three substances were the same. All surface-tensions with which we have to deal are in reality interfacial tensions since a liquid is always in contact with its own vapour or the gas in which it is immersed. The effect due to the gas is known, however, to be very small. The normal pressure to be expected from the existence of a superficial tension isbest obtained by considering in the first place a cylinder. Consider an element of surface, ds X unity. The tensions acting at its extreme edges are inclined to one another and have a resultant inwards. e

or in the limit d6.

Their resultant «

°

is a normal

force

e

20 sin

a@

But i = R (the radius of curvature) ; hence

. ds thenormalforceis 7 P

: : Since this acts over an area equal to

ds, the normal pressure is a/R. If we take a body of any shape and select a square-bounded element of the surface, the tensions in the plane of the diagram

are equivalent to a normal force ods1X

ds other two edges to ads2X a -

ds

and those acting on the

; Hence per unit area 1

2

(n= 1) (n—3) (n—4) (n= 5) 5”

This law may be combined with that for K with the result that

pr O

r

I

I

(a E 3

Here Rı and R are the radii of curvature in two planes at right angles. Owing to Gauss’s theorem of integral curvature the sum of two such curvatures at a point is a constant. The above theorem is therefore true whether the two rectangular planes considered are principal planes or otherwise. In the case of a sphere

Effect

of Temperature.—The

variation

of surface

tension

with temperature was not taken into account in Laplace’s theory. Whence, M5 The forces between molecules 2X75 3 were taken, like gravitational and n= 7-67. forces, to be independent of It must not be forgotten, however, that K and s are obtained by temperature. The rise in a capilvery approximate methods only. lary tube was supposed to vary Interfacial Tensions.—When two liquids are in contact there merely becausethe density varied. isin general a surface-tension at the interface which is called Experiment has shown, however, Interfacial tension. Denoting this by oi and the tensions of the that the tension itself in all cases liquids as gı and c respectively, and carrying out a separation diminishes with rise in temperaFIG. 4 of the two liquids the value of cız can be determined. In the ture. That it must ultimately above process the interface between 1 and 2 disappears and two diminish to zero can be inferred from the fact that according fresh surfaces appear at which the tensions are cı and oz. Hence to the usual conceptions as to the critical state a liquid and its ew vapour will at that point become identical with one another; the tension at the interface must then be zero. Eotvös Introduced K(x)dx Oot O1—- o= sen | conception of molecular surface tension. By means of somethe 8itse doubtful reasoning he concluded that e (Mv)? (where Mv what 2 where the lower limit is the sum of the radii of the two kinds of is the molecular volume), plotted against temperature should give —

8

—

e

meae

598

SURFACE

the same kind of curve for different substances, and he found

in fact that it was representable by K(Tc—T) where T¢ is the critical temperature and K a constant. According to Ramsay and Shields K should be the same constant for all non-associated substances. In reality K varies betyeen 1-5 and 2-6 and it is necessary also to change Te—T to Te—T— & where 6 is a small constant, so that the law is only a rough one. According to this equation the curve would bea straight line cutting the temperature axis a few degrees below the critical point. In connection with this, it is important to remember that o is only the free energy per unit area and not the total energy per

TENSION reality depend. It is appropriate to summarize here th e leading characteristics of this property. The tension of a liquid across any straight line drawn on the surface is normal to that line and is the same for all directions

of the line and is measured by the force across an element of

lA A ptf} JAP

the line divided by the length of that element. For any given homogeneous liquid surface, as the surface

tL

which separates water from air or oil from water, the surface

tension is the same at every point of the surface and in every direc. tion. In the case of mixtures,

unit area (u). Lord Kelvin was the first to prove that the varia-

tion of ø with temperature, involves that u must be greater than g; or in other words, when an expansion of the surface takes place heat must be added to keep the temperature constant. The connection between these quantities he proved thermoi do dynamically to be uw = ¢—T aT (vide THERMODYNAMICS applied to chemistry). Now, at the critical point, u (which is only the exira energy due to the existence of unit surface and not the total energy of the whole body) must also vanish. But if both x do and o are then zero so also must T IT be zero.

ERGS C SQ. PER

L EENS NENEEEN Sc

; Hh

360

BY COURTESY

400

440 480 ABS.

OF THE

a

|

620 s00°c]

FARADAY SOCIETY

FIG. 5

however, when circumstances de.

>

ee ia (¢.8.,e

e

surface is

inclined and the effects of a gravitation field require consideration)

the concentration at the surface may adjust itself from point to

point of the surface in such a way

as to produce

a corresponding

variation in the value of the surface tension sufficient to satisfy

Hence, if our conceptions of the critical state are correct the

curve of g plotted against T instead of being a straight line must

the conditions of equilibrium. This effect is very minute and in nearly every problem may be ignored. When

the surface is curved the effect of the surface tension

become horizontal at the critical point. In 1894, van der Waals is to make the pressure on the concave side greater than that on showed that a formula of the type o=A(T;—T)” was to be the convex side by the amounto (C,;+C2) where C, and Co are the expected and gave the average value of 7=1-27 as deducible curvatures in mutually perpendicular normal planes. The tension of the surface separating two liquids cannot be from the experimental values. In 1916 A. Ferguson (Phil. Mag., Jan. 1916), examining the data for 14 different organic substances deduced by any reliable method from the tensions of the liquids showed that the best values of # ranged from 1-187 to 1-248. when separately in contact with air. The experiments of C. G M. The advantageous character of this power equation is that it Marangoni, van der Mensbrugghe, and Quincke have led to results which show that the common surface between two liquids has a da makes o, u, and JT all equal to zero at the critical point and it tension always less than the difference of the tensions of the separate liquids. This is usually referred to as Marangoni’s rule. thus satisfies all that is required of it theoretically. Liquids, If three liquids meet along a line the interfaces at the com. however, which are believed to be associated do not follow the mon edge must be parallel to the sides of a triangle proportiona l above simple law. to the three tensions oy, 023, om otherwise equilibrium cannot The surface energy, u, also falls to zero at the critical point, obtain (Neumann’s rule). This triangle cannot exist unless two but according to a different law. For taking the equation of the interfacial tensions are greater than the third. Marangoni’s experimental rule shows that the triangle is always imaginary. do u=0—T aT Hence three pure fluids (of which one may be a gas) accordingly it follows that w= A(T,—T)"7 (T,+[n—1|T). The curves fore cannot remain in contact. If a drop of oil stands in a lenticular form upon a surface of water, it is because the and u are shown in fig. 5 for the case of benzene. The curve shows water-surface is already contaminated with a how nearly a straight line law satisfies the values of ¢ until the greasy film. critical point is closely approached. An interesting relation has When a solid body is in contact with two been given by Prof. E. T. Whittaker between u and the latent fluids the surface of the solid cannot alter its heat (internal) of evaporation. The internal latent heat (L,) is form but the angle at which the surface of conobtained by subtracting the external work done from the ordinary tact of the two fluids meets the surface of the ee Ee T solid must depend on the values of the three latent heat. The relation in question is that T -—ei is nearly nearl a L; surface tensions. For equilibrium constant, and that (in C.G.S. units) this constant is about unity O31 — 0 39 = 091 COSA. for ethyl oxide, methyl formate, benzene and chlorobenzene and The angle œ is known as the angle of contact. about 2 for carbon tetrachloride. The degree of constancy is For pure substances the angle is definite. It indicatedin the following table for benzene (Crit. temp. = 561.5A) FIG. 6

varies from zero (or very nearly so) for liquids that “wet” the solid to 130° or 140° for mercury on glass

In regard to the experimental behaviour of water on mercuty the wealth of papers is equalled by the remarkable lack of uniformity in the results obtained even when elaborate precautions are taken. A drop of water which fails to spread when placed on The relation is important -since it indicates the close- connection there is between the surface energy and the volume energy of the substances. General

Properties

of Surface

Tension.—The

notion

of

surface tension, though it is only a derived one, enables us to deal with all the phenomena which were enumerated at the head of this article without making explicit reference to the more fundamental notion of molecular attractions upon which they in

a mercury surface is often caused to spread by the action of pouring the mercury out of the dish—thus involving the creation of a new surface! Water shows a positive tendency to spread

in vacuo on a drop formed in vacuo! May, 1927).

(Burdon, Faraday Society,

Form of a Capillary Surface.—The form of the surface of a liquid acted on by gravity is easily determined if we assume that

near the part considered the line of contact of the surface of the

liquid with that of the solid bounding it is straight and horizontal.

SURFACE This will be the case, for example, near a flat plate dipped into the liquid. Let AP be the vertical plate supposed to be so wide that the edge effects do not count. We will consider the forces per unit depth (perpendicular to the paper) and will consider

AA; as the standard level of the liquid far from the plate. The curvature of the surface at the point x, y, is dð . d0 d(cos@) — = sinf— = — ——— ds dy dy and consequently the pressure in the liquid at that point is less d (cos@)

than the pressure outside it by —o

d

. But the pressure is

less than that at a distant point where the surface is flat by gpy or g(p — po)y if allowance is made for the surrounding gas.

TENSION

liquid surface of this cylinder is 2axosin@ or 2rxo cosa where 0

is the angle between the surface and the horizontal and a@ is the

“contact-angle”’

between the limits o and r we obtain 2Tro sind = g(p— po) rr2h

whence osin®=4g(p—po)rk. To seek for a better approximation we first differentiate the two sides of the equation whence

assent) _ §(e—Po) MGs

x dsin@ dsin 4 sing

dð

But cos@ ae

9_ s(o—m) y 2

o

2°

The shape of the surface is there- | fore the elastica, i.e, the form taken by a uniform spring when

dð

i

ae (where ds is an element

sinĝ x

of the curve AC)

and is ~. the curvature in the plane of the diagram at B; and sinĝ , ; i | Ís the curvature of the surface at B in a plane at right angles

have

plied at its ends (see Thomson

and Tait, Natural Philosophy, vol i. p. 455). The equation might have been found by considering the elementary volume 1 of a strip of liquid, dx, sustained above the normal level of the liquid by the surface forces at its outer and inner edges. The difference of the vertical component of FIG. 7 these is ed(sinĝ) and the weight of the strip is goydx but since d{sin®) _— d(cos0) the same result is obtained. dx dy If the angle of contact is a the value of 6 at the plate is . — a; I—sing =

dx

The left

to the diagram. Hence, calling these curvatures = and = we

equal and opposite forces are ap-

hence

: (8 Ad 8

=

dx

g

x (hty)

£ o p? We may consider this as the standard exact equation. side is

g (p—po) y — d(cos6) A BP

the integral of which is 1 —cos@ = 2sin?

which is measured with respect to the solid

surface (in this case the vertical). These two expressions are to be equated to one another. If we can neglect y altogether compared with # and integrate

Hence the differential equation for the surface is dy

599

o

— G

+. — == zx)

g(p

—

A+ è po) ( y);

both of the terms here are expressions for the difference of pressure between the two sides of the surface at the point B. Narrow Tubes.—The equation shows that the sum of these curvatures increases with the height; but when Æ is big and y small, as it is for a very narrow tube, the sum is nearly constant. Going back to the differential form of the equation and taking the case where the liquid wets the tube, we may consider the curve as practically circular, of radius 7; the corresponding value

of y=r— Vr? —x and d(xsin@) Te

ı Bs (h+y)x

x —— B: (h-+-+-r—~7?—x?)

nearly whence,

by

integration

wy ae

g(p—po) . Ka.

Pee ate ote Ay]. s + Te i + 4{7—2)2

or since sinf =x when x =r o 2 which gives the greatest height through which the liquid is y Y 1 = — (z + “) : raised. A thin sheet of glass suspended from the arm of a balance 2p? 3 and just dipping into a liquid provides a simple way of determinBy putting the radius of the circle as R = T when the angle ot ing the surface tension. The incontact is a instead of zero this becomes crease in the apparent weight of the sheet when the liquid has r {1— 3sin'a—asin’a} |. been raised by capillarity is o cosa = | 3 cos? a multiplied by twice the horizontal By calculating tan@ from sin@ and bearing in mind that length of the sheet. A sensitive tan@=dy/dx, form of this apparatus is known as Worthington’s multiplier in we can by subsequent integration obtain a closer value of yin terms which the strip is rolled into a of x which can, in turn, be introduced into the differential equavertical cylindrical spiral. tion and soon. By such successive approximations Lord Rayleigh | De alee er Ascent up a Capillary has obtained the equation for the case ~a=o in the form

Tube—A capillary tube dipped

m a liquid provides method

of

determining

a r? r3 o = 4g (p— po) Ar |: vs 7 TOBE + o-rg125|

a simple surtace

BY

COURTESY

OF

THE

FARADAY

SOCIETY

tension. To connect the surface Pigg tension with the rise (or descent) of the liquid in the tube meas-

in which the coefficients are claimed to be correct to the approximation given. The equation can only be used in the case when r ured from the level part of the outside surface we equate the effec- is small compared with #. It may be mentioned that a very near uve weight of the liquid raised to the total force due to the tension. approach to the equation can be obtained by considering the surThe effective weight (with the symbols shown on diagram) is face as ellipsoidal with its minor axis vertical. This was first shown by Hagen and Desains. Various methods are employed for determining surface tension experimentally: (a) From the rise in a capillary tube making use of the above

Care J am (h-t-y)de

for an inner cylinder of radius « where p is the density of the liquid and py that of the surrounding gas or vapour. The vertical

component of the surface force acting all round the edge of the

equation.

(b) Sentis’s Method—A capillary tube is partly immersed in the liquid. It is then withdrawn vertically and a drop remains

SURFACE

6500

TENSION

clinging to the lower end; the position A of the vertex of the As a means for measuring surface tension this method is obdrop is noticed. The liquid in the vessel is then raised until it viously not satisfactory; but for rough comparative values for touches the vertex (when the column falls) and then raised liquids of like kind it is a very quick and easy method. further till the upper surface is at the same level C as at first. Wide Tubes.—When ais not small the approximations made The liquid in the vessel is then at the level B. The vertical dis- above for narrow tubes are not suitable. tance AB corresponds to 4 in the ordinary method but in the The question has been fully discussed by the late Lord Raycorrecting terms h must be put negative The width of the drop leigh to whose papers reference should be made (v. Ray leigh, is in this case to be small comProc. Roy. Soc. A, 92, 184, 1915). pared with h. Bubbles and Drops.—These can be dealt with by similar (c) Jaegers Method—In this methods. Air bubbles in a liquid can be formed of any size, from method an orifice (a “‘tip’) is

minute ones which are nearly spherical to large ones shaped like

placed just under the surface of the liquid and the pressure of gas is increased until bubbles form The maximum pressure of the gas (which is fairly sharply marked) is observed. The deduction of the applicable equation is a somewhat delicate matter because the problem is really a kinetic, not a static, one. The formula employed is

a flat cake. The excess pressure p— fo, which is easily found by experiment, determines the total curvature at the lowest point N;

being equal to R am If y is reckoned upwards as before, then d(xsin@) _

de

For very large

bubbles, as for wide tubes, a good approximation can be obtained

2 by neglecting the second curvature and also p’ 80 that

2

Prax is the maximum

NR TET:

thus E replaces h/6? in the previous problems.

c= Pmax7 E where

(2 +4)

dif-

ference of pressure between the

sr courtesy of THE FARADAY SOCIETY

y?

(x--cos@) =

FIG. 9

level of the end of tube inside and outside, and r is the internal radius of the tube. The bubble is assumed to form within the internal circumference. In practice, however, it sometimes forms on the outside circumference. To obviate the uncertainty it is recommended to make the two circumferences as nearly equal as possible, but this is an experimental matter of great difficulty. The final accuracy depends chiefly on the measurement of the radius r. The subject of the formation of bubbles and drops requires much more study than it has received. (d) Drop Weight Method.—This method is connected with the preceding one because the drops considered are those issuing from a narrow tube. It was employed by Tate (1864) who gave as the result of his observations :—Other things being the same, the weight of a drop of liquid is proportional to the diameter of the tube in which it is formed. Later, Quincke used it and gave the value 2mvo as the weight of the suspended drop just before falling provided that the inflow of liquid is sufficiently slow. A portion of the drop is always left behind when the main part falls; but he considered that it might be neglected in the case of very small drops.

Rayleigh has discussed the question from the “dimensional” point of view. (See UNITS AND DIMENSIONS.) Assume that the

mass M of the drop depends only upon the surface tension, g, the value of acceleration due to gravity, g, the density of the liquid, p, and the inside radius, a, of the tube. Rayleigh shows that oa/g has the same dimensions as a mass and that o/gpa? is a pure number. Since quantities that can be equated together must be

. 0 2Sin? -, 2

2B

If H is the value of y for which the tangent to the curve becomes

vertical we have H=~72-8. This method has been used by Quincke and others but not always with bubbles large enough to justify the approximation that is made. The bubble is conveniently formed under a slightly concave surface so as to prevent it from escaping. Drops of mercury are easily formed above a concave surface. If y is measured downwards from the summit the same formulae hold as for bubbles. Great attention has been paid to these methods owing to their use in determining surface-tension. The most thorough treatment from the practical point of view is given by Bashforth and Adams (Capillary Action, 1883). By means of infinite series calculated for each of the variables each term in the differential equation can be calculated to very high accuracy and tables are drawn up enabling the form to be determined for given weights of material and given surface tensions. Thin Films.—In this section we consider thin films. The first group of cases consists of those in which the substance forms a thin sheet with gas on both sides, as for example, a soap bubble. Here we have always two surfaces to consider. When the thickness is considerably greater than the value of the range, e of molecular forces the two surfaces are independent of one another; the surface-tension must then have the usual value for each. For very thin films this will not be so. If the thickness is less than the range, e, the tension for each

quantities of the same kind, it follows that Me(ga/g)F(c/gpa?)

surface

will

be

certainly

less than the normal value. When the variation of density at different levels in the flm is taken into account it is clear that the reduction in the surface-tension must begin when the thickness is

where there is no restriction, imposed by this method of inquiry, upon the function F of the quantity in the second pair of brackets. Rayleigh finds by experiment that gm/oa is fairly constant for wide ranges in the diameter of the tube. For thin-walled tubes in the case of water the following values were obtained:

twice e, BY

COURTESY

OF

THE

FIG.

FARADAY

10

SOCIETY

A soap film is simply a small

quantity

of

soapsuds

spread

out so as to present a large surface to the air. The soap solution

may with great advantage be specially prepared.

The addition

of glycerine and resin enables more permanent films to be prepared.

The mean value of the constant is thus about 3-8 instead of 27 which the imperfect theory gave. Further experiments by Harkins and Brown show that the constant approaches Quincke’s value as the diameter becomes very small.

Bubbles may

easily be blown

20 in. in diameter in the

open air using a clay pipe or a small glass funnel.

(The method

needs no precise description.) Sir James Dewar has obtained bubbles that last almost indefinitely if evaporation be prevented by blowing them in a confined space saturated with water vapour.

The pressure inside a bubble is greater than that outside by

SURFACE

TENSION

ae (= d =) , 4.¢., by 40/R where Ris the radius of curvature.

The factor 2 arises because both surfaces give rise to normal

components of forces.

This result is easily obtained by consider-

ing the equilibrium of each half of the bubble. The force at the cut edge is 20-27 and this is balanced by the excess pressure acting over the plane area 7k’. Hence the excess pressure is 20:a7R rR

6or

that can be completely covered by a weighed quantity of material Langmuir determined both the cross-sectional area and the length of a molecule and proved that the length for organic molecules like those of palmitic, stearic, cerotic acids, etc., was

nearly five times the breadth, while in cetyl palmitate it is nearly ten times. Adam has developed the technique and has very much extended the theoretical interpretation (Roy. Soc.

č 40 R°

Tf the end of the pipe or funnel is opened the bubble will contract because of the escape of high pressure air from inside. As

it contracts the pressure rather paradoxically increases. It may be added that (neglecting gravity) the bubble is spherical because this skape makes the surface area (and therefore the potential energy) least for a given volume. If bubbles are blown on the expanded ends of two funnels (the stems being stopped by the fingers) they can be made to coalesce by carefully bringing them into contact. (A slightly electrifed rod brought not too near will assist the coalescence.) On drawing the funnels slowly apart a cylindrical bubble is obtained. The

pynes/cm”

excess pressure is now 20/R where R is the radius of the opening of the funnel.

Further separation causes the cylinder to contract

in the middle; one of the two curvatures is now negative; the surface is an anticlastic one. With further extension of length the surface becomes unstable and the film collapses. It has been shown by Clerk Maxwell that a cylindrical film becomes unstable when its length is greater than its circumference. Films on Liquids.—In the second group of cases a liquid or solid is on one side and a gas on the other. To this group belong all cases of the spreading of oil or other substance on water or other liquid or solid. This old familiar subject has recently acquired very great importance in its bearing upon

20

30

5 E 40 Sa. ANGSTROMS PER MOL.

FIG.

50

11

Proc. A. 1921 to present time). Both Langmuir and he measured the amount of “oil” and measured directly the force required to molecular structures. The first to experiment in detail on such compress the surface to any given area by means of a floating films was F. H. R. Liidtge (Pogg. Ann. cxxxix., p. 620), who barrier. The actual force measured is the length of the barrier showed how a film of high surface tension is replaced by one multiplied into the difference of the surface tension on the two of lower surface tension. Akin to these are experiments made sides of it. On the outside the surface is that of pure water— on the erratic movements that are observed when fragments of on the inside that of water on which a thin film has been formed. camphor are sprinkled on a cleam water surface. A trace of It is found that when the molecules in the film are so sparse as to grease such as may be communicated to the surface by dipping be widely separated from one another the force due to the film is a finger in the water may be sufficient practically to stop this an expansive one. This cannot be explained on Laplace’s theory: it is necessary motion. The thickness of oil which is required may be spoken of as the “camphor-point.” The first to determine it was (the to modify it by allowing for the effects of thermal motion; the 3rd) Lord Rayleigh who in 1890 (Roy. Soc. Proc.) showed that film in such a case is analogous to a two-dimensional gas. If the the thickness of the film of olive oil, calculated as if continuous barrier is now moved so as gradually to compress the film various (ie., non-molecular) which corresponds to the camphor-point is changes take place successively which are depicted in fig. 11 for about 2X10 mm.; że., it is only a moderate multiple of the the case of a film of myristic acid on weak HCl (N/100). The supposed diameter of a gaseous molecule and perhaps scarcely unit of area adopted is a square each side of which is an Angstrom exceeds at all the diameter to be attributed to a molecule of oil; unit (że. 10° metre), and the area specified is that occupied and he ultimately realized that this phenomenon was therefore by one molecule of the acid. The ordinates of the curves are entirely outside the scope of a theory of surface action such as the difference of the tensions on the two sides of the barrier. Laplace’s in which matter is regarded as continuous and that an The curves are isothermals extending from 2-5° to 34-4° C. They exhibit some of the characteristics of the p, v, curves for a conexplanation required a direct consideration of molecules. In 1891 Miss Pockels (Nature, xLttt., 437 [1891]) showed by densible substance. At high temperatures the curves appear to be means of a movable slider on water (the surface tension being approximately rectangular hyperbolas. For small values of the measured by means of the attraction on a small disc) that the area they approach the form for liquids. At intermediate stages, contaminating material on the surface could be squeezed up and however, there is no constant pressure isothermal as in the concluded from her experiments that the water-surface can exist analogous case of the vapour pressure of a liquid below the critical in two sharply-contrasted conditions; the normal condition, in point (the form is more nearly that for the vapour pressure of a which the displacement of the partition makes no impression on mixture of two liquids; this fact may indicate that the under(the value of) the tension; and the anomalous condition in which lying water takes a part in the changes that occur). It is not to be expected that there should be complete corevery increase or decrease (of the surface) alters the tension. The question was taken up again by Lord Rayleigh in 1899 respondence between the two classes of phenomena. There is, (Phil. Mag. xivit., 1899) with apparatus designed on the lines however, sufficient indication that the effects of thermal motions of that of Miss Pockels (but employing a different way of in the films cannot be neglected. The analogy with liquids and measuring the surface tension) and he concluded that the first gases can be further illustrated by plotting FA ‘against F, where drop in tension corresponded to a complete layer one molecule F is the force applied per unit length; the resemblance to an thick and that the diameter of a molecule of oil is about Amagat diagram for a fluid is very striking (Schofield and Rideal, Roy. Soc. Proc. A, 109, p. 67; 110, p. 170). It is clear 1-0 10° mm. Later investigations

have

been

made

by I. Langmuir

(in

America: J. Amer. Chem. Soc., 1915 to 1918) and N. K. Adam (in England) and their coworkers. By measuring the surface area

from the diagram that a film of myristic acid can be squeezed

up until a molecule occupies less than 24 A*. At the opposite end where the behaviour approaches that of a gas it is to be expected

602

SURF-BIRD—SURGERY

that the equation would take the form FA=RT where the value of R (allowing for only two degrees of freedom) should be

tion of instruments, dressings and the patient’s skin, it is nop taken for granted that every operation will be carried out without

1-372 per molecule; at room temperature therefore FA should the introduction of micro-organisms into the wound from Without. Advances in regard to these two controlling factors, anaesthesja be about 400. This has been experimentally verified as a limiting value for very low surface pressures. With the long chain fatty and asepsis, during the past ten years have merely been developacids, esters and nitriles it is approached within 25%, the ments of detail. Certain new substances have been employed as pressure being below o-1 dyne per cm. With the dibasic ester anaesthetics, both general and local, and minor improvements jn apparatus and methods of administration have been introduced, As C2H;00C-(CH2)11.COOC2H; it has been verified within 10%. The interpretation of the experimental results is still in a a theoretical basis for surgery the maintenance of asepsis in al] somewhat fluent state and it is clear that we must not press procedures has been long accepted, and no material alterations any simple gas analogy too far. A thin film upon a body of have been brought forward. It must, however, be appreciated different material cannot be treated as in a similar state to the that asepsis is a relative term in regard to wounds of the body; molecules in the body of a gas. Forces must exist between the micro-organisms in some numbers may be already present in the film and the liquid beneath. This may account for the fact that tissues, or are introduced despite every precaution. A more comat any rate some films do not spread indefinitely as a gas ex- plete appreciation of this fact has emphasised the importance of pands into a vacuum. Further, the most compressed state can avoiding any treatment of the body tissues which will lower their only give an upper limit to the least cross sectional area of the natural resistance to such mild infection as may be present. General Principles of Operative Treatment.—Surgery has molecule. The molecules are resting on the rapidly-moving molecules beneath them and must share to some extent in their agita- long passed the stage of being a handicraft. Accurate diagnosis tion. Still it must be granted that these new investigations are and the ability to estimate the risks of different types of operathrowing great light on the nature of films and on the dimensions tion in relation to the individual are essential to the equipment of of molecules. Where corroboration is possible, measurements a surgeon. The handicraft of surgery can be as rapidly acquired made by means of X-rays are in good accord with those obtained as that of carpentry; surgical judgment is only developed by long by this method. clinical experience and by the ability to learn from failure. In BrIBLioGRAPHY.—In addition to the specific references in the text, every major surgical operation the variable human factor is presfurther sources of information are (the 3rd) Lord Rayleigh’s Collected ent. It may affect the issue of medical and surgical procedures Papers (several articles); A. W. Reinold and Sir A. W. Riicker, Phil. Trans. (1886); Sir W. Ramsay and J. Shields, Zeztschr. Phys. both on psychological and physical grounds, and an appreciaChem. 12, p. 433 (1893); Harkins and Brown, Am. Chem. Soc. J. tion of these possibilities and an acceptance of the limitations of (1916 and 1919); Richards, Speyers and Carver, Am. Chem. Soc. J. the individual’s resistance must always be in the mind of the su (1921 and 1924); Physical Phenomena at Interfaces (Faraday Society, geon when planning an operation. The physical condition of the Dec. 1925); N. E. Dorsey, Scientific Paper of the Bureau of Standards, patient in respect of the function of all essential organs can be Washington, D.C., No. 540 1926 (this paper contains a survey of the various methods of measuring surface tension and a very complete assessed with some accuracy by modern methods. His psychologibibliography of that part of the subject); on the theoretical side cal reaction is much less certain. In cases of operation for infecJ. Willard Gibbs, Collected Papers, vol. i.; R. Eotvés, Wied-Ann. tive conditions the response to them of his natural defensive (1886); J. D. van der Waals, G. Bakker and other writers of the mechanism remains a factor of uncertainty. A good deal is known Dutch school. Volume 6 of the Handbuch der Experimentalphysik (Wien-Harms), Kapillarität und Oberflachenspannung by G. Bakker contains a very full account of the whole subject on the experimental side. For certain properties of solutions see THERMODYNAMICS (applied to Chemistry). (A. W. Po.)

about the reaction

of the body

to bacterial infections (see

IMMUNITY), but the problem of the artificial immunisation of the patient against them is still in its infancy. A consideration of these several problems on physiological lines has tended of late to divide operations for acute conditions into two or more stages. SURF-BIRD, a wading bird found along the Pacific coast Shock (g.v.).—A limit is set to any operation by the incidence of the Americas, from Alaska to Chile, and believed to nest on of shock. This condition of collapse is secondary to several facthe north Alaskan tundra. Grinnell, who observed the surf-bird tors. In its most severe form it may prove directly fatal; its in the region of Kotzebue Sound, says that he was informed by milder manifestations may considerably prejudice the patient’s the Eskimos of the district that the birds nested in the neighbour- normal recovery. With good anaesthesia, careful haemostasis, hood of some small lakes far back on the tundra and not far and the avoidance of loss of body heat during operation, the condifrom the base of the mountains; this confirms the observation of tion is now seldom seen in the operating theatre. Nelson at St. Michael. The surf-bird (Aphriza virgata), which is It is perhaps in place here to mention pulmonary embolism nowhere abundant, belongs to the family Charadriidae, the plover- (see THROMBOSIS and Emegorrsm), a rare but serious complicalike birds, and is placed by Knowlton between the turnstones and tion of operations. It may follow a week or so after a simple the oyster-catchers; it is distinguished from the turnstones by surgical procedure which appears to have run a normal course. its longer tarsus, emarginate tail, and the swollen terminal por- The condition is produced by the impaction of a clot of blood in tion of the bill. The surf-bird is 10 in. long, dusky, with a white one of the lung arteries. The clot originates in a vein in the operarump. tion area. The size of the clot and the corresponding area of the SURGE, in meteorology, a term first used by Abercromby lung deprived of blood determine the severity of the symptoms. to denote a long period fluctuation of barometric pressure which Diagnosis.—Although the well established methods of clinical seems to be superimposed upon the short period changes related examination have not been superseded, the chief advances in to the passing of a low pressure centre. surgical diagnosis of late years have been due to a more exact SURGERY. The treatment of malformations and diseases by use of radiology (g.v.). Though shadow pictures are open to manual operation; secondarily, a medical practitioner’s consulting misinterpretation and may mislead, these methods as a whole have room or office. Progress in the surgical art in the past century led to much greater accuracy in the localisation of morbid conhas in some measure run parallel with the advances made in all ditions in various organs, or in establishing the fact that they are branches of science. The full development of methods for produc- normal. Advances in the chemical investigation of the blood and ing anaesthesia (g.v.) was the base upon which the progress and urine have made it possible to estimate the functional ability of elaboration of surgery could be worked out. Study and improve- the kidneys with considerable accuracy. The importance of this ment in anaesthetic methods have continued to the present time cannot be overestimated in considering the probabilities of surand the results have brought within the sphere of operation con- vival of a patient after a major operation on the urinary system. ditions which were previously beyond surgical aid. Preventive Sutgery.—Though surgery cannot be regarded as Lister’s discovery that a preventible bacterial infection was a preventive art there are certain conditions in which it may be the cause of suppuration formed the next stage and upon it the properly characterised as such. The early recognition and removal development of modern surgery has been founded. By the em- of diseased lymphatic organs such as the tonsil and the appendix ployment of antiseptic and aseptic methods (q.v.) in the prepara- are undoubtedly reducing the incidence of certain chronic and

SURGERY acute diseases which may follow the retention of a diseased organ

602

Treatment of Operative Wounds.—The normal clean surgi-

in the body. Another example may be cited in the early operation

cal wound is dressed with sterile gauze which may be left in place till the stitches are due for removal; this will probably be about

customarily operated on almost as soon as it is recognised, frequently in childhood; as a result, the gross and disabling ruptures

a week after operation. In those cases in which suppuration is present either as the result of a pre-existent abscess or from surgical infection, the wound will be drained by a tube or wick, and mild antiseptic dressings are applied at frequent intervals. The period of time during which the patient is kept in bed

on the common forms of hernia (q.v.). This condition is now

with their concomitant danger to life, commonly met with in the

past century are now relatively rare. Preventive medicine on the

other hand, is gradually removing, as it should, from the sphere of surgery many conditions hitherto treated by the knife. In most

necessarily depends on the mechanical state of affairs, especially

civilised communities, rickets (g.v.) has been eradicated or is in regard to abdominal wounds. In general, time will be given for substantial healing of the abdominal incision before the patient treated so early that operation is seldom necessary. Transplantation of Tissues.—Remarkable experimental re- gets up—that is to say—two to three weeks BrsrriocRaPHy.—W. W. Keen (ed.), Surgery: its principles and pracsults in animals have been published from time to time in regard to the transference

of organs

and tissues from one animal

to

another. These results in animals can be applied to a limited degree in man. It has not been found possible successfully to transplant. organs or tissues of one species to another. Success in this respect can only be claimed if the transplant survives and retains its original cell form and functions. Skin, fascia and bone are the tissues which can be usefully transplanted from one part of the body to another. Surgical Technique.—Pre-operative management of the patient will concern his general condition, the preparation for the

anaesthetic and the cleansing of the skin in the operation area. Before an operation the patient should be in as good a physical state as possible. For one who is reduced or anaemic, infusion of fluid or even transfusion of blood may be required. In the case of

tice (6 vols., Philadelphia, 1906—13); A. Thomson and A. Miles, Manual of Surgery (3 vols., 1921) ; J. F. Binnie, Manual of Operative Surgery (8th ed., 1922); R. Howard, Practice of Surgery (3rd ed., 1922); J. A. C. Macewen, Text-book of Surgery (Glasgow, 1922); J. H. Watson, Fundamentals of the Art of Surgery (1926); E. W Groves, Synopsis of Surgery (8th ed., 1927); W. H. Ogilvie, Recent Advances in Surgery (1928).

REGIONAL

SURGERY

The Brain.—Surgery of the brain (see BRAIN, SURGERY OF) is directed to the opening of abscesses and the removal of tumours. Considerable advance in the localization of the latter has led

to a higher percentage of satisfactory results and a number of dramatic cures. It must, however, be appreciated that some tumours are so closely incorporated with the brain that their a patient suffering from diabetes the proper dose of insulin or removal is impracticable or inconsistent with the survival of the glucose is administered. As regards preparation for an anaesthetic, patient. For these cases an operation of decompression is carried severe purging and prolonged starvation are now avoided. If the out which consists in removing a considerable area of bone from anaesthetic to be administered is ether, a small dose of atropine the skull to allow the brain to expand beneath the scalp. Such is given half an hour before the operation to limit the excretion operations are directed to relieve the patient of headache and to of mucus in the air passages during the operation. Morphia is save the sight. Operations on the spinal cord and nerves (see sometimes given beforehand to calm a nervous patient. Pre- SPINAL Cord, SURGERY oF) are mostly carried out for cases of paratory skin preparation need not exceed the dictates of ordinary injury; in the case of the former to relieve pressure, and in the cleanliness. The most generally employed method of sterilising latter to suture the cut ends of the nerve. Tumours may form the skin immediately before operation is after shaving to paint in or about the cord, and their position can now be recognized. it with a solution of iodine or picric acid in spirit. Lungs (see HEART AND LUNG, SURGERY oF).—The chest has Sterilisation of Instruments, Dressings, etc.—This is always been considered a difficult area for the surgeon to work in. effected by boiling them from five to fifteen minutes in water. The presence of negative pressure in the pleural sac leads to the Strong chemical antiseptics or spirit are often employed to steril- collapse of the lung when the chest wall is opened, and enterprise ise edged instruments which would be blunted by boiling. Ligature in the direction of radical surgery has on this account been limited. materials used within the wound are now usually made of catgut. With the introduction of anaesthesia by intubating the larynx These are specially prepared (whereby different degrees of dura- and pumping air containing ether under positive pressure into bility are obtained) and sterilised by various processes. Silk and the lung, intrathoracic operations are now made with safety. Thyroid Gland (see GortrE).—Operations on this essential thread are sometimes used for special purposes and are sterilised by boiling in water. Sutures for the skin, which are removable, ductless gland are carried out for simple and malignant tumours are commonly made of silkworm or salmon gut and are sterilised and also for disorders of secretion. In exophthalmic goitre, the in the same way. Dressings and wound coverings are most effec- gland becomes hyper-active and though the condition may in some tively disinfected by exposure in an autoclave to superheated measure be controlled by administration of iodine, the removal of steam at a temperature of about 250° F for 20 minutes. Sterilisa- half or even more of the gland has proved the most successful tion by hot air from its less penetrating power is limited in appli- method of treating severe cases. At one time, operations of this cation to instruments which would be damaged by boiling in character were associated with a high mortality, but with imwater. Formalin vapour is also of use for instruments of this type. proved methods of pre-operative treatment and of anaesthesia the In all operations the surgeon wears a sterile gown, cap and results have been much more satisfactory. The operations for mask, and protects his carefully cleansed hands with sterilised simple tumour are straightforward and call for little comment;

rubber gloves. During operation care to avoid shock to the pa- in those instances in which the whole gland is removed for maligtient on the lines already indicated is taken. The operating thea- nant disease the complete loss of thyroid solution thereby entre is kept at a temperature above 70° F, and unnecessary ex- tailed must be made up for subsequently by the regular adposure of the patient is avoided. When shock is inevitable infusion ministration of thyroid extract (cf. myxoedema). Breast (see MAMMARY GLAND, Diseases oF).—This organ of saline solution or blood may be carried out during the operation. After-treatment.—This will be directed to avoid the compli- especially in the female, may develop simple tumours (adenoma), cations secondary to anaesthesia. The patient is kept warm in a or undergo a change classified as chronic mastitis; it is a relawell-ventilated room. Some vomiting is to be expected after ether tively common seat of cancer (g.v.). The simple tumours appear anaesthesia. Fluid is administered in small quantities by the as arule before middle age and are easily recognized and removed. mouth as soon as the patient regains consciousness. In some Chronic interstitial mastitis is essentially a disease of the middleconditions fluid administration may be given by the rectum or aged; though in itself not a very serious condition, there is little subcutaneously. Diet is kept to fluids for a few days. A meas- question but that its more severe forms predispose towards ure of starvation at this stage, so long as plenty of fluid is given, cancer. On these grounds removal of one or both breasts for the does not prejudice the patient’s recovery. A return to normal diet condition is very often carried out. Cancer of the breast is will depend upon the nature of the operation and the idiosyncrasy raré before middle age and is most commonly met with between forty-five and sixty-five. Usually it starts as a painless hard of the patient.

604

SURGERY

nodule in the breast; it causes no signs of inflammation nor does it interfere in any way with the muscular system. On this account an early growth may be missed by an unobservant patient. The surgical treatment of cancer in this organ has proved strik-

by the operation and the patient is therefore left with a colostomy

ingly successful in cases in which a radical operation is carried out

in this area. The condition can only be effectively cured b ylaying

An anal fistula (see FISTULA) consists of a communication he: tween the lower part of the rectum and the surface. It usu ly follows the formation of spontaneous evacuation of an absc ESS

before secondary deposits have appeared elsewhere. The outlook open the whole fistulous tract, and leaving it to heal gs]owly by in cases in which operation is undertaken at a later stage is very granulation. Haemorrhoids (g.v.) are due to a varicose condition of much less hopeful. The operation current at the present time for cancer is a thorough one, and consists of removing the whole the veins in the lower part of the rectum. They may cause pro. breast with the overlying skin and underlying muscle. The armpit lapse of the mucous lining of the lower end of the rectum or they is freely opened up and the lymphatic channels from the breast may become grossly inflamed and painful. Slight damage to them and the glands into which they drain are cleanly removed. The may lead to troublesome haemorrhage. The condition is usually value of X-rays and radium in the treatment of breast cancer | quite a local one and can be dealt with successfully by several is becoming more clearly defined; there is no doubt that a certain means. Injection of the piles with chemical solution will produce type of X-ray and the gamma rays of radium are able to kill clotting or scarring of the vascular area sufficient to cure the cancer cells locally, and both methods have considerable value in slighter cases of internal haemorrhoids. More severe persistent dealing with local recurrent growth and as prophylactic measures |cases are better dealt with by operations of excision and ligature. Kidneys and Bladder. (See Urotocy; BLADDER AND Pros(see RADIOLOGY; RADIOTHERAPY; RADIUMTHERAPY). Abdominal Surgery (see ABDOMEN, SURGERY OF).—In the TATE DrseaAsES.)—The accurate diagnosis of the diseases of case of the stomach and duodenum—+the diagnosis of simple the kidney and bladder have made great advances in the last ten ulcers and cancerous growths of the stomach has been greatly years as the result of the perfection of instruments for inspecting advanced by radiological methods. The method does not consist the inside of the bladder and passing catheters up the ureters. The in simply taking a shadow picture of the stomach. Chief reliance injection of opaque solutions into the cavity of the kidneys enis placed on observation of the stomach movements by a trained ables a radiograph to be taken which assists considerably in diag. observer. It must not however be thought that this is the only nosis. Better radiological technique has also increased the accuor the final method of diagnosis. Clinical observation and the racy with which the presence of a stone and its position in the chemical examination of test meals are essential and often carry kidney can be made out. The estimation of the functional activequal weight in forming an opinion as to the exact condition. ity of the kidney by mechanical means has been put onascientific Operation is much less frequently undertaken for active gastric basis and makes it possible for the surgeon to assess the patient’s and duodenal ulcer (g.v.) now than a few years back. It still probable reaction to operations in this area. remains the only radical method of dealing with long-standing Stone in the Kidney—Operations for stone located in the kidulcers which have led to adhesions of the stomach and surround- neys are straightforward if the stone be small in size and when ing structures or to narrowing of its lumen either in the body only one kidney is affected. It is not uncommon for more than of the organ or at its junction with the duodenum. The simplest one stone to be present, and there is considerable variety in their operation is that of gastro-enterostomy, which consists of short- form and nature, which affect the liability to recurrence. A stone circuiting the distal part of the stomach and duodenum by may be passed from the kidney down the ureter into the bladder, anastomosing a loop of adjacent small bowel direct to the stomach. and if it is sufficiently small, may even be evacuated naturally. A part of the stomach may be removed for chronic ulcer as it The prolonged presence of a stone in the kidney, especially if it is for cancer; indeed very nearly the whole stomach has been leads to a partial obstruction in the outlet, results in inflammation successfully removed for this condition, an anastomosis being of the kidney substance, and for this reason early recognition of subsequently established between the cut upper end and the a stone by X-rays and its radical removal are important. small bowel. Surgery offers the only satisfactory means known Tuberculous Kidney and Bladder.—Tuberculosis of the kidney at the present to deal with cancer of the stomach. may appear as the main focus of tuberculous infection in the Gall Bladder.—The gall bladder forms a reservoir for bile body. In such cases the organism must, however, have been conthough it has nothing to do with the secretion of this fluid. Gall veyed by the blood system from some previously established focus stones (see CALCULI) may be deposited in it and lead to attacks elsewhere. A tuberculous infection of the kidney may be part of a of acute pain if they are forced out of the gall bladder into the diffused tuberculous infection or one involving the whole urinary bile passages. The presence of stones may also irritate the bladder system. In the case of limited and early disease of one kidney, and lead to abscess formation. The diagnosis is usually made the symptoms may be slight, and the recognition of the presence clinically although the shadow of the gall bladder outline can be of the infection will depend upon finding of B. tuberculosis in the obtained by injecting a chemical into the blood, and in some urine. In such cases, or in those in which the disease is more adinstances gall stones show up in radiographs. The operation at the vanced but has remained localized, the excision of one kidney is present time most often performed is complete removal of the practiced with satisfactory results. gall bladder including the stones. Tuberculosis of the bladder is usually secondary to the presence Large Bowel.—Considerable sections of the large bowel can of this infection in some other part of the genito-urinary tract. It be removed for growths which are usually malignant. Sections of leads to great irritability of the bladder and corresponding disthe bowel may also be cut out on account of inflammatory con- comfort to the patient. Treatment of the condition by direct surditions. After resection of part of the bowel the lumen is recon- gical means is clearly difficult, and is seldom attempted. stituted by an anastomosis. This may be effected by stitching the Enlargement of the Prostate—This condition affects males two cut ends of the tube together directly, or by laying them above middle life. The enlarged gland, situated as it is, at the neck side to side and making a lateral communication after stitching of the bladder, tends gradually to interfere with the proper evacuup the ends. Cases of intestinal obstruction due to irremovable ation of this organ. This may produce attacks of complete retencauses in the lower part of the bowel are treated by colostomy. tion of urine or result in the development of cystitis. The conThis operation consists in bringing up to the surface a section of tinued existence of the condition produces in time by the effect the bowel and opening it. The artificial anus so formed will of back pressure or infection, secondary damage to the kidneys. drain the bowel effectively, but the condition has the inconveni- This will materially sap the patient’s resistance to infection or Mence that it is not subject to any sphincter control. deed in itself produce a condition inconsistent with life, if the supRectum and Anus.—The rectum is subject to similar growths pression of the function of the kidneys is carried far enough. and infammatory conditions to those met with in the colon. If The relief of prostatic obstruction may be temporarily effected by a cancer of the rectum is recognized early, its radical removal the passage of a catheter to empty the bladder at regular intervals, gives a very good proportion of cures. It is inevitable in all such but as this process is not a convenient one and in itself is bound to cases for the sphincter mechanism of the bowel to be destroyed lead to the establishment of chronic cystitis. radical removal of

|

SURGICAL

INSTRUMENTS—SURINAM

TOAD

605

the same fashion, has a richly chased metal frame, and, at the end The operation is usually effected by opening the bladder through of the handle, a lion’s head in bold relief, with a ring through its artistic an abdominal incision and gaining access to the base of the blad- mouth to hang it up by. If one contrasts with these adornment, such no finds one 1850, of instruments the is gland weapons enlarged the to approach clinics some In der in this way. by the perineum. In view of the age of the patients affected by and for general finish Savigny’s instruments would be hard to the enlarged prostate is usually carried out.

this condition, the operation must be considered a severe one. The mortality has been considerably reduced in the last ten years

by modifications in technique and by the carrying out of the procedure in two stages in those instances in which chronic cystitis ig present or where there is evidence of disturbed function of the kidneys from back pressure. Cancer of the prostate occurs and may be associated with simi-

lar symptoms to those of simple enlargement of the organ. Oper-

ative removal of the cancerous gland is practised, but on account

of its anatomical position the probabilities of recurrence are great. New Growths of the Kidney

and Bladder—The

kidney and

bladder may be involved in new growths which may be either simple or cancerous. The symptoms are generally evidenced by

the passing of blood and disturbance in the regular evacuation

of the bladder. In the case of the kidney, complete removal of the growth, if recognized early, is a simple and satisfactory procedure. In the bladder complete removal of malignant growths is

difficult, consistent with the maintenance of the normal function

of the organ. Stricture of the Urethra—Stricture of the urethra is due to contraction of scarred tissue in and around the tube secondary to old-standing inflammation. The closing down of the urethra leads

to a gradual difficulty in emptying the bladder and indeed to a group of symptoms similar to those observed in enlargement of the prostate; the condition, however, usually develops much earlier

in life and will be associated with a previous history of urethral infection. The condition in the early stages can be treated by regular dilation of the stricture with suitable bougies. If it is allowed to develop to the stage of complete obstruction associated with retention of urine, various operations for the relief of the condition may have to be brought into play. Testicle.—-This may be the seat of new growths which are generally cancerous or tuberculous. The statements made in regard to similar conditions affecting the kidney apply in general to this organ. On account of its accessibility early diagnosis and prompt treatment are relatively easy. The condition of hydrocele (g.v.) is due to the secretion of fluid in the serous sac covering the testicle. The condition may arise apart from injury at almost any period of life. The largest forms are seen in those past middle-age. Radical treatment by excision of the sac is simple and straightforward.

Hernia (q.v.).—There are certain areas in the abdominal wall which are naturally weak and through these a protrusion or pouch of the peritoneum is liable to prolapse, producing a hernia. These regions are at the groins and umbilicus. Herniae are also likely to form in weak abdominal scars following operations. Apart from the discomfort caused by the prolapse of bowel into the hernia, there is always a danger of its contents becoming constricted or obstructed (see INTESTINAL OBSTRUCTION) by being nipped at the margin of the opening through which the protrusion has occurred. If such a complication arises it leads to strangulation which is an almost inevitably fatal condition unless relieved by prompt operation. The surgery of hernia should clearly be of a prophylactic nature and be undertaken as early as possible after the development of the swelling. Radical operations for herniae undertaken nowadays in good time on healthy individuals are followed by a high proportion of permanent successes. (C. M. P.) See also Bones, DISEASES OF; FRACTURE; JOINTS, SURGERY ORTHOPAEDIC SURGERY ; GYNAECOLOGY; DENTISTRY, etc.

OF;

surpass: but the wooden or ivory handles, cut with finely scored lines like the cross-hatching of an engraving, are not more likely to be aseptic, even with prolonged attempts at sterilization, than the handles of Paré’s instruments. At the present time, instead of such handles as these, with blades riveted into them, scalpels are forged out of one piece of steel, their handles are nickelplated and perfectly smooth, that they may afford no crevices, and may be boiled and immersed in carbolic lotion without tarnishing or rusting; the scalpel has become just a single, smooth, plain piece of metal, having this one purpose that it shall make an aseptic wound. In the same way the saw is made in one piece, if this be possible; anyhow, it must be, so far as possible, a simple, smooth, unrusting metal instrument, that can be boiled and laid in lotion. Or we may take, at different periods of surgery, the ligatures for arrest of bleeding from a divided blood-vessel. In Paré’s time the ligature was a double thread, and he employed a forceps to draw forward the cut end of the vessel to be ligatured. From the time of Ambroise Paré to the time of Lister no great improvement was made. Then came Lister’s work on the absorbable ligature; and out of this and much other experimental work has come a sterile thread that can be tied, cut short, and left in the depth of the wound, with certainty that the wound may at once be closed from end to end and nothing more will ever be heard of the ligatures left buried in the tissues. Much the same is true of surgical dressings. When inflammation and suppuration were almost inevitable, dressings were usually such as could be easily and frequently changed—ointment, or wet compresses, to begin with, and poultices when suppuration was established. Now, after passing through a period when they were impregnated with some antiseptic, they are usually nonmedicated but rigidly aseptic, and applied dry and are changed as little as possible in every aseptic operation. The great principle of aseptic surgery combined with discovery of anaesthetics led to a great enlargement of the field in which surgical operations could be undertaken. As a result instruments for special purposes were devised that were without counterpart in olden times while appliances such as the laryngoscope, ophthalmoscope, cystoscope, sigmoidoscope, bronchoscope were invented

and facilitated diagnosis. These means of improved diagnosis, in their turn, pointed the way towards yet more specially derived instruments so that the modern instrument maker’s catalogue is a bulky and profusely illustrated volume.

SURICATE or MEERKAT

(Suricata tetradactyla), a small

South African mammal of the civet family, ranging from Cape Colony to Algoa bay. The head and body are about r4in. long, and the tail half as much; the fur is long and soft, light grizzled grey in colour, and banded with black on the lower part of the back. Meerkats are sociable animals, living in holes in the rocks on the mountains, and burrowing in the sandy soil of the plains. They feed chiefly on succulent bulbs, which they scratch up with long, curved, black claws on their fore-feet. They are often domesticated as pets.

SURIGAO, a municipality (with administration centre and

14 barrios

or districts),

capital

and port

of the province

of

Surigao, which is located in north-east Mindanao, and adjacent small

islands,

Philippine

islands, 459

m.

from

Manila.

Pop.

(1918), 15,772. Some valuable timber grows in the vicinity, and there is a gold mine nearby. Abaca, corn and copra are among the

agricultural products. In 1918, it had three manufacturing estabSURGICAL INSTRUMENTS AND APPLIANCES. The chief fact about the surgery of the present day, that it is lishments and 164 household industry establishments with outputs aseptic or antiseptic, is exemplified in the make of surgical instru- valued at 45,300 and 40,500 pesos respectively. Of the 16 schools, ments and in all the installation of an operating-theatre. Take, 14 were public. Many of the inhabitants are Bisayans. . SURINAM: see Guiana, Dutch. for instance, a scalpel and a saw that are figured in Ambroise SURINAM TOAD (Pipa americana), an aglossal (tongueParé’s (rs10-1590) surgical writings. The scalpel folds into a handle like an ordinary pocket-knife, and the handle is most ele- less) tailless Amphibian (qg.v.). It inhabits S. America east of the It gantly adorned with a little winged female figure. The saw, after Andes and north of the Amazon, and is thoroughly aquatic.

SURMA— SURREY

606

has an extremely flattened head; the snout and the angles of the jaws bear several lappets, the fingers terminate in a star-shaped appendage, and the eyes are minute and without lids. The eggs are carried on the back by the mother, and the skin thickens and grows round the eggs until each is enclosed in a dermal cell, which is finally covered by a horny lid. The eggs, which may number about 1co and measure 5-7mm. in diameter, develop entirely within these pouches, and the young hop out in the perfect condition. Pairing takes place in the water, the male clasping the female round the waist. During oviposition the cloaca projects from the vent as a bladder-like pouch, which is inverted forwards, between the back of the female and the breast of the male, and by means of this ovipositor the eggs are evenly dis-

tributed over the back. See A. D. Bartlett, Proc. Zool. Soc. (1896).

is that which survived from pre-Reformation times; viz., a wide.

sleeved, very full, plain, white linen tunic, pleated from the yoke and reaching almost, or quite, to the feet. Towards the end of the

ryth century, when large wigs came into fashion, it began fo convenience to be constructed gown-wise, open down the front and buttoned at the neck, a fashion which still partially survives ! notably at the universities. SURRENDER, in law, a mode of alienation of real estate

It is defined by Lord life or years to him or remainder” (Coke of release, which is a

Coke to be “the yielding up of an estate for that hath an immediate estate in reversion upon Littleton, 337 b). It is the converse

conveyance by the reversioner or remainder-

man to the tenant of the particular estate. A surrender was the usual means

of effecting the alienation of copyholds

(q.v.). A

SURMA or BARAK, ariver of Assam, India. It is one of surrender must, since the Real Property Act 1845, be by deed, the two chief rivers of the province, watering the southern valley as the Brahmaputra waters the northern and larger valley. It rises in the Barail range to the north of Manipur, its sources being among the southern spurs of Japvo. Thence its course is south with a slight westerly bearing, through the Manipur hills to British territory. The name of Barak is given to the upper part of the river, in Manipur and Cachar. A short distance below Badarpur in Cachar it divides into two branches. The northern, which passes Sylhet, is called the Surma. The southern, which is called the Kusiara, subdivides into two branches, one called Bibiana or Kalni, and the other the Barak, both of which rejoin the Surma. At Bhairab Bazar in Mymensingh the Surma unites with the old channel of the Brahmaputra and becomes known as the Meghna until it joins the Ganges between Narayanganj and Chandpur. The river is navigable by steamers as far as Silchar in the rains. Total length about 560 miles.

SURPLICE

(Lat. super, over, and pellicia, furs), a liturgical

vestment of the Christian Church.

It is a tunic of white linen or

cotton material, with wide or moderately wide sleeves, and varying in length. Originally it reached to the feet, but as early as the 13th century it began to be shortened. This process was carried

furthest in the Roman use, according to which the surplice (the Italian cotta) hardly reaches to the hips. In other churches of the Roman communion it does not come below the knees. The older history of the surplice is obscure. Its name is derived from the fact that it was formerly put on over the fur garments which used to be worn in church as a protection against the cold. In all probability the surplice is no more than an expansion of the ordinary liturgical alb, due to the necessity for wearing it over thick furs. It is first mentioned in the 11th century, in a canon of the synod of Coyaca in Spain (1050) and in an ordinance of King Edward the Confessor. In Italy it was known at least as early as the 12th century. It probably originated outside Rome, and was imported thence into the Roman use. Originally only a choir vestment and peculiar to lower clergy, it gradually (certainly no later than the 13th century) replaced the alb as the vestment proper to the administering of the sacraments and other sacerdotal functions. In the Oriental rites there is no surplice, nor any analogous vestment. Of the non-Roman Catholic churches in the West the surplice has continued in regular use only in the Lutheran churches of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, and in the Church of England. Chutch of England.—The surplice was prescribed by the second Prayer-Book of Edward VI. as, with the tippet or the academical hood, the sole vestment of the ministers of the church

at “all times of their ministration,” the rochet (q.v.) being practically regarded as the episcopal surplice. Its use was furiously assailed by the extremer Reformers but, in spite of their efforts, was retained by Elizabeth’s Act of Uniformity, and enforced by the advertisements and injunctions issued under her authority,

which ordered the “massing vestments’? (chasubles, albs, stoles,

except in the case of copyholds and of surrender by operation of law. (See REMAINDER.) In Scots law surrender of a lease is represented by renunciation. The nearest approach to surrender of a copyhold is resig. nation iz remanentiam (to the overlord) or resignation in favorem

(to a purchaser).

These modes of conveyance were practically

superseded by the Conveyancing Act 1874. In America surrender divides itself into express surrender anc surrender by operation of law. The former is the surrender known to the early common law; the latter takes place when the tenani and the reversioner have performed acts inconsistent with the

continued existence of the two former distinct estates, fror which acts the law implies that a surrender has been made. Thu: where there is an acceptance by the tenant of a new lease to begir at any time during the existence of the previous lease, or the relinquishment of possession by the tenant and the resumption ol possession by the landlord, a surrender by operation of law i: deemed to have taken place.

SURRENTUM

(mod. Sorrento, g.v.), an ancient town oi

Campania, Italy, situated on the north side of the promontory which forms the south-east extremity of the Bay of Naples. The most important temples of Surrentum were those of Athena anc of the Sirens (the latter the only one in the Greek world ir historic times). The place was famous for its wine, its fish and its red Campanian vases. It was protected by deep gorges, except for a distance of 300 yd. on the south-west where it was defendec by walls, the line of which is necessarily followed by those of the modern town. The south gate is indeed ancient. The arrange.

ment of the modern streets preserves that of the ancient town and the disposition of the walled paths which divide the plair to the east seems to date in like manner from Roman times On the east of the town the most important ancient ruin is the

reservoir of the (subterranean) aqueducts, which had no les than 27 chambers, each about go ft. by 20 feet. There are als remains of villas. To the north-west, on the Capo di Sorrento is another villa, the so-called Bagni della Regina Giovanna, wit! baths, and in the bay to the south-west was the villa of Polliu: Felix, the friend of Statius, of which remains still exist. Some fine reliefs were found here, representing a sacrifice to Diane

(A. Levi in Monumenti dei Lincei, xxvi., 181-218, 1920).

SURREY, EARLDOM

OF. This earldom is of uncertair

but unquestionably early origin.

A Norman

count, William de

Warenne (c. 1030-1088), is generally regarded as its first holde! and is thought to have been made an earl by William II. aboui 1088. William and his successors were styled earls of Surre} or Earls Warenne indifferently, and the family became extincl when William, the 3rd earl, died in 1148. The second family tc hold the earldom of Surrey was descended from Isabel de Warenne (d. 1199), daughter and heiress of Earl William, and her seconc husband Hamelin Plantagenet (d. 1202), an illegitimate half brother of King Henry II. Their descendants held the earldor

and the like) to be destroyed (see VESTMENTS). Its use has never -until Earl John died without legitimate issue in 1347. The earldom and estates of the Warennes now passed to John’: been confined to clerks in holy orders, and it has been worn since the Reformation by all the “ministers” (including vicars-choral nephew, Richard Fitzalan, earl of Arundel (c. 1307-1376), being and choristers) of cathedral and collegiate churches, as well as by forfeited when Richard’s son, Richard, was beheaded for treasot the fellows and scholars of colleges in chapel. in 1397. Then for about two years there was a duke of Surrey, The traditional form of the surplice in the Church of England the title being borne by Thomas Holand, earl of Kent (1374

SURREY ?

607

1400), from 1397 until his degradation in 1399. In 1400 Richard

co-operating with the imperial forces in Flanders, and in the cam-

Fitzalan’s son, Sir Thomas Fitzalan (1381-1415), was restored to his father’s honours and became earl of Arundel and earl of Surrey, but the latter earldom reverted to the Crown when he died. In 1451 John Mowbray (1444-1476), afterwards duke of Norfolk, was created earl of Surrey, but the title died with him. The Jong connection of the Howards with the earldom of Surrey began in 1483 when Thomas Howard, afterwards duke of

paign of the next year he served as field marshal under his father,

Norfolk, was created earl of Surrey. Since then, with brief exceptions, the title has been borne by the duke of Norfolk. See the articles WARENNE, EARLS; and ARUNDEL, EARLS OF; also G. E. C.(ockayne), Complete Peerage, vol. vii. (1896).

SURREY, HENRY

HOWARD,

EARL oF (1518?—1547),

English poet, son of Lord Thomas Howard, afterwards 3rd duke of Norfolk, and his wife Elizabeth Stafford, daughter of the duke of Buckingham, was born probably in 1518. He succeeded to the courtesy title of earl of Surrey in 1524, when his father became duke of Norfolk. His early years were spent in the various houses of the Howards, chiefly at Kenninghall, Norfolk; he used

also to stay at Windsor with young Henry Fitzroy, duke of Richmond, of whom his father was guardian. Anne Boleyn tried to arrange a marriage between the princess Mary and her kinsman, Surrey.

The Spanish ambassador, in the hope of detaching the

duke of Norfolk’s interest from Anne Boleyn in favour of Cath-

erine of Aragon, seems to have been inclined to favour the project, but Anne changed her mind, and as early as October 1530 arranged a marriage for Surrey with Lady Frances de Vere, daughter of the

r5th earl of Oxford.

This was concluded at the earliest possible

date, in February 1532, but in consequence of the extreme youth of the contracting parties, Frances, did not join her husband until

1§35. In October Surrey accompanied Henry VIII. to Boulogne to meet Francis I., and, rejoining the duke of Richmond at Calais, he proceeded with him to the French court, where the two Englishmen were lodged with the French royal princes. Surrey created for himself a reputation for wisdom, soberness and good learning. Meanwhile in spite of his marriage with Frances de Vere, the project of a contract between him and the princess Mary was revived in a correspondence between the pope and the emperor, but rejected by the latter. Surrey returned to England in the autumn of 1533, when the duke of Richmond was recalled to marry his friend’s sister, Mary Howard. Surrey made his home at his father’s house of Kenninghall, and took his father’s side in a dispute which led to a separation between the duke and duchess. In May 1536 he filled his father’s functions of earl marshal at the trial of his cousins Anne Boleyn and Lord Rochford. In the autumn of that year he took part with his father in the bloodless campaign against the rebels in Yorkshire and Lincolnshire, in the “Pilgrimage of Grace.” Hasty in temper, and by no means friendly to the Seymour faction at court, Surrey struck a man who insinuated that he had secretly favoured the insurgents. For breaking the peace in the king’s domain he was arrested (1537), but thanks to Cromwell, he was merely sent to reside for a time at Windsor. During this retirement he had leisure to devote himself to poetry. In 1539 he was again received into favour. In May 1540 he was

one of the champions in the jousts celebrated at court. The fall of Thomas Cromwell a month later increased

the power of the Howards, and in August Henry VIII. married Surrey’s cousin, Catherine Howard. Surrey was knighted early in 1541, and soon after he received the Garter and was made chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster. In 1542 he was imprisoned again for quarrelling, but was soon liberated. Shortly after his release he joined his father on the Scottish expedition. They laid waste the country, but retreated before the earl of Huntly, taking

no part in the victorious operations that led up to Solway Moss. Surrey’s ties with Wyat, who was fifteen years his elder and of opposite politics, seem to have been rather literary than personal. He appears to have entered into closer relations with the younger

Wyat, with whom he got into trouble for breaking the windows of the citizens of London on Feb. 2, 1543.

In prison for this

offence he probably wrote the satire on the city of London, in

which he explains his escapade by a desire to rouse Londoners to a sense of their wickedness. In October he joined the English army

and took part in the unsuccessful siege of Montreuil. In August 1545 he was again serving in France. Surrey had always been an enemy to the Seymours, whom he

regarded as upstarts, and he thwarted the proposed marriage of his

sister, the duchess of Richmond, with Sir Thomas Seymour. He thus increased the enmity of the Seymours and added his sister to the already long list of the enemies which he had made by his haughty manner and brutal frankness. He was now accused of quartering with his own the arms of Edward the Confessor. ‘The charge was a pretext covering graver suspicions. Surrey had declared that his father, the duke of Norfolk, as the premier duke in England, had the obvious right of acting as regent to Prince Edward. He also boasted of what he would do when his father had attained that position. This boast was magnified into a plot on the part of his father and himself to murder the king and the prince. The duke of Norfolk and his son were sent to the Tower on Dec. 12, 1546. The duchess of Richmond was one of the witnesses (see her depositions in Herbert of Cherbury, Life and Reign of Henry VIII., 1649) against her brother, but her statements added nothing to the formal indictment. On Jan. 13. 1547 Surrey defended himself at the Guildhall on the charge of high treason for having illegally made use of the arms of Edward the Confessor, before hostile judges. He was condemned by a jury, packed for the occasion, to be hanged, drawn and quartered at Tyburn. This sentence was commuted to beheading. Surrey was executed on Tower Hill on the roth of the month. Surrey’s name has been long connected with the “Fair Geraldine,” to whom his love poems were supposed to be addressed. The story is founded on the romantic fiction of Thomas Nashe, The Unfortunate Traveller, or Life of Jack Wilton (1594), according to which Surrey saw in a magic glass in the Netherlands the face of Geraldine, and then travelled throughout Europe challenging all comers to deny in full field the charms of the lady. At Florence he held a tournament in her honour, and was to do the same in other Italian cities when he was recalled by order of Henry VIII. The legend, deprived of its more glaring discrepancies with Surrey’s life, was revived in Michael Drayton’s England’s Heroicall

Epistles (1598). Geraldine was the daughter of the dare, Lady Elizabeth Fitzgerald, who was brought English court in company with the princess Elizabeth. Graves, a Brief Memoir of Lady Elizabeth Fitzgerald,

earl of Kilup at the (See James 1874 ) She

was ten years old when in 1537 Surrey addressed to her the sonnet “From Tuskane came my ladies worthy race,” and nothing more than a passing admiration of the child and an imaginative antici-

pation of her beauty can be attributed to Surrey. His poems, which were the occupation of the leisure moments of his short and crowded life, were first printed In Songs and Sonettes written by the ryght honorable Lorde Henry Howard late Earle of Surrey, and other (apud Richardum Tottel, 1557). A second edition followed in July 1557, and others in 1559, 156s, 1567, 1574, 1585 and 1587. Although Surrey’s name, probably because of his rank, stands first on the title-page, Wyat was the earlier in point of time of Henry’s “courtly makers.” Surrey, indeed, expressly acknowledges Wyat as his master in poetry. His sonnets, his elegy on Wyat and his lyrics served as models to generations of court poets. As their poems appeared in one volume, long after the death of both, their names will always be closely associated. Surrey’s contributions are distinguished by their impetuous eloquence and sweetness, and he introduced new smoothness and fluency into English verse. His chief innovation as a metrician lies outside the Miscellany. His translation of the second and fourth books of the Aeneid into blank verse—the first attempt at blank verse In English—was published separately by Tottel in the same year Certain Bokes of Virgiles Aeneis turned into English meter. See Professor E. Arber’s reprint of Songs and Sonettes (English Reprints, 1870) ; the Roxburghe Club reprint of Certain Bokes of Virgiles Aeneis (1814); Dr. G. F. Nott, The Works of Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey (1815); and The Poetical Works of Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey (Aldine edition, 1866). The best account of Surrey’s life is in Edmond Bapst’s Deux Gentilhommes-poétes de la cour de Henry

608

SURREY

Vill. (1891), which rectifies Dr. Nott’s memoir in many points. See also Brewer and Gairdner, Letters and State Papers of Henry VIIL.; Lord Herbert of Cherbury, Life and Raigne of Kinge Henry the Eighth (1649); J. A. Froude, History of England (chs. xxi. and xxii.) ;

W. J. Courthope, History of English Poetry

(1897), vol. ii. ch. ii.,

where the extent and value of Surrey’s innovations in English poetry

are estimated, F. M. Padelford, The MS. Poems of Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey (1906); O. Fest, “Uber Surreys Virgiltibersetzung,” in Paldstra, vol. xxxiv. (Berlin, 1903).

SURREY, a south-eastern county of England, bounded north by the Thames, separating it from Buckinghamshire and Middlesex, east by Kent, south by Sussex, and west by Hampshire and Berkshire. The administrative county of London bounds that of Surrey (south of the Thames) on the north-east. The area is 758 sq. miles. The north of the county is low lying, the eastern part consisting of the London clay, the western of the Bagshot beds. Near the western boundary the land rises into the low Chobham ridges. Across the middle of the county, from east to west, run the North downs, composed of chalk. In the east they form a wide band with an extreme height of 852 ft., but westward they narrow into the Hog’s Back. The line of the Downs is broken at two points: by the river Mole between Dorking and Leatherhead, and by the Wey near Guildford. These are the two chief rivers in the county, and they join the Thames at Molesey and Weybridge respectively. The northern slopes of the Downs are flanked by a narrow strip of Lower London Tertiary beds, the southern by narrow bands of Upper Greensand and Gault. These beds, like the chalk, have a wider extent in the east than in the west. To the south of the Gault we find a wide band of Lower Greensand, which narrows eastward. On this greensand is found the highest land in the county, Leith Hill (965 ft.) near the centre, and Devil’s Punch Bowl (895 ft.) in the west. The rest of the county, except for a small triangle of Hastings beds in the extreme south-east, is composed of Weald clay. The chief evidence of the presence of Palaeolithic man in Surrey comes from various gravels near Limpsfield (in the east of the county), near Guildford and Godalming, and near Farnham. The Weald region in early times was very thickly forested, and traces of Neolithic man, indicated by finds of implements, are therefore most numerous on the chalk and greensand, especially in the west, but finds of this age are not rare on the lower lands in the northeast of the county. Bronze weapons have not been found in such great numbers as those of stone, but their distributions are, roughly, coincident except that the metal weapons have been found at several places along the Thames. Near the chalk ridge of the North downs runs the ancient track of the Pilgrims’ way. A track here was used in very early times to connect the cultural centre of Kent with Hants and Wiltshire; in the middle ages the route regained importance as the path of pilgrims from the west to the shrine of St. Thomas at Canterbury. The Romans did not occupy Surrey very closely, but there are traces of their influences in the remains of one or two small settlements and a few villas. The county was penetrated by the English invaders at a fairly early date, and its position between the Thames and the Weald decided its northern and southern borders. The Kentish boundary probably dates from the battle of Wibbandune, between Ethelbert of Kent and Ceawlin of Wessex, while the western limit in a wild, uncultivated district was not then strictly defined. In the 7th century Surrey was under the overlordship of Wulfhere, king of Mercia, who founded Chertsey abbey, but in 823, when the Mercians were defeated by Egbert of Wessex, it was included in the kingdom of Wessex, as the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle relates. Surrey was constantly overrun by Danish hordes in the gth century and until peace was established by the accession of Canute. In 857 a great national victory over the Danes took place at Ockley, near Leith Hill. The Norman army traversed and ravaged the county in their march on London. A large portion of the county having been in the hands of Edward and Harold, fell to the share of William himself; his most important tenants in chief being Odo of Bayeux and Richard de Tonebridge, son of Count Gilbert, afterwards “de Clare.” The church also had large possessions in the county, the abbey of Chertsey being the largest monastic

house. At the time of the Domesday survey the number of hundreds was 14 as now, but the hundred of Farnham was not g called, the lands of the bishop of Winchester being placed in no hundred, but coinciding with the present hundred of that name

The western boundary of the county was probably definitely fixed

about this time.

Until quite recently Surrey had never been in

any diocese but Winchester, of which it was an archdeaconry in the 12th century. Croydon was a peculiar of Canterbury, in whig,

diocese it was included in 1291. The shire court was almost cer. tainly held at Guildford, the seat of the royal court at times during the reigns of John and Henry III. From 1290 to 1832 the shire returned two knights to parliament

There have been several adjustments of electoral divisions since 1832.

Architecture.—The only ecclesiastical ruins worthy of special

mention are the walls of Newark priory, near Woking, founded for

Augustinians in the time of Richard Coeur de Lion; and the Early

English crypt and part of the refectory of Waverley abbey, the earliest house of the Cistercians in England, founded in 1129

Among the more interesting churches are Albury (the old church), near Guildford, the tower of which is of Saxon or very early Norman date; Beddington, a fine example of Perpendicular; Chaldon, remarkable for its fresco wall-paintings of the 12th century, dis. covered during restoration in 1870; Compton, worthy of notice for its two-storeyed chancel and its carved wooden balustrade

surmounting the pointed transitional Norman arch which separates

the nave from the chancel; Leigh, Perpendicular, possessing some very fine brasses of the 15th century; Lingfield, Perpendicular, containing some fine stalls (the church was formerly collegiate):

Ockham, chiefly Decorated, with a lofty embattled tower; Stoke d’Abernon, Early English, with the earliest extant English brass (1277). Of ancient domestic architecture, examples include Beddington Hall, retaining the hall of the Elizabethan building: Crowhurst Place, built in the time of Henry VII.; portions of Croydon palace, an ancient seat of the archbishops of Canterbury; the gate tower of Esher Place, built by a bishop of Winchester, and repaired by Cardinal Wolsey; Archbishop Abbot’s hospital, Guildford, in the Tudor style; the Elizabethan house of Loseley near Guildford; Sutton Place near Woking, dating from the time of Henry VIII , possessing curious mouldings and ornaments in terra cotta; and Ham House, of red brick, dating from 1610.

Industries.—Surrey was at first agricultural. The stone quarries of Limpsfield and the chalk of the Downs were early used, the latter chiefly for lime-making. Fuller’s earth was obtained from Reigate and Nutfield; and the facilities afforded by many small streams, and the excellent sheep pasture, made it of

Importance in the manufacture of cloth, of which Guildford was a centre. Glass, at Chiddingfold as early as 1266, and iron were made in the Weald district, whose forests produced the necessary charcoal for smelting. The ironworks of Surrey were of less importance, and much later in development than those of Kent and Sussex, owing to the want of good roads or waterways, but the increasing demand for ordnance in the 16th century led to the spread of the industry northward; the most considerable works being at Haslemere. Chilworth was famous for its powder mills in the 16th century. The earliest Delft ware manufactory in England was at Lambeth, which remains a centre of earthenware manufacture. The total acreage under crops and grass in 1926 was 458,211, of which 74,788 ac. were arable land. Oats and wheat were the chief grain crops, root crops occupied about one-third the acreage of the corn, while the area under potatoes was just over 4,000 acres. Clover and rotation grasses for hay took up 10,051 ac., and the acreage of the orchards was 1,841. The cattle are chiefly of the dairy type, the milk being sent to London, while sheep are reared on the chalk downs. A considerable area is occupied by market gardens on the alluvial soil along the banks of the Thames. The county is chiefly residential, for those people who have business interests in London, and manufactures are not of outstanding importance. The more important are chiefly confined to

London and its immediate neighbourhood.

They include cloth,

calicoes, drugs, tobacco, etc. Communications include the naviga-

SURROGATE—SURVEYING tion of the Thames and Wey, and the Basingstoke canal, communicating with the Wey from Frimley and Woking. The county is served by the Southern railway, whose lines intersect the county from north to south and from east to west. Near Croydon is the

London terminal aerodrome.

Population and Administration.—The population in 1801 was 268,233, and in 1851, 683,082. In 1888, part of the county was transferred to the county of London. The area of the administrative county is now 461,833 ac., with a population

(1931) of 1,180,810. The county contains 14 hundreds. Croydon is a county borough, and the other municipal boroughs are Godalming, Guildford, Kingston, Reigate, Richmond, Wimbledon. There are seven parliamentary divisions—Chertsey, Farnham, Mitcham, Epsom, Eastern, Reigate, Guildford; each returning one member. The borough of Croydon returns two members to parliament and the boroughs of Richmond, Kingston and Wimbledon one member each. Guildford and Kingston are the county-towns. The assizes are held at Kingston, and the County Council sits in the County hall at Kingston. The county has one court of quarter sessions which is held at Kingston; Croydon and Guildford have separate courts of quarter sessions. The county is in the south-eastern circuit, while the central criminal court has jurisdiction over certain parishes adjacent to London. All those civil parishes within the county of Surrey, of which any part is within 12 m. of, or of which no part is more than 15 m. from, Charing Cross, are in the metropolitan police district. The county is mainly in the new diocese of Guildford, recently divided off from that of Winchester. See Topley’s Geology of the Weald and Whitaker’s Geology of London Basin, forming part of the Memoirs of Geological Survey of United Kingdom (1875); J. Aubrey, Natural History and Antiquities of Surrey (5 vols., 1728-19) ; D. Lysons, Environs of London (s vols., 1800-11) ; Baxter, Domesday Book of Surrey (1876) ; O. Manning and W. Bray, History and Antiquities of Surrey (3 vols., 1804-14) ;'E. W. Brayley, Topographical History of Surrey (5 vols., 1841—48) ; another edition, revised by E. Walford (1878); Archaeological Collections (Surrey Archaeological Society; from 1858) ; Victoria County History: Surrey (4 vols.).

SURROGATE, a deputy of a bishop or an ecclesiastical Judge, acting in the absence of his principal and strictly bound by the authority of the latter (Lat. surrogare, to substitute for). Canon 128 of the canons of 1603 lays down the qualifications necessary for the office of surrogate, and canon 123 the regulations for the appointment to the office. The office is of some importance in the United States as denoting the judge to whom the jurisdiction of the probate of wills, the grant of administration and of guardianship is confided.

SURTAX. In Great Britain and the United States, a tax imposed in pursuance of the principle of graduating the taxation of income according to the principle of “ability.” The British tax originated in the “super-tax,” which was first imposed in rgoo. Whether named super-tax or surtax, the impost is in reality a supplementary income tax. In the British financial year 1927-8 the name “super-tax” was dropped in favour of “surtax.” The British surtax is assessed separately from the income tax. For further details about the British and American rates of tax imposed see Income Tax: Jn Practice and SuPER-TAX. SURTEES, ROBERT SMITH (1803-1864), English novelist and sporting writer, was the second son of Anthony Surtees of Hamsterley Hall, Durham. Educated to be a solicitor, Surtees soon began to contribute to the Sporting Magazine, and in 1831 he published a treatise on the law relating to horses and particularly the law of warranty, entitled The Horseman’s Manual.

In the following year he helped to found the New Sporting M agazine, of which he was the editor for the next five years. To this periodical he contributed between 1832 and 1834 the papers which were afterwards collected and published in 1838 as Jorrocks’s Jaunts and Jollities. This humorous narrative of the sporting experlences of a cockney grocer, which suggested the more famous

Pickwick Papers of Charles Dickens, is the work by which Surtees

ts chiefly remembered, though his novel Handley Cross, published in 1843, in which the character of “Jorrocks” is reintroduced as a master of fox-hounds, also enjoyed a wide popularity.

609

The former of these two books was illustrated by “Phiz” (H. K. Browne), and the latter, as well as most of Surtees’s subsequent novels, by John Leech, whose pictures of “Jorrocks” are everywhere familiar and were the chief means of ensuring the lasting popularity of that humorous creation. Surtees wrote other novels, the last of which, Mr. Facey Romford’s Hounds (1865), appeared after the author’s death (March 16, 1864). See R. S. Surtees, Jorrocks’s Jaunts and Jollities (London, 1869), containing a biographical memoir of the author; W. P. Frith, John Leech, His Life and Work (2 vols., London, r891); Samuel Halkett and J. Laing, Dictionary of Anonymous and Pseudonymous Literature of Great Britain (4 vols., Edinburgh, 1882—1888).

SURVEYING, the technical term for the art of determining

the position of objects on the surface of the ground, for the purpose of making therefrom a graphic representation of the area

surveyed. The general principles on which surveys are conducted and maps constructed from such data are in all instances the same; certain measures are made on the ground, and corresponding measures are protracted on paper on whatever scale may be a convenient fraction of the natural scale. The method of surveying varies with the magnitude of the survey, which may embrace an empire or represent a small plot of land. All surveys rest primarily on linear measurements for the direct determination of distances; but linear measurement is often supplemented by angular measurement which enables distances to be determined by principles of geometry over areas which cannot be conveniently measured directly.

History.—It is very probable that surveying had its origin in ancient Egypt. But long before the dynastic period in Egypt, we may imagine that neolithic man was able, like the savages of to-day, to make a rough kind of map based on his journeys, or a primitive plan to show tribal or property boundaries. Apart from such speculations, however, we find, in a Theban tomb of the XVIII. dynasty, a plan of the villa of a great Egyptian noble: in the tomb of one Menna at Thebes, there is a representation on the walls of two chainmen surveying a field of corn: and in Ptolemaic and Roman papyri in the same country, measurements

of plots of land are described. That the early Egyptians could carry out measurements with a considerable degree of accuracy, is certain from a study of the dimensions of the Great Pyramid. In Roman times we meet with the groma, which consists of two pairs of plumb-lines suspended from the ends of two horizontal rods, at right angles to each other: the use of the instrul ment being to lay out lines at right-angles. The metal parts of one of these gromas was found in 1012, in Pompeii. An early groma of the same type, but rougher construction has been found in Egypt. The Romans also used to foot rods, and bronze terminal pieces of such rods have been found at Enns in Austria, the foot in this case being 13-2 inches. The Romans certainly made use of an instrument not unlike the plane-table for deterSe mining the alignment of their | roads. The Greeks used a form of “Af,Set Vile GW log line for recording the distances run from point to point BUREAU OF BY COURTESY OF THE US along the coast whilst making RECLAMATION their slow voyage from the Indus A PLAN MADE BY GEORGE WASHINGTON IN 1746, INSCRIBED IN HIS to the Persian gulf three cenOWN HANDWRITING turies B.c. Still earlier (as early as 1600 B.C.) it is said that the Chinese knew the value of the loadstone and possessed some form of magnetic compass. The earliest maps of which we have any record were based on inaccurate astronomical determinations; not till mediaeval times, when the Arabs made use of the astrolabe (q.v.), could nautical surveying really be said to begin. In 1450 the Arabs were acquainted with the use of the compass, and could make charts of the coast-line of those countries which they visited. In 1498 Vasco da Gama saw

610

SURVEYING

a chart of the coast-line of India, which was shown him by a Gujarati. Plane-tables were in use in Europe in the 16th century and the principle of graphic triangulation and intersection was practised by surveyors in England and elsewhere. In 1615, Willebrord Snell, the Dutch mathematician, measured an arc of meridian, by instrumental triangulation. The Different Kinds of Surveys.—Surveys may be classed in a variety of different ways. We may describe them by their scales, as large-scale or small-scale; the large-scale surveys would be those on a scale larger than, let us say, 1:25,000. On the other hand small-scale surveys would be those on scales of 1:25,000, and smaller. Or we may describe surveys by the technical method employed. Thus we sometimes find the expressions, trigonometrical survey, compass survey, chain survey. Or surveys may be described by the purpose for which they are carried out. There are for instance, geodetic surveys, of which one of the chief objects will be the furtherance of the study of the figure of the earth and allied matters; cadastral surveys, whose purpose is to facilitate the collection of land revenue; hydrographic surveys, the purpose of which is the production of charts of the sea, for use in navigation; railway surveys, which are carried out to enable a line of railway to be economically located; and so on. Or we may describe a survey by the character of the resulting map. A topographical survey is intended to determine and depict the relative positions of the surface features of the earth, such features being either natural or artificial, A topographical map differs from a cadastral map in that the latter does not show any natural surface features which do not affect property boundaries.

Methods of Survey.—The simplest and most ancient method of making a plan or map is by means of direct measurement on the ground, with a rope, a chain, or a tape, of known length, suitably divided. As a simple illustration let us take the case of a level field of which a plan is wanted. Suppose the field is as represented in fig. 1, the boundaries of the field being the irregular lines ABCD. Then, to survey this field with a chain or tape, put pickets at the points ABCD, somewhere near the corners of the field, these four points being intervisible and the lines between them being free from obstruction. Then measure, with the chain or tape, the direct straight-line distances, AB, BC, CA, AD, DC, BD. This will provide the necessary frame-work. It will be seen that for the plotting of the frame-work, only one diagonal, that is, either AC, or BD, is required. The measurement of both gives a check on the work and shows the surveyor how much reliance he can place on his measurements; it also enables gross errors to be detected. This principle of providing checks, and of never depending upon one measurement, is of great importance. To survey the irregular boundaries, all that is necessary is to measure “offsets” from the main chain lines, at known distances along the lines, and to note these in the field book. The offsets are measured with an offset rod or a tape at right-angles to the chain line. With all this information in the field book there is no difficulty in plotting the plan on paper to any scale that may be required. It 1s usual to lay down some limit for the offsets. ie

i!

f

An elaboration of this simple yethod is the scheme which was dopted by the Ordnance Survey fos Great Britain and Ireland, when large-scale surveys were first commenced officially in1825. The country was covered with a triangulation, of which the sides FIG. 1 averaged, for the original six-inch map, some 5 miles. Each of the sides of these triangles was chained, and notes were made in the field book of points where the chain lines crossed detail, such as edges of roads, banks of streams, hedges, walls, and so on. The great triangles were broken up by other chain lines into smaller triangles, and lines tying on to these at their extremities were run along the detail to be surveyed, offsets being measured as usually.

Modern Methods——We may now consider the system which

[METHODs

would be adopted in a perfectly up-to-date, modern state, In such a case, there would be a geodetic survey covering the whole

country with a system of triangulation of the first order: that is to say, the country would be reconnoitred beforehand, and muty.

ally intervisible stations would be selected, some ten to thirty or forty miles apart, covering the country with a net-work, or series of chains, of triangles. At the apices of these triangles horizontal

and vertical angles would be observed with a theodolite; one of the triangles would be connected with a measured side, called the base or base-line. From the known length of this side the lengths

of all the other sides would be calculated. The latitude and longitude of one point in the triangulation would be determined by as-

tronomical means, and also the true bearing of one line is obtained: it is then clearly possible to determine the latitude and longitude of every other point. The meaning of the term “first order,” used above, is that the average triangular error of the net-work, or system of chains, of triangles, that is, the error of the sum of the 3 angles of a triangle, should not exceed one second. Now we have to hang all other surveys upon this frame-work. A

frame-work of the kind described has the fixed points too widely separated to be of much use for the detail survey, so the first thing to be done is to provide a closer frame-work; and this would usually be done by executing another triangulation, of less accuracy than the first, but depending upon it. There would be more points in this secondary triangulation, and the points would be distant from each other some 5 to ro miles. The triangular error would not exceed 5 seconds. If now it were required to make a map on a scale of, say, 1:100,000 the frame-work would

be sufficiently close, and the detail could, in suitable country, be carried out by plane-tabling which would be based upon the points so provided. But, if it were required to construct a map on a large, cadastral scale, more fixed points still would be needed, and atertiary triangulation would be carried out, depending upon the secondary work. This tertiary triangulation would have its points only a mile or two apart, and its triangular error would not exceed 15 seconds. It is now customary to classify a triangulation according to its accuracy, thus, a triangulation of the rst order has a triangular error not exceeding 1 second; a triangulation of the and order has a triangular error not exceeding 5 seconds; a triangulation of the third order has a triangular error not exceeding 15 seconds; and one of the 4th order has a triangular error greater than 15 seconds. But it will easily be imagined that certain areas do not readily lend themselves to triangulating, and in such areas, occasionally, traversing is resorted to for the frame-work. This will be described later. Also, in the rapid exploration of a new country it may be necessary that the frame-work be astronomical. But this is an inaccurate make-shift, and should always be avoided whenever possible. It should be emphasized that whatever may be the extent of the area to be surveyed, whether it be a backyard or a continent, the area should be dealt with as a whole, and the frame-work should be designed to stiffen the whole area. Anyone who is charged with the execution of a survey should, therefore, carefully consider how he can best design the control or frame-work.

Bases.—The length of every side in a triangulation depends

upon the length of the measured side, called the base, or base-line. Bases for geodetic work are measured with very great refinement, and the probable error of such a base would be of the order of

one in one-million.

Such bases in times past have been measured

with glass rods, wooden rods, steel bars, brass and steel. But now almost every for geodetic purposes, or for secondary topographical work, would be measured

and compound bars of accurate base, whether work, or for very good with metallic (usually

invar) wires or tapes supported in catenary, i.e., allowed to hang

free in a natural curve, being slung over trestles. Invar 1s an alloy of steel and nickel, containing 36% of the latter, and this alloy is used because it has the smallest known expansion of any metal or alloy. Invar wires and tapes require, however, careful handling, and testing, and on this account are not freely used for rapid topographical bases. It is possible to get quite good

SURVEYING

METHODS]

results from the use of ordinary steel (not invar) tapes laid along the surface of the ground. Let us then, take the case of the measurement

of a topo-

graphical base with steel tapes laid along the ground. The first thing to do is to select the site and the positions of the terminal points. These must be so chosen that well-conditioned triangles can be built up on the base, connecting it with the main points of the triangulation. (See fig. 2.)

Then the site must be cleared of obstructions, and small undulations levelled. Then the base terminals must be marked, and a theodolite set up over one of them and directed to a pole put | up over the other.

Intermediate

|

marks, in the form of pickets | driven in flush with the ground, | should be fixed. The actual measurement is made with a steel

611

or micrometer microscopes. The whole is supported by a pedestal resting on footscrews, which are also employed to level the instrument. The size has varied from a minimum with circles 2} in. in diameter to a maximum with a 36-in. horizontal and an 18-in. vertical circle, but these very large circles are now obsolete owing to improvements in dividing machines. The largest now in use is 12 in. in diameter. As an example of a modern theodolite suitable for use in topographical or exploratory surveying, we may take a 5-inch transit theodolite, fitted with micrometer microscopes. The accompanying fig. (3) shows such an instrument by Messrs. Cooke, Troughton and Simms.

The instrument rests on a tripod

stand, which is not shown in the figure. The levelling base has three screws. The horizontal and vertical reading circles are 5 in. in diameter, and are each read, by two microscopes, by estimation to single seconds. The telescope, which can be completely rotated in its horizontal bearings, has a magnification of 25. The

instrument packs up in two boxes for transport.

tape, kept at a fixed tension with a spring balance, and marks are

Excellent work

has been done with such a theodolite all over the world. It does not appear desirable to give a more elaborate description, for the made on the tops of the pickets, Fig. 2 which are at tape-lengths from centre to centre; the tops of the use of such an instrument can only be acquired by practice. Triangulation.—This may be carried out either in the form pickets may be conveniently covered with strips of zinc, on these strips the positions of the ends of the tape are marked when meas- of chain or of a net-work (fig. 4). In a small country even the uring. A convenient length of tape is 300 ft., with a width of 3 first-order triangulation might cover the land with a net-work, inch. A convenient tension is 20 pounds. A base so measured with sides about 30 miles long; and this was done in the case of requires corrections for standard, temperature, slope if any, and the British Isles. But in large countries such as India or the height above sea. The chief difficulty in this sort of measurement United States a very considerable saving of time and money is effected by running chains of triangles, generally north and is to ascertain the temperature of the tape. A base of this kind might be some two or three miles long; south, or east and west. Second order work may also be either in but it should be remembered that it is more important to be the form of chains or of a net-work; it would be dependent on the able to extend the base by well-conditioned triangles than to first order work, if that existed. Third order work, which is required by the detail surveyors, measure a long base. The base having been measured, it is now would usually cover the ground necessary to proceed with the execution of the triangulation.

Fig. 2 shows the base extension, and in the case shown, the longest side reached is more than 8 times the length of the base, so that if the base were 2 miles long, the side of the main triangulation would be more than 16 m. long. The process of triangulating consists of observing the angles at the apices of the triangles and at the two ends of the base. The apices and the ends of the base must be marked. The permanence of the marks will depend upon the character of the triangulation. Thus, in first-order work, a mark-stone would be buried deep in the soil, and isolated from the platform surrounding it. Vertically over the mark, when the observations were finished, a stone pillar would be built. In such work the signals would be luminous, either lamps or heliographs. But in work of a lower order the marks would usu- | ally be opaque; various different patterns have been used, poles, baskets, quadripods and so on. In very rapid work the tops of

spires, pagodas, temples, or solitary trees are observed too; in some cases it has been found to be useful to clear a hill of all trees but one. In very rough work sometimes the tops of prominent hills are used, without any mark. The angles at these trigono-

BY COURTESY OF MESSRS. AND SIMMS, LTD

metrical points of whatever order, Fig. 3.—FIVE-INCH

COOKE,

TROUGHTON

MICROMETER

are invariably observed with a THEODOLITE theodolite, and as this is without doubt the most important of all

surveying instruments, it is desirable to give a description of it. The Theodolite.—The theodolite is a surveying instrument consisting of two graduated circles placed at right angles to each other, for the measurement of horizontal and vertical angles, a telescope, which turns on axes mounted centrically to the circles, and an alidade for each circle, which carries two or more verniers

ZARIN | “ple

At each station of the triangulation the theodolite is centred over the station mark and one of the distant stations is taken as the Referring Object and the other stations are also observed PART OF A in turn. The first station should NET-WORK read about. o°, the base plate being so set, and then the other FIG. 4 stations would be observed in order and the round of angles would close again on the first station. If this round were taken with the telescope to the right, the next round would be taken with the telescope to the left. The number of rounds taken will depend on the order of the work, the zero being shifted at each round, or at each alternate round. For rapid work a good system would be First zero, 0°o’, telescope right; Second zero 225° 1’ left. Telescope right is sometimes called “Face Right,” and telescope left, “Face Left.” The angles having been all booked, the means are taken, and if each angle of a triangle has been observed, it is clear that the sum of the three angles should add up to 180°, plus the spherical excess, an excess which is due to the fact that the earth’s surface is not plane, but is curved. Spherical excess varies directly as the area of the triangle, and may be taken to amount to 1-32 seconds for every hundred square miles, and other areas in proportion. It is generally neglected in rough work, and the excess or defect of the sum of the three angles of a triangle is, in such work, distributed equally amongst the three angles. Thus, if the sum of the three observed angles amounted to 180° 1’ 30”, each observed angle would be diminished by 30” for use in the computations. Computations.—Over large areas, and in work which is likely to be extended to great distances, or in which, for some special reason, the geographical positions are required, it is necessary to calculate for each trigonometrical station its latitude and longitude, starting from some station for which these elements are known. But, in the case of small or isolated surveys, such elaboration is unnecessary, and we can proceed as follows:—Take anv

A CHAIN OF TRIANGLES

one station as the origin, and the meridian through that stat?

612

SURVEYING

[TOPOGRAPHICAL

as the initial meridian; then, having observed an azimuth, or true taken on two staves, usually some ten feet long; each staff gradubearing, at the origin, we shall know the azimuth of each line which ated in feet and tenths of feet, and hundredths may be estimated radiates from the origin Then if J; is the length of one of these TOPOGRAPHICAL SURVEYS lines, and if æ is the angle which it makes with the initial meThe British empire affords examples of all possible methods of ridian, then J; cosa is the north-south co-ordinate, and /; sina is the east-west co-ordinate of the end of that line. For lines the survey for, and preparation of, topographical maps. radiating from the end of the line in question, if B be the angle Great Britain itself is one of the few countries in which al] that one of them makes with a line parallel to the initial meridian, mapping is combined under one department and in which the then if J, be the length of this second line, the co-ordinates of the expense of duplicating surveys for different purposes is avoided end of it with reference to the beginning will be J, cos® and The six-inch plans are used in the field for a special revision l, sing, so that the co-ordinates of any point in the triangulation, arranged to secure the correct information for small scale maps with reference to the origin, will be 1,cosa +/, cos@6 +13 cosy The small scale maps are then drawn for reproduction by helio. +... , and i sine+h sin8+/; siny-+ ... Each point in the zincography, each scale serving as a basis for the next in order. Canada supplies excellent examples of topographical mapping triangulation can now be plotted with reference to the origin and the initial meridian, due regard being paid to the signs of the trigo- and particularly so in photographic method. The one inch maps nometrical functions. With these co-ordinates available it is, of of areas in the Rocky mountains are made by ground photographic course, easy to compute the distance of any one point in the tri- methods. A control of triangulated points is first established. The photographic party is equipped with theodolites and cameras which angulation from any other point. In using this simple method, we have assumed that the earth’s fit upon the same stands. The cameras are so used that each surface is plane; actually it is a spheroidal surface. The errors portion of the ground to be mapped is photographed from two involved are chiefly in a north-south direction. At sixty miles’ points of view on plates held in the vertical plane. The position distance from the origin the error amounts to şm, and the of the ‘camera is resected with the theodolite. The plotting is error increases as the square of the distance, so that at roo miles carried out during the winter recess, each photographic view being the error is ¢+, and if we were content with this error as a used as a record of angular measurement both horizontal and vertical. Positions are established by the intersections of rays. maximum, we could survey 200 miles on this system. The survey of the Orange Free State in the Dominion of South Heights.—Points fixed as above described, and plotted on paper at intervals of, say, four or five inches, give a sufficient control for Africa is an example of a plane table survey in country admirably the horizontal work of the detail surveyor; but he will also suited to its use. The total area of over 50,000 square miles was require a frame-work of heights if he is to contour, or approxi- mapped in 6 years by a Colonial Survey Section of 2 officers and 4 mately contour, the terrain. Heights may be determined in a non-commissioned officers, R.E. There already existed, in parts of variety of ways and with several degrees of accuracy; the most the area, chains of the Geodetic Survey of South Africa. Based on accurate method, and at the same time, the slowest and most this triangulation, the officers of the party extended a ruling triexpensive, is levelling, which will be dealt with later. The next angulation of a secondary nature (mean triangular error of less method in order of accuracy is trigonometrical determination by than 3 seconds). The sides of this triangulation varied from ro vertical angles, taken with a theodolite, and this will now be briefly to 45 miles. A tertiary triangulation, completed with a free use described. On the same day that the horizontal angles are observed of intersection and interpolation, resulted in a fixed position and at a trigonometrical station, vertical angles are observed to all the height every 4 or 5 miles. Plane tabling was carried out at the distant marks, and are read on the vertical circle of the theodolite. scale of is each field sheet including 15 minutes of latitude It has been found by experience that vertical refraction is least and longitude. Progress averaged six or seven square miles per during the middle of the day, and vertical angles would, there- man per diem. An example of a different class of survey in much more difffore, be taken between noon and three. It is best to eliminate refraction as far as possible by observing vertical angles at each cult country is to be found in the forest regions of the Gold of the two stations of which the difference of height is required. Coast and Sierra Leone. There is little triangulation available, Then it is easily shown that, if one angle is an elevation, E, and nor would it be possible without heavy expense. The control, the angle at the other station is a depression, D», then the dif- mainly astronomical and widely spaced, is provided by a special party equipped with theodolite and wireless receiving set. The Ea + De ference of height is ctan ; or if both are depressions,— detail party traverses along cleared paths with chain and compass 2 between control points. The triangles are then cut up by a number which may often happen with long rays,—the difference of height of rope and sound traverses. Along the main traverses lines of . D ,—D is ctan =, c being the distance between the two stations. If rough levelling are run, and aneroid barometers are carried on 2 the minor traverses. Field work is at the two-inch scale and each only one angle has been observed, it will be necessary to correct traverse Is adjusted and compiled on a final compilation. this for refraction and curvature; the average amount of this corPlane Tabling.—The plane table is merely a flat board which rection may be taken as roughly about 44 seconds for every can be attached to a tripod. The board varies in dimensions thousand feet of horizontal distance between the stations, and from 40 in. to 18 in. a side, a convenient size being 2418 inches. for other distances in proportion. Barometers are best used for The board itself is generally made of wood, sometimes fitted with determining differences of height, and not absolute heights. All aluminium corners and fittings. Underneath, the board is strapped heights should, when possible, be based on some determination of with metal, and has in the centre a ring with arrangements for mean sea-level, which is now the universally accepted datum. attachment to the tripod. The tripod, of three girder pattern Levelling.—A “Level” is an optical surveying instrument, legs of light wood, can be clamped to the board or left friction

which, when in adjustment, has its line of collimation horizontal; that is, the intersection of the cross-wires will cut an object, seen through the telescope, on the same horizontal plane as the optical axis. In using a level there is no need to consider the curvature of the earth, because the distances between the level and the forward and back level-staves are always kept short; in good work

such a distance should not exceed so yards. If the distances in question are always kept approximately equal, any error due to

faulty collimation will tend to disappear. Excellent modern levels are now made which enable the observer to read the bubble without moving from the eye end of the telescope, and the instru-

ment is finally levelled before the reading is taken. Readings are

tight to allow of rotation.

Plane tables designed for large scale

surveying often include a ball and socket joint for levelling, and an instrumental slow motion in azimuth. For topographical survey the board and legs are left as simple and light as possible. On

the table is mounted drawing paper or some form of celluloid. The principal accessory to the plane table is the sight vane or

alidade, which is merely a ruler with sighting vanes which can be raised or lowered at will. For engineering surveys at a largish scale a telescope with stadia hairs and vertical circle is added to the alidade. A box compass and some form of clinometer for measuring slopes or vertical angles complete the outfit. ag The first step in the field is to set the board. To do so it 18

SURVEYING

OPTICAL METHODS]

613

only necessary to set a line a.b. on the board parallel to A.B. |The observer plotted his bearings and lengths on squared paper at 6 inches to the mile, including the mapping of detail and contours. at A.—the planetabler revolves his board until he sees B. On reaching the closing point the traverse was adjusted graphically through the sight vanes. Lines can then be drawn from a. towards to its correct length, reduced to 3 inches to the mile and plotted

on the ground. The alidade is laid on the line ab. and—standing

any other points on the landscape. Similar lines from b. intersecting those from a. will then fix the positions. This intersection

is an important factor in plane tabling. Even though the topographer may be given many control points fixed by the theodolite, he must amplify that control for the detail surveying he has to do. As a general rule then intersection is used today in providing the minor control for tomorrow. The actual mapping is based mainly

on the process known as interpolation, resection, or “making the point.” This is simply to find, from the positions of three or more control points, the position at which the table is set up. There are several methods of resection, the simplest of which will be described briefly: The board is roughly

set and

rays

are

drawn

backwards

from

three control points towards the observer; the alidade being aligned on each in turn, so that it touches its plotted position. If the board has been truly set these rays will all pass through a point. If not, the

true position of the observer will be nearest to the ray from the

nearest point, furthest from

the ray from the most

if the three control points lie round and outside position will be within the triangle of error.

distant.

Again

the observer his

If the observer is outside

his points his position is outside the triangle of error. At each point so fixed the topographer sketches in the detail immediately around him, on directions drawn along the alidade, and

at distances which are measured tachymetrically or by pacing or estimation. Heights are fixed by observing angles of elevation or depression and multiplying their tangents by the distances. In average country a topographer will survey a square mile

or so per diem on the one inch scale, but his rate will depend greatly upon his transport. Even at such scales as 3 inches to the mile, where the amount of detail: to be shown demands intensive surveying rather than fast movement, a bicycle or some other transport is advisable. The scales suitable for plane tabling lie between a quarter inch and three inches to the mile. At larger scales the plane table may still be and often is used, but more as a record of instrumental measurement and less purely graphically. Traversing.—A traverse consists of measured lengths connected by measured angles. A traverse may end upon itself forming a complete figure, in which case it is called a closed traverse. More commonly it starts from one point of the triangulation and ends upon another. In cities, forests, or other areas of little visi-

on the plane table. Errors were, in general, of the order of gs. The triangle of traverses was then cut up by minor traverses running straight and parallel at 200 feet intervals. These traverses were compass and “rattan” (a long creeper, marked to length, and compared each day with a standard chain). The detail and contours were mapped during the course of the traverse which was plotted direct on the plane table and seldom showed need af adjustment.

As explained above traverses which are graphic in principle are adjusted graphically and proportionally. In adjusting instrumental (or booked) traverses the normal rule is to adjust as follows :— As the arithmetical sum of all x’s (or y’s) is to any one x (or y), so is the whole error in x’s (or y’s) to the correction to the corresponding x (or y).

An adjustment on these lines gives equal weight to angular and linear measurement and admits the fact that there is, in general, no evidence on which to give preference among (i.e., to weight) the measurements. OPTICAL

METHODS

OF MEASURING

DISTANCES

The optical methods of distance measurement which are here dealt with are those which depend upon the measurement of a length from a small base at one end and the angle subtended by that base at the other. They include a number of alternatives. For example the base may be fixed or variable, the subtended

angle variable or fixed.

The base may be at the observer's end

or the far end, may be vertical or horizontal, whilst the angle may be measured by hairs or lines in the focal plane, by a micrometer scale in the focal plane, by repetition measurement on

the horizontal arc, or by optical devices actually included in the base apparatus. The earliest form development took was in the use of fixed stadia hairs in the focal plane, reading, according to distance, a variable length on a vertical graduated staff. This method was later called tachymetry, or tacheometry (quick measurement) by the Italian Porro. Tacheometry or tachymetry was first outlined and applied by the English astronomer Gascoigne in 1639. Montanari, a Venetian doctor, constructed and used an instrument of similar principle in 1674. James Watt used it for surveying in the West bility, the whole control may consist of a net-work of traverses. of Scotland from 1771 onwards, and William Green, a London The lengths or “legs” of the traverse may be measured in many optician, did much to develop the method by the publication of a ways. In control traversing invar or steel tapes are used in cate- description in 1778. (Description and use of an improved Renary (as in base measurement) or laid flat; in both cases under flecting and Refracting Telescope and Scales for Surveying.) tension. For topographical surveying legs are measured with tapes The unequal effect of refraction on the top and bottom lines of or chains, ropes or rattans, by cyclometer or by pacing. They may sight was understood by Green who called attention to the adalso be measured optically with rangefinder, telemeter, subtense vantage of a horizontal, as opposed to a vertical, angular measurebar, or tachymeter. In geographical surveying, distances may be ment. Nevertheless the practical convenience of the vertical determined by observed differences of latitude on observed azi- staff has made it the most popular. Methods in which the base muths, or estimated from the time taken to travel over them on is variable but horizontal, that is a horizontal tachymetry, are foot, horse, camel or motor car. Any class of precision may in sometimes known by the term telemetry. Methods in which fact be obtained, varying in fractional error from moo tO i. the base is fixed (and generally horizontal) and angles read on the The angles of a traverse may be measured with theodolite or theodolite arcs are known as subtense, whilst the fixed base which compass, may be obtained graphically on the plane table, or includes its own system of angular measurement is commonly estimated from the direction of a sound, generally in the form of called rangefinding. The use of the various terms is, however, a prearranged call or whistle from a forward observer. and must be, elastic.

In the topographical survey of a new country various classes

of traversing may occur. In the Federated Malay States and In West African Colonies, precise traverses with a linear error of about s have been used as a framework or control. In the actual detail survey of forest regions minor traverses fill up the

gaps between more precise and costly control traverses and afford opportunity of plotting detail. Examples of Topographical Traverses which will explain the procedure are given below.

Tachymettry.—A tachymeter (or tacheometer), in its simplest form, is only a theodolite, or telescopic alidade, provided with two horizontal wires fixed in the diaphragm at equal distances from the axis. These wires, read against a vertical graduated staff at the distant point, measure an intercept “a.” The distance between the wires is so arranged that the required length “s” is some fixed multiple “k” of “a” (k usually = 100) although certain corrections may have to be applied.

In a recent three inch to one mile survey in Johore, the trigo-

The theodolite still most commonly used has a biconvex object

hometrical control consisted of a number of points assumed as

glass and an eyepiece, and it can be shown that the point at which the subtended angle is constant lies not on the vertical axis but at a distance in front equal to f-+c, where f is the focai

errorless. Between them were run traverses with the compass and chain. The course of the traverse was cut as straight as possible.

SURVEYING

614.

[CONTOURING

length at stellar focus, and c is the distance of the centre of the | the square of the distance) and that they may be expected i, reach at least one part in four hundred.

object glass to the diaphragm,

then s=k. a+ (f+ c). (k if not known must be determined by experiment.) Used in this general form for many years, the inconvenience of the constant computation of (f+c) has led to the use of an “anallatic,” or converging, lens between the object glass and the

Tachymetry

is a medium

scale method

suitable to engineering surveys,

above

and is particularly

or below ground.

It js

used perhaps more than any other for continental topographical

surveys at scales of æə OY mow but is unsuitable alike for

the 25 inch mapping of the United Kingdom or the small scale mapping of the Empire overseas. Used on the plane table the

tachymeter is useful for traversing in difficult enclosed country

or, where the control points can be seen, for measuring distances and heights to points that are immediately round the point of resection.

Telemetry.—The very marked effect of refraction upon the

precision of tachymetry has led to the use of staves in the hori. zontal position. The need for greater precision seems to have

been felt particularly desirable for the distance between the cameras used in ground photo surveying. Subtense methods are much used in topographical and miltary surveys. In such cases a theodolite is usually available and a

FIG. 5

diaphragm. Due to the Italian Porro the introduction of this lens makes it possible to measure lengths directly from the station as defined by the vertical axis of the instrument. To an increasing extent the internal focussing telescope, translating for focussing, is now replacing the older style, and in it the point of measurement is so close to the vertical axis as to result in consequent errors of an order inferior to many others which are

unavoidable.

(See bibliography—Henrici.) The general equation thus becomes s=k-a.

The length “s” is however the actual distance between instrument and staff, whereas surveying demands the horizontal and vertical components, and the computation of these will depend on the way in which the staff is held. Normally the staff is held vertical. Let @ be the angle of elevation, or depression, to the centre of the intercept a. Let d be the horizontal component and h the ver-

tical component.

Now the image of a will be reduced, obviously,

to equal acos@, and s=kacosé— but d=scosé@. Therefore d= kacos?ð

and h= =Ædtanð, or 4 kasin2ð, The rod may however be held perpendicular to the optical axis. Where this is intended the staff is equipped with a device which allows the rodman to sight on the instrument. In this case if 1 be the length from the foot of the stave to its intersection with the produced optical axis—(the sighting point)

subtense bar or base can be rapidly improvised. The bar or base is arranged horizontal so that the line between stations is perpendicular to it either at its centre point or at one end. The angle is measured by “repetition” on the slow motion screws of upper and lower plates. Thus, sighting on the left hand mark, the telescope is revolved with the top plate slow motion screw to point at the right hand mark. The bottom plate screw is then used to repoint on the left hand mark and the process continued until some 10 to 20 readings have been made. The whole angle is then read and divided by the number of times the measurement has been made. The general equation is b a. ; 3 ; d= —cot- if the perpendicular is to centre point

or d=b cota if the perpendicular is to end point. Where dis the horizontal distance, b is the length of bar or base, and a the subtended angle. The subtense base may be of any convenient size. Sometimes signals have been erected as ends of a subtense base of as much as a quarter of a mile in length the distance between being taped. But subtense bars of special design, ro—20 ft. long, are the commonest form of base. The end marks are often discs with black lines on a white ground. For distances up to 5o00 yards usinga 10foot subtense bar, with disc terminals, errors of the order of a may be expected, but with proper precaution, good end marks, and sufficient repetition, a much higher order of precision may be obtained. The advantages of these subtense methods over tachymetry lie in their greater range and precision, in the ease with which the base can be improvised, in the freedom from either a special instrument or a special staff of rodmen, and in the direct measurement of the horizontal distance.

Rangefinders.—Some rangefinders are stereoscopic in principle

and resemble, in that respect, the stereoscopic plotting machines with their “floating mark.” Coincidence methods have the great advantage over stereoscopic that almost everyone can use them. Moreover for this particular purpose a general plastic image is not then s =kacosf +sinð required. Errors involved in the use of the rangefinder, for any and d=—+Rasin@=lcos 6, given base and magnification, are proportional to the square of the In the course of a normal tachymetric survey a very large distance and an error of s may be taken as normal at a range of 250 yards with a 31 5 inch (8 cm.) magnification 8 model. Models number of points are generally fixed and the trigonometrical computation becomes irksome. There are numerous tables de- reach 100 feet in base length and 28 in magnification. With a1 signed to facilitate this computation, and there are also special metre base and magnification 20 the fractional error is less than instrumental fittings for the same purpose. Some continental | 3; at 500 yards. An increasing survey use is being made of this forms of tachymeter solve the triangle by scaled bars which rangefinder. In Canada, Egypt and elsewhere surveyors are finding actually form the triangle whose sides are s, dand h. The Beaman its advantage over the tachymeter in the independence of rodmen arc is a fitting used often in America. This arc is fitted against and the increased speed. In Canada it has been, and is, used in the vertical arc of the tachymeter but is independent of it and the control of river and lake traverses on which the surveys, nowacan be set to any zero. It has two scales which help in the days mainly air photo-surveys, of the northern territories are solution of cos@ and of $sin2@. Some recent models give a based. Obviously the rangefinder would prove useful in medium direct reading of the horizontal and vertical components. It scale plane tabling for the measurement round each resected may be said, generally, that the tachymeter should not be used point. for distances of over 600 feet, that errors increase proportionally Contouring.—The first step in contouring is to measure of

to the distance (except in the case of refraction which acts as

choose the datum to which the height of all points shall be re

ferred. It is now common

to accept mean sea-level, as measured

and meaned over a long period of time at same tide gauge. With reference to this datum a control of heights is distributed over the country by spirit levelling or by vertical angles measured

with the theodolite. Geodetic levelling would not be available, normally, as a hackbone or control for a topographical survey.

For this latter

purpose secondary levelling with errors not exceeding about 0.03

foot per mile would suffice. These secondary chains, spaced fifty to a hundred miles apart in a grid or net, are generally confined

to railways or roads. The intervals would then be filled up with subsidiary orders of levels reaching eventually such errors as o-r

foot per mile over short lengths. Levels of a topographical class are often run with the tachymeter tabling.

in conjunction

with plane

In topographical surveys of new countries it is usual to base contouring on a control of heights determined trigonometrically

(by vertical angles with a theodolite). The operations of triangu-

lation and determination

615

SURVEYING

AIR PHOTOGRAPHS]

of heights are thus combined.

Truly

simultaneous observation between two points will tend to eliminate refraction. In all other cases there is bound to be uncer-

tainty. Observation of vertical angles should be confined to the times of minimum refraction (early in the afternoon), and heights should be carried forward through the shortest sides—since the correction for refraction varies as the square of the distance.

Trigonometrical heights show errors of the order of two or three feet in 100 miles. In plane-table surveys minor heights are obtained with the Indian pattern clinometer, a small instrument which reads slopes, vertical angles, and natural tangents of the vertical angles. The clinometer (nine inches long) has two vanes. In the rear vane is a sight hole which can be levelled in relation to the zero point of the front vane. Jf confined to a radius of two miles this clinometer gives excellent results, but at longer ranges

errors

rapidly increase. The increasing use of the aneroid barometer is due to the convenience of measuring height directly instead of deducing it from distance and slope. A barometer measures the pressure of the air however and before it can be used to measure either absolute or relative heights corrections must be applied to eliminate the effect of (a) Weather, diurnal, and area variations, (b) Temperature, (c) Index or other instrumental errors. The first correction is usually applied by comparing the record

of a barometer retained in camp with that of the field instrument. The second can be applied directly if the shade temperature is measured at the time of each reading, but thermometer readings must also be taken for the stationary or camp instrument. Under particularly stable conditions it is possible to record the movement due to average diurnal variations and to dispense with the camp

of country. Thus the same vertical interval could hardly be applied to Switzerland and to Flanders. A good idea as to the proper interval in feet for average country will be obtained by dividing 50 by the scale in inches to the mile. Thus a map on the scale of 4 inch to one mile would have contours at roo feet intervals.

Field Sheets.——As explained in the article on plane tabling the

board is covered with paper, canvas backed, or mounted previously on a thin sheet of aluminium. Some form of celluloid is also used on occasion. This covering is called the Field Sheet. On it are plotted the control and the boundary lines of the individual task, and on it the plane tabler subsequently maps. A plane tabler should be “within his points” The area of his work should then be substantially less than that of the board itself in order to allow of plotting control points in the margins, which are also wanted for notes and lists of names. On the other hand, a plane tabler starts a new field sheet slowly and gathers pace as he gets to know his control and his country. A good mean figure for the area of work on a board of 18X24 in. is from 60 to 80 sq. inches. The plane tabler’s area should be bounded by definite, ruledin lines. It sometimes happens that a river or other topographical obstacle makes it imperative for neighbouring topographers on either side to work to this natural and therefore irregular line, but the accuracy of subsequent adjustment suffers. The dividing line should be one across which roads, rivers and other details pass naturally. An overlap between well trained plane tablers is neither necessary nor advisable, nor is it necessary for them to meet at any stage of their work. The correct conventional signs and colours will have been laid down in advance and each plane tabler will ink in his work as and when he considers it final No colour which is not photographically opaque should be used. It is not generally advisable to map at scales larger than the final map. The plane tabler judges more accurately the amount of generalisation necessary if his field sheet is plotted at the map scale and as names are generally written in the margin, there is ample space available in which to show all the required detail. On conclusion of the survey, the field sheet will be available for checking. Every party should have some proportion of its strength earmarked for revision. After, or during, revision the edges common to the finished field sheets should be compared Differences on the edges should be small, but occasional errors in orientation (“swing”) may arise if there has been difficulty in seeing the control points. Differences should be traced backwards to the nearest resections and for this reason resected points and their heights should be left in pencil on the field sheet until comparisons are finished. SURVEYING

FROM

AIR PHOTOGRAPHS

A photograph is a perspective view of the ground it represents.

instrument, the recording of which is often difficult to arrange.

In certain cases, though rarely, the ground surface is truly parallel

In these cases the record graphs should be either corrected for variation in temperature or amplified by a statement of the mean

to the plane of the photographic plate. In this case the photograph is a correct plan. Any other relationship of ground (or map) and photographic plane results in a true perspective plan so long as the surface to be mapped is flat, the angle between

temperature at definite time intervals.

There is much to be done

still in designing survey barometers with an eye to reducing instrumental errors such as lag, friction of pivots, etc. The hypsometer (or boiling point apparatus) is of more value to the explorer than the surveyor. In topographical surveying contours are not generally followed out in detail, but are sketched in upon the control. Strict accuracy in contouring is not perhaps a very important feature of a topographical map. Topographical scales will not show, in any case, enough information for engineering enterprise, whereas a relatively good and reliable picture of the accidents of the ground country. The sketching in of the contours is helped by measuring gradients, by noting all points in the observer’s level and by spac-

the two planes being known as the tilt. In this case the map can be wholly reconstructed on perspective lines. The general case differs from either of the above in that the surface to be mapped is rarely flat, presenting the three ordinary dimensions of nature, whilst, as in the second case, the photographic plane is inclined or tilted to the map plane. There are then two difficulties to surmount, the perspective effect and that of difference of altitude. These two effects act from different points on the plane of the photograph. It is one of the hardest problems of surveying from air photographs to disentangle these two effects and to correct them in the proper way. The photograph is a central perspective of the ground mapped, which is true in so

Ing contours properly on rivers and streams.

far as lens, shutter, photographic material, temperature changes

Is of the first order of importance in the development of a new There is little dif-

ficulty in attaining sensible accuracy in the position of contours

and rigidity of the camera allow.

In hilly country, but errors of four or five feet in altitude are hormal and may be appreciable in flat country. The vertical interval between contours depends principally upon the scale of the map although it is also conditioned by the type

point on, or with reference to, the plate from which directions

The perspective centre is the

to points on the ground correspond to those from the camera. Height, however, introduces in the perspective view distortions which radiate from a point in the plane of the photograph verti-

SURVEYING

616

cally below the front nodal point of the lens. This point is commonly known as the Photo Plumb Point. The perspective centre and photo plumb point coincide with each other, and with the optical centre, when the two planes (ground and photo) are parallel. In all other cases these three points are distinct from each other and lie on a line perpendicular to the axis of tilt at distances which are functions of the tilt. As nearly all photographic surveying demands a knowledge of the position of these points the first step is so to calibrate and to adjust the camera that the optical centre corresponds to the principal point (the point at which a perpendicular from the front nodal point meets the plane of the photo). Fiducial marks photographed on the four edges of the plate can then be joined up to give the correct position. It is with reference to this position that the perspective centre and photo plumb point can be found. The principal distance (between the lens and the principal point) must also be measured. In the remainder of this article it will be assumed that the camera has been properly calibrated and adjusted. The Single Photograph in Perspective. (a) Where the Ground is Flat:—If S is the representative fraction of the scale, L be a distance on the ground, and 1 the corresponding distance on the photograph, then for any given small areaS$= = But 1 is con-

ditioned by the tilt and the scale varies accordingly. Where photographs are taken as nearly as possible with a vertical axis then $= T where f is the principal distance (not quiťe the

same thing as the focal length), and H is the height of flight. Whether or not photographs are nearly vertical the problem is the same because it has not been found possible hitherto to maintain the axis truly vertical, to record such deviations from the vertical as may occur, or to keep a constant height. In

NEGATIVE

PLANE OF THE PHOTOGRAPH

[AIR PHOTOGRAPHS

Perspective figures may also be used. If the lines or subdivisions of the perspective

figures are sufficiently close, detail may be

copied by eye, correcting both for tilt and for scale in the process Photographic rectification is more suitable for larger areas i these

are really flat.

It must

be remembered

however

that a

sharp image is essential to good plotting and that the ordinary projecting lantern, though it offers freedom of movement for the screen, does not do so for the photograph. This latter move. ment is, however, necessary to secure a sharp image. Space forbids a further analysis of the perspective and optical principles involved. (See bibliography.) For small scale or exploratory

mapping it may be convenient to assume that photography has been vertical and the height has been constant. Mosaics (com. posite pictures made up of “vertical” photographs) are made on this assumption, although where good maps already exist, mosaics are usually built up on positions taken from them.

Examples of Surveys on the Above Lines: i. The Topographical Survey of Canada has made excellent quarter inch maps of the lake and river areas of the Laurentian Plateau from highly tilted oblique photographs

in which

the horizon

appears, and

serves the purpose of two of the four necessary control points, ii. The swamps and forests of the Irrawaddy Delta were

mapped by the Survey of India from “verticals” controlled by triangulation

and

traverse.

Individual

photographs

were not

rectified but strips of photographs were prepared and rephotographed to the correct scale as given by the control.

jii. The Air Survey of Flanders and Picardy in 1916~17 was based on a fresh triangulation, on which an old but fairly reliable cadastral survey was assembled. Fresh detail, inclusive of trenches and other military works, was added from vertical air photographs, each of which was treated as a perspective view

within the narrow limits of the cadastral control. (b) In Ordinary Country and for Contoured Maps—In the bundle of rays which converge to the camera that from the top of a high chimney or hill (unless it be vertically under the camera) will make a larger angle with the vertical than will the ray from the point directly under that chimney or hill top. Heights are thus displaced outwards from the plumb point, depressions inwards. The only perspective effect which holds good is that of direction from the perspective centre. In ground photo topography the position, height and tilt of the camera are known. In air photo topography none of these are known, but they can be found from the corresponding positions on ground and photograph of four points properly surveyed in plan and in height. The reconstruction may be graphical, mathematical or mechanical. Graphical methods are not sufficiently precise, whilst a mathematical solution, possible in several ways, is excessively lengthy. The mechanical solution is that adopted in the machines for stereoscopic measurement which will be mentioned later. All three suffer from the difficulty of securing suitable well defined and sharp images on the plate. Precision of measurement on the

plate is therefore difficult to attain whilst the comparatively small area of the base (the area included by the four control points), and the comparatively sharp angles at the apex, are difficulties.

Pairs of Photographs.—A pair exposed from different air sta-

tions and covering a common portion of ground gives two direcGROUND

BY COURTESY

OF

COL.

M.

N.

MACLEOD,

FROM

TRANS

OPT

SOCY

, BY PERMISSION OF SECY.

Fig. 6

every case then the photograph is a perspective view at an unknown tilt and from an unknown height. The effect of tilt

can be eliminated by perspective treatment founded on the corresponding positions (on ground and photograph) of four points. Such treatment may be either graphic or photographic and is generally called rectification. Graphic methods are seldom applied to the whole photograph. In practice it is easy to find straight lines through points clear on the photograph, and already mapped, which will intersect on, or sufficiently close to, the new point which is to be added.

tions to each point in the area common

to the two photographs.

The positions and heights of the points can therefore be completely determined so long as the constants of exposure are known. The stereoscopic machines for surveying from ground stations act on this general principle but the problem they solve is comparatively easy because the positions of the ground stations can be surveyed directly and the photographs can be taken at meas-

ured angles of tilt and in a definite angular relationship to each other. Air stations cannot be surveyed be made from the images on the plates control, which those images portray, image can be plotted on the plane of level), properly oriented, and reduced priate scale. This reference to ground in two ways.

directly. Reference must to the points of a ground before the stereoscopic the map (e.g., mean seaor enlarged to the approcontrol can be carried out

Firstly, as in those stereoscopic

machines which

SURVEYING

MAP REPRODUCTION]

617

and height distortion. Methods based on this assumption are known as radial methods. The first assumption made is that in direction by the line joining four points surveyed on the ground, thus reconstructing the posi- the air base of any pair is defined principal points. It would not two the of images photographic the pair the of tion and tilt of the plate in space. When both plates however to accept as relatively correct on the ground possible be correproper ensures setting joint final a placed thus have been measured on the photographs between spondence. The process of setting may take several hours. There is the successive distances in these methods to allow for an usual is It points. principal dence, however another way which is to set the pair in correspon overlap large enough to include the two air bases (forwards and said is pair The control. ground the to referring in space, before backwards) from the centre of each individual photograph ‘The to be in correspondence when m z of the fore and back stations can thus be found by a positions VP corresponding directions in space comparison of detail, but such tilt and height distortion as may bepoints of pair each intersect, occur on the lines between them are sufficient to introduce serious ing in correspondence when the errors of length. rays to them intersect. A perThe scale of the plot is, therefore, obtained by accepting between ndence correspo fect arbitrary length on the first photograph and by continuaily an points five plates is secured when points in the overlaps and refixing the principal points fixing are in correspondence and the from them thus:—-The base 1-2 on the first photograph is set cortheir in set then are plates along any line which will be convenient for subsequent plotting. rect relative positions to each line ta is now drawn to a (on the photograph, image of A on A other and to the base line beground) and is accepted as an arbitrary length on the “plot.” This stations. air two the tween The second photograph is now set on line 2-1 and moved along is the principle of the Fourcade it till the direction from 2 to A cuts the position a on photograph stereogoniometer. The strip so 1. Thus the distance 1a is made the base for all subsequent work. not however, is, plotted set or zx and 2 directions are drawn to b and c (images of B and C) From it is nor on the required plane appear on both photographs. As these also appear on the which necessarily correct in scale and third photograph which is set on the direction 2-3 (between princorrect secure To n. orientatio cipal points 2 and 3) the position of 3 (principal point of the 3rd plan the whole must be referred photograph) can be resected. to a ground control which, howNaturally the construction lines must be drawn on tracing ever, may be comparatively open. paper, linen or celluloid (the latter is most convenient), the We must know— H. M. BY COURTESY OF THE CONTROLLER, photographs being placed separately and successively under it. (a) Scale—This is deter- STATIONERY OFFICE of the principal points have been plotted all mined from a measured base on FIG. 7.—DISPLACEMENT OF PHOTO- Once the positions detail may be fixed by the intersection of the of points other GRAPH DUE TO HEIGHT OF FEATURE the ground by comparison with photographic directions. A particular development of the radial the corresponding length in the stereoscopic image. commonly known as the Arundel method, employs a smail (b) The position of a horizontal plane in the stereoscopic method, stereoscope in these first stages of plotting. The “topographical” vertical two of comparison a from image which can be determined is the addition over each photograph of glass feature particular angles measured on the ground with the corresponding angles | etched diamond shaped grids. These grids fuze are which on plates on the stereoscopic image measured in relation to an approximate stereoscopically into a plane which may be moved vertically in position of the horizontal which can afterwards be corrected. relation to the landscape, for contouring, and which are also The data so obtained set the machine for used to show when the pair is properly in correspondence. By (a) The length of the air base. air base can be established and (b) The angle through which both photographs must be rotated this method the orientation of the in the Arundel method Contouring photograph. each on marked about the air base, in order to re-establish the vertical plane conis carried out on alternate photographs. Each pair is set and taining the air base. examined in the topographical stereoscope on the assumption that (c) The inclination of the air base to the horizontal. are untilted and exposed from the same altitude. The resultthey However the plates of a pair have been set, detail on the relief or stereoscopic image from a pair of set photographs is plotted by the superimposition of the image formed bya pair of artificial “floating marks” which combine stereoscopically to produce that image at a known position in space. The movement of the image relative to the landscape enables the latter to be measured and surveyed in detail. For convenience however in mechanical and optical construction it is usual for the “floating mark” to be fixed and the stereoscopic image of the landscape to be moved. Maps so produced have been mainly cadastral and engineering plans at a large scale. Meanwhile for topographical work at smaller scales methods have been evolved which depend upon the elimination, by good and consistent flying, of any excessive tilt. For all classes of air survey it is most important that navigation in the FIG. 8 aeroplane should aim at maintaining an undeviating course both as to direction and height. ing stereoscopic image is naturally subject to errors in apparent Methods for securing straight flight and constant height have slopes, the effect of which must be held in check bya fairly close not yet been standardised. As a rule each pilot has evolved his height control. The plane formed by the diamond grids may be own methods for himself. Great skill is often displayed but varia- made to touch the ground at any place, the extent of movement tions of wind may well cause displacements of track of half a being recorded on scales, Other heights may then be interpolated mile in a ten-mile strip. Deviations of 80 to roo ft. in height are and when a sufficient control has been secured contours can be common. This problem, which can only be solved by a judicious drawn in by eye on the actual photograph. They are subsequently mixture of instrumental control and training, remains one of the traced in correct position on the celluloid plot. most important to surmount. If the tilt is small the perspective MAP REPRODUCTION centre and the photo plumb point approach each other and the of reproduction covers the various procheading general The from directions that assume to then principal point. It is possible hy and printing, which come between photograp drawing, of esses both as regards tilt distortion

follow the general lines of their predecessors

designed for ground

of stereo plotting, each photograph is set, singly, upon a control

I

the principal point may hold good

618

SURVILLE— SUSA

the survey on the ground and the completed map. There is a stage generally carried out by draughtsmen called compilation, which, hotvever, antedates fair drawing and is equivalent to survey. Smazi scale maps of the less well known parts of the world are made up from material of various sorts and generally of unequal value. The next stage is fair drawing. The draughtsman’s first task is to plot the graticule and margin of his sheet on the chosen projection. He then plots the control points in proper position and begins to incorporate his material. Whether the latter is compilation, or field sheet, it is probable that the photographer will be called upon to provide bromides at the required scale. The next point to decide is the number of colours to employ. If the whole map is drawn on one sheet of paper the photographer will have to divide colour from colour during his preparation of the zinc plates. If each colour is drawn separately then subsequent photography and zincography is made easier, but the fit of one colour upon another, commonly known as the register, will suffer; for, once embarked upon, the various different drawings may expand or contract unequally. The procedure chosen is often a mixture of these two principles. Sometimes the field sheets are assembled and photographed to be printed in blue and to act as a direct key to the drawing of various colours. Blue is chosen because, in the subsequent photography of the completely drawn colour sheet or plate, blue will not appear on the negative, which will record nothing which has not been inked in. This system is handy, and guards against bad register. The use of a complete key of this sort implies that the whole of the material can be collected and photographed into position at one and the same time. In other cases each main colour is drawn on its own tracing paper, the various plates being compared and examined, over each other, at frequent intervals, to prevent the clash or overprinting of the different colours. In all such drawing the colours used must be photographically opaque. Where main colours are treated separately each is drawn in black. Where all the colours are drawn together a difference must be made as a guide to subsequent separation but the colours employed need not be those of the final map. The main photographic process of preparing the printed record from the finished drawing is heliozincography. In this process the original drawing is photographed, and the glass negative is then laid over a sensitized zinc plate. The negative and zinc are held in close contact in a frame from which the air can be pumped. Light penetrates the lines and names left clear on the negative and hardens the surface below. The remainder of the sensitized surface, protected by the negative, remains soft and can be washed away. In the heliozincographic process each plate is photographed to the proper dimensions. The great advantage of heliozincography lies, however, in the possibilities of touching up or adding fresh detail actually on the negative. A special staff is employed in large map establishments for this purpose. If all the colours of the final map have been drawn together it is at this stage that separation occurs. As many negatives are made as there are to be main colours. On each negative everything irrelevant to the particular colour in view is duffed out. The glass negatives then become the final records, from which any number of printing plates may be made. The zinc plates are now given over to the printers. (See LitHocRAPHY.) BrsriocrapHy.—C. F, Close and H. St. J. Winterbotham, Text Book of Topographical and Geographical Surveying (1928) ; W. N. Thomas, Surveying (1926); A. R. Hinks, Maps and Survey (1923) ; 9. B. Johnson, Theory and Practice of Surveying; H. M. Wilson, Topographic Surveying (1905). For tacheometry, particularly, see J. M. Strang, “Optical Methods of Distance Measurement,” in Proceedings of the Optical Convention, pt. ii. (1926) ; Fourcade, “The Subtense Measurement of Distance,” in the South African Survey Journal (Sept. 1926) ; Henrici, “The Use of Telescopes with Internal Focussing for Stadia Surveying,” in Transactions of Optical Society, vol. xxii., No. r. For surveying from air photographs, see Lt.-Col. M. N. MacLeod, Mapping from Air Photographs (1920); H. G. Fourcade, “A New Method of Aerial Surveying,” in Transactions for Royal Society of South Africa, vol. xiv., pt. I. (1926) and subsequent papers; Air Survey Committee Professional Papers, No. 1, “Geographical Methods of Plot-

ting from Air Photographs”; No. 2, “Methods of Flying for Air Survey

Photography”; No. 3, “Simple Methods of Surveying from Air Photo.

graphs”; No. 4, “Stereoscopic Examination of Air Photographs”: No

5, “The Calibration of Surveying Cameras” (H.M. Stationery Office Rap) London); B. M. Jones and J. C. Griffiths, Aerial Surveying by

Methods (19253). “SURVILLE,

(C. F. CL; H. St. J. we i CLOTILDE DE,” the supposed author of

the Poésies de Clotilde.

The generally accepted legend gave the

following account of her. Marguerite Éléonore Clotilde de Vallon Challis, dame de Surville, was born in the early years of the rsth

century at Vallon. In 1421 she married Bérenger de Surville, who was killed at the siege of Orleans in 1428. Her husband’s absence

at the war inspired her heroic verses and his death her elegiac The last of her poems

poems.

is a chant royal addressed to

Charles VIII. In 1803 Charles Vanderbourg published as the Poésies de Clotilde some forty poems dealing with love and war. Research showed that the documents, communicated by the marquis de Surville to Vanderbourg were not genuine, and the account of Clotilde herself was proved to be inaccurate. See A. Macé, Un procès d'histoire littéraire (1870); A. Mazon, Marguerite Chalis et la légende de Clotilde de Surville (187%) ; articles by Gaston Paris in the Revue critique d’histoire et de littérature (March 1, 1873 and May 30, 1874), by Paul Cottin in the Bulletin du bibliophile (1894); E K. Chambers, Literary Forgeries (1891); and further references in the Bibliographie des femmes célébres (Turin and Paris, 1892, etc.).

SURVIVAL: see Psycuicat RESEARCH. SUS, a province of southern Morocco. It is an east-to-west valley, 200 km. long, bounded by the Atlantic ocean, High Atlas, Siroua and Anti-Atlas. The area is about 20,000 sq. kilometres, Sus has a Saharan climate slightly mitigated by its nearness to the Atlantic. The arganier (Argania sideroxylon) is the characteristic tree; it has the appearance of a spiny olive, and forms sparse forest-steppes. The waters of the Wad Sus and its affluents allow of some cultivation, helped by irrigation, but one must not exaggerate the agricultural wealth of the region; it is reputed to be rich in mines, especially of copper. The population is about 400,ooo, grouped at the foot of the mountains and along the Wad; it is Berber in race and speech, and belongs to the Chleuh group. The Susis emigrate willingly and are excellent workmen. The port of Sus is Agadir, the Santa-Cruz of Cape Aguer of the Portuguese; situated on the Atlantic to the north of the mouth of the Wad Sus, it includes a citadel and a fishing village; a harbour is being built. Tarudant, capital of Sus, is a native town of 6,000 inhabitants, of whom 1,000 are Jews.

SUSA

(Shtshan, Sts), capital of Susiana (Elam) and chief

residence of Darius I. and his successors. It lay under the Zagros range at about lat. 32°, near the bank of the Karkha (Choaspes)

river and close to the Karun. (For early history see Exam.) The site, identified (1850) by W. K. Loftus, has on it four mounds. One, rising about 38 metres, holds the citadel. A second to the east represents the palace of Darius I. and was excavated by M. Dieulafoy. The enamelled bricks taken from its walls are in the Louvre. A third mound to the south contains the royal Elamite city, while the fourth mound consists of the poorer houses. Excavation of the citadel was begun by J. de Morgan in 1897. It yielded the obelisk of Manistusu (see BABYLONIA), the stele of Naram-Sin, and the Code of Hammurabi (the latter in

the winter of 1901-02). The finest pottery came in the lowest strata, 25 metres below the surface, and belongs to two different civilizations both in the Neolithic period. The earlier is characterized by vases of fine red clay, wheel-made, in a few well-defined shapes, but all with very thin, polished sides. The decorations applied in black paint or red-

brown

ferruginous earth consist of bold geometrical patterns,

often combined with spirited studies from nature. The pottery of

the second period shows a retrogression, being coarser and porous. Above

the early strata come

remains

of Elamite and early

Babylonian civilization, inscribed objects from the latter bearing pictorial characters from which the cuneiform was evolved. The

upper portions of the mounds disclosed inscribed Achaemenian monuments, Greek pottery and inscriptions of the 4th century B.C., coins of the kings of Elymais, and Parthian and Sassanlan

relics. Muslim tradition says that the tomb of the prophet Daniel

SUSA—SUSSEX, lay in the bed of the Karkha river and a mosque was built on the hank opposite the supposed spot. Until after the 14th century the city was a flourishing centre of a district famous for silk, sugar-cane and oranges.

It is now deserted.

BIBLIocRAPHY.—W. K. Loftus, Travels and Researches in Chaldaea

EARLS

619

OF

Heinrich Susos (1867); W. Preger, Geschichte der deutschen Mystik (1882), vol. ii.; J. Jager, Heinrich Seuse aus Schwaben (1894); and The Life of Blessed H. Suso, by Himself (1913), trans. by T. F. Knox, with introd. by W. R. Inge.

SUSPENSION

BRIDGE: see BRIDGES.

SUSPENSURA, the architectural term given by Vitruvius and Susiana (1857); M. Dieulafoy, L’Art antique de la Perse (1884gs), L’Acropole de Suse (1890); A. Billerbeck, Susa (1893); J. de (v. 10) to the hollow space under the floor of a Roman bath, Morgan, Mémoires de la délegation en Perse, vols. i—xiii. (from 1899) ; in which the smoke from the furnace passed to the vertical flues

H Frankfort, Studies in Early Pottery of the Near East (1924); R. C. Thompson, in Archaeologia, vol. lxx.; H. R. Hall and C. L. Woolley, Al ‘Ubaid (1927); G. le Strange, Lands of the Eastern Caliphate (1905). See also PERSIA: Ancient History. (R. Lev.)

in the wall.

(See Hypocaust.)

SUSQUEHANNA

TRAIL,

an American highway from

Williamsport, Pa , to Harrisburg, Pa. It connects at either termi-

SUSA (Fr. Sousse), a city of Tunisia, on the Gulf of Hammamet, in 35° 49’ N., 10° 39’ E., 36m. by rail E. by N. of Kairawan, of which it is the port, and 93m. S. by E. by rail of

Tunis. Susa is built on the side of a hill sloping seawards, and ig surrounded by a crenellated wall, strengthened by towers. The kasbah, or citadel, built on the highest point within the town, was thoroughly restored by the French after their occupation of the country in 1881, and serves as military headquarters for the district. The native town has been little changed since the French occupation, but north of the port a European quarter has been created. The museum contains many archaeological treas-

ures, notable mosaics

and

sculptures.

The most

interesting

ONTARIO

=

( Rochester

f

Y

buildings in the old town are the Kasr-er-Ribat and the Kahwat-

el-Kubba. The Kasr-er-Ribat is a square fortress with a high tower and seven bastions. The Kahwat-el-Kubba (Café of the Dome) is a curious house, square at the base, then cylindrical, and surmounted by a fluted dome. The grand mosque is in the north-east part of the town. To the south-west of the town there are vast Christian catacombs, excavated by the Abbé Leynaud in 1904, which contained some 10,000 burials. The ancient harbours are silted up, but vestiges of the Roman breakwaters may be seen. The modern port, completed in 1901, enables steamers drawing 21ft. to lie at the quays. Exports are chiefly phosphates and other minerals, olive oil, esparto and cereals; imports: cotton goods, building material, etc. The population, less than 10,000 at the time of the French occupation, now reaches 21,298, of which 10,714 are Muslim, 3,728 Jews, 6,856 Europeans (3,664 French, 2,437 Italians, 563 Maltese).

AD rR

SUSO

[Seuse],

HEINRICH

(c. 1300-1366),

German

yh

NS HE

PEN aha o

Y

SUSARION, Greek comic poet, a native of Tripodiscus in

mystic, was born at Uberlingen on Lake Constance; he assumed

ceeSTONE cape

| Williamsport e

Y Harrisburg

Megaris. About 580 B.c. he transplanted the Megarian comedy into the Attic deme of Icaria, the cradle also of Greek tragedy and the oldest seat of the worship of Dionysus. According to the Parian Chronicle, there appears to have been a competition on this occasion, in which the prize was a basket of figs and an amphora of wine. See V. von Wilamowitz-Mo6llendorf (Hermes, ix.), who doubts the whole story; the lines s.n. Susarion in Meineke, Comic Fragments, are probably spurious.

teecn Om ee

YORK

Philadelphia

©

JERSEY \e

Ah

O Dòvér City o

Washington

R

)~- Affapoli

DELA

the name of his mother, his father being a Herr von Berg. He me was educated for the Church, first at Constance, then at Cologne, where he came under the influence of the greatest of the German mystics, Meister Eckart. He subsequently entered a monastery in Constance, where he subjected himself to the severest ordeals nal with paved or hard surfaced roads and furnishes a picturesque of asceticism. In 1335 he wandered through Swabia as a preacher, route connecting Buffalo and Rochester, N.Y. with Baltimore, and won all hearts by his gentle, persuasive eloquence; the Frederick, Md. and Washington, D.C. It passes through farming effusive lyricism of his language made him an especial favourite districts in New York and Pennsylvania, crosses the Appalachian among the nuns. About 1348 he seems to have settled in Ulm, mountains and traverses the Gettysburg battle-field. SUSSEX, EARLS OF. G. E. Cokayne (Complete Peerage, where he died on Jan. 25, 1366. Suso’s first work, Das Biichlein i. 138, 139) holds that Roger de Montgomery, who received der Wahrheit, was written in Cologne about 1329; setting out from Eckart’s doctrines, he presents the mystic faith from its grants from William the Conqueror of a large part of the county speculative or theoretical side; whereas in Das Biichlein der of Sussex, including the city of Chichester and the castle and honour of Arundel, besides lands in Shropshire with the castles of ewigen Weisheit, written some years later in Constance, he discusses the practical aspects of mysticism. The latter work, which Shrewsbury and Montgomery, may be regarded as the first earl of Suso also translated into Latin under the title of Horologium Sussex. Whatever Roger’s titles may have been, they were forfeitec to the Crown when his son Robert was attainted in 1102, and the sapientiae, has been called the finest fruit of German mysticism. forfeited estates were conferred by Henry I. on his second wife Suso’s works were collected as early as 1482 and again in 1512; recent editions: Heinrich Suso’s Leben und Schriften, ed. by M.

Diepenbrock (1829; 4th ed., 1884); Suso’s Deutsche Schriften, by H. S. Denifle (1878-1880, not completed), and Deutsche Schriften,

by K Bihlmeyer

(2 vols., 1907).

See also W Preger,* Die Briefe

Adelicia, who after Henry’s death married William de Albini, or

d’Aubigny. The latter was created earl of Sussex by King Stephen, and “the third penny” of that county was confirmed to him by an instrument of the reign of Henry II., in which, however,

620

SUSSEX

he is styled earl of Arundel, a designation by which he was more

of Edward VI. to promote Protestantism in Ireland, and the

generally known. His grandson William, 3rd earl of Sussex, was one of King John’s sureties for the observance of Magna Carta; and in 1243, the earldom reverted to the Crown on the death of

“plantation” by English settlers of that part of the country then known as Offaly and Leix. But Fitzwalter first of all found it necessary to make an expedition into Ulster. Having defeated O’Neill and his allies the MacDonnells, the lord deputy, who by the death of his father in February 1557 became earl of

Hugh de Albini, sth earl of the line. (See ARUNDEL, EARLS OF.) Ratclyffe Earls.—For nearly two hundred years, from 1347 to 1529, the title of earl of Sussex did not exist in the English peerage. In 1529, however, it was conferred on Robert Radcliffe, Radclyffe or Ratclyffe (c. 1483-1542), who had been made Viscount Fitzwalter in 1525. In 1540 Ratclyffe was appointed great chamberlain of England. With Edward, the 6th earl (c. 1552-1641), the title became extinct. Savile Earls——In 1644 Thomas Savile (c. 1590—c. 1659), son of John Savile, 1st Baron Savile of Pontefract (1566-1630), was created earl of Sussex. Savile opposed Wentworth, afterwards earl of Strafford, the rivalry between the Saviles and the Wentworths being of long standing in the history of Yorkshire. During the Great Rebellion he played a double game, and was imprisoned at different times by both parties. His later years were spent in retirement at Howley Hall, where he died about 1659. He was succeeded in the earldom of Sussex by his son James, on whose death without issue in 1671 the title became extinct. It was revived in 1684 in favour of Thomas Lennard, 15th Baron Dacre, whose wife Ann (d. 1722) was a daughter of the famous duchess of Cleveland by King Charles II., and again became extinct at this nobleman’s death in 1715. The title was next conferred in 1717 on Talbot Yelverton, 2nd Viscount de Longueville and 16th Baron Grey de Ruthyn (c. 1692-1731), from whom it descended to his two sons successively, becoming once more extinct on the death of the younger of these, Henry, 3rd earl of Sussex of this creation, in 1790. Royal Earls.—In 1801 Prince Augustus Frederick (1773-1843), the sixth son of George III., was created duke of Sussex. Spending his early years abroad, the prince was married in Rome in 1793 to

Lady Augusta (d. 1830) daughter of John Murray, 4th earl of Dunmore. The ceremony was repeated in London and two children were born, but under the Royal Marriage Act of 1772 the Court of Arches declared the union illegal. The children took the name of d’Este. Sussex was a man of liberal ideas; he favoured the abolition of the slave trade, the repeal of the corn laws and the removal of the civil disabilities of Roman Catholics, Dissenters and Jews. ' His second wife, Cecilia, widow of Sir George Buggin, was created duchess of Inverness in 1840. He died at Kensington Palace on April 21, 1843. The older title of earl of Sussex was conferred in 1874 upon Prince Arthur, the third son of Queen Victoria, who at the same time was created duke of Connaught and Strathearn. See G. E. C., Complete Peerage, s.v. “Sussex,” “Surrey,” “Arundel,” vols.i and vii. (London, 1887-96) ; Sir William Dugdale, The Baronage of England (1675). For the earls of the Radcliffe family see also John Strype, Memorials of Thomas Cranmer (1694), Annals of the Reformation (1725) and Ecclesiastical Memorials (3 vols., 1721); PF. Tytler, England under the Reigns of Edward VI. and Mary (2 vols., 1839) ; Calendars of State Papers: Letters and Papers of the Reign of Henry VIII. For the rst earl of the Savile line see S. R. Gardiner, Hist. of England, 1603-1642 (10 vols., 1883-84) and Hist. of the Great Civil War (3 vols., 1886-91); and John Rushworth, Historical Collections (8 vols., 1659-1701).

SUSSEX, THOMAS RADCLYFFE

[or RATCLYFFE], 3RD

EARL OF (c. 1525-1583), lord-lieutenant of Ireland, eldest son of

Henry, 2nd earl of Sussex (see Sussex, EARLS oF), by his first

wife, Elizabeth, daughter of Thomas Howard, 2nd duke of Norfolk, was born about 1525, and after his father’s succession to the earldom in 1542 was styled Viscount Fitzwalter. After serving in the army abroad, he was employed in 1551 in negotiating a marriage between Edward VI. and a daughter of Henry IL., king of France. His prominence in the kingdom was shown by his inclusion among the signatories to the letters patent of June 16, 1553, settling the crown on Lady Jane Grey; but he nevertheless won favour with Queen Mary, who employed him in arranging her marriage with Philip of Spain, and who raised him to the peerage as Baron Fitzwalter in August 1553. In April r 556, Fitzwalter was appointed lord deputy of Ireland. The measures enjoined upon Fitzwalter by the government in London comprised the reversal of the partial attempts that had been made during the short reign

Sussex, returned to Dublin, where he summoned aparliament jp

June of that year.

Sussex then took the field against Donough

O’Conor, whom he failed to capture, and afterwards against Shane O’Neill, whose lands in Tyrone he ravaged, restoring to their nominal

rights

the earl

of Tyrone

and his reputed

son Matthew O’Neill, baron of Dungannon. (See O'NEILL.) In June of the following year Sussex turned his attention to the west, where the head of the O’Briens had ousted his nephew Conor O’Brien, earl of Thomond,

from his possessions, and re-

fused to pay allegiance to the Crown; he forced Limerick to open its gates to him, restored Thomond, and proclaimed The O’Brien a traitor.

He took part in the ceremonial of Queen Elizabeth’s

coronation in January 1559; and in the following July he re. turned to Ireland with a fresh commission, now as lord lieutenant, from the new queen, whose policy required him to come to terms

if possible with the troublesome leaders of the O'Neills and the MacDonnells.

Sussex was recalled, at his own request, in 1 564.

His government of Ireland had not, however, been without fruit. Sussex was the first representative of the English Crown who enforced authority to any considerable extent beyond the

limits of the Pale. On his return to England, Sussex immediately threw himself

into opposition to the earl of Leicester. In 1566 and the following year Elizabeth employed him in negotiations for a marriage with the archduke Charles. When this project fell to the ground Sussex returned from Vienna to London in March 1568, and in July he was appointed lord president of the north, in which office he had to deal with the rebellion of the earls of Northumberland

and Westmorland in 1569. In 1570 he laid waste the border, invaded Scotland, and raided the country round Dumfries, reducing the rebel leaders to complete submission. In July 1572 Sussex became lord chamberlain, and he was henceforth in frequent attendance on Queen Elizabeth, both in her progresses through the country and at court, until his death on June 9, 1583. The earl of Sussex was a patron of literature and of the drama. He was twice married: first to Elizabeth, daughter of Thomas Wriothesley, earl of Southampton; and secondly to Frances, daughter of Sir William Sidney. His second wife was the foundress of Sidney Sussex College at Cambridge, which she endowed by her will. The earl left no children, and at his death his titles passed to his brother Henry. See P. F. Tytler, England under the Reigns of Edward VI. and Mary (2 vols., 1839); Richard Bagwell, Ireland under the Tudors

(3 vols,

1885-90) ; Calendar of the Carew MSS.; John Stow, Annales (1631); Charles Henry Cooper, Athenae cantabrigzenses, vol. i. (Cambridge, 1858), containing a biography of the earl of Sussex; John Strype, Ecclesiastical Memorials (Oxford, 1822); Sir Cuthbert Sharpe, Memorials of the Rebellion of 1569 (1840); John Nichols, Progresses and Public Processions of Queen Elizabeth (3 vols., 1823); Sir Wil liam Dugdale, The Baronage of England (1675).

SUSSEX, a southern county of England, bounded north by Surrey, north-east by Kent, south by the English Channel, and west by Hampshire. The area is 1,459-2 sq. miles. The county consists of the central and southern portion of the broad east

to west dome of the Wealden anticline, and is very long (78 m)

in proportion to its breadth (28 m. at broadest). The dominant feature is the chalk of the South Downs (average height soo ft,

Ditchling Beacon 800 ft.) which cross the county in a westnorth-west to east-south-east direction, ending in bold cliffs at

Beachy Head.

Westward from this point the chalk forms the

south coast, except that at Seaford there are outliers of Read-

ing beds and from South Lancing onwards the same beds extend

as a thin belt into Hampshire, there to form the Hampshire basin. This belt lies a few miles from the coast, except south of Chichester, where it broadens out and forms the low flat headland of Selsey Bill. East from Beachy Head, Wealden clay and Hast-

Ings beds form the coast, but recent deposits round Winchelsea and Rye (members of the Cinque Ports and prominent in

621

SUSSEX mediaeval trade) and Pevensey have cut these towns off from

the sea. Lhe South Downs dip gently southward, but form a steep escarpment to the north, where the upper formations of the anticline have been denuded, exposing in succession from south to north, gault and upper greensand, lower greensand, Wealden

clay and Hastings beds, with small patches of Purbeck shale,

and limestone with beds of gypsum lying west of Battle. The gault and upper greensand form a plain at the foot of the escarpment, bounded north by the elevated ridge of the lower greensand, beyond which the Wealden clay and Hastings beds give rise to hill country known as the Forest Ridges (800 ft. near Crow-

of Anderida

(Pevensey), also fell to the Saxons.

Bede, Ella was the first Bretwalda.

According to

After his time the kingdom

of Sussex gradually declined and fell under the dominion of Wessex in 823. Saxon remains are found in numerous ceme-

teries, and scattered burial places along the south slopes of the

Downs. The cemetery on High Down hill, where weapons, ornaments and vessels of various kinds were found, and the Chanc-

tonbury hoard of coins, are noteworthy. A coin of Offa of Mercia, found at Beddingham, recalls the charter of Archbishop

Wilfred in 825, in which Offa’s connection with the monastery in that place is recorded. From 895 Sussex suffered from conborough), where rise many Sussex rivers. Of these, the Rother stant raids by the Danes, till the accession of Canute, after which forms part of the Kent boundary and enters the sea below Rye; arose the two great forces of the house of Godwine and of the the Cuckmere rises near Heathfield (where also natural gas is Normans. Godwine was probably a native of Sussex, and by the found in the Lower, Wealden and Purbeck beds); the Ouse, the end of the Confessor’s reign a third part of the county was in the Adur and the Arun rise in the district of St. Leonard’s forest, flow hands of his family. Norman influence was strong in Sussex before south and breach the chalk, having respectively as gap towns, the Conquest; the harbours of Hastings, Rye, Winchelsea and Lewes, Steyning and Arundel, and as ports, Newhaven, Shore- Steyning being in the power of the Norman abbey of Fécamp. Hastings and Pevensey were important under the Normans, ham and Littlehampton. The country north of the Downs was formerly covered with being on the most direct route for Normandy. William secured forest, but much wood was cut for export to the Low Countries as communication with London by placing the lands in the hands early as the 14th century, and for the Wealden iron industry, of such men as his half-brother, the count of Mortain, who held especially in the 17th and 18th centuries. The coast line of Pevensey, and his son-in-law, William de Warenne, who held Sussex is long and exceedingly varied, and encroachment and Lewes. With the exception of lands held by the Church and the erosion have taken place as well as accumulation. Old Win- Crown, the five rapes of Sussex were held by these and three chelsea was submerged in the 13th century; the site of the other Norman tenants-in-chief: William de Braose, the count of ancient cathedral of Selsey is a mile out at sea; 5,500 ac. were Eu, and Roger, earl of Montgomery, who held respectively Bramsubmerged between 1292 and 1340; early in the 14th century, ber, Hastings and Arundel. The honour of Battle was afterwards Pagham harbour was formed by the sudden flooding of 2,700 made into a rape by the Conqueror, and provides one of the ac, since reclaimed. The latest movement of the coast is arguments in favour of the theory of the Norman origin of these probably one of slight elevation. The following changes have unique divisions of the county. The county was divided into taken place at river mouths:—Prior to a great storm on Oct. 12, five (afterwards six) strips, running north and south, and having 1250, the Rother entered the sea 12 m. to the east; until 1570, each a town of military, commercial and maritime importance. the outlet of the Ouse was at Seaford; the Adur has frequently These were the rapes, and each had its sheriff, in addition to the shifted its mouth. Submerged forests occur offshore. The shel- sheriff of the whole county. Whether the origin of the rapes, as tered coast has given rise to many watering-places:—Brighton, districts, is to be found in the Icelandic territorial division hreppr Hastings, Eastbourne, Bexhill, Seaford, Shoreham, Worthing, (rejected in the New English Dictionary), or in the Saxon raf, a rope, or is of Norman origin, as lordships they owed their Littlehampton, Bognor. . History.—Sussex, with its long southern shore, supplying fish existence to the Normans. The holdings—which had been scatand salt, and dissected by mouths of clear rivers, with gravel- tered under the Saxons, so that one man’s holding might be in lined valleys leading to sunny chalk slopes, was admirably suited more than one rape—were now determined, not by the manors to the needs of primitive man, and we have definite traces of in which they lay, but by the borders of the rape. Another him in Palaeolithic times, on the coast, e.g., near Worthing, East- peculiarity of the division of land in Sussex is that, apparently, bourne, Brighton and Chichester, and in the valleys, especially each hide of land had eight instead of the usual four virgates. The county boundary was long and somewhat indeterminate of the Arun and western Rother. In Neolithic times these and similar sites were very important, as kitchen middens, tools, bones on the north, owing to the dense forest of Andredsweald, which of animals, etc., abundantly prove. The Downs were also used. was uninhabited till the r1th century. Evidence of this is seen The flint mines of Cissbury are now generally ascribed to a late in Domesday Book by the survey of Worth and Lodsworth under Neolithic date, though some students have dated them back to Surrey, and also by the fact that as late as 1834 the present earlier times. The Bronze age finds (pottery, celts, etc.) show parishes of North and South Amersham in Sussex were part of that the coastal regions (Worthing, Wilmington, Eastbourne, Hampshire. At the time of Domesday Sussex contained 60 hunwhere gold bracelets, bronze swords, copper, etc., were found) dreds, since become 73. These courts were in the hands, either of were again used. The importance of Sussex continued, and the Church, or of great lords. The county court was held at the Iron age finds, though less numerous, show a high degree of Lewes and Shoreham until the Great Inquest, when it was moved culture, the gold ornaments from Mountfield being especially to Chichester. After several changes the act of 1504 arranged for important. Objects of Sussex iron (hammer, plough-share, bill- it to be held alternately at Lewes and Chichester. The chief ecclesiastical franchises were those of the archbishop hook, etc.) found at Mount Caburn, point to an iron industry in pre-Roman times. The Long Man of Wilmington cut in the of Canterbury, of the bishop of Chichester, of the Saxon foundachalk is probably also of this period. That agriculture was prac- tion of Bosham, and of the votive abbey of Battle, founded by tised by prehistoric man is also proved by the presence of numer- the Conqueror. This abbey possessed, besides land in many other ous lynchets and rectangular fields still traceable on the chalk counties, the “Lowy of Battle,” a district extending for 3 m. round slopes. Mr. Toms, of Brighton, has gathered evidence to show that the abbey. The see of Chichester was co-extensive with the

the great earthwork at Cissbury is probably of British workmanship in the Roman period, and there are numerous other earthworks in Sussex of early Iron age or Romano-British date. Cissbury and Chanctonbury are in a “Worthing” group, while the Devil’s Dyke and many others are in a Brighton group. Caburn and several others are also well known.

Mount

_In 447 the Saxons, under Ella and his three sons, built up the kingdom of the South Saxons. (See Sussex, Kincpom oF.) They took the Roman city of Regnum (Chichester) and drove the BritIsh westward, into the forest of Andred The Roman fortress

county, and has altered little. It is one of the oldest bishoprics, having been founded by Wilfred at Selsey; the seat was removed to Chichester by William I. Sussex was constantly the scene of invasions and rebellions, Pevensey and Arundel playing a great part in the latter under the

early Norman kings. In the barons’ wars the county was a centre for the king’s forces, Lewes being in the hands of the

king’s brother-in-law, John de Warenne, earl of Surrey, Pevensey and Hastings in those of his uncle, Peter of Savoy. The forces of the king and of De Montfort met at Lewes, where the famous

SUSSEX

622

battle and “Mise of Lewes” took place. Corrupt administration during the 13th and 14th centuries, constant passage of troops for the French wars and the devastating plagues of the 14th century, were the causes of such rebellions as the Peasants’ Rising

(1381) and Jack Cade’s Rebellion

(1450).

During Elizabeth’s

reign there was constant levying of troops for Flanders and the Low Countries, and preparations for defence against Spain. The sympathies of the county were divided during the Civil War, Arundel and Chichester being held for the king, Lewes and the Cinque Ports for the parliament. Chichester and Arundel were besieged by Waller, and the Roundheads gained a strong hold on the county, in spite of the loyalty of Sir Edward Ford, sheriff of Sussex. A Royalist gathering in the west of the county in 1645 caused preparations for resistance at Chichester. In the same year the ‘“‘Clubmen” rose and tried to force terms. During the French Revolution, Sussex produced many volunteers. At the outbreak of war with France (1793) a camp was formed at Brighton and at Eastbourne (1803) when the famous Martello towers were erected. In 1290 we have the first extant return of knights of the shire. Drastic reformation was effected by the Redistribution Act of 1832, when Bramber, East Grinstead, Seaford, Steyning and Winchelsea were disfranchised after returning two members each, the first being classed among the worst of the ‘‘rotten” boroughs. Before 1832 two members each had been returned also by Arundel, Chichester, Hastings, Horsham, Lewes, Midhurst, New Shoreham (with the rape of Bramber) and Rye. Arundel, Horsham, Midhurst and Rye were each deprived of a member in 1832, Chichester and Lewes in 1867, and Hastings in 1885. Arundel was disfranchised in 1868, and Chichester, Horsham, Midhurst, New Shoreham and Rye in 1885. In the 18th century the duke of Newcastle was all-powerful in the county, where the Pelham family had been settled from the time of Edward I., the earl of Chichester being the present representative of the family. Architecture.—Sussex is rich in ancient castles. Lewes and Bramber are in ruins, but Arundel is still the seat of the dukes of-Norfolk. More famous than these are the massive remains (part Norman, mainly 13th century), of Pevensey, within the walls of Roman Anderida. Other ruins are those of the finely situated Hastings Castle; the Norman remains at Knepp near West Grinstead; the remarkably perfect moated fortress of Bodiam (14th century); and Hurstmonceaux Castle (15th-century brick). Monastic remains are few. The ruins of Bayham Abbey near Tunbridge Wells, and of Battle Abbey, may be noticed. There are numerous churches of great interest and beauty. Of these may be mentioned the cathedral of Chichester, the churches of Shoreham and Rye, and the mother church of Worthing at Broadwater. Construction of pre-Norman date is seen in the churches of Bosham, Sompting and, most notably, Worth. There is very rich Norman work of various dates in the church of St. Nicholas, Steyning. Several perfect specimens of small Early English churches are found, as at West Tarring, and at Climping, near Littlehampton. Perhaps the most interesting church in the county is the magnificent Decorated fragment at Winchelsea; another noteworthy church of this period is at Etchingham, near the eastern border. The church of St. Denis, Midhurst, is mainly Perpendicular; the large church at Fletching contains the tomb of Gibbon the historian. At Cowfold, south-east of Horsham, is a great Carthusian monastery, founded in 1877. Dialect.—A large number of Saxon words are retained and pronounced in the old style; thus gate becomes ge-at. The letter a is very broad in all words, as if followed by u, and in fact converts words of one syllable into words of two, as faiis (face), taŭst (taste), etc. Again, a before double d becomes ar, as arder and larder for adder and ladder; 07 is like a long 7, as spile (spoil), intment (ointment); an ¢ is substituted for a in such words as rag, flag, etc. The French refugees in the 16th and 17th centuries introduced many words which are still in use.

Climate and Agriculture.—The climate is mild and equable. The average annual rainfall varies from 22-5 in. (Pevensey levels) to over 40 in. (west end of the Downs). The temperature

varies from 61°-63° F, July, to 39°-40° F, January. The soil i

fertile and a large proportion is under cultivation. Sussex jsstill one of the best wooded counties in England; oaks are typical of

the Weald and the beech of the lighter chalk lands. The Weald the Downs and the salt marshes provide different types of pas-

ture. Weald farms often possess marsh pastures, and transhumance

takes place between the two.

Many cattle are raised, especially

in east Sussex, and are sent from the Weald

to fatten on the

marshes in April and May. Sheep (Southdown and Kent) are very important, and lambs raised on the eastern marshes are often sent to the Weald to winter. The south slopes of the Downs and the coastal plain at their feet, west of Shoreham, form an early region for lambs, with good arable on which both sheep and lambs can be

fattened, the latter for early markets. Sheep-rearing has given tise to important fairs:—St. John’s and Findon (early July); the Bat and Ball fair at Chiddingly (end of July); Lindfield, near Hayward’s Heath (early August); Findon, 2nd fair (early September) ; Lewes, the most important fair of the year (Sept. 21). Large sales are also held, notably at Chichester, in August. Dairying is becoming increasingly important. Shorthorns and Jerseys (for butter) are the chief breeds. Fruit and hops are important crops on the heavy lands of East Sussex; root-crops (including sugar beet, the output of which has much increased) and grain (wheat and oats) are grown in both, but especially in West Sussex. Milk, poultry, early fruit and flowers are increasingly supplied to London

and other markets.

Industries.—The industries, though now mostly limited to minor ones connected with agriculture (brewing, tanning, etc.), were formerly very varied. The furnaces for the Wealden iron industry, which dates back probably to pre-Roman times, were chiefly in Sussex. Clay gave rise to pottery and brick-making, Glass-making (with fine Hastings sand) flourished at Chiddingfold (Surrey), and at Westborough Green, Loxwood and Petworth in Sussex. Weaving and fulling were also carried on, Chichester being noted for its cloth. The shores abound in shellfish, and both fresh-water and sea fishing are very important; the herring-fisherles and the salt-pans on the coast. are noted in Domesday. Communications.—The Southern railway runs from London to Hastings, St. Leonards, Bexhill, Eastbourne, to Lewes and Newhaven, to Brighton, to Shoreham, and to Arundel, Chichester and Selsey, with numerous branches and a connecting line along the coast. There are no good harbours, and none of the ports is of first importance. From Newhaven, however, a large trade is carried on with France, and daily passenger steamers ply to Dieppe. Population and Administration.—The area of the ancient county is 932,471 ac., with a population (1931) of 770,078. The earliest statement as to the population is made by Bede, who describes the county as containing in the year 681 land of 7,000

families; allowing ten to a family (not an unreasonable estimate at that date), the total population would be 70,000. In 1693 the county is stated to have contained 21,537 houses. If seven were allowed to a house at that date, the total population would be 150,759. It is curious, therefore, to observe that in 1801 the population was only 159,311. The decline of the Sussex iron works probably accounts for the small increase of population during several centuries, although after the massacre of St. Bartholomew

upwards of 1,500 Huguenots landed at Rye, and in 1685, after the revocation of the Edict of Nantes, other refugees arrived. An act of Henry VII. (1504) directed that for convenience the county court should be held at Lewes as well as at Chichester, and this apparently gave rise to the division of Sussex into east and west parts, each of which is an administrative county. East Sussex has an area of 530,555 ac., and West Sussex 401,916 acres. Sussex includes the parliamentary borough of Brighton and the county boroughs of Hastings and Eastbourne. East Sussex:contains the municipal boroughs of Bexhill, Lewes and Rye. In West Sussex the municipal boroughs are Arundel, Chichester (acity), and Worthing. The ancient county, which is almost entirely in the diocese of Chichester, contains 377 ecclesiastical parishes or districts, wholly or in part. The total number of civil parishes 15 338. Sussex is divided into the following parliamentary divisions: northern or East Grinstead, eastern or Rye, southern or East-

SUSSEX—SUTHERLANDSHIRE bourne, mid or Lewes, south-western or Chichester, north-western or Horsham and Worthing each returning one member; and contains the parliamentary boroughs of Brighton, returning two members, and Hastings, returning one. BIBLIOCRAPHY.—See T. W. Horsñeld, History, Antiquities and Topography of Sussex (Lewes, 1835); J. Dallaway, History of the Western Division of Sussex (London, 1815-32) ; M. A. Lower, History of Sussex (Lewes, 1870), Churches of Sussex (Brighton, 1872) and Worthies of Sussex (Lewes, 1865); Sussex Archaeological Society’s Collections; W. E. Baxter, Domesday

Book

for ... Sussex

(Lewes,

1876) ; Sawyer, Sussex Natural History and Folklore (Brighton, 1883), Sussex Dialect (Brighton, 1884) and Sussex Songs and Music (Brighton,

188s); A. J. C. Hare, Sussex (London, 1894); A. Hadrian Allcroft,

Rarthwork of England (1908); Victoria County History ii. (1908).

SUSSEX, Saxons),

one

KINGDOM

OF

of the kingdoms

(Sud Seaxe, i.e., the South of Anglo-Saxon

Britain,

the

boundaries of which coincided in general with those of the modern county of Sussex. According to the tradition given in the AngloSaxon Chronicle, it was in 477 that a certain Ella (Aelle) led the invaders ashore at a place called Cymenes ora and defeated the inhabitants. A further battle at a place called Mearcredesburne is recorded for 485, and in the annal for 491 we read that Ella and Cissa his son sacked Anderida (Pevensey) and slew the inhabitants. Ella is the first king of the invading race whom Bede describes as exercising supremacy over the southern English.

The history of Sussex now becomes a blank until 607 when Ceolwulf of Wessex is found fighting against the South Saxons. In 681 Wilfrid of York, on his expulsion from Northumbria by

Ecgfrith, retired into Sussex, where he remained until 686 converting its pagan inhabitants.

According to Bede, Aethelwald,

king of Sussex, had been previously baptized in Mercia at the suggestion of Wulfhere, who presented him with the Isle of Wight and the district about the river Meon in Hampshire. After Wilfrid’s exertions in relieving a famine which occurred in Sussex the king granted to him eighty-seven hides in and near the peninsula of Selsey which, with a lapse until 709 after Wilfrid’s retirement, remained the seat of the South Saxon bishopric until the Norman Conquest. Shortly afterwards, however, Aethelwald was slain and his kingdom ravaged by the exiled West Saxon prince Ceadwalla. The latter was eventually expelled by two princes Berhthun and Andhun, who assumed the government of the kingdom. In 686 the South Saxons attacked Hlothhere, king of Kent, in support of his nephew Eadric, but soon afterwards Berhthun was killed and the kingdom subjugated for a time by Ceadwalla, who had now become king of Wessex. Of the later South Saxon kings we have little knowledge. In 692 a grant is made by a king called Nothelm to his sister, which is witnessed by two other kings called Nunna and “Uuattus.” Nunna is probably to be identified with Nun, described in the Chronicle as the kinsman of Ine of Wessex who fought with him against Gerent, king of the West Welsh, in 710. According to Bede, Sussex was subject to Ine for many years. A grant, dated by Birch about 725, is made by Nunna to Eadberht, bishop of Selsey, and to this too “Uuattus” appears as a witness. In 722 we find Ine of Wessex at war with the South Saxons, apparently because they were supporting’ a certain Aldbryht, probably an exile from Wessex. An undated grant is made by Nunna about this time, which is witnessed by a King Aethelberht. After this we hear nothing more until shortly before 765, when a grant of land is made by a king named Aldwulf with two other kings, Aelfwald and Oslac, as witnesses. In 765 and 770 grants are made by a King Osmund, the latter of which is witnessed by Offa of Mercia. Offa also appears as witness to two charters of an Aethelberht, king of

the South Saxons, and in 772 he grants land himself in Sussex, with Oswald, dux of the South Saxons, as a witness. It is probable that about this time Offa definitely annexed the kingdom of Sussex, as several persons, Osmund, Aelfwald and Oslac, who had previously used the royal title, now sign with that of dux. In 825 the South Saxons submitted to Ecgberht, and from this time they remained subject to the West Saxon dynasty. AutHorities—Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, pp. 449, 477; 485, 491, 607, 722, 725, 823, 827 (ed. Earle and Plummer, Oxford, 1899); Bede, Historia Ecclesiastica, i. 15, ii. 5, iv. 13, 18, 16, 26, v. 18, 19, 23

(ed. C. Plummer,

Oxford,

1896); W. de G. Birch, Cartularium

Saxonicum, (1885—93).

Nos.

í

78, 144, 145, EE

623 197, 198, 206, 208, 211, 212, 1334 (F. G. M. B.)

SUSU, a tall people of French Guinea and Sierra Leone, with pleasant countenances, oval in shape, who tattoo three lines on the breast and beneath the eye. They live in confederate villages under a paramount chief, the houses of one family grouped together. Their material culture is fairly advanced. Marriage is usual between cross cousins and between the husband’s brother and widow. Polygamy, with headship of the first wife, is common. Inheritance is patrilineal. The Susu have politico-religious confraternities, known as Simo, including as a rule three degrees for

men. Their religion is animist but influenced by Islam. Susu is also the name of the fresh-water dolphin of the Ganges; it is blind, fish-eating and pale in colour. (See CETACEA) See Arcin, La Guinée Française (1907); N. W. Thomas, Report on the Timne-speaking Peoples (1916).

SUTHERLAND, EARLS AND DUKES OF. The frst earl of Sutherland was a certain William (d. 1284), whose father,

Hugh Freskin (d. 1204), acquired the district of Sutherland about 1197.

Probably about 1230 William was created earl of Suther-

land. His descendant William, the 4th earl (d. 1370), was a person of some importance in the history of Scotland; he married Margaret (d. 1358), daughter of King Robert Bruce. His descendant John, the oth earl, died unmarried in 1514. John’s sister Elizabeth (d. 1535) married Adam Gordon (d. 1537), a younger son of George Gordon, 2nd earl of Huntly, and

a grandson of King James I.,.and before 1516 Gordon became earl of Sutherland by right of his wife. He was succeeded by his grandson John (c. 1526-1567), the 2nd earl of his line, who was poisoned at the instigation of George Sinclair, 4th earl of Caithness. His great-grandson John, the 5th earl (1609-1663), was a strong Covenanter, being called by his associates “‘the good Earl John”; he fought against Montrose at Auldearn, but afterwards he rendered good service to Charles II. John Gordon Ce. 1660-1733), who became the seventh earl in 1703, supported the revolution of 1688 and was a commissioner for the union of England and Scotland. He was a Scottish representative peer in four parliaments, president of the board of trade and manufactures, and lord-lieutenant of the eight northern counties of Scotland. He was active in putting down the rising of 1715. This earl, who took the name of Sutherland instead of that of Gordon, was succeeded by his grandson William (c. 1708-1750), a representative peer, who helped to suppress the rebellion of 1745. William, the next earl, died without male issue in 1766, his daughter Elizabeth (1765-1839) claiming the peerage. Her title thereto was confirmed by the House of Lords in 1771. Established in the possession of the title and estates of the earldom, the countess of Sutherland was married in 1785 to George Granville Leveson-Gower (1758-1833), who succeeded his father as 2nd marquess of Stafford in 1803. In addition to the estates of the marquessate of Stafford, Leveson-Gower inherited the Bridgewater Canal and estates from his maternal uncle, Francis Egerton, 2nd duke of Bridgewater, and these properties, together with his wife’s estates, which included almost the whole of the county of Sutherland, made him a “leviathan of wealth,” as he is called by Charles Greville. In 1833 he was created duke of Sutherland. Leveson-Gower was a member of parliament from 1778 to 1784, and again from 1787 to 1798 and was British ambassador in Paris from 1790 to 1792. From 1799 to 1810 he was joint postmaster-general. He was a collector of paintings, and purchased Stafford House, London. He was responsible for the construction of about 450 m. of road and of many bridges, but his

policy of removing a large number of his tenants from the interior to the coast aroused bitterness and criticism. However, he reduced rents and brought thousands of acres into cultivation. He died at Dunrobin Castle on July 5, 1833. See Sir Robert Gordon and George Gordon, Genealogical History of the Earldom of Sutherland (Edinburgh, 1813); and also the article STAFFORD, EARLS AND MARQUESSES OF.

SUTHERLANDSHIRE, county, northern Scotland, bounded north and west by the Atlantic, east by Caithness, southeast by the North Sea and south by the shire of Ross and Cro-

SUTLEJ—SUTTEE

624 marty.

The western

runs north-west to Kildonan, and north to Forsinard, where į

and northern shores are indented with beautiful bays and sealochs, and terminate at many points in precipices and rugged headlands. Almost the whole county is mountainous; the summits are often of finer outline than those of the Grampian heights to the south, and the surface generally consists of wild desolate

Area, 1,297,914 acres

(excluding water).

shortly afterwards leaves the shire. The Glasgow steamers cal] at Lochinver about every ten days.

moorland. The highest point is Ben More in Assynt (3,273 ft.). An irregular line from Loch Eriboll ,on the north coast to the neighbourhood of Cromalt near the southern boundary separates the two rock groups that form the foundation of the major portion of the county. On the western side of this line are ancient gneisses and schists (the Lewisian gneiss); these are penetrated by innumerable basic and acid dikes which generally have a north-west to south-east trend. On the eastern side of the line, occupying the whole of the remaining area except the eastern fringe of the county, is a younger series of metamorphic rocks, the Moine schists. In the north-west Torridonian breccias and sandstones rest unconformably on this gneiss, and Cambrian rocks upon the Torridonian; the white Cambrian quartzite capping the dark Torridonian rocks on some of the hills forms a striking scenic feature. Granite masses appear in the eastern schists, and patches of Old Red Sandstone form high land near the south-

east coast. Evidence of glacial action is widespread. The chief river is the Oykell, which, rising in Coniveall (3,234), a peak of Ben More, flows south and then south-east for 33 m. to Dornoch Firth. Other rivers flowing to Dornoch Firth are the Helmsdale (22 m.), the Brora (28 m.), preserving in its name (bridge river) the fact that its bridge was once the only important one in the county; and the Fleet (17), the estuary of which was embanked for 1,000 yd. in 1813 by Thomas Telford, whereby rich alluvial land was reclaimed. The Halladale (22), rising in Knockfin on the borders of Caithness enters the sea to the east of Portskerry. The district of Assynt is honeycombed with lakes and tarns, but the only large lake is Loch Assynt, 64 m. long, 215 ft. above the sea. The ratio of the area of islands to the total area of the lake is greater than in any other British lake. There are many waterfalls; those of Escuallin, near the head of Glencoul, are among the finest in Great Britain. Agticulture and Industry.—Only one-fortieth of the total area is under cultivation, the shire ranking lowest in Scotland in this respect. The great mass of the surface is grazing ground and deer forest. The best land adjoins Dornoch Firth, where farming is in an advanced condition, but there are fertile patches along the river valleys. At the beginning of the roth century the first duke of Sutherland (then marquis of Stafford) adopted a policy of wholesale clearance of the crowded crofters of the interior to the coast. The duke incurred great obloquy, but persisted in his policy, which included reduction of rent, reclamation of land, and abolition of the tacksman or middleman. He also did much to open up the shire generally by the construction of roads and bridges. Attempts have been made to repeople some of the glens (Strathnaver, for example) depopulated by the clearances. Crofters still largely predominate, nearly half the holdings being

under 5 acres. The average size of the holdings, 124 acres, is the smallest in Scotland with the exception of the Shetland islands. Oats, barley and potatoes are grown. The raising of sheep, mostly Cheviot, is the staple business of the county, and cattle are also kept. Horses—principally ponies, though Clydesdales are used

on the bigger farms—are kept almost wholly for agricultural purposes, and pigs are also reared. Deer forests belonging to the

duke of Sutherland cover a large area.

Next to agriculture, the deep-sea fisheries and the salmon fisherjes in the rivers are the most important interest. Helmsdale and Golspie are fishing villages. Herrings ate the principal catch, but cod, ling and other. fishes are also taken. Whisky is distilled at Brora; some woollens are manufactured at Brora and Rogart; coal is mined at Brora, and limestone and sandstone quarried. The exceptional facilities offered by the deer forests, moors and the many lochs and rivers attract large numbers of sportsmen; and Dornoch and Lochinver are in repute as holiday resorts. The L.M.S. railway enters the county at Invershin, goes northward to Lairg, then east to Brora and north-east to Helmsdale, whence it

Population and Administration—In

1931 the population

was 16,100, the least densely populated of Scottish counties. Sey.

eral islands lie off the west and north coast, but only Roan, at the entrance to Kyle of Tongue, is inhabited (41). In 1931 there

were 24 persons speaking Gaelic only, 6,763 who spoke Gaelic and English. The county returns one member to parliament With

Caithness, and forms a joint sheriffdom with Ross and Cromarty, with a sheriff-substitute resident at Dornoch. The county is under school-board jurisdiction. History and Antiquities.—Of

the prehistoric inhabitants,

there are considerable remains in the form of many brochs (or

round towers), Picts’ houses, tumuli, cairns and hut circles. Dun Dornadilla, in the parish of Durness, 4 m. south of Loch Hope, is a tower, 150 ft. in circumference, still in good preservation, The Norse jarl Thorfinn overran the country in 1034 and the Scandinavian colonists called it, in relation to their settlements in the Orkneys and Shetlands, Sudrland, the “southern land,” or Sutherland. After the conquest of the district by the Scottish kings, Sutherland was conferred on Hugh Freskin (a descendant of Freskin of Moravia or Moray), whose son William was created earl of Sutherland in 1228 by Alexander II. On the south shore

of Helmsdale creek stand the ruins of the castle in which the trth earl of Sutherland and his wife were poisoned by his uncle’s widow in 1567, with a view to securing the title for her only child who was next of kin to the earl and his son. Ardvreck Castle, now in ruins, at the east end of Loch Assynt, was the prison of the marquis of Montrose after his defeat at Invercarron (1650), whence he was delivered up by Neil Macleod of Assynt for execution at Edinburgh. In the graveyard of the old church of Durness is a monument to Robert Mackay, called Rob Donn

(the brown), the Gaelic poet (1714-1778).

SUTLEJ, river, India, one of the “Five Rivers” of the Punjab.

It rises E.SE. of the Manasarowar lakes in Tibet, at an elevation of about 15,200 ft., threads its way through the gorges of the Himalayas with heights of 20,000 ft. on either side, crosses Bashahr and the Simla hill states, and enters the British district of Hoshiarpur. Thence it flows through the plains of the Punjab, receives the Beas in Kapurthala state, and joins the Chenab near Madwala. From that point the whole river bears the name of

Panjnad (“five rivers”) until it falls into the Indus near Mithankot after a course of goo m. The Sutlej supplies the Sirhind canal, which draws off its waters at Rupar, 1co m. above the junction with the Beas; and the Upper and Lower Sutlej systems, which come below the junction. These irrigate altogether some 1,600,000 acres. Extensions, now undertaken, include 3 new weirs on the Sutlej and 1 on the Chenab, irrigating over 5,000,000 acres. A large dam on the Sutlej where it leaves the hills was under consideration in 1927.

SUTRI (anc. Sutrium), an episcopal town of Italy, 4 m. from the railway station of Capranica, which is 36 m. from Rome; 955 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1921), 2,880. The town is situated on a hill surrounded by ravines, a narrow neck alone connecting it with the surrounding country. There are some remains of the ancient city walls. The crypt of the cathedral, with twenty columns, is Romanesque, and the campanile dates from 1207. In the cliffs to the south is the rock-cut church of the Madonna del Parto, formerly a Mithraeum; and close by is a rock-hewn amphitheatre, with axes of 55 and 44 yd., now most picturesque. Sutri, command-

ing the Via Cassia, is spoken of by Livy as one of the keys of Etruria, Nepet being the other. It came into the hands of Rome after the fall of Veii. Its importance explains, according to F estus, the proverb Sutrium ire, of one who goes on important business, as it occurs in Plautus. (T. A.)

SUTTEE, the Indian practice of concremation of a widow on

the pyre of her deceased husband (Sanskr. sati, “true” wife). Whether the usage existed in Vedic India has been hotly debated.

World-wide primitive usage compelled a widow to be the wife of her husband’s brother or near kinsman or, if he had been of princely standing, to be immolated with his concubines, slaves,

SUTTER—SUVOROV

625 Through her mother

steeds, etc., at his tomb, to maintain his dignity in the next world. | Count Franz Kinsky, Austrian field marshal.

This usage eventually found priestly support in the Hindu con- | she was related to the German poet, Theodor Korner. She spent ception of matrimony as a bond eternally renewed when the mar- | much time in Paris and in Italy. In 1876 she married the novelist, ried pair were reborn in succeeding

von

Gundaccar

concept hard to | Freiherr Arthur

lives—a

Suttner

A fertile writer, her

in Lower Austria.

spouse who, resenting a slight put upon her lord by her father, | at Schloss Harmansdorf

and for

(1850-1902),

After 1885 she resided

reconcile with polygyny. In late Hindu myth Sati was Siva’s | nine years lived at Tiflis in the Caucasus.

destroyed herself but was reincarnated as Uma, the beauteous | most famous tales and tracts denounce war, for instance, Die

wife of Siva. Here Sati’s act is prompted by a very different mo- | Waffen nieder (1889), Krieg und Frieden (1896), Das Maschinentive, and the tale supports the view that the text of the Rig-Veda | Zeitalter, Zukunfts-Vorlesungen iiber unsere Zeit (1899) and Die

Haager Friedenskonferenz (1900). She founded the Austrian Sowas tampered with, to support the Brahmanical ideal. According to Diodorus Siculus, Strabo and St. Jerome, Suttee | ciety of Peace-lovers in 1891, and edited the monthly organ of the existed in the 4th century B.C. In mediaeval India the practice | peace-movement, Die Waffen Nieder, established in Dresden in flourished among the Rajputs—and where Brahman influences | 1892. In 1905 she was awarded a Nobel prize of £5,000 for her were strong. The Sati too began to be worshiped as a Maha Sati | peace propaganda. She died at Vienna on June 21, 1914. í 13 s or “great and true” wife, commemorated by a stone. Yet re- | Her Memoiren were published at Stuttgart in 1908. See also H. v. formers denounced the usage, as in Malabar. Even the Brahmani- | der Mandere, Bertha Suttner (1909). cal jurists sometimes deprecated satz, allowing the widow the op-

tion of living? an ascetic life, 3 with rights of inheritance. ; : The Jains e do not practice satz. Buddhism probably discouraged it. Sikhism

SUTTON.

5

SIR RICHARD

.

e

.

ayo

with

.

2

:

;

;

expressly forbade it, yet on Ranjit Singh’s death in 1839, several

t

.

a

see

ae Te . ;2 a3 aoe

aa

ae EE

of his widows were burnt. Outside British jurisdiction, saéz con- oe tinued in families of high rank until late in the rọth century. In | prisitti British territory, it was not till 1829 that Lord William Bentinck, Er F e ace

(d.ebac. 1724), > the founder,

? . . Williilliam Smyth, bishop of Lincoln, of Brasenose college, Oxford, and the first lay founder of any college, was a barrister by pro-

a

with some support from Indian opinion (see BraHMa SAMAJ) Was | annum, and from that time until the end of his life was occupied able, despite strong protests, to make it a statutory offence. in purchasing estates with which he might endow the new college. BrptiocraPpHY.—H. Yule and A. C

Burnell, Hobson-Jobson

(ed.

W. Crooke, 1903) gives full extracts from ancient and modern writers

cn the practice; J. Jolly, Recht und Sitte (Strassburg, 1917).

SUR

ra o

7

SS

:

SUTTON,

THOMAS

3

:

(

ane anit and pileernae

ship of coal mines in

1611), found

f: 1532 POST

Durham and

Jy

f Charter

AUnGCE

ae ‘oe by

also

eae

NEA

by his marriage in 1582

American |with Elizabeth (d. 1602), widow of John Dudley of Stoke New-

ae

:é Badenion Febris m Te came to ee in at ington. His wish to devote some of his money to charitable purdiada Mize P : Im 7°34 | poses led him in 1611 to purchase for £13,000 the Charterhouse ae oe F oh pee a. ee hey sian (g.v.) from Thomas Howard, earl of Suffolk. On this spot Suty way 5 " S given a grant | ton erected the hospital and school which he had originally in3 Mexican the by river Sacramento on the of 49,000 ac. of land tended to build at Hallingbury in Essex. Sutton died at Hackney Sa : Eg

y

governor on condition that he would fortify and develop it into | Sn Dec. 12, 1611, and was buried in the chapel in the Chartera strong Mexican outpost.

Sutter became a citizen of Mexico

and was appointed “Commissioner of Justice and Representative

:

:

ees o

of the Government on the Frontier of the Rio del Sacramento.” | ~” SUTTON He built not only a strong fort and other buildings but a mill, boid E a

Ar

an.

=F

James

S 3 z land of © D pes Geli) n6488 ae Chea "i (ne

eee irda ae ott o = other mae the Banca downs ' The manor aeaccording to Domesday EE belonged : Hawaiians an He imported he hired skilled workers. or which hired Indians to cultivate the land. He traded with the Indians EA e so until the dissolution of for furs and purchased a schooner and other boats which plied on : a . : the Sacramento. More land was acquired and he rapidly became aoe ere are A the eo. wealthy. His settlement, “New Helvetia,” became a rendezvous : j Pag . E for adventurers, sailors, trappers and hunters and for an increasing :— E n eoan a E S number of Americans. His growing strength and independence Sa ; : or and, above all, his hospitality to the Americans, made him the ae peed oe ne object of increasing hostility on the part of the Mexican authori- | : . a ; inhabitants have the right of grazing horses and cattle at a small ies. In 1846 when the Bear Flag revolt took place and Fremont This, with the Crystal Palace gardens, forms a public recrea(g.v.) arrived with American troops, Sutter at first maintained an | fee. |. Pa appearance of fidelity to the Mexican Government. However, he tion ground. In the vicinity are New Hall (13th century), with a d hall of the 16th, useda as a boys’ school. A $ . r i e made but little objection when Frémont took control of hisis fort Sutton Coldfield is mentioned the Domesday Survey as a for in and made use of his property. After California was acquired by : : . the Uni . it | possession of the Conqueror and as having been held by Edwin, Unitedof States and settlement rapidrace Sutter Henry I. exchanged it with the earl of Warwick. thee need a new mill. It was whilebecame diggingmore the mill that felt the earl of Mercia. : i :

famous discovery of gold in California (1848) was made. Sutter tried to keep the strike a secret, but in vain, and his property was soon overrun by gold seekers from whom he could not protect himself. What was worse, the U.S. Supreme Court found the title to 98,000 ac. of his land invalid. Much of what was left

By the time of Henry VIII. the town had fallen into ruin. It received a charter of incorporation in 1529, owing to the interest ; 7 of John Vesey, bishop of Exeter, a native of the place, and received a further charter in 1664. Fairs were granted in 1300, 1353 and 1529, to be held at the feasts of Trinity, Michaelmas

him was used to reimburse those to whom he had granted sub-

y a oe oe St. J e S are now held on Trinity Monday,

titl : he was forced to make good. Soon he was bankrupt | itles which From 1871 to the year of his death he petitioned Congress an. nually for some reimbursement for his: services. He died at

Washington, D.C., on June 18, 1880, the evening after Congress had again adjourned without recognition of his claims. See B. Cendrars, Sutter’s Gold (1926); T. J. Schoonover, Life and

March 14, Sept. 19 and Nov. 8. market town, Nottinghamshire, SUTTON-IN-ASHFIELD,

England, Sherwood Forest, on the 25,151. L.M.S. The and LNER,, on13 the m. border N. of of Nottingham. Pop. (1931) early church of St Mary Magdalene was restored in 1868.

SUVLA

BAY, LANDING

AT, AND

Times of General J. A. Sutter (1907) ; “John A. Sutter” in Society of | 1915: see DARDANELLES CAMPAIGN. California Pioneers’ Quarterly, vol. v., pp. 39-53, 85-102 (1928). SUVOROV, ALEXANDER VASILIEVICH,

SUTTNER, BERTHA, Baroness von (1843-1914), Austrian writer, was born at Prague on July 9, 1843, the daughter of

BATTLE COUNT

OF,

| Suv6ROV

Rimnixsxy, Prince ITatysKy (1729-1800), Russian field marshal, was born at Moscow on Nov. 24, 1729, the descendant of

626

SUWALKI-—SUZERAINIY

a Swede named Suvor who emigrated to Russia in 1622. He into the forests and it is now a Polish town, though near the entered the army as a boy, served against the Swedes in Finland frontier of Lithuania. Its trade includes timber and grai ‘ny, SUWARRO (Carnegiea gigantea), a remarkable tree ‘cactys and against the Prussians during the Seven Years’ War. After repeatedly distinguishing himself in battle he was made a coionel 15 to 70 ft. high, called also saguaro, giant cactus and montimient \erp in 1762. He next served in Poland, dispersed the Polish forces cactus, native to arid districts in southern Arizona, south-east under Pulawski, stormed Cracow (1768) and was made a major- California and Sonora, Mexico. It has a stout, woody, vertical general. In his first campaigns against the Turks in 1773-74, and ribbed stem, 1 to 2 ft in diameter, sometimes rising unbranched, particularly in the battle of Kosludscki in the latter year. he laid like a green, fluted column, whence the name monument cactus; ‘ more frequently it bears a few large, stout, widely diverging the foundations of his reputation From 1787 to 1791 he was again fighting the Turks and won candelabra-like branches, but occasionally it bears numerous many victories; he was wounded at Kinburn (1787), took part branches which rise vertically from near the base like a group of in the siege of Ochakov, and in 1788 won two great victories at organ pipes. Close to the top of the stem or branches it bears Focsani and on the Rimnik. For the latter victory, in which an white flowers which are followed by crimson edible fruits. Austrian corps under Prince Josias of Saxe-Coburg participated, In Arizona, of which it is the floral emblem or State flower, a Catherine IJ. made him a count with the name Rimniksky in desert tract containing numerous fine living specimens of the tree addition to his own name, and the emperor Joseph IT. created him was set apart in 1914 as the Papago Saguaro National Monument. (See Cactus: Cereus.) a count of the Holy Roman Empire.

On Dec. 22, 1790, Suvérov stormed Ismail in Bessarabia, and the sack and the massacre that followed the capture equals in horror such events as the “Spanish Fury” and the fall of Magdeburg. He was next placed at the head of the army which subdued the Poles, and repeated the triumph, and some of the cruelties, of Ismail at Warsaw. He was now made a field marshal, and was retained in Poland till 1795, when he returned to St. Petersburg. His sovereign and friend Catherine II. died in 1796, and her successor Paul dismissed the veteran in disgrace. But in February

1799 he was summoned by the tsar to take the field again, this time against the French Revolutionary armies in Italy. The campaign (see FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY Wars) opened with a series of victories (Cassano, Trebbia, Novi) which reduced the French government to desperate straits and drove every French soldier from Italy, save for the handful under Moreau, which maintained a foothold in the Maritime Alps and around Genoa. Suvoérov himself was made a prince. But the later events of the eventful year went uniformly against the allies.

Suvdrov’s

lieutenant Korsakov was defeated by Masséna at Zurich, and the old field marshal, seeking to make his way over the Swiss passes to the Upper, Rhine, had to retreat to the Vorarlberg, where the army, much shattered and almost destitute of horses and artillery, went into winter quarters. Early in 1800 Suvorov returned to St Petersburg in disgrace. Paul refused to give him an audience, and, worn out and ill, he died a few days afterwards, on May 18, 1800. But within a year of his death the tsar Alexander I. erected a statue Lo his memory in the Field of Mars, St. Petersburg. Suvorov is specially the great captain of the Russian nation for his leadership responded to the character of the Russian soldier. In an age when war was mere diplomacy he restored its true significance as an act of force. He spared his own soldiers as little as he showed mercy to the population of a fallen city. He was a man of great simplicity of manners, and while on a campaign lived as a private soldier. But he had himself passed through all the gradations of military service; moreover, his education had been of the rudest kind. His gibes procured him many enemies. He had all the contempt of a man of ability and action for ignorant favourites and ornamental carpet-knights. Dragomirov (q.v.) avowed that his teaching was based on Suvé6rov’s practice. Byron has given Suvorov a place in English literature in certain cantos of Don Juan.

SUYUTI [Abi-l FadhltAbd ur-Rahmin ibn Abi Bakr Jalal

ud-Din us-Suyuti] (1445-1505), Arabian encyclopaedic writer, was the son of a Turkish slave woman. His father had been cadi in Suytt (Upper Egypt) and professor in Cairo. The boy’s train-

ing was taken in hand by a Sufi friend of the father. He was precocious, and in 1462 was already a teacher; in 1464 he made the

maiia aame A I

pilgrimage to Mecca, and in 1486 was promoted to a chair in the mosque of Bibars. From 1501 he worked in seclusion at Rauda, an island of the Nile, and there died in 1505. He was one of the most prolific writers of the East. A list of his works is given in C. Brockelmann’s Gesch. der Arabischen Literatur, ii. 144-158 (Berlin, 1902). They deal with almost

every branch of Moslem science and literature. Among the best known are the Itqgén fi ‘Ulim ul-Quran (on the exegetic sciences of the, Koran), published with an analysis by A. Sprenger (Calcutta, 1852- ~ 1854) and often in Cairo; the commentary on the Koran, known as the Tafsir ul-Jalalain, begun by Jalal ud-Din ul-Mahalli (1389-1449) and finished by Suyiiti, published often in the East; and the history of the caliphs, published at Calcutta (1858) and elsewhere.

SUZERAINTY.

“Suzerain,’ a term of feudal law, is now

used to describe persons or States in positions of superiority to others. Suzerain has been defined as “Qui possède un fief dont d’autres fiefs relèvent” (Littré and Dictionnaire de l'académie

francaise). The term was rare ın feudal times in England But it was used in France to describe a feudal lord, the supreme suzerain being the king.

In modern times the term has come to be used as descriptive of relations, ill-defined “and vague, which exist between powerful

and dependent States; its very indefiniteness being its recommendation. According to feudal law the vassal owed certain duties to the lord; he promised fidelity and service; and the lord was bound to perform reciprocal duties, not very clearly defined, to the vassal —Dominus vassallo conjux et amicus dicitur. The relation between a lord and his vassals, implied in the oath of fealty, has been extended to States of unequal power; it has been found convenient to designate certain States as vassal States, and their superiors as suzerains. Originally and properly applicable to a status recognized by feudalism, the term vassal State has been used to describe the subordinate position of certain States once parts of the Ottoman empire. Such were Egypt and Bulgaria. M. Gairal (Le Protectorat international) distinguishes suzerainty from protectorate in these respects: (a) suzerainty proceeds from a concession on the part of the suzerain (p. 112); (0) the See Anthing, Versuch einer Kriegsgeschichte des Grafen Suworow vassal State is bound to perform specific services; and (c) the (Gotha, 1796~1799); F. von Smitt, Suworows Leben und Heersziige vassal State has larger powers of action than those belonging to a (Vilna, 1833-1834) and Suworow und Polens Untergang (Leipzig, protected State; (d) there is reciprocity of obligation. According 1858); Von Reding-Biberegg, Der Zug Suworows durch die Schweiz (Zurich, 1896); Lieut.-Colonel Spalding, Suvórof (London, 1890); to M. F. Despagnet the term suzerain is applicable to a case in G. von Fuchs, Suworows Korrespondenz, 1799 (Glogau, 1835); which a State concedes a fief, ın virtue of its sovereignty (Essa Souvorov en Italie, by Gachot, Masséna’s biographer (Paris, 1903); sur le protectorat international, p. 46), reserving to itself certain and the standard Russian biographies of Polevoi (1853; Ger. trans., Mitau, 1853); Rybkin (Moscow, 1874) and Vasiliev (Vilna, rights as the author of this concession. W. E. Hall thus defines vassal States: “States under the suzer1899). SUWALKI, a town of Poland, in the province of Bialystok, ainty of others are portions of the latter which during a process 65 m. by rail N.W. of Grodno. Pop. 24,000. The town grew up of gradual disruption or by the grace of the sovereign have in the wild borderland between the settlements of the Teutonic acquired certain of the powers of an independent community, Order and the Lithuanians, after the termination of the internecine such as that of making commercial conventions, or of conferwars between the two. Polish colonists from Masovia penetrated | ring their exequatur on foreign consuls, Their position differs

SVABINSK Y—SVENDSEN from that of the foregoing varieties of States (protectorates, etc.), in that a presumption exists against the possession by them of any

given international capacity” (International Law, ath ed., p. 31). On the whole, usage seems to favour this distinction: while a

protectorate flows from, or is a reduction of, the sovereignty of the protected State, suzerainty is conceived as derived from, and a reduction of, the sovereignty of the dominant State. As to the power of making treaties, a vassal State cannot, as a rule, conclude them; such power does not exist unless it is specially given. On the other hand, a protected State, unless the contrary is stipulated, retains the power of concluding treaties.

Definitions of suzerainty are of little use. Each instrument in which the word is used must be studied in order to ascertain its

significance. Even in feudal times suzerainty might be merely nominal, an instance in point being the suzerainty or over-lordship

of the papacy over Naples. In some cases it may be said that suzerainty brings no practical advantages and implies no serious

obligations. Among the instances in which the term is actually used in treaties are these: the General Treaty, Peace of Paris,

1856 (arts. 21 and 22), recognized the suzerainty of Turkey over the Danubian principalities Moldavia and Wallachia, modifying

the “sovereignty” of Turkey recognized by the Treaty of Adrian-

ople. The convention of Aug. 19, 1858 (Hertslet x. 1052) organized the then principalities “under the suzerainty of the sultan.” The internal government was to be exercised by a hospodar, who received his investiture from the sultan, the sign of vassalship. The autonomy of these vassal States was fully recognized by the Treaty of Berlin of 1878. In the Interpretation Act 1880, s. 18 (5), “suzerainty” is used to describe the authority of the sovereign over native princes. The word suzerain is used in the Pretoria convention of 1881 between the British Government and the late South African republic. The convention (by its preamble) granted to the inhabitants complete self-government, ‘‘subject to the suzerainty of her Majesty,” and this suzerainty was reaffirmed in the articles. Even when the convention was being negotiated doubts arose as to its meaning, and legal authorities were divided as to its effect. It was doubtful whether territory could be ceded by the Crown of its own authority; and if the power existed the cession could, it was said, be made only by virtue of clear words. From the articles substituted in the London convention of 1884 for those of 1881, the word “suzerainty” was omitted. Fresh doubts arose as to the effect of this omission; before the outbreak of hostilities in South

627

“Summer” (1909) and “The Family in the Mountains,” provide typical examples. Svabinsky has painted many portraits, for instance, of Manes, Smetana and President Masaryk and of Maeterlinck. Also, there are his etchings and the woodcuts entitled “The Sonata of Paradise” (1918~20).

SVANE

[or Svaninc], HANS

(1606-1668), Danish states-

man and ecclesiastic, was born on March

27, 1606, at Horsens,

where his father, Hans Riber, was burgomaster. His mother Anne was a daughter of the historian Hans Svaning, whose name, subsequently altered to Svane, he adopted. After seven years’ residence abroad Svane became professor of Oriental languages at the university of Copenhagen. In 1646, he turned to theology.

He became bishop of Sjaelland in 1655.

As a theologian he

belonged to the severely orthodox Lutheran school. At the rigsdag of 1660 he played an important political réle. He proposed that only members of the council of state should be entitled to fiefs and that all other estates should be leased to the highest bidder whatever his social station. At a hint from the king he tried to get the royal charter abolished and the elective monarchy transformed into an hereditary monarchy. The clerical deputies fol-

lowed him in a serried band, as the burgesses followed Nansen, and the bishop’s palace was one of the meeting-places for the camarilla which abetted absolutist designs of Frederick III. It was on Svane’s motion (Oct. 8) that the Commons agreed “to offer his majesty the crown as an hereditary crown.” Svane quashed the timid attempt of the more liberal minded of the deputies to obtain from the king some sort of a constitution. He proposed the erection of a consistorial college for managing all the temporal affairs of the church, including education and poor

relief, anticipating to some extent the modern ministries of education and public worship, which unfortunately was not adopted. The privileges which he obtained for the clergy increased the independence of the Danish Church in difficult times. Svane died on July 26, 1668, in his 62nd year. See Detlev 1754).

Gotthard

Zwergius,

Siellandske

clerisie (Copenhagen, (R. N. B.; X.)

SVANETIA, a mountainous district on the south slopes of

the Caucasus. (See GEORGIA.) SVEHLA, ANTONIN (1873_+), Czech statesman, was born at Hostivar, near Prague. He was a founder and (1909) chairman of the Czech Agrarian party. Contact with Masaryk enabled him to complete the preparations for the final coup against Austria on Oct. 28, 1918, when in his capacity as viceAfrica, the British Government maintained that the preamble of president of the Prague National Committee, together with Dr. 1881, by which alone any self-government was granted, was still in Soukup and J. Stribrny, he took over the Government of the force, and therefore that the suzerainty—whatever it involved—re- Czechoslovak State on behalf of the Czechoslovak National

Council, which in the summer of 1918 had been recognized as the Czechoslovak Provisional Government. He became a member of the first National Assembly and was minister for the interior until Oct. 1922, when he formed a new Coalition, reconstituted SOVEREIGNTY, SPHERES OF INFLUENCE, STATE.) BrsriocrarHy.—C. Stubbs, Suzerainty: or the rights and duties of after the Oct. 1925 elections, so as to include the.“‘Big Business suzerun and Vassal States (1882); G. Jellinek, Die Lehre von den Party.” But on March 16, 1926, Svehla resigned. He formed his Staatenverbindungen (Vienna, 1882); C. Bornhak, Einseitige Abhäng- third administration on Oct. 28, 1926, two German Bohemians rgborteverhiltomsce unter den modernen Staaten in G. Jellinek and G. being included in his cabinet. The German bourgeois group in Mairs Siwek- und vélkerrechtliche Abhandlungen Bd I. Heft x. (1896) ; A. G. Merignhac, Traité de droit public eternational (2 pt., the Chamber supported him in a reversion to the four main 1905-07) ; E. von Ullmann, Volkerrecht in G. Jellinek’s Das offentliche provinces into which Czechoslovakia was divided before 1920, in Recht der Gegenwart Bd. 3. (Tübingen, 1908) ; M. G. Georgantas, De preference to the county system then established. His health la notion de Souveraineté et de son évolution (Lausanne, 1921); L. failed in the autumn of 1927, and in Jan. 1929 he resigned. (See Duguit, Souveraineté et Liberté (1922). See also Correspondence relating to the South African Republic (c. 9507, 1899); L. Westlake, also CZECHOSLOVAKIA: History.) SVENDBORG, a seaport of Denmark, capital of the amt “Angleterre et la république sud-africaine” in Revue de droit international (1896) p. 268; Law Quarterly Review vol. xii. (1896) p. 113; (county) of its name, on the island of Fiinen Pop. (1928), 14,4109. Law Magazine and Review, sth series, vol. xxv (1899—1900) p. 413; The narrow Svendborg Sund separates Fiinen from the lesser Journal of the Society of Comparative Legislation, new series, vol. i. islands of Taasinge (245 ft.) and Turg. Inland there is also mained; the Transvaal Government, on the other hand, contended that the suzerainty had been abolished by the substitution of the 1884 convention for that of 1881. (See MANDATE, PROTECTORATE,

(1899) p. 432.

elevated ground, the Ovinehgi. The harbour is accessible to vessels

SVABINSKÝ, MAX

(1873—-

), Czech painter, was born

at Kroměříž in Moravia. He studied at the Academy of Fine Arts m Prague, where he became a professor; and in Paris, Germany, Holland and Belgium.

His first works were made to suit the

poetical and symbolic mood prevalent at the time, but he soon turned his attention to realistic subjects, from which he derived the sources of an art intoxicated with the manifestations of life

and nature. His large-sized canvases, “The Sun Bath” (1908),

drawing 20 ft. Near the town are the ruined castle of grkil, the watering-place Christiansminde, and the orchards of Gammel Hestehave, where wine is produced.

SVENDSEN,

JOHANN

SEVERIN

(1840-1911), Nor-

wegian composer, was born in Christiania on Sept. 30, 1840. He learnt the violin from his father, and after serving in the army, and touring with an orchestra, he entered the conservatorium at Leipzig through ‘the aid of the king of Sweden. In 1883 Svendsen

SVERDLOVSK—SWABIAN

628

became court kapellmeister at Copenhagen. Though Svendsen was at one time intimate with Wagner, his own music was not influenced by him. His works include two symphonies, a violin concerto, a romance for violin and orchestra, and N orwegian rhapsodies for the orchestra He died in Copenhagen on June 14, 1911.

SVERDLOVSK

(formerly Ekaterinburg), the chief town of

the Uralsk Area of the Russian S.F.S.R. on the eastern foothills of the Ural mountains. It is the centre of a gold, platinum, copper and coal-mining district; its population rose from 55,488 in 1897 to 136,494 in 1926. The important Verkhne-Iset copper mine, unlike most other copper mines in Russia, is still working (1928). An electric power station was opened in 1925-20, with a capacity of 6,000 kw., and supplies the numerous industrial undertakings which include iron, copper smelting, platinum refining, the manufacture of machinery and linen goods. There is also a jewel cutting and polishing industry, Sverdlovsk emeralds being specially famous. The town has a chemical laboratory for the assay of gold, a mining school and a magnetic and meteorological observatory. Mining was developed here by Peter the Great in 1721 and the town was named Ekaterinburg in honour of his wife Catherine I. In 1735 a government mint for copper coinage was established and later a government engineering works, and an imperial factory for the cutting and polishing of malachite, jasper, marble, porphyry and other ornamental stones. In 1763 the Siberian highway was diverted to the town from Verkhoturye. This gave a great impetus to the two annual trading fairs, dealing mainly in cattle, cereals, iron, woollen and silk goods, and products from Siberia and Central Asia. Later the town became a railway centre and developed rapidly; it is well built, with wide streets. The Cathedral of St. Catherine’s was completed in 1758, and that of the Epiphany in 1774. Sverdlovsk was a storm centre during the civil wars following the 1917 revolution; and it was captured by the Czech army under Gajda. In July 1918, the Czar Nicholas II, his wife, their four daughters and only son, were executed in a house formerly belonging to a merchant named Ipatiev.

SVERDRUP, JOHAN

(1816-1892), Norwegian statesman,

was born at Jarlsberg on July 30, 1816. His father, Jakob Sverdrup, was a land steward, and the founder of the first school of agriculture in Norway. Johan entered the Storthing in 1850. He built up a strong political party, supported by the peasantry, and in 1872, secured a bill for the admission of ministers to the Storthing, which was a step to parliamentary control. King Charles XV. refused his sanction to this bill, and on its third passing in 1880 Oscar II. opposed his absolute veto. Sverdrup then proposed the proclamation of the law in defiance of the king’s action. The retirement of Frederik Stang removed Sverdrup’s chief political opponent from the field. He was aided in his campaign by Bjérnstjerne Bjornson, and after a series of political crises he became prime minister in June 1884. He soon found himself at issue with Björnson on church matters, although during his term of office no fewer than eighty-nine measures, many of them involving useful reforms, became law, he failed to satisfy the extremists and was driven to rely on the moderate Liberals, He was compelled to retire in 1889, and died on Feb. 17, 1892, at Christiania.

SWABIA,

Svasia or Suevia (Ger. Schwaben), one of the

stem-duchies of mediaeval

Germany, taking its name from the

Suevi, a tribe who inhabited the district in the first century of the Christian era. They were joined by other tribes, and the district was called Alamannia, until about the 11th century, when the form Swabia began to prevail. In 496 the Alamanni were de-

LEAGUE

his death in 926 he was succeeded by Hermann, a Franconian

noble, who married his widow. When Hermann died in 948 Otto the Great gave the duchy to his own son Ludolf, who had married Hermann’s daughter Ida; but he reduced the duca] privileges and appointed counts palatine to watch the royal ip. terests. Ludolf revolted and was deposed, and other dukes followed in quick succession. During these years the Swabians were loyal to the kings of the Saxon house. In 1077, Rudolph, count of Rheinfelden, as duke, was chosen German king in opposition to the emperor Henry IV., but found little support in Swabia, which was given by Henry to his faithful adherent Frederick I., count of Hohenstaufen. Frederick II. succeeded his father in 1105, and was followed by Frederick III., afterwards the

emperor Frederick I. The earlier Hohenstaufen increased the imperial domain in Swabia, where they received steady support, although ecclesiastical influences were very strong. After numerous changes, the chief authority in Swabia in 1268 fell to the counts of Wirttemberg, the margraves of Baden, the counts palatine of

Tiibingen and the counts of Hohenzollern.

SWABIAN

LEAGUE,

an association of German cities,

principally in the old duchy of Swabia.

The cities had attained

prosperity under the Hohenstaufen emperors, but on the extinc-

tion of that house in 1268, they were ill-defended against aggression by succeeding dynasties. In 1331, 22 Swabian cities, including Ulm, Augsburg, Reutlingen and Heilbronn, formed a league at the instance of the emperor Louis the Bavarian, who in return for their support promised not to mortgage any of them to a vassal. The count of Wurttemberg was induced to join in 1340. Under Charles IV.

the lesser Swabian nobles began to combine against the cities, and formed the Schlegelerbund (from Schlegel, a maul). Civil war ensuing in 1367, the emperor, jealous of the growing power of the cities, endeavoured to set up a league under his own control, for the maintenance of public peace. The defeat of the city league by Eberhard II. of Württemberg in 1372, the murder of the captain of the league, and the breach of his obligations by Charles IV., led to the formation of a new league of 14 Swabian cities led by Ulm in 1376. This league triumphed over the count of Württemberg at Reutlingen in 1377, and the emperor having removed his ban, it assumed a permanent character, set up an arbitration court, and was rapidly extended over the Rhineland, Bavaria and Franconia. Its professed aims were the maintenance of the imperial status of the constituent cities, the security against sale or mortgage and against excessive taxation, the protection of property, trade and traffic, and the power to suppress disturbances of the peace. There is no trace of co-operation with the Hanseatic towns. For nearly a century there was no great effort at federation among the Swabian cities, though there were partial and shortlived associations. The growing anarchy in Swabia, where the cities were violently agitated by the constant infringement of their liberties (e.g., the annexation of Regensburg by Bavaria in 1486), induced Frederick ITI., who required men and money for the Hungarian War, to conciliate the cities by propounding a scheme of pacification and reform. His commissioner, Count Hugo of Werdenberg, met the Swabian estates at Esslingen, and on Feb. 14, 1488, the Great Swabian League was constituted. There were four constituent parties, the archduke Sigismund of Austria, Count Eberhard V. of Wiirttemberg, who became the first captain of the league, the knightly league of St. George, and lastly 22 Swabian imperial cities. The league received a formal constitution with a federal council consisting of three colleges of nine councillors each, a captain and a federal court with judicial

feated by Clovis and governed by dukes dependent on the Frankish kings. In the 7th century the people were converted to Christianity, bishoprics were founded at Augsburg and Constance, and in the 8th century abbeys at Reichenau and St. Gall. The Alamanni had gradually thrown off the Frankish yoke, but in 730 Charles Martel again reduced them to dependence.

tributing one-fourth. The league gained strength by the speedy

The duchy, bounded by the Rhine, the lake of Constance, Lech and Franconia, was ruled by the counts of Raetia, of whom, Burkhard, took the title of duke in 917 and recognized as such by King Henry I., the Fowler, in 919.

Netherlanders in 1488.

the one was On

and executive powers. The armed force which was to police Swabia consisted of 12,000 foot and 1,200 horse, each party con-

accession of Augsburg and other Swabian cities, the margraves of Brandenburg-Ansbach, Bayreuth and Baden, the four Rhenish electors, etc., and in 1490 of Maximilian, king of the Romans, whom the league had helped to rescue from the hands of the

It did not render him the support he

expected in his foreign policy, but it performed its primary work v

SWAFFHAM—SWALLOW of restoring and maintaining order with energy and efficiency.

In 1492 it compelled Duke Albert of Bavaria to renounce Regens-

burg; in 1519 it expelled the turbulent duke, Ulrich of Wirt-

temberg who had seized Reutlingen, and it sold his duchy to Charles V.; and in 1523 it defeated the Franconian knights who

had taken up arms with Franz von Sickingen. In 1525 Truchsess,

the league captain, aided by the forces of Trier and the palatinate, overthrew the rebel peasants of Kénigshofen on the Tauber

and at Ingolstadt. The league, after several renewals, expired on Feb. 2, 1534, its dissolution being due to the Reformation. Futile attempts were made to renew it, in 1535 by the Bavarian

chancellor, Eck, and in 1547 by Charles V.

See E. Osann, Zur Geschichte des schwäbischen Bundes (Giessen, 1861) ; K. Kitipfel, Urkunden zur Geschichte des schwäbischen Bundes

(Stuttgart, 1846-53), “Der schwäbische Bund,” Hist. Taschenbuch

(A. B. G)

(1883-84).

SWAFFHAM,

a town in Norfolk, England; rır m. N N.E.

from London by L.N.E.R. Pop. (1931) 2,783. The cruciform church of St. Peter and St. Paul is Perpendicular, with central

tower, and a carved wood roof. At Castle

pepe

a

S

(17

Acre, 4m. N., are the ruins of a Cluniac [apo Spee) priory, founded shortly after the Conquest RARS by William de Warren. The castle of the founder has little left but its foundations, surrounded by a series of earthworks. The church of St. James, Castle Acre, contains Early English and Perpendicular work.

SWAHILI

(swah-héli)

(Wa-Swahili,

ie., coast people, Ar. sãkil, coast), a term commonly applied to the inhabitants of Zanzibar and of the opposite mainland

between the parallels of who speak the Ki-Swahili Swahili are derived from the coast and the Arabs,

ha H

yi oo

A

h

bA

fi

hi

E

s

and

Fl fk

as

a

HLA

4s

+

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rr

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f

f 1

LANGUAGE.

Swahili

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A

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3

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pA

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SA

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p

w

a Wea

ft

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7 iy

P

ne el

s physique thus range from the full-blooded e/a negro to the pure Semite. They are strong, handsome and inclined to stoutness. ee

SWAHILI

A

Z

1

Colour

.

y

PR ea ”

2° and 9° S., ih. language. The the negroes of with a varied f$. ee Y D m

admixture of slave blood.

Kar ay

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“J |

| í te

l

ys

1

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Zn

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SWAHILI

ELEPHANT

BRITISH belongs to the Bantu family of languages TRACKER oF (g.v.) and is spoken on the eastern coast EAST AFRICA of Africa, ranging approximately from Warsheikh, on the Somali coast, to the mouth of the Ruvuma (10° 30’ §.). It has also obtained wide currency as a trade language, having been carried by Arab caravans to the region of the Great Lakes before the middle of the roth century and, since then, through European

influence, into the Congo basin; and, in a very debased form, it is the vernacular of some Pygmy tribes on the Ituri, Origin and History of the Language.—Swahili is not the language of any particular tribe; it grew up among the descendants of the Arab settlers on the coast, who intermarried with

native women—usually Bantu. The name is derived from the Arabic Sahil ( he Co), which means “the coast,” the Arab colonists and their descendants being known simply as “the CoastDwellers.” In the native speech, in which every syllable ends in a vowel, Sahil became Swahili (accent on the second syllable). Pokomo, the speech of a very interesting Bantu tribe inhabiting the Tana valley, may have formed the groundwork of Swahili. The Pokomo would probably be the first Bantu tribe to meet the Arab colonists. Intercourse between Arabia and the east coast of Africa is as early as the rst century A.D., when, as we learn from the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, the people of Muza (in Southern Arabia) “sent thither many large ships, using Arab cap-

629

“Sowauli” and gives a short and very imperfect vocabulary. The first real study of the language was made by Johann Ludwig Krapf, 1810-82, a German who went to East Africa in the service of the Church Missionary Society, reaching Mombasa in 1844. His dictionary, recently revised and supplemented by Archdeacon Binns, is still a standard work; the principal English contributors to the subject are Edward Steere (Bishop of Zanzibar from 1874 to 1882), Arthur C. Madan (d. 1920) and the late William Ernest Taylor, for many years a missionary in Kenya Colony. Character of the Language.—Swahili is a Bantu language. Its grammatical structure has been little affected by Arabic influence. It includes Arabic words. Contact with outside influences has tended to efface some characteristic Bantu peculiarities and brought about an extensive use of borrowed prepositions and adverbs, which gives it greater elasticity and increases its possibilities as a literary language. Swahili has no grammatical gender, but a division of nouns into classes, each with its characteristic pronoun; it inflects nouns by means of prefixes, makes the possessive agree with the thing possessed (“the house of the man” not “the man’s house’), and places the object-pronoun between the subject-pronoun and the verb, as if one should say “I him saw,” in one word. Though these classes and their concords look formidable, the language is by no means difficult to learn and is quite easy to pronounce. As the official language of Kenya Colony and Tanganyika Territory, it is indispensable to all civil servants, to settlers, missionaries and business men. It is spoken and understood by many natives, even where it is not the local vernacular.

Dialects and Literature.—The principal dialects are those of Lamu (northern), Mombasa (central) and Zanzibar (southern); the last-named being the standard for official use. That of Lamu has preserved many archaisms and comes nearest to that known as “Kingozi,” in which the ancient poems, and those more recently imitated from them, are composed. A large body of poetry exists in manuscript, some few specimens having been published in Europe. The metres used are adapted from the Arabic, as Closely as the differing rhythm of the two languages permits. Those traditionally attributed to Liongo Fumo may, if authentic,

go back to the 12th or 13th century, and their language is certainly very archaic.

In prose, almost the only texts available till

recently, have been taken down by Europeans from native recitation, but of late years (not to mention translations made by Europeans) native writers have begun to appear, and the Swahili magazine, Mambo Leo published at Dar-es-Salaam, under European editorship, attracts an increasing number of native contributors. There is an immense amount of traditional matter in circulation: folk-tales, some indigenous to the soil, others of Indian, Persian or Arab origin, which, filtered through generations of oral transmission, have acquired a distinctly African colouring. The people, both men and women, have the same facility of improvisation as the Italian peasants. Some songs have a rhythm (probably chanted to the drum) but no metre. Others have both metre and rhyme, often of a very pleasing character. Songs and proverbs —frequently very pithy—have been collected. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—Steere, A Handbook of the Swahili Language as spoken at Zanzibar (1871, frequently reprinted) ; Krapf, A Dictionary of the Swahili Language (1882; revised and augmented edition 1925) ; A. Werner, The Bantu Languages (1919, bibl.); A. and M. Werner, A First Swahili Book (1927). (A. WE.)

SWALLOW,

the familiar bird, Hirundo rustica, in summer

ranges all over Europe, and most of Asia; in winter it migrates south, reaching India, Burma, the Malay peninsula, and the whole of Africa. The common swallow of North America is the barn-swallow, H. erythrogastra; in summer it reaches Alaska, Greenland, and Lake Baikal. The winter migration extends: to South Brazil. Returning in summer about the first week in April, the English swallow usually repairs to its old nest, near the abodes tains and agents, who are familiar with the natives and intermarry of men. During spring, the swallow sings a sweet bubbling song. The with them.” But the earliest known settlement, that is Pate, is food consists entirely of insects captured on the wing. The birds said to have been founded A.p. 689. | The Swahili language was first made known to Europeans by also drink on the wing from the surface of ponds and lakes. The Henry Salt, whose Travels (he visited Abyssinia m 1809, by way nest is formed of moist earth, which, carried to the spot in the of the Cape of Good Hope) was published in 1814. He calls it bird’s bill, is arranged and modelled with short straws or slender

SWALLOW-HOLE—SWAN

630

sticks, into the required shape, generally that of a half-saucer. The materials dry quickly into a hard crust, which is lined with

soft feathers, and therein are laid from four to six white eggs, blotched and speckled with grey and orange-brown, deepening into black. Two broods are usually reared in the season. The young, on leaving the nest, make their way to some leafless bough, whence they try their powers of flight, at first accompanying their parents in short excursions on the wing, receiving from them food until able to shift for themselves. The young birds collect in flocks and leave the country about the end of August or early in September, to be followed, after a few weeks, by their progenitors. It was formerly believed that swallows hibernated (see Gil-

of the San Joaquin valley in California. Vast swampy and boggy areas in northern Canada are known by the Indian name muskeg,

SWAMPSCOTT,

a beautiful residential town and summer

resort of Essex county, Massachusetts, U.S.A.; on Massachusetts bay, 13 m. N.E. of Boston, adjoining Lynn. It is served by the

Boston and Maine railroad. Pop. (1930), 10,346. SWAN, SIR JOSEPH WILSON (1828-1914); English physicist and electrician, was born at Sunderland on Oct. 31, 1828.

After

serving his apprenticeship with a druggist in his

native town, he became first assistant and later partner in a firm of manufacturing chemists in Newcastle.

Among its opera-

bert White, Natural History of Selborne). They moult their feathers in their winter quarters. The chestnut forehead and throat, the shining steel-blue upper plumage, the dusky white of

tions this firm included the manufacture of photographic plates, and thus Swan was led to one of the advances in photography with which his name is associated—the production of dry plates, which were the outcome of an original observation made by him

the lower parts, and the deeply forked tail are familiar. The word swallow is used for all the Hirundinidae, excepting the martin (g.v.). The family includes from 80 to roo species and has no near allies.

mercially practicable process for carbon printing in photography (See PHotocraPHy.) In 1879 Swan patented bromide paper.

SWALLOW-HOLE, a cavity, forming the entrance to a sub-

terranean stream-channel, produced by the solvent action of naturally acidulated water. Such holes are most commonly found in limestone and chalk districts. (See CAvE.)

SWAMMERDAM,

JAN

(1637-80), Dutch naturalist, was

born on Feb. 12, 1637 at Amsterdam, the son of an apothecary and naturalist, and took his docter’s degree at Leyden in 1667. He neglected practice for investigations into the life histories of insects and into the anatomy of mayflies, bees and frogs. As regards human anatomy, he advanced the study of the circulatory system by his experiments on infections. He proved the ovarian character of the female testicles, discovered the valves of the lymphatics, was the first to describe the red blood-corpuscles (1658), studied the movements of the heart, the lungs and the muscles and made an important medico-legal contribution by demonstrating the floating of the fetal lungs after respiration has once taken place. ‘By stopping his supplies, his father thought to induce him to practice, but the privation only impaired his health and he died at Amsterdam on Feb. 15, 1680. He wrote Allgemeene Verhandeling van hbloedeloose diertjens (Utrecht, 1669), Miraculum naturae seu Uteri muliebris fabrica oa 1672) and Biblia naturae (published by H. Boerhaeve in 1737)-

SWAMP, a tract of wet, spongy, low-lying land, usually overgrown with vegetation, but too highly saturated with water to be ft for agricultural or pastoral purposes. The term swamp, however, is often indiscriminately applied to various wet, watery or miry places, as a marsh or a bog or, as in Australia, a shallow pond or lake. But as more commonly understood, especially in the United States, where the word first came into recorded use (early in colonial days), a swamp is an area of very moist or wet ground, with luxuriant vegetation, and largely free from standing water. It thus differs from a marsh, which is covered for the most part with a thin sheet of water. A swamp differs in a corresponding degree from a bog, which is a very wet, water-logged area, practically without drainage, in which extensive decomposition of vegetable matter is taking place, forming in northern latitudes

deposits of peat (q.v.). A marsh or a bog may occur within or may border upon a swamp, with various intermediate stages in each case; hence the frequent interchange in meaning between these terms in popular usage. The character of the vegetation in swamps varies with the nature of the soil and the extent of drainage. Usually swamps are filled with a dense growth of coarse grasses, trees and shrubs. Swamps are found on the shoreward side of tidal marshes along seacoasts and near inland lakes and ponds with low shores; swamps*are common also in the alluvial valleys of rivers and smaller streams. Among swamps possessing marked historical as well as scientific interest are those in the Campagna near Rome, and those found in the Pripet marsh region in western Russia. Noteworthy swamp areas in the United States are the Great Dismal swamp in south-eastern Virginia, the cypress and the ulangrove swamps of the Southern States, and the “tule” swamps

on the effect of heat in increasing the sensitiveness of a gelatine bromide of silver emulsion. In 1862 he patented the first comIn 1860, he produced an electric lamp with a carbon fila. ment, which was formed by packing pieces of paper or card with

charcoal powder in a crucible and subjecting the whole to a high

temperature. The carbonized paper thus obtained he mounted in the form of a fine strip in an evacuated glass vessel and con- `

nected it with a battery of Grove’s cells, which though not strong enough to raise it to complete incandescence, were sufficient to make it red-hot. This was substantially the method adopted by Edison nearly twenty years later. Subsequently Swan devised a cotton thread “parchmentized” by the action of sulphuric acid, and on the 2oth of October 1880 he gave at Newcastle the first public exhibition on a large scale of electric lighting by means of glow lamps. In another method devised by him, collodion was squirted into a coagulating solution and the tough threads thus obtained carbonized by heat. He also devoted attention to apparatus for measuring electric currents, to the improvement of accumulators and to the conditions governing the electro-disposition of metals. Swan was knighted in 1904. Holding many honours, he died at Warlingham on May 27, 1914.

SWAN, the name of birds forming the subfamily Cygninae

of the Anatidae. The best-known species is the mute-swan (Cygnus olor), occurring wild in N.E. Europe and W. Central Asia, and kept semi-domesticated in parks and ornamental waters in most parts of Europe and America. In olden times, the young swan or cygnet was highly esteemed for the table, and in England no subject could possess one without a licence from the Crown.

In a wild state, all swans migrate south in winter. The plumage TAA

Fuge

IE fp Cz LAK Ay f nG far

na

(WE MJ

aN

GX

VW

AA

LE SEVEN

Ao, yfi

in both sexes is white, the beak

orange, surmounted by a black

knob, the legs black and the voice a grunting hiss. The swan builds a large nest of aquatic plants, in which it lays five to nine olive-grey eggs. The young are at first clad in grey, replaced later by sooty-brown, and do not attain adult plumage for more than a year. The Polish swan has

a pale bill and legs. Two other species of swans BY COURTESY OF occur in Europe, over the greater SOCIETY MUTE SWAN (CYGNUS OLOR), THE part of which they are only winSWAN SEEN IN PUBLIC PARKS AND ter visitors, breeding in the far GARDENS North. These are the whooper swan (C. musicus) and the smaller Bewick’s swan (C. bewicki). They may be distinguished from the mute-swan by their more upright carriage, the absence of the knob at the base of the bill and by the possession of loud and resonant voices (hence the legend of the “swan-song”). Two closely allied representatives

occur in N. America, the trumpeter-swan (C. buceinator) with a black bill, and C. columbianus. From S. America comes the blacknecked swan (C. melanocoryphus), while the black swan (C. atratus), inhabits Australia.

631

SWAN—SWANSEA

Wishaw, owning blast furnaces, cement works, ore mines and collieries. The company also owns works at Southwick-on-Wear

entirely disappearec; but of the new castle, which was probably intended only as a fortified house, there remain the great and lesse. halls, a tower and a so-called keep with the curtain wall connecting them, its chief architectural feature being a fine embattled parapet with an arcade of pointed arches in a style similar to that of thepiscopal palaces of St. David’s and Lamphey built by Henry Gower (d. 1347), bishop of St. David’s, to whom the building of the new “‘castle” is also ascribed. Possibly some traces of St. David’s Hospital, built by the same prelate in 1331, are still to be seen at Cross Keys Inn. The parish church of St. Mary was entirely rebuilt in 1895-98. Of the earlier work there remains the door of the rood loft (built into a wall), and a few private memorials. Within the parish of St. Mary was St. John’s, a

and Londonderry. In all the company has 30 shipbuilding berths, of which the largest are capable of taking vessels up to 1,oo0ft. in length. Four of these, at the Wallsend shipyard, are covered by glass-roofed sheds fitted with electric light, enabling work to proceed in any weather and by day or night. The capacity exceeds

in 1880, when a new St. John’s was built within its own parish. The Royal Institution of South Wales, founded in 1835, possesses a museum in which the geology, mineralogy, botany, pre-

SWAN, HUNTER, AND WIGHAM LTD.

RICHARDSON,

The ‘Prince Albert,” the first iron vessel ever built on the

Tyne, was launched in 1842, from the Neptune works of the firm. In 1850, the present Neptune Shipyard was opened, with a pay-roll of 200 men. The Wallsend shipyard of the company,

owned by C. S. Swan and Hunter, was established in 1872, and in 1880 employed 7oo men.

In 1903, C. S. Swan and Hunter, Ltd.,

Wigham Richardson and Co., Ltd., and the Tyne Pontoons and Dry Docks Co., Ltd., became Swan, Hunter and Wigham Richardson, Ltd., and today is associated with Barclay, Curle and Co., Ltd., on the Clyde, and the Glasgow Iron and Steel Co., Ltd.,

150,000 gross tons a year, and in 1927, including the Clyde Yards, the firm launched

181,224 tons.

The share capital (1928) is

church once owned by the Knights Hospitallers. This church, which was entirely rebuilt in 1820, was renamed St. Matthew

historic and later antiquities of the district are well represented. Its library is rich in historical and scientific works relating to

about £2,500,000, with £323,000 of debentures.

Wales and Welsh indtstries.

The company builds all classes of naval and mercantile vessels. At the Wallsend shipyard there is under construction (1928) the immense floating dock for the new Singapore naval base, with a lifting capacity of 50,000 tons. More than 30 floating docks have

contains exhibits of local and general Welsh interest. The Glynn Vivian art gallery was opened in 1915 The grammar school was founded in 1682 by Hugh Gore

been built by the company in recent years. One of them was towed through the Straits of Magellan to Peru, a distance of

11,000 miles. The firm built the “Mauretania” (32,000 gross tons), for the Cunard Company, which, while more than once crossing the Atlantic at an average speed of 26 knots, averaged 254 knots for 27 consecutive voyages. It holds (1929) all Atlantic records for speed. During the World War nearly roo warships, with 230 other vessels, were built by the company, while the production of marine engines was 1,750,000 ih p. (L. C. M.)

SWANAGE,

a seaport in Dorset, England.

Pop. (1931)

6,276. It lies on the so-called Isle of Purbeck, the district lying south of Poole harbour. The coast is wild and precipitous, and numerous caves occur in the cliffs. Swanage bay affords excellent bathing. Stone from the Purbeck quarries is exported.

SWANSEA, Welsh Abertawe, a seaport of Glamorganshire, South Wales. Pop. (1931) 164,825. The population of the old borough in 1801 was 6,099. The Via Julia from Nidum (Neath) to Loughor probably passed through the north of the borough, where Roman coins were found in 1835. The name Swansea stands for Sweyn’s “ey” or inlet, and may have been derived from Sweyn Forkbeard, who certainly visited the Bristol Channel. The earliest known form of the name is Sweynesse, which occurs in a charter granted by William earl of Warwick some time previous to 1184; in King John’s charter (1215) it appears as Sweyneshe, and in the town

seal, of mediaeval origin, it is given as “Sweyse.” The Welsh name, Aber Tawy, first appears in Welsh poems of the beginning of the 13th century. The town grew up round the castle which Henry de Beauchamp (or Beaumont) on his conquest of Gower about 1099, built on the west bank of the river. The castle eventually came by marriage to the Somersets and is still held by the dukes of Beaufort. It was finally destroyed by Owain Glyn Dwr. In the Civil War the town was royalist till the autumn of 1645 when Colonel Philip Jones was made its governor. The older part of the town, being the whole of the municipal borough previous to 1836, occupies the west bank of the Tawé near its mouth and is now wholly given up to business. Stretching inland to the north along the river for some 3 m. through Landore to Morriston, and

also eastwards

along the sea margin towards Neath, is the

industrial quarter, while the residential part occupies the sea front

and the slopes of the Town Hill (580 ft. high) to the west, stretching out to Sketty. The Mumbles or Oystermouth and a large part of the Swansea rural district were included in the borough in 1918. The east side of the river is known as St. Thomas’s and Port Tennant. The castle, first built by Henry de Newburgh about 1og9, has

The free library and art gallery

(1613-1691), bishop of Waterford. A college was added to the University of Wales in 1920. with a si.e in Singleton Park (300 acres). The town possesses the Llewelyn Park of 42 acres and other public grounds. De Braose’s charter of 1305 gave the burgesses the right to take from the lord’s woods sufficient timber to make four great ships at a time and as many small vessels as they wished. Coal was even then worked in the district. Cromwell in his charter of 1655 recognized Swansea as “convenient for shipping and resisting foreign invasions.” Its status was only that of a “creek” in the port of Cardiff till 1685, when it was made independent. | From about 1768 to 1850 Swansea had a famous pottery. Beginning with earthenware which twenty years later was improved into “opaque china,” it produced from 1814 to 1823 superior, beautifully decorated porcelain.

During the 18th century coal began to be worked at Llansamlet and copper smelting (begun at Swansea in 1717, though at Neath it dated from 1584) assumed large proportions. The coal was conveyed on the backs of mules and later by means of a private canal. Under an act of 1791 harbour trustees cleared the river bed and built a long pier on either side of it. A canal connecting the tidal part of the river Neath with the mouth of the Taweé, made in 1789, was in 1824 connected with the Vale of Neath canal by means of an aqueduct across the Neath river, when also a small dock, Port Tennant or Salthouse Dock, was made near the east pier, and this continued to be used till £880. Meanwhile in 1798 the entire coal producing Swansea Valley was connected with the port by a canal 164 m. long (acquired by the G.W.R. in 1872). In 1851 the river was diverted eastward into a new channel (called the New Cut) and its old channel was locked and

floated, thereby forming the North Dock.

a half tide basin 24 acres.

(Area 11} acres, and

Length of quays 5,500 ft.) The

Swansea Valley canal has a connecting lock with this dock, and on the island between the dock and the New Cut are patent fuel works, copper ore yards and other mineral sheds. The South Dock, begun in 1847 and opened in 1859, is mainly used for shipping coal and for discharging timber. It has an area of 184 acres; length of quays 6,550 ft.; depth of water in lock 34 ft. The next development was on the east side of the river where the natural inlet of Fabian’s Bay, inside the harbour mouth, was utilized for the construction of the Prince of Wales’s Dock (authorized 1874, opened October 1881, and subsequently extended), area 28 acres; length of quay 6,872 ft. and it is con-

nected with the Tennant canal. The very rapid increasé in the demand for anthracite coal (for the shipment of which Swansea has practically a monopoly) soon necessitated still further accommodation and in July 1904 was begun the King’s Dock, which lies farther east and has an entrance direct from the bay. By means

SWANWICK—SWARTHMORE

632

of the embankment made in connection with it, 400 acres were

reclaimed from the sea. King’s Dock and Basin is 71 acres; depth

of water 40 ft. (high tide); length of quays, 14,050 ft. The Queen’s Dock is 150 acres with 2,400 ft. of quays. There are numerous privately owned dry docks. The entire harbour has

some 281 acres of deep water in the docks and over 6 miles of quay. The imports include timber, ores (copper, silver, iron, etc.), grain, pig iron, crude oil, etc. The exports are coal, patent fuel, refined oils, coke, tin plates, etc. The town (which is often called “the metallurgical capital of Wales”) is the chief seat of the copper, spelter, tin-plate and patent fuel industries. Copper smelting, which during most of the roth century was the chief industry, has not maintained its relative importance, though Swansea is still the chief seat of the trade, but three-fourths of the tinplates manufactured in Great Britain and nineteen-twentieths of the spelter or zinc are made in the Swansea district, and its tube works are also very important. From about 1918 Swansea has become an important centre for the distribution of oil and extensive facilities for its storage and refining have been provided. It is by reliance on the metallurgical industries and the facilities for dealing with other fuel besides coal that Swansea has escaped in some measure the depression that has overtaken the purely coal-exporting areas of the South Wales coal-field since the slump of 1921. Trawlers usually land their catches at the south dock, where there is a well organized fish-market. Administration.—The town claimed to be a borough by prescription, for its only known charters of incorporation are those of Cromwell and James II., which were never acted upon. It probably received its first grant of municipal privileges from William 3rd earl of Warwick some time before 1184. By a charter of 1215 (confirmed in 1234, 1312 and 1332), John granted the burgesses the right of trading, free of all customs due, throughout the whole kingdom (except in London). By 1305 the burgesses had obtained a most liberal grant of privileges from William de Braose. A patent of murage and pavage—from which it may probably be inferred that Swansea was a walled town—was granted by Edward II. in 1317 and another by Edward III. in 1338. Cromwell’s charter of 1655 changed the title of portreeve into mayor, in whom, with twelve aldermen and twelve capital burgesses, it vested the government of the town. Four annual fairs were appointed, namely on the 8th of May, 2nd of July, 15th of August and 8th of October—the first being the only new one. From 1535 to 1832, Swansea with other boroughs of Glamorgan sent one member to Parliament. In 1658, Cromwell gave Swansea a member of her own but the grant lapsed with the Restoration. In 1832, Swansea, with added parishes, was again granted a member and in 1885 a second member was added. The assizes and quarter sessions for Glamorgan are held at Swansea alternately with Cardiff. The borough has a separate commission of the peace, and, since 1891, a court of quarter sessions. In 1923 the “Church in Wales” created a bishopric of Swansea and Brecon.

SWANWICK,

ANNA

(1813-1899),

English writer and

philanthropist, was born at Liverpool on June 22, 1813. She went in 1839 to Berlin, where she took lessons in German, Greek and Hebrew. In 1843 appeared her first volume of translations, Selections from the Dramas of Goethe and Schiller, followed by a translation of Schiller’s Jungfrau von Orleans (1847), and others of Faust, Tasso, Iphigenie and Egmont (1850). In 1878 she published a complete translation of both parts of Faust, which appeared with Retsch’s illustrations. In 1865 she published a blank verse translation of Aeschylus’s Trilogy, and in 1873, a complete edition of Aeschylus, which appeared with Flaxman’s illustrations. Anna Swanwick was a founder of Queen’s and Bedford colleges, and advocated the admission of women to universities. She died in Nov. 1899. See M. L. Bruce, Anna Swanwick (1903).

SWARAJIST.

The term swaraj (more properly swarajya

from swa==own or self; rayya=rule or government) was originally employed in the ethical sense of control over self—self mastery. Prominence was first given to it in the political arena by Dadabhai

Naoroji, who, in his presidential address to the Indian National

Congress in Calcutta in Dec. 1906 claimed as the right of India swaraj “or self government like that of the United Kingdom or the Colonies,” and the word soon gained currency as the equiva. lent of Dominion home rule. By a judicial decision of the Calcutta high court (1907, LL.R., 34 Calc.), it was held not necessarily to mean “independent government” in the sense of government of the country to the exclusion of the present Government. “It may mean, as is now well understood, government by the people themselves under the King and under British sovereignty.” Its adoption as the label of a particular political party was the outcome of the lengthy and ever-changing agitation set on

foot by M. K. Gandhi in r919. That movement commenced as one of passive resistance to the legislation known as the Rowlatt Act, which was designed to strengthen the hands of the Government in dealing with revolutionary crime, but, utilizing the resentment aroused among Mohammedans by the Turkish peace terms, which crystallized in the Khilafat movement, and the excitement which

ran through the country as the result of disturbances in the Punjab and their sequelae, Gandhi, in the succeeding year, launched a campaign of protest under the guise of non-violent non-cooperation, which was to include the boycott of the courts and Government schools, the resignation of titles and Government office, and abstention from participation in the forthcoming elections to the new legislative councils under the Reforms scheme. In July 1920 the attainment of swaraj was included among the objects of the non-co-operation movement, and at the meeting of that year it was adopted by the Indian national congress as their avowed aim. But as to the precise meaning of swaraj there existed a vagueness which Gandhi did little to dispel. At one time he defined it as parliamentary government, whether within or without the empire; at another as dominion home rule; at a third as the universal employment of the spinning wheel; yet again as the triumph of the Khilafat party. On the other hand, at the first meeting of the legislative assembly in Feb. 1921, in the message from His Majesty the King Emperor, the ideal of swaraj was mentioned as the dream for years of patriotic and loyal Indians, while the reforms were cited as the beginnings of swaraj within the empire. In the first elections under the 1919 act Gandhi’s followers took no part, but by the beginning of 1922, an influential section of the congress acting under the leadership of C. R. Das and Pandit Moti Lal Nehru, announced on Jan. 1, 1923, the formation of a Congress Khilafat Swarajya party, in whose programme the capture of the councils and the obstruction of all business in them was the leading immediate item. After protracted dissensions and manoeuvres this section was finally victorious within the congress, and at the elections of Nov. 1923 Swarajist candidates took the field as such and, noticeably as against the Moderates, achieved considerable success, though failing to secure (except in one province) the clear majority for which they had hoped. Throughout the term of the second reformed councils the Swaraj party continued their wrecking tactics, succeeding in two provinces (Bengal and the Central Provinces) in bringing about a temporary suspension of the reformed constitution.

Towards the end of that year the party was split by the defections of some of its members, notably in Bombay and the Central Provinces, in the direction of “responsive co-operation,” including the acceptance of office under Government, and in April 1926 an attempt was made to form an Indian national party of responsivists, independents and moderates “to prepare for and accelerate the establishment of swaraj or full responsible government in India, such as obtains in the self-governing dominions of the British empire.” These differences bore fruit at the third election of the reformed councils at the end of 1926, when the Swaraj party definitely lost ground, noticeably in the assembly and in the United Provinces, Punjab and Central Provinces. The Indian national congress (which by that time was practically the Swaraj party) in Dec. 1927, declared for the complete independence of India.

SWARTHMORE,

2 borough of Delaware county, Pennsyl-

vania, U.S.A., among wooded hills near the Delaware river, 11 M. S.W. of Philadelphia. Pop. (1920) 2,350; and was 3,405 in 1930. Swarthmore college, founded by the Society of Friends in 1864, has a beautiful campus of 237 ac. (including a large

SWASTIKA—SWAZILAND tract of woodland and the rocky valley of Crum creek), upwards of 20 buildings and an endowment of $3,500,000.

The enrolment

is limited to 500. Swarthmore was incorporated in 1893. SWASTIKA, a decorative and symbolic ornament consisting of a cross with equal arms, to the end of each of which is attached a line running at right angles to it, all these extensions

occurring on the same relative side, so that all four extensions have the same rotary direction in relation to the centre. The swastika is one of the most ancient and widespread of all ornamental forms, appearing in both hemispheres. It is generally interpreted as a sun symbol. It occurs in Aegean and archaic Greek pottery and in certain types of fret, found in Egypt and Greece. In some examples it appears as two identical S-curves, intersecting in the middle and set at right angles. Occasionally

three arms are found, and the heraldic symbol of three running legs set radially, may be a development of the swastika.

(T.F.H) SWAT, a tract on the Peshawar border of the North-West Frontier Province of India, consisting of the valley of the Swat river above its confluence with the Panjkora, which is reached by the Malakand, the Shahkot and other passes from the south. The Swat river rises in the Kohistan, not far from the source of the Gilgit river and is utilized by canals to irrigate about 160,000 acres. A tunnel through the Malakand range, when complete, will tap the river much higher up. The old name of the river was Suastos, and that of the Panjkora was Ghoura, under which names they figure in the history of Alexander’s campaign. Only the lower portion of the Swat valley is of military significance. The upper valley is closely gripped between mountain spurs of the Hindu Kush. The valley, narrow though it is, and traversed by the worst conceivable type of hill tracks, is fairly thickly populated. The district lies on the direct road to Chitral. The Swatis are a clan of Yusafzai Pathans numbering 40,000 fighting men but are of poor physique, due to malaria. They are Suni Mohammedans, the most bigoted of all the Afghan tribes.

As religious leader, the Akhund of Swat, Abdul Ghafur, born in 1794, ruled for the last 30 years of his life, and died in 1877. The Akhund, after his experience of the British strength in the Umbeyla Campaign of 1863, always exerted his influence in favour of peace with the British government. He was succeeded by his son Mian Gul, who never possessed the same influence as his father.

SWATH-TURNER: see CuLtivaTING MACHINERY. (also SHAN’Tow), a port in the province of

SWATOW

Kwang-tung, China, situated at the mouth of the main branch of the Han river. Population about 80,000 (estimated). It was formerly a small fishing village, and the present town has been built to a large extent on reclaimed land. English merchants settled on Double island, in the river, as early as 1856, and began trading. Swatow is a great emigration port and was the scene of many kidnapping adventures on the part of foreigners in the early days. The region retained a full tribal organization until the latter half of the rgth century. Serious difficulties arose with the T’aip’ing rebellion and foreign interferences. The city is the outlet for Chao-chow, some 30 m. up the river, and the centre of a sugar cane district. Bean cake is manufactured and is also Imported from Niuchwang, Shanghai and Hongkong. Among the

leading exports are tea (since about 1872), sugar and oranges, paper, tobacco, grass cloth (manufactured at Swatow from the so-called Taiwan hemp), lace, drawn thread work embroidery. The imports include cereals, peas, beans, kerosene oil and piece goods. The port was opened to foreign trade in 1869. By its situation at the southern end of Formosa strait the town is exposed to the full force of the typhoons.

SWAYTHLING,

SAMUEL

MONTAGU,

ist Baron

(1832-1911), British financier, was born at Liverpool on Dec.

21, 1832, of a Jewish family named Samuel.

He took by royal

licence the name of Montagu. He rose to be the head of the most

Important arbitrage house in London. He was Liberal M.P. for the Tower Hamlets from 1885~1900; he was a member of the Gold and Silver commission of 1887-1890, being himself a bimet-

allist. He was created a baronet in 1894 and.raised to the peer-

633

age in 1907. He was a zealous promoter of Jewish interests, founding the loan fund of the Jewish board of guardians, the

Jewish working men’s club, and several synagogues. Lord Swaythling succeeded Sir Julian Goldsmid as chairman of the RussoJewish committee, and also helped to establish a modern secular

school for Jews at Jerusalem (1875). He died on Jan. 12, 1911, in London. His son, E. S. Montagu was Secretary for India.

SWAZI.

This African tribe is a member of the Eastern or

Zulu-Xosa group and, in the early roth century, occupied the country north of the Pongelo river. Driven northwards it settled under Sobhuza in Swaziland (Natal). Mbandini—second in succession to Sobhuza—was generous in concessions, and though the independence of Swaziland was guaranteed by Conventions in 188r and 1884, developments led to the administration of Swaziland under the High Commissioner for South Africa through a Resident, with a Council to advise on purely European matters. The paramount chief and other chiefs, administer Justice according to native custom, with appeal to the Resident. The recovery from the ravages of rinderpest in 1894 has been very marked. Both levirate and sororate seem to exist and a man may marry

the daughter of his wife’s brother. Under conditions, his son, as cousin, may inherit the right to marry the girl. See the Official Yearbook of the Union of South Africa, No. 9 (1927); see also Africa, Vol. I., No. 4 (1928), H.M. Stationery Office.

SWAZILAND

extends between

the Drakenberg and the

Lebombo range. It is cut off from the Indian ocean byastrip of country from 30 to so m. broad. Its area is 6,705 sq. miles. Much of the country consists of ridges of high land running out from the Drakenberg. In the west, the general elevation is about 4,000 feet. In the east, the ground falls to 4oo-1,000 feet. Swaziland is drained by the Usutu and other tributaries of the Maputa; and by the Komati (g.v.) and Umbelozi which flow through watergaps or poorts into Delagoa bay. The low veld, in the rain shadow of the Lebombo range, has a low rainfall, but on the high veld in the west, rains are more copious and good pasture is present. The relation of altitude to mean annual rainfall is Mbabane (3,800ft.) 52 in.; Bremersdorp (r,5ooft.) 34 in.; Natalia Ranch (80o0ft.) 25 inches. The mean temperature at the last station is about 71-8° F; at Mbabane it is about 9° less. The flora and fauna are similar to the Transvaal and Zululand (g.v.). The high veld is free from malaria, which occurs elsewhere, especially in the low veld. Swaziland is dependent on road transport, which is either motor-driven or drawn by oxen or mules. Mbabane, the capital, is 5 hr. by mail car from Breyten, in the Transvaal. The population in 1921 consisted of 2,205 Europeans, seven Asiatics, 444 coloured persons, and 110,295 natives. There are four European villages—Mbabane (260), Bremersdorp (120), Hlatikulu and Goedgegen, and there are Government stations at Mankaiana, Stegi and Pigg’s Peak. Most of the Europeans are engaged in farming. The natives are Amaswazi, with a few Amazulu in the south-eastern districts. Seven or eight thousand natives are usually absent, working in the Transvaal. Of the total area, 163,500 ac. were set aside as native reserves, and the Amaswazi purchased a further 77,000 acres. The rest of the country was regarded as Crown land, and about four-fifths of it has been alienated. The natives grow maize, Kafir corn and other crops. In 1926 the estimated numbers of live stock were 300,000 cattle, 932 horses, 4,893 asses, 444 mules, 10,000 pigs, 325,000 sheep and goats. A further 300,000 sheep come every year to winter in Swaziland. Maize is also cultivated by the white farmers. The country appears to be well suited to fruit growing. Citrus fruits do well in most parts; on the high veld apples, pears, apricots and peaches can be grown, while in the lower parts tropical and sub-tropical fruits succeed. In 1924 about 8,000 ac. were under cotton. Tobacco is also being grown. The chief market is among the natives, whose wants, however, are few, except for maize. Gold mining has almost ceased. In 1926 only 1,510 oz. were produced. Cassiterite is worked near Mbabane, the output for 1926 being 189 tons. In 1910 Swaziland came into the customs scheme of the Union of South Africa.

634

SWEARING—SWEATING-SICKNESS

Swaziland does not form part of the Union of South Africa. It is governed by a resident commissioner, responsible to the high commissioner for South Africa. He is assisted by an advisory council of nine members, who are consulted on European matters. Most of the revenue is derived from the native hut tax and from customs. In addition to several Government primary schools at several centres, there are schools connected with the various missions, at which over 4,000 native pupils are being educated. For more advanced work, promising native scholars are sent to institutions in the Union, such as Lovedale, Tiger Kloof, etc. The cost of their tuition and board is paid by the Swazi National Fund, to

which each native taxpayer contributes two shillings per annum. There are 16 religious bodies carrying on work in the country, including the English, Dutch, Norwegian, Roman and Swedish Churches. As far as possible most of these bodies avoid encroaching on each other’s sphere of work. (R. U.S.)

History.—Ama-Swazi

tribes have been long settled in the

country now known as Swaziland. They were formerly called BaRapuza or Barabuza after a chief under whom in the 18th century they acquired homogeneity. Early in the roth century they fell under the dominion of the newly constituted Zulu nation but in 1843 under a chief named Swazi they achieved independence. According to custom they adopted the name of their deliverer. The Boers of the Transvaal were then beginning to occupy the regions adjacent to Swaziland and in 1855 the Swazi in order to get neutral territory between themselves and the Zulu, whose power they still dreaded, ceded to the Boers the narrow strip of land north of the Pongola river now known as the Piet Retief district. With the Boers the Swazi remained on friendly terms and this friendship was extended to the British on the occupation of the Transvaal in 1877. In 1879 they joined the British in the attack on the Bapedi chief Sikukuni, capturing from him certain “rain medicine,” the possession of which increased the prestige of the paramount chief of the Swazi among the natives of South Africa. On the retrocession of the Transvaal in 1881 and again by the London Convention of 1884, the independence of the Swazi was recognized by the Boers. Immediately afterwards, however, the Boers began a series of efforts to obtain control of the country. In consequence Umbandine (Mbandini), the paramount chief asked in 1886 for British protection, but without avail. In 1887 gold prospectors of all nationalities were overrunning his country, and a colony of Boers setiled within the Swazi territories and proclaimed “The Little Free State.” It appeared on enquiry that Umbandine, a worthless and bibulous man, had granted concessions, such as “postal, telegraphic, banking, customs,” etc., to the Transvaal, and concessions of land, mining and grazing rights to any adventurer who would give him champagne and greyhounds. His concessions included exemption from taxation. The British Government refused assent to the request of President Kruger to annex the country to the Transvaal and a dual control was arranged in 1890. This scheme proved abortive owing to the objection of the Transvaal to join the South African Customs union. However, in 1894, by arrangement with the British, the administration, with certain reservations as to the rights of the natives, was taken over by the Transvaal. In seeking to acquire Swaziland President Kruger’s main object was also to annex the coast lands to its east and thus obtain for the Boers—at Kosi bay—a seaport of their own. Great Britain settled the matter in 1895 by annexing Amatongaland, the region in question. (See

‘FRANSVAAL, History.) Umbandine died in 1889, and his widow Naba Tsibeni (or Labo-

tsibeni) was known as the queen regent. Before the AngloBoer war in 1899 she'took the side of the British. On the cessation of hostilities a British special commissioner was sent into the country—then in a condition bordering on anarchy—and a, provisional administration established. Eventually it was decided,

in 1906, to make Swaziland a British protectorate under the High Commissioner for South Africa. In that year a lad, Sobhuza II.,

born about 1898, was selected as ruler, Naba Tsibeni, his grandmother, being confirmed as regent during his minority. In 1921 Sobhuza was installed as paramount chief; Naba Tsibeni died in

Dec. 1925

She was a fine type of the older generation; Sobhuza

was educated at the Lovedale missionary establishment; speaking

fluent English and wearing European clothing, he was typical of many Swazi of the new school. A legal division of the land in 1914 between the natives and the concessionaires left fully half of it in possession of Europeans,

The Swazi, however, claimed overlordship and it was not until April

1926

that the judicial

committee

of the privy council

decided that the Crown had acquired sovereign rights of disposal, In 1924 Gen. Hertzog, as prime minister, desired to incorporate Swaziland in the Union. The Swazi objected; the white settlers favoured the proposal only if the separate entity of the country was preserved and up to 1929 nothing had been done. To the able administration of De Symons Honey, Swaziland owed much See the Official Year Book of the Union of South Africa (Pretoria); the annual Report on Swaziland, issued by the Colonial Office, Lon.

don; and Eric A. Walker, A History of South Africa and authorities (F. R. C.)

there cited.

SWEARING.

The common use of the word is for the utter-

ing of profane oaths or curses. In English law, while blasphemy (g.v.) was at common law an indictable offence, cursing or swearing was left to the ecclesiastical courts. The Profane Oaths Act 1745 inflicted a sliding scale of fines for the use of profane oaths according to the rank of the offender: rs. for a common labourer, soldier or seaman, 2s. for everyone below the rank of gentleman and §s. for those of or above that rank; procedure under this Act is regulated by the Summary Jurisdiction Acts. By the Town Police Clauses Act 1847 the use of profane or obscene language is an offence punishable on summary conviction by a fine not exceeding 40s. or Imprisonment not exceeding 14 days. The offence must be committed in a street. In the United States, blasphemy is a crime under either the common law or the statutes of substantially all of the States.

SWEATER,

a jacket or short coat of a woollen material,

usually knitted, and sometimes called a jersey, because it was worn by the sailors of the Island of Jersey. The first sweaters were heavy dark blue jackets, which were pulled on over the head, and were worn by the participants in athletic contests before and after games, to prevent cold.

SWEATING-SICKNESS,

a disease which made its first

appearance in England in 1485. It caused great mortality and was distinguished from the plague and other epidemic diseases by its rapid course. From 1485 nothing more was heard of it till 1507, when the second outbreak occurred, which was much less fatal than the first. In 1517 was a third and much more severe epidemic. In Oxford and Cambridge it was very fatal, as well as in other towns, where in some cases half the population are said to have perished. The disease spread to Calais and Antwerp, but with these exceptions it was confined to England.

In 1528 the disease recurred for the fourth time, and with great severity. It first showed itself in London at the end of May, and speedily spread over the whole of England, though not into Scotland or Ireland. In London the mortality was very great; the court was broken up, and Henry VIII. left London, frequently changing his residence. It spread to the Continent, suddenly appearing at Hamburg, where in a few weeks more than a thousand persons died. It caused fearful mortality through northern and eastern Europe, France, Italy and the southern countries were spared. It spread much in the same way as cholera. In a given place, it prevailed for generally not more than a fortnight. By the end of the year it had entirely disappeared, except in eastern Switzerland, where it lingered into the next year; and the terrible “English sweat” has to date never appeared again, at least in the same form, on the Continent. In 1551, however, it recurred in England and was

described by an eye-witness, John Kaye or Caius, the eminent physician. The disease began suddenly with a sense of apprehension,

followed by cold shivers (sometimes very violent), giddiness, headache and severe pains in the neck, shoulders and limbs, with great prostration. After the cold stage, which might last

SWEATING from half-an-hour to three hours, followed the stage of and sweating. The characteristic sweat broke out suddenly, as it seemed to those accustomed to the disease, without obvious cause. With the sweat, or after that was poured

heat and, any out,

came a sense of heat, and with this headache and delirium, rapid pulse and intense thirst. Palpitation and pain in the heart were frequent symptoms. No eruption of any kind on the skin was generally observed; Caius makes no allusion to such a symptom. In the later stages there was either general prostration and collapse, or an irresistible tendency to sleep, which was thought to be fatal if the patient were permitted to give way to it. The malady was remarkably rapid in its course, being sometimes fatal even in

two or three hours, and some patients died in less than that time. Those who survived for twenty-four hours were considered safe. The disease, unlike the plague, was not especially fatal to the poor, but rather, as Caius affirms, attacked the richer sort.

Causes.—Some attributed the disease to the English climate, its moisture and fogs, or to the intemperate habits of the English

people, and to the frightful want of cleanliness in their houses and

surroundings which is noticed by Erasmus in a well-known passage, and about which Caius is equally explicit. But the sweatingsickness was in fact a specific infective disease, in the same sense

as plague, typhus, scarlatina or malaria.

The only modern disease resembling sweating-sickness is that known as miliary fever (“Schweissfriesel,” “suette miliaire” or

the “Picardy sweat”), a malady which has been observed in France, Italy and southern Germany, but not in the United Kingdom. It occurs in limited epidemics, not lasting more than a week or two (at least in an intense form). The attack lasts longer than the sweating-sickness, is accompanied by eruption of vesicles, and is not usually fatal. The first clearly described epidemic was in 1718 (though probably it existed before), and the last in 1861. Between these dates about 175 epidemics have been counted in France alone. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—For history see Bacon’s Life of Henry VII., and the chronicles of Grafton, Holinshed, Baker, Fabyan, etc. The only English medical account is that of John Caius, who wrote in English

A Boke or Counseil Against the Disease commonly called the Sweate, or Sweating Sicknesse (London, 1552); and in Latin De ephemera britannica (Louvain, 1556; reprinted London, 1721). The English tract is reprinted in Babington’s translation of Hecker’s Epidemics of the Middle Ages (Syd. Soc., 1844). This also contains Hecker’s valuable treatise on the English sweat, published in German (1834),

and also printed in his Volkskrankheiten des Mittelalters, edited by Hirsch (Berlin, 1865). Griiner’s Scriptores de sudore anglico (Jena, 1847), contains nearly all the original documents, including the two treatises of Caius. See also Hirsch, Handbook of Geographical and

Historical Pathology, trans. by Creighton (New Syd. Soc., 1885).

SWEATING SYSTEM, a term used to describe oppressive industrial conditions in certain trades. This “system” originated eatly in the roth century, when it was known as “the contract

system.” Contractors supplying the government with clothing for the army and navy got the work done by sub-contractors. Afterwards this plan was adopted in the manufacture of readymade clothing for civilian use, and of “bespoke” garments (made to the order of the customer). Previously the practice had been for coats, etc., to be made up by workmen directly employed by the master tailor. The new plan brought workpeople possessing

SYSTEM

635

tailoring, boot-making and cabinet-making. A select committee of the House of Lords heard 291 witnesses in relation to tailoring, boot-making, furriery, shirt-making, mantle-making, cabinetmaking and upholstery, cutlery and hardware manufacture, chain and nail-making, military accoutrements, saddlery and harnessmaking and dock labour—reporting in 1890. Sweating involved “(r) A rate of wages inadequate to the necessities of the workers or disproportionate to the work done; (2) excessive hours of labour; (3) the insanitary state of the houses in which the work is carried on.” They stated that, “as a rule, the observations made with respect to sweating apply, in the main, to unskilled or only partially skilled workers, as the thoroughly skilled workers can almost always obtain adequate wages.” It would be a mistake to suppose that “sweating” never took place where no “middlemen” were employed. “Sweating”? was sometimes to be found in large factories where workers were directly employed. The plight of the homeworkers, most of whom were women, may be easily imagined. Compelled to work, either to eke out an insufficient family income or to support her own isolated existence, but normally unable to leave her home, such a woman had no alternative but to accept wages at the wretched level to which they had sunk as the result of unfettered competition and of the inability of the workers to act collectively. The position of the worker employed by the small sub-contractor was little better. On the one hand there was keen competition amongst the “middlemen,” which led them to accept subcontracts at prices which often made it impossible for them to pay more than a meagre wage. On the other hand the subdivisional methods of manufacture which were then beginning to be widely adopted drew into various trades which had previously been closed to them, a large number of comparatively unskilled and inexperienced workers, who knew nothing of’the tradition which had maintained organisation and standard rates of wages amongst the skilled workers by whom the work of the trade had previously been done. The organisation of the employees of the small sub-contractors presented insurmountable difficulties, They worked in small, scattered groups; their employers were unstable and their employment erratic. When, moreover, trade was brisk extremely long hours would be worked in seriously overcrowded workrooms. On the other hand, when trade was slack the sub-contractor, whose overhead charges did not, of course, compare with those of the factory employer, found it perfectly practicable to dismiss as many workers as he could do without—a facility which encouraged inefficient organisation of work in the trades which enjoyed it. The workers toiled during night and day. Work-room, livingroom and bedroom were often all one. The laws concerned with hours of employment and the conditions, from the point of view of health, were very difficult of enforcement. Such were the conditions at the beginning of the present century in a number of trades. In 1929 while there may still be “pockets” of “sweating” in a very few trades the evil is unknown. To this result two main factors have contributed: first the fixing of statutory minimum rates of wages in the “sweated” trades and in those trades in which organisation of employers and workers was insufficient for wages and conditions to be negotiated in the ordinary way; and secondly the constantly increasing economies of

little skill and belonging to a very needy class into competition with the regular craftsmen; and a fall in wages affected the whole body of workmen in the trade. factory production. (See TRADE Boarps.) The work was done in overcrowded and insanitary rooms, The rapid development of factory organisation and the emand the earnings of the workers were extremely low. In 1850 a ployment of expensive, high-speed machinery on sub-divisional vigorous agitation against “the sweating system” was commenced, methods of production militated against the giving out of work based mainly upon a series of articles in the Morning Chronicle either to homeworkers or to small sub-contractors. Despite the (London), which were followed by a pamphlet, Cheap Clothes fact that “outwork” saves the employer considerable overhead and Nasty, written by Charles Kingsley under the name of “Parson charges such as rent, rates, heating and interest on capital sunk Lot,” and by his novel Alton Locke. Kingsley and his friends, the in buildings and machinery, it becomes less and less able to Christian Socialists, proposed co-operative workshops; but experi- compete with the well-equipped and efficiently organised factory. ments met with little success. In 1876-1877 the outcry against And where there is a trade board it cannot any longer flourish on the sweating system was renewed (principally on the ground of low wages. It may be that the widespread use of electric power the risk of infection from garments made up in insanitary sur- may bring about a revival of the small workshop in those trades roundings), and in 1887, attention was drawn to the immigration which can be carried on with comparatively small and inexpensive (J. J- M.) of poor foreigners into East London, who were employed in machinery.

SWEDEN

636 THE UNITED

STATES

The sweating system arose in the United States during the Civil War, when soldiers’ wives were given uniforms to make with the then newly invented sewing machines Its growth was slow until, in the ’80s, the vast Russian emigration followed the assassination of Czar Alexander II. Steam-power had already been applied to sewing machines, and the influx of cheap labour created the American ready-to-wear garment trade and its early concomitant, the sweating system. Three elements compose the sweating system: (x) A mass of unskilled, unorganized poverty-stricken men, women and children incapable of resisting the economic pressure to compete, women against their husbands and children against their parents. (2) Power-using factories or shops, where materials are prepared for simple processes, which are done in smaller shops or in the homes of the workers, or in both. (3) Transportation to and from the sweatshops and tenement dwellings, formerly done on foot by heavily laden men, women and children. During the present century automobile trucks and the parcel post have contributed to widen enormously the area within which the sweating system is carried on, and to reduce the crowding of slums adjacent to factories engaged in the sweated trades. As the first simple foot-power sewing machine brought the sweating system to the soldiers’ families, so the ceaseless evolution of the power-driven machine, first steam, now electric, has

served to concentrate the production of garments in vast skyscrapers near railway stations through which the employees go to their widely dispersed homes. This concentration has, in recent decades, so facilitated labour organization within the garment industry, that the Amalgamated Garment Workers now owns its building, its bank, journal, blocks of modern apartments, and voluntary unemployment insurance fund, the last being carried on co-operatively by employers and employees. They successfully combat both sweating and strikes. Outside the garment tradcs, also, the unions have striven ceaselessly against sweating. In 1889 the tobacco workers obtained the passage of the New York statute forbidding all manufacture of tobacco in any tenement house. This the Court of Appeals of New York held unconstitutional, so prolonging for two generations homework in tenements. Beginning in 1912, in Massachusetts, 13 States passed laws creating minimum wage boards or commissions. These the Supreme Court of the United States, in the Sutherland decision, held unconstitutional by a decision of five justices to four, rendered in April 1923. There remain now two means of control. Legislation in the name of the public safety may be resorted to, as when a man killed himself and his little son in making fire crackers in his home, for a Fourth of July celebration. So, too, the local health authority could summarily stop a young girl found suffering from an open syphilitic infection of the hands from making, in her home, powder puffs for babies. (F. Ke.)

SWEDEN

(Sverige), a kingdom of northern Europe, occupy-

ing a part of the Scandinavian peninsula. The length is about 990 m., the extreme breadth (mainland) about 250 m., and the total area, inclusive of inland waters, of which the four great southern lakes comprise 3,510 sq.m., is estimated at 173,154 sq.m. Strelbitsky estimated the boundary at 6,100 m.; 4,737 m. are coastal, the Norwegian frontier is 1,030 m., and the Finnish 333 miles.

Physical Features—The backbone of Sweden is an ancient

[PHYSICAL FEATURES

Sweden, is a bold, somewhat isolated summit. Slightly south beyond the Lule 4lf, is a lofty mass in which Sarjektjakko (6,971 ft.) slightly overtops the other summits Still farther south is the better-known Sulitjalma (6,158 ft.); beyond is a progressive decrease in height southwards until Areskutan (4,656 ft.) is reached, Near the southern flanks of Areskutan the railway from Trond-

hjem (Norway) crosses into Sweden.

South of the railway the

highland line passes into Norway, but before doing so the mass

rises into such heights as Helagsfjall (5,896 ft.). Here the snow line, which is about 3,000 ft. in the north, rises to §,500 ft. The numerous rivers are linked with long, narrow, high-level (goo1,300 ft.) lakes, due mainly to dams of moraine. Amongst European countries only Finland exceeds Sweden in the number of its lakes.

In Sweden they cover over

14,500 sq.m.

of the country), but the largest lie in the northern rivers run through forests and through long estuaries. The Torne, which, Muonio, forms the boundary with Finland,

(about 8%

central lowlands. The enter the sea usually with its tributary the has a length of 227 m.,

and drains Tornetrask (126 sq.m.). Along and near to the shores

of the lake the railway from Gellivare runs to Narvik (Norway).

The Kalix (208 m.), with numerous rapids, is paralleled by the

Lule, whose main stream is 193 miles. One of its branches, the Stora Lule drains the Langasjaur and Luletrask, which together have a length exceeding 50 m. but a total area of only 87 sq. miles.

Just below Stora Lule lake is the Harsprang (hare’s leap; Njuom-

melsaska of the Lapps), the largest and one of the finest cataracts

in Europe. At the head of the Langasjaur is the Stora Sjofall (great lake fall; Lapp, Atna Muorki Kartje), 130 ft. In the southern mountain valleys of the region there are several beauti-

ful falls, such as the Tannfors, not far from Areskutan. Still farther south of the Lule are the Pite river (191 m.) and the Skellefte (205 m.)—the latter drains Hornafvan and Storafvan (total area 275 sq.m.). Hornafvan is a straight and sombre trough, but Storafvan and the intervening Uddjaur are broad and picturesquely studded with numerous islets. The Ume (237 m.) with its tributary, the Vindel, of almost equal length, drains several lakes, including Stor Uman (64 sq. miles). The further principal rivers of this region are the Angerman (279 m.) with

the magnificent Hiallingsa fall within its drainage area, Indal (196 m.) and Ljusnan (230 miles) The Dal (320 m) embraces Lake Siljan (110 sq. miles). The Klar has its upper waters— the Faemund—in Norway and reaches Lake Vener after a course of 228 miles. The Torne has a drainage area of nearly 17,000 sq.m. but the Angerman has the largest basin (over 12,500 sq.m.) of any river entirely in Sweden; the average for the other large northern streams is less than 8,000 sq. miles. The northern rivers are liable to flooding so serious that they change their courses. The lowlands resemble the coastal belt. Here are fertile plains of clay, with innumerable lakes, including Vener, Vetter, Malar

and Hjelmar with areas respectively 2,141, 733, 444 amd 185 sq. miles. The scenery is quietly beautiful, especially of Malar, in the pleasant environs of the city of Stockholm. Granulite, also called eurite and halleflinta, is the most important of the Archaean formations and contains all the metalliferous deposits of Sweden. The rock is a very compact and fine-grained mixture of felspar,

quartz and mica, often grading into mica schist, quartzite and gneiss. The Cambrian and Ordovician strata occur in isolated patches. The deposits in most places are very little disturbed and form horizontal or slightly inclined layers. South of Vener they are capped by thick beds of eruptive diabase. Conspicuous local features are the eskers, or gravel-ridges (dsar) 100 to 200 ft. in height, in direction north-north-west. Their practical value lies in their excellent water supply and gravel. South of the central lowlands the Småland highlands lie in the heart of Götaland and are a detached part of highland Sweden. They lie

mountain range of which the crest line forms the Norwegian boundary. The three main territorial divisions of Sweden are Norrland, Svealand and Götaland. The country may be described in four main physical divisions :—the northern mountains and lake region district, covering all Norrland and the western part ot roughly south of Vetter and reach the south-west coast. The Svealand; the lowlands of central Sweden; the Smaland highlands, general elevation of this region exceeds 300 ft., and in the eastem in the south and south-east; and the plains of Skane, occupying part 600 ft.; the principal heights are Tomtabacken (1,105 ft.) the extreme south of the peninsula. The first district is much the and Galtasen (1,188 feet). There is much coniferous forest, but largest and highest, and contains the finest scenery. The greatest agriculture is profitable. The Smaland highlands abut southheights lie along the boundary and several exceed 6,000 ft. ward upon the plains of Skane. Newer rocks of Cretaceous Kebnekaise (6,965 ft.) formerly considered the highest point in and Jurassic ages, together with recent marine deposits, have

SWEDEN

cone

vw vos BEL, eat

hy Ee A

H

it

sA

S

SRT

N

p

à

he

&

&,

gmc

BY COURTESY OF (1, 3) THE SWEDISH AMERICAN LINE, (2, 4, 5) THE SWEDISH

TOWNS

STATE RAILWAYS

AND

WATERWAYS

1. The cathedral church (13th century) of St. Mary at Visby, on the island of Gotland.

Visby,

a very

old port,

reached

its greatest

in the days of the Hanseatic League. 2. Duved, a tourist resort in Jemtlands Lan, which forms centre for the magnificent mountain Norwegian

prosperity

a convenient

and lake scenery of the Swedish-

border

Gothenburg

SWEDEN

miles have been artificially constructed;

and Stockholm.

These

waterways

make

use of

in all, there are 74 locks

4. The business centre of Gothenburg, principal seaport and second city of Sweden, situated 5 miles from the outlet of the river Gotha 5. Stockholm,

showing

the

portion of the city.

3. Locks at Trollhattan on the Gétha canal (1810-1832), which with its Trollhatte canal extension (1838-1844) and intermediate lakes connects

OF

numerous rivers; hence of the entire 360 miles route less than 60

Riddarholmen

(noble’s

Sweden’s capital was founded

island),

the

oldest

in the 13th century

as a fortified port and has subsequently extended over numerous islands connected with one another and with the mainland by a network of bridges;

hence its claim to the title, “Venice of the North”

PHYSICAL FEATURES]

SWEDEN

yielded level plains, with rich open meadows and cultivated lands, the monotony of which is in some parts relieved by beech woods.

The Triassic formation (Rhaetic) in the northern part of Malmohus consists of sandstones and clay beds with coal.

On the whole the rivers of south Sweden are few and short. Lake Vener is drained to the Kattegat by the short Göta river, on which, near the lake, are the celebrated falls of Trollhättan. Coast.—The coast of Sweden, though not indented with so

637

west. Thus the average in the north of Norrland is 16-5 in., and in the south is 22-5 inches. At Boras, midway between the south end of Lake Vetter and the Kattegat, the average is 35 inches. The minimum at Karesuando is 12-3 inches. The period

of maximum is generally the latter half of the summer, and the minimum in February and March.

The proportion of total pre-

cipitation which falls as snow ranges from 36% in Lappland to 9%

in Skane. Snow lies 47 days on an average on the plains of Skane, while in the north it lies from 140 to 190 days. The Swedish glaciers cover some 135 sq. miles. They occur in the northern highlands about Kebnekaise, Sarjektjakko and Sulitélma. The This skärgård is only interrupted round the southern shore off most southerly is on the slopes of Helagsfjall in Lat. 62° 54’ N. Flora.—The extensive range of latitude and altitude produces Skåne, Between the skärgård and the mainland lies a connected many local vegetation differences. Four main regions can be series of navigable sounds of advantage to coastwise traffic. The island belt is widest (45 m.) off the city of Stockholm distinguished tending to grade into one another near their adjacent (noted for its beautiful sea approach). Farther north, only the fringes. In descending order of altitude, and largely of latitude narrow Alands Haf lies between the Swedish coast and the vast also, are: (1) alpine regions, (2) zone of birch woods, (3) conifAland archipelago, which extends to Finland. The skärgård islands erous forest region, (4) the beech wood patches. The alpine as a whole are rugged and picturesque; in the Baltic several region occupies only the upper flanks of the spinal mountainare well wooded, but the majority, particularly in the Gulf of range, at an altitude above 1,600 ft. in the north and above 3,000 Bothnia, are bare or heath-clad. For the large islands Öland and ft. in the south. It is treeless, though shrub-like willows and birch exist together with numerous berry-bearing plants. These are Gotland see separate articles. Climate.—Several factors contribute towards variations of intermingled with extensive tracts of heather. In the bleaker climate in Sweden’s several regions. The land runs through more wind-swept spots reindeer “moss?” occurs with an occasional than 134° of latitude; about 15% of its area is within the Arctic arctic poppy or a saxifrage. The birch forests are much more Circle; the boundary mountains are sufficiently high to be much extensive in the north and form patches of woodland ro to colder than the adjacent coastal lands, but are not high enough 20 m. wide; southwards the strip narrows to individual trees to shut out entirely the warming effects of those drifts of wind Rowans, aspens and wild cherries occur and there is considerand water from the south-west which give Norway its remarkable able undergrowth. At the higher elevations the birch becomes climate; the eastern and southern borders are washed by the sea; stunted and the lighter woodland is marked by considerable the piercing winter winds from the great Russian pool of cooled growths of wild strawberry and raspberry. The coniferous atmosphere can sweep westwards over the Swedish lowlands or can forests are the most extensive and cover nearly all of the country reach the mountain tops which, on the whole, offer but moderate north-east of Lake Vener. The important tree on the drier and gradients for ascents. February is the coldest month and has a higher ground is the Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris) but enormous mean temperature of below 32° F over Sweden. Stockholm aver- numbers of spruce (Abies excelsa) are also found. The conifers ages 25-7°, Gdteborg 30-4°, Haparanda 10-6°, but the coldest re- extend from sea-level to 2,500 or 3,000 ft. and though the pine gion is in the heart of Lappland; here the average for Karesuando and spruce predominate yet there is a sprinkling of lowland is 5-2°. In some northern parts frost occurs in every month of the bircHes, rowans and aspens, in the north, while large numbers of year, and at Karesuando only five months have a mean tempera- such deciduous trees as oaks, ash, lime, maple and elm are found ture above freezing point. July is generally the warmest month. in the south. These latter trees seldom extend beyond 1,600 ft. Goteborg has a July mean of 62-2°; Stockholm of 62°; Hapa- altitude and the oak ceases about 61° N. (inland) and 63° N. randa, 59° and Karesuando 54:2°. The summer is short but high (coastal). The undergrowth is usually slight but in the thinnermaxima are sometimes recorded; ¢.g.,88° at Karasjok in Lappland. soil areas the bilberry (spruce) and whortleberry (pine) flourish. The relative length of the seasons shows contrasts resembling Much of the coniferous forest has been depleted by forest fires those of temperature. At Karesuando the last day-frost of spring and lumbering, particularly along the lower courses of the occurs on an average on June 15, and the first of autumn on larger streams. The beech forests with occasional oak are reAug. 27, while at Stockholm four and a half months, and at stricted to Skane, southern Oland and the shores of the Kattegat. Hven in the Sound more than six months are frostless. Ice forms They are tending to be reduced by extended land cultivation. in October in the north and breaks up in May or June, while in The flowering plants are largely immigrants since the last glacial the midlands and south the corresponding months are late Novem- epoch and the number of species shows a decrease northwards Fauna.—tThe effects of the great latitudinal range of Sweden ber and April. The ice-covering of the lakes ranges from 100 days annually in the south to upwards of 200 days in the north, though are also shown in the case of fauna. Only a few animals such as local increases of the ice period occur in the upper Småland high- the hare, ermine and the weasel are common to the entire counlands. Drifting sea-ice generally appears in the Kattegat in Jan- try, but the squirrel, fox and various shrews have a wide range uary; but the Sound becomes obstructed later largely by drift ice over the lower lands. Formerly bounties were paid for the exfrom the Baltic. In exceptional winters, e.g., 1916-17, the Sound termination of the larger animals which have been greatly reduced may be completely frozen over. Ice conditions in the Baltic vary in number. The bear is now protected. This and the wolf, the considerably from year to year but usually navigation in the glutton or wolverine, and the lynx are becoming restricted to the southern part of the Gulf of Bothnia is impeded from the end more solitary depths of the northern forests. The wild reindeer, of November to the beginning of May, and in the north the gulf now protected, is rare, though large domesticated herds form is covered with ice from November to mid-May, but among the practically the sole source of livelihood to the Lapps. The elk, also carefully preserved, haunts lonely forests over a considerable islands it may linger until June. The length of the Swedish summer day varies between wide range; the roe-deer is confined to the south. In the midland plains limits. At Karesuando in 68° 26’ N. the sun is continuously above the common fox is still abundant and the badger exists in large the horizon from May 26 to July 18; at Haparanda for 23 hours, numbers. The latter and the otter, together with the pine-marten and at Lund for 174 hours at the summer solstice. Refraction of the coniferous forests, are hunted for their skins. The common Increases the average length of the day by 30 min. in the north porpoise, is the only whale occurring in the Baltic; it, and the and by 15 min. in the south. More important is the effect of common grey seal are held to be responsible for much damage to twilight, which results in daylight lasting without interruption fisheries. Bird life is very abundant in summer; several types such as the teal, snipe, golden plover and wagtail are common from June 16 to 27 as far south as Herndsand (62° 38’ N.). The average annual rainfall for Sweden increases, on the whole, to the whole country. The arctic fox and the lemming are mounfrom north to south, reaching a maximum towards the south- tain animals: the former is normally confined to the highlands

many or so deep fjords as that of Norway, yet resembles it in having a fringe of islands which, throughout nearly the entire length, shelters the coast of the mainland from the open sea.

638

SWEDEN

[POPULATION

of the north, but it also joins in the chase when the lemmings make their non-periodical migrations to the lowlands during which their vast moving hordes are the prey of bird, wild and domesticated animals and man alike. In the northern mountains the ptarmigan is common; ducks and other water-fowl frequent the Jakes both here and in the south; the golden eagle, certain buzzards, owls and the small Lappland bunting are found. In the coniferous forests, grouse, capercailzie and woodcock are the principal game birds; the crane lives in marshy clearings, birds of prey are numerous and jays range over a wide area. In the midlands the partridge is fairly common and doves occur. On the coast large numbers of gulls and terns are found, also the eider-duck and the sea-eagle. There are very few reptiles or amphibians and the viper is the only poisonous species of snake. The rivers and lakes are generally well stocked

Jemtland, Herjedal . Helsingland, Gestrikland Svealand—

with fish, such as salmon, trout, char, pike and perch, and fisheries,

Gotaland—

both fresh-water and sea, are of some consequence, though Baltic waters are less favourable to marine species than the open waters

off Norway. Cod, flatfish, mackerel and sprat are caught, but great numbers of a small herring called strömming form the most important fishing product of the Baltic. In the brackish waters of the east coast salt-water and fresh-water forms are found. The crayfish is common in many places in central and southern Sweden and when tinned forms a valuable export. Pearls are at times found in a fresh-water mussel and oysters are dredged along the western Baltic coast. Among the lower marine animals a few types of arctic origin are found, not only in the Baltic but even in Lakes Vener and Vetter, having survived the changes consequent on the separation of the Baltic sea and Arctic ocean. Insect fauna is rich, even in the north, where very rare and brilliant butterflies are found. In summer in the northern lowlands the mosquito is sufficiently common to cause annoyance to the reindeer which it drives to the upper pastures.

Old provinces

Lan

Area

Pop.

sq. m.

1926

Norrland—

Lappland, Norrbotten Norrbotten Lappland, Vesterbotten . | Vasterbotten Ångermanland, Medelpad | Västernorrland Jamtland | Gävleborg

Dalarne (Dalecarlia). Varmland Vastmanland Nerike ‘ Södermanland Uppland

at

m ao

; | at j y

Halland

Småland

-

.

Blekinge o

.

.

Skane .

Gottland Olandf

Västmanland Södermanland Uppsala Stockholm dist. Stockholm, city , l

;

Östergötland

Vestergétland Dal. s g Bohuslän

Kopparberg Varmland

(| Örebro

.

epee

ae oe ae Goteborg och

Bohus Halland (| Jonképing 4 Kronoberg Kalmar f ee P ristiansta

-4| Malmöhus Gottland* ay

Total

49,742

192,441

225755

198,04

9,858

19,975

274,373

136,507

7,617 | 278,523

I1,589

252,865

79427

270,846

2,608

164,487

2,630

191,788

2,051

140,030

3,561

222,071

2,988

263,043

53

453,332

4,265

310,493

4,915

311,183

1,949

444,022

1,900

149,757

1,173 2,493

147,951 2453579

1,220

56,957

3:274

245,428

4,448 | 231,497 3,826 | 157,702 4,450 | 231,455

1,872 | 503,997

173,154} | 6,074,368

*The island and adjacent islets. fIsland included in Kalmar Lan. Including the four great lakes, Vener, Vetter, Mälar, Hjelmar, 3,510 sq. miles.

POPULATION People.—The population of Sweden at the 1920 census was 5,904,489 (est. Dec. 1926—6,074,368). Public registration is in the hands of the clergy and, particularly in large parishes, encroaches largely upon their time, but it results in much of that close contact between Church and people which is such a marked feature of Swedish life. A general census is taken every Io years and approximate returns are made annually. The table in the next column shows the distribution of estimated population in 1926 in the several governments (Ldn). The older “province” divisions differ from the Jan, but their names remain in common use. The previous approximate totals were: 1750, 1,780,000; 1800, 2,347,000; 1850, 3,482,000; 1900, 5,136,000. The average annual

with intemperance. In 1775 Gustavus III. made the manufacture of spirits (brännvin) a Government monopoly, and the drinking habit was actually fostered. By 1830 some nine gallons of spirits were consumed annually per head. Mainly through the efforts of Peter Wieselgren, dean of Gothenburg (1800—77), a strong tem-

increase was 7-86 per 1,000 in the roth century, reaching a max-

control of the trade. The Swedes probably possess the purest Teutonic blood in existence; they are nominally

imum of 10-39 in 1841-60; in 1920 it had fallen tion, especially to the US.A., increased rapidly wards with a maximum during the period 1881—90 per annum). From 1921 to 1926 the total has

to 6-9. Emigrafrom 1860 on(average 37,640 oscillated about

perance reform movement set in, and in 1855 restrictive liquor laws were passed. Municipal control of intoxicants was devised

in Falun (1850) and applied to Gothenburg (1865). By toro, prohibition had become popular but in 1922 a plebiscite was against it. Dr. Ivan Bratt’s system eliminates many evils of alcohol and has led to legislative

light-hearted

and vivacious.

In

the more remote parts of the country old customs are maintained and picturesque local cosemigrants during the World War and in 1920. Men predominate tumes still worn, as in Dalecarlia among the emigrants and partly explain the unequal number of the sexes resident in Sweden. In 1920 there were 3,006,233 (g.v.). Although the characteristic celebrations at weddings or females and 2,898,256 males. The Swedish people belong to the BY COURTESY OF SWEDISH STATE RAILWAYS Scandinavian race, but the population included (1920) about DALECARLIA PEASANTS IN WINTER periodical festivals are somewhat 30,000 Finns and 7,200 Lapps, living in the north, The population COSTUME decreasing in favour, there are is as a whole homogeneous. certain occasions such as Christmas Day and Midsummer, which Population is denser in the south than in the north; in 1926 are observed as holidays with much ceremony. Food in the midMalmöhus Lan had about 269 persons per sq.m., but in Norrland lands and south is plentiful and good; in the remoter parts of the there are less than 11 persons per sq.m. However, the increase in north an unfavourable summer may mean a winter of scarcity or Norrland has been important. The annual excess of births over even famine; and in these parts meat is little used. Rye was deaths in 1926 was 31,053 or 5-12 per thousand. The death rate extensively employed in the rural districts for the making of a was only 11-75 per 1,000 in 1926. The lowest mortality is found hard bread in flat cakes (knäckebröd); it is now increasingly givin the southern districts; the highest in the northern and the ing place to wheat. Aformerly prevalent, but now decaying, custom east midland districts. The percentage of illegitimacy (14.9% among the better classes is that of beginning meals with a selecof total births in 1926) is tending to decrease; the percentage of tion of such viands as anchovies, smoked salmon or slices of meat, married persons is low. Previously, social evils were associated of which a large variety of small quantities are provided (smérgas-

II1,o0oo0 per annum, but reached nearly 30,000 in 1923. The immigrants are usually considerably fewer, but they exceeded the

SWEDEN

CONSTITUTION]

bord). These are taken with bread and butter and a glass of

039

privileges from the Government

(not necessarily on the basis of

spirits. Swedish national games have been revived considerably

present population), are under a mayor (borgmästare) normally

during the 20th century. These include ski-running (skid-lépning),

a professional lawyer, and aldermen (rådmän). The aldermen are elected by the citizens, while the mayor is appointed by the Government from the first three aldermen on the poll, is paid and holds office for life. The city of Stockholm (g.v.), a län in itself, has a special form of government. The major rural divisions are the 119 fogderier, under bailiffs, a subdivision of which is the linsmansdistrikt (489 in all), under a constable. Justice.—Justice is administered by tribunals of three instances (1) District and borough courts. There are 125 rural judicial circuits (domsagor), which may be subdivided into judicial divisions (tingslag). Each tingslag has a district court (häradsrätt), consisting of a judge and 12 unpaid assessors (nämndemän), elected by the people for a period of six years. If all jurors pres-

skating and skate-sailing, tobogganing, sledging and sailing

The

Royal Swedish Yacht Club (Stockholm) is the largest in the world. Among games, lawn-tennis and football, together with the game of park, peculiar to Gottland, are played.

Towns.—Up to 1860 the percentage of urban population remained nearly stationary at about rz. Its subsequent figures have been 1880, 15-12; 1900, 21-49; 31926, 31. The towns with a population exceeding 25,000 in 1927 are Stockholm (453,332),

Göteborg (231,213), Malmö

(116,827), Norrköping

Hälsingborg

(39,418), Örebro

(52,470), Gävle

(33,544), Eskilstuna

(60,400),

(36,463), Borås

(30,655), Uppsala (30,156), Jönköping

(29,996), Linköping (29,165), Västerås (29,059), Karlskrona (27,188). Stockholm shows the greatest increase during the 2oth century—over I50,000.

CONSTITUTION Constitution and Government.—Sweden is a limited mon-

archy, the Constitution resting primarily on a law (Regeringsformen) of June 6, 1809 The executive and judicial authority is vested in the king alone but his resolutions must be taken in

the presence of the Council of State (statsrådet). The councillors, appointed by the king, are responsible to the parliament :(Riks-

dag). At present they are 12 in number, one being prime minister (statsministern) two others consultative ministers, without portfolio, and the remaining nine are heads of the departments of administration, which are justice, foreign affairs, defence, social affairs, communications, finance, public worship and education, agriculture, commerce. Administrative posts are in principle equally open to men and women. Holders of Government offices are appointed by the king on the advice of the Council of State. Apart from a very few exceptions, none may be dismissed except in case of default and after trial and judgment. The king shares legislative powers with the Riksdag, possessing the rights of initiation and absolute veto. He has also, in certain administrative and economic matters, e.g., the police system, a special legislative right. The general tendency in the constitutional system of

Sweden, however, since 1809 has been to restrict the influence of the Crown in favour of the Riksdag. The Riksdag consists of two elected chambers. The members of the upper chamber are elected by the landsthing (representatives of the län) and by the municipal councils of the larger towns. They number 150, and are distributed among the 19 constituencies in proportion to population; the distribution being revised periodically. Eligibility necessitates Swedish birth, an age of at least 35 years, and the possession, at the time of election and for three years previously, either of real property to the value of 50,000 kronor (£2,777), or an annual income of 3,000 kronor (£166) on which taxes have been paid. Members are elected for eight years. The members of the second chamber number 230, chosen in 28 election areas and elected for four years. The members of both chambers receive travelling expenses to and from the Riksdag, together with a salary for 140 days. The salary 24 kronor or 32 kronor a day is dependent on the place of home residence. The franchise was for long extremely limited, but it is now universal for men and women over 23

years of age. The agreement of both chambers is necessary before a bill is sent forward for royal assent, but when they differ on taxation questions—for which the Riksdag alone has the power of decision—the matter is settled by joint voting, which arrangement gives the second chamber a certain advantage from the greater number of its members. A feature of the Riksdag is the numerous standing committees, controlling the army, navy and other departments.

ent are unanimously of a different opinion from the judge, they can

outvote him. The town-courts in the privileged towns are called radhusrait, and consist of the mayor and at least two aldermen; they are without jurors and therein differ from the district courts.

(2) There are three courts of appeal (Aofrdtter), in Stockholm, Jonképing and Malmö. (3) The Supreme Court (Högsta Domstolen) passes sentences in the name of the king, who is nominally the highest judicial authority. The court, which meets

at Stockholm, has a membership of 24 justices (justitieråd). The Law Council (Lagrådet) which consists of three high court judges and one member

of the Supreme administrative

Court

(Regeringsrätten) egamines all legislative bills before ‘they are laid before the Riksdag. Religion and Education.—The non-Protestants number but about 11,000, 6,500 Jews, 3,500 Roman Catholics, and more than 99% of the total population belong to the Swedish Lutheran Church, of which the king, who must profess the pure evangelic creed, is the supreme administrator. Sweden is divided into 12 dioceses (with Uppsala, since 1164, as the Metropolitan see) and 188 rural deaneries. The parishes number 2,588, united into 1,419 rector’s districts. All citizens contribute to the Swedish Church, in consideration of the secular duties of the priests. Contributions may be reduced for those who support another Church which is legally recognized. Since 1842 public elementary education has been free and compulsory, and, in the case of children not attending the state schools, the parents must show proof that they are being privately educated. There were (1928) 77 public secondary schools, 53 people’s high schools, various technical and special schools. Sweden has two old universities, at Uppsala (founded 1477) and Lund (founded 1668); there are State faculties in certain branches of learning at Stockholm and Göteborg. Eeeke Government of Sweden has a statistical department which publishes a number of annual volumes. For an extensive list of these and also of non-official publications relating to Sweden see the Statesman’s Year Book, issued annually (London). An annual

statistical summary is also issued, Statistisk Arsbok for Sverige. The

Swedish Government also published, in 1914, Sweden: Historical and Statistical Handbook by J. Guinchard. (There are Swedish, English and German editions.) The two large volumes give a comprehensive account of geographical, historical and economic aspects of the country, and largely replace Sweden; its People and its Industry (edit. G. Sundbärg) which the Swedish Government had issued! previously (Eng-

lish ed., Stockholm, 1904). The Sweden Year Book (annual) edited and published with the assistance of public authorities, includes a very

extensive bibliographical section. An important British publication is A Handbook of Norway and Sweden, compiled by the Geographical Section of the Naval Intelligence Division, Naval Staff, Admuralty (1920). See also Sten De Geer, Befolkingens Fordelning i Sverige with maps on a scale 1/500,000 (Stockholm, 1919) ; maps and year books, Svenska Turistforeningen (W. E. Wa.)

DEFENCE

Since Sweden, a province of Denmark from 1397 to 1521, became an independent kingdom, its military history has been Local Government.—Sweden is divided into 25 administra- marked by the accession to the throne in 1523 of the national tive districts or Jän (see population statistics). The elected rep- hero Gustavus Vasa; by the accession to the throne in 1611 of resentative body in each is the landsthing, which deliberates on Gustavus Adolphus (q.v ), the great leader who headed the Protthe more local affairs of the län. The chief official of the Jän is estant cause in Germany and was killed at Lützen (¢.v.) (Nov. the governor (landshöfding) under whom are secretarial, police 1632); by victory on the part of the Swedes over a Russian army and fiscal departments. Seven privileged towns, receiving their at Narva (Nov. 1700) and defeat at the same hands at Pultowa

SWEDEN

640

(July 1709), both in the reign of Charles XII., who after prolonged conflict was killed at the siege of Frederikshald (Dec. 1718); by the seizure of Swedish Pomerania by Napoleon in 1812, followed, in 1813, by the accession of the Swedes to the grand alliance against him; and by the cession of Norway to Sweden under

the treaty of Kiel (Jan. 1814), an arrangement that endured until October 1905. Sweden did not rally to the cause of Denmark when attacked in 1864, and remained neutral in the Franco-Prussian war of 1870 and in the World War. Agitation by Norway for independence in 1892 led to the passage of acts for the reorganization of the army. Present-day

Army

Recruitment

and

Service.—Liability

for every male Swedish subject to perform military service begins in his 21st and ends with the commencement of his 43rd year. The yearly contingent up to 1935 is estimated at 37,700, of whom 31,360 are allotted to the army, 7,000 of them going direct to the reserve. Training of recruits lasts from 140 to 260 days. Special

training for officers takes 23 years. Strength and Organization.—The strength, including recruits, varies with the period of the year. The average can be taken at about 31,000, including 2,800 officers and about 2,000 non-commissioned officers who form a class apart from “other ranks.” There is a special committee of military training under an inspector, and the following establishments: (a) Royal military academy, Stockholm; (b) Royal ordnance and engineer academy, Stockholm; (c) Royal military college, Karlberg; (d) Riding school, Stromsholm; (e) Musketry school, Rosersberg; (f) Noncommissioned officers’ school, Stockholm. The Swedish air force consists of 4 groups of aeroplanes and 318 recruits are trained annually, including volunteers. See also League of Nations Armaments

Year-Book

ee

[ECONOMIC

CONDITIONS

the region north of the 6oth degree of latitude. The winter snows facilitate the transport of the felled tree-trunks, and over the waterways they can be transported inexpensively to the sawmills and factories on the coast.

The length of floating ways is

nearly 20,000 English miles. The annual consumption of timber from the Swedish forests is estimated at 45 million cubic metres (nearly 1,600 million cubic feet). Of this nearly half is exported as deals, battens, box-boards, and pulp. Charcoal is still used for iron production. Pit-props are exported to England. The forests are beginning to be exhausted, and there is systematic afforestation. A balance is now preserved between the growth of the forests and the cutting down The exportation from the saw-mills amounts annually to from 4 to 5 million cubic metres (about

1,000,000 standards). The greatest consumer is Great Britain. Wood Pulp.—The manufacture of pulp, mechanical as well as chemical (sulphite as well as sulphate) has long been in progress on an increasing scale. It now (1928) reaches nearly 2 million tons (dry weight) annually. The exportation of it for 1927 was about 1,450,000 tons (dry weight) of which 80% was chemical and 20% mechanical. Of all the mechanical pulp produced by the world about one-fourth comes from Sweden, and of the chemical

about one-half.

Pulp is exported and used for making paper.

Out of a production of about 500,000 tons in 1927 there were exported over 400,000 tons of paper. The principal customers are Great Britain and the United States. The export of the wood products in 1927 represented a value of £40,000,000, equal to 45% of the country’s entire exports.

Fuel and Power.—Only in the north have coal deposits been found, in which about 400,000 tons of coal are hewn annually, also fireproof clay. The import of coal is high; in 1927, the

figure was 5,900,000 tons, chiefly from England. As fuel, wood and peat are used. The waterfalls could produce up to 4,500,000 if horse-power. Of this about 1,400,000 is taken into use. A number

ei

Navy.—Sweden has to face the numerically formidable, inefficient, fleet of Soviet Russia across the Baltic. Sweden possesses eleven coast defence battleships, three being comparatively modern. These latter are the “Sverige,” (7,600 tons), and the “Drottning-Victoria” and “Gustaf V.” each ,of 7,900 tons. These carry four 11” and eight 6” guns. Other ships are: I old armoured cruiser, 10 destroyers, 27 torpedo boats, 17 submarines, 3 miscellaneous craft. A new type of coast defence ship is projected and two new destroyers and two new submarines are building. The personnel consists of about 5,500 officers and men, recruiting being conscrip-

of power-works distribute electric energy. The largest powerworks, those at Trollhattan on the Gotadlv, Älvkarleby on the Dalalv and Porjus on the Luledlv in Lapland, belong to the State. Minerals.—Sweden’s iron deposits are amongst the richest in the world. They consist of the mines in central Sweden, Bergslagen, long worked, and of the later mines in northern Lappland, Kirunavaara, Luossavaara, etc. The former, which contain a singularly pure iron, are used principally by Sweden herself. The Lappland mines, the iron of which is phosphorus-bearing but very rich (60 to 70% iron), are worked for export. Of Europe’s total resources in high percentage iron-ore more than 90% is to be tive. See Brassey’s Naval and Shipping Annual; F. T. Jane, Fighting found in these Lappland mines. Proprietorial rights belong to the Swedish State and to the Grangesberg company in common, but (E. A.) Ships. the industry is in the hands of the company only. The export of ECONOMIC CONDITIONS AND TRADE AND COMMERCE iron ore, chiefly to Germany, amounted in 1927 to 10,700,000 tons. In the 18th century Sweden took first place among iron-producNot quite one-third of the population live in the towns. About 44% now earn their living by agriculture compared with 70% ing countries. The use of coal changed this pre-eminence. As fifty years ago. Within the same period the industrial population regards quality, however, Swedish output is unsurpassed. After has increased from 15% to 35% and the population living by the World War, production went down greatly. Pig-iron manufacture amounted in 1927 to only 413,000 tons, steel manutrade and communications from 5% to 15%. The cultivated soil is only 9-3% of the whole; about 2% con- facture to only 517,000, compared with 730,000 and 750,000 resists of natural meadowland. About 60% is covered by forests, spectively in 1913. The exportation of iron has decreased from principally pine-forests; the rest is mountain and barren land. 480,000 tons in 1913 to 263,000 In 1927. Machinery.—The making of machinery has been developed, The cultivation of corn—especially of wheat—is practised most in the southern provinces, while cattle-raising is easily predomi- for instance, separators, motors, electrical machines and apparanant in the north. What used to be fallow-land is used for fodder tuses, agricultural machines, ball bearings, etc. Minor iron articles, roots. In Skane sugar-beet is grown. The wheat produced per also, such as cutlery, enamelled vessels and other household things acre is exceeded only by Denmark, the Netherlands, Belgium and made of iron, are being exported on a large scale. The shipbuildGreat Britain. About 200,000 tons of wheat are imported an- ing industry also has gone ahead strongly of recent years The nually. But although Sweden is not self-sufficing in grain, there export of iron products amounted to about £15,000,000 in 1927. Other Industries—There is a preparation of granite for are considerable surpluses of butter and bacon (in 1927, 18,500 and 26,700 tons respectively), which are exported, chiefly to road-making and building purposes, and the cement industry. England. But oil-cakes and other “strong food” are imported. Beet-sugar also is refined. The match industry has been merged Small farms of less than 20 acres take up about 33% of the into one single Trust (Svenska Tdndsticksaktiebolaget). This whole cultivated area; those of medium size of from 20 to 100 organisation now covers the whole world and, with the help acres about 45%; the farms of over 100 acres take up the of English and American capital, controls the production of rest. Of all the land in private ownership, about one-fourth is matches in most countries. held on lease. Actual industries, apart from hand-work and building operations, Forestry.—The forest-industry is chiefly in Norrland, ż.e., in employ about 400,000 workers (in 1900, the number was 296,000).

The value of the foreign trade per inhabitant is about half that in Great Britain. Imports amounted in 1927 to £86,700,000,

exports to £88,700,000.

641

SWEDEN

HISTORY]

Ordinarily the excess is on the side of

imports. Of exports In 1927, pulp and paper represented 26%, wood products 18%, metal-work and machinery 17% and iron ore-9% of the value of the total exports. The greatest con-

sumer of Swedish products is Great Britain (28%); next come Germany (17%) and the United States (11%). From these same countries Sweden obtains the bulk of its imports but here Ger-

Revenue.—The

State’s revenue and expenses for the Budget

year of 1927-28 balanced on a sum of about £39,000,000. Of this about £37,000,000 was made up of taxes and other real State revenue, the rest of loans. Of the former something over £11,000,ooo comes from taxes on income and property, about £18,000,000 from customs and excise, the rest mostly from profits on State enterprises and from productive funds. The State’s debts amount to about £100,000,0c00. Formerly the funded State’s debts were placed abroad but the repurchase of Government bonds has taken

many occupies the first place.

place on a large scale, and State loans have been taken up at

Before the World War as a general rule much capital came into Sweden from abroad, the country’s own command of capital

home.

being inadequate for the great activity manifested in the building of railways, the construction of industrial plants, etc. But the war turned Sweden into a great exporter of capital. At the moment, the imports and exports of capital seem to maintain a balance. Sweden’s policy is moderately protective. There has been little increase of tariff since the war.

Shipping.—About half Sweden’s imports and exports are transported on Swedish tonnage, about half on foreign tonnage. Her commercial navy has grown greatly since the beginning of this

century. It amounts now to nearly 1,500,000 tons register gross, of which 93% is represented by steamers and motor-vessels. Internal Communication.—Sweden possesses a highly developed network of railways, the beginning of which dates from the 1850's. The total length of the lines amounts to about 10,000 English miles. In proportion to the population this is the highest figure reached by any European country. About 3,700 miles belong to the State. Their total freight revenue exceeds that of all the other railways. By means of ferry-steamers the Swedish State lines are in direct communication both with Germany (Tralleborg-Tassnitz) and with Denmark (Malm6-Copenhagen

Of all the State debentures about 80% may be in Swedish

hands. The yearly interest paid on the State debt, £4,700,000, Is covered by productive activities bringing in about £5,700,000. During 1913-14 the State’s taxation revenue amounted to 62%, that of the local authorities to 38% of the total taxation. According to the latest figures the proportions were 55 to 45. The burden of debt which rests on the local authorities amounts to about £70,000,000, (K. A.)

HISTORY

The first historical notice relating to Sweden is found in Tacitus, Germania, cap. 44, in which we find the name of the chief people of the peninsula, the Swedes proper, Suiones (O.N. Sviar, Swed. Svear, A.S. Sweon), who eventually gave their name to the whole country. According to Tacitus they were governed by a king whose power was absolute, and possessed a strong fleet which secured them from hostile incursions. Their original territories lay on both sides of the Malar, in the provinces later known as Upland, Södermanland and Westmanland. Other early Roman writers, Mela and Pliny, mention the country the name Skane. (See SCANDINAVIAN CIVILIZATION.)

under

The people next in importance to the Suiones in the peninsula

and Halsingborg-Halsingor).

(Swed. Götar, O.N. Gautar, A.S. Geatas) are first mentioned

The number of telephones in Sweden amount to 440,000, 2.2., 1 to 14 inhabitants; the corresponding figures in Great Britain are 1 to 40. Swedish firms have been employed in setting up and managing central telephone establishments in other countries. Finance.—Sweden’s financial system since the year 1873 has been on a gold basis, the counting-unit being one krona, which is divided into 100 öre. £r equals 18-16 kronor. There is no actual circulation of gold but the ordinary method of payment is in notes issued by the Riksbank. During the war, in Sweden as in other European countries, the redemption of notes was suspended. Their value sank to a certain degree in relation to gold, in the year 1920 down to 40%. There was then a rapid movement up again, followed by a heavy fall in prices, and on April r, 1924, the redemption of gold was brought back definitively to par. Sweden was the first country in Europe thus to restore her gold currency after the war to its pre-war basis. The Riksbank, which is the central bank of the country (and the oldest in Europe, with a history going back to 1668), is a State bank, pure and simple, and since 1904 has had a monopoly in the issuing of notes. Of its board of directors, one member, who is also chairman, is appointed by the king, and six members are appointed by the riksdag. Commercial banks began to come into existence in the 1830’s, at first in the form of companies with joint responsibility. Bankers of this type had the right to issue notes down to 1904. Some of them are still in existence; the most prominent of them is Stockholms Enskilda Bank. Most of the commercial banks of more recent origin, however, have taken the form of joint stock companies. A strong concentration movement has of late been in progress in the banking world, whereby the total number of banks has been reduced from 80 in 1g10 to 31 in 1928. Four large banks have come into existence, namely, AB Svenska Handelsbanken, Skandinaviska Kredit AB, AB Goteborgs Bank, and Stockholms Enskilda Bank, which handle about two-thirds of the commercial business. Their capital and funds amounted in 1927 to about £26,400,000 and their turnover to about £174,000,000. The Swedish commercial banks do not as a rule (like the German banks) found new businesses. There are nearly 500 savings banks, apart from the State’s post office bank. The deposits handled by these are about £160,000,000.

by Ptolemy (under the form Goutai for Gautoi).

He puts them

in the southern part of the country. Gotaland consisted of Vestergétland and Ostergétland divided from one another by Lake Vetter, together with Smaland. In early times Vestergotland seems to have been the most important; Vermland, the district to the north of Lake Vener and the whole of the country to the north of Svealand seem to have been of small importance. Jamtland was always considered a part of Norway. After the time of Ptolemy we hear no more of Sweden until the 6th century, when a surprisingly full account of its peoples is given by the Gothic historian Jordanes. He speaks of trade in furs of arctic animals which were sold by merchant to merchant until they reached Rome.

For the same period information is to be found in the AngloSaxon poem Beowulf. The hero himself belonged to the Geatas (z.e., in all probability Gotar), his mother being the daughter of their king Hrethel. Haethcyn, Hrethel’s son, is said to have perished in a disastrous battle against the Svear, but his fall was avenged by his brother Hygelac in a subsequent engagement in which the Swedish king Ongentheow was killed. This Hygelac is clearly identical with that. Chochilaicus wrongly described as a Danish king by Gregory of Tours (iii. 3) who died in battle with the Franks under Theodberht about a.p. 520. We learn further that about the time of Hygelac’s death strife broke out in the royal family of the Svear, between Onela, the son and successor of Ongentheow, and Eanmund and Eadgils, the sons of his brother Ohthere. The latter fled for protection to the G6tar and the war which ensued cost the lives of Eanmund and of Heardred the son and successor of Hygelac. According to the poem, Beowulf himself became king of the Gotar, but Beowultf’s later history has a mythical character, and for three centuries after this time we have no reference to Swedish affairs in English or other foreign authorities. The kingdom of the Gotar probably ended soon after the 6th century. At a later time the kings of Norway claimed descent from the ancient royal house of the Svear, and their traditions, though in great part mythical prove at least its high antiquity. They trace back its origin to the god Frey, son of Nidrdr, who is said to have founded Uppsala, the ancient capital of Sweden. Among his descen-

64.2

SWEDEN

dents Athils, the Eadgils of Beowulf, is a prominent figure and, in general, the account given of him agrees with Beowulf. Early Kings.—Four generations after his time a king named Ingialdr was overthrown by a prince from Skane, called Ivarr Vidfadmi His son Olafr Trételgia withdrew to Vermland, which he brought into a state of cultivation, though he was subsequently sacrificed by his subjects in a time of famine. The sons of Olafr Trételgia moved westward into Norway, and if we may trust later traditions Sweden passed out of their family. The subsequent kings of Sweden are said to have been descended from Ivarr Vidfadmi. About 830 the missionary bishop Ansgar made his way to Birca on the Malar. For more than a century after Ansgar’s death no serious mission seems to have been attempted. During the oth century extensive Scandinavian settlements were made on the east side of the Baltic. The famous expeditions of Rurik and Askold which resulted in the origin of the Russian monarchy appear to have taken place towards the middle of the century, but it is not possible to connect these names with any families known to us from Swedish tradition. Many names in Russian chronicles seem to be Swedish. The continuous history of Sweden begins in the early roth century, when a king named Eric son of Emund was reigning at Uppsala. Before the end of the century his descendent Olaf Skottkonung had created what for the moment was the strongest kingdom in the North. Under him Christianity was established in Sweden. As a leading ally in a coalition which included Sweyn king of Denmark and earl Eric of Lade he overthrew Olaf Tryggvason, king of Norway, and annexed for a time part of Trondhjem and the district now called Bohiislan* which he handed over to earl Sweyn, brother of earl Eric as a marriage portion for his daughter Holmfrid. Some years later another Norwegian prince, Olaf Haraldsson (the Fat), returning to Norway as king, put an end to the Swedish and Danish supremacy, and in 1015 forced earl Sweyn to leave the country. An attempt to arrange a marriage alliance between Olaf Skottkonung and the new king of Norway was unsuccessful, and the relations between these kings were still strained when the former died probably in the winter of 102I~2. Anund, his son, early in his reign allied himself with Olaf Haraldsson against Canute of Denmark, who had demanded the restitution of the rights possessed by his father Sweyn in Norway. The allies took advantage of the Danish king’s absence to harry his land. On his return an indecisive battle was fought at Helgi A,

and Anund returned to Sweden. Olaf was driven from Norway by the Danes, but in ro30 he raised a small army in Sweden only to meet his death at the battle of Stiklestad. Adund, who died about ro50, according to Adam of Bremen, was succeeded by his brother Emund the Old, who had been previously passed over because his mother was unfree, the daughter of a Slav prince and captured in war. This king had become a Christian, but soon quarrelled with Adalhard, archbishop of Bremen, and endeavoured to secure the independence of the Swedish church, which was not obtained for another century. Under Emund there was a rectification of boundaries which assigned Blekinge to Denmark. With his death in ro60, the old family of Swedish kings dies out. He was succeeded by his son-in-law Steinkel, a noble of Vestergotland, who was warmly attached to the Christian religion, though he refused to destroy the old sanctuary of idols at Uppsala. During his reign grants of land in Vermland made by the king to the Norse earl Haakon Ivarsson led to a successful invasion of

Götaland by Harold Hardrada of Norway. Steinkel also had disputes with Denmark. His death in 1066 was followed by a civil war, and for the next fifteen years the history of Sweden is very obscure. In 1081 we find the sons of Steinkel, Inge and Halstan reigning. Inge’s attachment to Christianity caused him to be expelled after a short time by his brother-in-law Sweyn or Blotsweyn, so called from his revival of the old sacrifices, described

by Adam of Bremen. Sweyn retained the kingship only for three years before Inge returned and slew him. Brstiocrarny.—Tacitus, Germania, cap. 44; Claudius Ptolemaeus, Geographica ii., xı ad fin.; Jordanes, De origine actibusque Getarum, cap. 3; Procopius, De bello gothico, ii. 15; Beowulf, Rimbertus, Vita S.

[HISTORY

Ansgarii in monumenta Germaniae historica, ii. (Hanover, 1829). King Alfred’s translation of Orosius i. ı. Adam of Bremen, Gesta

hammaburgensis ecclesiae pontificum lil. and iv.; Ynglenga Saga, with the poem Ynglingatal contained in the Heimskringla; Olafs Sagan Tryggvasonar and Olafs Saga hins Helga, both contained in Heimskringla and in Fornmanna sögur; Saxo grammaticus, gesta Danorum: a collection of later Swedish Chronicles contained in Rerum suectcarum scriptores, vol. 1i. (ed. Annerstedt, Uppsala, 1871 and 1876) ; Thomsen,

The Relations between Ancient Russia and Scandinavia and the Origin

of the Russian State (1877); J. Stefamsson, Hist. of Denmark and Sweden in Story of the Nations Series (1916) ; Sveriges historia, vol. i,

(Montelius and Hildebrand, Stockholm, vol. r. 1919, vol. 2. 192s). Organization of the Kingdom.—Under Blotsweyn’s grand-

son, King Sverker (1134-1155), who permanently amalgamated the Swedes and Goths (each of the two nations supplying the common king alternately for the next hundred years), Sweden began to feel the advantage of a centralized monarchical government. Eric IX. (1150-1160) organized the Swedish Church on the model prevalent elsewhere, and undertook a crusade against

the heathen Finlanders, which marks the beginning of Sweden’s overseas dominion. Under Charles VII, the archbishopric of Uppsala was founded (1164). But the greatest mediaeval states man of Sweden was Earl Birger, who practically ruled the land from 1248 to 1266. To him is attributed the foundation of Stockholm; but he is best known as a legislator, and his wise reforms

prepared the way for the abolition of serfdom. The increased dignity which the royal power owed to Earl Birger was still further extended by King Magnus Ladulas (1275-1290). Both these rulers adopted the dangerous expedient of creating a number of almost independent duchies in Sweden, but the danger of weakening the realm by partition was averted, though not without violent complications. In 1319, the severed portions of Sweden were once more reunited. Meanwhile the political development of the state was steadily proceeding. The formation of separate orders, or estates, was pronounced by Magnus Ladulås, who extended the privileges of the clergy and founded an hereditary nobility (Ordinance of Alsnö, 1280). In connection with this institution we now hear of a heavily armed cavalry as the kernel of the national army. The knights too became distinguishable from the higher nobility. To this period belongs the rise of a prominent burgess class, as the towns now began to acquire charters. At the end of the 13th century, and the beginning of the 14th provincial codes of laws appear and the king and his council execute legislative functions. Union of Kalmar 1397.—The first union between Sweden and Norway occurred in 1319, when the three-year-old Magnus, son of the Swedish royal duke Eric and of the Norwegian princess Ingeborg, who had inherited the throne of Norway from his grandfather Haakon V., was in the same year elected king of

Sweden (Convention of Oslo). A long minority weakened the royal influence in both countries, and Magnus lost both his kingdoms before his death. The Swedes, irritated by his misrule, superseded him by his nephew, Albert of Mecklenburg (1365). In Sweden, Magnus’s partialities and necessities led directly to the rise of a powerful landed aristocracy, and, indirectly, to the growth of popular liberties. Forced by the umruliness of the magnates to lean upon the ,middle classes, the king summoned (1359) the first Swedish Riksdag, on which occasion representatives from the towns were invited to appear along with the nobles and clergy. His successor, Albert, was forced to go a step farther and, in 1371, to take the first coronation oath. In 1388, at the request of the Swedes themselves, Albert was driven out by Margaret, regent of Denmark and Norway; and, at a convention of the representatives of the three Scandinavian kingdoms held at Kalmar (1397), Margaret’s greatnephew, Eric of Pomerania, was elected the common king, but the liberties of each of the three realms were expressly reserved

and confirmed.

The union was to be a personal, not a political

union. THE 15TH AND

16TH CENTURIES

Danish Plans for Union.—The Swedish nobles who were dissatisfied with the evil rule of Albrekt of Mecklenburg called in Margaret, Valdemar Atterdag’s powerful daughter and successor

onthe Danish throne, and she became queen of Sweden also m

SWEDEN

HISTORY]

1389. Norway was already united with Denmark and Margaret’s plan was to bring all the three kingdoms together into a single

union under Denmark.

An Act of Union was

drawn up at

Kalmar in 1397 but was not proceeded with as the Queen was dis-

satisfied with some of its clauses. At the same time her relative, Eric of Pomerania, was elected future king of the three king-

doms. After Margaret’s death in 1412 he assumed the Government and proceeded to try to change Sweden into a vassal coun-

try with the help of a system of Danish bailiffs. The consequent oppression became so hard that the Swedish peasants rose in

1434 under the leadership of Engelbrekt Engelbrektsson, a noble from Bergslagen. The national movement spread swiftly and the Danish strongholds were conquered. In the course of this

fight for freedom Engelbrekt called together at Arboga, in Jan. 1435, the first Riksdag of nobles, priests, burghers and peasants. The Riksdag has never been done away with since, so that in

1935 Sweden’s parliament will commemorate its sth centenary.

In 1436 Engelbrekt was murdered.

For several decades a Party

in favour of the Union, made up of the more important nobles

and the clericals, with Danish support, proceeded to contend against a National Democratic Party under native leaders taken from the nobles. Danish kings were on several occasions recognized as rightful sovereigns also of Sweden, among them, for instance, Christopher of Bavaria (1440-48) in whose reign there was enacted in 1442 a new general law which, with additions, held good until 1734, and Christian I. (1457-64). In between, a Swedish nobleman, Karl VIII. Knutsson, was recognized as king during the years 1448-57, 1464—65 and 1467-70 (being twice

643

as well as exemption from tolls and bonds for very considerable sums in payment for services rendered. Drastic taxation had to be imposed, and the churches and monasteries also were requisitioned for help. Archbishop Gustavus Trolle was a fugitive and the Swedish Church found itself in a state of dissolution. Gusta-

vus Vasa’s first appeals to the pope were for bishops of Swedish birth, a new archbishop, and church reformation. No favourable response came from Rome and in these circumstances the king was influenced by Lutherans. The New Testament was translated into Swedish. At the Riksdag held in Vesterås in 1527 the church

settlement decreed that the bishops had to hand over their castles to the king, and the chapters and canons, moreover, their superfluous incomes; that Peter’s Pence should no longer be paid to the pope and that the pope’s authority should not be invoked for the election of bishops. The year afterwards the king was crowned in the cathedral of Uppsala. Gustavus Vasa had to defend the interests of the kingdom against the individual claims of the provinces. The peasants had become disturbed by the novelties of the Reformation, and an adventurer came upon the scene, declaring he was Sten Sture’s son. Disturbances broke out but the king put them down with severity. Christian IJ. had been driven out of Denmark, also and this produced a rapprochement between Sweden and Denmark. Finally

Christian was incarcerated in a Danish prison in 1532. Lübeck’s privileges had come to be intolerable; on one occasion every church was called upon to hand over its largest bell to supply means for meeting the Lübeck liabilities. This caused a rising in Dalarna, and Lübeck declared war on Denmark and Sweden. They expelled and twice re-instated). During the years that followed and their German allies took Copenhagen and Malmö. They no native-born sovereigns were set up against the Danish kings, could not hold out, however, and in 1536 peace was declared. In but the National Party was under the leadership of Riksfére- the following year a treaty was framed between Sweden and ståndare, or Regents, in the persons of members of the Sture Lübeck regarding certain exemptions from tolls but without trade family. After Rzksforestandare Sten Sture the Elder (1470-97) monopoly. Sweden’s debts were declared to be settled. came the Danish King Hans (1497-1501), then Sten Sture again, King Gustavus had now to organize administration. He (1501—03), and then Svante Sture (1504-12) and Sten Sture the heard talk about Roman law as the basis of all law. He conseYounger (1512~20). The times were troubled and there were quently called in a great number of Germans, so that the years continual struggles with the Danes. Many Germans lived in the 1538-44 came to be known as “the German period”; but the towns. After a Swedish victory over the Danes outside Stock- Germans were for the most part adventurers and the results holm in 1471 an old ordinance by which the Germans should were not satisfactory. The newcomers caused the king to distrust have half the seats in the town councils was abolished. The his earlier helpers. There was a dangerous outbreak in Småland, country now became impoverished but the national feeling grew which was led by a peasant, Nils Dacke, who was killed in 1543. stronger than ever alongside a hatred of Denmark which inspired The influence of the Germans then ceased, and Gustavus ruled Sweden’s foreign policy for 300 years and which was caused by alone. He devoted great attention to mining, trade and agriculture. Danish intrigues against Sweden. Things came to a climax when An influential landed nobility was restrained. At the Riksdag the Danish king Christian IT. conquered the country and in 1520 meeting of 1560 the king presented his testament. He died on had the foremost men of the National Party in Stockholm exe- Sept. 30 of that year, aged 63. He was the founder of the new cuted (“The Stockholm Blood-Bath”). Among noteworthy events Sweden. in this period may be mentioned the founding of Sweden’s first Erik XIV., 1560-—1568.—Gustavus Vasa’s eldest son succeeded. university in Uppsala in 1477. Scholarly, display-loving, wayward, he ruled well at first but Gustavus Vasa, 1523-1560.—The Scandinavian Union was became insane, Gustavus had bestowed on his other sons dukerepresented by the Danish king living in Copenhagen. Denmark doms which entailed discords between them. On the occasion of and Norway held the south, and foreign trade lay in the hands of his coronation Erik created the ranks of counts and barons but the German Hanseatic League. Sweden was a land of peasants, he was mistrustful of the nobles, upon whom he imposed great divided by provinces, and inspired by all the local patriotism exactions. He entered into negotiations for marriage with Queen that troublous times evoke. The Uppsala university had de- Elizabeth and afterwards with Mary Stuart, as well as with two terlorated, and the affairs of the Catholic Church had long been princesses on the Continent, but met with refusals. Towards the neglected by the Holy See. close of his reign he married his low-born mistress, a good-hearted A young Swedish nobleman, Gustavus Eriksson Vasa, who had woman, Karin Mansdotter. been treacherously carried off to Denmark as hostage and prisoner, When the Teutonic Knights of Estonia and Livonia ceased to In 1519 made his escape to Liibeck, where he won good friends. be, the town of Reval and the neighbouring region went over of At the end of May 1520 he landed again in Sweden near Kalmar, their own accord to Sweden. This was the first step towards a and quickly learnt of the massacre in Stockholm, in which his Swedish sovereignty over the Baltic south of the Bay of Finfather and brother-in-law had perished. He made his way up to land. The situation pointed ominously to coming conflicts, for Dalarna where he raised his first peasant troops. He had neither Russia took Narva, the Danish Duke Magnus took Osel, and arms nor money, but one province after another came to his sup- Poland took a large portion of the Teutonic Knights’ country. port. Archbishop Gustav Trolle was his foremost opponent but A break with Poland resulted in internal dissensions, as Erik’s had to take flight from Sweden. Gustavus formed an engagement brother, Johan, who was duke of Finland, married Katerina, the With Liibeck, which sent ships with arms and soldiers. In June sister of the Polish king, Sigismund Augustus, and as security for 1523 Gustavus was elected king of Sweden by an assembly in a loan to his brother-in-law got some Polish castles in Livonia. Strängnäs, and Stockholm surrendered to him. A brief civil war took place. Erik’s troops took Abo, and Johan But it was not easy to guard what had been won. Lübeck and Katerina were put in prison, after being tried and sentenced

had secured for herself a monopoly of Sweden’s foreign trade

by the Riksdag.

Negotiations were entered into with Ivan the

644

SWEDEN

Terrible in Russia and ended with a proposal for a treaty containing the condition—a blot upon Erik’s name—that Duke Johan’s wife should be handed over to the tsar, evidently to be used as a means

of enforcing concessions from the Polish king.

[HISTORY

the Swedish Riksdag in 1599 to declare him dethroned. Charles took a sanguinary revenge. The captive members of the council were executed. Duke Charles was not crowned until 1607. He aimed at a

The shameful clause may be ascribed to Erik’s madness and was monarchical-democratic conception of Government. During the never enforced. A severe conflict ensued with Denmark who years 1561—93 the Riksdag or other estates were convened 15 were wished to have the Union preserved and kept Sweden’s “Three times; during Charles’s much briefer reign, 1594~1611 they Crowns” in her coat of arms. Erik wanted to break the cordon called together 16 times. New Church dissensions were caused by in the south and would not recognize Denmark’s claims to su- the fact that Charles cherished Calvinistic ideas while the clergy premacy over the Baltic. He ostentatiously added the Danish and the people expressed themselves more and more strongly in and Norwegian kingdoms’ arms to his own. Other disputes fol- favour of evangelical tenets. By the peace with Russia conlowed, and war resulted in 1563. The Swedish fleet won victories cluded at Teusina in 1595 Sweden’s ownership of Estonia and but the Danes had the mastery in the war on land which was Narva had been recognised, but the troublous times in the East waged on both sides with grim ferocity. Lübeck and Poland allied evoked new conflicts. Swedish troops marched into Moscow In 1567 Erik’s insanity became and the Russian crown was offered to one of Charles’s sons. themselves with Denmark. manifest. He had some of the foremost nobles imprisoned, mur- Novgorod was conquered. War with Poland was waged in Livonia, dered one of them himself, and had others of them assassinated. where the Poles won certain advantages without being able to He became penitent and set free Duke Johan, who, in alliance turn them to account. Owing to Charles’s endeavour to extend with the younger brother Karl and the nobles, dethroned and the region of Finnmark up to the Arctic under the rule of Sweden, and from other causes, war broke out with Denmark in r6r1z and imprisoned Erik in 1568. He died in prison in 1577. Johan III. (1568-92), an amiable man, learned in theology, Kalmar was taken by the Danes. When Charles died in 1611 he but irresolute and weak, was acclaimed king. The Danish war left to his son, Gustavus Adolphus, an inheritance of three undied a natural death through the economic attrition of both finished wars. Powers, and in Dec. 1570 peace was declared at Stettin through THE 17TH CENTURY Polish and French mediation; the frontiers remained the same Gustavus Adolphus had been given a thorough classical Alvsborg Denmark; to allotted was as before the war. Gottland on the west coast was to be surrendered by Sweden with a large education and spoke Latin and several modern languages. He was sum of money; the question of the Three Crowns was left for an organiser of great capacity alike in military and in internal later decision but in the meantime Denmark was free to incorpo- administration. His personal influence was due to a strong and rate them in her arms, whilst, on the contrary, the Danish and good character and a clear and far-sighted vision. In all his Norwegian arms were to be taken out of the Swedish coat of work he had assistance of extraordinary value from his Chanarms. Sweden’s gain consisted in the fact that from this time cellor of State, Axel Oxenstjerna (g.v.). Gustavus Adolphus.—Gustavus Adolphus was born in 1594 forward she was to be considered Denmark’s equal as a Baltic State. Between Sweden and Poland good relations sprang up at and was declared of age on his father’s death. The Danes were once but war broke out with Russia, waged with changing for- successful in the war and took the harbours on the west coast. tunes and occasionally interrupted by armistices. In the result Through the mediation of King James I. of England peace was the whole of Estonia, with Narva, was incorporated with Sweden. concluded in 1613: Alvsborg was to be handed back to Sweden in The great religious struggle in Europe was followed with return for a payment of a million dalers within six years; the interest by Johan, who sought to take up a mediative rôle and Finnmark region was given to Denmark-Norway, and the right entered into negotiations with the pope. Both papal and Spanish of the Danish king to use the Swedish Three Crowns in his coat envoys came to Sweden, and it looked as though the king would of arms was recognised. The peace conditions were hard. go over to the Catholic church, but when the pope refused to Sweden next desired peace and a fixed frontier with Russia. accept his offer of mediation he changed his tone and entered The war was continued until the conclusion of peace at Stolbova into definite opposition to Rome. He had previously given out a —also with King James’s mediation—in 1617. Sweden won Eastliturgy which evoked general displeasure in Sweden by its ap- ern Carelia and Ingermanland, whereby land-connection was obproach to the Catholic form of religious services, and taken as a tained between Finland and Estonia, but gave up Novgorod. Durwhole his religious measures caused great unrest. His son Sigis- ing and after these wars a great task of organisation was carried mund adopted the Catholic faith and was elected king of Poland out in Sweden. The council acquired a stronger position as the in 1587. The internal administration of the country was marked king’s advisers at the head of the administration. Ministerial by continual lack of funds (despite high taxation) and at the offices were set up after the French-Burgundian model; a method same time by extravagance over new buildings. Falls in the cur- of judicial procedure was instituted and courts of appeal were rency made the matter worse. The nobles were rewarded by spe- established. The nobility was incorporated in the social system as cial privileges for their part in the overthrow of Erik—a de- officials of the Government and much was done to improve local parture from the more democratic policy of Gustavus and Erik. administration. The king promised not to begin war or conclude The nobles now showed a tendency to aggrandize their powers peace or make a treaty with other powers without the sanction but the peasants never became serfs and the Riksdag of the four of the Riksdag. The ransom of Alvsborg made heavy taxes estates continued to be called together. There were serious necessary and even so the town of Amsterdam had to help with a loan; the financing of the State and the raising of the loan complications when Johan died in 1592. Charles [IX.—The crown went to Sigismund, who was scantily were based in a high degree on the copper-ore in the Falu mines. gifted, obstinate, and a devoted servant of the Catholic Church; In Jan. 1619, the ransom-sum was paid and Alvsborg was returned his uncle Charles on the other hand was a practical man of to Sweden. Gustavus Adolphus endeavoured to promote comaffairs, passionate and hard. The evangelical learning had taken merce. New towns were founded, of which Goteborg on the

still stronger root, and at a Church meeting in Uppsala in 1593 it west coast was the most prominent (1621). A source of future dif-

was decided to abide by the Holy Scriptures, the three great symbols and the unmodified Augsburg Confession. Sigismund was forced to agree. On the day previously, however, he had protested to the papal nuncio against the undertaking and he considered himself entitled to disregard it. He returned to Poland in 1594. Duke Charles and the council soon fell out, with the result that the leading members of the council went off to see Sigismund. In 1598 Sigismund landed with a small Polish army. Sigismund suffered defeat, left hastily for Poland and this caused

ficulties lay in the privileges of the nobles; their graduated freedom from taxes—the reward of the servants of the State—was to diminish thereby the State’s revenue from taxation: this danger, however, did not present itself until later. The nobility secured the stability which it needed through the founding of the Riddarhus, or House of the Nobles, in 1626, in which records were in-

scribed of the noble families. Higher education was furthered. The University of Uppsala got from the king in 1624 a great donation of lands, Great attention was given to equipment of

SWEDEN

HISTORY]

the army and navy. Relations with Poland were settled by armistices until the year 1617 when negotiations led to no result. Sigismund had never abandoned his claim to the Swedish crown and therein lay a menace for the future. Open war began again and Gustavus Adolphus took personal part in it. Livonia and Riga were conquered and for several years the Swedes carried the war into Polish Prussia.

Through the mediation of Brandenburg, France and

England, a six years’ truce was agreed to at Altmark in Sept. 1629;

some Prussian seaports continued to be a Swedish possession, the Swedes retaining the right to levy tolls. While the Polish war

was in progress the great conflict which was to be known as the Thirty Years War (g.v) started within the German Kingdom, and Sigismund’s efforts were menacing to the religious peace of Sweden. The emperor’s troops were sent to Prussia to help Poland. The royal houses of Sweden and Denmark were related to German princes who asked for help. Catholic France sought to check the emperor’s increasing influence and negotiated with Sweden and Denmark: the English Government was working to the same end. Christian IV. of Denmark entered into the war but was completely defeated, and Wallenstein’s imperial army took up its position on the Baltic; Wallenstein was made duke of

Mecklenburg and imperial admiral over the Atlantic ocean and the Baltic; an imperial fleet was to be built. When Stralsund was threatened, Gustavus Adolphus sent help and after long and many deliberations with the council and the Riksdag he made his way with 13,000 men to Pomerania in June 1630; he

preferred to have Germany as his theatre of war rather than to await an attack in Sweden. When success attended his invasion of the country, France concluded a subsidiary treaty with him at Barwalde in Jan. 1631. The evangelical princes of Germany took up a dubious attitude at first, and the Swedes were blamed when

they did not succeed in relieving the town of Magdeburg which was taken by the imperial general, Tilly. After various negotiations, a decisive victory was won at Breitenfeld in Sept. 1631. A series of brilliant Swedish successes followed. Gustavus Adolphus held his Court in Mainz and Frankfurt, crossed the River Lech and made his entry into Munich. The emperor had dismissed Wallenstein in 1630, but now took him back into favour, and soon the latter was once again in the field with a strong army. The Swedes vainly stormed his fortified camp at Nuremberg and the brisk war which ensued led to the battle of Liitzen in which Gustavus Adolphus met his death on Nov. 6, 1632. It may be thought a matter for wonder that Sweden, a country with a population relatively so small, should have been capable of so great a political and military expansion as was shown in the Thirty Years’ War. The explanation lies partly in an extraordinary national effort to avert an imminent danger. Sweden’s armies were made up also in an increasing degree of foreign mercenaries, German, English, and Dutch. In the Polish war a number of excellent Swedish generals had learnt their business, and Gustavus Adolphus was one of the foremost military leaders of the time.

Christina.—The death of Gustavus Adolphus producedacrisis in Germany. His daughter Christina, still a minor, was recognized

as queen (1632-54) and the Regency was undertaken by Axel Oxenstierna.

It was well that a new treaty was concluded with

France in 1633 and that Wallenstein was murdered in Feb. 1634, but in the autumn the Swedes suffered a defeat at Nördlingen

which lowered their prestige. In 1635 Saxony concluded peace with the emperor and her example was followed by Brandenburg In 1636; both declared war against Sweden. John Banér (q.v.), restored the good name of the Swedish troops by victories at Wittstock in 1636 and Chemnitz in 1639. His successor, Torstensson (g.v.), thrice invaded the emperor’s dominions and won the second battle of Breitenfeld in 1642. Almost everyWhere Swedish interests were opposed by Denmark. Thus Torstensson was ordered, therefore, to leave Bohemia for Denmark in 1643, and Jutland was overrun by Swedish troops. Christian IV. was forced to conclude a peace at Bromesbro in 1645 by which Sweden won Jämtland, Härjedalen, Gottland, Ösel and, for 30 years Halland; exemption from the Öresund tolls was accorded for goods to Sweden and the Baltic provinces, By the

645

Treaty of Westphalia (q.v.) Sweden acquired important German possessions—large portions of Pomerania, Wismar, the bishoprics of Bremen and Verden as fiefs of the German empire, and sums of prize-money, rewards for the soldiers. A great number of

Swedes had in the course of the war amassed large fortunes; the influence of the nobles in this way had been increased and a chasm had grown between them and the unprivileged classes. This was intensified by the circumstance that many foreigners had entered into Swedish service and had been rewarded with landed estates. Through them, and through the impressions which Swedes had gathered in foreign countries, new ideas regarding the social status of the nobles had become widely prevalent. The exercise of governmental power and the administration of the State in general were regulated by the constitution of the year 1634. Christina came of age in 1644, but laid down the crown ten years later. Richly endowed by nature, she had acquired much learning and many accomplishments but she was flighty and arbitrary, wont to overload with gifts those who were momentarily

in her favour. She went over to the Catholic Church and died in Rome in 1689 after a life not lacking in excitement. Charles X.—The new king was the son of Charles IX.’s daughter, the Count Palatine Karl Gustav (Charles X. 1654-60), who had been brought up in Sweden, becoming generalissimus. The costs of the court were cut down, and in the Riksdag of 1655 the nobles agreed that the endowed estates necessary for administration of the kingdom, for defence of the realm, and for working the mines, should return to the Crown, that certain estates bestowed as gifts should acquire the character of fiefs with right of return to a new king, while a fourth of such estates as had been bestowed after the year 1633 should be returned to the Crown. This measure was put into effect at once but ceased to operate during the strenuous war years that followed. Charles X.’s short reign was occupied by war. With Poland there was as yet no peace; as the Russians had directed an attack against Poland, the king and the Riksdag decided to settle the matter by means of a war. Charles X. took Warsaw and Cracow

(1655). Poland looked as though lost, but a national rising followed in favour of King John Casimir and two years of fruitless fighting resulted. Charles X. concluded peace with the rising power, Brandenburg, and the Swedish and Brandenburgian armies together won a three days’ battle at Warsaw in 1656. In that year the Russians began war and the emperor joined Sweden’s enemies, and the following year Denmark, Holland and Brandenburg followed suit. If all these powers could have co-operated closely Sweden’s position would have been extremely perilous, but they could not. Charles turned resolutely upon Denmark, took Jutland and led his troops first over the ice to Fyen and then across the islands to Själland. The credit of this military exploit belongs chiefly to the quartermaster general of the army, Erik Dahlberg. Denmark was forced to make peace in 1658 at Roskilde, Sweden receiving Skåne, Halland, Blekinge and Bornholm, Bohuslän and Trondhjems Län. Both kingdoms undertook to make common cause to keep enemy fleets out of the Sound. The king now thought of confronting his other enemies, but as certain negotiations with Denmark did not quite take the turn he expected and the Dutch were busily agitating in Denmark, he guessed that hostilities from this country would follow the moment he had become engaged in the east. He resolved to avoid this danger by completely crushing Denmark and began war anew in Aug. 1658. His policy, however failed, as in Poland, through a contingency with which the statesmen of those days seldom reckoned—the kindling of a national patriotic movement. Copenhagen withstood his attack and Holland sent a fleet which after a fierce struggle with the Swedes relieved the Danish capital. The situation was anxious, and a Riksdag was called together at Göteborg. Charles Gustavus died on Feb. 13, 1660 during its session.

Charles XI.—Charles XI. (1660-97), a boy of four, became

king at c moment when Sweden was surrounded by enemies. The widowed queen and five officials became regent. The first thing to do was to secure peace with Poland, the emperor and Brandenburg at Oliva in 1660, whereby Sweden’s right to hold Livonia was recognized and John Casimir renounced all claim to the

SWEDEN

64.6

Swedish throne; with Denmark the same year at Copenhagen, whereby Trondhjems Län and Bornholm went back to Denmark,

compensation being given in the case of Bornholm; and with Russia in 1661 at Kardis, confirming the peace of Stolbova. Magnus Gabriel de la Gardie, the chancellor of State, was weak,

and none took the lead in the way Axel Oxenstierna had done after the death of Gustavus Adolphus. The nation’s defences were allowed to decline although its foreign policy was adventurous. It was desired to obtain subsidies from other powers and a rash treaty was concluded with France in 1672. In this year the king came of age, having reached his 17th year. His education had been neglected and he grew up awkward in his bearing, but he was an ardent patriot and extremely industrious. The general decadence of Sweden became manifest when her foreign policy led to war with Brandenburg (1674) and Denmark (1675). The war with Brandenburg was ill-managed, and Sweden’s military prestige was lowered by a defeat at Fehrbellin in 1675; most of her German possessions were lost. The Danes invaded Skane where they continued to have many friends. The king took the leadership. On the sea the Danes were successful, but victories at Lund in 1676 and other places saved the southern provinces for Sweden. Peace treaties were signed in 1678 and 1679 with the different enemies. France accepted terms which in some respects were humiliating for Sweden. Some smaller regions in Germany were lost, but there was no question of any cessions of land to Denmark. Great portions of the country had been laid waste, the fleet had been destroyed, trade and commerce had suffered, and finances were in disorder. A great task lay before the young king and he accomplished it, but it was by the methods of an absolute monarchy. Several Riksdags were called—z1680, 1682-83, 1686, etc.—but on each occasion its attitude towards the king was more complaisant and it gradually came to leave practically all the questions of legislation and taxation in his hands. An enquiry was held into the conduct of the members of the Regency, who were sentenced to restore or pay large sums of money; and a very drastic confiscation of private estates was taken in hand whereby land and incomes were made to fall to the Treasury. Charles then put the army and navy in good trim. The officers were remunerated by small farms; cavalry were raised by a certain number of assessed farms and the infantry by the landowners. In the year 1681 the Swedish national debt amounted to 44,000,ooo dalers in silver, but on Charles’ death it was only 11,500,000. Charles married the Danish Princess Ulrika Eleonora, but the two northern States soon fell apart again. In 1681 Sweden entered into treaties with Holland at The Hague with a view to safeguarding the frontiers fixed by the peace treaties of Westphalia and Nijmwegen. The emperor gave his signature to the compact the following year. Sweden wanted to draw Holstein into its sphere of interest so as to secure less interrupted communications between her different German possessions. For Denmark it was still more important to hinder the Holstein plans of expansion lest she should be hemmed in on the South. The duke of Holstein-Gottorp was Charles XI.’s uncle (his mother’s brother) and had his support against Denmark. He died in 1697, leaving one son, Charles, and two daughters. THE 18TH CENTURY

Charles XII.—For the third time in the 17th century a regency was called on to act, but already Nov. 1697, the Riksdag declared the 15-year old Charles XII. (1697—1718) of age. At the coronation he placed the crown on his own head and gave no Kungaförsäkring (lit. King’s guarantee). Charles was a gifted but precocious youth who had been grounded in book-learning and military science. He had high morality, but was inclined to obstinacy. In his early youth he was addicted to wild pranks and perilous sports.

Poland, Denmark and Russia were united against Sweden.

In

March, 1700, the Poles marched on Riga and the Danes against Holstein. The young king showed unusual power and decision. Protected by the English and Dutch fleets he landed on Själland and enforced on Denmark the peace of Traventhal in Aug. 1700.

[HISTORY

In November the Swedes, under the personal leadership of Charles, won a momentous victory over the Russians at Narva. In the summer of 1701 Charles marched south, drove the Russians and the Saxons back over the Duna and invaded Poland. Charles

called upon the Poles to dethrone

Augustus

who had

begun the war. This idea stirred up the national feeling of Poland and won Augustus help from other States. Charles’ route went through Kovno in Lithuania to Warsaw and Cracow which he took (1702). After continual but fruitless victories for the Swedes a Polish parliament, not constitutionally formed, declared Augustus dethroned and elected as his successor Stanislaus Leszczynski, a weak man who lacked the strength to defend his own status as king. The Polish parliament concluded peace with

Sweden in 1705. State to Sweden, maintaining such Tsar Peter took

In this way Poland became a kind of subject but Charles miscalculated Sweden’s capacity for a relationship. During these Polish conflicts the

town after town in Livonia and Ingermanland,

among them Dorpat and Narva. Charles, in the meantime, held that the most important thing was to force Augustus to conclude peace before he took up his stand against Peter, and he carried war into Saxony. The Swedish army was now one of the most famous in Europe, and Charles’s power was very great. Leipzig was taken, and Augustus by the peace signed at Altranstadt in Sept. 1706, renounced the Polish throne and allowed Charles to remain some time in Saxony with his army. Augustus was in Lithuania and sought by intrigue to overrule the peace treaties but failed. From different quarters came efforts to benefit by Swedish aid; nearly a dozen German princes sought Charles out and he was visited by some 30 envoys from various courts. The most notable of them was Marlborough, who took note that the Swedish king did not intend to place himself on the side of France in the Western European wars as rumour had declared. Quarrels with the emperor began, but with the help of English and Dutch mediation a peace was concluded in 1707 which secured for Protestants in Schleswig the Church rights promised them in the Peace of Westphalia. Charles was anxious to come to conclusions with Russia, but he had given the tsar too long to prepare. The Russians had forced their way into Poland but were driven out again, and after

a victory at Holovszyn Charles crossed the Dnieper. Adam Ludwig Lavenhaupt was to have come with an army from Livonia to the king’s support, but he was delayed and experienced a severe defeat, arriving eventually with a diminished force and without commissariat. Owing to devastations by the Russians it became difficult for the Swedes to provide themselves with necessaries, and when the Cossack, Mazeppa, offered his co-operation Charles concluded a treaty with him in Oct. 1708. Mazeppa did not manage to get his Cossacks to join with him, but Charles advanced into the Ukraine. In an unusually hard winter thou-

sands of Swedish soldiers perished. Charles began to lay siege to Poltava: the battle which followed (June 28, 1709) ended in a Swedish defeat, largely owing to the fact that Charles was wounded in the foot and that his generals were not united. Charles made his way as a fugitive to Turkey and his proud army capitulated at Perevolatschna on July 1, 1709. The unfortunate Russian campaign made an immense impression both in Sweden and in other countries. Augustus declared the peace with Sweden invalid and marched into Poland. The Danes crossed the Sound and sought to overrun Skaane. The Government in Stockholm put forth all its powers to defend Southern Sweden and Magnus Stenbock won a decisive victory at Helsingborg in Feb. 1710. The Danish troops were taken back to Denmark. The Russians occupied the Baltic prov-

inces completely after they had taken Riga. Meanwhile Charles was busying himself in Bender trying eagerly to bring about a

war between the Turks and Russia. His stay in Turkey is diffcult to explain; probably he did not want to return until the

Russians had been either conquered or weakened. Thrice the Turks began war but without any gain to Sweden. Meanwhile Stenbock made his way to Germany, but though he defeated the Danes at Gadebusch (1712) he was forced to capitulate with his army at Tönningen in 1713. The German possessions, apart from

HISTORY]

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Stralsund, were taken by the enemy, who was joined by Prussia |fore in 1726-27 made Sweden a member of the alliance between and Hanover, and the Russians swarmed over Finland. England, France and Prussia. Indeed, foreign subsidies beFrom Feb. 1713 Charles was held captive by the Turks but | gan to have their ill effects in Sweden. Against Horn’s prudent after a swift journey in Dec. 1714, he arrived in Sweden. The | leadership there grew up an opposition which gained ground in country was in a sad plight. The population was only 1,250,000 | 1734 and became victorious in the Riksdag of 1738-39. Horn and the burden of the great war was too heavy. The people were | gave up office in Dec. 1738. The victorious party was called oppressed by heavy taxes and services imposed by the State, and | Hattar, “the Hats” in contradistinction from Méssorna, “the worn out by conscription. Caps.”! The programme of the Hats favoured war with Russia

During the years that followed Charles XII. strengthened | with a view to winning back the Swedish provinces and power and Sweden’s defences against the Danes, who received help from a| a more intensive industrial policy; Sweden was to become a great Russian army and threatened an invasion of Sweden. The plan | Power politically and economically. was not carried out, and Charles turned towards Norway to force

The party of the Hats controlled the fortunes of the country

the Danish king to make peace. While there he was shot on | until the ’60s, although sometimes strongly opposed by the Caps. Nov. 30, 1718. In Stralsund Charles had made acquaintance with | They dominated the council from 1739 onwards with Count Karl the Holstein Baron von Görtz who afterwards became his con- | Gyllenborg as their leader.

Conditions seemed favourable for a

fidant and associate. Unscrupulous and resourceful, Görtz dis- | war with Russia in 1741 and war began. The campaign was badly covered new means of taxation, simplified the State administra- | conducted and the Swedish troops took to flight. Discontented tion and lowered the value of the currency and conducted an | thousands of peasants marched to Stockholm and could only with adventurous policy abroad. The poverty thus brought about | difficulty be dispersed. At the beginning of the Riksdag session evoked a hatred against him which after Charles’ death led to his | in 1742 the Caps were in power, and the peasants now won for being tried and executed. With Charles the Swedish supremacy | themselves a place in the secret committee. An enquiry was set over the Baltic came to an end. on foot into the actions of the instigators of the war, and two The Swedish forces were withdrawn at once from Norway, one | of the generals were condemned to death and executed. The Hats brigade which was sent against Trondhjem experiencing terrible | now raised the question of the succession to the throne, the royal losses in the mountains The Riksdag assembled for the special | couple being childless, and the question soon became bound up purpose of putting an end to the absolute power of the sovereign. | with that of the Russian peace as the Russian Empress Elizabeth Charles’ sister, Ulrika Eleonora, married to the hereditary Prince | wished to see Duke Adolphus Frederick of Holstein elected. The Frederick of Hesse, was declared not to be the successor to the | peasants particularly wanted to have the Danish crown prince, and throne, but was elected queen (1718-20) on condition that the | a great conflict raged in Riksdag circles, much bribing being done Riksdag alone should have the right to draw up the constitution | by foreigners. In June 1743 peace was concluded at Abo. Russia The changes effected in the constitution drawn up in 1719 and | retained only a small portion of her conquests in Finland, and 1720 and in the Riksdag decrees of 1723 were drastic. When | Adolphus Frederick was chosen as heir to the Swedish throne. the Riksdag was not in session the council ruled together with | Denmark threatened war and Sweden’s impotence became manithe king who on most questions only had two votes. While the | fest when a Russian army came to the country to protect her Riksdag was sitting decisions on foreign affairs and other matters | against the Danes. While the Riksdag was in session there was were made by a secret committee which was formed of members | a split among the Caps, and the council came to include both Hats

of the three higher estates, the nobles, the clergy and the burghers. | and Caps. Adolphus Frederick came to Sweden and in 1744 mar-

The peasants were left in the background but they had to be | ried Louisa Ulrika, sister of the Prussian King Frederick II.

heard on questions of taxation. Each estate chose its own speaker; | Russia’s disposition to control the destinies of the country now in the house of nobles the speaker was called Landmarskalk. The | took on a singularly offensive aspect. Foreign gold filled the coffers membership of the council could only be revoked by law, and | of the parties before the Riksdag of 1746-47 assembled. The Hats this made parliamentary government very primitive because it led | opposed the Russian proceedings resolutely and in this were supported by many of the Caps. Through new elections to the counto political law-suits. In 1719 peace was concluded with Hanover on the basis of| cil, the Hats now came definitely into power again, with Anders Sweden’s giving up Bremen and Verden and receiving a sum of | Johan von Hopken as head of the Government. Some members of money in return. In 1720 an arrangement was come to with | the Caps party were charged with treason and the matter was Prussia, which acquired a large part of Pomerania and also paid | investigated by a commission. This had the effect of diminishing up a sum of money. In 1720 also peace was made with Denmark | their opposition to the Hats. An alliance was contracted in May which renounced the regions it had conquered in return for | 1747 with Prussia and France which improved the situation. The | Sweden’s undertaking to agree to Denmark’s retaining possession | successful party rewarded its friends lavishly and came down of Schleswig. Russian fleets were harrying the coasts of the Baltic | heavily upon its foes. The years which followed were comparatively quiet. The and an attack upon Stockholm was with great difficulty warded off. Peace was not concluded until 1721 at Nystad, when Sweden gave| brilliant young noble, Count Carl Gustav Tessin, was president up Livonia, Estonia, Ingria and parts of Finland; northern and | of the council, which was the strongest known within the period of the Riksdag’s predominance; National defences were strengthwestern Finland was restored to Sweden.

Frederick I—In

1720 the crown was transferred

to the | ened, custom tolls were raised to help industry which was also

queen’s consort Frederick I. (1720-51). The leading statesman | supported by loans and premiums; agriculture was supported also down to the end of the ’thirties was Count Arvid Horn, who pur- | by loans on easy terms. The improvement secured by these meassued a prudent peace policy. The State’s debts amounted to 60 or | ures was in part apparent only and great credits were extorted

70 million silver dalers, and the emergency currency (nédmynten) | from the Riksbank which had to increase its issue of notes. Notes was working much harm. A State bankruptcy was inevitable, and | depreciated in value and exchange offices were set up to keep the after this the emergency currency disappeared. With the English | currency at the desired height. Adolphus Frederick.—King Frederick died in 1751 and was Navigation Act as a model, a proclamation was issued in 1724|

prohibiting foreign vessels from conveying to Sweden anything | succeeded by Adolphus Frederick (1751-71) who was under the except the produce of the countries to which they belonged. The| influence of his stronger-minded wife. Controversial pamphlets Swedish commercial fleet increased, an East Indian company was | and journals came out in numbers. Tension between the king and formed in 1731 (which caused bad blood in England), new manu- | the council increased. A rash effort at a coup d’état was made factories were founded with support from the State, in particular | during the Riksdag of 1755-56; the royal couple were humiliated the textiles industry, thanks to Jonas Alströmer who created the 1These party names originated in the Progressives nicknaming their manufactory at Alingsås. A new general law was framed in 1734. opponents—who sacrificed everything to perpetuate an inglorious

During the first years following the Peace of Nystad Russia

sought to intervene in Sweden’s internal affairs and Horn there-

peace—the “Nightcaps,” they themselves receiving their name from the three-cornered hats that they wore as officers.

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SWEDEN

and an autograph stamp was introduced in order to dispense with the king’s personal intervention in the Government. Count Axel von Fersen came to the front as the foremost man in the Hats

Party; he was chosen as Landmarskalk

(see above), leading the

bureaucracy of the nobles. Opposition grew therefore among the unprivileged classes against the nobility and the bureaucracy. The State’s finances were in a bad way, yet in spite of this the country was let in for a war, on the side of France and Austria, against Frederick II. of Prussia (1757), largely owing to the French subsidies. The war was badly managed, but peace was made with Prussia without loss of territory in May 1762. The Caps took office in the Riksdag of 1765—66. Russia and Prussia decided in union to support the Swedish constitution, prolong her general state of weakness, and at the same time to work against the French influence. A Russo-Danish alliance was also formed with the purpose of maintaining the Swedish constitution. England was on the same side and it is calculated that these powers spent 3,000,000 silver dalers in order to ensure the victory of the Caps, while France’s contribution to the Hats amounted to 2,000,000. The corruption was shameful. Against the wishes of the royal couple, the Crown Prince married the Danish Princess Sofia Magdalena. The court had helped the Hats during the Riksdag and by the king’s direct intervention the council was obliged to call together the Riksdag which sat from 1769 till 1770. The Caps were now in a minority and their men were left out of the council which was controlled by the Hats. The court had been promised that the king’s power would be increased but the Hats did not keep their

word. Nor did the Riksdag succeed in solving the great financial problems. In Feb. 1771 Adolphus Frederick died. Somewhat previously Russia and Denmark had come to an agreement that, should any change be made in the Constitution of Sweden in the direction of increasing the king’s power, they would uphold the existing Constitution (December, 1769) by force of arms. Sweden’s Constitution therefore seemed to be held in greater value by her enemies than by her own people. Gustavus III. (1771-92) was in Paris at the time of his father’s death. He returned home to meet the Riksdag. The Hats and the court party were receiving money from France, the Caps from Russia and England. The parties were of about equal strength. At this juncture the king decided to precipitate a change of the constitution. Col. Jakob Magnus Sprengtporten (g.v.) crossed to Finland to stir up a rising, in which he succeeded but not so quickly as had been expected. Johan Kristoffer Toll (q.v.), a superintendent of forests, went to Skaane and won over the garrison at Kristianstad. Prince Charles, the brother of the king, also busied himself in Skaane. The council got wind of the danger and the king had to act speedily. On Aug. 19, 1772, he collected

_ round him the officers of the Guard and arrested the council in the royal castle. The Stockholm troops declared for him and the people acclaimed him in the streets. The king became again head of the government, with the right to appoint officials. It was an attempt to divide the balance of power between the sovereign and the Riksdag. Russia and Denmark were furious but did not begin war, being much influenced by the resolute attitude of France. Gustavus surrounded himself with capable men. He was unusually gifted, but.too much of a visionary. He had a real passion for the theatre but took up his business as king with honest intent; an enquiry into the conditions of governmental offices was set on foot and a number of reforms in the administration were instituted as a result. In order to help the finances distilling was decreed a State monopoly and a number of distilleries were founded on behalf of the Crown. This displeased the peasants who wanted to be free to distil and it increased drunkenness. Another cause for dissatisfaction lay in the king’s efforts to transform the nobility into a court nobility and to manage promotion so as to break the power of the old bureaucracy. Foreign Policy.—A dispute with his mother discouraged the king. He set out for Italy and Paris. A subsidy treaty was concluded with France but he had no great success there. During the Riksdag of 1786 the situation became worse; most of the

[HISTORY

king’s measures were rejected. Gustavus turned to foreign policy and Turkey’s war with Russia in 1787 seemed to offer favour-

able conditions. He began war with Russia in June 1788. War with Russia.—The king took command. A sea-fight at Hogland was undecisive and among officers a conspiracy came to be known as the Anjala League. The conspirators opened negotiations with the Russian empress, to bring about peace. News

came that Denmark had entered the war as Russia’s ally and

Gustavus was obliged to hurry back to Sweden. The Swedish people became animated by patriotism and the king talked to the

peasants as Gustavus Vasa had done of old. England and Prussia

brought pressure to bear on Denmark to leave Sweden in peace and a truce was concluded. By the beginning of the following year, 1789, Gustavus was strong enough to have the leaders of

the Anjala League imprisoned. The Riksdag was called together at the beginning of February. The meeting was a stormy one, the king, supported by the unprivileged estates, driving through the so-called Act of Union and Security which embodied a number of far-reaching constitutional innovations: the council ceased to exist; the king acquired full powers over the administration of the State and the appointing of officials; and the Riksdag lost its initiative in legislation. Once again the authority of the king became dominant. The Riksdag became responsible for the national debts, the management of which was placed in the hands of the

riksgaldskontor, which was dependent on the Riksdag and which was given the right to take up new loans and to issue credit notes A number of the leaders of the opposition had been imprisoned in the course of the session. Such was the king’s second revolution. (See Gustavus III.; Wattovist, OLAF.)

The Russian war became a war of exhaustion on land. During

the years 1789-90 there were several sea-fights, the second of which, at Svensksund in 1790, constituted a fine victory under the king’s command. In Aug. 1790, peace was concluded without

modification of frontiers.

But Sweden’s finances were destroyed

and the internal strife brought to a head. One result was a conspiracy against the king’s life. He died on March 29, 1792, from the effects of a murderous attack by Captain J. J. Anckarstrém at a ball in the Opera House on March 16, 1792. Gustavus IV.—At the age of 13 Gustavus IV. Adolphus (1792-

1809) became king of Sweden with his uncle Duke Charles as Regent. Duke Charles’s closest associate was Gustav Adolf Reuterholm (g.v.), a man of great powers of work, but pedantic and of little intelligence. The Regency brought order into the higher grades of Government service and sought above all to further the prosperity of agriculture. Reuterholm was not lacking In appreciation of the latest reforms: the freedom of the press was at first increased, but when the horrors of the French Revolution broke out it was restricted, and the repute of the Regency did not stand very high. It wavered between a French and a Russian alliance. The king, the duke and Reuterholm visited the Russian court in order to arrange a marriage between the king and a Russian princess, but the whole thing fell through when the king refused to give a guarantee of the princess’s religious freedom. On the basis of a treaty concluded in 1794 between the two countries, the fleets of both Denmark and Sweden sought to protect neutral trade against privateers of England and other nations. In 1796 Gustavus Adolphus took over the Government himself. He was scantily gifted but he knew how to make himself felt and combined obstinacy with passionate temper. So bad were the finances that the town of Wismar had to be mortgaged to Mecklenburg in 1801. In the course of a long journey in Germany in the years 1803-04 Gustavus Adolphus came into touch with French emigrants, and was filled with hate of Napoleon. He took part in the coalition against France in 1805-07, with the result that Pomerania and Stralsund were lost. In the Treaty of Tilsit Napoleon and the Emperor Alexander agreed to attack Sweden unless she were willing to declare war against England and to prevail on Denmark to do the same. The army in Finland gave way

before the Russians.

The strong fortress of Sveaborg was treach-

erously surrendered without any real struggle. In the Spring the Swedes marched again to the south of Finland and won several

SWEDEN

HISTORY]

fine victories, afterwards immortalized by the poet Runeberg. In Dec. 1808 the Swedish forces vacated Finland. Gustavus Adolphus’s measures became more and more thoughtless and he an-

noyed even England, his only ally. The feeling grew that the king must be dethroned. Lieut. Colonel Adlersparre started a revolutionary movement in Varmland, but before he reached Stockholm

Adjutant General Karl Johan Adlercreutz had secured possession of the king’s person (March 13, 1809). in 1837.

The king died in exile

The Riksdag was called together on May 1 by the provisional Government and it decided to draw up a new constitution and elect a king. A form of Government resulted which in its fundamental parts still (1928) holds good and which is based on a division of power between the ministry, the representatives of

the people and the judicature. The king was to be advised by a ministry the members of which were to be appointed by the king but to be answerable to the Riksdag. General legislature was to be the work of the king and the Riksdag, and the Riksdag’s control over taxation was confirmed.

As soon as this constitution

had been adopted Charles XIII. was recognized as king (180918). The credit of drafting the new constitution belongs in the first place to Hans Järta.

King Charles was childless and it was necessary to choose a successor to the throne. Public opinion in Sweden at this period occupied itself with Norway’s union with Sweden as a compensation for Finland. The Riksdag chose as successor to the throne Prince Christian Augustus of Augustenburg who was commanderin-chief in Norway, manifestly in the hopes that the choice would help to bring this union about. The prince declared that he could accept this offer only after a declaration of peace. During the late summer of 1809 the Russian war was extended to the north of Sweden and the Swedish forces met with two defeats. The Russians in the meantime had become weary of the war and in September peace was declared at Fredrikshamn; Sweden lost Fin-

land and Aland.

Soon treaties of peace followed with her other

enemies. Pomerania was returned to Sweden. The heir to the throne, who took the name of Charles, died

suddenly in 1810, and a Riksdag at Orebro had again to deal with the question of a successor. Opinions were divided when a suggestion was made that they should elect one of Napoleon’s mar-

shals, Jean Bernadotte, prince of Ponte Corvo. It seemed certain that Napoleon would approve and accordingly Bernadotte was chosen and assumed the name of Charles John. He is the founder of the present Swedish dynasty, the succession to the throne having been provided for in an ordinance passed in 1810. The old King Charles XIII. had shown courage and patriotic feeling during Gustavus

JII.’s war with Russia, but he was not very

intelligent and he lacked strength of character. The crown prince therefore began to exert considerable influence, with stimulating and beneficent results. In 1811 Napoleon prepared to break down Russia’s resistance. A great war began, and the crown prince perceived that Sweden could not possibly go into it with France against England and Russia. He seems early to have thought out his plans for the conquest of Norway, and in 1812 he brought about a complete change in Swedish policy with this goal in view. Napoleon’s occupation of Swedish Pomerania without declaration of war facilitated this change, and Russia and England favoured the idea that Norway should pass over to Sweden from Napoleon’s ally Denmark. After the defeat of the French armies in Russia Charles John took part as commander of the northern atmy in the final conflict and there were Swedish troops also under him. With these the crown prince now made a movement against Denmark, who by the Peace of Kiel (1814) was forced to hand over Norway in return for Pomerania. Herewith begins a new order of foreign policy in Swedish history. UNION

WITH NORWAY:

1814-1905

The project of uniting the Scandinavian peninsula into one kingdom now became a reality. The interests of Sweden’s foreign policy lay now more to the west and she was less dependent

upon Russia, more

dependent upon the western Powers.

The

649

Norwegians themselves desired independence for their country and an assembly held at Eidsvold in 1814 framed a constitution and elected Prince Christian The Norwegians were forced render; the prince laid down called together endorsed the

Frederick of Augustenburg as king. as the result of a short war to surhis crown and a Storting which was union with Sweden. Special condi-

tions affecting the union were framed in the “act of union” passed by the parliaments of both countries in 1815 (“riksakt’).

Charles XIV.—More than roo years of peace followed upon the riksact. The industrial economic revolution proceeded in Sweden as in other countries evolving new classes, which claimed their share in the Government of the country and burst asunder the old methods of representation. The break between the new and the old began during the reign of Charles XIV. and embittered his later years. He was a strong personality capable and lovable, but distrustful of new ideas and apprehensive of too great changes. A Liberal Opposition was formed in the Riksdag, above all among the burghers, and took a strong line against the Government’s prosecution of newspapers which even amounted to suppression, against bureaucratic formalities, and against the king’s tendency to disregard the advice of his ministers. From the ’30s onwards there was question of reforms in the matter of the representation of the people and a great many bills were put forward without accomplishing more than a few small reforms. In 1840 the State council was changed by the creation of special

departments. With the king’s active co-operation the State’s foreign debts were paid while internal debts were diminished and in 1834 a regulation of the exchange was affected. Much was done for the canal system; in 1822 one section of the Gotha canal was opened and in 1832 the rest of it. In 1842 the board school system was changed. Oscar I. (1844-59).—Charles was succeeded by his son, a man of gifts and of more open mind but of less strength of will than his father. During the earlier years of his reign he stood for a policy of reform but later he changed noticeably towards conservatism. During the last two years of his life he was ill, and the administration was taken in hand by his son Charles. The restrictions on agriculture and commerce were relaxed; the gild system was done away with in 1846; the old rules for only allowing trade to the towns were removed. By decisions reached in the Riksdag for 1844-45 the right to suppress newspapers was definitely abrogated. In 1847 an important poor law system was introduced. One of the greatest questions of that period was that of communication; railways had to be built, but there were differences of opinion as to the laying down of the main lines through the sparsely inhabited land. In the Riksdag of 1853—54 it was decided that the main lines should be built by the * State and the direction of the work was placed in the hands of Col. Nils Ericson. Friends of reform concentrated more and

eS

more on the demand for a thorough-going change in the formation of the Riksdag and many proposals were submitted without any of them being accepted The revolutionary movement which marked the year 1848 on the continent set brains on fire also in Sweden and some street disturbances occurred in Stockholm. The Government produced a new scheme of representation,

which, however, was rejected by the Rzksdag of 1850. A strong Scandinavian movement manifested itself especially in Denmark and Sweden, although the Norwegians also took part in it; great meetings of students were held, but no programme for the unity of the Scandinavian countries with any real life in it was ever framed. When the Schleswig question led to war between Denmark and the German States, a Swedish army was collected together in Skaane and troops were carried over to Fyen, in case Jutland should be invaded; but they never had occasion to come into action. During the Crimean War Sweden and Norway maintained neutrality. In Nov. 1855 they reaped the benefit: a treaty was concluded with England and France by which the Union States undertook not to cede any portion of their territories to Russia while the two other powers undertook to prevent any Russian efforts in that direction (the November treaty). Side by side with the peace treaty in Paris there was concluded a separate agreement between Russia, France and England in

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SWEDEN

which Russia undertook not to fortify the Aland Islands.

The increasing consumption of spirits due to the right to distil for household needs, called forth anxiety and led to a temperance movement conducted by warm-hearted individuals like Peter Wieselgren, a pastor. Private distilleries were done away with by the Riksdag of 1853—54 and the distilling of spirits was regulated by the State. Ever since the middle of the 19th century the question of temperance had affected parties. Charles XV.—The crown prince had conducted the Government for two years when he became king under the name Charles XV. (1859-72). He was a fascinating man who by his liveliness of mind, personal friendliness and artistic temperament won great popularity, but he lacked the thoroughness and perseverance in work and the seriousness which are called for in a statesman. His undeniable gifts were bound up with an extravagant imagination which in certain situations was a danger. This became most noticeable in the German-Danish war of 1863-64, when he gave the Danes distinctly to understand that they could count on an alliance between Denmark and Sweden-Norway, an idea which had never had the sanction of the State councils of either of the Union countries and which was never to be realized. A number of Swedes did however enter the Danish army as volunteers. The social changes which had come about in the life of Sweden necessitated a new form of electoral representation and increasingly the general feeling was that it must be solved by giving up the division into four estates and that a Rzksdag with two chambers should be founded instead. The minister of justice, Louis De Geer (g.v.) took the lead in the matter and the Government submitted a bill in the Riksdag of 1862-63. The new constitution was finally accepted by all four estates in the Riksdag of 1865-66; this consisted of two chambers, which, unlike the English houses of parliament, have in most respects similar powers and also exercise a veto on each other in questions of legislation; in the event of conflicting divisions on questions of finance a joint vote is taken. Members of the first chamber were elected by the provincial assemblies (landsting) together with the town councillors of the larger towns for nine years; the second chamber was elected by collective vote (without any division of the electors into classes), a certain census being necessary for the right to vote. In Jan. 1867 the first Rzksdag of this kind was assembled and it soon became evident that it was the peasants who had benefited most by the reform; within a couple of years they dominated the second chamber and their party—the socalled Lantmanna party—was a power to reckon with. The Riksdag now meets every year. Through the influence of the finance minister, Baron J. A. Gripenstedt, Sweden was led more in the direction of free trade, and its treaty of commerce with France in 1865 was an epochmaking event in the development. All duties on grain were done away with. The right of trading was extended in 1864. Among more important reforms may be mentioned the new criminal law and the new maritime law of 1864. The wars which were in progress on the continent caused the Riksdag to grant large sums for armaments but the Government’s proposal for a reorganization of the national defences was rejected. After a prolonged illness Charles XV. died in Sept. 1872 and was succeeded by his brother Oscar II. (1872-1907). The most noteworthy event in the latter’s reign was the dissolution of the Union with Norway. Dissolution of the Union.—The Union plans of 1815 were never quite clear, and great doubts had always existed regarding the documents in question and their precise bearing. The Norwegians, apprehensive of Swedish domination, had sought always to give the narrowest possible application to the provisions of the Act of Union, while the Swedes, generally speaking, sought to give them a wider application, although with increased powers for Norway. The first great crisis arose over the question of the post of Stathallarc, or Governor, of Norway. At first this post had been held by Swedes, but as this had invited opposition they were succeeded by Norwegians. In 1859 the Storting resolved to abolish the post altogether but in Sweden it was contended that as

the post was provided for in the Act of Union it could not be

[HISTORY

done away with by Norway alone. The question was shelved for a time and in 1873 Oscar II. sanctioned the resolution of the Storting. The first great union committee met in the 40s and was followed by several smaller committees and in the year 186 5-67 by a great committee which worked out a plan for a new agreement between the two kingdoms. This was rejected however by the Storting in 1871. The position of the sovereign of the two kingdoms was now becoming extremely difficult, because modem parliamentarianism had progressed much further in Norway than in Sweden and the powers of the sovereign had consequently become much less extensive in Norway. Thus the king had been forced to make continual concessions to the Norwegians. In the

year 1835 it had been decided that the premier or another member of the Norwegian Government should be called into the Swedish Norwegian ministerial council whenever questions concerning the

foreign affairs of Norway alone or both kingdoms should be under discussion. In the ’80s a dispute arose about this joint ministerial council. From 1891 onwards the Stortzng demanded Norwegian consulates for Norway. Also, it reduced the annual grant for the court. Owing to the protectionist demand of Sweden a Swedish-Norwegian joint law (dealing with reciprocal freedom from customs duties) ceased to exist in 1897, and in

1898 the king ratified a decision of the Storting to remove the Joint Union emblem in the upper right hand corner of the Norwegian flag; it disappeared afterwards from the Swedish flag. A small union committee put forward in 1902 a proposal for separate consular services but joint Foreign Office. Negotiations took place and in 1903 understanding seemed to be in sight. The Swedish plan provided that the foreign minister might be either

a Norwegian or a Swede. But from both sides there came charges of breach of faith and in Norway all parties demanded dissolution of the union. The Swedes were astonished when on June 7, 1905, the Storting declared the union with Sweden to be dissolved The Riksdag acquiesced in the dissolution of the Union upon certain conditions, such as that Norway should destroy certain frontier fortresses erected near the Swedish frontier, that the regions adjoining the frontier should constitute a neutral zone without fortifications and military manoeuvres, etc. King Oscar laid down the Norwegian crown on Oct. 26, 1905. Oscar IL. (1872-1907) —During the first years of King Oscar’s reign the question of national defence was the dominant one, the first chamber contending for an improved system and the peasant members in the second chamber making demands which could not for a long time be conceded. A number of army organization proposals were rejected, and during the ’80s the question of customs duties caused bitter disputes. The increasing exportation of grain from the United States and Russia together with the strong industrial competition between all countries resulted in a protectionist movement in Germany and France which extended also to Sweden. The second chamber was protectionist and the first in favour of free trade; in 1887 the majority in the first chamber was so small that it would have been possible to bring about a protectionist system by the collective vote of the two chambers. The king then dissolved the second chamber which returned with a majority in favour of free trade. The Riksdag of 1888 on the other hand accepted the customs system as the general election in the autumn of 1887—through a tech-

nical mistake in the election of the free trade candidates in Stockholm—had given the Protectionists a small majority. This issue had profound consequences both in the formation of parties in the second chamber and in other respects. New men came forward, the most conspicuous of whom was the landed proprietor

EK. G. Bostrom, premier from 1891 to 1900 and 1902 to 1905. The question of the national defences was provisionally settled by the Rzksdag’s decisions in the autumn of 1891 (at an extraordinary session) and in rgot. In the latter year the Swedish military tenure established was completely abolished; the training time of the men liable for military service was increased from 90 to 240 days in the infantry and a longer period in the case of the navy and special branches of the army. At this period new legislation was necessitated by industrial development and the great increase in the number of industrial

workers. In 1881 the conditions of labour for children in all factories were regulated and in 1889 a law was passed on providing against injury while at work; the former law was amplified

in 1900 by one dealing with the condition of industrial work for women and children.

Trade unions were formed and collective

agreements governing labour conditions were arranged between

employers and workers. In 1889 a Social Democratic Party was formed and in the autumn of 1896 Hjalmar Branting was elected to the second chamber as its first Social Democratic member. The Liberals and Social Democrats demanded an extension of the suffrage for the second chamber, but it was not until the

severance of the union with Norway had given a strong impetus

to a closer national union on new lines that the question came to be decided.

651

SWEDEN

HISTORY]

The severance of the union led to the formation of

the coalition ministry of Christian Lundeberg, a manufacturer, whose task it was to carry out the dissolution of the union. He was followed at the close of the year 1905 by a Liberal min-

istry with Karl Staaff, a solicitor, as premier. The Riksdag of 1906 rejected his suffrage bill, and the ministry resigned. Rear Admiral Arvid Lindman succeeded, with a conservative ministry

and succeeded in 1907 in solving the suffrage question on the

basis of universal and equal suffrage (with certain exceptions)

together with the democratization of the communal scale of voting and proportional voting for both chambers. Among other important decisions may be mentioned the monopoly in the issuing of bank notes accorded to the Rzksbank in 1897, the restriction of the right of companies to acquire land in Northern Sweden in 1906, and the part ownership of the State in the Grangesberg Company which owned the Lappland iron-ore mines. Gustav V.—When Oscar IT. died on Dec. 8, 1907, the crown fell to his eldest son Gustav V., who still (1928) wears it. Modest and simple in his character, avoiding needless display, but capable

of bearing himself with the dignity required by his position, he has been a true king in a democratic epoch. Reforms were carried through, as, for instance, the laws on civil marriages in 1908 and for the protection of the peasants in Norrland in 1909. In the summer of 1909 the country witnessed a great trial of strength between the industrial workers’ trade unions and employers’ associations, accompanied by strikes, lock-outs and a general strike. The idea of the workers was to set society rocking

and the situation was somewhat like that which resulted in England in 1926.

But society won

the battle; the general strike

failed. In the autumn of 1911 the election for the second chamber was held with a doubled electorate and the Lindman ministry gave up office. Karl Staaff formed his second ministry which lasted until Feb. 1914. In the Autumn of 1911 a great committee was set up to enquire into temperance. The Lindman ministry had approved a cruiser of a new type but Staaff’s Government set aside their decision. A movement to cover the costs of its con-

struction by private, subscription produced a sum of 17,100,000 kr., and the ship was built. The people had been disquieted by the way the Russians were arming in Finland, and with widespread espionage by the Russians in Sweden.

A new workman’s

pro-

tection law was passed in 1912, and an Old Age Pension scheme

was founded in 1913.

|

In Feb. 1914, 30,000 peasants met in Stockholm to request the king that the whole question of national defence should be handled simultaneously. The king’s answer was favourable, and

the Liberal ministry resigned. The king commanded the Zandshkövding Hjalmar Hammarskjöld (q.v.) to form a new ministry.

K. A. Wallenberg became

minister

of foreign affairs.

The

second chamber was dissolved and the Riksdag reassembled after the election of May 1, 1914. The new Government had a majority in the first chamber but not in the second. THE WORLD

The World War

broke out.

WAR

To meet the needed

expendi-

ture a war tax was levied on all incomes above a certain amount.

It was widely, but quite erroneously, believed that Sweden had entered into a treaty with Germany.

Sweden issued a declaration

of neutrality. The fleet endeavoured to prevent any military Operations within Swedish territorial waters.

The Problem of Neutrality.—As the blockade against Germany was intensified, an increasing amount of Swedish goods were

detained in England.

The black lists of the belligerents, trade

espionage and the attempt to force extensive undertakings from

importers in neutral countries induced the Swedish Government to put a proposal for a War Trade Law before the 1916 Riksdag, under which no undertakings with belligerent Powers could be made without the sanction of the official Swedish authority (Trade Commission). (If this officially recognized undertaking were broken the culprit was severely punished.) Special arrangements were made with the belligerent countries regarding compensation for permission to transport goods.

Britain desired to transport

over Sweden goods necessary to Russia, and Sweden granted transport licences in return for permission from Britain to import certain foodstuffs and other goods from the west. In Jan. 1915 the Government forbade the transport over Sweden of arms and other war material. Pourparlers between the Swedish and British Governments with the object of improving trade communications between the two countries led to no result. Disputes arose over the British postal censorship and the closing by Sweden of a channel in Oresund. The difficulties brought the three Scandinavian countries into closer touch. In Dec. 1914, King Gustav invited the kings of Norway and Denmark to a conference in Malmo which inaugurated a period of greater friendship. Many legal and administrative innovations were made. In 1914 a moratorium for debts was introduced, but was soon abolished. Special laws empowered the Government to fix a maximum price

for food and other necessities and if necessary to commandeer them. A War Insurance Commission was set up to give stateaided insurance against loss at sea, a Food Commission to take over the import of grain, etc., an Industry Commission to report on industry and later to ration raw materials, etc., an Unemployment Commission, and a Trade Commission to carry out the war trade laws. In Nov. rọr5 the first maximum prices were

fixed (for grain).

A bad fodder harvest and the difficulty of

importing maize and other foodstuffs necessitated a great slaughter and export of cattle. Some circles sympathized with Britain, others with Germany, but nearly all desired neutrality. A little group of “activists” urged intervention on the side of Germany. The Blockade.—On July 7, 1916 Britain and France ceased to apply the regulations of the Declaration of London regarding neutral trade. The German U-boat warfare was intensified; the closed areas in the North Sea and the blockade of the Central Powers by the Allies created a situation little in accord with international law. During the war 280 Swedish merchant vessels were sunk, chiefly by German submarines, but also by mines and from other causes. The English ports were crowded with confiscated goods. After the Russian revolution in 1917, Britain no longer needed to transport goods over Sweden to Russia; so this means of bargaining fell away. Negotiations with Britain for import licences led in the spring of 1917 to a temporary agreement whereby Sweden was guaranteed certain imports (including grain) in return for the release from the Baltic of a number of imprisoned vessels belonging to the Entente. Swedish vessels were requisitioned (or were only allowed to sail in Swedish interests on condition that they were replaced by other vessels when required). Finally a commercial agreement was concluded in the spring of 1918, which enabled Sweden to import large consignments of goods in return for handing over merchant vessels up to 400,000 tons dead weight; a certain proportion of the Swedish iron ore export; longer credit for goods purchased in Sweden, and stricter regulations regarding exports to Germany. The increasing difficulties of nagivation in the North sea and the insignificant export from Britain to Sweden, led to an expansion of trade with Germany. Before the War Sweden obtained 91% of her coal from England but during 1916-17 only 27-26%. The remainder was almost entirely sup-

plied by Germany. The dislocation of trade thus largely influenced Sweden’s policy. Import difficulties necessitated still more stringent State measures. In Oct. 1916 sugar was rationed. In r9r7 bread cards were

SWEDEN

652

introduced together with State control of the whole grain trade. Before the war an average of 183 kilogrammes of wheat and rye were consumed per head. The harvest of 1917-18 produced only 84-4 kilogrammes per head. Finally, potatoes and many other commodities were rationed. There was a great shortage of meat and bacon, and milk was reserved for children and invalids. The price of food rose rapidly and large sums of money were set aside to provide the poorer classes with goods at cheap rates. As the import of coal decreased, special arrangements were made for procuring wood from the forests. All kinds of raw materials, especially lubricants, were scarce. Government

Changes.—The

Hammarskjold

ministry

land created a critical situation. There was a demand for military support of the lawful Finnish Government; yet Sweden feared

she might be drawn into the war if she assisted the Finns against the Russians. The Government acted with a circumspection which was rather resented by the Finnish “Whites.”

When

the con-

flict was transferred to Aland, whose inhabitants had voted for adherence to Sweden, Sweden sent a warship to the islands, and a small body of troops to maintain peace. These were recalled when the Germans made the islands their centre for sending

assistance to the “Whites” in Finland (see ALAND IsLANDs). Swedish Relief Work.—The Swedish Red Cross was active in the adjacent belligerent lands, and Prince Charles, a brother of the king, took a prominent part in the work. Swedish delegates inspected the prison camps of Russia, Germany and Austria and distributed numerous gifts to the prisoners from their respective countries. Arrangements were made for the exchange of invalided prisoners and their transport over Sweden. After the war large numbers of German and Austrian children spent some time in Sweden renewing their health and strength, and Swedish help was given to the impoverished countries. When the great famine broke out in Russia a Swedish relief expedition was sent to Samara. The sum total of relief given by Sweden to the various countries amounted to 36,500,000 kroner. MODERN

DEVELOPMENTS

The repercussions of the revolution in Central Europe reached Sweden.

Growth of Democracy.—The advance made in the politica] democratization of Sweden is shown by the following table, in which the number of qualified voters and their proportion to the

population together with the number of actual voters and their proportion to the number of qualified voters are given for the

years 1905, 1911 (after the Lindman Suffrage Reform bill) rgar (after the application of the suffrage system of 1918, including the

introduction of votes for women) and—for the sake of comparison—1924:—

was

formed against the wishes of the Liberals and the Social Democrats, and these parties commanded a majority in the second chamber of the Riksdag. The Government only remained in power so long thanks to its firm neutral policy. Criticism of its trade policy increased, however, and in spite of a huge vote of confidence from 750,000 people, it was unable to co-operate further with the parties of the Left and resigned at the end of March 1917. A new Conservative ministry carried on up to the new elections to the second chamber in the autumn. Carl Swartz, a manufacturer, was prime minister and Admiral Arvid Lindman, a former prime minister, was minister of foreign affairs. The food shortage caused considerable unrest and led to a demand for a constitutional reform of a democratic nature. At the autumn elections the Conservatives suffered several losses and Swartz resigned. The Liberal leader, Prof. Nils Edén, formed a ministry. He himself became prime minister and Lord Justice Johannes Hellner, minister of foreign affairs. The ministry included five other Liberals and four Social Democrats. Among them were Hjalmar Branting as minister of finance, and Baron E. Palmstierna, afterwards Swedish minister to London, as minister of marine. Branting soon resigned on account of illness. Finland and the Aland Islands.—In Jan. 1918, Sweden recognized Finland as an independent State. The civil war in Fin-

The Riksdag was sitting when the war ended and in

order to keep in power, the Government hastened to put forward a programme embodying a far-reaching constitutional reform, which was carried, thanks to the close co-operation of the Government parties (1918-1919). The graduated scale at the communal elections was abolished and equal and universal suffrage introduced. As the first chamber is based on the communal vote, it became automatically more democratic. Women received full political franchise. The Social Democratic party acquired a relative but not an absolute majority in each Chamber.

[HISTORY

Number Year

qualified to vote

Number qualified to vote in proportion to population

Number of actual voters

vote

Zo 402,099

1,066,200 3; 22 2,91 7

3,338,892

8-2

19°3 54°3 55°3

Number of actual voters in proportion to those qualified to

217,759 607,487 1,747,553 1,770,607

Mo 50°4

57°0

54:2

53°90

It will be noticed at once that an immense democratic wave has swept over the country and carried public opinion with it.

Dissensions among the middle-class parties—the Liberal and the new Bondeforbund

Conservative,

(Farmers’ League)—further

increased the power of the Social Democrats;

but lacking an

absolute majority, they were obliged to act rather as a Radical

middle-class party. The Edén ministry remained in office until March 1920. The liquidation of war-time restrictions and the work of reform continued. A provisional law adopting an eighthour day in industry and certain other branches of labour, not including agriculture, was passed. The Liberal and Social Democratic members of the Government disagreed on the reform of communal taxation, and the ministry resigned after Sweden’s entry into the League of Nations. Branting now formed his first purely Social Democratic ministry with Palmstierna as minister of foreign affairs. This ministry set on foot investigations into projects of socialisation, industrial democracy and control over trusts and cartels. At the second chamber elections the Conservatives and the Bondeforbund gained several seats; Branting therefore dissolved his ministry on Oct. 22, 1920. Baron Louis de Geer formed a moderate Conservative ministry, at the head of which Oscar von Sydow replaced him in Feb. 1921. The Government granted large sums for relief work and the support of the unemployed. To carry out the new constitutional reforms fresh elections for both Chambers took place in the autumn. The result favoured the Socialists, especially in the first chamber and in October Branting formed his second purely Social Democratic ministry, in which he himself was both premier and

minister of foreign affairs. The economic crisis and the problem of unemployment were the vital questions at the moment, and at

the instance of the Government the 1922 Riksdag granted what were, according to Swedish ideas, enormous sums of money for the relief of the unemployed. The Government finally fell over this question of unemployment. Swedish policy was to provide

relief work whenever possible, otherwise to give monetary assistance. Wages for relief work were to be less than ordinary wages and assistance still less. Help was not to be given to workers involved in any conflict (strike or lock-out). The Government and the Riksdag interpreted this last clause differently, and Branting resigned in April 1923. During 1922 a réferendum on the total prohibition of all alcoholic drinks was defeated Controversy on Defence.—Lord Justice Ernest Trygger, the

old Conservative leader, now formed a new ministry, whose special task was the solution of the national defence question. The 1914 army regulations had not been entirely carried out when the war ended, and the Socialists, especially, felt strongly that the creation of the League of Nations and the fall of the tsardom justified

a reduction of armaments. During the 1924 Riksdag the Government had brought in a bill for this purpose, but it was not suficiently drastic for the Social Democrats and the folkfrisinnade

SWEDENBORG (the Radical half of the Liberal Party; the rest still called them-

selves Liberals). The Riksdag threw out the bill, but the Government remained in office until after the second chamber elections in

September. As the result did not strengthen the Government, it went out, and Branting formed his third ministry on Oct. 18,

1924, with Prof. Osten Undén as minister of foreign affairs. The

Government and the Social Democratic Party suffered a severe

loss in the death of Branting (q.v.) on Feb. 24, 1925. Rickard Sandler, minister of commerce, succeeded him as prime minister. A Government measure, introducing shorter military service and a reduction of the army, was passed by the 1925 Riksdag.

At the close of the session of the 1926 Riksdag the ministry fell over the unemployment question after a sharp conflict regarding the Rzksdag’s instructions to the Unemployment Commission and the latter’s manner of carrying them out. C. G.

Ekman, member of the Board of Directors in the State Bank,

had led the Opposition in the Riksdag and he now was invited

by the king to form a ministry, which remained in office till

Oct. 1928. It was premier belongs, minister, as their tute but a small

made up of folkfrisinnade, to which Party the and Liberals, with Eliel Lofgren, the foreign foremost man. Both parties together constiproportion of the number of members of the

Riksdag but their position in the Centre has made it possible for them to assume the responsibilities of the Government. During the Riksdag of 1927 there were undertaken a number of additions to the fleet and a thoroughgoing Radical reform of the Higher School system. In the Riksdag of 1928 a measure of reform in

respect of communal taxes was carried through. In June 1928 King Gustav’s 7oth birthday was celebrated with great circumstance. In commemoration of the day a collection of nearly 9,000,000 Kr. was made for use in accordance with the King’s decision for the campaign against cancer, just as a similar collection was used in King Oscar’s time as a fund to be used in fighting against tuberculosis. At the beginning of October a new Conservative Government was formed by Admiral Lindman.

Foreign Affairs—When the question of the entry of Sweden into the League of Nations was broached there was considerable opposition, one reason being the non-entry of the United States. The decision to join was, however, carried by a large majority

and in March 1920 her entry into the League was officially announced. Among the Swedish representatives at the League Assemblies were Branting, Trygger and Undén. In Sept. 1922 Sweden was given a seat on the council and held it to 1926. The Aland (g.v.) question was decided by the League in favour of Finland (June 1921) but the islands received guarantees for the preservation of their Swedish culture. An international convention prohibited any fortification of the islands. BrstiocrapHy.—A modern and scholarly exposition of the history of Sweden is available in Sveriges historia till våra dagar, ed. E. Hildebrand, of which 14 volumes have appeared namely I. O. Montelius,

Forntiden

(1919); II. S. Tunberg, Äldre medeltiden

(1926);

III.

G. Carlsson, Senare medeltiden (in preparation) ; IV. E. Hildebrand, Gustav Vasa (1920); and V. Gustav Vasas Soner (1923); VI. G. Wittrock, Gustav II. Adolf (1927); VII. E. Hildebrand and G. Jacobson, Kristina och Karl X. Gustav (1926); VIII. R. Fahraeus, Karl XI. och Karl XII. (1921) ; IX. L. Stavenow, Frihetstiden (1922) ; and X. Den Gustavianska Tiden (1925); XI. S. Clason, Karl XIII.

653

France and Germany, studying natural philosophy and writing Latin verses, a collection of which he published in 1710. In 1715 he returned to Uppsala, devoting himself to natural science and engineering. From 1716 to 1718 he published a scientific periodical, Daedalus hyperboreus, a record of mechanical and mathematical inventions and discoveries. In 1716 Charles XII. appointed him assessor-extraordinary on the Swedish board of mines. Two years later he distinguished himself at the siege of Frederikshall by the invention of machines for the transport of boats overland from Stromstadt to Iddefjord, a distance of 14 m. At the death of Charles XII. Queen Ulrica gave him a patent of nobility, by which his name was changed from Swedberg to Swedenborg, the “en’’ corresponding to the German “von.” In the Swedish House of Nobles he spoke on economic subjects—the currency, the decimal system, the balance of trade and the liquor laws (where he was the pioneer of the Gothenburg system). He strongly opposed a bill for increasing the power of the crown. The next years were devoted to his official duties, which involved the visitation of the Swedish, Saxon, Bohemian and Austrian mines. In 1724 he declined the chair of mathematics in the university of Uppsala, on the ground that it was a mistake for mathematicians to be limited to theory. As early as 1721 he was seeking a scientific explanation of the universe, when he published his Prodromus principiorum rerum naturalium, and had already written his Principia in its first form. In 1734 appeared in three volumes Opera philosophica et mineralia, the first volume (his Principia) containing his view of the first principles of the universe, a Curious mechanical and geometrical theory of the origin of things. The other volumes dealt with (a) iron and steel, (b) copper and brass, their smelting, conversion and assaying, and chemical experiments thereon. Swedenborg’s voluminous writings were not properly collected and examined until towards the end of the 19th century; it was then seen that in almost every department of scientific activity he was ahead of his time. His work on palaeontology shows him the predecessor of all the Scandinavian geologists. He was also a great physicist and had arrived at the nebular hypothesis theory of the formation of the planets and the sun long before Kant and Laplace; he wrote a lucid account of the phenomena of phosphorescence, and adduced a molecular magnetic theory which anticipated some of the chief features of modern hypotheses. The French chemist, Dumas, credits him with the first attempt to establish a system of crystallography. He was the first to employ mercury for the air-pump, and devised a method of determining longitude at sea by observations of the moon among the stars. In 1734 he published Prodromus philosophiae ratiocinantis de infinito et causa finali creationis, which treats of the relation of the finite to the infinite, and of the soul to the body, seeking to establish a nexus in each case as a means of overcoming the diffculty of their relation. From this time he applied himself to dis-

covering the nature of soul and spirit by means of anatomical

studies. He travelled in Germany, France and Italy, in search of anatomical knowledge and, as a result, published his Oeconomia regni animalis (London, 1740—41) and Regnum animale (The Hague, 1744—45; London, 1745). In no field were Swedenborg’s och Karl XIV. Johan (1923); XII. C. Hallendorff, Oscar I. och Karl researches more noteworthy than in physiological science. In XV. (1923); XIII. S. J. Boéthius, Oscar IJ.; XIV. K. Hildebrand, 1901, Max Neuberger of Vienna called attention to certain anGustav V. (1926); vol. xv. has yet to appear, namely, S. E. Bring, ticipations of modern views made by Swedenborg in relation to Kdllor och Litteraturférteckning, contaimmng a good account of the functions of the brain, and the university of Vienna appealed Sweden’s older historical literature and index. See also K. Setterwall, to the Royal Swedish Academy for a complete issue of the Svensk historisk bibliografi, 1875-1900, 1900-20 (1907 and 1923); H. Schück, H. Almquist, A. Stille and C. Hallendorff, Svenska Folkets scientific treatises. Swedenborg showed (150 years before any historia (1914, etc.); C. Grimberg, Svenska folkets underbara Oden, other scientist) that the motion of the brain was synchronous L-IX. (1913-24); Emil Hildebrand, Svenska statsfirfattringens with the respiration and not with the action of the heart and the historia (1896). (K. Hi.) circulation: of the blood, a discovery the full bearings of which SWEDENBORG or SWEDBERG, EMANUEL (1688- are still unrealized. He arrived at the modern conception of the 1772), Swedish scientist, philosopher and mystic, was born at activity of the brain as the combined activity of its individual Stockholm on Jan. 29, 1688. His father, Dr. Jesper Swedberg, cells. The cerebral cortex, and, more definitely, the cortical elesubsequently professor of theology at Uppsala and bishop of ments (nerve cells), formed the seat of the activity of the soul, Skara, was under suspicion of heterodoxy, as he placed more and were ordered into departments according to various funcemphasis on the cardinal virtues of faith, love and communion tions. His views as to the physiological functions of the spinal with God than on dogma. On completing his university course cord are in agreement with recent research, and he anticipated of the ductless glands. at Uppsala, in 1710, Emanuel travelled in England, Holland, modern research on the functions

654

SWEDISH

LANGUAGE

At middle age, Swedenborg left the domain of physical research for that of psychical and spiritual inquiry. Late in life he wrote to Oetinger that “he was introduced by the Lord first into the natural sciences, and thus prepared, and, indeed, from the year 1710 to 1745, when heaven was opened to him.” Before his illumination he had been instructed by dreams, and enjoyed extraordinary visions, and heard mysterious conversations. ACcording to his own account, the Lord filled him with His spirit to teach the doctrines of the New Church by the word from Himself; He commissioned him to do this work, opened the sight of his spirit, and so let him into the spiritual world, permitting him to see the heavens and the hells, and to converse with angels and spirits for years; but he never received anything relating to the doctrines of the church from any angel but from the Lord alone while he was reading the word (True Christian Religion, No. 779). He elsewhere speaks of his office as principally an opening of the spiritual sense of the word. In 1747 he resigned his post of assessor of the board of mines, took up afresh his study of Hebrew, and began his voluminous works on the interpretation of the Scriptures. His life thenceforth was spent alternately in Sweden, Holland and London, in the composition of his works and their publication, till his death, which took place in London on March 29, 1772. He was buried in the Swedish church in Princes Square, St. George’s-in-the-East, and on April 7, 1908, his remains were removed at the request of the Swedish government to Stockholm. Swedenborg never attempted to preach or to found a sect. He believed that members

of all the churches could belong to the

New Church without forming a separate organization. His theosophic system is most briefly and comprehensively presented in his Divine Love and Wisdom. The point of view from which God must be regarded is that of His being the Divine Man. His esse is infinite love; His manifestation or body is infinite wisdom. Divine love is the self-subsisting life of the universe. From God emanates a divine sphere, which appears in the spiritual world as a sun, and from this spiritual sun proceeds the sun of the natural world. The spiritual sun is the source of love and intelligence, or life, and the natural sun the source of nature or the receptacles of life; the first is alive, the second dead. The worlds of nature and spirit are perfectly distinct, but they are intimately related by analogous substances, laws and forces. In God there are three infinite and uncreated “degrees” of being, and In man and all things corresponding three degrees, finite and created. They are love, wisdom, use; or end, cause and effect. The final ends of ail things are in the Divine Mind, the causes of all things in the spiritual world, and their effects in the natural world. By a love of each degree man comes into conjunction with them and the worlds of nature, spirit and God. The end of creation is that man may have this conjunction and become the image of his Creator and creation. In man are two receptacles for God—the will for divine love and the understanding for divine wisdom—that love and wisdom flowing into both so that they become human. Swedenborgianism is based on the belief in Swedenborg’s claims to have witnessed the last judgment, or the second advent of the Lord, with the inauguration of the New Church, through the new system of doctrine promulgated by him and derived from the Scriptures, into the true sense of which he was the first to be introduced. The “doctrines” of the New Church as given in the

Liturgy (which also contains the “Creed” and “Articles of Faith”) are as follows :— 1. That there is one God, in whom there is a Divine Trinity; and that He is the Lord Jesus Christ. 2. That a saving faith is to believe on Him. 3. That evils are to be shunned, because they are of the devil from the devil. 4. That good actions are to be done, because they are of God from God. 5. That these are to be done by a man as from himself; but it ought to be believed that they are done from the Lord with and by him.

and and

that him

Swedenborgians now constitute a widely spread and considerable society, with a regularly constituted ecclesiastical organization and a zealous missionary activity (see NEw JERUSALEM CHURCH).

LITERATURE

AND

BrprriocrapHy.—Lithographed facsimiles of the mss. of Sweden. borg’s works were edited by R. L. Tafel, 10 vols. (Stockholm, 186970); another edition in 18 vols. was published at the same place

(1901-16).

Various editions of the single works have appeared, and

about forty are available in English, Heaven and Hell, The Diving Providence and The Divine Love and Wisdom being published in the Everyman series. There are also translations into most European languages as well as into Arabic, Hindu and Japanese. See R. L. Tafel, Documents concerning the Life and Character of

Swedenborg, collected, translated and annotated (3 vols., Swedenborg Society, 1875-77) ; J. Hyde, A Bibliography of Swedenborg (Swedenborg Society).

Of English lives the principal are those by J. J. G. Wilkinson (1849) ; E. Paxton Hood (1854); W. White (1856, rewritten in 1867-68) ; G. Trobridge (1907). See also S. Warren, Compendium of the Theological Writings of Emanuel Swedenborg (1885); E. Swift, Manual of the Doctrines of the New Church (1885); T. Parsons, Outlines of Swedenborg’s Religion and Philosophy; J. G. Herders “Emanuel Swedenborg,” in his Adrastea (Werke zur Phil. und Gesch.,

xii.); A. Dorner, Geschichte der protestantischen Theologie (Munich, 1867); and Transactions of the International Swedenborg Congress (London, 1910), summarized in The New I9I0).

Church Magazine (August (A. J. G.; X.)

SWEDISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. Old Swedish was spoken in (1) Sweden, except the most northerly part (Lappish and Finnish), the most southerly (Skane, Halland and Blekinge) and certain parts of western Sweden; (2) maritime tracts of Finland, Estonia and Livonia, with their surrounding islands; and (3) certain places in Russia. A number of words, almost exclusively personal names (nearly 100), were introduced into the Russian language at the foundation of the Russian realm by Swedes (in 862), and preserved in two Russian documents ot the years grr and 944, though for the most part somewhat influenced by Russian phonetic laws. Of about the same date, are the runic inscriptions, amounting in number to about 2,000 cut on

stones (rarely wood, metal or other materials) almost all over Sweden, most frequently (about half of the total number) in the province of Uppland. For the most part they occur on tombstones or monuments in memory of deceased relatives; rarely they are public notices. Their form is often metrical, in part at least. These inscriptions vary in age, belonging to all centuries of Old Swedish, but by far the greatest number of them date from the 11th and rath centuries. The oldest are perhaps the Ingelstad inscription in Östergötland, the Sparlösa inscription in Västergötland, and the Gursten one found in the north of Småland, all probably from the end of the oth century. The rune-stone from Rök in Östergötland probably dates from about A.D. goo. Its inscription surpasses all the others both in length (more than 750 runes) and in the importance of its contents; it is a fragment (partly in metrical form) of an Old Swedish heroic tale. From the beginning of the 12th century is the remarkable inscription on the door-ring of the church of Forsa in Helsingland, containing the oldest Scandinavian statute now preserved, as well as other inscriptions from the same province, written in a particular variety of the common runic

alphabet, the so-called “stafldsa” (staffless, without the perpendicular staff) runes, as the long genealogical inscription on the Nalstad-stone. Of runic literature nothing has been preserved to our days. The literature in the Latin letters is in quality and extent inferior to Old Icelandic, though it, in quantity, considerably surpasses Old Norwegian. In age, it begins only in the 13th century. The oldest of the extant manuscripts is a fragment of the Older Vastgétalaw, written about the year 1250. A complete codex (Cod. Holm. B 59) of the same law dates from about 1285 The very numerous Old Swedish charters, from 1343 downwards, are also of great importance. Form of the Language—Old Swedish, during its earliest preliterary period (800-1225), retains quite as original a character as contemporary Old Icelandic and Old Norwegian. The forma! changes of the language during this period are, generally, such as

appear about the same time in all the members of the group—as the change of soft R into common r and the change of sp into st (in

the roth century raishi, later r@isti, raised); or are, at least, com-

mon to it with Norwegian—as the dropping of / before J, n and? (in the roth century kraur, younger, rør, cairn), and the changing of nasal vowels (the long ones latest) into non-nasalized. But during the classical period of Old Swedish (1225-1375), the time of the later runic inscriptions and the oldest literature, the language

SWEDISH

LANGUAGE

is already distinctly separate from the (literary) Icelandic-Nor-

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655

lands, particularly the songs on mythic themes and the so-called

wegian (though not yet very much from Danish). As innovations kampavisor of presumably historical origin. Particularly interestjn Swedish:—d is inserted between J] (mm) and a following r (as ing are the Swedish riddarvisor, while the dance-songs, so characb between m and l, r, and p between m and t, n); an auxiliary teristic of the North, seem to have been cultivated in Sweden long vowel is inserted between final r and a preceding consonant; a in terminations is often changed into @; a u in the final syllable causes no change of a preceding a; the present tense takes the

vowel of the infinitive (and the preterite subjunctive that of preterite indicative plural). There were other important changes. The borrowed words are chiefly ecclesiastical and of Latin and

after they had died out in Denmark. The early prose literature consists here, as in other lands, of legal codes and chronicles. The

Elder West Göta Law (Äldre Västgötalagen) is preserved in a ms. of the end of the 13th century; and other similar codes (Upplandslagen, Sodermannalagen, etc.) date from the 14th. Much the most interesting juridical work of the early time is Une styrilsi kununga

Greek origin. At the middle of the 14th century the literary language develops to a “rzkssprak,” a uniform language, common to a

ok héfthinga (On the Conduct of Kings and Princes), which dates

LITERATURE While the definite beginnings of Swedish literature can hardly be set back to a period farther distant than the 13th century, there is evidence, in the shape of runic inscriptions in which Sweden is extraordinarily rich—the most interesting being the Rokstene in East Gotland—that she had her share in the imaginative life of Scandinavia which finds its fullest expression in the early poetry of Iceland. But the Swedish middle ages were veritably dark ages; they are illumined only fitfully by light reflected from the mainland of Europe. The Church did not become a

entius Andreae (d. 1552), had previously prepared a translation of the New Testament, which appeared in 1526. He was a polemical writer of prominence on the side of the Reformers. Finally, Petrus Niger (Peder Svart), bishop of Västerås (d. 1562), wrote a chronicle of Gustavus I. up to 1533, in excellent prose. With the accession of Charles IX. literature began to assert

from the 13th century, although not printed until 1634. Besides certain degree to the whole country. The language at this period Latin chronicles there is one in the vernacular, Erikskronika, is deluged with borrowed words of Low German origin, mostly dealing with the period from about 1250 to 1319; this was folsocial and industrial terms. Towards the end of the period a lowed by others and finally by the three Sturekrdnikorna, which powerful Danish influence extends also to phonetics and etymol- bring the record of events down to 1496. The oldest work which ogy, so that nearly all the terminal vowels are supplanted by the may be definitely described as history is the Prosaiska krönikan uniform Danish e, the hard consonants p, t, k by b, d, g as in of the r5th century and the Latin Chronica Regni Gothorum of Danish, the second person plural of the imperative ends in —er, Erik Olai (d. 1486), the father of Swedish historiography. The Renaissance.—The 16th century added but little to besides —en (as tagher, for taghen, older takin). Dialects.—Dialectical differences occur in the runic inscrip- Swedish literature, and that little is mostly connected with the tions and in the literature. One distinct dialect, that of the island newly-founded university of Uppsala. The Renaissance scarcely of Gottland, differs so essentially from the Old Swedish of the made itself felt in Scandinavia, and even the Reformation failed mainland that it has been characterized, under the name Forngut- to waken the genius of the country. The most prominent writers niska, as in a sense a separate language Materials for its study were two brothers, Olavus Petri (1493-1552) and Laurentius are abundant: more than 200 runic inscriptions, and, in literature Petri (1499-1573), Carmelite monks who adopted the Lutheran a runic calendar from 1328, the law of the island (the oldest doctrine while studying at Wittenberg, and came back to Sweden manuscript is from about 1350), and a piece of traditional history. in 1518 as apostles of the new faith. Olavus became chancellor The language is distinguished from the Old Swedish of the main- to Gustavus Vasa, but his reforming zeal soon brought him into land by the following characteristics:—the old diphthongs are disgrace, and in 1540 he was condemned to death. Two years preserved and a triphthong has arisen by the change of iu into iau; later he was pardoned, and allowed to resume his preaching in the long vowels æ and ¢ have passed into é and y (as méla, to Stockholm. He wrote a Svensk kronika, which is the earliest prose speak, dyma, to deem); short o rarely occurs except before r, history of Sweden, a mystery-play, Tobiae comedia, which is the being in other positions changed into u; w is dropped before r (as first Swedish drama, and three psalm-books. Laurentius Petri, raiþi, wrath); the genitive singular of feminines in —a ends in —ur who was a man of calmer temperament, was archbishop of all Sweden, and edited or superintended the translation of the Bible for -u (as kirkiur, of the church). published at Uppsala in 1540. He also wrote many psalms. Laur-

itself in more vigorous forms. The long life of the royal librarian, Johannes Bure or Buraeus (1568—1652), formed a link between the age of the Petri and that of Stiernhielm. A patient antiquary, Buraeus advanced the knowledge of ancient Scandinavian mythvital force until the middle ages were far advanced, while the ology and language; nor was it without significance that two orders of knighthood found their way too late to Sweden, and of the greatest Swedes of the century, Gustavus Adolphus and were too ill adapted to conditions there, to take any real root. the poet Stiernhielm, were his pupils. The reign of Charles IX. From 1200 on, however, Swedish students visited in surprising saw the rise of secular drama in Sweden. The first comedy was numbers the great centres of European learning, and on their| the Tisbe of Magnus Olai Asteropherus (d. 1647), a coarse but witty piece, acted by the schoolboys of the college of Arboga in return home founded schools. The great figure of mediaeval Sweden is St. Brigitta (1303-73), 16r0. A greater dramatist was Johannes Messenius (1579-1636), the founder of the monastery of Vadstena on Lake Vener. Her who, having been discovered plotting against the Government durwritings, which are exclusively in Latin and consist of accounts ing the absence of Gustavus in Russia, was condemned to imof her visions and revelations, were printed at Liibeck in 1492. prisonment for life—that is, for 20 years. Before this disaster he Her confessor, Mattias (d. 1350), compiled a Latin Bible con- had been professor of jurisprudence in Uppsala, where his first cordance, which is lost, and he may also have been the author of | historical comedy Disa was performed in 1611 and the tragedy

a paraphrase of part of the Old Testament.

Swedish mysticism

in the 13th century had a prominent representative in Petrus de Dacia (c. 1235-89), and Swedes contributed to the Latin hymnpoetry of the middle ages. There are Swedish versions—the socalled Eufemiavisor—of Crestien de Troyes’ Chevalier au lion (1302), of a now lost German romance of Duke Frederick of Normandy (1 308) and of Flores and Blanscheflor; not until 1380 do we find another romance of this type, Konung Alexander. These, to which should be added some prose romances of the

later time (Didrikssagan, Historia Trojana, Karl Magnus), are practically all Sweden’s contribution to the literature of chivalry. The most pleasing aspect of Swedish mediaeval literature is the folksong or folkvisa. This she shares with the other Scandinavian

of Signil] in 1612.

The design of Messenius was to write the

history of his country in 50 plays of which only six were completed. Messenius was a genuine poet, a fact that is more ap-

parent in the lyrics he introduced into his plays than in the plays themselves. He was imitated by a little group of playwrights. Nikolaus Holgeri Catonius (d. 1655) wrote a tragedy on the Trojan War, Troijenborgh; Andreas Prytz (d. 1655) several religious chronicle plays from Swedish history; and Jacobus Rondeletius (d. 1662) a curious “Christian tragi-comedy” of Judas redivivus. Another interesting play was an anonymous Holofernes and Judith based on German models. These were all acted by schoolboys and university youths, and when such performances went out of fashion the drama in Sweden almost ceased.

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Stiernhielm and His Followers.—The greatest literary name of the 17th century was that of Georg Stiernhielm (see STJERNHJELM) (1598-1672), a man.of many-sided intellectual attainment. His chief literary work, and the greatest Swedish poem of the century, is the epic—or rather didactic allegory—Hercules (publ. 1658), written in excellent hexameters. The claim of Stiernhielm to be the first Swedish poet may be contested by a younger man, but a slightly earlier writer, Gustaf Rosenhane (1619-84), known to literature as Skogekar Bargbo. If Stiernhielm studied Opitz, Rosenhane took the French poets of the Renaissance for his models, and in 1650 wrote a cycle of I00 sonnets, the earliest in the language (Venerid, 1680). Most of the young poets followed Stiernhielm rather than Rosenhane. As personal friends and pupils of the former, the brothers Columbus deserve special attention. Each wrote copiously in verse, Johan (1640-84) almost entirely in Latin, while Samuel (164279), especially in his Odae sueticae, showed himself an apt imitator of the Swedish hexameters of Stiernhielm, to whom he was at one time secretary, and whose Hercules he dramatized. Urban Hiarne (1641-1724) introduced the new form of classical tragedy from France, his best play being Rosimunda (1665). Lars Johansson (1638-74), who called himself “Lucidor,” was a misanthropic, melancholy poet whose adventurous, unhappy life ended in his being stabbed, like Marlowe, in a midnight brawl at a tavern. His Flowers of Helicon bear witness occasionally to a very genuine poetic feeling. Haquin Spegel (1645-1714), the famous archbishop of Uppsala, wrote a long didactic epic in alexandrines, Guds Verk och Vila (God’s Labour and Rest, 1685), with an introductory ode to the Deity in rhymed hexameters. He also takes a high place as a writer of hymns. Another ecclesiastic, the bishop of Skara, Jesper Svedberg (1653-1735), wrote sacred verses, but is better remembered ,as the father of Swedenborg. Peter Lagerlof (1648-99), professor of poetry at Uppsala, cultivated a pastoral vein in his ingenious lyrics Elisandra and Lycillis. Gunno Eurelius, afterwards ennobled with the name of Dahlstjerna (g v.) (1661-1709), early showed an interest in the poetry of Italy. In 1690 he translated Guarini’s Pastor Fido, and in or just after 1697 published his Kunga-Skald, an epic in ottava rima in honour of Charles XI.; it is not without real merits, richness of language, flowing metre and a genuine poetic enthusiasm. Johan Runius (1679-1713) has, on the one hand, points of contact with Lucidor, and on the other, often seems a forerunner of Bellman. His poetry appears in a collection entitled Dudaim. In prose the 17th century produced but little of importance in Sweden. Gustavus Adolphus (1594—1632) was the most polished writer of its earlier half, and his speeches take an important place in the development of the language. The most original mind of the next age was Olof Rudbeck (1630—1702), the famous author of Atland eller Manhem, usually known as Atlantikan. A man of encyclopaedic interests, he spent nearly all his life in Uppsala, expending ceaseless energy on the practical improvement of the university. His Atland which appeared in Latin and Swedish, between 1679 and 1702 contains his antiquarian studies; it was an attempt to summon the past, all the sages of Greece and the bards of Iceland, to prove that Scandinavia was the lost Atlantis. Olof Verelius (1618-82) had led the way for Rudbeck, by his translations of Icelandic sagas, a work which was carried on with greater intelligence by Johan Peringskjöld (1654-1720) the editor of the Heimskringla (1697). The French philosopher Descartes, who died at Christina’s court at Stockholm in 1650, found his

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LITERATURE

writer with an often strangely modern appreciation of nature: while Samuel von Triewald (1688-1743) was the first Swedish

satirist; he introduced Boileau to his countrymen.

Both in verse

and prose Olof von Dalin (g.v.; 1708-63) took a higher place than any writer since Stiernhielm. He was inspired by the study

of his great English contemporaries. His Sudnska Argus (1733-34)

was modelled on Addison’s Spectator, his Thoughts about Critics (1736) on Pope’s Essay on Criticism, his Tale of a Horse on Swift’s Tale of a Tub. Dalin’s style, whether in prose or verse was of a finished elegance. As a prose writer Dalin is chiefly memorable for his history of Sweden, Svea rikes historia (1747~

61). His allegoric epic Svenska friheten (Swedish Freedom, 1742)

is in polished alexandrines. When in 1737 the new Royal Swedish theatre was opened, Dalin led the way to a new school of dramatists with his Brynhilda, a regular tragedy in the French style, and in his comedy Den afundsjuke (The Envious Man) he introduced the manner of Molière, or more properly that of Holberg. His songs and satires enjoyed great popularity in their time, The only poet of importance who contested the laurels of

Dalin was a woman

Hedvig Charlotta Nordenflycht (1718-63),

“The Shepherdess in the North,” was the centre of a society which took the name of Tankebyggare Orden and included among its members Creutz and Gyllenborg. She wrote with facility and grace; and her collection of lyrics Den sorjande turturduva (The Sorrowing Turtledove, 1743), in spite of affectation, expressed her

deep sorrow for the death of her husband after a brief happy

married life. In 1744 she settled in Stockholm and opened her

famous literary salon. Count Gustaf Philip Creutz (g.v.) (1731-

85) was a Finlander who achieved an extraordinary success with

his idyllic poems, and in particular with the beautiful pastoral of Atis och Camilla (1759), long the most popular of all Swedish

poems.

His friend Count Gustaf Fredrik

Gyllenborg

(1731-

1808) was a more rhetorical and artificial poet. His epic Tåget över Bält (The Expedition across the Belt, 1785) is an imitation, in 12 books, of Voltaire’s Henriade, and deals with the prowess of Charles X. He wrote fables, allegories, satires, and a successful

comedy of manners, Den svenska sprätthöken (The Swedish Fop). Anders Odel (1718-73) wrote in 1739 the famous Song of Malcolm Sinclair, the Sinclairsvisa. In spite of all the encouragement of the court, drama did not flourish in Sweden. Among the tragic writers of the age we may mention Dalin, Gyllenborg and Erik Wrangel (1686-1765). In comedy Reinhold Gustaf Modée (1698-1752) wrote three good plays in rivalry of Holberg. In prose, as was to be expected, the first half of the 18th century was rich in Sweden as elsewhere. The first Swedish novelist was Jakob Henrik Mork (1714-63). His romances have some points of resemblance with those of Richardson., Adalrik och Gothilda, which appeared between 1742 and 1745, is the best known; it was followed, between 1748 and 1758, by Thecla. Jakob Wallenberg (1746-78) described a voyage he took to the East Indies and China under the odd title of Min son pé galejan (My Son on the Galley), a work full of humour and originality. Johan Thre (1707-80), professor at Uppsala, was a philologist of distinction. His masterpiece is the Glossarium sueogothicum (1769), a historical dictionary with many valuable examples from the ancient monuments of the language. The chief historians were Sven Lagerbring (1707-87), Olof Celsius (1716-94) and Karl Gustaf Tessin (1695-1770) who wrote on politics and on aes thetics. Tessin’s Old Man’s Letters to a young Prince were addressed to his pupil, afterwards Gustavus ITT. The two Swedes of widest European reputation in the 18th chief disciple in Andreas Rydelius (1671-1738), bishop of Lund, who was the master of Dalin, of the next epoch. His Nddiga century were Carl von Linné or Linnaeus, the great botanist, (g.v.; 1707-78), and the learned and many-sided mystic Emanuel fornuftséfningar (5 vols.), appeared in 1718-22. The 18th Century——A more brilliant period followed the Swedenborg (g.v.; 1688-1772). Linné in his books of travel death of Charles XII. The influence of France and England took (Lapplandska resa, Skarska resa, etc.) pointed the way to a new the place of that of Germany and Italy. The taste of Louis XIV., interpretation of nature, and Swedenborg’s mystic communings tempered by the study of Addison and Pope, gave its tone to the deeply influenced the imagination of the after-time. The Gustavian Period.—What is called the Gustavian period academical court of Queen Louise Ulrica, who founded in 1758 the academy of literature, history and antiquities. Two writers commences with the reign of Gustavus III. in 1771 and closes in verse connect this Augustan period in Sweden with the school with the abdication of Gustavus IV. in 1809. This period of Jess of the preceding century: Jacob Frese (1691-1729), a native of than 40 years was particularly rich in literary talent; journalism Finland, whose poems were published in 1726, was an elegiacal began to develop; the drama flourished and literature began 10

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657

take a characteristically national shape. Gustavus III. (1746-92)

(1783-1859); Clas Livijn (1781-1844), author of a remarkable

was himself a playwright of no mean ability. One of his prose

novel, Spader Dame

dramas, Siri Brahe och Johan Gyllenstjerna, held the stage for

tist, a pioneer of Shakespearian influence in Sweden; Adolph Torneros (1794-1839), and Carl Frederik Dahlgren (1791-1844), the last-mentioned a humorist who owed much to the example of Bellman. Fru Julie Nyberg (1785—1854), “Euphrosyne,” a poetess of some distinction, was the muse of the school. On the part of

many years. But his best work was his national drama of Gustaf

Vasa (1783), written by the king in prose, and afterwards versified by Kellgren. In 1773 the king opened the national theatre

in Stockholm, and on that occasion an opera of Thetis och Pelée was performed, written by himself. In 1786 Gustavus created the Swedish Academy, on the lines of the French Academy, but with 18 members instead of 4o. The principal writers are classical and academic. But Carl Michael Bellman (g.v.; 1740-95), an improvisatore of the first order, had nothing academical in his composition. His Fredmans epistlar (1790) and Fredmans sdngar (1791), with their riot of

(Queen of Spades, 1824), and, as a drama-

the academy the Phosphorists were vigorously attacked by Per

bacchanalian humour and fine characterization, are among the greatest of Swedish song books, and unique in the literature of their age. Of the Gustavians in the narrower sense, Johan Gabriel Oxenstjerna (1750-1808) was a graceful idyllist (Skérdarne, The Harvests; Dagens stunder, The Hours of the Day); Johan

Adam Wallmark (1777-1858), to whom they replied in a satire which was the joint work of several writers, Markalls somnlosa natter (Markall’s Sleepless Nights, 1820). The most cultured woman of this Uppsala circle was Malla Montgomery-Silfverstolpe (1782-1861), whose exceedingly interesting Memoarer was only published in 1908—11. In 1811 certain young men in Stockholm founded a society for the elevation of literary taste by means of the study of Scandinavian antiquity. This was the “Götiska förbundet” (“Gothic Society”), and its organ was the journal Jduna (1811-24). Of its patriotic editors the most prominent were Erik Gustaf Geijer

Henrik Kellgren (g¢.v.; 1751-95), who assisted the king with his

(q.v.)

dramatist of the age was, however, Gudmund Goran Adlerbeth

too rhetorical in its expression—which has closer affinities with the classic tradition of the 18th century than with the Romanticism of his own time. His Frithiofs saga (1825), although its sentimentalism is little to the taste of the modern world, was long the most famous of all Swedish poems. To the Gothic Society belonged also Per Henrik Ling (1776-1839), an extreme enthusiast for the Scandinavian past, but now better remembered as the father of gymnastic science than as a poet; Arvid August Afzelius (1785-1871), the first editor of Swedish folk-songs; Benard von Beskow (1796-1868), lyric poet and dramatist; and

(1783-1847);

and

Esaias

Tegnér

(g.v.)

(1782—1846);

dramas, was a poet and critic of high distinction; while Carl afterwards bishop of Vexio, and usually regarded as the greatest Gustaf af Leopold (1756—1829), another of the king’s favourites, of all Swedish writers. Eminent as a historian and critic, Geijer carried the Gustavian tradition far mto the roth century. He has also added, with his Vikingen, Odalbonder (The Peasant Freewrote Erotiska Oder (1785), a satire, Enebomiad (1795), and holder) and Psalmer, to the treasures of Swedish poetry. Tegnér’s two classic tragedies, Oden and Virginia (1790, 1802). The chief ‘copious verse is filled with a noble idealism—at times, perhaps, (1751-1818) who also made translations of the classics, of Racine and Voltaire and of old Norse poetry. D. G. Bjorn (1757-1810), C. Envallsson (1756-1806) and Olof Kexél (1749—96) supplied the Gustavian theatre with its comedy. Anna Maria Lenngren (1754-1817) was a very popular writer of graceful domestic verse, chiefly between 1795 and 1800, and a forerunner of modern literary developments. Two writers of the academic period were definite precursors of the Romantic revival. Bengt Lidner (1757-93), a melancholy and elegiac writer of real poetic inspiration, led a disordered, wandering life which began with an adventurous voyage to the Cape, and died in poverty. He wrote two dramas, Erik XIV, and Medea, but only a narrative poem, Grefvinnan Spastaras död (The Death of the Countess Spastara, 1783), has retained its popularity. Thomas Thorild (1759-1808) was a much stronger nature, and led the revolt against prevailing taste with far more vigour. His best poem, Passionerna, in hexameters, appeared in 1785, but it is mainly as a prose writer that he is now remembered. He settled in Germany and died as a professor in Greifswald. Karl August Ehrensvärd (1745-1800) may be mentioned here as a critic whose aims somewhat resembled those of Thorild. Among critics of taste may be mentioned Nils Rosén von Rosenstein (1752—1824), the first secretary of the Swedish Academy, who exercised great influence over Swedish literature and thought. His writings include an eloquent argument against Rousseau’s theory of the injurious influence of art and letters. The Romantic Movement.—The excellent lyric poet Frans Mikael Franzén (g v.) (1772-1847), who was deeply influenced by English poetry, and a belated academician Johan David Val-

erius (1778-1852), fill up the space between the Gustavian period and the domination of Romantic ideas from Germany.

It was

Lorenzo Hammarskéld (1785-1827) who in 1803 introduced the

Carl August Nicander (1799-1839), a poet of distinction who to some

extent represents

a compromise

with the Phosphorists.

With the two latter was associated Carl Wilhelm Böttiger (180778), a poet influenced in turn by all the greater Romanticists; his unfinished autobiography, Ungdomsminnen (Memories of Youth), written in his last years, is a masterpiece in its way. Johan Olof Wallin (1779-1839) may be mentioned in the same category, although he is really independent of all schools. He was archbishop of Uppsala and in 1819 published Den svenska psalmboken, the national hymn-book of Sweden, a great collection of sacred poetry; 126 of the hymns were written by Wallin himself. From 1810 to 1840 was the supreme age of Swedish poetry. Second only to Tegnér in genius is Erik Johan Stagnelius (17931823). His life and mysterious death have given a romantic interest to all that is connected with his name. His first publication was an epic, Vladimir den store (Vladimir the Great, 1817), which was followed by a romantic poem, Blenda. His dramas, Bacchanterna (The Bacchantes, 1822), Martyrerna (The Martyrs, 1821) and the posthumous Sigurd Ring are among his most original productions. His mystical lyrics include Liljor i Saron (Lilies in Sharon, 1812) and his sonnets are the best in Swedish. Rise of Realism.—Romance began to yield to realism. The

first place here belongs to C. J. L. Almaqvist (g.v.) (1793-1866),

whose influence and chequered life recall that of Strindberg. His novels and sketches are collected (14 vols.) under the title Törnrosens bok (1832-51). The new realism also appears in Samuel heten (1818, etc.) a history of Swedish literature. Hammarskéld’s society was succeeded in 1807 by the famous “Aurora- Ödman (1750—1829), and in the descriptions of nature—which reforbundet,” founded by two youths of genius, Per Daniel Amadeus call Linné—of Petrus Laestadius (1802-41) and Nils Lovén Atterbom (1790-1855) and Vilhelm Fredrik Palmblad (1788- (Nicolovius, 1796-1858). Fredrik Cederborgh (1784-1835) re1852). These young men formulated the Romantic doctrine in vived the comic novel in his Uno von Trasenberg (1809-10) and their journals, Polyfem and Fosforos (1809-13), the latter giving Ottar Tralling (1810); and Swedish history supplied themes for the name “Fosforistena” (“Phosphorists”) to their school. Atter- the romances of Count Per Georg Sparre (1790-1871) and of bom is the greatest of the purely Romantic poets of Sweden. His Gustaf Herik Mellin (1803-76). The most popular novelist was Fredrika Bremer (g.v.) (1801chief work is a poetic drama in two parts, Lycksalighetens 6 (The Isle of Bliss, 1824-27) which, although over-long, contains scenes 6s), a native of Finland. Her stories of domestic life owed much of striking imaginative beauty. Palmblad is the chief novelist of to English models, and enjoyed a European reputation inferior the group. Other leading Phosphorists were Samuel Hedborn only to that of Tegnér’s Frithiofs saga. Another woman novelist,

views of Tieck and Schelling and founded the society in Uppsala called “Vitterhetens Vänner.” His chief work was Svenska vitter-

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SWEDISH

LANGUAGE

Sofa von Knorring (née Zelow, 1797-1848) wrote about the same time a long series of aristocratic novels. A polemical writer of great talent was Magnus Jakob Crusenstolpe (1795-1865); while in history, besides Geijer, Jonas Hallenberg (1748-1834) and Anders Magnus Strinnholm (1786-1862) prepared the way for the most widely read of all Swedish historians, Anders Fryxell (1795-1881): Berättelser ur svenska historien (1823-80). With Tegnér the greatest poet of Swedish literature is the Finn, Johan Ludvig Runeberg (g.v.) (1804-77). Between 1832 and 1844 Runeberg published a series of splendid epics, Elgyskyttarne (The Elk Hunters), Hanna, Nadeschda and Julgraften (Christmas Eve); in 1848 and 1860 followed the two volumes of Fänrik Ståls sägner (Ensign Ståls Tales). They achieve wonderful portraits and vigorous metrical swing. Bernhard Elis Malmström (1816-65) produced in 1840 a volume of elegies, Angelika; with two later volumes of poems (1845, 1847). In his literary history he showed himself to be a discriminating critic. Johan Börjisson (1790-1866) was the last of the Phosphorists, author of several romantic dramas; Vilhelm von Braun (1813—60), a writer of humorous verse; “Talis Qualis,” a poetical poet and translator of Byron whose real name was Carl Vilhelm August Strandberg (1818-77); Oscar Patrick Sturzen-Becker (1811-69), better known as “Orvar Odd,” a lyrical poet who was also the author of a series of excellent sketches of everydaye life; and August Blanche (1811-68), the most popular dramatist of the period. Fredrik August Dahlgren (1816-95) gained a great reputation with his Värmlänningarna (1846), a national drama interspersed with songs and dances, and with his poems in the Varmland dialect. Other notable dramatists of the period were Johan Jolin (1818-84) and Frans Hedberg (1828-1908), who in his old age adapted himself in a remarkable degree to modern tastes. A popular novelist of this period was Emilie Flygare-Casten (née Smith, 1807-92); indeed, in respect of popularity she entered into Fredrika Bremer’s heritage. Her best books deal with the life of the Swedish west coast. The stories and sketches of Karl Anton Wetterbergh (1804-69), known as “Onkel Adam,” were much loved in their day, as were the novels of Auguste Blanche and Marie Sofie Schwartz (181994). But the most poetically gifted novelist of the later 19th century was the patriotic Finn, Zakris Topelius (1818~98). His long series of romances dealing with Finno-Swedish history appeared between 1850 and 1867. Lyric poetry was represented by Johan Nyborn (1815-89), the poet of Uppsala student-life; Carl Herman Satherberg (1812-97); Gunnar Wennerberg (1817rgor), the genial improvisator of Gluntarna (The Students, 1847-50) with its memories of Bellman; and A. T. Getterstedt (1836-1914), an architect by profession and a poet of fine quality, if of limited range. The dominant force in Swedish philosophy in this period was Kristoffer Jakob Boström (1810~66); the leading journalist Lars Johan Hierta (1801—72), editor of Aftonbladet from 1830, a newspaper which marks an epoch in the history of the Swedish press. The aesthetic critic and poet, Carl Ruprecht Nyblom (1832-1907) helped materially to mould Swedish taste. The serenity of Swedish literature was rudely shaken about 1884 by an incursion of modern realism, and an embittered controversy raged between the older generation and the new. The leader of the older school was Viktor Rydberg (g.v.) (1828-95), a writer of many-sided activities, but chiefly remembered as the author of the five novels Fribytaren på Östersjön (The Freebooter

on the Baltic, 1857) Den siste Athenaren (The Last Athenian, 1859), Singoalla (1865) and Vapensmoden (The Armourer, 1891). He was ably supported by Carl Snoilsky (g.v.) (1841-1903), the greatest of Swedish lyric poets at the close of the roth century. Strindberg.—Four influences combined to release Swedish literature from the old hard-bound conventions. These were English thought in the writings of Darwin, Herbert Spencer and John Stuart Mill; French realism in the doctrine and practice of Zola; Norwegian drama as represented by Ibsen and Bjornson; and Danish criticism in the essays and monographs of Georg Brandes. Unquestionably the greatest name in recent Swedish literature is that of Johan August Strindberg (¢.v.) (1849-1912). The signifi-

AND

LITERATURE

cance of his genius may be still under debate, but of one aspect of it there can be no question: he is the master of modern Swedish

prose and dramatic dialogue.

Of those who worked side by side with Strindberg the most prominent was Gustaf Geijerstam (1858-1909), who began in 1884 by publishing realistic studies of peasant-life, Fattigt folk (Poor People) and a novel of Uppsala, Erik Grane (1885), which awakened wide interest. These were followed by a long series of popular novels in which psychological problems became increas. ingly predominant. But before Geijerstam, two women writers

had inaugurated the new novel of unidealized actuality. These

were Anne Charlotte Edgren-Leffler, subsequently duchess of Cajanello (1849-92), who, from 1882 onwards, published a series

of stories (Ur livet, From Life) which emphasized the demand for the equality of the sexes; and Victoria Benedictsson (“Ernst Ahlgren,” 1850-88), who committed suicide in Copenhagen after achieving marked success with her sketches of humble life ip Från Skére (From Skare, 1884) and with the more ambitious novels Pengar (Money, 1885) and Fru Marianne (1887). Of similar tendency are the stories of Alfhild Agrell (b. 1849). Associated with Ernst Ahlgren was Axel Lundgård (b. 1861) whose novel, Röde prinsen (The Red Prince, 1889), marks a stage in the development

of Swedish fiction.

He

subsequently

turned to the

historical novel to which two women, Sofie Elkan (1853-1921) and Matilda Malling (b. 1864) have also contributed books which enjoyed a wide popularity. In the ’gos descriptive realism in the novel gave place to a finer psychological realism, and a more idealistic—even romantic—tendency.

The change is to be seen in

Geijerstam, and also in the work of Tor Hedberg (b. 1862), son

of Frans Hedberg already mentioned. Of his novels, Judas (1886) and På Torpa gård (1888) may be specially mentioned. The idealistic tendency is most prominent in the novels of the representative Swedish writer at the beginning of the 2oth century,

Verne von Heidenstam (b. 1859), Endymion (1889), Hans Alienus (1892), Karolinerna (King Charles’s Men, 1897-98) and Heliga Brigittas pilgrimsfärd (St. Brigitta’s Pilgrimage, 1901); and also in the delicate short stories of Per Hallström (b. 1866), a writer who passed a considerable part of his youth in America. With Hallström may be associated Ernst Josephson (1857-1906). The greatest of Sweden’s living novelists is Selma Lagerlof (b. 1858), whose masterly Gösta Berlings Saga appeared in 1891, and was followed by Antikrists mirakler (1897), Jerusalem (1901-02), and the delightful journey of Nzls Holgersson through Sweden on

the back of a wild swan (1906~07). In a long series of admirable short stories she has brought world-fame to her native province of Varmland. The poetry of the northern districts of Sweden has been finely expressed in the stories of Pelle Molin (1864-96) and

Ludwig Nordström (b. 1882), and that of the “Skargard”—the Stockholm archipelago—discovered for literature by Strindberg, in the writings of Albert Engström (b. 1869). A place must also be found for the fine novels of Sven Lidman (b. 1882), Ätten Silfverstååhl (The Silfverstååĉhls), and the polished and essentially French talent of Hjalmar Söderberg (b. 1869) whose ironic

novel,

Martin

Bircks

ungdom,

appeared

in i1go1.

Of the

many contemporary novelists who make a more popular appeal

Hilma Angered-Strandberg (b. 1855), Henning Berger 1925), Hjalmar Bergman (b. 1883), Gustaf Jansson 1913), Sigfrid Siwertz (b. 1882) and Elin Wagner seem the most serious claim for an abiding place in Swedish

(1872(1885to have literary

history. Many of the writers just mentioned, notably Fru Agrell, Fru Edgren-Leffler and Tor Hedberg, have also written for the theatre. To these may be added as dramatists of talent, Harald

Johan Molander (1858-1900) and Ernst Didring (b. 1868). But the drama has never been a strong feature in Sweden. Recent Lyric Poetry.—The particular glory of the last phase of Swedish literature is its lyric poetry. A forerunner of this lyric revival was Albert Ulrik Baath (1853-1912), in whom the revolt against tradition and conventions is first apparent. His earliest poems appeared in 1879. But the real starting-point for the new lyric was Heidenstram’s Vallfart och vandringsdr (Pilgrimage an

Wanderings, 1888), which was followed in later years by other

volumes of conspicuously beautiful verse.

Then, in 1891, 4P

SWEELINCK—-SWEETBRIER peared Gitarr och dragharmonika (Guitar and Accordion), the

first collection of poems by Sweden’s greatest modern lyricist, Gustaf Froding (1860~1911).

It was followed by other collec-

tions—notably Stank och flikar (Sprinklings and Snippets)—of

extraordinary originality, variety and haunting beauty. His later life was overshadowed by mental derangement, which left its

mark on his latest work. Another of the leading lyric poets of modern Sweden is Erik Axel Karlpeldt (b. 1864), and indeed, in many respects the most

subtle and delicate of them

Friddins visor (1898), Fridolins lustgérd

all.

His

(Fridolin’s Garden,

1901), and Flora och Pomona (1906) are the greatest contributions to Swedish poetry of his native province, Dalecarlia. The poetry of Oscar Levertin (1862-1906) introduces an exotic note and recalls in some measure our English Preraphaelites, by whom he was influenced. Of the many eminent lyric talents of modern Sweden, mention can only be made here of Ola Hansson (b. 1860)

whose early work (e.g., Sensitiva amorosa, 1887) provided an antidote to the harshness of Strindberg’s realism; Daniel Fallstrom (b. 1858); F. Vetterlund (b. 1865); Emil Kleen (1863— 98); Bo Bergman (b. 1869); Viktor Ekelund (b. 1880); Per

Hallström; Sven Liden; K. G. Ossiannilsson (b. 1875); Gustaf Ullman (b. 1881), and Anders Osterling (b. 1884).

Amongst recent literary historians and critics, the most prominent are Oscar Levertin, Henrik Schiick, Karl Johan Warburg, Fredrik Book, Anton Blanck and Martin Lamm; while of writers dealing with social and educational problems, Ellen Key (18491926) has, with her Tankebilder (Thought Pictures, 1898), Ménniskor (Men and Women, 1899), and Livslinjer (Life Lines, 1903-06), achieved an international reputation.

659

of his opinions and has not shrunk from exposing himself to attack and political isolation by his frankness. His Bondlandet (1919), a novel of country life, is a good character study, clearly treated. In Fértrollningen (1924) he deals with modern hysteria. Less clear in his method, but full of vivacity, is Ludvig Nordstrom, most of whose work bears the general title Skildringar ur Svenska Nationens Lif. He is most successful in Landsorts-bohéme (1912), a thoroughly amusing satire on provincial bohemians, with the editor of a local paper for its central figure. A later work, Döda världar i Samhällsrymden (1920), is an ambitious attempt to deal in a fantastically satirical vein with the industrial evolution of Sweden. Hjalmar Bergman in his best work, Markurells i Wadköping (1919), Eng. trans. God’s Orchid (1924), has succeeded in blending together tragedy, high comedy and farce while never outraging our sense of fitness and psychological probability. This book, the action of which is concentrated into a single day in the life of a provincial town, is something of a tour de force, but at the same time a remarkably trenchant study of character. Henning Berger (1872-1925) was a realist of pessimistic outlook, whose strength lay in the delineation of the life of great cities. His best work is

the Dreamland trilogy, in which he depicts with great variety of

treatment the loss of illusions suffered by Swedes of the educated class in America and the brutalising effect of standardisation on the mental and moral character of the individual. Returning to Stockholm in Fata Morgana (1911), his banker hero has renounced his ideals and settled down to a comfortable epicurean view of life. While contemporary literature affords an admirable retrospect of roth century life and manners, the future historian will only Brsriocrarpay——Of older books on Swedish literary history the find in it fragmentary and distorted material for a picture of the following have still real value: P. D. A. Atterbom, Svenska, siare och skalder (Uppsala, 1841-55); B. E. Malmström, Granddragen av 20th. Writers in their dread of the commonplace have exaggerated the fantastic, thereby detracting from the documentary value of svenska vittshateus historia (1866-68); C. R. Nyblom, Estetiska Studier (1873-84). The standard history of Swedish literature is their work—a fault not peculiar to Sweden.

H. Schiick and K. Warburg, Svensk litteraturhistoria (1885, seq.; and ed, 1911-16; a 3rd ed. begun in 1926). Excellent is also the Svenska litteraturens historia by several collaborators and edited by O. Sylwan (3 vols., 1919-23); in German, Ph. Schweitzer, Geschichte der skandinavischen Literatur (Leipzig, 1886-89). There are smaller histories by R. Steffen (sth ed., 1919) ; H. Schtick, Histoire de la littérature suédoise (1923); H. de Boor, Schwedische Literatur (Breslau, 1924). Indispensable are the many volumes of Oscar Levertin’s critical works. An invaluable anthology is provided by the series of 25 vols., Sveriges nationallitteratur, edit. by H. Schück and R. Ggrson Berg (Stockholm, x907-12), and, in smaller compass, R. Steffen, Oversikt av svensk litteraturen (4 vols., 1918 seq.). (E. G.; J. G. R)

The Period Since 1910.—Among the more notable novelists of

the present day we find on the whole more originality among the women than among the men, some of whom still reflect the influence of Strindberg in certain aspects of their work. Hildur Dixelius-Brettner in her trilogy of three generations, Prästdottern

(1920), Prästdotterns Son, Sonsonen (1922) achieved an admi-

table unity of feeling,- essentially tragic, but tempered by the humour of real life. Elin Wagner came to the fore with Pennskaftet, a bright and witty novel of feminist Stockholm; she later established a more permanent reputation with Asa-Hanna (1918) and Den namnlösa (1922) which show a deep human sympathy. The novels of Sigfrid Siwertz are studies in degeneration, marked by sure psychological insight. The most remarkable of

them, Selambs (1920), Eng. trans. Downstream (1922), is a family

history of the now classical Rougon-Macquart type, but concentrated in a single generation; the workmanship is of high order, but the picture suffers somewhat from lack of relief. His later novel,

BrBLiocraPHY.—Fredrik B6dk, Sveriges moderna litteratur (1921); Gunnar Jörn, Svenska diktarportrátt (Uppsala, 1924). (A. G. CH.)

SWEELINCK

or SWELINCK,

JAN

PIETER

(also

known as JAN PreTeRszoon) (1562-1621), Dutch organist and composer, was probably born at Amsterdam, although his family came from Deventer. It has been persistently stated that he was a fellow pupil with Giovanni Gabrieli and Leo Hassler of the great Andrea Gabrieli in Venice, but this has been disproved by F. H. J. Tiedeman in the Vereeniging voor Nederlandsche Muziekgegeschiedenis (Amsterdam 1876). Sweelinck was the son of the organist of the Old Church, Amsterdam, and lived in Holland from about 1577 onward. At a date not later than 1581 he was appointed organist to the Old Church, his father having died in 1573, and this post he held until his death on Oct. 16, 1621. A complete edition of his works, edited by Max Seiffert with prefaces, was brought out by Breitkopf & Hartel in 1894-1901. See also Grove, Dictionary of Music & Musicians.

SWEET,

HENRY

(1845-1912),

English philologist, was

born in London on Sept. 15, 1845. Educated at King’s college, London, Balliol College, Oxford, and Heidelberg university, he was a recognized authority on phonetics, and a readership in phonetics was specially created for him in 1901 by the University of Oxford. He died at Oxford on April 30, 1912. His works include Anglo-Saxon Reader (1866) ; Student’s Dictionary of Anglo-Saxon (1897) ; A Short Historical English Grammar (1866) : The History of Language (1900) ; and many editions of Old and Middle English texts. The Collected Papers of Henry Sweet were edited by H. C. Wyld (1913).

SWEETBREAD,

a popular

term

for certain

glands

of

Hem frén Babylon, by drawing on the bizarre and fantastic, gives

animals, particularly when

made provincial of the mid-rgth century with all the virtues and

usually the pancreas, the “stomach-sweetbread” of butchers, and the thymus, or “breast sweetbread.” The term is also sometimes used to include the salivary and lymphatic glands (see DUCTLESS GLANDS, PANCREAS and LYMPHATIC SYSTEM).

the Impression of a paucity of human material. Among retrospective novels of Swedish life Erik Fahlman’s Firman Abergson (1914) stands out as the work of a true artist. The hero is a self-

limitations of his race and time.

The texture of the book is

extraordinarily light, and the subtlety with which the author has

Created his atmosphere is altogether admirable. K. G. Ossiannilsson, Who began (in a way that is almost a tradition with Swedish

writers) as a lyricist, later published a number of novels of contemporary life. He is a writer of originality who has the courage

SWEETBRIER

used as articles of food;

these are

(Rosa Eglanteria or R. rubiginosa), a tall,

stiff-stemmed rose, called also eglantine, native to Europe, widespread in Great Britain, and extensively naturalized in eastern North America. The erect, somewhat branching stem, armed with stout hooked prickles, grows usually from 5 to 8 ft. high. It bears fragrant leaves, of 5 to 7 leaflets, and solitary white or pink-

SWEET

660

ish flowers, x to 2 in. across. While the sweetbrier is infrequently grown for ornament, various hybrids with other roses are in culti-

vation.

(See Rose.)

I.

CLOVER—SWEYN

oblong-ovate leaves, solitary greenish flowers and a yellowish-green fruit, like a shortened pine cone in shape with a tubercle corre-

sponding to each of the carpels from the aggregation of which it

the popular name for plants of the

has been formed. The fruit is 3 to 4 in. in diameter and contains a sweet creamy-yellow custard-like pulp. It is a native of the

20 species, natives of the Old World. They are annual or biennial,

West Indies and tropical America; it is much prized as a fruit,

slender axillary clusters (racemes). The white sweet clover (M. alba), 3 to 10 ft. high, and the similar but larger flowered yellow sweet clover (M. officinalis) occur in the British Isles and are widely naturalized in the United States and Canada. A yellowflowered Eurasian species (M. indica), 14 to 3 ft. high, with minute flowers only about -ły in. long, has become extensively naturalized in California and other western States. Since about

eral highway 80; county seat of Nolan county. Pop. (1920) 4,307 (91% native white); 10,848 in 1930 Federal census. The district specializes in blooded Hereford stock, and has gas and oil fields. Sweetwater was founded in 1882 and chartered as a city

SWEET

CLOVER,

leguminous genus Melilotus, called also melilot, comprising about sweet-smelling, erect herbs, with pinnate leaves of three usually small, narrow leaflets and small yellow or white flowers, borne in

1900 agricultural varieties of the white sweet clover, as Bukhara clover and Hubam clover (var. annua), and also of M. indica have been grown as forage, cover and soiling crops in various

parts of the United States.

and has been widely introduced into the Eastern Hemisphere, A. muricala is the sour-sop (g.v.). A. reticulata is the custard apple (q.v.), and A. palustris the alligator apple.

SWEETWATER,

in 1897.

a city of western Texas, U.S.A., on Fed-

It has a commission-manager form of government, a

board of city development, and a tax-supported chamber of commerce. South of the city are the ruins of Fort Chadbourne, built in 1853.

SWELLENDAM,

town, situated in the valley of the Breede

For details regarding cultivation, see “Sweet Clover,” Leaflet No. 23, river, 192 m. E. by S. of Cape Town by rail; 33° 59° S., 20° 237 .E.; altitude 500 feet. It dates from 1745. In 1795 the people U.S. Department of Agriculture.

SWEET CORN: see Maize; VEGETABLE. SWEET FLAG: see Acorus CALAMUS. SWEET-GALE (Myrica Gale), a shrub of the family My-

rebelled against the Dutch East India company, proclaimed a free

ricaceae, called also gale, sweet willow, bog myrtle and Dutch myrtle, widely distributed in the north temperate zone. It grows usually from 2 to 4 ft. high, with numerous twiggy branches; narrow, short-stalked, fragrant leaves; inconspicuous, unisexual flowers, borne in short spikes, and small, waxy-resinous, drupelike fruits attached to the persistent flowering bracts. The sweetgale occurs extensively on bogs and moors in the British Isles and widely also throughout the northern United States and Canada. The leaves are used as tea and as a country medicine.

Town surrendered to the British, and Swellendam quietly accepted British rule. The town has lost much of its former importance. The population in 1926 included 1,814 whites, and probably a greater number of “coloured” people.

(See Myrica.) SWEET GUM American

tree

of the witch-hazel

family

(Hamamelidaceae),

with rough bark, corky-winged branches, large deeply lobed leaves, and drooping, spiny, globose fruiting heads containing winged seeds. The hard reddish-brown wood is known to the lumber trade as red gum or satin-walnut. In 1925 the cut of red gum lumber in the United States amounted to 1,100,648,000 bd.ft., valued at the mill at $34,549,341. The tree yields liquidambar, called also copalm-balsam, a fragrant gum-resin very similar to the storax produced by L. orientale of Asia Minor.

SWEET PEA: see Pea; FLOWER FARMING.

SWEET

POTATO,

a food plant, known

botanically as

Ipomaea batatas, a member of the family Convolvulaceae (q.v.). It is widely cultivated in tropical and warm countries for its tuberous root, which is a valuable article of diet. It is a climbing perennial with entire or palmately-lobed leaves very variable in shape, borne on slender twining stems. The flowers are borne on long stalks in loose clusters or cymes, and have a white or rosy funnel-shaped corolla like that of the common bindweed of English hedges. The edible portion is the root, which dilates into large club-shaped masses filled with starch. The plant is not known in

a truly wild state. A. de Candolle believes that it is of American

origin, where it has been cultivated from prehistoric times. The allusions in the Merry Wives of Windsor and other of Shakespeare’s plays probably refer to the sweet potato. The sweet potato is an important food crop in the southern United States where among the root crops its rank is second to the common potato, the total production in 1927 being estimated at 93,928,000 bu., valued at $77,020,960; Texas, Georgia, North Carolina and Louisiana, produced 45% of the total crop. For an account of its cultivation in India, see Sir George Watt, Dictionary of Economic Products of India (1890). See also W. W. Rob-

bins, The Botany of Crop Plants (Philadelphia, 1924); L. H. Baile Standard Cyclopedia of Horticulture (1914-27). 2

SWEET-SOP or SUGAR APPLE, botanical name Anona squamosa

SWETCHINE,

MADAME

(1782-1857), Russian mystic,

whose maiden name was Soymanof, was born in Moscow, and

under the influence of Joseph de Maistre became a member of the Roman Catholic Church in 1815. In the following year she settled in Paris, where, until her death, she maintained a famous salon remarkable no less for its high courtesy and intellectual

(Liquidambar Styraciflua), a handsome North

called also red gum, liquidambar (g v.) and bilsted, found from Connecticut to Missouri and southward to Florida and Mexico. It has a straight trunk, sometimes 140 ft. high and 5 ft. in diameter,

_

republic and demanded “the absolute and unconditional slavery of all Hottentots and Bushmen.” In September of that year Cape

(family Anonaceae), a small tree or shrub with thin

brilliance than for its religious atmosphere.

Her Life and Works

(of which the best known are “Old Age” and “Resignation”)

were published by M. de Falloux (2 vols., 1860) and her Letters by the same editor (2 vols., 1861). See Sainte-Beuve, Nouveaux lundis, vol. i.; and E. Scherer, Etudes sur la littérature contemporaine, vol. i.

SWETE, HENRY BARCLAY

(1835-1917), English theo-

logian, was born at Bristol on March 14, 1835, and educated at King’s College, London, and Caius College, Cambridge. He was ordained in 1858, and became in 1865 dean of Caius College. In 1877 he accepted the college living of Ashdon, Essex, and in 1882 was made professor of pastoral theology at King’s College, London. In 1890 he succeeded Westcott as regius professor of divinity at Cambridge, retiring with the title of emeritus professor in 1915. He died at Hitchin on May 10, 1917. Swete’s works on Biblical texts are of the highest importance. In 1887 he published the first volume of his edition of the Greek text of the Old Testament, completing the series in 1894 (3rd ed., 1901-07) ;

in 1898 the Greek text of the Gospel of St. Mark with notes and

introduction (2nd ed., 1902), and in 1906 that of the apocalypse of St. John (2nd ed., 1907). He was the editor of Cambridge Theo-

logical Essays

(1905)

and Cambridge

Biblical Essays (1909), and

contributed to Smith and Wace’s Dictionary of Christian Biography (1882-87) and Hastings’s Dictionary of the Bible (1899-1900). His historical and critical works include The Apostles’ Creed in Relation to Primitive Christianity (1894; 3rd ed., 1899) ; Church Services and

Service Books before the Reformation (1896) ; Patristic Study (1902);

The Appearances of our Lord after the Passion (1907, 2nd ed., 1908); and The Last Discourse and Prayer of Our Lord (1913).

SWEYN I., Kinc or Denmark (d. 1014), son of Harold Bluetooth, the christianizer of Denmark, by his peasant mistress Aesa, according to the Jomsvikinga Saga, though more probably

his mother was Queen Gunild, Harold’s consort.

The lad was

a born champion and buccaneer. His first military expedition, in alliance with the celebrated Jomsborg Viking, Palnatoke, was

against his own father, who perished during the struggle (c. 986). Six years later he conducted a large fleet of warships to England, which did infinite damage, but failed to capture London. During

his absence, Denmark was temporarily occupied by the Swedish king, Eric Sersel, on whose death (c. 994) Sweyn recovered his

SWIFT patrimony. About the same time he repudiated his first wife Gunild, daughter of duke Mieszko of Poland, and married King

Eric’s widow, Sigrid. This lady was a fanatical pagan of a disquieting strength of character. Two viceroys, earlier wooers, were burned to death by her orders for their impertinence, and she refused the hand of Olaf Trygvessén, king of Norway, rather than submit to baptism, whereupon the indignant monarch struck her on the mouth with his gauntlet and told her she was a worse

pagan than any dog. Shortly afterwards she married Sweyn, and easily persuaded her warlike husband to unite with Olaf, king of Sweden, against Olaf Trygvessén, who fell in the famous sea-

fight off Svolde (1000) on the west coast of Rugen, after a heroic

resistance immortalized by the sagas, whereupon the confederates divided his kingdom between them. After his first English expedi-

tion Sweyn was content to blackmail England instead of ravaging it, till the ruthless massacre of the Danes on St. Brice’s day, Nov. 3, 1002, by Ethelred the Unready (Sweyn’s sister was among the victims) brought the Danish king to Exeter (1003). During each of the following eleven years, the Danes, materially assisted by the universal and shameless disloyalty of the Saxon ealdormen, systematically ravaged England, and from gg91 to

1014 the wretched land is said to have paid its invaders in ransoms alone £158,000. Sweyn died suddenly at Gainsborough on Feb. 13, 1014. His memory has suffered from the fact that the

chief chroniclers of his deeds and misdeeds were ecclesiastics. See Danmarks

riges historie.

Oldtiden og den aeldre middelalder,

pp. 364-381 (Copenhagen, 1897-1905). SWIFT, JONATHAN

N. B.; X.)

(1667-1745), dean of St. Patrick’s,

Dublin, British satirist, was born at No. 7 Hoey’s Court, Dublin, on Nov. 30, 1667, a few months after the death of his father,

Jonathan Swift (1640-1667), who married about 1664 Erick, of an old Leicestershire family. His grandfather, Swift, vicar of Goodrich near Ross, appears to have lost sessions by taking the losing side in the Civil War and 1658 before the restoration could bring him redress. He

Abigaile Thomas his posdied in married

Elizabeth, niece of Sir Erasmus Dryden, the poet’s grandfather. The young Swift was supported by his uncle Godwin, a Tipperary official; at the age of six he entered Kilkenny school, where Congreve was a fellow student, and he completed his education at Trinity college, Dublin. Here he exhibited few signs of precocious genius, and it was only by special act of indulgence that he obtained his degree; then, on the death of his uncle, he left Ireland and sought counsel of his mother in Leicester. His first employment commenced towards the close of 168ọ, .when he became secretary to Sir William Temple, who was living in retirement at Moor Park, near Farnham. His ability gradually won him the confidence of his employer, and he was entrusted with some important missions. In 1694, however, Swift (who had in the meantime obtained the degree of M.A. ad eundem at

Oxford) quitted Temple, who had, he considered, delayed too long in obtaining him preferment; but it was only after five months’ delay, when Swift had unwillingly begged the favour of a testimonial from his discarded patron, that he was able to obtain the small prebend of Kilroot near Belfast (Jan. 1695). In the meantime he had grown tired of Irish life and was glad to accept Temple’s proposal for his return to Moor Park, where

he continued until Temple’s death in Jan. 1699. His Pindaric Odes, written at this period or earlier, indicate the rudiments of a real satirist, but of more importance was his first essay in satiric prose, The Battle of the Books; this arose out of a dispute originated in England by Temple’s Essay upon Ancient and

Modern Learning, which argued the superiority of the Ancients over the Moderns. Swift’s aim was limited to co-operation in what was then deemed the well-deserved putting down of Bentley

by Boyle. Though written in 1697, the satire remained unpublished until 1704, when it was issued with The Tale of a Tub. _ After Temple’s death, Swift suffered several disappointments In attempting to find employment, but he eventually secured the rectory of Agher in Meath with the united vicarages of Laracor and Rathbeggan, to which was added the prebend of Dunlavin in St. Patrick’s—the total value being about £230 a year. He was how often in Dublin, at most 20 m. distant, and through Lady

661

Berkeley and her daughters—Lord Berkeley was now a lord justice of Ireland—he became the familiar and chartered satirist of the fashionable society there. But he very soon began to grow tired of Ireland again and to pay visits in Leicester and London. His resolution to exchange divinity for politics must appear fully justified by the result.

The Discourse on the Dissen-

stons in Athens and Rome (Sept. 1701), written to repel the tactics of the Tory commons in their attack on the Partition Treaties “without humour and without satire,” and intended as a dissuasive from the pending impeachment of Somers, Orford, Halifax and Portland, received the honour of being generally attributed to Somers himself or to Burnet, the latter of whom found a public disavowal necessary. In April or May 1704 appeared a more remarkable work. Clearness, cogency, masculine simplicity of diction, are conspicuous in the pamphlet, but true creative power told the Tale of a Tub. Although it lacks coherence and attains no conclusion, it is the most strikingly original of Swift’s satirical works. In Feb. 1701 Swift took his D.D. degree at Dublin, and before the close of the year he had taken a step destined to exercise a most important influence on his life, by inviting two ladies to Laracor. Esther, daughter of a merchant named Edward Johnson, a dependant, and legatee to a small amount, of Sir William: Temple’s (born in March 1680), whose acquaintance he had made at Moor Park in 1689, and whom he has immortalized as “Stella,” came over with her companion Rebecca Dingley, a poor relative of the Temple family, and was soon permanently domi-

ciled in his neighbourhood.

Meanwhile

the sphere of his in-

timacies was rapidly widening. He had been in England for three years together, 1701 to 1704, and counted Pope, Steele and Addison among his friends. In 1708 he wrote the finest example of his irony, the Argument to prove that the abolishing of Christianity in England may, as things now stand, be attended with some inconveniencies, and about this time, too (Nov. 1707), he produced his best narrative poem, Baucis and Philemon. The next few months witnessed one of the most amusing hoaxes ever perpetrated against the quackery of astrologers, the victim being a Protestant alarmist and plot vaticinator styled John Partridge. In Jan. 1708, Swift, under the name of Isaac Bickerstaff, issued a solemn prediction that the notorious almanac maker, Partridge, would die at 11 o’clock p.m. on March 29, and on March 30 he published a letter confirming this prophecy. Partridge’s fatuous denial and reply to Bickerstaff elicited Swift’s amusing Vindication of Isaac Bickerstaff, Esq., in April 1709. The episode has left a permanent trace in literature, for when, in 1709, Steele was to start the Taéler, it occurred to him that he could secure the public ear in no surer way than by adopting the name of Bickerstaff. From Feb. 1708 to April 1709 Swift was in London, urging upon the Godolphin administration the claims of the Irish clergy

to the first-fruits and twentieths (“Queen Anne’s Bounty”), already granted to their brethren in England. His having been selected for such a commission shows that he was not yet regarded as a deserter from the Whigs, although the ill success of his representations probably helped to make him one. By Nov. 1710 he was again domiciled in London, and writing his Journal to Stella, that unique exemplar of a giant’s playfulness. In the first pages of this minute record of a busy life we find him depicting the decline of Whig credit and complaining of the cold reception accorded him by Godolphin, whose penetration had doubtless detected the precariousness of his allegiance. Within a few weeks he had become the lampooner of the fallen treasurer, the bosom friend of Oxford and Bolingbroke, and the writer of the Examiner, a journal established as the exponent of Tory views (Nov. 1710). He was now a power in the State and the associate of ministers on a footing of perfect cordiality and familiarity. For a brief time he seemed to resume the whole power of the English press in his own pen and to guide public opinion as he would—his services to his party as writer of the Examiner, which he quitted in July 1711, were even surpassed by those which he rendered as the author of telling pamphlets. We need not suppose that he was consulted respecting the great Tory strokes of the creation of

662

SWIFT

the twelve new peers and the dismissal of Marlborough (Dec. 1711), but they would hardly have been ventured upon if The Conduct of the Allies and the Examiners had not come first. Generous men like Oxford and Bolingbroke cannot have been unwilling to reward so serviceable a friend, especially when their own interest lay in keeping him in England. Swift still had formidable antagonists in the archbishop of York, whom he had scandalized, and the duchess of Somerset, whom he had satirized. Anne was particularly amenable to the influence of priestly and female favourites, and it must be considered a proof of the strong interest made for Swift that she was eventually persuaded to appoint him to the deanery of St. Patrick’s, Dublin. In June 1713 he set out to take possession of his dignity, and encountered a very cold reception from the Dublin public. The dissensions between the chiefs of his party speedily recalled him to England. He found affairs in a desperate condition. The queen’s demise was evidently

at hand and public opinion was turning towards the Whigs when

the Tories manifestly could not be trusted to maintain the Protestant succession. Bolingbroke’s brain teemed with the wildest plans. Swift’s mediation was unavailing. When the discord of Oxford and Bolingbroke had become patent to all the nation, Swift, foreseeing, as is probable, the impending fall of the former, retired to Upper Letcombe, in Berkshire, and there spent some weeks in the strictest seclusion. This leisure was occupied in the composition of his remarkable pamphlet, Some Free Thoughts on the Present State of Affairs, which indicates his complete conversion to the bold policy of Bolingbroke. The utter exclusion of Whigs as well as Dissenters from office, the remodelling of the army, the imposition of the most rigid restraints on the heir to the throne—such were the measures

every politician shunned him; and his society hardly included a single author or wit, Before and after his elevation to the deanery of St. Patrick’s, Esther Johnson and Mrs. Dingley continued to reside near him, and superintended his household during his ab. sence in London. He had offered no obstacle in 1704 to a match proposed for Stella to Dr. William Tisdall of Dublin. Whatever the cause, his conduct proved the fatal embitterment of his life

and Stella’s and yet another’s. He had always been unlucky in

his relations with women.

Esther Vanhomrigh,

“Vanessa”

(b

Feb. 14, 1690), the daughter of a Dublin merchant of Dutch origin, had become known to Swift at the height of his political influence.

He lodged close to her mother, and Vanessa insensibly

became his pupil, while he became the object of her impassioned affection. But Swift was devoid of passion. Of friendship, even of tender regard, he was fully capable, but not of love, and Vanessa’s ardent and unreasoning display of passion was beyond his comprehension. Yet Vanessa assailed him on a very weak side. The strongest of all his instincts was the thirst for imperious domination. Vanessa hugged the fetters to which Stella merely submitted. Flattered to excess by her surrender, yet conscious of his binding obligations and his real preference for Stella, he could neither

discard

the one

beauty

nor

desert

the other.

When

Vanessa’s mother died (1714), she followed him to Ireland, taking up her abode at Celbridge within ten miles of Dublin. Unable to marry Stella without destroying Vanessa, or openly to welcome Vanessa without destroying Stella, he was thus involved in the most miserable embarrassment; he continued to temporize. Had the solution of marriage been open Stella would undoubtedly have been Swift’s choice, but some mysterious obstacle intervened. Meanwhile Swift’s efforts were directed to soothe Miss Vanwhich, by recommending, Swift tacitly admitted to be necessary homrigh, to whom he addressed Cadenus [Decanus] and Vanessa, to the triumph of his party. Bolingbroke’s daring spirit, however, recoiled from no extreme, the history of their attachment and the best example of his and, fortunately for Swift, he added so much of his own to the serious poetry, and for whom he sought to provide honourably in latter’s ms. that the production was first delayed and then, upon marriage, without succeeding either in his immediate aim or in the news of Anne’s death, immediately suppressed. This incident thereby opening her eyes to the hopelessness of her passion. only just anticipated the revolution which, after Bolingbroke had Worn out with his evasions, she at last (1723) took the desperate enjoyed a three days’ triumph over Oxford, drove him into exile step of writing to Stella or, according to another account, to and prostrated his party. Almost the first acts of Bolingbroke’s Swift himself, demanding to know the nature of the connection ephemeral premiership were to order him £1,000 from the ex- with him, and this terminated the melancholy history as with a chequer and despatch him the most flattering invitations. The clap of thunder. Stella sent her rival’s letter to Swift, and retired same post brought a letter from Oxford, soliciting Swift’s company to a friend’s house. Swift rode down to Marley Abbey with a in his retirement; and, to the latter’s immortal honour, he hesi- terrible countenance, petrified Vanessa by his frown, and departed tated not an instant in preferring the solace of his friend to the without a word, flinging down a packet which only contained her offers of Bolingbroke. When, a few days later, Oxford was in own letter to Stella. Vanessa died within a few weeks. She left, prison and in danger of his life, Swift begged to share his cap- the correspondence for publication, but it was suppressed until tivity; and it was only on the offer being declined that he finally it was published by Sir Walter Scott. Five years after Vanessa’s directed his steps towards Ireland, where he was very ill received. death Stella died, on Jan. 28, 1728. Between the death of Vanessa and the death of Stella came the The draft on the exchequer was intercepted by the queen’s death. During these four busy years of London life, Swift had entered greatest political and the greatest literary triumph of Swift’s life. deeply into the literary life of the period. He was treasurer and Although he was not an Irish patriot in the strict sense of the a leading member of the Brothers, a society of wits and states- word, his pride and sense of equity alike revolted against the men which recalls the days of Horace and Maecenas. He pro- stay-at-home Englishmen’s contemptuous treatment of their own moted the subscription for Pope’s Homer, contributed some num- garrison, and he delighted in finding a point in which the tribers to the Tatler, Spectator, and Intelligencer, and joined with umphant faction was still vulnerable. His Proposal for the UniPope and Arbuthnot in establishing the Scriblerus Club, contribut- versal Use of Irish Manufactures, published anonymously in ing to Martinus Scriblerus, his share in which can have been but 1720, urging the Irish to disuse English goods, became the subsmall, as well as John Bull, where the chapter recommending the ject of a prosecution, which at length had to be dropped. A education of all blue-eyed children in depravity for the public good greater opportunity was at hand. A patent for supplying Ireland must surely be his. His miscellanies, such as A Meditation upon with a coinage of copper halfpence was accorded to William Wood a Broomstick, and the poems Sid Hamet’s Rod, The City Shower, on such terms that the profit accruing from the difference between The Windsor Prophecy, The Prediction of Merlin, and The His- the intrinsic and the nominal value of the coins, about 40%, was tory of Vanbrugh’s House, belong to this period. A more laboured mainly divided between him and George I.’s favourite duchess work, his Proposal for Correcting, Improving and Ascertaining of Kendal, by whose influence Wood had obtained the privilege. the English Tongue (1712), in a letter to Harley, suggesting the Swift now had his opportunity, and the famous six letters signed regulation of the English language by an academy, is chiefly M. B. Drapier (April to Dec. 1724) soon set Ireland in a flame. remarkable as a proof of the deference paid to French taste. His Every effort was used to discover, or rather to obtain legal eviHistory of the Four Last Years of the Reign of Queen Anne is dence against, the author, but none could be procured; the public passion swept everything before it; the patent was cancelled. not on a level with his other political writings. The noise of the Drapier Letters was followed by the anonyTo Swift the change from London to Dublin meant for the time the fall from unique authority to absolute insignificance. All mous publication of Travels Into Several Remote Nations of the share in the administration of even Irish affairs was denied him; World, in four parts, by Lemuel Gulliver, first a surgeon and

SWIFT—SWIFT then a captain of several ships (Benjamin Motto, Oct. 1726), the work being well advanced, it would seem, by 1720. The keen-

ness of the satire on courts, parties and statesmen certainly suggests that it was planned while Swift’s disappointments as a public man were still rankling and recent. Although he was afraid of the reception the book would meet with, especially in political

circles, the world chose to be diverted by it. In the first two parts the misanthropy is quite overpowered by the fun. The third part, equally masterly in composition, is less felicitous in invention; and in the fourth Swift has indeed carried out his design of vexing the world at his own cost. Swift’s grave humour and power of enforcing momentous truth by ludicrous exaggeration were next displayed in his Modest

Proposal for Preventing the Children of Poor People from being a Burden to thetr Parents or the Country, by fattening and eating them (1729). The Directions to Servants, a satire on domestics, was first published in 1745, while Polite Conversation, written in

AND

COMPANY

663

Scott. II. Journal to Stella, ed. F. Ryland (two portraits of Stella). III. and IV. Writings on Religion and the Church, ed. Temple Scott. V. Historical and Political Tracts—English, ed. Temple Scott. VI. Historical and Political Tracts—Irish, ed. Temple Scott. VII. The

Drapier’s Letters, ed. Temple Scott. VIII. and XI. Literary Essays, including Gullivers Travels (ed. G. R. Dennis); A Proposal for Correcting, Improving and Ascertaining the English Tongue; Hints towards an Essay on Conversation; Character; Directions to Servants; and Autobiographical Fragment, ed. Temple Scott. IX. Contributions to the Examiner, Tatler, Spectator, etc., ed. Temple Scott. X. Historical Writings, including the Four Last Years; Abstract of English History; and Remarks on Burnet, ed. Temple Scott. XII. Essays on the Portraits, etc., Bibliography by W. Spencer Jackson, and Index. Twelve portraits of Swift are included in the work, in addition to two portraits of Stella and one of Vanessa. XIII. and XIV. Poems, ed. W. Ernst Browning. Translations and editions of Gullivers Travels have been numerous. “Valuable Notes for a Bibliography of Swift” were published by

Dr. S. Lane Poole in Tke Bibliographer (Nov. 1884).

(R. G.; X.)

SWIFT, a bird so called from the speed of its flight. Despite

1731 was published in 1738. Little beyond occasional verses— trivial and often indecent—followed, but the delightful Hamilion’s Bawn, and the verses on his own death (1731) are excep-

its appearance, the swift (Apus apus) is in no way related to the swallow and is not even a Passerine bird, its affinities being with the humming birds. The common

tions, and in The Legion Club of 1736 he composed the fiercest of all his verse satires. His popularity remained as great as ever (he received the freedom of Dublin in 1729), and he governed his

Europe, arriving in May and returning to Africa at the end of

cathedral with great strictness

and conscientiousness;

| swift is a summer

| August. It nests in holes in build-

but the

| ings, less frequently in cliffs and quarries. On the wing it gives the idea of a bow and arrow; it is a larger bird than the swallow

attacks of giddiness to which he had always been subject increased upon him, and he grew more and more capricious and morbidly suspicious. In March 1742 it was necessary to appoint guardians of Swift’s person and estate. In September of the same year his

' and its flight is swifter and stead-

physical malady reached a crisis, from which he emerged a help-

ier. Except for a greyish-white patch under the chin, the plumage is entirely sooty black. Near sunset the birds often sweep round in screaming bands, and sometimes then ascend out of sight. It has been stated that they may spend the night on the wing at great heights; further observation on this point is needed, as also on the assertion that swifts actually pair in mid-air. A white under parts, inhabits the Europe and is very numerous in

less wreck, with faculties paralysed rather than destroyed, and he

eventually sank into the dementia which preceded his death on Oct. 19, 1745. He was interred in his cathedral at midnight in the same coffin as Stella, with an epitaph written by himself. An object of pity as well as of awe, Swift is one of the most tragic figures of English literature. His master passion was imperious pride—lust for despotic dominion; place, profit and literary fame were comparatively indifferent to him. Contemptuous of the opinion of his fellows, he hid his virtues, paraded his faults, affected some failings from which he was really exempt, and, since his munificent charity could not be concealed from the recipients, laboured to spoil it by gratuitous surliness. of him,” says Thackeray, “‘is like thinking of the ruin empire.” Among those influenced by Swift may be Chesterfield, Smollett, Cobbett, Hazlitt, Scott, Borrow, Belloc.

“To think of a great mentioned Newman,

visitor to

| ~ "="

=4 BY COURTESY OF THE NATURAL HISTORY

CHIMNEY LAGICA), EGGS

SWIFTS SHOWN

AMERICAN

MUSEUM

(CHAETURA WITH NESTS

OF

PEAND

larger species, A. melba, with mountains and cliffs of southern the old water tower at Lucerne. The allied genus Collocalia construct nests of saliva and these are used by the Chinese for soup. The birds breed in caves, and BIBLIOGRAPHY.—The contemporary lives of Swift, most of which contain a certain amount of apocrypha, are those of Lord Orrery range from north Madagascar to the Marquesas, one species (17§r); Dr. Delany’s Observations on Orrery (1754); Dean Swift’s occurring in the hill country of India. The chimney swallow of Essay upon the Life of Swift (1755); and Thomas Sheridan’s Life (of 1785). Dr. Hawkesworth, in the life prefixed to his edition of the United States (Chaetura pelagica) is also a swift, cementing the Works in 1755, adds little of importance. Dr. Johnson’s Life is its nest with saliva. It is migratory.

marred by manifest prejudice.

Dr. Barrett produced an Essay upon

the Early Life of some value (in 1808). Six years later came the useful biography of Sir Walter Scott, and (in 1819) appeared the

elaborate Life by W. Monck Mason in the form of an appendix to

his ponderous History of St. Patrick’s.

A new epoch of investigation

was inaugurated by John Forster, who began a new scrutiny of the accumulated material and published his first volume in 1875. Invaluable in many respects, it exhibited the process as well as the result of biography, and never got beyond 1711. The Life by Sir Henry

Craik (1882 and reissues) now holds the field. Valuable monographs have been produced by Sir Leslie Stephen (Men of Letters and the Memoirs, in the Dict. Nat. Biog.), by Thackeray, in his English Humourists, by W. R. Wilde, in his Closing Years of Dean Swift’s

Life, by Lecky, in his Leaders of Public Opinion, by G. P. Moriarty, J. Churton

Collins

(1893),

Max

Simon

(1893), Henriette

Cordelet

(1907) and Sophie Shilleto Smith (1910). The anecdotes of Swift

related in Spence, Laetitia Pilkington, Wilson’s Swiftiana, Delany’s Autobiography, etc., though often amusing, can hardly be accepted as authentic. The collective editions of Dr. Hawkesworth (various issues, 1755-

79), T. Sheridan

(1785), John Nichols (1801, 1804, 1808), Scott

(1814 and 1821) and respects superseded by volumes (including the (1897-1910) ; arranged

Roscoe (2 vols., 1849) have been in most the edition in Bohn’s Standard Library in 14 two subsequently issued volumes of Poems) as follows: I. Biog. Introduction by W. E. H.

SWIFT AND

became

COMPANY.

Swift and Company

The packing business which

in 1885 was founded

in 1868 by

Gustavus F. Swift. Swift began his business career as a Cape Cod meat retailer and live-stock dealer, but in 1875 moved to Chicago and entered the packing business. Almost immediately he began to make experimental refrigerator-car shipments of dressed beef to New England. Because of his part in making the western dressed beef trade a year-round commercial success, he is regarded as one of the true pioneers of the modern packing industry. The rapid growth of the Swift business brought about the incorporation of Swift and Company in 1885 with a capital of $300,000. By the time of Swift’s death in 1903, the company had become one of the two largest packing concerns in the United States. The business has continued to grow steadily. In 1928 its sales amounted to more than $970,000,000. In 1928 the com-

pany was capitalized at $150,000,000 and was owned by more than 47,000 shareholders, of whom 13,000 were employees. The employees numbered about 55,000. Swift and Company slaughters live stock and sells meat and by-products.

It also prepares

and merchandizes

butter,

eggs,

Lecky; Tale of a Tub; Battle of the Books; Critical Essay upon the poultry, cheese, gelatin, vegetable shortening, soap, glue, animal Faculties of the Mind; The Bickerstaff Pamphlets, etc., ed. Temple feeds and fertilizer, The company operates 38 slaughtering and

SWIMMING

664

meat-packing plants; more than 70 poultry, butter and egg plants; 7 cotton oil mills; 21 shortening refineries; 2 soap factories;

and 17 fertilizer plants.

To distribute its products, Swift and

Company maintains over 6,000 refrigerator-cars, which supply nearly 500 branch-selling houses, which in turn sell to retailers. Direct refrigerator-car shipments also serve retailers in more than, 7,000 of the smaller American towns and villages. Over

too foreign sales agencies are maintained abroad.

SWIMMING,

(L. F. Sw.)

and as a consequence he fails to preserve the buoyancy necessary

for carrying him along the surface. When starting for the first stroke, the beginner should draw the elbows nearly to the side at the same time bringing up the forearm and hands to the front of the chest with the palms of the hands downwards near to the

surface of the water, the fingers being extended and closed and the forefingers and thumbs nearly touching. The hands are then

the action of self-support and self-propulsion

on or in water; though used by analogy of inanimate objects, the

term is generally connected with animal progression and specially with the art of self-propulsion in water as practised by man. Natation (the synonym derived from Lat. natare) is one of the most useful of the physical acquirements of man. There have been cases in which beginners have demonstrated some ability in the art upon their first immersion in deep water, but generally speaking it is an art which has to be acquired. For many years Great Britain held the supremacy in this particular form of athletics, but continental, Australian and American swimmers have so much improved and have developed such speedy strokes, that the claim can no longer be maintained. The teaching of swimming has been taken up in schools, and where the work is well done it is customary to use a form of

Weis Nin

e) i

|

Le

Ea

i

nue iC me FIG.

2.—THE

BEGINNER

A. Start bined

BACK

and finish

with

STROKE, position.

ONE B. First

OF THE arm

EASIEST

movement.

FORMS

FOR THE

C. Arm

pull com-

“frog” kick

pushed forward in front of the body to the full extent of the arms, the palms of the hands are turned slightly outward, and the arms swept round until in a right angle with the shoulders, when the elbows are dropped and the hands come up in front of the chest for the next stroke. The arms should not be kept rigid, but allowed to work gracefully. As the arms are swept backward the legs are drawn up, the knees being turned outward to the right and left and the heels nearly touching, The legs are then kicked outward and swept round as the arms are being pushed

FIG. 1.—THE

BREAST

STROKE

A. Position at start and finish of stroke. B. First arm movement. C. Second movement of drawing up legs and bringing hands under chin. Arrows indicate continuation

of stroke

land drill so as to impress upon the pupils some idea of the motions which have to be made in order to progress through the water. This drill is the preliminary practice to the teaching of the breast stroke. The Breast Stroke.—When learning the breast stroke, the first thing to avoid is undue haste and rapidity in the movements. It is this fault, probably born of nervousness, which causes many to aver that though eager to do so, they have never been able to learn to swim. Rapid action of the arms only exhausts the learner, whose breathing then becomes hurried and irregular,

forward to their fullest extent, a “flip” being given with each of the feet which must be kept loose at the ankles and in the same position as when standing. The Back Stroke.—A knowledge of the back stroke can easily be acquired by those who are able to swim on the breast, for the leg action is very similar and the principles relating to the use of the arms are almost the same. The arms, instead of being moved through the water, are lifted in the air and carried out to beyond the head with the palms upwards. The palms are then slightly turned and the arms swept round. Just as this action is being made the legs are drawn up as in the breast stroke, the body being allowed to travel on with the force of the kick as the arms

are extended beyond the head. The great difficulty that a back

swimmer has to contend with in open water is that of steering, and the best way to overcome it is to take an object for a guide before starting and hold the head slightly to the side so as to steer by it. An adaptation of the crawl stroke is now used by most

SWIMMING

665

ish swimming, was first made prominent in England in 1873, by

back swimmers in short distance races.

At one time the sede stroke was the great racing stroke; the body being placed on the side, the upper arm worked from the head to the upper side of the body, the lower arm taken downwards through the water to the underside of the body and a

a swimmer named J. Trudgen, who stated that he had acquired the knowledge of it while in South America.

It was, however,

known to Clias, a writer on swimming, who described it in 1825 as “The Thrust.” Trudgen’s speed was so great for his time that swimmers quickly copied his style, and it is from this stroke that the crawl stroke has been

developed.

When

swimming

Trudgen kept on the chest and lifted the upper part of his body at each stroke out of the water and at each swing of the arms pulled himself forward, a considerable swirl of the water occurring as each movement was finished. The arms were brought

forward sideways, each completing a circle on each side of the body, and the head kept completely above water. Those who copied Trudgen soon found it was less laborious and equally as

fast to use a double over-arm stroke with the head and chest well down, and thus have the body supported by the water, using the ordinary over-arm leg kick.

The Crawl Stroke.—Like the trudgen, this is an adaptation

FIG, 3.—SIDE STROKE, THE BASIC STROKE FOR ADVANCED METHODS OF SWIMMING

A. Position at start and finish of stroke. arm pull and scissors kick

B. Arm

reach.

C. Combination

of

scissor-like kick made with the legs; but this has now been generally given up in favour of the over-arm, trudgen and crawl strokes. The Over-arm usually turned on pulled downwards and the hand flat,

Stroke—lIn the over-arm stroke the body is the right side. At the start the lower arm is towards the hips, the fingers being kept closed so as to present a large surface to the water.

When the stroke is finished the hand is turned quickly palm upwards, so that together with the lower part of the arm it cuts the water sideways, the arm being almost bent double. Then, as it is shot forward, the hand is gradually turned from palm upwards to palm downwards, until, when it arrives at its position beyond the head, it is ready for the next stroke. The recovery and the pull ought to be effected as quickly as possible. The upper arm stroke is started when the downward stroke of the under or right arm is finished. It is started in front of the forehead, the arm being slightly bent and the fingers pointing down-

from native swimmers. It was not generally known in Great Britain until 1902, when Richard Cavill came from Australia to compete in the English championships, but it is said to be common with the natives of the South Sea islands, and from there introduced into Australia about the year 1900. From thence it came to Europe and there C. M. Daniels, the American amateur champion of that period, made so excellent a study of it that in 1907 he not only so greatly increased his own pace as to be able to win the English championship, and beat the world’s record for a hundred yards, but also introduced various improvements upon it. This stroke is distinct from any other form of swimming; the legs are kept straight, but not rigid. They whip the water backwards and forwards alternately, thus imitating the movements when walking on tiptoe. The power is obtained from the hips, knees and ankles. The width of the kick is about twelve inches between the heels. The speed of the kick is usually adjusted to the requirements of the individual- A supple swimmer is able to use a faster movement compared with one whose limbs are slow in action. It has been stated that some use as many as ten kicks to each complete stroke of the two arms, but it seems that the great majority find four kicks sufficiently trying. This striking or kicking is done from an upward to a downward direction, one leg at a time. The arms are used somewhat as in the trudgen stroke, they are bent at the elbows, dipped in alternately beyond the head and drawn smartly backwards until they come out of the water at the hips. The result of this movement is that when one arm is pulling or propelling the body through the water at the same moment, the other is being recovELBOW HIGH ARM RELAXED ON RECOVERY WATER Li

UNDER EY

wards. The hand is pulled past the face and chest with the arm bent at right-angles and swept back in front of the body, the arm

gradually straightening as it leaves the water opposite the hip. When the hand is opposite the hip it should be brought quickly out of the water and sent forward for the next stroke. When the upper arm is opposite the shoulder in its pull through the water the legs are kicked wide apart and closed again at the moment when the hand leaves the water. The kick is completed and the legs straightened before the left hand is replaced ready for the next stroke. As the legs are opened the upper leg is kicked for-

STRAIGHT ARM

DOWNWARD PULL

a

een

ce LEGS MOVE oer:

FIG. 4.—THE CRAWL STROKE, INTRODUCED INTERNATIONALLY IN 1908 ered through the air for the next stroke, thus avoiding resistance in the line of progress. Floating.—One of the most useful accomplishments for a ward with the knee slightly bent, and the foot kept in its ordinary swimmer is that of floating, but curiously enough there are some position. The lower leg is bent double until the heel approaches who cannot acquire a knowledge of it. It is purely a matter of the thigh, which is brought backwards slightly. In the actual buoyancy, and requires constant practice before one can become kick the upper leg is sent forward, and as it is straightened vig- perfect in it. In learning to float the beginner experiences great orously the under leg from the knee downwards comes forward to diffculty in overcoming the tendency of the legs to sink, and if meet it with a vicious kick; the swirl of the feet and closing of after frequent trials they are still found to sink, he should get the legs drives the body forward. This is what has come to be someone to hold them up or else place them on the steps or beknown in Great Britain as the “Northern Kick” by reason of its hind the rail of the bath, and thus assisted learn to balance the body on the surface. Before doing so he should completely fill first being introduced by Lancashire swimmers. _ The Trudgen Stroke.—This stroke, more commonly known his lungs, spread his legs wide, and then lie backwards with the as the trudgeon stroke, and on the continent of Europe as Span- arms extended in a line with the body and beyond the head, with

SWIMMING

666

the palms upwards, care being taken to throw as much weight beyond the head as possible. Furthermore he must lie perfectly still and take care not to hollow the back or raise the abdomen above water. One may sink for an instant, but if the breath be held the lips will come above the surface when easy breathing may be indulged in. Only the face, chest and toes should appear above the surface of the water. A knowledge of floating is of good

teur Diving Association, which is the chief promoting body of diving in England, will insist upon standard spring and firm boards being used particularly in connection with the Olympic Games and other international competitions and also object to competitors using their own boards, as this gives them an unfair ad-

vantage over those who haye not had the chance to practise from them. All fancy diving is based on varieties and combinations of

service to those attempting to save life.

Diving.—The usual method of entering the water is by what

is known as diving; some think it should be termed “springing.” The best method of learning to dive is to stand on the side of the bath and then stoop down until the body is nearly double, stretch out the arms in front of the head, sink the head between them and gradually fall over into the water. The ability to enter the water head first will then soon be acquired. The English header, or plain dive, and the swallow dive rank equally in competition, but at the last Olympic Games only the swallow dive was permitted. In most respects the primary points to be observed are the same in each form of diving. To the ordiinary reader the word “diving,” means a great deal and covers a multitude of move- | ments. One who jumps from a bridge is said to be a diver; whether he touches the water head or feet first the action is referred to as a “dive.” Diving is almost in- | dispensable to the swimmer. The Swallow Dive.—This dive was first introduced into Great Britain from

FIG.

7.—(LEFT)

DOUBLE

SOMERSAULT

DIVE,

(RIGHT)

MOLBERG

DIVE

somersaults, either single, one-and-a-half or double, pike dives, screw or twist dives. The Amateur Diving Association in its year book provides a list of rz2 dives from spring and firm boards, which are valued according to difficulty of execution for the purpose of judging, which forms a good guide to the novice who desires by practice to become perfect as a diver. (See figs. 5; 6, 7) 8.)

A useful accomplishment is that known as surface diving, because it enables the swimmer to find and bring an object to the Sweden and has now become most popular. surface. The correct method of performing it is first to swim The take-off is taken with a strong outa few yards on the surface with the breast stroke, take a breath, ward and slightly upward spring, simulthen suddenly depress the head, look downwards, elevate the taneously swinging the arms upwards and body at the hips, and at the same time make a powerful stroke outwards, extending them sideways nearly with the legs and an upward stroke with the hands. The imlevel with the shoulders, the back hollowed FIG. = Gee Ge) and the head held back; legs perfectly ENGLISH PLAIN “HEAD- petus thus obtained will suffice to take the swimmer to the botstraight, toes pointed and legs pressed ER' SHOWING STANCE tom in 6ft. of water. Once under the surface it is only necessary close together. The arms are brought to- AND ANGLE OF DIVE; to keep the head depressed and swim by means of the breast gether beyond the head as for a plain dive (BELOW) PIKE DIVE, OR stroke in order to find the object of search. When about to rise to the surface, the head should be turned backwards with just before the body enters the water. The AMERICAN AN RIER standard heights adopted by the International Amateur Swimming the eyes upwards, and a stroke made with arms and legs. Plunging.—The sport is not very generally practised, though Federation are as follows:— there is a championship for it. A plunge is a standing dive made For spring boards—

I metre (3ft. 3in.) and 3 metres (oft. gin.). For firm boards— 3to 5 metres ( oft. gin. to 16ft. 3in.). sto 8 metres (16ft. 3in. to 26ft. oin.). 8 to 12 metres (26ft. oin. to 3oft. oin.). In actual practice a greater height than 10 metres (32ft. 6in.) is seldom used. To determine the relation of height of board to

head first from a firm take-off, free from spring. The body must be kept motionless, face downwards, no progressive movement

must be imparted other than the action of the dive. The plunge

terminates when the plunger raises his face above the surface of the water. With the idea of preventing long tests without breathing, it was deemed, in 1893, advisable by the Swimming Association to impose a time limit of one minute in all competitions. Yet even with this time limit the record plunge stands at 8sft. 6ins. for men and j7rft. for

women. | Open-air and Indoor Swimming.—Most of the principal

races are decided in baths, but there has been a tendency to re- FIG. 8.—SCREW DIVE, SHOWING vert to open water in the sum- TURNING POSITIONS OF BODY IN

mer and also to encourage long- ™'?-4!®

FIG. 6.—(LEFT) SINGLE SOMERSAULT DIVE

SOMERSAULT

DIVE:

(RIGHT) ONE-AND-A-HALF

depth of water the following broad principle is adopted:—The

height of a board should not exceed twice the depth of water, with a minimum depth of 6ft. A greater depth than 15ft. is unnecessary for any height of board. As standard heights have been fixed it is hoped that the Ama-

distance swimming. The first public baths in Great Britain were opened by the corporation of Liverpool in 1828 and the Baths and Washhouses Act was passed in 1846, the first of the London parishes to adopt the act being St. Martin’s in the Fields, which opened baths in Green Street, Leicester Square, in 1846. Since then public baths have been erected all over Great Britain and Ireland, and bath swimming has become, by reason of the Jack of reasonable open water accommodation the principal means of

SWIMMING teaching the young. But open water swimming, and more particularly swimming in the sea, is the best training and practice

667

plight. If he is carried away by a current in a river, he should

rgsec.) Kealoah, in the back stroke roo metres (1min. 15sec.) being the outstanding performers among the men, whilst Miss Bleibtrey set up new world’s figures for 100 metres (rmin. 13sec.) and 300 metres (4min. 34sec.), all of which have since been beaten. The Antwerp Olympiad was noteworthy for the advent of mere children into the Olympic Games. Nils Skoglund, a 14year-old Swedish boy, took honours in the men’s high diving event, and Miss Aileen Riggin, a 13-year-old American, earned world fame by annexing the fancy diving contest against all comers, with her youthful country-woman Miss Helen Wainwright tak-

select a spot on either bank and swim diagonally towards it, never minding where he has left his clothes. When in the sea, the conditions are not always the same, though the general rule of swimming diagonally for shore also applies. For sea bathing, how-

and women, but the fancy diving was secured by America’s representatives. In 1923 Arne Borg made a world tour when he met the Australian champion Andrew Charlton, the latter

for those who really love the art, because they are able to swim under normal climatic conditions, instead of in tepid water. When bathing in the open, care has to be taken to avoid weeds

or undercurrents.

In the event of accidentally getting into a bed

of weeds, the swimmer should cease kicking and work with the arms, and the current will then take him through. If he tries to swim, the weeds will entangle his legs and put him in an awkward

ever, it is far better, no matter how good a swimmer one may be, to have a boat in attendance. Before bathing in a strange place, the swimmer should make himself acquainted with the currents

and the direction of the tide. When the tide is going out the course should be made close in along the coast. In a rough sea the swimmer should not attempt to breast the waves, but as each wave rises he should swim through, thereby saving himself from buffeting, which, if long continued, would cause insensibility or else great waste of physical power. When using a boat for bathing the best way is to dive from the stern, to which some steps or a

rope ladder should be fixed, in order to aid the swimmer when

ing second place. Swedish nominees took the high diving for men

proving

successful

in three

contests,

when

new

records

were

tabulated. John Weismuller, a well set-up youth of Austrian descent, created world’s figures for every distance from soyd. up to and including 220yd.; he also proved equally skilful when swimming on the back. Weismuller won the roo and 400 metres events at the Olympic Games at Paris in 1924, his respective times being 59sec., and smin. 44sec. In the 4oo metres Weismuller was forced to his utmost to defeat Arne Borg and Charlton,

as only 2%sec. separated the first three. the 1,500 metres

in 20min.

Charlton, however, won

62sec. breaking

the Olympic

and

world’s record of 22min. created by the Canadian, George Hodggetting in again. Failing these being at hand, the best way is to son, at Stockholm in rgr2. Although the Americans almost swept lay hold of the stern with both hands and then, making a hard the board at Paris, it was noticeable that other countries includrising kick, raise the body till it rests on the edge at the hips. ing Sweden, Australia, England and Japan were rapidly closing Then smartly slip the hands a little forward, turn to a sitting up to them. Takaishi, a tiny Japanese, returned rmin. 12sec. in position and enter the boat. the r00 metres and in the 1,500 metres semi-final he returned Speed swimming records are so frequently altered that students 21min. 58sec. had best obtain the Amateur Swimming Association’s annual In the 1928 Olympiad Weismuller again won the roo metres, handbook, in which are detailed the accepted records up to date. in xsec. faster time than in 1924, but the American successes were The improvement in speed has been most remarkable. In 1877 not so sweeping as at Paris, Argentina, Germany, Holland, Japan the mile amateur record was 29min. 254sec., and that stood until and Sweden winning events. 1892. The record in 1909 was 24min. r#sec. made by T. S. Channel Swimming.—Much interest has centred in the many Battesby. In Jan. 1929 Arne Borg set up a world’s record of attempts to swim across the English channel; the first recorded 21min. 6gsec. The hundred yards record has been similarly re- attempt was made on Aug. 24, 1872, by J. B. Johnson, who duced. In 1878 it was Imin. 163sec.; in 1888 it had been low- started from Dover, but remained in the water only 65 minutes. ered by J. Nuttall to rmin. 64sec.; and in 1925 J. Weismuller of It was on Aug. 12, 1875, that Capt. Matthew Webb made his first America, created a world’s record of s52sec., which he lowered to attempt. He started from Dover and remained in the water 6hr. SIsec. In 1927. The records over intermediate distances have 49min., when the weather became too rough for him to continue. also been considerably lowered, and many long-distance swim- It is estimated that he was about 134 miles across when he had ming records have from time to time been created. to give up. On Aug. 24 and 25, 1875, he swam across the EngIn r910 F. E. Beaurepaire of Australia scored a series of re- lish channel, diving from the Admiralty pier, Dover, and touchmarkable victories in English championships, winning every ing Calais sands, after swimming for 2rhr. 45m., and at the time event from rooyds. to one mile inclusive. In 1912 an Hawaiian, this accomplishment created a great sensation in England. Since Duke Kahanamoku, H. Hebner of Chicago and George Hodgson then fifteen other successful attempts have been made and they of Canada, set up world’s records at the Stockholm Olympiad. are as follows:—Sept. 6, 1911, T. W. Burgess, 2thr. 35min.; Aug. Apart from the prowess of the foregoing, the Stockholm fixture 6, 1923, H. Sullivan, 2ohr. somin.; Aug. 12, 1923, S. Tirabosche, was noteworthy for the advent of women into Olympic swimming r6éhr. 35min.; Sept. 9, 1923, C, Toth, 16hr. 54min.; Aug. 6, contests. Miss Fannie Durack of Australia won the sprint in 1926, Miss G. Ederle, r4hr. 3rmin.; Aug. 28, 1926, Mrs. Corson, record time, while a quartette of British ladies secured the team t5hr. 28min.; Aug. 30, 1926, H. Vierkotter, r2hr. gomin.; Sept. event. A year later, J. G. Hatfield of England came to the front, 10, 1926, G. Michel, rthr. smin.; Sept. 17, 1926, N. L. Derham, and proved supreme in all distance events. I3hr. 56min.; Aug. 5, 1927, E. H. Temme, rghr. 2gmin:; Oct. Olympic Games.—The governing swimming associations in 7, 1927, Miss M. Gleitze, r5hr. 15min.; Oct. 13, 1927, Mrs. Ivy Great Britain ceased operations during the war, but in certain Gill, r5hr. gmin.; Aug. 19, 1928, Miss Ivy Hawke, 1ohr. 16min.; areas commendable efforts were made to keep the flag flying by Aug. 24, 1928, Miss Hilda Sharp, r4hr. 58min.; Sept. 1, 1928, intensive work. Britain’s only Olympic success at the Paris Helmy, 23hr. 4omin. Messrs. Webb, Burgess and Sullivan swam Games was scored by Miss Lucy Morton, who first came into from England to France and all the others from France to Engprominence in r91s5. The coaching propaganda was responsible land; these results have created an interest in long-distance swimfor the rise to fame of the Misses E. Mayne, C. M. Jeans, H. M. ming in all parts of the world that has resulted in the accomplishJames, I, Gilbert, G. Carson, M. Hamblin, M. A. Barker, E. ment of trials and tests once thought impossible. BrsriocrapHy.—The literature on the subject of swimming is conKing, M. J. Cooper, M. Specer, D. B. Hart, M. Laverty, also Messrs. A. Rawlinson, R. Flint and W. Stoney, all of whom have siderable; the most useful work of general reference is Ralph Thomas’s

either won national, titles or established records. The Olympic Games at Antwerp in 1920 supplied convincing proof of American supremacy, for the Stars and Stripes were carried to success in the free, back stroke and team events in record time, but the breast swimming fell to Scandinavian contestants. New records were established with clockwork regularity.

The Hawaiian-Americans, Kahanamoku in the 100 metres (rmin.

Swimming (1904), which contains a bibliography from the earliest time. Other chief works on the technique of swimming that may be mentioned are: Thevenot, The Art of Swimming (1789); Steedman, Manual of Swimming (Melbourne, 1867); W. Wilson, The Swimming Instructor (1883); A. Sinclair and W. Henry, Swimming (Badminton Library, 1893); C. M. Daniels) How to Swim and Save Life (Spalding’s Library, 1907); H. R. Austin, How to Swim (1914); L. de B. Handley, Swimming and Watermanship (New York, 1918); Handbook of the Amateur Swimming Association, containing list of

SWINBURNE

668 records, published annually; Handbook

ciation, published annually. THE

of the Amateur Diving Asso-

(X.)

UNITED STATES

Standardized water sports for men were launched in 1878, upon the formation of the Amateur Athletic Union of the United States, but not until r917 did the organization undertake to supervise and regulate water sports for women. Universities began to promote competitive swimming shortly after 1880 and schools soon

followed. By 1928 there were collegiate and scholastic associations fostering aquatics in all sections of the country and no less than 20,000 schoolboys took part in water carnivals conducted by a single organization, the Public School Athletic League of New York. Charles M. Daniels was the first American amateur swimmer to attain international rating. He shattered the world’s open water record for 220 yd. free style in 1904 and subsequently reaped signal honours at home and abroad, bettering other records and winning the Olympic 100 metre championship at Athens in 1906 and again at London in 1908. The great leap forward in speed swimming, however, followed the introduction of the crawl stroke, first used in standardized racing by Richard Cavill of Australia. The earliest knowledge of the crawl obtained by Americans was gleaned from hazy newspaper descriptions of Cavill’s stroke. In attempting to imitate the action they unwittingly developed a faster leg drive, executing four scissoring kicks per stroke, instead of the two performed by Cavill. The new leg drive was combined by Americans with the double over-arm action of the trudgeon, and the resulting stroke christened four-beat crawl, to distinguish it from the two-beat Australian variety.

Meanwhile, experiments had led to the belief that the fourbeat leg thrash was most effective when composed of one comparatively wide and three very narrow scissoring motions. This style, termed four-beat trudgeon-crawl, or four-beat singlerhythm crawl, became the accepted racing medium. The combination of movements was responsible for so notable an improvement in average performances that technical experts conceived the possibility of obtaining still greater speed from a sixbeat drive set to a double rhythm—two major and four minor kicks—which would minimize resistance and afford more even distribution of propelling power. But coaches were unanimous in declaring that the swift thrash would prove entirely too laborious for distances longer than about 100 yd., and the subject was dropped temporarily. Late in 1917, however, two young champions of the Women’s Swimming Association of New York, Miss Charlotte Boyle and Miss Claire Galligan, determined to give the six-beat crawl a trial and by the summer of 1918 they broke records with it over the longer regulation courses, 880 yd. and one mile. So convincing was this demonstration that it caused a sudden change of mind among coaches and competitors The six-beat crawl immediately won favour in the United States, presently in other countries and within a few years it had become the recognized stroke the world over, not only for racing, but for all around purposes. The coaching staff of the New York association later evolved a crawl system of elementary instruction which greatly simplified the task of teaching swimming to beginners. Then another of its champions, Miss Ethel McGary, successfully exploited in turn the eight and ten-beat varieties of crawl, achieving title and record honours. The most impressive illustration of the progress made in the United States through the advent and development of the crawl is afforded by the old and new national records for the classic competitive fixtures, 100 yd. in 75 ft. pools and x m. over courses

of 55 yd. and upward.

Before the introduction of the crawl the

men’s respective records were listed at 583 sec. and 28 min. 14% sec., the women’s unofficially quoted at 1 min. 22 sec. and 35 min. 38% seconds. By 1928 the men’s standards had been slashed to 51 sec. and 21 min. 352 sec., the women’s to r min. 3% sec. and 24 min. 493 seconds. It must be ascribed chiefly to the crawl, too, that American swimmers of both sexes, from trailing far behind rivals from other countries, rose to undisputed international leadership. At the Olympiad of 1912 in Stockholm, before the stroke had been perfected and generally adopted, the United States was

fifth in the natatorial competition, outpointed by Germany, Swe. den, England and Australia in this order. At Antwerp in 1920, on

the other hand, American men and women, the latter taking part in their first Olympiad, decisively outscored all opposing teams. This they repeated at Paris in 1924, and Amsterdam in 1928.

Daniels, America’s first international swimmer, garnered his

early laurels with the trudgeon, but he did not attain nearly his

best speed until he became a devotee of the crawl. Miss Gertrude Ederle, who swam the English channel in 1926, the first woman to accomplish the feat, used the crawl and covered the course in 14 hr. 34 min., faster time than ever returned by any man up to then. Among the outstanding figures in the history of American swimming besides the men and women named, are Henry Sullivan Charles Toth and Mrs. Mille Gade Corson, also channel con. querors; Harry Hebner, Olympic champion and first to use the

crawl back stroke; Duke Kahanamoku of Honolulu, Perry Mc-

Gillivray, Norman Ross, John Weissmuller, Walter Spence, Walter

Laufer, George Kojac and the Misses Ethelda Bleibtrey, Sybil Bauer, Aileen Riggin, Helen Wainwright, Ethel Lackie, Agnes Geraghty, Albina Osipowich, Josephine McKim, and Martha Norelius, all swimmers of international rank and prolific record. breakers in their day. (L. DE B. H.)

SWINBURNE, ALGERNON

CHARLES

(1837-1909),

English poet and critic, was born in London on April 5, 1837. He was the son of Admiral Charles Henry Swinburne (of an old Northumbrian family) and of Lady Jane Henrietta, a daughter of George, 3rd earl of Ashburnham. His childhood was spent on the Northumberland estate of his grandfather, Sir John Edward Swinburne, Bart., and at his father’s place, East Dene, in the

Isle of Wight. Of the two, the influences of the island are, perhaps naturally, the stronger in his poetry; and many of his most

beautiful pieces were actually written at the Orchard, an exquisite spot by Niton Bay, where he was a constant visitor.

After five years at Eton, Swinburne went to Balliol college, Oxford, in 1857. Jowett was his firm friend after he left Oxford, and Swinburne visited him repeatedly at the seaside and in the

country. He left Oxford in 1860, and in the same year published the two dramas, The Queen Mother and Rosamond, a wonderful performance for so young a poet, fuller of dramatic energy than most of his later plays, and rich in harmonies of blank verse. After spending some time with the Bell Scotts at Newcastle, Swinburne came to London, and began the intimate friendship with D. G. Rossetti which was to last for the next ten years. In 186r he was introduced to Monckton Milnes (Lord Houghton,

g.v.), who took an interest in his work and invited him to Fryston. There Swinburne created an unforgettable impression in the brilliant circle which gathered there, by his wide and varied acquaintance with ancient and modern literature and his astonishing memory. In 1862 he met Meredith, and a review of one of Victor Hugo’s books resulted in correspondence. In the autumn of that year he lived with Meredith and the Rossettis at 16 Cheyne Walk. Swinburne showed symptoms of something approaching epilepsy, and it was thought better that he should be with friends. In 1864 he made a tour in France and Italy. At Florence he met Mrs. Gaskell and Landor. For Landor he had a great admiration, but their meetings were few and short. On his return to London he took lodgings in Dorset Street, where he made his home for many years. In 1865 appeared the lyrical tragedy of Atalanta in Calydon, followed by Chastelard, and the famous Poems and Ballads in 1866. The Poems and Ballads were vehemently attacked, but Dolores and Faustine were on everyone’s lips: as a poet of the time has said, “We all went about chanting to one another these new, astonishing melodies.” By the close of his 3oth year, In spite of hostility and detraction, Swinburne had placed himself in the highest rank of contemporary poets, and had even established himself as leader of a choir of singers to whom he was at once master and prophet. Meanwhile, his life was disturbed by domestic sorrow. A favourite sister died at East Dene, and was buried in the churchyard of Bonchurch. Her loss overwhelmed Admiral Swinburne with grief, and he could no longer tolerate the house that was 50

SWINDON full of tender memories.

669

So the family moved to Holmwood, in house, The Pines, Putney, where the last 30 years of his life were spent in complete retirement. He very rarely made the short journey into London, although his health was gradually restored.

the Thames Valley, near Reading. Swinburne entered on a course of gaiety in London which seriously affected his health and alarmed his friends. At the same time he saw much of the Pre-

Ballads, to the example of Baudelaire and of the Pre-Raphaelites

The friends visited Paris in 1882. In 1888 a flash of his old excitability involved him in a quarrel with Whistler. Besides this wealth of poetry, Swinburne was active as a critic, and several volumes of fine impassioned prose testify to the variety and fluctuation of his literary allegiances. His Note on Charlotte Bronté (1877) must be read by every student of its subject; the Study of Shakespeare (1880)—followed in 1909 by The Age of Shakespeare—is full of vigorous and arresting thought, and many of his scattered essays are rich in suggestion and appreciation. His studies of Elizabethan literature are, indeed, full

themselves; with the Song of Italy (1867) he is drawing towards

of “the noble tribute of praise,” and no contemporary critic did

Raphaelite movement, and for the next few years he was involved in a rush of fresh emotions and rapidly changing loyalties. Works.—It is indeed necessary to any appreciation of Swinburne’s genius that one should understand that his inspiration

was almost invariably derivative. His first book is deliberately Shakespearian in design and expression; the Atalanta, of course, is equally deliberate in its pursuit of the Hellenic spirit. Then, with a wider swing of the pendulum, he recedes, in Poems and

the revolt of Mazzini (whom he had met at the house of George Howard, afterwards earl of Carlisle); by the time Songs before

so much to revive an interest in that wonderful period of dramatic recrudescence, the side-issues of which have been generally someSunrise are completed (in 1871) he is altogether under the in- what obscured by the pervading and dominating genius of Shakefluence of Victor Hugo, while Rome has become to him “first name speare. His prose work also includes an early novel in the form of the world’s names.” But, if Swinburne’s inspiration was of letters, Love’s Cross-currents, which had appeared serially in derivative, his manner was in no sense imitative; he brought to the Tatler and was revised for publication in rgos. poetry a spirit entirely his own, and a method even more indiPlace in Literature.—The service which Swinburne rendered vidual than his spirit. It is well to distinguish clearly between the to the English language as a vehicle for lyrical effect is simply influences which touched him and the original, personal fashion incalculable. He revolutionized the entire scheme of English in which he assumed those influences, and made them his own. prosody. Nor was his singular vogue due only to this extraordiThe spirit of Swinburne’s muse was always a spirit of revolution. nary metrical ingenuity. The effect of his artistic personality was In Poems and Ballads the revolt is against moral conventions and in itself intoxicating, even delirious. He was the poet of youth restraints; in Songs before Sunrise the arena of the contest is no insurgent against all the restraints of conventionality and custom. longer only.the sensual sphere, but the political and the ecclesias- The young lover of poetry, when first he encounters Swinburne’s tical. The detestation of kings and priests, which marked so much influence, is almost bound to be swept away by it; the wild, extravof the work of his maturity, is now in full swing, and Swinburne’s agant license, the apparent sincerity, the vigour and the verve, language is sometimes tinged with extravagance and an almost cry directly to the aspirations of youth like a clarion in the wildervirulent animosity. ness. But, while this is inevitable, it is also true that the critical With Bothwell (1874) he returned to drama and the story of lover of poetry outgrows an unquestioning allegiance to the Mary Stuart. The play has fine scenes and is burning with poetry, Swinburnian mood more quickly than any other of the diverse but its length transcends all possibilities of harmonious unity. emotions aroused by the study of the great poets. It is impossible Erechtheus (1876) was a return to the Greek inspiration of to acquit his poetry entirely of the charge of an animalism which Atalanta; and then in the second series of Poems and Ballads wars against the higher issues of the spirit—an animalism some(1878) the French influence is seen to be at work, and Victor times of love, sometimes of hatred, but, in both extremes, out of Hugo begins to hold alone the place possessed, at different times, centre and harmony. i by Baudelaire and Mazzini. At this time Swinburne’s energy was Yet, when everything has been said that can be said against at fever height; in 1879 he published his eloquent Study of the unaesthetic violences of the poet’s excesses, his service to conShakespeare and Poems and Ballads (second series) and in 1880 temporary poetry outweighed all disadvantages. No one did more no fewer than three volumes, The Modern Heptalogia, a brilliant to free English literature from the shackles of formalism; no one, anonymous essay in parody, Songs of the Springtides, and Studies among his contemporaries, pursued the poetic calling with so sinin Song. It was shortly after this date that Swinburne’s friendship cere and resplendent an allegiance to the claims of absolute and unfor Theodore Watts-Dunton (then Theodore Watts) grew into adulterated poetry. Some English poets have turned preachers; one of brotherly intimacy. After 1880 Swinburne’s life remained others have been seduced by the attractions of philosophy; but without disturbing event, devoted entirely to the pursuit of litera- Swinburne always remained an artist absorbed in a lyrical ecstasy, ture in peace and leisure. a singer and not a seer. His personality was among the most The conclusion of the Elizabethan trilogy, Mary Stuart, was potent of his time, and his artistic influence was both inspiring published in 1881, and in the following year Tristram of Lyonesse, and beneficent. He died at Putney on April 10, 1909. a wonderfully individual contribution to the modern treatment See R. H. Shepherd, The Bibliography of Swinburne (1889) ; Theoof the Arthurian legend, in which the heroic couplet is made to dore Wratislaw, Algernon Charles Swinburne, a Study (1900); G. E. assume opulent, romantic cadences of which it had hitherto Woodberry, Swinburne (1905); Edmund Gosse, article in Dict. Nat. Biog., 2nd supp., 1901-11; Edward Thomas, Algernon Charles Swinseemed incapable. Among the publications of the next few years burne, a Critical Study (1912); John Drinkwater, Swinburne, an must be mentioned A Century of Roundells, 1883; A Midsummer Estimate (1913); Clara J Watts-Dunton, The Home Life of SwinHoliday, 1884; and Miscellanies, 1886. The current of his poetry, burne (1922); J. V. Nash, The Religious Life of Swinburne (1923) ;

indeed, continued unchecked; and though it would be vain to pretend that he added greatly either to the range of his subjects or to the fecundity of his versification, it is at least true that his melody was unbroken, and his resplendent torrent of words inexhaustible. His Marino Faliero (1885) and Locrine (1887) have passages of power and intensity unsurpassed in any of his earlier work, and the rich metrical effects of Astrophel (1894) and The

Paul Dottin, Swinburne et les dieux (1925); J. W. Mackail, Studies of English Poets (1926); H. Nicolson, Swinburne (English Men of Letters Series, 1926); G. Lafourcade, 1837-67 (1928); S. C. Chew, Swinburne

SWINDON,

La jeunesse (1929).

de Swinburne, (E. G.; X.)

a market town and municipal borough in the

Swindon parliamentary division of Wiltshire, England, 774 m. W. of London by the G.W. railway, of which it is an important

junction. Pop. (1931) 62,407. It has two parts, the mew and the Tale of Balin (1896) are inferior in music and range to none but old. The present town received its charter in 1901. The new his own masterpieces. In 1899 appeared his Rosamund, Queen of town grew up around the vast locomotive and wagon works: of the Lombards; in 1903 his Duke of Gandia; and in 1904 was be- the G.W. railway. It rose rapidly on a strip of waste land, and gun the publication of a collected edition of his poems and dramas churches and chapels were built for the workmen, whose numIn II volumes. | bers soon exceeded 10,000. Each man contributes to a medical Later Yeats.—Meanwhile, in the autumn of 1879 the state of fund which maintains the fever, accident and general hospitals, his health seriously alarmed his friends, and, with the consent of providing also laundries and baths. There are a mechanics’ instiLady Jane Swinburne, Watts-Dunton took him to live at his tute, containing a large library, theatre, reading-rooms and lec-

670

SWINE—SWINEMUNDE

ture-hall. The company owns a park with football and cricket grounds. The old town stands on a hill overlooking the Glouces-

tershire borders.

The

railway

engine

and wagon

works now

employ over 12,000 hands. Many are engaged in the neighbouring

quarries, and there are also clothing factories and corn mills. SWINE, a name applied to the domestic pig, but also used to include its wild relatives. The animals constitute the family Suzdae of the Suina. (See ARTIODACTYLA.) The Suidae are divisible into the true swine (Suinae) of the Old World, and the American peccaries (q.v.) (Dicotylinae). The Suinae are characterized by an elongated, mobile snout, with an expanded, truncated, terminal surface in which the nostrils are placed; narrow feet with four toes on each, the outer pair not reaching the ground when walking; the canines in both jaws developed into upwardly directed tusks, best developed in the male. The typical genus Sus is exemplified by

-RE DENTITION OF THE BOAR, 12 INCISORS, 4 CANINES, 16 PREMOLARS AND 12 MOLARS: TOTAL

African river-hogs (g.v.) (Potamochoerus). Linking these genera with the wart-hogs is the African Hylochoerus, a forest-dwelling form with a thick coat of coarse black hair. The remaining forms are the wart-hogs (Phacochoerus, q.v.) and the babirusa (g.v.). Extinct swine, some of gigantic strata as

far back as the Pliocene of Europe and Asia; many of these belonged to the genus Sus.

SWINE FEVER, the name

AAG Sy applied in Great Britain to a disTHE WILD BOAR (SUS SCROFA) ease which occurs only in swine; in America, the synonym, hog cholera, is used; in Germany, Schweinepest. The disease has a wide distribution throughout Europe, America and Africa, and is not uncommon in the British Isles. Although in the past the cause of the disease has been ascribed to various bacilli, it has been recognized for a number of years that the condition is due to a filter-passing virus (q v.). The filtrates from the blood of pigs affected with swine fever are free of visible organisms and yet convey the disease when administered to healthy swine. Methods of cultivating the causal virus outside the body are not known. Differences of opinion have existed as to the part played by the visible bacteria in the causation of the disease, but the view is generally held that the virus of swine fever so lowers the resistance of its host that bacteria, normally non-pathogenic to healthy pigs, are capable of becoming pathogenic and so to assume the réle of secondary invaders. The bacillus suipestifer is one of the most important of these and has been shown to be present in the intestines of healthy pigs. Morphologically it occurs as a short, motile rod, and biologically it is related to the paratyphoid group; it stains readily with the basic aniline dyes and is easily culturable. Natural infection results from immediate or mediate contagion. The disease may be introduced into healthy herds by the introduction of infected pigs; exposure of swine in markets in infected areas is a fertile source of infection; so are vehicles and

trucks in which pigs are conveyed from place to place; dealers,

castrators who journey from farm to farm, and attendants may serve as agencies whereby contagion is conveyed.

_

and constipation anq

diarrhoea are both met with; sometimes the faeces become dys-

enteric and the odour is peculiar and disagreeable. In a number of cases a skin rash develops, the parts principally involved being the region of the ears, the axilla, groin and the skin

covering the abdominal area.

The mucous membrane lining the

mouth, fauces and pharynx may become inflamed, later ulcers form and become covered with a diphtheritic exudation. As a re. sult the animal is unable to feed and respiration is rendered diffcult. The lungs may be the seat of pneumonic changes and the animal has then a short, dry and paroxysmal cough, a nasal dis. charge, difficulty in respiration, and the other symptoms charac-

wild boar. (See Boar) Allied to these are the pigmy hog of Nepal (Porcula salvania), about the size of a hare; and the

from

purulent discharge; vomition is common,

teristic of acute lung infection.

|

the domesticated pigs (see Pic) and the 44

size, are known

pressed, ill and separates itself from its companions; the gop. junctivae are reddened and congested and may secrete a muco.

Outbreaks are liable to recur in premises where the disease has existed previously, as the virus appears to retain its vitality for

fairly long periods outside the animal body. Within a space of time which rarely extends to three weeks after exposure to infection, and may not be more than four days, the disease is ushered in by fever, the subsequent symptoms varying somewhat with ‘the form the disease assumes. The animal has no appetite, is de-

Gastritis and enteritis are com-

mon. The animal lies about and if compelled to move does so reluctantly and sometimes with a staggering gait and an arched

back; later it is unable to rise and becomes comatose. As in other acute septicaemic diseases, a hyperacute form may develop and death supervenes within a few days, or a less acute form may set in where one or more groups of organs become involved; a chronic type is also encountered, life drags on over a

considerable period and the animal becomes more debilitated and emaciated and remains a possible source of infection to other

pigs. Recovery occurs in some cases, the virulence of, and the mortality from, the disease varying widely in different outbreaks. Methods of prevention consist in keeping of swine in properly constructed piggeries and observing the laws of modern hygiene.

Present-day open-air methods of pig raising are of value. Fresh pigs introduced into premises must be submitted to isolation for a sufñcient space of time, in order to allow the disease to develop, if present: a period of rather more than three weeks is desirable. In infected areas every effort must be made to prevent the introduction of the contagion from outside sources. When stud boars are kept special precautions are necessary and the law must be carefully observed. Since pigs which have recovered completely from an attack of swine fever possess a high degree of immunity, attempts have been made to perfect a hyperimmune serum against the virus of the disease. This serum has been extensively used in various countries with good results and it possesses the power of protecting swine against the disease, provided it is administered before exposure to infection or in the early days after infection; obviously it can be of little service after the onset of the disease as it is not potent against the organismal secondary invaders. In herds where the disease exists it is desirable to use the serum upon those animals which are not showing symptoms of the disease and to slaughter the animals affected. Since the protective power of the hyperimmune serum is expended after a few weeks, attempts have been made to confer an active immunity by mixing the immunized pigs with those affected with swine fever, in order that a natural attack of the disease may be developed in a very modified form. This method has been proved to be less dangerous than an alternative method which consists in the simultaneous injection of hyperimmune serum and virulent blood taken from an animal suffering from swine fever. The former method, as stated, is preferable and it has given good results in practice, but it is not free from danger as some animals develop and die from the disease. (A. R. S.)

SWINEMUNDE,

port and seaside resort in the Prussian

province of Pomerania, at the east extremity of the island of Usedom, and on the river Swine which connects the Stettiner Haff with the Baltic. Pop. (1925) 18,213. The Swine, the central and shortest passage between the Stettiner Haff and the Baltic Sea, was formerly flanked by the fishing villages of West and East Swine. Towards the beginning of last century it was made navigable for large ships, and Swinemünde, which was founded on the

site of West Swine in 1748, was fortified and raised to the dignity of a town by Frederick the Great in 1765.

The entrance to the

harbour, the best on the Prussian Baltic coast, is protected by two long breakwaters, and is strongly fortified. The fairway 1s 360-490 ft. wide, with a depth of 30 ft. at the quays.

SWINGING—SWISS

LITERATURE

671

SWINGING, a radio term denoting variation in intensity of Swiss minnesinger, forms the subject of a charming tale by Gotta received radio signal resulting from changes in the frequency of

the transmitted waves. SWINTON, SIR ERNEST DUNLOP

(1868), British soldier, was born on Oct. 21, 1868, and commissioned in the

Royal Engineers in 1888. In the South African War he was first adjutant and then commander of the ist Railway Pioneer Regi-

fried Keller (q v.) and contributed not a little to the growth of Swiss nationalism and patriotism. Other prominent names are Rudolf von Fenis, count of Neuchâtel (12th or 13th century),

who was much

influenced

by the Provençal

troubadours,

and

Berthold Steinmar of Argovia, of original and vigorous talent.

Fables and Popular Songs.—In Switzerland, as in Germany,

to Sir Maurice Hankey, Secretary of the Committee of Imperial Defence, in Oct. 1914 became the first link in the causa-

the romantic lyric and epic of the minnesinger period were followed by an age of more prosaic and didactic work. It may be said to be ushered in by the Edelstein, a versified collection of fables by Ulrich Boner, a Dominican friar of Berne (first half of. the 14th century), with which may be mentioned Der Ring of Heinrich Wittenberger (Thurgau), a sort of comic epic, and the Schachzabelbuch, an allegorical poem by Konrad von Ammenhausen (1347). The White Book of Sarnen (c. 1470) and the chronicle of Melchior Russ of Lucerne (1482) contain the earliest mentions of William Tell (see TELL). Diebold Schilling of Berne (1484) gives us a stirring narrative of the Burgundian wars. More interesting, perhaps, to lovers of literature are the popular songs, especially the war songs celebrating the marvellous victories of the

tion of the machine gun and wire destroyer, afterwards chris-

early Swiss.

tened the tank (g.v.). In 1915 he returned to England to become secretary to the War Committee of the Cabinet. In this capacity he had much to do with the preparation of the first tanks. In 1925 he was appointed professor of military history at Oxford.

memorates the battle of Sempach (1386) and the heroism of Arnold von Winkelried (q.v.), familiar in the later version associated with the name of Hans Halbsuter of Lucerne (1541).

ment. In 1904 Swinton produced The Defence of Duffer’s Drift, a tactical study which became an unofficial textbook in the British

and Indian army, and an official one in the U.S. army. In 19009, when an instructor at Woolwich, he wrote, under the pseudonym of Ole-Luk-Oie, a book of short stories entitled The Green Curve,

which, by its combination of literary power and military imagination, gained a wide reputation.

Appointed

secretary

of the

historical section, Committee of Imperial Defence, in roro, he compiled the official history of the Russo-Japanese War. Soon after the outbreak of war in 1914 he was sent out to France as the

official Military Correspondent

(‘‘Eyewitness”).

His proposals

SWINTON, an urban district in the West Riding of York-

shire, England, ro4 m. N.E. of Sheffield on the L.M.S. and LN.E. railways, at the junction of the Don navigation with the Dearne and Dove navigation. Pop. (1931), 13,820. merly renowned for its Rockingham ware.

SWINTON AND PENDLEBURY,

The town was for-

an urban district in

the Eccles municipal and parliamentary borough, Lancashire, England, 5 m. N.W. of Manchester, contiguous with Salford, with stations on the L.M.S. railway. Pop. (1931), 32,761. The Swinton industrial schools were opened in Feb. 1846. The manufacture

of cotton, and coal-mining are the chief industries. Anciently a large part of Swinton was possessed by the Knights Hospitallers of St. John of Jerusalem.

SWISS LITERATURE.

Peculiarities of the geographical

situation of Switzerland make it impossible to speak of a “Swiss” literature in the sense in which we speak of a French or English literature. Switzerland has occupied the position of a “marchland” to its three great neighbours, Germany, France and Italy; and the attraction of the languages of these three nations has exercised an overwhelming influence on Swiss letters. There has, however, almost always been a characteristically Swiss note in the books produced in the territory now known as Switzerland. GERMAN

Switzerland remained substantially a literary dependent of Germany even after her political liberty had been achieved.

Hadlaub

and his contemporaries were rather local German, than Swiss, poets. At the time of the Reformation, there was a momentary

danger that German Switzerland would develop an Alemannic literary language differing from that of Germany. Fortunately this differentiation has been confined to the popular spoken lan-

guage of “Schweizer Deutsch”

(which, however, plays also a

respectable rôle in letters), and Swiss writers in German were able to retain the wide public of German-speaking nations. The abbey of St. Gall was a cradle, not only of Swiss literature, but of German letters in general, at a time corrésponding to our Anglo-Saxon period. For details, see articles St. GALLEN, NoTKER, Hymns, WALTHARIUS, GERMAN LITERATURE, etc. For our purposes we may begin this sketch with the League or Pact of

One of the earliest and most famous

of these com-

Similar songs celebrate the victories of Naefels (1388), Grandson

(1476), Morat (1476), Nancy (1477), and Giornico (1478). The beginnings of the drama in German Switzerland resembled those in Germany. Indeed, the earliest known ms. of a Passion play emanates from the abbey of Muri in Argovia (early 13th century). Switzerland also had its share of the secular Fastenspiele of Shrovetide, the best known of which is Der Kluge Knecht, by an anonymous author of the 15th century. Switzerland shared also in the production of the mystical and humanist writings that heralded the Reformation. Perhaps the

most notable Swiss mystic is Elsbeth Stagel (d. c. 1355), a nun of Toss, near Zurich. She was an ardent disciple of the German mystic Heinrich Suso (b. at Constance). The first stirrings of Humanism in Switzerland may be attributed to the visit of the Italian scholar Poggio to St. Gall (1416) and to the Councils of Constance (1416-18) and Basle (1431-49). Aeneas Sylvius, present at the latter, founded the University of Basle a little later (1459). A zealous disciple of these two scholars was Niklaus von Wyl, an Argovian (b. c. 1410), who is an outstanding figure in the chronicles of Humanism. Effects of the Reformation.—The literature of German Switzerland in the 16th century was, like that of French Switzerland, mainly a product of the Protestant Reformation. Though Zwingli was a less powerful literary force than Luther or Calvin, his enthusiasm for progress included many secular as well as religious interests. The Zürich Bible, largely consisting of Luther’s version, was issued in 153r. The drama, too, still in a somewhat primitive form, was mainly in the hands of the Protestants.

Zwingli’s colleague and successor Heinrich Bullinger (g.v.) wrote at least one play. The most prominent literary name of the period

is that of Nicholas Manuel (1484-1550), the painter, who wrote also many plays and satires. Jakob Ruf (d. 1558) resuscitated (1545) the old Urnerspiel, dealing with the William Tell legend. The chroniclers of the 16th century are of more significance for us than the drama, inasmuch as they deal with still-living facts. Among the most important are the brilliant and fanciful Giles Tschudi (qg.v.), though he wrote mainly Stumpf (g.v.), an annalist of more accuracy and Josias Simler (1530-76), writing in Latin. of St. Gall, known as Vadianus (1484-1551),

in Latin; Johannes if of less charm; Joachim von Watt compiled an inter-

1291 (see p. 681 infra). That document, indeed, was written in Latin; but all later alliances (such as, e.g., the Priests’ Ordinance esting chronicle of the abbots. Valerius Anshelm (d. 1540) told of 1370) were drawn up in German. This was the period of the the story of Berne down to 1536. Bullinger (q.v.) and Hans Salat German minnesingers (g.v.), at least 30 of whom are known to (d. c. 1552) wrote narratives of the Swiss Reformation from ophave originated at Zürich and other parts of what is now German posite points of view. The journal of Andreas Ryff (1550-1603) Switzerland. The Codex Manesse (now in Paris), compiled by the gives us a picture of the daily life of a pious merchant of the day. (Swiss) father and son of that name, dates' from the beginning of The autobiographies of the father and son, Thomas and Felix the 14th century and includes specimens of 141 poets. Master Platter (d. 1582 and 1614), are,among the most charming prose John Hadlaub (13—14th centuries), perhaps the most important works of the period. Konrad von Gesner (g.v.) wrote in Latin

SWISS LITERATURE

672

and ranks as a naturalist and scholar rather than as an author. The realm of imaginative prose is scantily represented by Wilhelm Ziely (d. c. 1542), who translated French romances, and Johann Wetzel, who published oriental tales, after an Italian model. The 18th Century Revival.—Signs of revival begin with the 18th century. Ziirich, Berne and Basle were the chief literary centres.

The prevailing spirit was one of liberal Protestant-

ism; one indication of this being the growing influence of English authors at the expense of French. Friedrich Drollinger (168381742) of Basle (though born in Baden), translator of Pope, forms a link with the revival of Swiss literature represented by Haller of Berne and Rousseau of Geneva. Albrecht von Haller (g.v.), though specially distinguished as a scientific writer, is a notable figure in pure literature, both for his contemporary influence (in Germany as well as in Switzerland) and as one of the first of the early authors who is still read with appreciation. His long poem on the Alps (Die Alpen, 1732) did much to stimulate Swiss patriotism and interest in Swiss scenery; and his friend Goethe called him “the father of national poetry.” His son, Gottlieb Emanuel von Haller (175586), produced, in his Bibliothek der Schweizergeschichte, a work that is still indispensable to the historical student. Among Haller’s followers are the poets J. K. Peyer of Sachshausen

(1707—

68), Samuel Grimm of Burgdorf (1733-94) and Vinzenz von Tscharner of Berne (1728-78). A prominent literary figure of Basle in this period was Isaac Iselin (1728-83), the chief begetter of the Helvetic Society (see below), whose treatises on the philosophy of history (Geschichte der Menschheit, 1764) and ideal philosophy (Philosophische und Patriotische Tréiume eines Menschenfreundes, 1775) were eloquent expositions of the idealistic and patriotic movement of his day. Otherwise Basle was more prominent as a scientific centre, notably with the eminent mathematicians, Leonard Euler (g.v.) and the Bernoullis (q.v.). Zūrich as Intellectual Capital.—But the real intellectual capital of Switzerland in the 18th century was Zürich, the “Athens on the Limmat.” The most prominent names are those of Johann Jakob Bodmer (g.v.) and John Jakob Breitinger

literature, more or less sterile; but the democratic revival after 1830 was as marked in letters as elsewhere. Three names stand out at this time above all others—Albrecht Bitzius (g.v.), better known as “Jeremias Gotthelf,” the novelist of peasant life; Gottfried Keller (g.v.) a very representative Swiss

novelist and poet; and Conrad Ferdinand Meyer (q.v.), another

poet and novelist, of more

cosmopolitan

leanings and tastes

Other notable writers are: Johann Martin Usteri_ (1763~1829)

?

one of the earliest dialect poets; Gaudenz von Salis-Seewitz (17621834), a Grisons poet, known to English readers by Longfellow’s

version of his Song of the Silent Land; U. Hegner (1759-1840)

and D. Hess (1770-1843), two novelists of local colour ; Gottlieb

Jakob Kühn (1775-1845), a well-known dialect poet; J. R Wyss

(1781-1830), author of the Swiss national anthem (Rufst du,

mein Vaterland?) and son of J. D. Wyss, writer of The Swiss Family Robinson; K. R. Tanner (d. 1849), a lyric poet; Jakob

Frey (1824~75), a follower of Bitzius; A. E. Frohlich (qv) ? the fabulist; Jacob Burckhardt (qg.v.), author of the Cicerone; the Ziirich poets, L. Widmer (1806-68), H. Leuthold (1827-79), and A. Corrodi (1826-85); J. J. Bachofen (1815-87), a writer on Rome and Roman law, whose works have recently made a new

and strong appeal; and F. Schmid (1823~88), a metaphysical poet, Writers of the 20th Century.—Among writers whose actiy-

ity belongs in whole or part to the 2oth century, the outstanding name is that of Carl Spitteler (g.v.), a really great epic and lyric

poet. With him may be named his friend J. V. Widmann (q.v), a poet and dramatist of taste and distinction. R. Faesi, H.

Federer, A. Frey, J. C. Heer, A. Huggenberger, Paul Ilg, Max Pulver, J. Schaffner, A. Steffen and Ernest Zahn are all writers of mark. Other noteworthy poets are Gottfried Bohnenblust, H. Hiltbrunner (Werk der Welt, 1927), Siegfried Lang, Karl Stamm (1890-1919), Dominik Miiller, F. Hofer and Isabella Kaiser (Mein Herz), who writes both in French and German. The chief dialect poets include Meinrad Lienert (b. 1865), the “Swiss Hebbel”; Otto von Greyerz; and Joseph Reinhart. Novelists and story-tellers of note, besides those already mentioned are: J. Bosshart (1862-1924), whose later works showed great power (e.g., Zin Rufer in der Wüste); J. Buhrer (Aus Konrad Sulzers Tagebuch); A. Fankhauser (b. 1890); John Knittel, who writes in English (e.g., Aaron West, with preface by R. Hichens, and Into the Abyss, 1927); Felix Moeschlin (Die Kénigschmieds); W. Siegfried (Tino Muralt); A. Végtlin; Robert Walser; Maria Waser (Wir Narren von Gestern); Lisa Wenger (Was das Leben mir lehrte, 1927); and Otto Wirz (Gewalten eines Toren, 1922). The leading story-writers in dialect are R. von Tavel (Veteranezyt, 1927), J. Reinhart (see above), and Simon Gfeller (Meieschossl; Heimisbach; Aemmegrund, 1927). Among the best critics, essayists and biographers of the day are C. A. Bernoulli, notable for his books on Nietzsche (1910), Bachofen, and others, and also the author of plays and novels, G. Bohnenblust (see above) ; Emil Ermatinger, an authority on German literature and author of a vigorous romance (Der Weg ims Leben); O von Greyerz (see above); R. Faesi (g.v.); and E¢uard Korrodi. Among historians we may note Wilhelm Oeschshi, whose admirable History of Switzerland from 1419 to 19169, has

(1701-76), who, though not themselves stars of the first magnitude, had an important effect in extricating German literature from its old shackles and guiding it into a more promising course. They were much influenced by Milton, Shakespeare and other English writers, and were violently, but unsuccessfully, opposed by Gottsched, the leader of the Saxon or “French” school. In 1721-23 Bodmer and Breitinger carried on the Diskursen der Maler, a periodical to spread their views, while more elaborate and systematic expositions of their critical doctrine as to poetry were set forth in Bodmer’s Kritische Abhandlung von dem Wunderbaren in der Poesie (1740) and Breitinger’s Kritische Dichthunst (1740). Among the most important Ziirich contemporaries of Bodmer = were Salomon Gessner (g.v.), the pastoral poet; J. H. Pestalozzi (g.v.), the educationalist; and J. K. Lavater (g.v.), now best remembered as a physiognomist and phrenologist, though his lifetime influence was great in many other fields. Johann Caspar been turned into English by E. and C. Paul (1922); Eduard Hirzel (1725~1803) is notable for his Wirthschaft eines phil- Fueter, author of Die Schweiz seit 1848 (1927); and Ernst Gagosophischen Bauers (1761), the record of “Kleinjogg,” a village liardi, author of Dokumente zur Geschichte des Burgermeisters Socrates, which attained great contemporary popularity. Johann Hans Waldmann, and of Geschichte der Schweiz, of which the Georg Sulzer (1720-79) claims attention for his Allgemeine concluding volume, covering the history of Switzerland from Theorie der schénen Kiinste. Hirzel was one of the founders of 1848 to 1926, appeared in 1927. the Helvetic Society (1761). Baechhold, Geschichte der Deutschen Literatur Of other Swiss writers of this period, not specially associated in BrsLiocRaPHy.—J. der Schweiz (to the end of the 18th century), 2 pts. (Frauenfeld, with the three towns named above, one of the best known is 1892; reprinted, 1919); H. E. Jenny and V. Rossel, Geschichte der, J. G. Zimmermann (1728-95), the lover of solitude. Johannes von Schweizerischen Literatur (and Fr. trans. of the same date, 1910); Müller (g.v.) wrote the first detailed history of Switzerland, a G. de Reynold, Bodmer et l’école suisse (x912; vol. ii. of Histoire book of influence and value. J. H. Zschokke (1771-1848), Swiss littéraire de la Suisse au XVIIIe siècle, r909 etc.); E. Korrod, Literaturbriefe (Frauenfeld and Leipzig, 1918); R. by adoption, also wrote a, popular Swiss history, but is best known Schweizerische Faesi, Gestalten und Wandlungen schweizerischer Dichtung (Zürich, for his numerous short stories. J. J. Hottinger (1763-1860) and 1922); P. Lang, Bühne und Drama der deutschen Schweiz im XIX. the brothers G. and F. von Wyss (d. 1893 and 1907) are also und beginnenden XX. Jahrhundert (Zürich, 1924); O. von Greyerz,

noteworthy historians (of a somewhat later date).

The Napoleonic Period—This

was naturally, for Swiss

W. Muschg, and C. A. Bernoulli, Berner Geist, Züricher Geist, Basler Geist (Zürich, 1926). See also Bibliothek älterer Schrifwerke der deutschen Schweiz

(edit. J. Baechtold and F. \etter); Die Schiweis

SWISSVALE—SWISS im deutschen Geistesleben, a series of monographs edit. by H. Mayne, containing useful contributions by R. Faesi, O. von Greyerz, E. Korrodi, etc.) ; and Die Junge Schweiz (edit. by E. Korrodi) . (J. E. M.) FRENCH

French established itself in the 13th century as the written language and the vehicle of law in the districts which form French Switzerland.

Between

that

time

and

the

ever, little original literature was produced.

Reformation,

how-

Some chronicles, a

few fragments of mysteries, and one or two romances printed at

Geneva towards the end of the 15th century, are almost all that

WARS

tive writers and recorders of rural life than novelists proper. The chief names to be mentioned are those of the great Vaudois writer

C. F. Ramuz, B. Vallotton, Noëlle Roger, and the creators of the new analytical school, Robert de Traz and Jacques Chenevière. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—P. Godet, Histoire littéraire de la Suisse francaise (1895) ; V. Rossel, Histoire littéraire de la Suisse romande (1903). For the 18th century: G. de Reynold, Le doyen Bridel et les origines de la littérature suisse romande (1901). For the roth century, see the summary by C. Clerc in Bédier and Hazard’s Histoire dela littérature francaise, vol. ii., pp. 326 et seg. (1924). For the beginning of the zoth century; P. Kohler, La Littérature d@’aujour@hui dans la Suisse romande (1923).

remain. The literary age begins with the intellectual impetus sup-

plied by the Reformation.

The Histoire littéraire de Genève,

published by Senebier in 1786, gives an idea of the abundant literary production of a single Swiss city. The Age of Rousseau.—Even in the 18th century it cannot be said that a national literature existed in French Switzerland. Yet at this period the Protestant cities of refuge became intensely interested in literature, and taste began to be cultivated by the

patrician and bourgeois classes. The atmosphere of the Reformation mingled with that of the 18th century. French Switzerland

has at no time been more cosmopolitan in the best sense of the word; it has never been a more brilliant intellectual centre or a more active laboratory of new ideas. The works of Rousseau and Madame de Staél, and Benjamin Constant’s Adolphe, are the main contributions of Switzerland to French literature during the 18th and early roth centuries. The Swiss literary movement, which became more national in the last century, stood somewhat apart from that of France. The Swiss writers are given to thought and self-examination; they are seekers after truth, less ready to complain of destiny than to acknowledge their own shortcomings, plain citizens who are at the same time dreamers. The greatest modern novelist of French Switzerland, C. F. Ramuz; is principally famous for the pictures he gives of his native country; the same is true of the poet Juste

Olivier, and, still earlier, of the racy stories of Rodolphe Töpffer. Vinet and Amiel.—Although, however, the writers who describe the picturesque features of local life occupy an important place in French Swiss literature—they are, indeed, primarily depicters of their land and their nation, and only secondarily novelists or short story writers—the first place is due not so much to them as to the critics and moralists. It was Vinet (17971847) and Amiel (1821~81) who first extended the intellectual prestige of French Switzerland beyond the frontiers.

673

ITALIAN

Italian Switzerland is best known by its artists, while its literature is naturally subject to strong Italian influences, and not to any of a strictly Swiss nature. Stefano Franscini (1796-1857) did much for his native land, especially in educational matters, while his chief published work (1835) was one that gave a general account of the canton of Ticino. But this is not so thorough and

good as a later book by Luigi Lavizzari (1814-1875), entitled Escursioni nel cantone Ticino (1863) which is very complete from all points of view. Angelo Baroffio (d. 1893) and Emilio Motta represent the historical sciences, the latter contributing much to the Bolletino della Svizzera Italiana (from 1870 on-

wards), which, though mainly historical, devotes much space to literary and historical matters relating to the canton. The art of novel writing does not flourish in Ticino. But it has produced a great number of poets such as Pietro Peri (1794-1869), who translated the Swiss national anthem into Italian, J. B. Buzzi (1825-1898), Giovanni Airoldi (died before 1900) and Carlo Cioccari (1829-1891)—the two former were lyric poets, and the third a dramatist. The younger poets are F. Chiesa and M. A. Nessi. Possibly the most conspicuous literary figure of the moment is Luigi Zoppif, who wrote L’Esteta. SWISSVALE, a borough of Allegheny county, Pennsylvania, U.S.A., 6 m. S.E. of Pittsburgh, on the Pennsylvania railroad. Pop. (1920) 10,958 (82% native white); 1930 Federal census was 16,029. It is an important manufacturing centre, with an annual output valued at $16,000,000.

SWISS WARS,

1315-1529.

When the central organization

of the Holy Roman Empire broke down in the thirteenth century, there were certain communities which had not yet slipped into subordination to the feudal states which were to replace the emperor as the practical governing authority in Germany. The origin of Switzerland in its modern sense lies in the fact that the Among the poets of French Switzerland, very few reveal a men of Uri and Schwyz obtained in 1231 and 1240 respectively stormy temperament or make their passions and their griefs the Fretheitsbriefe, or charters of liberty from Frederic IL., declaring subject of their art. Swiss lyrical poetry is the product of a them to be free from comital authority and direct vassals of the happy people. Sometimes it is religious in character, and somecrown. How Unterwalden, the third original member of the Oldtimes an Alpine note is struck (Juste Olivier, 1807-76, Eugéne Swiss union, got its claim to a similar immunity is not clear. But Rambert, H. Warnery). in t291 these “Three Original Cantons” formed the so-called Writers of Fiction.—It is curious that the interest in moral “Eternal Alliance” which bound them to mutual support, and observation and self-analysis which prevailed in the roth cen- pledged them to submit to no external authority. tury should not have led to the development of the analytical The danger to the primitive Swiss lay in the House of Habsnovel. Topffer (1799-1847) wrote short stories of middle-class burg; not because two of its members achieved the Imperial life and imaginative sketches, descriptions of things seen in crown in the late 13th century, but because its heads (whether wanderings through the town or among the mountains. Eugéne crowned or uncrowned) were the holders of the largest feudal Rambert was a writer of Alpine idylls. Philippe Monnier (1864- accumulation of land in what is now Switzerland. From first to 1911), also a humanist, wrote detailed descriptions of Geneva last the Habsburgs were great at land-grabbing: hence it was and of his own village. It is not surprising that a Genevese, V. not strange that the “Three Cantons” supported all claimants to Cherbuliez (1829-90) should have created the cosmopolitan the imperial crown outside the Habsburg family—such as Henry novel in France. Edouard Rod (1857-1910), who also gained VII. of Luxemburg and Louis of Bavaria. fame in Paris, betrays his French Swiss origin by the interest As nominal partisans of Louis of Bavaria against his rival for he shows in the internal moral conflicts of his characters. the crown, Frederic of Habsburg, the Schwyzers had sacked Early in the present century a change began to take place both the abbey of Einsiedeln in 1314, on the pretext that the abbot in the spirit and in the technique of the literature of French held to the other allegiance. It was this casual raid which Switzerland. The didactic, moral and eclectic elements—the was destined to bring the name of Schwyz into general knowledge Protestant spirit, in short—have become less conspicuous. The. for the first time. The counter-emperor Frederic directed his past is almost repudiated. There is still a lack of dramatic litera- brother Duke Leopold to chastise this nucleus of Bavarian partiture (though mention should be made of the rustic theatre of sans in a region close to the main Habsburg holding in south

Méziéres, Vaud and of R. Morax). The modern poets write in an easier style than their predecessors (Henry Spiess, R. L. Piachaud, P. Girard).

Even now, however, there are more descrip-

Swabia. Hence came the battle of Morgarten (1315). Leopold of Austria with the knighthood of the Hapsburg lands in Swabia, and some town-levies of infantry from Ziirich and Zug, started

_ SWISS WARS

674

The mountaineers took

the column and its impenetrability which won the day. In cases

post in the narrow defile of Morgarten, between the lake of Egeri and the steep hills above. They had blocked the road with a wall of rough stone, and hidden themselves in folds of the adjacent upper slopes. Duke Leopold who had taken no precautions of reconnaissance, came unexpectedly upon the stone barrier, with his army strung out in file for half a mile behind. He hastily

where the Swiss force was much outnumbered, and failed to break up the enemy, it would fight a defensive battle with desperate

out in November to chastise the Swiss.

ordered his vanguard to pull down the obstacle and drive off the men behind it. But while it was thus engaged the Swiss charged down on the whole flank of the Austrian line of march, heralding their approach with a shower of boulders and tree trunks which had been laid above the road. The unfortunate knights, unable to advance or retreat, or to wheel their horses to charge up an impracticable slope, were mostly hurled into the lake by the first onset. The duke cut his way out; the infantry in the rear fled. A second exploit, 25 years later, forms a much more serious episode in the history of the art of war. The result of Morgarten had been that other towns and rural communities in the Alps had adhered to the original cantons and sought their alliance against the local princes. In 1339 the town of Berne, the most important urban centre in the land, being at odds with the count of Kyburg concluded a treaty with the cantons. This roused against them the whole feudal aristocracy as far as the Jura, and the counts of Kyburg, Neuchatel, Gruyére and Nidau, the Lord of Vaud, and many other magnates marched against Berne, and laid siege to the town of Laupen.

The confederates sent succours to the Ber-

nese, and a general action was fought on June 21, 1329 on the hillside above Laupen. This was no fight in a narrow defile unfavourable to horsemen, but a pitched battle, in which for the first time the Swiss used the deep infantry column, which was to be their favourite formation in after years. The lords of the lowlands charged a dozen times against the phalanx formed by the men of the Forest Cantons without breaking it, and when attacked in flank by the other half of the Swiss army, the levy of Berne, gave way and retreated, leaving 80 barons and hundreds of men-at-arms dead upon the field. Naturally, after such a display, the confederacy was joined by many new members, both urban and rural, including the considerable towns of Ziirich and Zug. They could then challenge the Habsburg supremacy in northern Switzerland, and in 1386 provoked Duke Leopold the Valiant, nephew of the elder Leopold of Morgarten, by invading his dominions. On July 9 of that year the duke, having collected the knightly levy of his Swabian and Tirolese dominions, and hired many mercenaries, marched against Lucerne, the most central sttategical point of the confederacy. The greater part of the Swiss forces were at the moment campaigning near Ziirich, far away; and it was only the levies of the four Forest Cantons which met‘ Leopold on the hillside of Sempach, above the lake and town of the same name, as he found his way up one of the roads to Lucerne.

By this time the deductions which feudal Europe had drawn from the battles of Crécy and Poitiers, were prevailing in Germany no less than in France. Leopold, like John of Valois at Poitiers, dismounted all his knights save a reserve of mounted men, and strove to oppose to the phalanx of the Swiss infantry a better and more heavily armoured mass of men-at-arms on foot, fighting with the long lance. The crash was tremendous, the front rank on both sides went down; but the impetus of the Swiss prevailed—we are told that after a time the knights were tired out

by the very weight of their panoplies. The reserve of horse misbehaved, and rode off when the duke and his banner fell. In their earlier battles the Swiss used the halberd, the equivalent of the English bill, more than the pike. But in their developed tactics of the 15th century we find the pike predominant, no doubt because it was a more effective weapon for beating off cavalry charges. In their later wars we find them usually advancing in an échelon of three deep columns of pikes, with a vanguard thrown forward, a main-battle to its side and rear, and a rearguard column again to the side of the main-battle but not level with it. They had a certain number of light troops, crossbowmen

obstinacy. At Arbedo in 1422 the invaders of the duchy of Milan were beaten by the great Condottiere Carmagnola, but won themselves a retreat without overwhelming loss. At St. Jacob in 1444

an isolated corps of less than a thousand men, surrounded by ten times their strength, were not exterminated till they had laid low twice their own number of the Armagnac mercenaries of the dauphin Louis. They were very hard to break when they had “formed the hedgehog” as their captains called the solid square

with pikes projecting on all sides. Both Granson (March 2, 1476) and Morat (June 22, 1476) were examples of the Swiss tactics of rapid advance in échelon against an enemy taken somewhat by surprise, and attacked before he had assumed his intended fighting position. At Granson Charles of Burgundy, who had just captured (and hanged) the

Swiss garrison of that town on the lake of Neuchatel, got short warning that the confederates were descending on his camp from the hills of Mount Aubert.

The duke was getting his lme formed,

when the first Swiss column, well ahead of the other two, came rushing down on his left wing. Charles charged it ineffectively with his cavalry, which failed to break in, but at least stopped its advance. He was then preparing to turn his artillery against its

front, and to wheel the infantry of his centre round its flank, when the second and third Swiss columns came rushing down the slopes, and caught the Burgundian guns and infantry while both were on the move and exposing themselves to a lateral attack.

Instead of fronting to face the new assailants, the duke’s infantry fled in panic, and he was forced to abandon his cannon, and quit the field with his His loss had been treasury fell into casualties—all in

cavalry, much of which was still in fair order. only 1,000 men, but his guns, his camp, and his the hands of the victors, who had about 200 the leading column. Charles was convinced

that he had been defeated only because he had been surprised, and because his infantry had misbehaved in a sudden crisis. He resumed his attack on the Swiss in June, by laying siege to the little town of Morat on the lake of the same name. He fortified himself with lines of entrenchments facing outward, on the hills lying above both sides of the town, and having garnished the palisades with his numerous artillery (he had completely replaced the losses of Granson) waited to be attacked in position. His cavalry were to be held in reserve, till the Swiss column should have shattered themselves against the entrenchments. The fault of the position was that a dense wood lay opposite it, giving illimitable cover: and the duke was heedless enough to neglect reconnaissance to see what was beyond the broad belt of timber. He had been waiting ten days to be attacked, before the Swiss appeared in front of him on June 21x in great force. On the following morning the Burgundian army waited behind its palisades for many hours, till the day broke up with blinding and continuous rain-storm. No attempt seems to have been made to “feel” the enemy, who was known to be behind the woods. After noon was past the duke, making up his mind that the weather was too bad for fighting, sent his main body back to their camp to feed and get shelter, leaving only the guns, and a line of posts behind the palisades. This was the moment for which the Swiss had been waiting— their leading column emerged from the corner of the woods, and ran, half hidden by the pouring rain, straight at the southern end of the Duke’s entrenchments. The artillery salvo tore some deep

holes in the phalanx, but before the guns could make a second

discharge, the Swiss were over the ditch and across the palisades, where they found but few enemies on guard. The second and third columns followed the first, carrying, almost without resistance, all the southern half of the duke’s lines. Charles however did not consider the day lost, and led his army up from its camp, 1m | great disorder, as quickly as each corps could form. to drive the Swiss out of the entrenchments.

Disaster naturally followed—

there was no line of battle whatever—and though many of the and in the later decades hand-gun men, who were thrown out on Burgundians fought well, the down-rush of the enemy’s columns the flanks to screen the advance But it was always the weight of ; swept the whole of the duke’s army into and over the camp on

SWITCH

PLANTS—SWITZERLAND

the lake-shore. There was a frightful massacre to follow, for the troops in Charles’s centre were driven into the lake and exterminated, their line of retreat having been cut. Those on his northern

wing, who had never been attacked, escaped by taking a détour toward the further end of the lake. But at least 7,000 out of the duke’s 20,000 men had perished by the sword, or by drowning. It is strange to find that after two such experiences as Granson and Morat, Charles lost his last battle and his life at Nancy, in 1477, by allowing himself to be once more surprised. For the next 30 years the Swiss infantry were the model and terror of all central Europe. This was the age in which Machi-

avelli describes them as “marching with 10,000 or 15,000 pikemen against any number of horse, and winning a general opinion of their excellence from the many remarkable services that they performed.” They smote the Emperor Maximilian’s Swabian and

Tirolese levies as their ancestors had smitten those of his kins-

men, the two Leopolds, at Morgarten and Sempach—moving in square through his countryside, beating off his knights from their “hedgehog” front, and trampling down his infantry bands, the landsknechts, whom he had trained to fight after the Swiss fashion in column and with serried depth of pikes. In Italy the confederates made and unmade princes, selling their service where it was profitable, rather than seeking for the general advantage of their confederacy. Meanwhile the Renaissance, many-sided in things military as in every line of thought, was producing scientific soldiers who were

pondering on the problem of how to deal with the hitherto invincible column of pikes. Some found the solution which ancient Rome had used against the Macedonian phalanx, the Spanish sword and buckler, fatal against the pikeman if once a hole had been bored in his array. Machiavelli saw and praised this tactic— the bearer of a long weapon is helpless when his opponent has got in close and. can stab. There was an interesting example of this sort of slaughter at the battle of Ravenna. But the Spanish sword and buckler were only found in one national army, and no one else took up their device. More effective was the idea (imperfectly tried by Charles of Burgundy at Morat) of field-fortification supplemented by firearms—if only the Swiss could be induced to attack frontally. Sometimes they did, and were shot down helplessly as at Bicocca (1522). More scientific, and perhaps the most decisive of all the tactics which broke the reputation of the Swiss infantry, was another idea which Charles had failed to exploit successfully. Cavalry charges from the side can force the phalanx to halt, since it must form front to flank to beat them off. Even if repulsed, they stop its advance. It was the battle of Marignano (Sept. 13, 1515) which dis-

675

to Ethelwold’s new basilica on July 15, 971, and according to contemporary writers, miracles accompanied the translation. The revival of St. Swithun’s fame gave rise to a mass of legendary literature. The so-called Vitae Swithunt of Lantfred and Wulstan, written about A.D. 1000, hardly contain any germ of biographical fact; and the earliest detailed authority is a biog-

raphy ascribed to Gotzelin (ff. 1058-78). From this writer, who has perhaps preserved some fragments of genuine tradition, we learn that St. Swithun was appointed bishop of Winchester under Aethelwulf. At his request Aethelwulf gave the tenth of his royal lands to the Church.

He died on July 2, 862, saying that he

was not to be buried within the church but outside in “a vile and unworthy place.” William of Malmesbury adds that, as Bishop Alhstan of Sherborne was Aethelwulf’s minister for temporal, so St. Swithun was for spiritual matters. The same chronicler uses a remarkable phrase in recording the bishop’s prayer that his burial might be “ubi et pedibus praetereuntium et stillicidiis ex alto rorantibus esset obnoxius.” This expression has been taken as indicating that the well-known weather myth contained in the doggrel lines— St. Swithin’s day if thou dost rain For forty days it will remain; St. Swithin’s day if thou be fair For forty days 'twill rain na mair—

had already, in the 12th century, crystallized round the name of St. Swithun; but it is doubtful if the passage lends itself by any straining to this interpretation. The so-called lives of St. Swithun written by Wulstan, Lantfred, and perhaps others towards the end of the roth century may be found in the Bollandist Acta sanctorum (July), i. 321-327; Mabillon’s Acta SS. O. B. vi. 70, etc., vil. 628, etc.; and J. Earle’s Life and Times of St. Swithun, 59, etc. See also William of Malmesbury, Gest. reg. i. 150, and De gest. pont. 160, 167, 179; Florence of Worcester, i. 168; T. Rudborne ap. Wharton’s Angha sacra, 1. 287; T. D. Hardy’s Cat. of mss. i. 513-517; J. Brand’s Popular Antiquities; R. Chambers’s Book of Days: Ethelwulf’s Tithe Charters, nearly all of which refer to St. Swithun in the body of the text, may be studied in Haddon and Stubbs’s Councils, iii, 636-645.

SWITZERLAND

(Ger. Schweiz; Fr. Suisse; It. Svizzera).

The Swiss Confederation consists of 22 cantons with a republican and federal Constitution. It is situated in central Europe and bounded north by Baden and Wiirttemberg (Germany), east by Vorarlberg and Tirol (Austria) with the small principality of Liechtenstein lying between Vorarlberg and Switzerland, southeast and south by Trentino, Lombardy and Piedmont (Italy), and south-west, west and north-west by the departments of Haute Savoie, Jura, Ain, Doubs, Haute-Rhin (France). Relief and Structure.:‘Switzerland extends between 45° 49°

and 47° 48’ 30” N. lat., and from 5° 58’ to 10° 30’ E. long. It column of pikemen broke into the French line, Francis I. led forms an oval-shaped mass of which the greatest length (westno less than 30 successive charges against its flanks, with small south-west to east-north-east) is 226 m., and the greatest breadth bodies of a few hundred men-at-arms. Each was repulsed for (north to south) is 137 m. It has little or no physical unity, conseveral hours, but meanwhile the whole of the French artillery sisting as it does of numerous small districts, differing widely in concentrated on to the front of the phalanx, which at last was so language, religion, ethnology and customs, bound together in a torn to pieces that it had to retire with the loss of half of its political alliance, made originally for common defence. Its politinumbers or more. Gunpowder thus turned out to be the poison cal boundaries are natural only for short distances. In summary, Switzerland of to-day consists of three great river which destroyed the power of the Swiss pikemen. (C. W. C.O.) SWITCH PLANTS, a botanical term for plants, such as valleys (Rhéne, Rhine and Aar), lying to the north of the main broom, with leaves very small or absent, and slender green shoots. chain of the Alps and including within their Swiss basins all the SWITHUN (or Swituin), ST. (d. 862), bishop of Win- region between the Alps and the Jura. In addition, the wedgechester and patron saint of Winchester Cathedral from the roth shaped canton of Ticino runs south from the St. Gotthard massif to the r6th century. He is scarcely mentioned in any document and drains to the Po, whilst in the extreme east a tongue of the of his own time. His death is entered in the Anglo-Saxon Chron- Grisons canton drains north-east via the Engadine, into the icle under the year 86r; and his signature is appended to several Danube. The Rhône and Rhine valleys are shut off from that charters in Kemble’s Codex diplomaticus. Of these charters three of the Aar by the great northern ridge of the Bernese Oberland belong to 833, 838, 860-862. In the first the saint signs as and Todi Alps. The Aar valley is wide and undulating, but the

played this fatal drawback to the Swiss tactics.

When the great

“Swithunus presbyter regis Egberti,” in the second as “Swithunus

upper Rhine and Rhône have cut deep trenches in the structural

diaconus,” and in the third as “Swithunus episcopus.” Hence if the second charter be genuine the first must be spurious, and is s0 marked in Kemble. More than a hundred years later, when Dunstan and Ethelwold of Winchester were inaugurating their church reform, St. Swithun was adopted as patron of the restored church at Winchester, formerly dedicated to St. Peter and St. Paul. His body was transferred from its almost forgotten grave

depression which separates the great parallel chains. The main chain of the Alps provides the loftiest wholly-Swiss summit (15,217 ft.)in the crowning Dufourspitze of Monte Rosa, though the

Dom (14,942 ft.) in the Mischabel range, immediately north of Monte Rosa, is the highest entirely Swiss mountain mass. The

highest summit in the northern parallel ridge is the Finsteraarborn (14,026 ft.) in the Bernese Oberland, while the lowest level

SWITZERLAND

676

within the confederation is on the Lago Maggiore (646 ft.). The geological build of the Alps (g.v.) has been proved to be exceedingly complex; the contorted, folded, and even overfolded recent rocks have been fractured, exposing old crystalline cores to denudation; the Jura (g.v.) are much less complicated in their folding and in their exposures. Much of the central hummocky plain is covered with undisturbed very recent rocks of Oligocene and Miocene age, many of which are marine deposits formed at a period when an arm of the Mediterranean spread up the present Rhône course along the outer border of the Alps as far east as Austria. These deposits are concealed in many parts of the plain by the most recent glacial and alluvial accumulations.

Hydrography.—The

present confederation

drains into the

North sea, Mediterranean sea (direct), Adriatic sea and Black sea which, respectively, receive the Rhine, Rhéne, Ticino-Po and Inn-Danube. The Swiss portions of their basins are approximately: 11,160, 2,760, 1,360 and 660 sq. miles. Many of her rivers, with their Alpine origin, tend to seasonal overflows which have necessitated artificial embankment. The most important control scheme was that of Conrad Escher of

Zürich (later Conrad von der Linth) who, in 1807—27, turned the turbulent Linth into Walensee, from which it emerges as a canalized stream. An earlier (1714) successful work was the diversion of the troublesome Kander into the Lake of Thun, where it is now placidly building an extensive fertile delta. The Zakes of Switzerland are very numerous: the largest,

Geneva (S.W.) and Constance (N.E.) are on the frontiers and are not wholly Swiss. Neuchatel (924 sq.m.) is the largest wholly-Swiss lake. About 30 sq.m. at the north end of Lago Maggiore (143 sq.m.) belongs to Switzerland; next in order of size are Lucerne, Ziirich, about half of the Swiss-Italian Lake of

Lugano (20 sq.m.), Thun, Brienz, Morat, the Wallen, and Sempach (54 sq.m.); no others exceed 4 sq. miles. Eleven of these lakes are in the Aar basin, two (Maggiore and Lugano) are in the Po basin, and Geneva is the great Rhône filter. The lakes of the Swiss portion of the Inn basin are small; the largest are Sils (14 sq.m.), and the still smaller, slightly lower and adjacent Silvaplana. Many small mountain lakes are of interest, such as the -dreary Daubensee (7,264 ft. alt.) near to the Gemmi pass; the extremely beautiful Oeschinensee (5,223 ft. alt.) mirroring the snowy Bliimlis Alp, and the remarkable, though sometimes empty Marjelensee (7,766 ft. alt.) on which float miniature icebergs from the Great Aletsch glacier. Of the countless waterfalls in Switzerland those of the Rhine (near Schaffhausen), roo ft. high, inclusive of rapids, and 340 ft. wide, are the grandest, but the most beautiful are of less volume and greater height, such as those of the Lauterbrunnen valley and particularly the Staubbach, a mere veil of water hanging in front of a precipice 1,000 ft. high. Switzerland contains many more glaciers than the combined total for adjacent lands; the number is estimated at over 1,000, but no exact computations are possible on account of numerous detached ice-masses which may or may not rank as glaciers. Practically all of them are now in retreat, though they will long continue to feed all the important rivers and streams of Switzerland. They probably occupy 700 sqm., very unequally distributed; eleven of the cantons possess no glaciers. The greatest area is found in the Valais (more than half of the total area), followed by the Grisons and Berne (about $th each); then by Uri, Glarus and Ticino (the last about 13 sq.m.); the remaining cantons-——Unterwalden, Vaud, St. Gall, Schwyz and Appenzell have, in aggregate, a glacier area little superior to that of Ticino alone. The longest glacier in the main Alpine chain is the Gorner (9+

[CLIMATE

only 646 ft. in altitude.

Great heights are characterized by (i.)

low barometer readings: Monte Rosa summit records about half

sea-level pressure; hence the possibility of “mountain sickness”. (ii.) usually more brilliant sunshine and dry air, particularly in winter, producing “sun-burning” and “ice-dazzle,” which in some subjects amounts to “snow-blindness”; (iii.) much lower temperatures; among the Alps the average fall in temperature is aboyt 1-2° F on the south side and about o-9° F on the north side for each 330 ft. of ascent. The height of the Alpine crest and its main direction also profoundly influence the winds.

In addition

to local winds of certain higher levels which show a daily change

of direction—down-hill in the morning and up-hill in the evening —there are other characteristic winds which are much less lo. calized in their effects, as the southerly föhn, warm, dry and oppressive, which affects considerable areas in east Switzerland particularly during spring and autumn; and the northerly bise, a

cold wind experienced in Geneva. Switzerland’s many. climates are important, not only in Europe’s playground generally, but also in the “nests of sanatoria.” Hence, climate and weather statistics have been carefully compiled for many stations. The majority of Swiss tours and health resorts guide-books include a selection, but for a logical treatment of the climate details, reference should be made to such works as W. G. Kendrew, Climates

of the Continents (London, 2nd ed. 1927). January is the coldest month, the following averages being recorded:

Basle

(909 ft. alt.) 31-8° F; Altdorf

(1,480 ft. alt.)

32-4° F; Davos (5,121 ft. alt.) 18-7° F; St. Gotthard (6,877 ft. alt.) 18-1° F; Santis (8,202 ft. alt.) 16-2° F, whilst an unusually low average is from Bevers (5,610 ft. alt.) with 14.2° F. Pre. cipitation (either rain or melted snow) shows wide variations, é.g., Basle has 32-5 in. total annual precipitation; Altdorf, 49-0 in.; Davos, 35-7 in. and Santis, 95-7 in. At several stations much of this falls as snow. On Santis the precipitation is as snow from November to April inclusive, and only July and August have more rain than snow. Snow accumulates to a depth of 20 to 25 ft. at Bevers and upwards of 45 ft. on Santis. July is the hottest month, the average July records in degrees F being: Basle 66-4, Altdorf 64-4, Davos 53-8, St. Gotthard 46.2, Santis 41-0, Bevers 53-2, the range at the last station, 39:0°, tending to

be extreme. Santis, though cold, is much more equable, 24.8°. The snow line, showing considerable local variations, is about 9,000 ft. high on the western Alps, and about 10,500 ft. in the drier eastern mountains. Forests.—The entire forest area of Switzerland on Jan. 1, 1924, Was 3,803 sq.m. (nearly 24% of the whole country), chiefly coniferous (pine, fir and larch), but with considerable patches of oak, beech and maple on the lower lands. This total represents a considerable increase in recent years largely dependent on: (a) confederation-controlled re-afforestation schemes (in 1925 over 15 million trees [chiefly coniferous] were planted); (b) scientific preservation of the woodlands with which the forestry department of the Federal polytechnic school at Ziirich is closely associated. The Federal Constitution of 1874 handed over to the confederation the responsibility for the forests “in the high mountains,” and in 1876 it was enacted that the public forests should be surveyed, rights of way and of fuel should be legally determined and then surrendered with suitable compensation, the forest areas should never be reduced but increased by new planting schemes, with, if necessary, Federal financial support. Since 1902 the Confederation has oversight of all forests, however owned, within its area. The most extensive forests occur in the five cantons of Berne, Grisons, Vaud, Valais and Ticino. Area.—The 1923-24 determination gave Switzerland a total m.), but it is exceeded by the Great Aletsch (164 m.) and by area of 15,940 sq.m. Of this, 77-45% are reckoned as “pro the Fiescher and the Unteraar (10 m. each) which run down from ductive,” and support the large total of over 212,000 peasant proprietors, chiefly on the grasslands which occupy 53:2% of the high eastern mountains of the Bernese Oberland. Climate.—In an aréa such as Switzerland which extends the productive area; about two-thirds of the grassland is pasture. through less than two degrees of latitude, climate will be influ- Forests occupy 28-9% of the “productive” area. Of the “unproenced more particularly by differences of altitude, aspect and ductive” area, amounting to nearly 3,600 sq.m., the greater part gradient; these show wide and surprisingly sudden variations, e.g., is composed of bare mountain and plateau slope, yet much conMonte Rosa (15,217 ft. high) is distant only 30 m. in a “straight” sists of lakes and rivers, while glaciers cover about 700 sq.m.

line from Lago Maggiore, with waters'in the same latitude, but

Population.—Well-organized census returns were made at ten-

SWITZERLAND

Prate I

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BY COURTESY OF (1, 6) THE SWISS FEDERAL AERODROME,

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VIEWS 1. Aeroplane photograph

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(altitude 11,145 feet) of the Bernina Mountains

and St. Moritz, tourist capital in the Engadine, Switzerland 2. Zermatt, with the snow-capped pyramid of “The Matterhorn”

3.A

thrilling Alpine railway in the Bernese Oberland, Switzerland. The summits of Eiger, Monch and Jungfrau stand out against the skyline

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SWITZERLAND 5. Haymakers

on

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above

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Bernese

Oberland.

microscopic character of these rich mountain pastures or “alps” resulted ın the retention of primitive methods of harvestry

6. Aeroplane photograph (altitude 3,280 Schaffhausen, Switzerland

feet)

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SWITZERLAND

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background

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NEWMAN

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This city is the educational capital of university buildings are seen in the

FROM

SWISS

THE

PUBLISHERS

PHOTO

SERVICE

CITIES

2. Aeroplane photograph of Berne (altitude 6,560 feet), the capital of Switzerland. The heart of the city is encircled by the River Aar

which adds considerably problems

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difficult transport

POPULATION]

SWITZERLAND

year intervals from 1850 on (except that a census was taken jn 1888 and not in 1890). To the nearest 4-million, the several totals were as follows, beginning at 1850 and ending at 10920:

2%, 24, 28, 2%, 3, 38, 33, 3g There has also been a steady increase in density of population from 150 per sq.m. in 1850

through 207 per sq.m. in 1900, to 243 per sq.m. in 1920. The estimated total population on Dec. 1, 1926, was 3,959,000 (248

per sq.m.). The total increase in the second half of the roth century was 38%, and in the first quarter of the 20th was 23%.

The least densely populated cantons are the Alpine ones, e.g., Grisons (43 per sq.m.), Uri (58); the Jura cantons are much

better populated: Vaud (255), Neuchatel (421), whilst the densest of all the complete cantons are Geneva (1,583) and Ziirich (823). The half-canton of Basle-Stadt (10,050, area 14

sq.m.) is an exception. See Statisches Jahrbuch der Schweiz.

The Non-Swiss element of the population increased from 3%

in 1850 to 11-6% in 1900, but fell to 10-4% in 10920; its total increased from

71,570 to 402,385.

The Germans

are the most

numerous; next in order come Italians, French and Austrians. The emigration of Swiss beyond seas was but 1,691 in 1877, though it rose in 1883 to 13,502 (the maximum as yet attained). In 1899 it had fallen to 2,493, but in the five years end-

ing 1926 (inclusive), it has averaged about 5,400, viz., 5,787,

8,006, 4,140, 4,334, 4,947.

Language.—In the languages habitually spoken, Switzerland presents much variety. By the Federal Constitution of 1874, German, French and Italian are recognized as “national languages” for the purposes of debates in the Federal parliament, and for the public notification of Federal laws and decrees.

Ro-

mansch and Ladin enjoy no such public recognition. These quaint survivals of a “lingua rustica’? of the Roman empire are dialectal differences rather than distinctly different languages. They

are chiefly spoken in the canton of Grisons (g.v.), Ladin in the Engadine, etc., and Romansch in the Biinder Oberland, etc. The literature of this tongue is scanty and the dialects are partly maintained artificially by societies founded for that purpose. Even in the Grisons where one-third of the people speak the language and approximately one-fifth Italian, German predominates, as it does also in 15 other cantons; in the remaining ones, French prevails in Vaud, Neuchatel, Geneva, Fribourg, and the Valais, and Italian in Ticino. Detailed census returns as to language have revealed a certain amount of shifting. German was spoken by 71-3% of the population in 1880, by 69-8% in 1900 and by 70-9% in 1920; the figures for French are respectively: 21-4, 22 and 21-2%, and for Italian, 5-7, 6-7, 6-1%, while Romansch (and Ladin—not tabulated apart) fell from 1-4 and 1-2 to 1-1%.

Chief Political Divisions.—The political divisions are the communes (of which there are now about 3,000), district (198),

and cantons (22). (See GovERNMENT.)

Of the cantons, 19 are

undivided. In 1831 the rural districts of Basle revolted against the undemocratic rule of the urban trade guild; the latter were twice defeated in the field before they agreed (in 1833) to the subdivision of the canton into Basle-Stadt and Basle Land. Unterwalden, from before 1291, was divided into Obwalden and Nidwalden, representing two distinct physical divisions in different river valleys. In 1291, Nidwalden accepted alliance with Uri and Schwyz; Obwalden did not join until later. The Reformation led to a division (1597)-of Appenzell into the Inner Rhoden,

mainly Roman Catholic and pastoral, and Ausser Rhoden, largely Protestant and industrial. | In 1925, 17 towns had an estimated population exceeding 15,ooo. The populations of the five largest towns, each exceeding

70,000, are as follows, the figure for 1900 being enclosed within brackets: Ziirich 210,720 (150,703), Basle 139,560 (109,161), Geneva 126,000 (104,796), Berne 107,960 (64,227), Lausanne 74,250 (46,732). These towns occupied the same order in 1900,

677

Government.—The administration of the Swiss confederation is quite distinct from that of the 22 constituent cantons, which have individual government as sovereign states, though in several

directions they have voluntarily surrendered their rights to the Federal Government. The cantons are built up of two main types of communes, or gemeinden. These are the real units. The burgher communes (communes bourgeoises or biirgergemeinden) are now principally of historical interest, having for the most part been gradually absorbed by the second class of communes. Initially they were groupings of the people to manage the “lands subject to common user” (mainly summer pastures and forests). Later, by purchase or otherwise, the burghers became possessors of manorial rights. But when the Federal diet imposed the care of the poor on the several communes (1551) these naturally aided only their own burgher members. Thus, all nonburgher “settlers,” were excluded from any share in the enjoyment of the “common lands,” or in their management, though they paid local rates. Increased communication facilities, together with a shifting industrial population, made such restrictions invidious and unfair, particularly after the introduction, under the Helvetic republic (1798-1802) of a Federal citizenship, superior to cantonal citizenship. Later, the increase of communal public duties meant financial obligations exceeding the sums produced by the “common lands.” To avoid some of these inconveniences, political communes (municipalités or einwohnergemeinden) were set up. The duties of these communes were largely increased after the liberal movement of 1830; the care of the highways, the police, the schools, the administration of the poor law being successively handed over to them. Swiss citizens belonging to cantons other than those in which they resided were, by the Federal Constitution of 1848, given rights of voting there in cantonal and Federal matters, but not in those relating exclusively to the commune itself, but the Federal Constitution of 1874 gave to permanent Swiss settlers communal voting rights, subject to three months’ residence. In most cantons a number of communes are grouped together to form a district (amtsbezirke) under a prefect who represents the cantonal government. Minor communes are controlled by a small council. In the larger communes an executive council is chosen by a general assembly of all male Swiss citizens over 20 years of age, of good conduct and with three months’ communal residence. A maire (gemeindeprasident) is elected by the larger body to preside over the council which has the management of all local affairs, including the carrying out of cantonal and Federal laws or decrees, save and except matters relating to the pastures and forests held in common. Cantons. (See Population.)—Each of the 22 cantons has its own legislature, executive and judiciary. (See Justice.) The older cantons have in some instances (Unterwalden, Appenzell and Glarus) preserved their ancient democratic assemblies (landesgemeinden), in which all male citizens of full age meet, usually annually during April or May, in the open air for the purpose of legislation and the selection of an annual administrative council. In the remaining cantons the legislature (grosser Rat or grand conseil) is composed of representatives chosen by universal male suffrage and usually by proportional representation. These councils exercise all the functions of the landesgemeinden. The executive also in most of the newer cantons is elected by a popular vote and not as hitherto by the cantonal legislature. All the cantons have the referendum and the popular initiative, the application of which varies in the different cantons.

Confederation.—On

the cessation of the Federal Pact in

1848 a new constitution was accepted by general consent. This is fundamentally the constitution in operation to-day, but sundry revisions were made in 1874, and the 1874 amended constitution is the one now in force. Any subsequent revision can be made by

normal Federal legislation with a compulsory referendum, on the demand of 50,000 franchised citizens, or by popular initiative. The loftiest inhabited village is Juf (c. 6,900 ft.) at the head Changes require a favourable majority in total votes and total of the Avers valley, near the Septimer pass into the upper En- number of cantons. Federal sovereignty is exercised by the legislagadine; the lowest settlement is Ascona (666 ft.) on the delta of tive Federal assembly (Bundesversammlung) and by the executive Val Maggia (Lago Maggiore). Federal council (Bundesrat), both meeting at Berne. The assembut in 1850 Geneva was the largest town.

678

SWITZERLAND

bly consists of two chambers—the National Council

(Watzonal-

rat) and the Council of the States (Ständerat). The National Council are chosen in direct election by the enfranchised males; the franchise has not yet been extended to females. The basis of

[DEFENCE

Switzerland—but now united to the see of Basle), and Bethlehem

(a see in partibus, annexed in 1840 to the abbacy of St. Maurice

in the Valais). the Romanists

The Christian Catholics are a sect split off from in 1874 on the question of papal infallibility,

representation is one deputy for each 20,000 total population of and since 1876 have had a bishop of their own who resides ïn the canton, with an additional deputy for any remainder exceeding Bern. They are strongest in Bern, Soleure and Geneva. A 10,000. On the 1920 census returns there are thus 198 representa- few monasteries in Switzerland escaped suppression. The printives varying from 34 for Berne and 27 for Ziirich to 1 for Uri; cipal are the Benedictine houses of Disentis (founded in the 7th 13 of the 22 cantons have less than eight representatives each. century), rebuilt in 1846 and now used as schools; Einsiedeln The deputies receive attendance pay and travelling expenses (roth century), now a great pilgrimage centre: 180,000 yearly; and from Federal funds; neither allowance is lavish. The States Engelberg (12th century) now famed also for its cheeses. There Council consists of two members from each canton and one from are also Augustinian houses at St. Maurice (founded in the 4th each half-canton, or 44 in all. The mode of their election, term century—held by Augustinians since 1128) and on the Great St. of membership and rate of pay are entirely cantonal matters and Bernard (11th century). The government of the Protestant vary accordingly. The average financial allowance is less than Church is Calvinistic. Justice—Each canton elects, controls and pays (often merely for a deputy to the National Council. A general election of representatives takes place every three years, suffrage is universal, a nominal sum, even if the posts are not entirely honorary) its voters becoming enfranchised at 20 years of age, and any voter, own magistracy for ordinary civil and criminal trials. There other than a clergyman, may be elected a deputy. Laws passed are cantonal variations in the penal code, e.g., capital punishment by the Federal Assembly, though this represents both people exists only in nine cantons and one half-canton. The Federal Supreme Court (Bundesgericht) sits at Lausanne. and canton, can be vetoed as a result of a majority-supported referendum based on a popular initiative demand of 30,000 en- There are 24 full members (plus nine supplementary judges), elected by the Federal Assembly to hold office for six years with franchised citizens. The seven members of the Federal Council are elected for three eligibility for re-election. The Federal Assembly also elects years by the Federal Assembly. The following departments are every two years the president and vice-president who, as such, represented: Foreign Affairs, Justice, Interior, Military, Finance, cannot be re-elected. The original and final jurisdiction of the Public Economics, Railways and Post Office. The president of Bundesgericht extends to disputes between the confederation, the the Confederation holds the foreign portfolio. Both the presi- cantons, corporations, and private individuals, so far as these dent of the Confederation and the vice-president of the Fed- differences refer to Federal matters, and involve more than 3,000 eral Council are elected for one year only (Jan. 1~Dec. 31) fr. in dispute, in financial suits. It is a court of appeal against by the Federal Assembly, and cannot be immediately re-elected. cantonal authorities in the application of Federal laws, and also Federal councillors cannot hold a plurality of office, either against decisions of other Federal departments. It is a court of federal or cantonal, and must not engage in any calling or trial for persons accused of treason, or other offences against office. The salary for each councillor is £1,000 per annum, the confederation. The four courts of the Bundesgericht are: except in the case of the president, who receives an extra al- Court of Accusation, Criminal Court (with paid jurors elected by lowance of £80 per annum. The Federal Government (Assem- the people), Federal Penal Court, Court of Cassation. Federal Finances, Post Office, Bank.—Before 1848 there bly and Council) is supreme in matters of peace, war and treaties. It regulates the army, railways, posts, mint, national was no strong Federal authority, and Federal finances were almost banknote issues, weights and measures of the republic, and unknown. The subsequent increase in power of the confederation is being increasingly entrusted with matters formerly considered is shown by the annual balance sheet. In 1849 the receipts were nearly £240,000, as against an expenditure of £260,000. By 1873 to be purely cantonal. Religion.—The Federal Constitution of 1874, while recog- the amount on each side exceeded 14 million pounds; in 1883, nizing no established Swiss Church, guarantees full religious two million pounds; in 1900, four millions. In 1928 revenue was liberty and freedom of worship, as well as exemption from any estimated at £12,889,200 and expenditure at £13,260,000. An compulsory church rates. It repeats the Constitution of 1848 “adverse” figure has been a feature of recent budgets. The floatin forbidding the settlement of Jesuits and all affiliated religious ing debt (Jan. 1, 1926) was slightly in excess of £4,000,000. By the Federal Constitution of 1848 the post office was made a orders in Switzerland, and extends this prohibition to any other orders that may endanger the safety of the State, or interfere Federal responsibility, and a Federal law of 1851 extended this to the electric telegraph. In the 1874 constitution, both branches with the peace of other creeds. The Protestants formed 59-3% of the total population in 1850, remained within the jurisdiction of the confederation, while in 57-8% in 1900 and 57-5% in 1920; the Roman Catholics, 40.6%, 1878, this control extended to the telephone service. In 1891 the principle of a State bank with a monopoly of note 41-6% and 40-9% in these respective years, while the Jews increased from o-1% to o-4% and to o-5% in 1920—the remainder issue was accepted. A first scheme was rejected by a popular (other religions or none) showed a considerable increase in the vote in 1897, but a second was successful in 1905. The “Swiss 20th century. Twelve cantons in 1920 had a majority of Prot- National Bank” was opened on June 20, 1907, with its headquarters divided between Ziirich and Berne. On March 7, 1928, estants and ten of Catholics. Of the more populous cantons, Zürich, Bern, Vaud, Neu- it had, as main items, nearly 796 million fr. in circulation as châtel and Basle are mainly Protestant, while Lucerne, Fribourg, notes as against 4324 million fr. in bullion (gold and silver), Ticino, Valais and the Forest cantons are principally Catholic. and over 315 million fr. in bills; the lowest denomination for a Although a Federal Swiss Church is not recognized, any canton national banknote is five francs. The current and deposit acmay establish one or more Churches (Landeskirchen). Practices counts amounted to nearly 92 million francs. Since April 1, 1927, differ considerably in the several cantons; some have one creed gold currencies of other countries of the former Latin Monetary solely established, others have two jointly; Neuchâtel has three Union (dissolved in 1926) have ceased to be legal tender in

established churches (Protestants, Roman Catholics and Christian Catholics), and Geneva, in 1907, disestablished both of her existing Churches. The Roman Catholic priests are much more numerous than the Protestant clergy, and comprise more than 6,000 regular and secular priests under five diocesan bishops— Sion (founded in the 4th century), Geneva and Lausanne (4th and 6th century), Basle (4th century, but reorganized in 1828), Coire (5th century), and St. Gall (a separate see since 1847).

There are besides the sees of Lugano (created in 1888 for Italian

Switzerland.

(W. A. B. C.; W. E. WE.)

DEFENCE

Historical.—The inhabitants of Switzerland were always 4 hardy and independent race, but their high military reputation dates from the middle of the 15th century, when the comparatively ill-armed and untrained mountaineers signally defeated Charles the Bold of Burgundy and the flower of the chivalry of Europe i the battles of Granson, Morat and, Nancy

(g.v.; see also Swiss

ECONOMICS

AND TRADE]

SWITZERLAND

Wars). The wealthier countries vied with each other in hiring them as mercenaries, and the poor but warlike Swiss found

the profession of arms a lucrative one. (See Army.) Their fall was due in the end to their own indiscipline in the first place, and the rise of the Spanish standing army and its musketeers in the second. Present-day Army.—Being composed of militia, the Swiss Army contains no forces maintained permanently with the colours with the exception of a corps of instructors, a system which has been followed in some of the self-governing nations of the British

Empire and in several of the smaller European nations. Recruitment and Service.—All male citizens are liable to military service from the year in which their 2oth birthday falls until the year of their 48th birthday.

Service may

either be

rendered personally, or by the payment of a military tax. Volunteering before the legal age is permitted. The military tax is payable up to the age of 40. Enlistment takes place in the year of the

roth birthday. Personal service includes attendance for training, active service at home or abroad in defence of the country, and maintenance of public order and security. Men passed fit for auxiliary service pay a tax in lieu of military training for the years in which it would otherwise be performed. After physical training for boys, provided by the cantons under the supervision of the

Federal Government, the training is carried out under the military department. After a recruit course of 65 days for infantry and engineers, 90 days for cavalry, 75 days for artillery, air force and fortress troops, and 60 days for departmental troops, members of

the active army undergo annual training for 11 to 14 days for to years for sergeants and above and for 7 to 8 years below that rank. Men in the landwehr do 11 days training every 4 years, but corporals and privates are only called up for one repetition training. There are also compulsory musketry courses, performed in rifle clubs. Officers are trained in cadet schools for 45 to 80 days according to arm of the service. There are special courses up to the rank of captain, lasting for 30 to 50 days, and, after attaining that rank three courses lasting 60, 42, and 21 days respectively for training general staff officers.

Strength and Organization.—The budget effectives (1927) provide a permanent training staff of 267. The training cadres

number 7,578 employed on an average of 32 days in a year; 24,780 recruits undergo courses varying from 62 to g2 days, and 126,059 undergo 13 to 16 days refresher courses. There must also be taken into account the preliminary training:—24,000 men undergoing physical training, 8,000 training with arms, 13,000 undergoing junior musketry training, and 3,000 in the cadet corps. About ' 240,000 do compulsory and 160,000 optional training in the rifle clubs. Account must also be taken of the military police, which is under the commander-in-chief of the army and free from cantonal laws when acting with the troops.

The army, which consists of a first line (élite) for ages from

20 to 32 inclusive, landwehr for ages from 33 to 40 inclusive, and landsturm for ages from 41 to 48 inclusive, has since July 1925 been organized in 6 divisions and army troops. The Ist, 3rd, 5th and 6th divisions each contain one mountain brigade. The 2nd and 4th divisions contain no mountain troops. The composition of a division calls for no special comment except for the presence therein of cyclist companies, machine-gun companies and 4 motor transport columns. A mountain brigade contains 6 battalions of first-line mountain infantry, and 3 of landwehr mountain infantry, 2 mountain batteries, 1 company of mountain engineers and the usual auxiliary services, all equipped for mountain warfare. The mobile artillery in the army troops is tractor-drawn. Higher Command.—The Federal Council is the supreme head. One of the federal councillors is head of the military department, the central authority in peace time for dealing with military ques-

079

appointed. Switzerland is divided territorially into 8 military areas with headquarters at I. Lausanne, II. Bienne, III. Berne, IV. Aarau, V. Zürich, VI. Bellinzona, VII. Altdorf, VIII. Coire, for organizing the territorial services in time of war. The territory is also divided into 6 divisional military districts with head-

quarters at I. Morges, II. Fribourg, III. Berne, IV. Aarau, V. Zürich, and VI. St. Gallen. Under the above-mentioned Corps Commands the troops in the divisional areas are as follows :—First Corps, the rst and 2nd divisions, St. garrison and army troops; second corps, the 3rd and 4th

3 Armygrouped Maurice divisions

and army troops; third corps, the sth and 6th divisions, St. Gothard garrison and army troops. There is a Central Military School, officer schools and courses for the different arms and for

non-commissioned officers. There are permanent works at St. Maurice and St. Gothard. The annual budget shows an expenditure of about 2,000,000 francs on forts and fortifications.

Military Air Force.—There is a military air service under the

general staff.

Its commander

is called chief of the military air

service. The provisional organization of the air service is in 3 “flying groups” composed, in detail, of 10 “flights” forming 15 companies, pilots corps, corps of observers, 3 photographic sections and 1 air park company. The number of companies in a “flight” is not definitely prescribed. The companies of various types number 4o in all (30 first-line, 5 mixed and 5 landwehr). Pilot officers, after at least 24 months continuous training, become “monthly pilots” and do too hours flying per annum, usually spread over 10 months. Reserve pilots do 50 hours, spread over 5 months. Similar conditions apply to observers. Officers from the other areas can be seconded both to the pilot corps and to the observers corps. The budget effectives for 1927 show 11 on the air training staff, 169 in the training cadres in addition to 246 engaged monthly, 400 in the recruits training course (77 days) and 1,550 in the refresher training courses doing 15 day courses. Taken in all, about 70,000 parade-days were performed in the cadre, recruits and refresher training courses. See also League of Nations Armaments

ECONOMICS

Year-Book

ae

aa

AND TRADE

According to the last Swiss (1920) census, of the total population of 3,880,320 inhabitants, 26-6% were sustained by agriculture, 41-1% by manufactures and mechanical pursuits, 9-9% by trade, 6-7% by transportation, 6-2% by the professions, 3-3% by personal and domestic service and the rest, 6.4%, by incomes drawn from other sources. Although it is not possible from these or from any other available figures to ascertain exactly what proportion of the population of Switzerland drew its livelihood directly and indirectly from the tourist traffic, it is quite obvious that it was very far from being the majority. According to an estimate made in 1912 by the Association of Swiss Hotel Keepers, about 43,000 persons were then occupied in hotels patronized mostly by foreign tourists. As the tourist traffic has not yet completely recovered from the serious depression it underwent during the war and during the post-war crisis, that figure should still be approximately correct. Now, according to the census of 1920, besides nearly 500,000 persons actively engaged in agriculture, over 807,000 were engaged in manufacturing pursuits— 224,000 in mechanical trades, 68,000 in watch making, 48,000 in other metal trades and 143,000 in textile factories. Manufactures.—As a matter of fact, Switzerland is one of the most highly industrialized States of Europe. Only Great Britain and Belgium have a relatively greater industrial population. The table on p. 680, indicating the number of persons occupied in 1910 and 1920, the annual export values for 1913 and 1927 and the triennial average export values for 1911-13 and 1925-7

tions. If a levy of troops is ordered on a large scale the federal assembly appoints a commander-in-chief of the army. There is may give some idea of the size and of the development of the a general staff under the military department and a national most important Swiss manufactures. defence committee, with the head of the military department as The figures relating to persons employed are taken from the chairman and the chief of the general staff, 3 army corps com- decennial census returns and those relating to exports from the manders and the officer commanding infantry as members. The annual trade statistics. Although they do not refer to the same committee ceases to function when a commander-in-chief is period, nor even to exactly the same manufactures, they may

SWITZERLAND

680 tO

W '

Value of annual exports (000,000’s of Swiss francs omitted)

g EE

Industry

Imports of Cereal Foodstuffs and of Cattle for Slaughter

E DoE Z

IQIL | 1912}

Av. IQI3

1927

Watch making . 153 |63 |164| 174| 183 |174| 302| 258 | 273 24 |20 | 104] rr] 107}| 107 ||209 | 187 | 202| Silk weaving Machine making |52 |80 | 83] 9x] 98! 91/183 | 164 | 180) . | 6 |13 | 50| 55] 58] 54] rrr | 119] 137} Chemical Cotton embroidering |72 | 43 | 207] 212 | 203 | 207} 130] 114] r10| 96] 107| [19 |19 | 36| 38| 37] 371123] Cotton weaving [13 |13 | x7] 17] 17) 17] 72] 46] 58] Cotton spinning Aluminium. . |} xt] 2-41 7! 14] 13] rr] 52] 55] 54] Condensed milk. || 1-6] 2-2) 39] 47| 44) 43] 42] 42] 44] Boot and shoe . |24 |26 | xrz| 14] r9! 14} 34) 36] 38] Artificial silk o-7| r8i 4} 5] 5] 5f 30| 34| 36|

6 | 87| 47|

Chocolate .

55|

58|

53|

35|

30|

33|

|278 199 176

122

118 109 58 54 42 36 33

33

suffice to illustrate several of the main characteristics of industrial Switzerland. Of these characteristics the following two may be especially noted. In the first place, it is extremely striking that none of the principal Swiss manufactured exports except condensed milk, and, to some extent, boots and shoes are drawn from Swiss raw materials, nor, with the exception of aluminium, are any of them produced mainly with the aid of hydraulic power, the only natural source of energy to be found in the country. Switzerland possesses no mineral resources worth mentioning and her soil is singularly poor in industrial products. As her manufactures are, besides, deprived of the advantage of an important home market and of direct and cheap access to the sea, their remarkable development can be explained only by the individual enterprise and ability of her population, the stability of her external and internal political position and the abundance and consequent cheapness of her capital resources. The second point illustrated by the above figures is the very unequal development of the various national industries in the course of the last 15 years. If we allow for the depreciation of the monetary standard which, although based on gold both before the war and to-day, has lost about one-third of its pre-war value, we will note that both the condensed milk and chocolate industries have lost some ground since 1913 and that the embroidery trade, a victim of feminine caprice, has been seriously crippled. The same is true, and for the same reasons, of the formerly very prosperous silk ribbon industry. The other main exporting manufactures of Switzerland have prospered in spite of unfavourable economic conditions. Agriculture.—The mountainous character of the larger part of Switzerland, the high average altitude, the over-abundance of rain and the prevailing system of small holdings all combine to prevent Switzerland from being a preponderantly agricultural country.

For the last 70 years at least, the rural population has been steadily decreasing in relative importance. The war and the agrarian protectionist tendencies which have asserted themselves since, have, it is true, prevented its absolute decline in the course of the last years. In spite of these retarding factors, however, its relative decline persists as the following figures show: Agricultural population. Number of persons engaged in agricultural pursuits

1920

| 473

469

474

rere |ene

Wheat* . Other cereals*

Percentage of total professional population

1900

I9QIO

1920

Zo

%o

To

32:2

27°5

26-6

|ere

|aaa

| aeaa

|m

aaeoa |maer

4856 | 5292

Flour, etc.* . Cattle for slaughtert

*In thousands of metric quintals. tIn thousands of heads, As Switzerland does not export any appreciable quantity of cereal foodstuffs, these figures show that she remains to-day, as she

was before the war, essentially dependent upon foreign grain for the sustenance

of her population.

But they also show that she

has not become increasingly so. Under the State import monopoly, under which a super-price is paid to domestic producers out of

the gross profits made by the sale of wheat, the price of bread

has been affected. Under the system which is to be substituted for the import monopoly in 1929, this super-price will

be paid out of the proceeds of a general, so-called statistical fee levied on all imports. In the limitation of imports of cattle for slaughter, instead of a State monopoly, a policy has been adopted which, both by increased customs duties on cattle and meat and éspecially by the quantitative rationing of imports according to prices, domestic

cattle raising and fattening have been artificially encouraged. International Trade.—lIn spite of these tendencies, the international trade of Switzerland, although adversely affected by the war, has since almost regained its pre-war importance. The fol-

lowing table shows the general trend of its recent evolution: Av.

IQII|IQI2|IQI3 maan |amam

Total trade Imports Exports Excess of imports % of excess .

Imports

Foodstuffs Raw materials Manufact. goods

From: Europe Gius America o. :

Germany Italy. . United States. Great Britain

Exports

.

Foodstuffs Raw materials

Manufact. goods

1925 ||aaea

G rne

|porera

|oraaa

arene

|

renin | eters |

S

% 2 R rege :

ł amt

` en pentane

?

Ot enigma

~

dwith arabesques and the from Koran ipassages

Rede

ior covere is

Sa ast + ee

exter ficent

TAJ THE MAHAL, SUPREME ACHIEVEMENT MOHAMMEDAN OF ART -Mahal. The magn

Mumtaz-i fe, mausoleum This white of alabaster built (1629-1650) India, Agra, Shah by Jahan burial the place hwas for near as wi

NA EAE

BY COURTESY HERBERT OF PONTING, G. F.R.P.S,

TA] MAHAL—TAKLA (Persian pai-mir or foot of the mountain peak), is a valley stretch-

ing upward in a long slope to the mountain peak, and these high level valleys (Lake Victoria has an altitude of 13,400 ft.) are mainly of glacial formation. The chief ridges crossing the republic are the Turkestan, Zarafshan, Hissar, Trans-Alai, Peter the Great and Darvas. Mt. Kaufmann (23,386 ft.) is the highest peak in the U.S.S.R. The eastern part of the republic is characterized by broad flat-

bottomed valleys, with a series of lakes and low watersheds, and by a severe and dry climate, with an average January temperature as low as that of Novaya Zemlya. The range between day and night temperature is the greatest in the world, and in nine years only 2-3 in. of rain were recorded; this region is bleak and deserted. Of the lakes, Kara-kul (g.v.) is the largest, others are Shor-kul, Rang-kul, Yashil-kul, Zor-kul and Sarez. The latter was formed in 1911, from the Murgab (Bartang) river after an earth-

quake in consequence of which the stream was dammed up by a huge avalanche; Lake Yashik-kul was formed in a similar way. The Amu-Daria or Oxus is the chief waterway, and under the name of Pandjh, serves as a boundary between Tadzhikstan and

Afghanistan; it rises in the Hindu Kush as the Vakhan-darya. Most of the glacier-fed streams in the republic are tributaries of the Amu Daria and flow in a south-westerly direction. Along the

right bank of this river and in the lower course of its tributaries,

MAKAN

759

from Derbent to Diushambe, which can be used by motors from April to October only. A railway to link Diushambe via Termez with the trans-Caspian line is planned. The population consists of Tadzhiks 74.6% and Uzbeks 21.2%,

the rest being Kirghiz, Kazaks, Turkmens, Arabs and Jews. It numbered 827,449 in 1926, having been much diminished in the post-1917 disturbances, when many fugitives took refuge in Afghanistan.

!

The literacy rate is low throughout the republic and in the Badakshan area is probably less than 2%. Education is difficult in this wild country and not more than 12% of the children of school age are provided for; medical help is almost entirely lacking. The Tadzhiks are Mohammedans,

but not of a strict type,

and in the remoter areas much primitive nature worship survives. Diushambe (q.v.) (pop., 1926, 4,485) is the administrative centre. The Mountain Badakshan Autonomous Area was created within Tadzhikstan in 1925, with Khorog (pop. r,011) as its centre. It consists of the mountain knot in the south-east, of which 75% is stony and sandy high desert. The climate is severe, average January temperature —20° C, average July +10° C on the east, and —10° C, +22° C on the west. The population in 1926 was 28,374 and consisted of 88% Tadzhiks and 11-4% KaraKirghiz. In the east are nomad herdsmen, raising horses, mules, asses, camels, sheep and goats, while in the west scanty crops of rye and wheat supplement herding. Hunting and trapping of marten, fox and otter are additional sources of income and gold

the Kafirnigan and Vaksha, is a desert, with a hot dry summer, which receives less than ro in. of rainfall per annum. (R. M. F.) Fauna and Flora.—The valleys on the west are deeper than is extracted in a primitive way. BIBLIOGRAPHY .—In English, S. G. Littledale, Across the Pamir from those on the east and are divided by high, snowy ridges. The north-western lower slopes are well clad with forest, since they North to South (1892); W. R. Rickmers, The Duab of Turkestan (1912). In Russian, P. S. Nazarov, Travels in the Pamirs (1896); receive more moisture and are less parched in summer. The Y. D. Golovnin, To the Pamirs (1902); A. I. Dmitriev-Mamonov, south-western slopes are less favourable to vegetation, and a Guide through Turkestan (1903); A. A. Bobrinski, Mountain Tribes south-eastern slope, which means great heat in summer, accom- of the Panj (1908). panied by dry winds from Mongolia, is least favourable. Thus in TAJ MAHAL, the tomb built at Agra, India, by Shah Jehan accordance with altitude, slope and type of soil many varieties of for his wife, Mumtaz Mahal, where he is also buried: It was vegetation are represented, saxaul scrub, jungle grass, especially begun in 1632 (in which year the Shah ordered the stopping of in the valleys of the Surkhan, Vaksha and Kyzyl-Su, where the all Hindoo temple-building), and was completed before 1650. tiger and deer are to be found, deciduous and coniferous forest, The Taj Mahal is the most perfect example of the Mogul style and alpine and sub-alpine pasture. Along the north-west runs the and is by some considered the most beautiful building in the upper course of the Zarafshan, with its tributary, the Fan, but the world. The tomb proper consists of a domed, square, white Zarafshan valley here is infertile and difficult to irrigate because marble building, raised on a terrace from the corners of which of the irregularity of the surface. The most fertile regions are rise four slim, white minarets. The whole is set in an exquisite the valleys in which Diushambe and Kurgan-Tyube are situated. garden surrounded by a red sandstone wall; a gate and a mosque Population and Industry.—The types of dwelling are as are subsidiary elements in the composition. The tomb building varied as the climate and vegetation, e.g., felt tents for the nomads, itself is 186 ft. square, with a dome 58 ft. in internal diameter loess brick walls with a thatch of reeds for the primitive culti- rising to a total height of 210 feet. The building is said to have vator; the houses are always low, whatever their type, because of cost over £3,000,000. It was probably designed by an architect the frequent earthquakes. The chief occupation is stock raising of named Ustad Isa, traditionally supposed to have been either semi-nomadic type, .e., restricted to certain summer and winter Turkish or Persian. For a complete description see Acra. See pastures; true nomadism is fast dying out. The disturbances fol- also INDIAN ARCHITECTURE. lowing the 1917 revolution much diminished the herds, the numTAKIN, a hollow-horned ruminant (Budorcas taxicolor), bers of asses and mules, so essential for transport in this difficult which inhabits the south-east corner of Tibet, while a second form region, are at their former level, cattle, sheep and goats are slowly is found further east, in the Moupin district. The takin is clumIncreasing, but the numbers of camels and horses are still far sily built, with yellowish-brown hair and curiously curved horns, which recall those of the gnu. Its nearest relatives appear to be below 1914 level. Irrigation cultivation of cotton, rice, olives, vines and fruits in the serows (g.v.). TAKLA MAKAN, a desert area in Central Asia. This unit the more favoured valleys in 1926-27 was about 50% less than in IgI4, Since irrigation works once ruined need much time and is the major division of that portion of the Tarim basin which capital for their restoration. Wheat and barley are the chief grain stretches westwards from the lower course of the Tarim river to the Pamirs. Its borders on the west, north and east are formed by crops.

There are valuable minerals, including coal in the Ura-Tyube district and the Zarafshan basin, iron in the latter district and in the valley of the Vanch, where manganese also occurs. These minerals and gold are worked in a primitive way in some localities. Lead, sulphur, asbestos and salt are reported, and there are hot springs, especially at Diushambe. The natural wealth is, however, unsurveyed, and there is little prospect of exploitation in the present absence of means of transport. There are small peasant weaving, carpentry, leather and milling industries to supply local needs only, and of the six industrial enterprises in the republic, four cotton cleaning, one printing and one flour-mill, none was working in 1926-27. There is no railway; the link with Uzbekistan is a winding road

the Tiznaf, Yarkand and Tarim rivers respectively. Speaking generally, the Takla Makan is. a region of bare drift sand and moving sand dunes, a waterless area, except for the Khotan and Keriya rivers, which carry water northwards into the desert from the Kunlun. This sand dune desert is absolutely uninhabitable, except for a few scattered settlements along the

banks of these rivers. These sandy wastes are found all the way down the right bank of the Tarim river to its confluence with Lake Kara-Buran, and then continue up the Charchan Darya and almost as far westward as Keriya. | The sand dunes proper of the Takla Makan occupy chiefly the south and south-west of the region, where the full force of

the north-east wind is felt.

760

TAKORADI—TALAVERA

Between the lower Tarim river and the Charchan Darya, the surface conformation is different from that of the rest of the Takla Makan. Here the sand dunes are interrupted by tracts of perfectly level soil entirely destitute of sand. In the southernmost part of this area there are patches of reeds and tamarisks, and wells are to be found in this locality. : In the west, stretching from Yangi Hissar to the left bank of the Yarkand river, there is the region of moving sands known as Ordam Padshah. In the east, beyond the left bank of the Tarim river, there is a zone of high and barren sand ridges, extending beyond the river and filling the area between the foot of the Kuruk Tagh hills and the belt of wind-eroded desert along the western side of the ancient salt-encrusted Lop lake bed. In this region the sands are much less frequent than in the Takla Makan itself. Here the soil is of loose saline clay, bare in some places, overgrown in others with tamarisk bushes. The plants bind the soil with their roots intọ a solid mass, the intervals between the masses of plants being subject to the full erosive force of the winds. The drift-sand accumulates around the bushes and gradually'a hillock of sand and tamarisks is formed. These hillocks are between 7 and r4 ft. high, and cover large tracts in this eastward extension of the sandy desert. In the sand dune desert proper of the Takla Makan, there are two systems of dunes; one system, of the high chains, stretches from east to west, while the transverse dunes run from north to south, or north-east to south-west. The steeper faces of the dunes are, for the most part, turned towards the south, the south-west and the west, that is, away from the direction of the prevailing winds, but in some regions face east. Vegetation and animal life are extremely scarce. The former is practically confined to various steppe plants, kamish (reeds), tamarisks, almost invariably growing on root mounds, and poplars. The animals are hares, rats, and one or two other rodents, foxes, and, in a few places, the wild camel. E The climate is one of extremes. In the Charchan desert a temperature of — 22° F has been observed in the depth of winter, and snow sometimes falls heavily there. During the sandstorms which sweep over the region in spring, the thermometer drops as much as ro° or 12° F below zero. On the other hand, a temperature as high as 86° F has been recorded at the end of April. This desert can only be crossed safely in the winter, when it is possible to transport ice on the backs of camels. Sometimes, for days together, the desert is enveloped in an impenetrable dust haze, which chokes and smothers every living creature. In the second half of the 13th century, Marco Polo left a vivid description of this desert and related legends associated

with it. (See also Srv Kane, TARIM.)

. TAKORADTI, a port on the Gold Coast, British West Africa,

in 4° 50’ N., 1° 45’ W. The main breakwater, 13m. long, is built on a reef which extends 2 to 3m. from the rocky foreshore. The lee breakwater is 3m. long: the enclosed area is 270ac. and in it ships up to 4oft. draught can lie. Ships 4ooft. long and 2oft. draught can lie alongside the wharves. The port is excellently equipped and can handle 5,000 tons of cargo daily. It is the terminus of the western railway to Kumasi; is the chief port of the Gold Coast, and the only deep water harbour between Sierra Leone and Nigeria, i.¢., on 1,300m. of coast. On high ground overlooking the harbour is a model township, built to accommodate 150,000 inhabitants. The port was opened to general traffic in 1928. } |

~ TALAING,

DE LA REINA

bet. Burmese law is largely derived from Talaing monastic writ-

ings, and Burmese historical tradition is full of Indian nomencla. ture and Indian legend.

[x1925].)

(See G. E. Harvey, History of Burma

©

(J.H. H)

TALANA HILL, ACTION OF, Oct. 20, 1899: see Souta AFRICAN WAR. | TALAR, the throne of the Persian monarchs which is carved on the rock-cut tomb of Darius at Nakst-i-Rustan, near Persepolis,

TALAVERA

DE LA REINA, a town of central Spain,

in the province of Toledo; on the right bank of the river Tagus, and on the Madrid-Cáceres railway. Pop. (1920), 13,525. Talavera is of great antiquity, the Caesobriga of the Romans. Portions of the triple wall which surrounded it remain standing, and the Arco de San Pedro is one of its Roman gates restored. Among the ancient buildings are the Torres Albarranas, built by the Moors in the roth century, and the Gothic collegiate: church.

The bridge of thirty-five arches across the Tagus dates’ from the 15th century. Talavera, Battle of, 1809.—For the ‘operations. which’ cul-

minated in the famous battle of Talavera, between the English and the French, and those which followed that engagement, see

PENINSULAR War. Sir Arthur Wellesley (afterwards Duke of Wellington), the British commander, acting in co-operation with Lieutenant-General Cuesta’s Spanish army, took position on July 27, 1809, on the Upper Tagus, protected by his advanced guard.

His line, facing due east, ran north from the right bank of the river to a ridge running parallel to the Tagus, beyond which-ridge,

also parallel to the river, lay the Sierra de Montalban.

Cuesta’s

men with their right flank resting on the river held Talavera itself and the close country to the northward of it; Wellesley’s right connected with Cuesta’s left, and his line stretched away northwards to the ridge already mentioned. The Sierra was not, on the

first day, occupied, and even on the inner ridge itself the division of General Hill was, from a misunderstanding, very late in taking up its position. The whole front was covered by a rivulet running from the ridge to the Tagus. The battle was begun by the attack of two French divisions on the British advanced guard, which retired into the main position with severe loss and in some disorder. Marshal Victor’s forces followed them up sharply, and soon came upon Wellesley’s line of battle. For some time the retention of the ridge (owing to the delay of Hill’s Division) was in doubt, but in the end the arrival of Hill’s troops secured this all-important point for the Allied left. Meanwhile the Spaniards (though there was at first a temporary panic amongst them) and the right divisions of the British repulsed an attack in the plain, and the day closed with the armies facing each other along

the rivulet and on the ridge. The losses had been heavy on both sides. Early on the 28th the battle was renewed by a furious attack on Hill’s troops, whose left was now prolonged to the Sierra by the Allied cavalry and a division borrowed from Cuesta. King Joseph Bonaparte and Jourdan his chief of staff, who were present, were averse to fighting on this present ground, wishing to wait for Soult, whom they expected to come in on Wellesley’s rear, and it was only after long discussion that the king gave a reluctant assent’ to Victor’s plan of attack. That commander's divisions once more tried to oust Hill from the ridge, and once

more failed before the steady volleys of the British line and the charge of the cavalry posted in this quarter (though, owing perhaps to defective ground-scouting, this nearly ended in disaster).

a name given to the Mon people of Pegu in At the same time Sebastiani’s IV. corps, after a heavy bombardment, assaulted the Allied centre in the plain. Here the British

Burma, now largely absorbed into and indistinguishable from the Burmese nation. The Mon are a remnant of the oldest known

civilization of south-east Asia (see ASIA, FURTHER), speaking a language which connects with scattered survivals from the Mundas in Chhota Nagpur and the Khasis of Assam to Cambodia, and probably'also to Yunnan and the Malay archipelago. The Mon, however, got their culture, their religion, now Buddhist but orig-

inally Hindu, and their literature from the Telingana coast of South India, and from the Telingas, whose culture they took and whose foreign blood they absorbed into their own stock, came the name Talaing. This culture was again passed on to the Burmese

conquerors of Pegu and Burmese is written in the Talaing’ alpha-

and Spanish battalions held their own- firmly, and a counter

attack by Mackenzie’s division hurled back the French in disorder. Yet another attack followed these failures, and came very

near to achieving a great success. This time Lapisse’s division of Victor’s corps attacked the Allies’ left centre, composed of the British Guards. The French columns were again checked by the British line, but here the counterstroke, unlike Mackenzie’s, was carried too far, and the troops in the ardour of incautious pursuit were very severely handled and pushed back to'the position by the French reserves; but Wellesley decided the day by a counter

attack with the 48th regiment, made with great intrepidity and

TALBOT steadiness.

The Guards, with splendid discipline, resumed their

positions, and eventually the French fell back. Failure all along the line and heavy losses left King Joseph no alternative but to retire towards Madrid. The French lost 7,268 men out of

46,138 present, the British 5,363 out of 20,641; the Spanish losses were Officially returned at 1,201 out of some 36,000 present. TALBOT (Famy). This is one of the few families in the English aristocracy which traces alike its descent and its surname from the Norman conquerors of England. The name of Richard Talbot occurs in Domesday Book as the holder of nine hides of land in Bedfordshire under Walter Giffard. There is no evidence that he came over to England with the Conqueror himself; and, as he did not hold of the king im capite, it is clear that he was not a leader. Talbot being a personal nickname and not derived from a place, those who bore it were not of necessity connected, and the early pedigree is obscure. But a Geoffrey Talbot took part with the empress Maud against King Stephen; and a Hugh Talbot held the castle of Plessis against Henry I. for Hugh de Gournay, and afterwards became a monk at Beaubec in Normandy. RIcHARD TALBOT, with whom the proved pedigree begins, obtained from Henry II. on his accession the lordship of Linton in Herefordshire, and from Richard I. the custody of Ludlow Castle. His descendants for some generations appear to have been wardens of various castles on the borders of Wales, and intermarried with the great families of this region. Under Edward ITI. a Gilbert Talbot was head of the house, and invaded Scotland in the king’s company, but afterwards took part with Thomas of Lancaster against the king. He, however, was pardoned, and obtained from Edward III. a confirmation of the grant of the manor of Linton and other lands, being also summoned to parliament as a baron (1331). His son RricHARD, who married a daughter and co-heiress of

John Comyn of Badenoch, laid claim to lands in Scotland in her right, and, when restrained from entering that country by land (Edward III. having then made an alliance with King David), he joined in an expedition which invaded it by sea in the interests of Edward Baliol.

Three years later he was taken

prisoner, and redeemed for 2,000 marks, after which made him governor of Berwick. He took part also in wars against France, as did likewise his son Gilbert, ceeded him. His wife brought him Goodrich Castle on

the king Edward’s who sucthe Wye, and at this time the family possessed lands in the counties of Oxford, Gloucester, Hereford and Kent. Gilbert’s son Richard added to this inheritance by marrying the heiress of Lord Strange of Blackmere, and himself became under Richard IT. one of the heirs of the earl of Pembroke, thus adding to his estates, lands in Berkshire, Wilts, Salop and Essex. Another Gilbert Talbot, grandson of the last, claimed to carry the great spurs at the coronation of Henry V., and had a commission to receive the submission of Owen Glendower and his adherents. He also distinguished himself in the invasion of Normandy. He left no male issue, and was succeeded by his brother John. Hitherto the head of the house had borne the name of Lord Talbot; but this John, after obtaining by marriage the title of

Lord Furnival, was for his services created earl of Shrewsbury. (See SHREWSBURY, JOHN TALBOT, IST EARL OF.) |

Joun, the second earl of Shrewsbury, was the 1st earl’s son

76%

who alone opposed the bill for abolishing the pope’s jurisdiction under Elizabeth. His son George, who succeeded, was the earl to whom the custody of Mary Stuart was committed, his task being rendered the more difficult by the intrigues of his second wife, Bess of Hardwick, the builder of Chatsworth, who was thrice married before her union with him. Two sons of this last earl succeeded one another, and the title then devolved on the lineal descendants of Sir Gilbert Talbot of Grafton in Worcestershire, third son of John, the 2nd earl. Charles, the z2th earl, was raised by William III. to the dignity of a duke, but as he left no son this title died along with him in 1718, and the earldom of Shrewsbury devolved on his cousin Gilbert, a Roman Catholic priest. From this time the direct line of Sir Gilbert Talbot of Grafton began to fail. A nephew three times succeeded to an uncle, and then the title devolved upon a cousin, who died unmarried in 1856. On the death of this cousin the descent of the title was for

a short time in dispute, and the lands were claimed for Lord Edmund Howard (now Talbot), an infant son of the duke of Norfolk, under the will of the last earl; but the courts decided that, under a private act obtained by the duke of Shrewsbury shortly before his death, the title and bulk of the estates must together, and the true successor to the earldom was found Earl Talbot, the head of another line of the descendants of Gilbert Talbot of Grafton, sprung from a second marriage Sir Gilbert’s son, Sir John Talbot of Albrighton. The head

go in Sir of of

this family in the beginning of the 18th century was a divine of some mark, William Talbot, who died bishop of Durham in 1730. His son Charles, who filled the office of lord chancellor, was created Baron Talbot of Hensol in Glamorganshire in 1733; and his son William was advanced to the dignity of Earl Talbot in 1761, to which was added Ingestre, the barony of Dynevor, with special remainder to his daughter, Lady Cecil Rice, in 1780. Then succeeded a nephew, who was created Viscount and Earl Talbot, and assumed by royal licence the surname of Chetwynd before Talbot, from his mother. All the titles just mentioned have been united in the line of the Earl Talbot who successfully claimed the Shrewsbury title as the 18th earl, the earldom of Shrewsbury (1442) being now the oldest existing that is not merged in a higher title. The family seats (Alton Towers and Ingestre Hall) and the chief estates are in Staffordshire. The old badge of the family was a “talbot”, or running hound. (J. Gar; J. H. R.) TALBOT, MARY ANNE (1778-1808), the “British Amazon,” was born in London on Feb. 2, 1778. She believed herself to be the illegitimate child of the rst Earl Talbot. Early in her career she eloped, in the disguise of a boy, with a captain. In 1792 she was a drummer in Flanders. In the capture of Valenciennes her lover was killed; and Mary Anne deserted and became cabin boy on a French lugger, which she*asserted was captured by the British, who transferred her to the “Brunswick,” where

she served as a powder monkey, being wounded in Lord Howe’s

victory of June 1, 1794. For this she later received a small pension. When the wound healed she again went to sea, was captured by the French, and imprisoned for a year and a half. Her sex was not discovered until shortly afterwards she was seized by a pressgang. She finally became a household servant to Robert Kirby, a London publisher, who included an account of her adventures in his Wonderful Museum (1804) and in Life and Surprising Adventures of Mary Anne Talbot (1809). She died on Feb. 4, 1808.

by his first wife. He had been knighted at Leicester (1426) along with the infant king Henry VI., had served in i the wars of France, and been made chancellor of Ireland during his father’s lifetime, when he was only Lord Talbot. Afterwards he was made lord high treasurer of England, and in 14 59 was rewarded TALBOT, WILLIAM HENRY FOX (1800-1877), ae for his services to the house of Lancaster with a grant of 100 lish discoverer iin photography, was born at Lacock Abbey, Wilts, marks a year out of the lordship of Wakefield, forfeited by on Feb. 11, 1800, and died there on Sept. 17, 1877. He was edu-

Richard, duke of York. But next year he and his brother Christopher were slain at the battle of Northampton, fighting in the cause of Henry VI. His son John succeeded him, and then his grandson George, who fought for Henry VII. at Stoke, and whom King Henry VIII. sent as his lieutenant against the rebels in i the Pilgrimage of Grace. Francis, the 5th earl, took part in the invasions of Scotland under Henry VIII. and Edward VI., and was one of the two peers

cated at Harrow and at Trinity college, Cambridge. Before L. J. M. Daguerre exhibited in' 1839 pictures taken by the sun, Talbot had obtained similar success, and as soon as Daguerre’s discoveries became known he communicated the results of his experiments to the Royal Society. In 1841 he made known his discovery of the calotype or Talbotype process, and after the discovery of the collodion process by Frederick Scott Archer in 1851 he devised a method of instantaneous photography. With Rawlinson

TALBOT

762

OF HENSOL—TALE

and Hincks he was one of the earliest to decipher the cuneiform inscriptions from Nineveh.

with its power of resisting heat, has led to its employment for vessels for household use, whence it is called “potstone”—the

His works include Pencil of Nature (1844); Hermes or Classical and Antiquarian Researches (1838-39) ; Illustrations of the Antiquity of the Book of Genesis (1839); English Etymologies (1846).

for sinks, stoves, firebricks, foot-warmers,

TALBOT OF HENSOL, CHARLES TALBOT, ist BARON (1685-1737), lord chancellor of England, the eldest son

of William Talbot, bishop of Durham, a descendant of the rst earl of Shrewsbury, was educated at Eton and Oriel college, Oxford, and became a fellow of All Souls college in 1704. He was called to the bar in 1711, and in 1717 was appointed solicitorgeneral to the prince of Wales. Having been elected a member of the House of Commons in 1720, he became solicitor-general in 1726, and in 1733 he was made lord chancellor and raised to the peerage with the title of Baron Talbot of Hensol. He died on Feb. 14, 1737. Talbot enjoyed the reputation of a wit; he was a patron of the poet Thomson, and Butler dedicated his Analogy to the lord chancellor.

lapis ollaris of old writers; it is also used, especially in America, tips for gas-burners

and electric switchboards, and, when ground, as a filler for paper, for leather-dressing, for covering steam-pipes, as an ingredient in

soap, for toilet-powder, for certain paints and as a lubricant. A fine granular variety, known as “French chalk” or “Spanish chalk,” is used by tailors for marking cloth; slate pencils are made of steatite and pyrophyllite; and in Burma steatite pencils are used for writing on black paper. In the oxyhydrogen flame,

steatite has been fused and drawn out into threads, like quartz-

fibres. Steatile- and talc-schists are widely distributed and have oc. casionally been used as building stones. When first raised the stone is soft, but hardens on exposure. Soapstone from Gudbrandsdal is used in the cathedral of Trondhjem, Norway. Veins of steatite occur in the serpentine of the Lizard district, Cornwall, See Lord Campbell, Lives of the Lord Chancellors and Keepers of and the mineral was used under the name of soap rock in the the Great Seal (8 vols. London, 1848-69) ; Edward Foss, The Judges of England (London, 1848-64) ; Lord Hervey, Memoirs of the Reign of George II. (London, 1848); G. E. C., Complete Peerage, vol. vii. (London, 1896).

TALC, a mineral which in its compact forms is known as steatite, or soapstone. It was probably the mayrĝris AlGos of Theophrastus, described as a stone of silvery lustre, easily cut. The name word comes indirectly from the Arabic talg, and is not connected with Swed. fdlja, to cut. It was confused with mica by the older writers, and even now mica is sometimes known in trade as talc; while the term was formerly applied to foliated gypsum.

Talc is occasionally found in small hexagonal and rhombic plates with perfect basal cleavage, which are supposed to be monoclinic, and often occurs in foliated masses, sometimes with a curved surface, readily separating into thin, very flexible, nonelastic laminae. The plates give a six-rayed percussion-figure. Talc has a hardness of only about 1, and a specific gravity of

from 2-6 to 2-8. Its extreme softness and its greasy feel are characteristic. The lustre on the cleavage face is pearly, or sometimes silvery, and one of the old names of the mineral was stella terrae, while German writers sometimes called it Katzensilber. The colour is white, grey, yellow or frequently green. Talc is a magnesium silicate, H.Mg,Si,O... It is generally regarded as a hydrous silicate, but the water is expelled only at a very strong heat, and may therefore be regarded as basic.

By the action of heat the hardness

of the mineral is greatly

Increased.

after actinolite, pyroxene,

Pseudomorphs

are known

etc., and the mineral has probably been generally formed by the

manufacture

of the old Worcester porcelain.

In North America

its distribution is very extensive. A fibrous steatite from New York State, used in ture of paper, is known as agalite. Rensselaerite talcose substance, passing into serpentine, from county, N.Y., named by E. Emmons in 1837 after

the manufacis a wax-like St. Lawrence S. Van Rensselaer, of Albany, N.Y. Beaconite is an asbestiform talc from Michigan, named by L. W. Hubbard. The term pyrallolite was given by Nils G. Nordenskiöld to a mineral from Finland, which appears to be talc pseudomorphous after pyroxene. Talcoid was K. F. Naumann’s name for a white lamellar minèral from near Pressnitz in Bohemia. A blue earthy mineral from Silver City,

New Mexico, known locally as “native ultramarine,” is a magnesium silicate. See “Talc and Soapstone” in vol. il. of Mineral Resources of the U.S. (1909), and J. H. Pratt, “Economic Papers,” No. 3, of Geol. Surv. of N. Carolina (1900); C. H. Smyth, Jr., “The Fibrous Talc Industry of St. Lawrence Co., N.Y.” in Mineral Industry, vol. ix. (1900); G. P. Merrill, Non-metallic Minerals (1904); and R. B. eet “Talc and Soapstone,” U.S. Bur. of Mines, Bull. No. 213 1923).

TALCA, a province of Chile, bounded on the north by Colchagua, east by Argentina, south by Linares and Maule, and west by the Pacific. Area 6,909 sq.m., including the province of Curicó which in 1928 was incorporated with it. Pop. (1928) 210,000. In the east the Andean slopes cover a considerable part of its territory, and in the west another large area is covered by the coast range. Between these is the central valley of Chile in which the population and industries of the province are chiefly concentrated. The lower mountainous parts are well wooded. The intermediate plain, which is rolling and slopes gently to the south, is fertile and devoted to wheat, grapes and stock. The capital of the province is Talca (pop., 1920, 36,079), on the Río Claro, a tributary of the Maule, 156 m. by rail south of Santiago.

alteration of ferro-magnesian silicates. Talc occurs chiefly in crystalline schists, usually associated with chlorite, serpentine and dolomite. Fine examples of apple-green colour are found at Mt. Greiner, in the Zillerthal, Tirol. Talc-schist is a foliated rock composed chiefly of talc, generally associated with quartz and felspar; but all soapy schists are not necessarily talcose. TALCAHUANO, a seaport of the province of Concepción, The steatites of Pliny was a stone resembling fat, but other- Chile, on the bay of Talcahuano, 8 m. N.W. of the city of Conwise undescribed. Being easily cut, steatite has always been a cepción. Pop. (1920) 22,084. It has the best harbour on the favourite material with the carver: it was used for Egyptian Pacific coast of South America, and is one of the most imscarabs and other amulets, which were usually coated with a portant ports of southern Chile. The Chilean Government has blue vitreous glaze; it was employed for Assyrian cylinder-seals established its chief naval depot here. | and for other ancient signets, and ancient steatite carvings are TALE, a general term, in the usual acceptance of the word, found among the ruins of Rhodesia. By the Chinese steatite is for fictitious narratives, long or short, ancient or modern (O.Eng. largely used for ornamental carvings; but many of their “soap- talu, number, account, story; the word is common to many Teustone” figures are wrought in a compact pyrophyllite (g.v.), which tonic languages; cf. Ger. Zahl, number, Erzahlung, narrative, is essentially different from talc. The name agalmatolite is often Du. taal, speech, language). In this article “tale” is used in a applied to the material of these figures, and was suggested by stricter sense, aS equivalent to the German ‘‘Volks-marchen” or M. H. Klaproth from the Greek &yahya, an image. Pagodite is the French “conte populaire.” Thus understood, popular tales an old name for Chinese figure-stone. mean the stories handed down by oral tradition from an unknown Steatite is usually a white, grey, greenish or brown substance, antiquity. So understood, popular tales are a subject in mythoccurring in veins or nodular masses or in lenticular bedded ology. The Homeric epics, especially that of the Odyssey, condeposits. Pseudomorphs after quartz and dolomite occur near tain adventures (those, for example, of the Cyclops and the Wunsiedel in Bavaria. In some cases it is a product of the altera- husband who returns in disguise) which are manifestly parts of

tion of pyroxenic rocks, and the commercial mineral may be very

impure.

The ease with which steatite may be worked, coupled

the general human stock of popular narrative. Other examples are found in the Rigveda, and in the myths which were handled

TALENT— TALLAHASSEE

763

by the Greek dramatists. The Thousand and One Nights (q.v.) the vale of Usk. The region shows evidences of Norman and is full of popular tales, and popular tales are the staple of the English penetration and an early distinction between the lowland mediaeval Gesta Romanorum, and of the collections of Straparola (English Talgarth) and the upland (Welsh Talgarth) in which and other Italian story-tellers. In all these and similar gatherings the Welsh laws of property etc., prevailed until the end of the the story, long circulated from mouth to mouth among the people, middle ages. The region has associations with early nonconformity is handled with conscious art. In the Histoires ou contes du temps and there is a Congregational church at Tredwestan founded in passé of Perrault (Elzevir, 1697), we have one of the earliest 1662. Howel Harris, one of the founders of Welsh Methodism collections of tales which were taken down as they were told by was born in 1713 at Trevecca, ı m. S.W., and here in 1752 he established a religious “family.” Talgarth has a small agricultural nurses to children. The success of Perrault’s popular tales brought the genre into trade. TALIENWAN, an open bay or roadstead on the east side literary fashion, and the Comtesse d’Aulnoy invented, or in some cases adapted, “contes,” which still retain a great popularity. But of the Liaotung peninsula, Manchuria. It was leased to Russia the precise and scientific collection of tales from the lips of the by China in 1898 with the naval fortress of Port Arthur, from people is not much earlier than our century. The chief impulse which it is distant 40 m., the lease being transferred to Japan in to the study was given by the brothers Grimm. The first edition 1905. The Russian town of Dalny (now Dairen) was built upon of their Kinder- und Haus-Märchen was published in 1812. The the west side of the bay, which is known as Port Victoria. TalienEnglish reader will find a very considerable bibliography of popu- wan is in railway connection with Niuchwang and Peking and is lar tales, as known to the Grimms, in Mrs. Alfred Hunt’s trans- also connected with Europe by way of the Siberian railway. It lation, Grimm’s Household Tales, with Notes (1884). In addition

was the rendezvous of the British fleet during the Anglo-China

to the mdrchen of Indo-European peoples, the Grimms became acquainted with some Malay stories, some narratives of Bechuanas, Negroes, American Indians and Finnish, Estonian and Magyar stories.

war of 1860, whence the names Port Arthur and Port Victoria.

For European tales, the bibliography in the translation of Grimm already referred to may be used, and the Maisonneuve collection, Les Littératures populaires, may be recommended. There are abundant materials and discussions in Frazer’s The Golden Bough. See also NOVEL. (A. L.; X.)

Taliessin. See WELSH LITERATURE.

See DATREN. TALIESSIN (tal‘i-sin), a late 6th century British bard, to whom is attributed the collection of poems known as the Book of

TALLADEGA,

a city of Alabama, U.S.A., the county seat

of Talladega county, 35 m. E. of Birmingham, in the foot-hills of the Blue Ridge, at an altitude of 560 feet. It is served by TALENT, the name of an ancient Greek unit of weight, the the Atlanta, Birmingham and Coast, the Louisville and Nashville, heaviest in use both for monetary purposes and for commodities' and the Southern railways. Pop. 6,546 in 1920 (41% negroes); (see MEASURES AND WeIGHTS). (Lat. talentum, adaptation of Gr. 7,596 in 1930 by the Federal census. It is the seat of the State tadavtor, balance, weight, from root rad-, to lift, as in rAHvaL, schools for the deaf and the blind and of Talladega college for to bear, TaAas, enduring, cf. Lat. tollere, to lift, Skt. tuld, balance.) negroes (Congregational, 1867). Talladega was once the site of an The weight itself was originally Babylonian, and derivatives were Indian village, where, on Nov. 9, 1813, General Andrew Jackson in use in Palestine, Syria and Egypt. In mediaeval Latin and also won a decisive victory over 1,000 “Red Sticks” (Creek Indians) in many Romanic languages the word was used figuratively, of who opposed the extension of white settlement in Indian territory. TALLAGE was a tax which in England could be imposed by will, inclination or desire, derived from the sense of balance, but the general figurative use for natural endowments or gifts, faculty, a feudal lord upon his unfree tenants. The king could tallage the capacity or ability, is due to the parable of the talents in Matt. xxv. towns and his demesne manors. A lesser lord could tallage his TALFOURD, SIR THOMAS NOON (1795-1854), Eng- demesne manors. The royal tallage of the boroughs to some lish judge and author, the son of a brewer, was born at Reading on extent took the place of Danegeld under Henry II., the latter tax May 26, 1795. He was educated at Hendon, and at Reading having ceased to be very profitable. Growing prosperity made grammar school. At the age of 18 he was sent to London to tallages justifiable. Moreover Henry had a better machinery for study law under Joseph Chitty, the special pleader. Early in the assessment and collection of tallage than any king before him. 1821 he joined the Oxford circuit, having been called to the bar His judges, financial as well as legal experts, were going round the at the middle Temple in the same year. He became a serjeant- shires more frequently than any previous royal ministers. They at-law in 1835, and a judge of the common pleas in 1849. He could assess the tallages, and the Exchequer (g.v.) could see that was M.P. for Reading, and carried an International Copyright they were paid. The tax might be arranged by the judges in one Bill against stormy opposition in 1842. Dickens dedicated the of two ways; they might bargain with the town or manor to Pickwick Papers to him. On the literary side, he contributed to provide a definite sum for the king, or they might tallage the various magazines, and his legal writings on literary subjects individual burgesses. The former practice was more usually folincluded “On the Principle of Advocacy in the Practice of the lowed. In the 13th century the custom of summoning representaBar” (in the Law Magazine, Jan. 1846), and his famous Speech tives from the boroughs to meet the king and his magnates in for the Defendant in the Prosecution, the Queen v. Moxon, ie parliament grew more frequent and the practice of taking tallages from the towns began to fall out of use, since grants were made the Publication of Shelley’s Poetical Works (1841). But Talfourd cannot be said to have gained any position among to the king in the parliament. Nevertheless he kept his right of men of letters until the production of his tragedy Jon, which was tallaging the boroughs. Edward I. took a tallage in 1304, his son privately printed in 1835, and produced in the following year at in 1312. His grandson tried to take one in 1332, but owing to Covent Garden theatre. Other less successful, plays followed. opposition took a grant from parliament instead. In the 12th cenTalfourd died in court during the performance of his judicial tury the lord seems to have been able to tallage his men at will; his exactions were bounded only by the custom of the manor, duties, at Stafford, on March 13, 1854. In addition to the writings above-mentioned, Talfourd was the which might either limit his right narrowly or allow him consider-

able latitude in the matter. Beginning with the Inquest of Sheriffs in 1170 the kings took more and more interest in the relations between lord and man, and in time the right of the lord to tallage his men was Closely restricted. He had to obtain a license from the king before he could take a tallage. The right of towns, too, TALGARTH, a small town in Breconshire, South Wales, to tax individual burgesses was very narrowly limited. The king situated on the Ennig near its junction with the Llynfi (a trib- would allow a tallage to be taken for a necessary public work, or utary of the Wye), in the north-west section of the Black moun- for the payment of sums due to him, but he kept a careful watch (D. M. S.) tains. It is served by the G.W.R. Pop. (of Parish) 1921, 1,881. on the taxing powers of the borough magistrates. TALLAHASSEE, the capital city of Florida, U.S.A., and A fortified station (Dinas) occupies a hill 24 m. S.E. of Talgarth, and commands the pass to Crickhowell and the eastern part ofi the county seat of Leon county; m the northern part of the

author of The Letters of Charles Lamb, with a Sketch of his Life (1837); Recollections of a First Visit to the Alps (1841); Vacation Rambles and Thoughts, comprising recollections of three continental tours ‘in the vacations of 1841,'1842 and 1843 (2 vols., 1844); and Final Memorials of Charles Lamb (1849-50).

764

TALLBOY—TALLEYRAND-PERIGORD

State, on Federal highway 90, midway between Jacksonville and Pensacola, and 20m. N. of the Gulf of Mexico. It has a municipal airport, and is served by the Georgia, Florida and Alabama and the Seaboard Air Line railways. Pop. 6,415 in 1925 (State census), of whom 2,975 were negroes; and was 10,700 in 1930 by the Federal census. It has a fine location, being situated on a hill

216 ft. above sea-level, in a region of rolling hills, numerous lakes and streams, giant magnolia trees and majestic oaks which are hung with Spanish moss. The streets are wide and well shaded. The

d’Harcourt at Paris, and, at thirteen to St. Sulpice, where he conceived a dislike of the doctrines and discipline thrust upon him. After a visit to his uncle, the archbishop of Reims, he returned to St. Sulpice to finish his preliminary training for the church, but in his spare time he read the works of Montesquieu, Voltaire and other writers who were beginning to undermine the authority of the ancien régime, both in church and state. As subdeacon he witnessed the coronation of Louis XVI. at Reims, but he did not

take priest’s orders until four years later.

While rejecting the

State capitol, the Supreme Court and Library building, the Gov- authority of the church in the sphere of dogma and intellect, he ernor’s mansion and other public buildings, are dignified and observed the proprieties of life, and respected the outward obpleasing. The city is a shipping point for cotton, corn, tobacco, servances of religion. During his life at Paris he frequented the salon of Madame fruit and vegetables; has railroad shops and various manufacturing industries; and is the seat of the Florida State college for de Genlis, and there formed his ideas in favour of political and women and the State Normal and Industrial school for negroes. social reform. After taking his licentiate in theology in March It has a commission-manager form of government. Tradition says 1778, he gave little more attention to theological studies. Neverthat the Spaniards, about 1638, fortified a hill near the present theless his ability and his social position gained for him in the site of Tallahassee, during a war with the Apalachee Indians. year 1780 the position of agent-general of the clergy of France. About 1818 most of the Indians were driven out of this region The growing claims of the state on the exchequer of the clergy and a settlement was made by the whites, and in 1824 Tallahassee made his duties responsible. At the extraordinary assembly of was chosen by the U.S. Government to be the capital of the the clergy in 1782 he made proposals, by one of which he sought, Territory of Florida. From 1821 it was the home of Charles Louis though in vain, to redress the most glaring grievances of the unNapoleon Achille Murat (1801-47; the eldest son of Joachim derpaid curés. Though the excellence of his work as agent-general Murat), who became an American citizen, married a grand-niece in the years 1780-86 was fully acknowledged, yet he did not gain of George Washington, and held various municipal offices in a bishopric until the beginning of the year 1789, probably because Tallahassee. Florida’s Ordinance of Secession was adopted by a the king disliked him as a freethinker. He now became bishop of Autun, and was installed on March 13. state convention meeting in Tallahassee on Jan. Io, 1861. The Revolution.—The first important act of the new bishop TALLBOY (partly a translation and partly a corruption of the French hautbois), a double chest of drawers. Whereas the , was to draw up a programme of the reforms which he desired to chest of drawers in its familiar form (sometimes in the 18th see carried out by the States General of France. It comprised the century called a “lowboy”) contains three long and two short following items: the formation of a constitution which would drawers, the tallboy has five, six or seven long drawers, and two strengthen the monarchy by calling to it the support of the whole short ones. It is a very late 17th century development of the nation, the drafting of a scheme of local self-government on demsmaller chest. The early examples are of walnut, but by far the ocratic lines, the reform of the administration of justice and of largest proportion of the many that have survived are of mahog- the criminal law, and the abolition of the most burdensome of any, that being the wood most frequently employed in the. 18th feudal and class privileges. This programme was adopted by the century for the construction of furniture, especially the more clergy of his diocese as their cahier, or book of instructions to massive pieces. Occasionally the walnut at the beginning of the their representative at the States General, namely Talleyrand vogue of the tallboy was inlaid, just as satinwood varieties were himself. His influence in the estate of the clergy, however, was cast inlaid, depending for relief upon carved cornice-mouldings or gadrooning, and upon handsome brass handles and escutcheons. against the union of the three estates in a single assembly, and TALLEMANT, GEDEON, SIEUR DES REAUX he voted in the minority of his order which in the middle of (1619-1692), French author, was born at La Rochelle on Nov. 7, June opposed the merging of the clergy in the National Assembly. 1619. He belonged to a wealthy middle-class family of Huguenot The folly of the court, and the weakness of Louis XVI. at that persuasion; the name des Réaux he derived from a small property crisis, probably convinced him that the cause of moderate reform which was purchased by him in the year 1650. In the Historieties and the framing of a bicameral constitution on the model of that he gives finished portraits of Voiture, Balzac, Malherbe, Chapelain, of England were hopeless. Thereafter he inclined more and more Valentin Conrart and many others; Blaise Pascal and Jean de la to the democratic side, though for the present he concerned himFontaine appear in his pages; and he chronicles the scandals of self mainly with financial questions. In the middle of: July he which Ninon de l’Enclos and Angélique Paulet were centres. They was chosen as one of the committee to prepare a draft of a conare invaluable for the literary history of the time. He died in stitution; and in the session of the Assembly which Mirabeau termed the orgie of the abolition of privileges (Aug. 4) he interParis on Nov. 6, 1692. Des Réaux_was a poet of some merit and contributed to the vened in favour of discrimination and justice. On Oct. 10, that.is, four days after the insurrection of women and the transference Guirlande de Julie, but it is by his Historiettes that he is remembered. The work remained in manuscript until it was edited in 1834-36 by of the king and court to Paris; he proposed to the Assembly the MM. de Chateaugiron, Jules Taschereau and'L. J. N. de Monmerqué, confiscation of the lands of the church to the service of the with a notice on Tallemant by Monmerqué,. A third edition (6 vols. 1872) contains a notice by Paulin Paris. Tallemant had begun nation, but on terms rather less rigorous than those in which Mémoires pour la régence d'Anne d'Autriche, but the manuscript has Mirabeau (g.v.) carried the proposal into effect on Nov. 2. He not been found. See also E. Magne, La joyeuse jeunesse de Tallemant identified himself in general with the Left of the Assembly, and des Réaux (1921). ` supported the proposed Departmental System which replaced the TALLEYRAN D-PÉRIGORD, CHARLES MAURICE old Provincial System early in 1790. At the federation festival of DE (1754-1838), French diplomatist and statesman, was born July 14, 1790 (the “Feast of Pikes”) he officiated at the altar at Paris on Feb. 12 or 13, 1754, the son of lieutenant-general reared in the middle of the Champ de Mars. This was his last Charles Danjel de Talleyrand-Périgord., His parents, descended public celebration of mass. For a brilliantly satirical but not from ancient and powerful families, wẹre in constant attendance wholly fair reference to the part then played by Talleyrand, the at. the court of Louis XV. In histhird or'fourth year, while under reader should consult Carlyle’s French. Revolution, vol. ii., bk, i., the care of a nurse in Paris, he fell from a chest. of drawers and ch. 12. The course of events harmonized with the anti-clerical injured his foot for life. This accident darkened his prospects; views of Talleyrand, and he gradually loosened the ties that bound for though by the death of his. elder brother he should have repre- him to the church. He took little part in, though he probably sented the family and entered the army, yet he forfeited the sympathized with, the debates on the measure known as the Civil rights of primogeniture, and the profession of .arms was thence- Constitution of the Clergy, whereby the state enforced its authorforth closed to him. At the age of eight he was sent to the Collége ity over the church to the detriment of its allegiance to the pope.

TALLEYRAND-PERIGORD When the Assembly sought to impose on its members an oath of obedience to the new decree, Talleyrand and three other bishops

complied out of the thirty who had seats in the Assembly.

The

others, followed by the greater number of the clergy throughout

France, refused, and thenceforth looked on Talleyrand as a schismatic. He did not long continue to officiate, as many of the so-called “constitutional” clergy did; for, on Jan. 21, 1791, he resigned the see of Autun, and in the month of March was placed under the ban of the church by the pope.

Just before his resignation he had been elected, with Mirabeau and Sieyés, a member of the department of Paris; and for some eighteen months he supported the cause of order in the turbulent

capital. Though he was often on strained terms with Mirabeau,

765

the efforts of Daunou and others his name was removed from the list of émigrés, and he set sail for Europe in November 1795. Landing at Hamburg in the January following, he spent some time there in the company of his friends Madame de Genlis and Reinhard; and when party rancour continued to abate at Paris, he returned thither in September. After a time he was recommended by Madame de Staél to the Director Barras for the post of minister of foreign affairs. He gained the post of foreign minister, entering on his duties in July 1797. Talleyrand, despite the weakness of his own position (he ‘was as yet little more than the chief clerk of his department), soon came to a good understanding with Bonaparte, and secretly expressed to him his satisfaction at the terms which the latter dictated at Campo Formio (Oct. 17, 1797). The coup d'état of Fructidor (September 1797) had perpetuated the Directory and led to the exclusion of the two “moderate” members, Carnot and Barthélémy; but Talleyrand saw that power belonged really to the general who had brought about the coup d’etat in favour of the Jacobinical Directors headed by Barras. With the renewal of war on the continent Talleyrand had little or no connection. His powers as minister were limited, and he regretted the extension of the area of war. Moreover, in the autumn of 1797 his reputation for political morality (never very bright) was overclouded by irregular dealings with the envoys of the United States sent to arrange a peaceful settlement of certain disputes with France. Talleyrand refused to clear himself of the charges made against him as his friends. (especially Madame de Staél) urged him to do; and the incident probably told against his chances of admission into the Directory, which were discussed in the summer of 1798. A year later he resigned the portfolio for foreign affairs (July 20, 1799), probably because he foresaw the imminent collapse of the Directory. If so, his premonitions were correct. Their realization was assured by the return to France of the “Conqueror of the East” in October. The general and the diplomatist soon came to an understanding, and Talleyrand tactfully brought about the alliance between Bonaparte and Sieyés (qg.v.) (then the most influential of the five Directors) which paved the way for the coup d’état of Brumaire. (See FRENCH REVOLUTION and NAPOLEON I.) | Talleyrand’s share in the actual events of the 18th, roth Brumaire (oth, roth of November) 1799 was limited to certain dealings with Barras on the former of those days. About midday he took to Barras a letter, penned by Roederer, requesting him to resign his post as Director. By what means Talleyrand brought him to do so, whether by persuasion, threats or bribes, is not known; but on that afternoon Barras left Paris under an escort of soldiers. With the more critical and exciting events of the rọth of Brumaire at St. Cloud Talleyrand had no direct connection; but he had made all his preparations for flight in case the

their views generally coincided. Talleyrand’s reputation for immorality, however, was as marked as that of Mirabeau. While excelling Mirabeau in suppleness and dexterity, Talleyrand lacked the force of character possessed by the great “tribune of the people”; and his influence was gradually eclipsed by the Girondins and the Jacobins. Debarred from election to the second National Assembly (known as the Legislative) by the self-denying ordinance passed by the “constituents,” Talleyrand, at the close of 1791, sought to enter the sphere of diplomacy for which he was well equipped by his mental qualities and his clerical training. The condition of affairs on the continent seemed to French enthusiasts to presage an attack by the other Powers on France. In reality those Powers were far more occupied with the Polish and Eastern questions than with the affairs of France; and the declaration of Pilnitz, drawn up by the sovereigns of Austria and Prussia, which appeared to threaten France with intervention, was recognized by all well-informed persons to be “a loud-sounding nothing.” The French foreign minister, Delessart, believed that he would checkmate all the efforts of the émigrés at the continental courts provided that he could confirm Pitt in his intention of keeping England neutral. For that purpose Delessart sent Talleyrand, well known for his Anglophil tendencies, to London, but in the unofficlal or semi-official capacity which was rendered necessary by the decree of the Constituent Assembly referred to above. Talleyrand arrived in London on Jan. 24, 1792, and found public opinion so far friendly that he wrote off to Paris, “Believe me, a rapprochement with England is no chimera.” Pitt received him cordially; and to Grenville the envoy stated his hope that the two free nations would enter into close and friendly relations, each guaranteeing the other in the possession of its existing territories, India and Ireland being included on the side of Britain. The British government returned no definite answer to this proposal, but Talleyrand was convinced that Great Britain would not intervene against France unless the latter attacked the Dutch Netherlands. He returned to Paris on March 10, to persuade the foreign blow failed. His reward for helping on the winning cause was the minister (Dumouriez now held that post) of the need of having ministry for foreign affairs, which he held from the close of a fully accredited ambassador at London. The ex-Marquis December 1799 on to the summer of 1807. In the great work of Chauvelin was appointed, with Talleyrand as adviser. But the reconstruction of France now begun by the First Consul, Talley- | overthrow of the monarchy on Aug. 10 and the September mas- rand played no unimportant part. His great aim was to bring sacres rendered hopeless all attempts at an entente cordiale be- about peace, both international and internal. He had a hand in tween the two peoples; and the provocative actions of Chauvelin the pacific overtures which Bonaparte, early in the year 1800, undid all the good accomplished by the tact and moderation of sent to the court of London; and, whatever may have been the Talleyrand. The latter now sought to escape from France, where motives of the First Consul in sending them, it is certain that Talevents were becoming intolerable; he succeeded in obtaining a leyrand regretted their failure. After the battle of Marengo an passport to leave Paris on Sept. 14, and landed in England on Austrian envoy had to come to Paris in response to a proposal of the 23rd, avowedly on private business, but still animated by the Bonaparte, and Talleyrand persuaded him to sign terms of peace. hope of averting a rupture between the two governments. In this These were indignantly repudiated at Vienna, but peace was made he failed. The provocative actions of the French Convention, between the two Powers at Lunéville on Feb. 9, 1801. As regards French affairs, Talleyrand used his influence to especially their setting aside of. the rights of the Dutch over the estuary of the Scheldt, had brought the two nations to the brink help on the repeal of the vexatious laws against émigrés, nonof war, when the execution of Louis XVI. (21st of Jan. 1793) juring priests, and the royalists of the west. He was also in full made it inevitable. Talleyrand was expelled from British soil and sympathy with the policy which led up to the signature of the made his way to the United States. There he spent thirty months Concordat of r8or—2 with the pope (see ConcogparT); but it is in a state of growing uneasiness and discontent with his sur- probable that he had a hand in the questionable intrigues which roundings. | accompanied the closing parts of that complex and difficult negoThe Directory.—The course of events after the Thermidorian

' tiation. At the end of June 1802 the pope removed Talleyrand

teaction of July 1794 favoured his return to France. Thanks to | from the ban of excommunication and allowed him to revert to

766

TALLEYRAND-PERIGORD

the secular state. On Sept. 10, 1803, owing to pressure put on him by Bonaparte, he married Madame Grand, a divorcée with whom he had long been living. During the meeting of Italian notables at Lyons early in 1802 Talleyrand was serviceable in manipulating affairs in the way desired by Bonaparte, and it is known that the foreign minister suggested to them the desirability of appointing Bonaparte prestdent of the Cisalpine Republic, which was thenceforth to be called the Italian Republic. In the negotiations for peace with England which went on at Amiens during the winter of 1801-2 Talleyrand had no direct share, these (like those at Lunéville) being transacted by Napoleon’s eldest brother, Joseph Bonaparte (g.v.). On the other hand he helped the First Consul in assuring French supremacy in Switzerland, Italy and Germany. In Germany the indemnification of the princes who lost all their lands west of the Rhine was found by secularizing and absorbing the ecclesiastical states of the empire. This unscrupulous proceeding, known as the Secularizations (February 1803), was carried out largely on lines Jaid down by Bonaparte and Talleyrand; and the latter is known to have made large sums of money by trafficking with the claimants of church lands. While helping to establish French supremacy in neighbouring states and assisting Bonaparte in securing the title of First Consul for life, Talleyrand sought all means of securing the permanent welfare of France. He worked hard to prevent the rupture of the peace of Amiens in May 1803, and he did what he could to prevent the sale of Louisiana to the United States earlier in the year. These events, as he saw, told against the best interests of France and endangered the gains which she had secured by war and diplomacy. Thereafter he strove to moderate Napoleon’s ambition and to preserve the European system as far as possible. The charges of duplicity or treachery made against the foreign minister by Napoleon’s apologists are in nearly all cases unfounded. This is especially so in the case of the execution of the duc d’Enghien (March 1804), which Talleyrand disapproved. The evidence against him rests on a document which is now known to have been forged. On the assumption of the imperial title by Napoleon in May 1804, Talleyrand became grand chamberlain of the empire, and received close on 500,000 francs a year. The Empire.—Talleyrand had rarely succeeded in bending the will of the First Consul. He altogether failed to do so with the Emperor Napoleon. His efforts to induce his master to accord lenient terms to Austria in November 1805 were futile; and he looked on helplessly while that Power was crushed, the Holy Roman Empire swept away, and the Confederation of the Rhine set up in central Europe. In the bargainings which accompanied this last event Talleyrand is believed to have reaped a rich harvest from the German princes most nearly concerned. On July 6, 1806, Napoleon conferred on his minister the title of prince of Benevento, a papal fief in the Neapolitan territory. In the negotiations with England which went on in the summer of 1806 Talleyrand had not a free hand; they came to nought, as did those with Russia which had led up to the signature of a Franco-Russian treaty at Paris by d’Oubril which was at once disavowed by the tsar. The war with Prussia and Russia was ended by the treaties of Tilsit (7th and oth of July 1807). Talleyrand had a hand only in the later developments of these negotiations; and it has been shown that he cannot have been the means of revealing to the British government the secret arrangements made at Tilsit between France and Russia, though his private enemies, among them Fouché, have charged him with acting as traitor in this affair. Talleyrand had long been weary of serving a master whose policy he more and more disapproved, and after the return from Tilsit to Paris he resigned office. Nevertheless Napoleon retained him in the council and took him with him to the interview with the Emperor Alexander I. at Erfurt (September 1808). Talleyrand disapproved of the Spanish policy of Napoleon which culminated at Bayonne in May 1808; and the stories to the contrary may in all probability be dismissed as idle rumours. On Talleyrand now fell the disagreeable task of entertaining at his new mansion at

Valencay, in Touraine, the Spanish princes virtually kidnapped at Bayonne by the emperor. They remained there until March 1814, At the close of 1808, while Napoleon was in Spain, Talleyrand entered into certain relations with his former rival Fouché (q.v.), which aroused the solicitude of the emperor and hastened his

return to Paris. He subjected Talleyrand to violent reproaches, which the ex-minister bore with his usual ironical calm. After the Danubian campaign of 1809 and the divorce of

f

Josephine, Talleyrand used the influence which he still possessed in the imperial council on behalf of the choice of an Austrian consort for his master, for, like Metternich (who is said first to have mooted the proposal), he saw that this would safeguard the interests of the Habsburgs, whose influence he felt to be

essential to the welfare of Europe. He continued quietly to observe the course of events during the disastrous years 1812-13; and even at the beginning of the Moscow campaign he summed up the situation in the words, “It is the beginning of the end.” Early in 1814 he saw Napoleon for the last time; the emperor

upbraided him with the words: “You are a coward, a traitor, a thief. You do not even believe in God. You have betrayed and deceived everybody.

You would sell even your own father.”

Talleyrand listened unmoved, but afterwards sent in his resignation of his seat on the council.

no share in the negotiations

It was not accepted.

of the congress

He had

of Châtillon in

February~March 1814. On the surrender of Paris to the allies (March 30, 1814), the Emperor Alexander I. took up his abode at the hôtel Talleyrand, and there occurred the conference wherein the statesman persuaded the tsar that the return of the

Bourbons was the only possible solution of the French problem,

and that the principle of legitimacy alone would guarantee Europe against the aggrandizement of any one state or house. As he

phrased it in the Talleyrand Memoirs: “The house of Bourbon alone could cause France nobly to conform once more to the happy limits indicated by policy and by nature. With the house of Bourbon France ceased to be gigantic in order to be great.” These arguments, reinforced by those of the royalist agent de Vitrolles, convinced the tsar; and Talleyrand, on April 1, convened the French senate (only 64 members out of 140 attended), and that body pronounced that Napoleon had forfeited the crown. Ten days later the emperor recognized the inevitable and signed the Act of Abdication at Fontainebleau. The next

effort of Talleyrand was to screen France under the principle of legitimacy and to prevent the schemes of partition on which some of the German statesmen were bent. Thanks mainly to the support of the tsar and of England these schemes were foiled; and France emerged from her disasters with frontiers which were practically those of 1792. The Restoration.—At the congress of Vienna (1814-15) for the settlement of European affairs, Talleyrand, as the representative of the restored house of Bourbon in France, managed adroitly to break up the league of the Powers (framed at Chaumont in February 1814) and assisted in forming a secret alliance between England, Austria.and France in order to prevent the complete absorption of Poland by Russia and of Saxony by Prussia. The new triple alliance had the effect of lessening the demands of those Powers and of leading to the well-known territorial compromise of 1815. Everything was brought into a state of uncertainty once more by the escape of Napoleon from Elba; but the events of the Hundred Days, in which Talleyrand had no share—he remained at Vienna until June ro—brought in the Bourbons once more; and Talleyrand’s plea for a magnanimous treatment of France under Louis XVIII. once more prevailed in all important matters. On July 9, 1815, he became foreign minister and president of the council under Louis XVIII., but diplomatic and other difficulties led him to resign his appointment on Sept. 23, 1815, Louis, however, naming him high chamberlain and according him an annuity of 100,000 francs. The rest of his life calls for little notice except’ that at the time of the July Revolution of 1830, which unseated the elder branch of the Bourbons, he urged Louis Philippe, duke of Orleans (g.v.), to take the throne offered to him by popular

acclaim. The new sovereign offered him the portfolio for foreign affairs; but Talleyrand signified his preference for the embassy

TALLIEN—TALLIS in London. In that capacity he took an important part in the negotiations respecting the founding of the new kingdom of Belgium. In April, 1834 he crowned his diplomatic career by

signing the treaty which brought together as allies France, Great Britain, Spain and Portugal; and in the autumn of that year he resigned his embassy. During his last days he signed a paper signifying his reconciliation with the Roman Catholic Church and his regret for many of his early actions. The king visited his death-bed. His death, on May 17, 1838, called forth widespread

767

to carry out his theories; but they determined to strike first, and on the great day of Thermidor Tallien opened the attack upon Robespierre. Robespierre and his friends were guillotined; and Tallien, as the leading Thermidorian, was elected to the Committee of Public Safety. He suppressed the Revolutionary Tribunal and the Jacobin Club and fought bravely against the insurgents of Prairial. He was supported by Thérése, whom he married on Dec. 26, 1794, and who became the leader of the social life of Paris.

His last political achievement was in July 1795, when he

expressions of esteem for the statesman who had rendered such was present with Hoche at the destruction of the army of the great and varied services to his country. He was buried at émigrés at Quiberon, and ordered the executions which followed.

Valencay. He had been separated from the former Grand in 1815 and left no heir. The Talleyrand Mémoires

Madame

were edited by the duc de Broglie in

5 vols. (Paris, 1891~92). They have been translated into English by A. Hall, 5 vols. (London, 1891-92). Of his letters and despatches the following are the chief collections:—G. Pallain, La mission de

Talleyrand'a Londres

en r792

(Paris, 1889), and Le ministère de

Talleyrand sous le Directoire (Paris, 1891); P. Bertrand, Lettres inédites de Talleyrand à Napoléon, 1800—09 (Paris, 1889); G. Pallain, Talleyrand et Louis XVIII. (Paris, 1881), and Ambassade de Talley-

rand @ Londres (1830-34), 2 vols. (Paris, 1891). Among the biographies, or biographical notices, of Talleyrand the following are, on the whole, hostile to him: G. Touchard Lafosse, Talleyrand, histoire politique et vie intime (Paris, 1848); G. Michaud, Hist. politique et privée de Talleyrand (Paris, 1853); A. Pichot, Souvenirs intimes sur Talleyrand (Paris, 1870) ; Sainte-Beuve, “Talleyrand,” in Nouveaux lundis, No. xii.; and Villemarest, Talleyrand. The estimate of him of Sir H. L. E. Bulwer Lytton in his Historical Characters, 2 vols. (London, 1867) and that of Lord Brougham in Historical Sketches of Statesmen, 3 vols. (London, 1845, new edition), are better balanced, but brief. Of recent biographies of Talleyrand the best are Lady Blennerhasset’s Zalleyrand (Berlin, 1894, Eng. translation by F. Clarke, 2 vols. London, 1894); Talleyrand, a Biographical Study, by Joseph McCabe (London, 1906) ; and Bernard de Lacombe, La vie privée de Talleyrand (19x10); C. Dupuis, Le Ministère de Talleyrand en 1814 (2 vols., 1919). (J. H. Ro.)

TALLIEN,

JEAN

LAMBERT

(1767-1820),

French

revolutionary, was born in Paris in 1767. He entered a printer’s office, and by 1791 he had reached the position of overseer of the printing department of the Moniteur. While thus employed

he conceived the idea of the journal-affiche, and after the arrest of the king at Varennes in June 1791 he placarded a large printed sheet on all the walls of Paris twice a week, under the title of the Ami des Citoyens, journal fraternel. This enterprise, financed by the Jacobin Club, made him well known to the revolutionary leaders; and he made himself still more conspicuous in organizing the great “Fête de la Liberté” on April 15, 1792, in honour of the released soldiers of ChâteauVieux, with Collot d’Herbois. He was active in the events of Aug. 10, and was made clerk to the Revolutionary Commune of Paris. At the close of September he resigned his post on being elected a deputy to the Convention by the department of Seineet-Oise. He took his seat upon the Mountain, and was one of the most vigorous Jacobins, particularly in his defence of Marat, on Feb. 26, 1793; he was elected a member of the Committee of General Security on Jan. 21, 1793. He took an active part in the coups d’état of May 31 and June 2, which resulted in the overthrow of the Girondists. On Sept. 23, 1793, he was sent with Claude Alexandre Ysabeau (1754-1831) to Bordeaux. This was the month in which the Terror was organized under the superintendence of the Committees of Public Safety and General Security. Tallien showed himself one of the most vigorous of the proconsuls sent over France to establish the Terror in the provinces and soon awed the great city. Among his prisoners was Thérèse, the divorced wife of the comte de Fontenay, and daughter of the

Spanish banker, Francois Cabarrus, one of the most fascinating women of her time, and Tallien not only spared her life but fell in love with her. Suspected of “Moderatism” on account of this incident, Tallien increased, in appearance, his revolutionary zeal,

but from the lives the name of “Our midor. Tallien was March 24, 1794.

Thérése saved by her entreaties she received Lady of Thermidor,” after the 9th of Thereven elected president of the Convention on Robespierre began to see, however, that he

must strike at his own colleagues in the committees if he was

Tallien’s political importance came to an end with the Convention for, though he sat in the Council of Five Hundred, the moderates attacked him as terrorist, and the extreme party as a renegade. Madame Tallien also tired of him, and became the mistress of the rich banker Ouvrard. Bonaparte took him to Egypt in his great expedition of June 1798, and he edited the Décade Egyptienne in Cairo. But General J. EF. Menou sent him away from Egypt, and he was captured by an English cruiser and taken to London, where he had a good reception among the Whigs and was well received by Fox. On returning to France in 1802 he obtained a divorce from his wife (who in 1805 married the comte de Caraman, later prince de Chimay), and was for some time without employment. At last he was appointed consul at Alicante, and remained there until he lost the sight of one eye

from yellow fever. On returning to Paris he lived on his halfpay, and his latter days were spent in poverty. He died in Paris on Nov. 16, 1820. Tallien left an interesting Discours sur les causes qui ont produit la Révolution française (1791) and a Mémoire sur administration de l Egypte à Parrivée des Français. See “Tallien et lExpédition d’Egypte” in La Révolution Française: Revue histoire moderne et contemporaine, t. iii. p. 269. On Madame Tallien see Arsène Houssaye, Notre Dame de Thermidor (1866); J. Turquan, Souveraines et grandes Dames: La citoyenne Tallien, témoignages des contemporains et documents inédits (1898); and Louis Gastine, La belle Talhen (1909).

TALLINN,

a seaport of Estonia, the capital of the republic,

in 59° 26’ N., 24° 46’ E., on a bay in the south coast of the Gulf of Finland. Pop. (1926) 127,000. Vessels drawing 30 ft. can enter or leave the port and lie alongside the quays. There are floating docks and shipbuilding and repairing yards. The chief exports are textiles, cereals, timber, paper, and Portland cement, and the imports foodstuffs, cotton and coal. There are electric cranes and four ice-breakers. The town has textile, paper, cement, and timber industries; an International Industrial Fair is held annually in June. The grey towers topped with red tiles, the narrow cobbled streets, the remains of the castle and the city walls give the town an attractive appearance and it is developing as a tourist centre. It was formerly called Reval. A Danish settlement on the high Silurian crag known as the Domberg existed in 1093, and the Danish king Valdemar IT. built a castle in 1219, captured by the Livonian Knights in 1228, but returned to the Danes in 1237. Merchants from Liibeck and Bremen settled here in the 13th century and it became a port of the Hanseatic League. It was fortified early in the rath century, and in 1343 sustained a siege by the revolted Estonians. Valdemar III. sold Reval and Estonia to the Teutonic Knights in 1346, but on the dissolution of the order, in 1561, Estonia and Reval surrendered to the Swedish king Erik XIV. A great conflagration in 1433, the pestilence of 1532, the bombardment by the Danes in 1569, and the Russo-Livonian War, destroyed its trade. The Russians besieged Reval in 1570 and 1577, and in 1710 it was surrendered to Peter the Great, who immediately began the erection of a military port for his Baltic fleet. His successors continued to fortify the access to Reval from the sea, large works being undertaken, especially in the early years of the roth century. It

passed from Russian to Estonian rule in 1918. TALLIS (Tatrys, Tarys or Taruistus), THOMAS (c. 1g15~—1585), justly styled “the father of English cathedral music,” was born probably before 1515.

It has been conjectured that,

after singing as a chorister at old Saint Paul’s under Thomas Mulliner, he obtained a place among the children of the chapel royal. He is known to have become organist at Waltham abbey,

TALLOW—TALLY

768

where, on the dissolution of the monastery in 1540, he received, in compensation for the loss of his preferment, 20s. for wages and 20s. for reward. In the library of the British Museum there is preserved a volume of ms. treatises on music, once belonging to the abbey, on the last page of which appears his autograph, “Thomas Tallys’—the only specimen known. Not long after his dismissal from Waltham, Tallis was appointed a gentleman of the chapel royal. One of the earliest compositions by Tallis to which an approximate date can be assigned is the well-known Service in the Dorian Mode, consisting of the Venite, Te Deum, Benedictus, Kyrie, Nicene Creed, Sanctus, Gloria in Excelsis, Magnificat and Nunc Dimittis, for four voices, together with the Preces, Responses, Paternoster and Litany, for five, all published for the first time, in the Rev. John Barnard’s First Book of Selected Church Music, in 1641, and reprinted, with the exception of the Venite and

Paternoster,

in Boyce’s

Cathedral

Music

in 1760.

(Boyce’s

omission of the very beautiful Venite is hard to account for.) That this work was composed for the purpose of supplying a pressing need, after the publication of the second prayer-book of King Edward VI. in 1552, there can be no doubt. Written in the style known among Italian composers as lo stile famigliare, i.e., in simple counterpoint of the first species, nota contra notam, with no attempt at learned complications of any kind, it adapts itself with equal dignity and clearness to the expression of the verbal text it is intended to illustrate. In self-restraint the Litany and Responses bear a close analogy to the Zmproperia and other similar works of Palestrina. Tallis raised the English school to a height which it was to maintain until the death of its last representative, Orlando Gibbons, in 1625. Though this school is generally said to have been founded by Dr. Tye, there can be no doubt that Tallis was its greatest master, and that it was indebted to him alone for the infusion of new life and vigour which prevented it from degenerating, as some of the earlier Flemish schools had done, into a mere vehicle for the display of fruitless erudition. Like every other great musician of the period, he produced occasionally works confessedly intended for no more exalted purpose than the exhibition of his stupendous skill. In his canon Miserere nostri (given in Hawkins’s History of Music) the intricacy of the contrapuntal devices seems little short of miraculous; yet the resulting harmony is smooth and normal, and only the irregular complexity of the rhythm betrays the artificiality of its structure. The famous forty-part motet, Spem in alium, written for eight five-part choirs, stands on a far higher plane, and the tour de force of handling freely and smoothly so many independent parts is the least remarkable of its qualities. It was edited by Dr. A. H. Mann in

1888

(London, Weekes and Company).

(In the sixth volume

of Tudor Church Music [Oxford University Press, 1928] all the forty parts are printed on one page.) The art with which the climaxes are built up shows that Tallis’s object in writing for forty voices is indeed to produce an effect that could not be produced by thirty-nine. But this illustrates one phase only of Tallis’s many-sided genius, which shines with equal brightness in the eight psalm tunes (one in each of the first eight modes) and unpretending little Vent Creator, printed in 1567 at the end of Archbishop Parker’s First Quinquagene of Metrical Psalms. 'In 1575 Tallis and his pupil William Byrd—as great a contrapuntist as himself—obtained from Queen Elizabeth royal letters patent granting them the exclusive right of printing music and ruling music-paper for twenty-one years; and, in virtue of this privilege, they issued, in the same year, a joint work, entitled Cantiones quae ab argumento Sacrae vocantur, quinque et sex partium, containing sixteen motets by Tallis and eighteen by Byrd, all of the highest degree of excellence. Some of these motets, adapted to English words, are now sung as anthems in the Anglican cathedral service. But no such translations appear to have been made during Tallis’s lifetime; and there is strong reason for believing that, though both he and Byrd outwardly conformed to the new religion, and composed music expressly for its use, they remained Catholics at heart. Tallis’s. contributions to the Cantiones Sacrae were the last

of his compositions published during his lifetime. He died op November 23, 1585, and was buried in the parish church at Greep. wich, where a quaint rhymed epitaph, preserved by Strype, ang reprinted by Burney and Hawkins, recorded the fact that he served in the chapel royal during the reigns of Henry VIII, Edward VI., Mary, and Elizabeth. This was destroyed with the old church about 1710; but a copy has since been substituted.

Portraits, professedly authentic, of Tallis and Byrd, were engraved by Vandergucht in 1730 for Nicolas Haym’s projected History of Music, but never published. One copy only is known to exist. A list of the printed and manuscript works of Tallis will be found

in Grove’s Dictionary. TALLOW, the solid oil or fat of ruminant animals, but commercially obtained almost exclusively from oxen and sheep. The various methods by which tallow and other animal fats are separated and purified are dealt with in the article OrLs. Ox tallow occurs at ordinary temperatures as a solid hard fat having a yellowish white colour. The fat is insoluble in cold alcohol, but it dissolves in boiling alcohol, in chloroform, ether and the essential oils. The hardness of tallow and its melting-point are to some extent affected by the food, age, state of health, etc., of the animal

yielding it, the firmest ox tallow being obtained in certain provinces of Russia, where for a great part of the year oxen are fed on hay. New tallow melts at from 42-5° to 43° C., old tallow at 43-5°, and the melted fat remains liquid till its temperature falls to 33° or 34° C. Tallow consists of a mixture of two-thirds of the solid fats palmitin and stearin, with one-third of the liquid fat olein. Mutton tallow differs in several respects from that obtained

from oxen.

It is whiter in colour and harder, and contains only

about 30% of olein. Newly rendered it has little taste or smell, but on exposure it quickly becomes rancid. Sweet mutton tallow melts at 46° and solidifies at 36° C.; when old it does not melt under 49°, and becomes solid on reaching 44° or 45° C. It is sparingly soluble in cold ether and in boiling alcohol. (See Oms AND Fats.)

TALLOW

TREE, in botany, the popular name of a small

tree, Sapium sebiferum, family Euphorbiaceae, a native of China, but cultivated in India and other warm countries. The seeds are thickly coated with a white greasy substance—so-called vegetable tallow—from which candles are made, and which is also used in soap-making and dressing cloth. The butter tree or tallow tree of Sierra Leone is Pentadesma butyracea, family Guttiferae. The fruit, which is 4 to 5 in. long and about 3 in. in diameter, has a thick fleshy rind abounding in a yellow greasy juice, used as butter.

TALLY. The wooden tally used in reckoning comes from two

primitive notions; that of notching (scoring) a piece of wood for counting,,as Robinson Crusoe did, and that of the broken stick shared between two parties to a bargain: the developed tally combines both. Use of this double tally, once prevalent all over Europe, is still frequent in the less advanced countries and not unknown in most. In England, though now nearly obsolete, it was exceedingly common mediaevally and its methods were highly developed; it endured longin certain connections; and its nomenclature survives in many words; to score at cricket (in Pickwick’s day “to notch”) derives from the single tally, and the verb “to

tally” comes obviously from the double one; and other derivatives are many, if not quite so direct.

In England, however, the chief interest of the tally centres in its public use. This is earlier even than the very early “ex-

chequer” organization (see ExcHEQUER); by a date not long after 1100 it was a settled system—a system, moreover, carefully differentiated from any private one and used for money ‘only; and the tally continued to be the recognized form of receipt for payments into the Royal Treasury down to 1826. During this long period, though there were modifications of wording, it changed little outwardly save for a continually increasing length; the original gin. being extended in one extreme example which still survives at the Bank of England to 8ft. 6 inches. This, however, is due solely to the increased number of thousands (notches of the thickness of a man’s hand) which the tally might be required to

TALMA—-TALMUD show; and (apart from any difficulty due to the writing) a 13th century clerk could have interpr eted it; the revolutionary changes lie, not in the tally’s form, but in its employment.

The Assignment System.—At a very early date anticipation

769

Talma was the author of Mémoires de Lekain, précédés de réflexions sur cet acteur et sur Vart théâtral, contributed to the Collection des mémoires sur lart dramatique, and published separately (1856) as Réflexions de Talma sur Lekain et Vart théâtral. See Mémoires de F. J. Talma, écrits par lui-même, et recueils et mis en ordre sur les papiers de sa famille, by Alex. Dumas (1850); J. B. J. I. P. RegnaultWarin, Mémoires sur Talma (1904).

of the royal revenue became habitual and in this practice the tally was invaluable; nothing was easier than to “levy” a tally for a sum due for payment later and to “assign” this as payment to a TALMAGE, THOMAS DE WITT (1832-1902), American royal creditor. Probably, at certain periods, creditors themselves Presbyterian preacher, was born near Bound Brook, N.J., on had little objection to a practice which, in an age of difficult Jan. 7, 1832. He was educated at the present New York univertransport and clumsy currency, held many advantages. At the sity and at the Reformed Dutch theological seminary at New same time it might obviously lead to the lowering of royal credit Brunswick, New Jersey. In 1856 he became pastor of a Reformed and to endless confusion in accounts. Assignments were, in effect, church at Belleville, N.J., thereafter holding pastorates succespayments; but tallies were essentially receipts; and as such, from sively at Syracuse, Philadelphia, Brooklyn and Washington, the 13th century onwards, were all entered on “receipt rolls” District of Columbia. During the last years of his life he devoted and, later, figured in numerous supplementary series of records. himself to editing, writing and lecturing. He died in Washington Moreover an “assignment” tally frequently went wrong, and the on April 12, 1902. . mediaeval administrator could think of no better device than to TALMUD, the great Rabbinical thesaurus which was reduced substitute a fictitious “loan” on the roll, so as to square the ac- to writing during the second, fourth and sixth centuries of the count. The roll of “receipts” might thus include actual payments Christian Era. of cash, sums credited long before they were paid or due, and Contents.—The Talmiid (Hebrew “teaching, learning’) conentries which indicate no payment at all, but rather a debt to be sists of the Mishnah (Heb. “[oral] repetition, teaching”), a cleared later. The difficulties of the modern historian desiring to systematic collection of religious-legal decisions developing the use these (exceedingly important) records, with none of the laws of the Old Testament, and the Gémdara (Aramaic “complecontemporary clerk’s expert knowledge, needs no emphasis. tion, decision,” or perhaps also “teaching’”), supplementary The Last Tally, 1826.—By Pepys’ time tally-making at West- material, legal and otherwise. Mishnah stands in contrast to minster had become a ritual involving numerous officials, much Migqra “reading, scripture’; its Aram. equivalent is Mathnithd, delay and many fees, and from then onwards periodical attempts from ténd, “to repeat,” whence the appellation Tannd, “teacher.” were made to destroy it. But vested interest successfully with- These and the terms Gemara, Talmud, etc., are more fully exstood reform till the 18th century; and it was not till 1826 that plained in H. L. Strack’s invaluable Einleitung in den Talmud the last tally was levied and a system of “indented cheque re- (Leipzig, 1908), pp. 2 sqq. The whole was in two great receipts”’ substituted. A few years later (1834) reforming zeal cele- censions, Palestinian and Babylonian. Other material related to brated its triumph by destroying (in the furnaces which heated the Mishnah is preserved in the Zosephta (Aram. “addition’’) the House of Lords) the whole accumulation of ancient tallies, and the Midrdshim, and since all these, together with the Tarwith disastrous results; the old Houses of Parliament were burned gumim, represent the orthodox Rabbinical literature connecting and, incidentally (till the casual discovery in 1909, in the Chapel the Old Testament with mediaeval and modern Judaism, the of the Pyx, of about 1,300 Exchequer tallies, practically all reader should also consult the articles Jews (parts ii. and iii.), “stocks” of the 13th century), English historians were left with- MiprasH, TARGUM, and for more detailed and critical treatment out an essential clue to the understanding of some of the richest the references given to the Jewish Encyclopedia. record series in the national collections. The Mishnah is a more or less careful arrangement of the BrptiocRAPHyY.—See Hilary Jenkinson, “Tallies,” Archaeologia, Ixii. extant Oral Law (see below). It forms the foundation of the (r911) and Ixxiv (1924). For tallies in a foreign country see M. Gemara, and is divided into six Séddarim or Orders, each containGmiir, Scanemserische DBanernmarken und Holsurkunden (Berne, ing a number of Massektoth (‘‘weavings,” cf. the etymology of 1917). (H. Je.) “text”) or Tractates. These are subdivided into Péragim (“‘secTALMA, FRANÇOIS JOSEPH (1763-1826), French tions’) or chapters, and these again into paragraphs or sentences actor, was born in Paris on Jan. 15, 1763. His father, a dentist (Mishnayéth). For a full list of these and of editions and transthere, and afterwards in London, gave him a good English educa- lations, see Jew. Enc. The Origin of the Mishnah.—A careful distinction was tion, and he returned to Paris, where for a year and a half he practised dentistry. He made his début at the Comédie Francaise as drawn between the Written Law, the Mosaic Torah and the rest

Seide in Voltaire’s Mahomet (Nov. 21, 1787). Talma was among the earliest advocates of realism in scenery and costume, being aided by his friend the painter David. His first essay in this direction took the form of appearing in the small rôle of Proculus in Voltaire’s Brutus, with a toga and Roman headdress, much to the surprise of an audience accustomed to 18th century costume on the stage whatever the period represented might be. Talma possessed in perfection the physical gifts of a great tragedian. At first somewhat stilted and monotonous in his manner, he became by perfection of art a model of simplicity. Talma married

Julie Carreau, in whose salon were the principal Girondists. In 1808 the emperor had taken him to Erfurt and made him play the Mort de César to a company of crowned heads.

years later he took him also to Dresden.

Five

Talma was also a friend

of Joseph Chénier, Danton, and Camille Desmoulins. In Chénier’s anti-monarchical Charles IX., produced on Nov. 4, 1789, a prophetic couplet on the destruction of the Bastille made the house

of the Scriptures (27229 7pr), and the Oral Law, or Torah by Mouth (np oyay mn), The latter has become codifiedin'the Mishnah. The traditional view is well illustrated in the words ascribed to R. Simeon Lakish, 3rd century a.D.: “What is that which is written, ‘I will give thee the tables of stone, and the Law and the Commandment, which I have written, that thou mayest teach them (Ex. xxiv. 12)?’ ‘Tables,’ these are the Ten Words (the Decalogue); the ‘Law’ is the Scripture; ‘and the commandment,’ that is the Mishnah: ‘which I have written,’ these are the Prophets and Writings (7.e., The Hagiographa), ‘to teach them,’ that is the Gemara—thus instructing us that all these were given

to Moses from Sinai.” Literary and historical criticism places the discussion on another basis when it treats the Mosaic Torah in its present form as a post-exilic compilation (about sth century: B.c.) from: sources differing in date, origin and history. There is no a priori reason why other legal enactments should not: have been current when the compilation was first made; the Pentateuchal legislation is Incomplete, and covers only a small part of the

burst into a salvo of applause; led by Mirabeau. This play aroused political dissensions in the Comédie Française which led Talma affairs of life. Laws must be adjusted from time. to time to meet to establish a new theatre known for a time as the Théâtre de la changing needs, and new teaching must justify itself by a reRépublique, on the site of the present Théâtre Français. Here interpretation of the old writings, Just as the stern common law of he won his greatest. triumphs.. He made'his last appearance on the Semites was modified by the milder legislation of the PentaJune 11, 1826,'as Charles VI. in Delaville’s a and he died teuch, so, in process of time, further developments ensued. Rabin Paris ‘on Oct, IQ, of that year. binic law turned the Lex Talionis into monetary compensation. ‘The

TALMUD

19

Pharisees were the liberalizing party and stood for the Spirit of the Scriptures, to the letter of which the conservative Sadducees clung. (For an illuminating example see J. Z. Lauterbach in Heb. Union College Annual, iv. Cincinnati, 1927, pp. 173 seg.) It is probable that this process was largely an unconscious one; and even if conscious, the analogy of the conventional “legal fiction” and the usual anxiety to avoid the appearance of novelty is enough to show that it is not to be condemned. Contemporary custom or ideals could appear to have ancient precedents, or by means of an exegetical process they could be directly connected with old models. In the Old Testament many laws in the Mosaic legislation are certainly post-Mosaic and the value of not a few narratives lies, not in their historical or biographical information, but in their treatment of law, ritual, custom, belief, etc. Thus, the problem of the origin or antiquity of the unwritten Oral Law, a living and fluid thing, lies outside the scope of criticism; of greater utility is the study of the particular forms the laws have taken in the written sources which from time to time embody the ever-changing legacy of the past. Growth of the Mishnah and Gemara.—According to the traditional view the canon of the Old Testament closed with the

The period of the *Améra’im, “speakers, interpreters” (about A.D. 220-500), witnessed the growth of the Gemara, when the

now “canonical” Mishnah formed the basis for further amplification and for the collecting of old and new material which bore upon it. In Palestine learning flourished at Caesarea, Sepphoris

Tiberias and Usha; Babylonia had famous schools at Nehardea (from the 2nd century A.v.), Sura, Pumbeditha and elsewhere. Of their teachers (who were called Rabbi and Rab respectively) several

hundreds

are

known.

R. Hiyya

was

redactor

of the

Siphraé on Leviticus; to him and to R. Hoshaiah the compilation of the Tosephid is also ascribed. Abba Arika or Rab, the nephew of the first mentioned, founded the school of Sura (A.D. 219). Rab

and Shemuel (Samuel) ‘‘the astronomer”

(died a. 254) were

pupils of “Rabbi” (i.e., Judah, above), and were famed for their knowledge of law; so numerous were their points of difference that the Talmud will emphasize certain decisions by the statement that the two were agreed. The Gemara is much indebted to this pair and to Johanan b. Nappaha (199-279). The latter, founder

of the great school of Tiberias, has indeed been venerated, on the authority of Maimonides, as the editor of the Palestinian Talmud;

but the presence of later material and of later names, e.g., Manī work of Ezra. He was followed by the Sdphérim, “scribes” (or b. Jona and Jose b. Abin (Abun), refute this view. The Babythe men of the great Synagogue), to the Maccabaean age, and these again by the “Pairs” (zaigéth, Gr. fuydv) the reputed heads of the Sanhedrin, down to the Herodian age (150-30 B.c.). The

lonian Rabbah b. Nahmani (died c. 330) had a dialectical ability which won him the title ““uprooter of mountains.” His controversies with R. Joseph b. Hiyya (known for his learning as

last culminate in Hillel (g.v.) and Shammai, the founders of two great rival schools, and to this famous pair the work of collecting halakéth (“legal decisions”) has been ascribed. The ensuing period of the Tannda’im, “teachers” (about A.D. 10-220), is that of the

“Sinai”), and those between their disciples Abaye and Raba are responsible for many of the minute discussions in the Babylonian

growth of the Mishnah. (On the various teachers, especially the Haggadists, see W. Bacher, Agada der Babylon. Amorder, pub. Strassburg, 1879; A. d. Tannaiten, pub. 1884, new edition begun in 1903; A. d. Pal. Amorder, pub. 1892.) Among the best known representatives of the schools are Rabban (a title given to Hillel’s descendants) Gamaliel, the PhilHellene and teacher of the apostle Paul (Acts xxii. 3) and his son Simeon (Josephus, Life, § 38 seq., Wars, iv. 3, 9), and Rabban Johanan b. Zakkai, founder of the seat of learning at Jamnia (Jabneh). A little later (about A.D. ọo-r130) are the famous Gamaliel ii., Eliezer b. Hyrqanos (at Lydda), and Ishmael b. Elisha, the last of whom founded the school at Usha and is renowned for his development of the rules of exegesis framed by Hillel. With Rabbi Aqiba (q.v.) and the synods of Jamnia (about A.D. 90 and 118) a definite epoch in Judaism begins. At Jamnia, under the presidency of Gamaliel II. and Eleazar b. Azariah, a collection of traditional Aalakoth was formed in the tractate ‘Eduyyoth Clarger than and not to be identified with IV, 7). Here, likewise, was discussed the canonicity of the Song of Songs and of Ecclesiastes, and it is probable that here Aqiba and his colleagues fixed the official text of the canonical books. Aqiba had an important share in the early development of the Mishnah (Strack, pp. 19, 89); and, in the collecting of material, he was followed notably by the school of Ishmael (about A.D. 130-160), which has left its mark upon the early halakic Midrashim. The more interesting names include R. Meir, a well-known haggadist, R. Simeon b. Yohai, R. Jose b. Halaphta and R. Jehudah b. “Ilai. But, as collections of decisions were made by prominent teachers from time to time, confusion was caused by their differences as regards both contents and teaching (Sotak, 22a; Shabb. 138b). Consequently, towards the close of the second century a thoroughly comprehensive effort was made to reduce the kalakoth to order. Judah, grandson of Gamaliel II., known as the Prince or

Patriarch

(nāsř), as Rabbēnū

(“our teacher”),

or simply as

“Rabbi” par excellence, was the editor. He gathered together the material, using Meir’s collection as a basis, and although he did not write the Mishnah as it now is, he brought it into essentially its present shape. His methods were not free from arbitrariness;. he would attribute to “the wise” the opinion of a single authority which he regarded as correct; he would ignore conflicting opinions or those of scholars which they themselves had after-

wards retracted, and he did not scruple to cite his own decisions.

Gemara.

Meanwhile

the persecutions

of Constantine and Con-

stantius brought about the decay of the Palestinian schools, and, probably in the sth century, their recension of the Talmud was essentially complete. In Babylonia, however, learning still flourished, and with Rab Ashi (352-427) the arranging of the present framework of the Gemara may have been taken in hand. Under

Rabba Tosépha’a (died 470) and Rabina, że., Rab Abina (died 499), heads of the academy of Sura, the Babylonian recension became practically complete.

Finally, the Sabéra’é, “explainers, opiners” (about 500-540),

made some additions of their own in the way of explanations and new decisions.

The Palestinian Recension of the Mishnah and Gemara is called “the Talmud of the Land of Israel,” or “T. of the West”; a popular but misleading name is “the Jerusalem Talmud.” It is an extremely uneven compilation. “What was reduced to writing does not give us a work carried out after a preconcerted plan, but rather represents a series of jottings answering to the needs of the various individual writers, and largely intended to strengthen

the memory”

(Schechter).

Political troubles and the unhappy

condition of the Jews probably furnish the explanation; hence also the abundance of Palestinian haggadic literature in the Midrashim, whose “words of blessing and consolation” appealed more to their feelings than did the legal writings. The Pal. Talmud did not attain the eminence of the sister recension, and survives in a very incomplete form, although it was perhaps once fuller. It now extends only to Orders I-IV., with the omission of IV. 7 and g, and with the addition of part of VI. 7. The Two Versions.—The Babylonian Talmud (or Tal. Babli)

contains the Gemara to 363 tractates, but the material is relatively very full, and it is about three times as large as the Pal,

although the Gemara there extends to 39 tractates. In the latter the Gemara follows each paragraph of the Mishnah; in the former, references

are usually made

to the leaves

(the two pages of

which are called a and b), the enumeration of the editio princeps being retained in subsequent editions. The Mishnah is written in a late literary form of Hebrew; but the Gemara is in Aramaic (except the Baraithas), that of the Bab. T. being an Eastern Aram, dialect (akin to Mandaitic), that of the Pal. T. being Western Aram. (akin to Biblical Aram. and the Targums). Greek was well understood in cultured Palestine; hence the latter recension uses many Greek terms which it does not explain; whereas in the Bab. T. they are much less common, and are sometimes punningly interpreted. The Pal. Tal. is the more concise, but it is remarkable for the numerous repetitions of the same passages; these are

TALMUD useful for the criticism of the text, and for the light they throw upon the incompleteness of the work of compilation. The Bab. Tal., on the other hand, is diffuse and freer in its composition, and it is characterized by the exuberance of Halakah, which is usually rather subtle and far-fetched. Both Talmuds offer a good field for research. Especially interesting are the Baraithas which are preserved in the Gemara in Hebrew; they are “external” decisions not included in the more authoritative Mishnah, but they differ from and are sometimes older than the Mishnic material, with which they sometimes conflict (so in particular as regards the rejected decisions of the school of Shammai). They usually begin: “our Masters taught,” “it is taught,” or “he taught,” the verb tënā (cf. Tanna@im, “teachers”) being employed (see further Jew. Ency. ii. 513 seg.). Parallel to the Mishnah is the Tosephta, an independent compilation associated with R. Nehemiah (a contemporary of Meir and Simeon b. Yohai), Hiyya b. Abba and others; it is arranged according to the Mishnic orders and tractates, but lacks

IV. 9 and V. 9-11. The halakoth are fuller and sometimes older than the corresponding decisions in the Mishnah, and the treatment is generally more haggadic. The method of making the discussions part of an interpretation of the Old Testament (halakic Midrash), as exemplified in the Tdsephtd; is apparently older than the abstract and independent decisions of the Mishnah—which presuppose an acquaintance with the Pentateuchal basis—and, like the employment, of narrative or historical Midrash (e.g., in the Pentateuch, Chronicles and Jubilees), was more suitable for

popular exposition than for the academies. The Responses of the Geonim.—The Palestinian although used by the Qaraites in their controversies, neglect, and the Babylonian recension became, what it been, the authoritative guide. With the Gédnim, the

Talmud, fell into has since heads of

Sura and Pumbeditha (about 589-1038), we enter upon another stage. The “canonical” Mishnah and Gemara were now the objects of study, and the scattered Jews appealed to the central bodies of Judaism in Babylonia for information and guidance. The Geonim in their “Responses” or “Questions and Answers” supplied authoritative interpretations of the Old Testament or of the Talmud, and regulated the application of the teaching of the past to the changed conditions under which their brethren now lived. The legal, religious and other decisions formulated in the pontifical communications of one generation usually became the venerated teaching of the next, and a new class of literature thus

sprang into existence. (See Gaon.) Meanwhile, as the Babylonian schools decayed, Talmudic learning was assiduously pursued outside its oriental home, and some Babylonian Talmudists apparently reached the West. However, the fortunes of the Talmud in a hostile world now become part of the history of the Jews, and the many interesting vicissitudes can-

not be recapitulated here.

(See Jews.)

To the use of the Pal.

Talmud by the Qaraites in their controversies with the Rabbis we owe the preservation of this recension, incomplete though it is. To the intolerance of Christians are no doubt due the rarity of old mss., and the impure state of the text of both Talmuds. At the same time, the polemics had useful results since the literary

controversy in the 16th century (when Johann Reuchlin took the part of the Jews) led to the editio princeps of the Babylonian Talmud (Vienna, 1520-23). A change shows itself in the second edition (Basel, 1578-81), when the tractate Abddah Zarah was omitted, and those passages which offended the Christians were cancelled or modified. Characteristics.—Owing to the nature of its contents the Talmud stood sorely in need of aids and guides, and a vast amount

of labour (of varying value) has been devoted to it by Jewish scholars. ‘ Neither the Mishnah nor the subsequent Gemara aimed at presenting a digested corpus of law. It is really a large collection of opinions and views, a remarkably heterogeneous mixture of con-

tents, for which the history of its growth is no doubt largely responsible. It appalls the reader with its irregularity of treatment, its variations of style, and its abrupt transitions from the spiritual

to the crude and trivial, and from superstition to the purest in-

ii

sight. Like the Koran it is often concise to obscurity and cannot be translated literally; it presupposes a knowledge which made commentaries a necessity even, as we have seen, to the Jews themselves. The opening of Order II. 6, for example, would be unintelligible without a knowledge of the law in Levit. xxiii. 42: “A booth (the interior of which is) about 20 cubits high is disallowed. R. Judah allows it. One which is not ten hands high, one which has not three walls, or which has more sun than shade is disallowed. ‘An old booth?’ (marks of quotation and interrogation must be supplied). The school of Shammai disallows it; but the school of Hillel allows it,” etc. In the Gemara, the decisions of the Mishnah are not only discussed, explained or developed, but all kinds of additional matter are suggested by them. Thus, in the Bab. Gem. to III. 5, the reference in the Mishnah to the Zealots (ÈZıkåpiot) is the occasion for a long romantic account of the wars preceding the destruction of the Second Temple. In IV. 3 the incidental prohibition of the cutting up of a roll of Scripture leads to a most valuable discussion of the arrangement of the Canon of the Old Testament, and other details including some account of the character and date of Job. There are numerous haggadic interpolations, some of considerable interest. Prose mingles with poetry, wit with wisdom, the good with the bad, and as one thing goes on to suggest another, it makes the Talmud a somewhat rambling compilation. It is scarcely a law-book or a work of divinity; it is almost an encyclopaedia in its scope, a store-house reproducing the knowledge and the thought, both unconscious and speculative, of the first few centuries of the Christian era. Estimates.—Ordinary estimates of the Talmud are often influenced by the attitude of Christianity to Judaism and Jewish legalism, and by the preponderating interest which has been taken in the religious-legal side of the Rabbinical writings. The canonization of oral tradition in the Mishnah brought the advantages and the disadvantages of a legal religion, and controversialists have usually seen only one side. The excessive legalism which pervades the Talmud was the scholarship of the age, and the Talmud suffers to a certain extent because accepted opinions and isolated views are commingled. To those who have no patience with the minutiae of legislation, the prolix discussions are as irksome as the arguments appear arbitrary. But the Talmudical discussions were often merely specialized and technical—they were academical and ecclesiastical debates which did not always touch every-day life; sometimes they were for the purpose of reconciling earlier conflicting views, or they even seem to be mere exhibitions of dialectic skill (cf., perhaps, Mk. xii. 18-23). It may be supposed that this predilection for casuistry stimulated that spirit which impelled Jewish scholars of the middle ages to study or translate the learning of the Greeks. Once again it was—from a modern point of view—old-fashioned scholarship; yet one may now recognize that in the development of European science and philosophy it played a necessary part, and one can now realize that again the benefit was for common humanity rather than for the Jews alone. In any case, the Talmud must be judged, like other authoritative religious literature, by its place in history and by its survival. . Results of Criticism.—The Talmud itself is still the authoritative and practical guide of the great mass of the Jews, and is too closely connected with contemporary and earlier Palestinian history to be neglected by Christians With the progress of modern research the value of this and of the other old Rabbinical writings is being re-estimated, and criticism has forced a modification of many old views. Thus, an early reference to the fitle of a work does not prove that it is that which is now current; this applies, for example, to the tractate ‘Eduyyoth (see Jew. Ency. viii. 611), and to the Midrash Siphré, which frequently differs from that as known to the Talmud (40., xi. 331). It has been found that a tradition, however tenacious or circumstantial, is not necessarily genuine, and that, too, in spite of the chain of authorities by which its antiquity or genuineness appeared to be confirmed. Implicit reliance can no longer be necessarily placed upon the reputed authorship or editorship of a work; yet, although many of the views of mediaeval Jews in this respect prove to be erroneous

TAM—TAMATAVE

772

(e.g., on the authorship of the Zohar; see KaspaLan), they may sometimes preserve the recollection of a fact which only needs restatement (e.g., R. Johanan as the editor of the Pal. Talmud). Finally, the Talmud comes at the end of a very lengthy development of Palestinian thought (see PaLtestine: History). It is in the direct line of descent from the Old Testament—intervening literature having been lost—the essence of which it makes its own. Forced by the events of history, this legacy of the past was subjected to successive processes and adapted to the needs of successive generations and of widely different historical and social conditions. Legal compendiums and systems of philosophy served their age and gave place to later developments; and the elasticity of interpretation which characterizes it enabled it to outlive Karaites and Kabbalists. It also escaped the classicism of the Renaissance with its insistence upon the test—ezther fact or fiction. As an oriental work among an oriental people the moral and spiritual influence of the Talmud has rested upon its connection with a history which appealed to the imagination and the feelings, upon its heterogeneity of contents suitable for all moods and minds, and upon the unifying and regulative effects of its

legalism. The relationship of Talmudism to the Old ‘Testament has been likened to that of Christian theology to the Gospels; the comparison, whether fitting or not, may at least enable one to understand the varying attitudes of Jewish thinkers to their ancient sources. With closer contact to the un-oriental West and with the inevitable tendencies of modern western scholarship the Talmud has entered upon a new period, one which, though it may be said to date from the time of Moses Mendelssohn (see Jews), has reached a more distinctive stage at the present day. In the weakening of that authority which had been ascribed almost unanimously to the Talmud, and invariably to the Old Testament, a new and greater strain has been laid upon Judaism to reinterpret its spirit once more to answer the diverse wants of its adherents. This is part of that larger and pressing psychological problem of adjusting the “authority” ascribed to past writings to that of the collective human experience; it does not confront Judaism alone, and it must suffice to refer to the writings of “Reformed Juda-

ism”; see, e.g., C. G. Montefiore, Liberal Judaism (1903); Truth in Religion (1906); I. Abrahams, Judaism (1907); Permanent Values (1924), and the essays of S. Schechter. BrsriocrapHy.—E. Deutsch’s article on the Talmud in the Quarterly Review, Oct. 1867 (reprinted in his Literary Remains), is noteworthy for the great interest it aroused. For other introductions, see J. Z. Lauterbach, “Mishnah,” and W. Bacher, “Talmud” in the Jew. Ency.; S. Schechter, “Talmud,” in Hastings’ Dict. Bib., E.R.E.; and also S. Funk, Entstehung des Talmuds (Leipzig, 1910). More comprehensive are the handbooks of M. Mielziner, Introd. to the Talmud (Cincinnati, 1894), M. L. Rodkinson, History of the Talmud (New York, 1903), and especially H. L. Strack, Einleitung in den Talmud (Leipzig, 1908, very concise, but replete with bibliographical and other information). The works already cited in this article or in the art. MiprasH, cover the most important departments of the Rabbinical literature, and may be supplemented from the critical Jewish journals,

eg., the Jewish Quarterly Review, Revue des Etudes Juives (Paris),

and especially the Monatsschrift Judentums (Breslau).

f. Gesch.

u.

Wissenschaft des (S. A. C.; X.)

TAM, JACOB BEN MEIR (1100-1171), a grandson of Rashi (q.v.), was the most famous French glossator (tosafist) on the text of the Talmud.

In 1147 he was attacked and injured

by a disorderly band who had attached themselves to the Crusaders. He escaped.to the neighbouring Troyes, where about 1160 was

held the first. of the Jewish

Synods, for which the

Rhinelands became celebrated. At this meeting it was laid down that disputes between Jew and Jew were not to be carried to a

Christian court, but were to be settled by fraternal arbitration. New conditions of life had arisen owing to the closer terms on which Jews and Christians lived, and Jacob Tam was foremost in settling the terms which were to govern the relations, from the

Jewish side.

His practical ordinances

(Takkanoth),

connected

with marriage and divorce, trade and proselytism, as well as with synagogue ritual, bear the stamp of enlightened independence

within the limits of recognized authoritative tradition and law.

Of his legal work the most important was collected in his Sefer

ha-yashar. He was also a poet and grammarian.

See Gross, Gallia Judaica Encyclopedia, vii. 36-39.

(index);

M.

Schloessinger in Jewish (I. A).

TAMAI, BATTLE OF, March 13, 1884. This is memorable

as the occasion on which the charge of the Sudanese tribesmen followers of Osman Digna, broke the British “square,” although

eventually repulsed. For an account see EGYPT AND SUDAN, CAm-

PAIGNS IN, 1882—1809.

TAMAQUA,

an anthracite-mining borough of Schuylkill

county, Pennsylvania, U.S.A., 15 m. N.E. of Pottsville, on the Tamaqua (Little Schuylkill) river; served by the Central of New Jersey, the Lehigh and New England and the Reading railways,

Pop. (1920) 12,363 (91% native white); 1928 local estimate over

15,000. There are many collieries in the borough and its imme. diate environs, and the various manufacturing industries (including foundries and machine shops, powder mills, shirt factories and

knitting mills) had an aggregate output in 1925 valued at $3,796,-

150. Settlement here dates from 1799. Anthracite was discovered in 1817, and in 1829 a town was laid out, which in 1833 was incorporated as a borough. The name is an Indian word meaning “running water.”

TAMARIND,

the name popularly applied to the pods of

a leguminous tree, which are hard externally, but within with an acid juicy pulp containing sugar and various acids, as citric and tartaric, in combination with potash. The acid is used as a laxative, the pods being largely imported both

filled such pulp from

the East and the West Indies. The tree is now widely distributed in tropical countries, but it is generally considered that its native country is in eastern tropical Africa, from Abyssinia south-

ward to the Zambezi.

The name

(meaning in Arabic “Indian

date”) shows that it entered mediaeval commerce from India, where it is used, not only for its pulp, but for its seeds, which are astringent, its leaves, which furnish a yellow or a red dye, and

its timber. The tree (Tamarindus indica) attains a height of 70 to 8o ft., and bears elegant pinnate foliage and purplish or orange veined flowers arranged in terminal racemes.

TAMARISK. The genus Tamarix gives its name to a small group of shrubs or low trees constituting the tamarisk family, Tamaricaceae. The species of tamarisk and of the very closely allied genus Myricaria grow in salt-deserts, by the sea-shore, or in other more or less sterile localities in warm temperate, subtropical, and tropical regions of the eastern hemisphere. Their long slender branches bear very numerous small appressed leaves, in which the transpiring surface is reduced to a minimum. The flowers are minute and numerous, in long clusters at the ends of the branches or from the trunk. Each has 4~5 free sepals, and as many petals springing with the 4-10 stamens from a fleshy disk. In Tamarix the stamens are free, while in Myricaria they are united into one parcel. The fruit is capsular, and contains numerous seeds, each usually with a long tuft of hairs at one end. The great value of these shrubs or trees lies in their ability to withstand the effects of drought and a saline soil, in consequence of which they grow where little else can flourish. On this account the common tamarisk, T: gallica, is planted on sea-coasts, and affords shelter where none other could be provided T. articulata, native to western Asia, has been introduced as a windbreak in desert areas in southern California. Several species are cultivated as ornamentals. For tamarisk manna, see MANNA.

TAMATAVE

(known by the natives as Toamésina) (pop.

15,022), the chief seaport of Madagascar, situated nearly on the centre of the eastern coast in 18° 10’ S., 49° 32’ E. It owes its importance to the existence of a coral reef, which forms a spacious harbour, entered by two openings but unfortunately exposed to frequent cyclonic storms and to a tidal bore. The town is built on a sandy peninsula on which are crowded numerous houses, with good shops and merchants’ offices in the main thoroughfares. Tamatave is the seat of several foreign consuls, as well as of

numerous French officials, and is the chief port for the capital and the interior. Imports consist principally of piece-goods, farlnaceous foods, and iron and steel goods, and exports of gold dust, raffia, hides, caoutchouc

and live animals.

several meat preserving factories.

The town possesses

Communication with Europe

is maintained by steamers of the Messageries Maritimes and the

TAMAULIPAS—TAMILS Havraise companies, and also with Mauritius, and from thence to

Ceylon, by the British Union-Castle line. Of the whole foreign trade of Madagascar, 46 per cent is through Tamatave. The town is connected with the interior of the country by a network

of roads and railways.

Since 1895 the native population has

settled in a new village to the north-west.

TAMAULIPAS,

a northern Gulf-coast State of Mexico.

Area 30,734 sq. miles. Pop. (1921) 286,904. The central and southern parts of the State are mountainous, but there are extensive fertile plains in the north sloping gently north-east toward the Rio Grande, and the coastal zone is sandy, much broken by lagoons and sparsely inhabited. Except in the north this coastal zone is only 5 to 7 m. wide, but the foothills region back of this is usually well wooded and fertile, and the low alluvial river valleys penetrate deeply into the sierras. There are four important rivers in the State—the Rio Grande del Norte or Rio Bravo, which forms the boundary line with the United States, the Conchas or Presas, the Soto da Marina and the Tamesi. The Panuco forms the southern boundary for a short distance. A peculiar feature of the hydrography of Tamaulipas is the series of coastal lagoons formed by the formation of new beaches across the indentations of the coast. The climate is hot and humid on the coast, but is pleasant on the more elevated lands of the interior. The rainfall is abundant, especially on the mountain slopes of the south. The principal industry is agriculture. Sugar, cereals, tobacco, cotton and coffee are produced, and probably fruit may be raised successfully. Stock-raising receives some

attention and hides and cattle are exported. The preparation of ixtle fibre for export is becoming an important industry. Copper is mined and extensive deposits of petroleum and asphalt are being exploited. Railway communication is provided by the Mexican National, two branches of which cross the northern end of the State, the line from Monterrey to Tampico, and a branch of the Mexican Central from San Luis Potosi to Tampico. The capital of Tamaulipas is Ciudad Victoria (pop., 1921, 17,124), a small sierra town on the Monterrey and Tampico railway, about 120 m. from Tampico. Among other towns in the State may be mentioned: Matamoros (q.v.), Tampico (g.v.), Tula (3,192 in 1921), Nuevo Laredo, on the American border (14,998 in 1921), and Dofia Cecilia (15,298 in 1921). TAMAYO Y BAUS, MANUEL (1829-1898), Spanish dramatist, came of a family connected with the theatre, his mother being the eminent actress, Joaquina Baus. The earliest of his printed pieces, Jaana de Arco (1847), is an arrangement from Schiller, as also is Angela (1852), while Virginia (1853) is a dramatic essay in Alfieri’s manner. La Locura de Amor (1855) established Tamayo’s reputation as Spain’s leading playwright. Hija y Madre (1858) is a failure, and La Bola de Nieve (1856) is notable solely for its excellent workmanship. Tamayo’s straitened means during the next few years forced him to put original work aside and to adapt pieces from Léon Laya, Jules Sandeau and

Emile Augier. In this period he produced only one original piece, Lances de Honor (1863), which turned upon the immorality of duelling, and led to a warm discussion among the public.

TAMBOV,

a province of the Russian S.F.S.R., surrounded

by those of Voronezh, Orel, Tula, Ryazan, Penza, Saratov and Stalingrad. Area 46,742 sq.km. Pop. (1926) 2,721,173.‘ It is much smaller than the pre-r917 province of the same name, part of which is now in Ryazan province, and is included in the recently created Black Earth area (Central) (g.v.). It consists

of an undulating plain (450-800 ft.), intersected by deep ravines and broad valleys, the Don and its tributaries, the Voronezh, Vorona and Khoper, drain it towards the south, and the Tsna links it with the Oka on the north.

Cretaceous

and Jurassic

deposits, thickly covered with boulder clay and loess conceal the underlying Devonian and Carboniferous strata, Phosphorite beds exist in the north-east and are used for the production of chemical manure; iron is mined in the Lipetsk district, which also has mineral springs, and limestone, clay and gypsum are worked. The soil is black earth, very fertile in the Borisoglyebsk district, but having a lower humus content towards the north, where wild cherry and almond abound. For climate, the difficulties: of agri-

773

culture and general social conditions, see VoroNEZH, noting however that Tambov has a smaller annual rainfall. The population is mainly Great Russian in origin, settlement beginning from the principality of Moscow at a very early date, but Tatar raids prevented active colonisation until the end of the 17th century, when landowners who had received large grants of land from the tsars began to bring their serfs from central Russia. There were some Finnish tribes in occupation, and the Mordva still form an independent group in the province. After the disturbances of the 1917-20 civil war, and the retreat of Denikin’s army (1920), the province was infested for some time by troops of bandits, and is only slowly recovering from the devastation and famine of that dreadful time.

TAMBOV,

chief town of the above province, situated on

the Tsna river (non-navigable), and at a railway junction, in 52° 45” N., 41° 23’ E. Pop. (1926) 72,481. It has smelting works, a railway repair shop, steam flour mills, distilleries and brick works.

The absence of a navigable river lessens its trading

importance, though it has a grain elevator. The town was founded in 1636 as a fort against Tatar and Kalmuck raids, was a station for part of Peter the Great’s army during his attack on Azov, and later was centre of Tambov province, created in 1796.

TAMERLANE: see TIMUR. TAMILS, the Sanskrit generic appellation for the south Indian peoples and their languages, which passed through various stages—Dravida, Dramida, Dramila, Damila. Bishop Caldwell fully explains this in his Comparative Grammar of the Dravidian Languages (2nd ed., 1875, p. 10 seg.). The term Tamulic or Tamulian has occasionally been employed as the designation of the whole class of Dravidian peoples and languages The Tamils proper are smaller and of weaker build than Europeans, though graceful in shape. The hair is plentiful, and occasionally curly. The skin varies from brown to black. Of medium stature, they are in general long headed with medium noses. They are

enterprising, and wherever money is to be earned there will Tamils be found, either as merchants or in the capacity of domestic servants and labourers. The tea and coffee districts of Ceylon are peopled by about 950,000; Tamils serve as coolies in the Mauritius and the West Indies; in Burma, the Straits, and Siam the so-called Klings are all Tamils. They have settlements in East and South Africa. í l Language.—Tamil is still the principal language of the Madras Presidency; in Tanjore and Tinnevelly it is supreme. In Coimbatore it is dominant, is second in Chittoor and the Nilgiris (Census of India 1921, vol. xili.). Tamil is a sister of Malayalam, Telugu, Kanarese, Tulu; and, as the oldest, richest, and most highly organized of the Dravidian languages, is typical of that family. The one nearest akin to it is Malayalam, originally a dialect of Tamil, but now differing from it in pronunciation and in idiom, in the retention of old Tamil forms obsolete in the modern language, and in having discarded all personal terminations in the verb, the person being always indicated by the pronoun. Also, the proportion of Sanskrit words in Tamil is: less than in any other Dravidian tongue. The modern Tamil characters originated “in a Brahmanical adaptation of the old Grantha letters corresponding to the socalled Vatteluttu,” or round-hand, an alphabet once in vogue throughout the whole of the Pandyan kingdom, as well as in the South Malabar and Coimbatore districts, and still sparsely used for drawing up conveyances and other legal instruments. It is also used by the Moplahs in Tellicherry, while in Malabar it continued in general use down to the end of the 17th century. The modern Tamil characters, which have changed but little for the last soo years, differ from all the other modern Dravidian alphabets both in shape and in their phonetic value. Their angular form is said to be due to the widespread practice of writing with the style resting on the end of the left thumb-nail, while the other

alphabets are written with the style resting on the left side o the thumb. The Tamil alphabet is sufficiently well adapted for the expres sion of the twelve vowels of the language (a, â, i, î, u, ĉ, e, ê, o, 6, et, au),—the occasional sounds of 6 and i, both short and

7174

TAMILS

long, being covered by the signs for e, é, i, 7; but it is utterly inadequate for the proper expression of the consonants, inasmuch as the one character k has to do duty also for khk, g, gh, and similarly each of the other surd consonants ch, Ł, t, p represents also the remaining three letters of its respective class. The letter k has, besides, occasionally the sound of k, and ch that of s. Each of the five consonants k, ch, t, t, p has its own nasal. In addition to the four semivowels, the Tamil possesses a cerebral r and / and has retained a liquid J, once peculiar to all the Dravidian languages, the sound of which varies in different districts. There is, lastly, a peculiar m, differing in function but not in pronunciation from the dental ~. The three sibilants and # of Sanskrit have no place in the Tamil alphabet; but ch often does duty as a sibilant in writing foreign words, and the four corresponding letters as well as j and ksk of the Grantha alphabet are now frequently called to aid. Many of the Sanskrit words imported into Tamil at various periods have therefore assumed disguises under which the original is scarcely recognizable: examples are ulagu (loka), uruvam (riipa), arukken (arka), erputam (adbhutam), natchattiram (nakshatram), irudi (rishi), tirkam (dirgha), arasen (rajan). . Tamil has borrowed from Hindustani, Arabic, and Persian a large number of revenue, political, and judicial terms, and more recently a good many English words have crept in, such as żirattt, treaty, patlar, butler, kt, act, Ruldb, club, kavarnar, governor, pinnalkédu, penal code, sikku, sick, mejastirattu, magistrate. Of Tamil words which have found a permanent home in English may be mentioned curry (keri), mulligatawny (milagu, pepper, and tannir, cool water), cheroot (surutiu), pariah (paretyan). The Older Literature—The early existence, in southern India, of peoples, localities, animals and products the names of which, as mentioned in the Old Testament and in Greek and Roman writers, have been identified with corresponding Dravidian terms, goes far to prove the high antiquity, if not of the Tamil language, at least of some form of Dravidian speech (Caldwell, Joc. cit., Introd., pp. 81-106; Madras District Manual, i., Introd., pp. 134 seg.). But practically the earliest extant records of the Tamil language do not ascend higher than the middle of the 8th century of the Christian era, the grant in possession of the Israelites at Cochin being assigned by the late Dr. Burnell to about A.D. 750, a period when Malayalam did not exist yet as a separate language. There is every probability that about the same time a number of ‘Tamil works sprung up, which are mentioned by a writer in the yrth century as representing the old literature (Burnell, Joc. czt., p. 127, note). The earlier of these may have been Saiva books; the more prominent of the others were decidedly Jain. Though traces of a north Indian influence

are palpable in all of them that have come down to us (see e.g., F. W. Ellis’s notes to the Kural), we can at the same time perceive, as we must certainly appreciate, the desire of the authors to oppose the influence of Brahmanical writings, and create a literature that should rival Sanskrit books and appeal to the sentiments of the people at large. But the refinement of the poetical language, as adapted to the genius of Tamil, has been carried to greater excess than in Sanskrit; and this artificial character of the so-called Sen-Tamil is evident from a comparison with the old inscriptions, which are a reflex of the language of the people, and clearly show that Tamil has not undergone any essential change (Burnell, Joc. ctt., p. 142). The rules of Sen-Tamil appear to have been fixed at a very early date. The Tolkdppiyam, the oldest extant Tamil grammar, is assigned by Dr. Burnell (On the Aindra School of Sanskrit Grammarians, pp. 8, 55) to the 8th century (best edition by C.

Y. Tâmodaram Pillei, Madras, 1885). The Vêrasôliyam, another

grammar, is of the rrth century. Both have been superseded by the Vannůl, of the 15th century, which has exercised the skill of numerous commentators, and continues to be the leading native authority (English editions in Pope’s Third Tamil Grammar, and an abridgment by Lazarus, 1884). The period of the prevalence of the Jains in the Pandya kingdom, from the oth or roth to the 13th century, is justly termed the Augustan age of Tamil literaturę., To its earlier days is assigned the Né@ladzyér, an ethical

poem on the three objects of existence, which is supposed to have

preceded the Kural of Tiruvalluvan, the finest poetical production in the whole range of Tamil composition. Tradition, in keeping with the spirit of antagonism to Brahmanical influence, says that its author was a pariah. It consists of 1,330 stanzas on Virtue, wealth and pleasure. It has often been edited, translated and commented upon; see the introduction to the excellent edition

published by the Rev. Dr. Pope, in which also a comprehensive account of the peculiarities of Sen-Tamuil will be found. To the Avvei, or Matron, a reputed sister of Tiruvalluvan, but probably of a later date, two shorter moral poems, called Attisiidi and Konreivéyndan, are ascribed, which are still read in all Tamil schools. Chintémani, an epic of upwards of 3,000 stanzas, which celebrates the exploits of a king Jivakan, also belongs to that

early Jain period, and so does the Divékaram, the oldest dictionary of classical Tamil.

The former is one of the finest poems

in the language; but no more than the first and part of the third of its thirteen books have been edited and translated. Kamban’s Radméyanam (about A.D. 1100) is the only other Tamil epic which comes up to the Chintémani in poetical beauty.

The most brilliant of the poetical productions which appeared in the period of the Saiva revival (13th and 14th centuries) are two collections of hymns addressed to Siva, the one called

Tiruvésakam, by Manikka-Vasakan, and a later and larger one called Tivéram, by Sambandhan and two other devotees, Sundaran and Appan. Both former in one, the latter in religious fervour and collection of Vaishnava

these collections have been printed, the in five volumes. They are rivalled both in poetical merit by a contemporaneous hymns, the Nédldyira-prabandham (also

printed at Madras). The third section of it, called Tiruvéymoli or “Words of the Sacred Mouth,” has been published in Telugu characters, with ample commentaries,

in ten quartos (Madras,

1875-76).

After a period of literary torpor, which lasted nearly two centuries, King Vallabha Deva, better known by his assumed name Ativirardma Pandyan (second half of the 16th century), endeavoured to revive the love of poetry by compositions of his own, the most celebrated of which are the Mezdadam, a somewhat extravagant imitation of Sri Harsha’s Sanskrit Naishadham, and the Verrivérkez, a collection of sententious maxims. Though he had numerous followers, who made this revival the most prolific in the whole history of Tamil literature, none of the compositions of any kind, mainly translations and bombastic imitations of Sanskrit models, have attained to any fame. An exceptional place, however, is occupied by certain Tamil sectarians called Sittar (ie., siddhas or sages), whose mystical poems, especially those contained in the Stvavékyam, are said to be of singular beauty. Two. poems of high merit, composed at the end of the 17th century, also deserve favourable notice—the Nitinerivilakkam, an ethical treatise by Kumaragurupara Desikan, and the Prabhulingalilet, a translation from the Kanarese of a famous text-book of the Vira-Saiva sect. See the analysis in W. Taylor’s Catalogue, vol. il. pp. 837-47. The Modern Period, which may be said to date from the beginning of the last century, is ushered in by two great poets, one native and the other foreign. Téyumdnavan, a philosopher of the pantheistic school, composed 1,453 stanzas (pddal) which have a high reputation for sublimity both of sentiment and style;

and the Italian Jesuit Joseph Beschi (d. 1742), under the name Viramamuni, elaborated, on the model of the Chintémant, a re-

ligious epic Témbévani, which, though marred by blemishes of taste, is classed by native critics among the best productions of their literature. It treats of the history of St. Joseph, and has been printed at Pondicherry in three volumes, with a full analysis.

English influence has here, as in Bengal and elsewhere in India, greatly tended to create a healthier tone in literature both as to style and sentiment. As one of the best Tamil translations of English books in respect of diction and idiom may be mentioned the Bélavyépérikal, or “Little Merchants,” published by the Ver-

nacular Text Society, Madras,

P. Percival’s collection of Tam

Proverbs (3rd ed., 1875) should also be mentioned, The copper-plate grants, commonly called sdsanams, and, stone

TAMLUK—-TAMMANY inscriptions in Tamil, many of which have been copied and translated (Archaeological Survey of Southern India, vol. iv.; R. Sewell, Lists of the Antiquarian Remains in the Presidency of Madras, vols. i., ii.), are the only authentic historical records.

(See also Sir Walter Elliot’s contribution to the International

Numismata Ortentalia, vol. iii. pt. 2.) As early as the time of the Chinese traveller Hsüan Tsang, books were written in southern India on talipot leaves, and Albiruni mentions this custom as quite prevalent in his time (1031). It has not died out even at the present day, though paper imported from Portugal has, during the last three centuries, occasionally been used. Madras is now the largest depository of Tamil palm-leaf mss., which

have been described in Wilson’s Catalogue of the Mackenzie Collection (Calcutta, 1828, 2 vols.), W. Taylor’s Catalogue (Madras, 1857, 3 vols.), and Condaswamy Iyer’s Catalogue (vol. i., 1861). The art of printing, however, which was introduced in southern India at an early date, while it has tended to the preservation of many valuable productions of the ancient literature, has also been the means of perpetuating and circulating a deal of literary rubbish and lasciviousness which would much better have remained in the obscurity of manuscript. Dr. Burnell has a note in his Elements of South Indian Paleography (2nd ed., p. 44), from which it appears that in 1578 Tamil types were cut by Father Joao de Faria, and that a hundred years later a Tamil and Portuguese dictionary was published at Ambalakkadu. At present the number of Tamil books (inclusive of newspapers) printed annually far exceeds that of all the other Dravidian ver-

naculars put together. The earliest Tamil version of the New Testament was commenced by the Dutch in Ceylon in 1688; Fabricius’s translation appeared at Tranquebar in 1715. Since then many new translations of the whole Bible have been printed, and some of them have passed through several editions. The German missionary B. Ziegenbalg was the first to make the study of Tamil possible in Europe by the publication of his Grammatica Damulica, which appeared at Halle in 1716. Some

HALL

775

F. Müller, Grundriss der Sprachwissenschaft, Vienna, 1884, iii. i. 162-246; G. U. Pope, First Lessons in Tamil, 7th ed., Oxford, 1904, and The Ndladivdr, Oxford, 1893; and J. Vinson, Manuel de la

langue tamoule, Paris, 1903.

(R. Rr.; X.)

TAMLUK, a subdivisional town of British India, in the Midnapore district of Bengal on the river Rupnarayan. Pop. (1921), 8,348. Under the name of Tamralipta, it was a seaport at which the Chinese Buddhist pilgrims embarked; it may also be identified with Tamalites noticed by Ptolemy as being on the river Ganges. The channel connecting the town with the sea survived till the 17th century, when the Portuguese had a settlement here, and then silted up. Tamluk is now 6o m. from the sea, and the ruins of the old city lie deep beneath river silt.

TAMMANY

HALL.

Quite as old as the U.S. Government,

this powerful political organization in New York city ‘has, with only occasional intermissions, not only ruled that city since the year 1800, but at times has exercised great influence in State administration and even in national affairs. Its Origin.—Before the American Revolution groups proclaiming fealty to King George III. were organized in societies bearing the names of St. George, St. Andrew and St. David. To counter their aims the revolutionists formed associations called the Sons of Liberty or the Sons of St. Tammany. Tammany or Tammanend was an Indian chief noted for his wisdom, benevolence and love of liberty. In ridicule of the imported saints, revolutionists dubbed Tammany a saint. With the achievement of American independence the Sons of Liberty and the Sons of St. Tammany dissolved. When the delegates of New York State met to adopt a Federal constitution, the discussions evidenced the existence of a unified aristocratic group.

During the Revolution many estates owned by

opponents of the American cause had been confiscated. But there remained some large estates in possession of families which either supported the Revolution or were not hostile. The proprietors of these estates, often vested with almost feudal powers, constituted time later the Jesuit father Beschi devoted much time and labour the core of the aristocratic party. To resist these influences, Wilto the composition of grammars both of the vulgar and the liam Mooney, an upholsterer in New York city, founded the Sopoetical dialect. The former is treated in his Grammatica Latino- ciety of St. Tammany or Columbian Order, on May 12, 1789, a Tamulica, which was written in 1728, but was not printed till fortnight after the establishment of the National Government. eleven years later (Tranquebar, 1739). It was twice reprinted, His purpose was the creation of a society native in character and and two English translations have been published (1831, 1848). democratic in principle and action. Its officers were given Indian His Sen-Tamil Grammar, accessible since 1822 in an English trans- titles; the society’s chief was Grand Sachem and his fellow chiefs lation by Dr. Babington, was printed from his own ms. (Clavis Sachems. The democracy comprehended in Tammany’s original humaniorum literarum sublimioris Tamulici idiomatis) at Tran- period was not, however, that of later times. For more than three quebar in 1876. This work is especially valuable, as the greater decades after its organization Tammany represented the middleportion of it consists of a learned and exhaustive treatise on class opposed to the pretensions and power of the aristocratic Tamil prosody and rhetoric. (See, on his other works, Graul’s party; it did not then represent the lower classes. Reise, vol. iv. p. 327.) There are also grammars by Anderson, At first, the Society of St. Tammany was non-partisan in the Rhenius, Graul (in vol. ii. of his Bibliotheca Tamulica, Leipzig, sense that it had no distinct political affiliations but expressed its 1855), Lazarus (Madras, 1878), Pope (4th edition in three democratic sentiments in toasts and speeches at occasional banparts, London, 1883~85), and Grammaire francaise-tamoule, by quets and displayed itself in parades. But when, in 1798, there was the Abbé Dupuis (Pondicherry, 1863). The last two are by far a division of conflicting forces into parties the Society of St. Tamthe best. The India Office library possesses a ms. dictionary and many ardently supported the Republican (later called Demogrammar “par le Rév. Pere Dominique” (Pondicherry, 1843), cratic) Party, led by Thomas Jefferson. Realizing the effective and a copy of a ms. Tamil-Latin dictionary by the celebrated political uses to which the society could be converted, Aaron Burr missionary Schwarz, in which 9,000 words are explained. About was largely instrumental in causing its change to an active politithe like number of words are given in the dictionary of Fabricius cal club opposed to the Federalist Party. Through various aides and Breithaupt (Madras, 1779 and 1809). Rottler’s dictionary, Burr controlled the Society of St. Tammany until his downfall the publication of which was commenced in 1834, is a far more after killing Alexander Hamilton in a duel in 1804. The society ambitious work. But neither it nor Winslow’s (1862) come up had an influential share in bringing about the democratic victory to the standard of Tamil scholarships; the Dictionnaire tamoul- in the election of Thomas Jefferson as president of the US. in français, which appeared at Pondicherry in 2 vols. (1855-62), is 1800. In the same year the society’s leaders won election or superior to both, just as the Dictionarium latino-gallico-tamulicum

(zbid, 1846) excels the various English-Tamil dictionaries which have been published at Madras. BrsiiocrapHy.—See A. T. Mondiére and J. Vinson in Dictionnaire des sciences anthropologiques, s.v. “Dravidiens”; S. C. Chitty, The Tamil Plutarch, Jaffna, 1859; J. Murdoch, Classified Catalogue of Tamil Printed Books, Madras, 1865; C. E. Gover, Folk-Songs of Southern India, Madras, 1871; Bishop Caldwell’s Comparative Grammar of the Dravidian Languages, 2nd ed., London, 1875; Graul’s Reise nach Ostindien, vols. iv. and v.; the quarterly Lists of Books registered in the Madras Presidency; [Dr. Maclean’s] Manual of the Administration of the Madras Presidency, vols. i. and ii., Madras, 188s, folio;

obtained appointment to New York city municipal offices. ` Tammany Hall Organized.—Caustic criticisms made by the opposition that a private society was engaging in politics resulted in a separation of social from political functions. In 1805 the So-

ciety of St. Tammany obtained from the legislature a charter incorporating it as a benevolent and charitable body to give relief to members and others. The Tammany Hall political organization was now created as an apparently distinct body. In reality the society’s Sachems controlled the political mechanism; the leaders of the two organizations were either identical or the men directing

776

TAMMERFORS—TAMMUZ

the political arm had their representatives as Sachems. The explanation of the Tammany society’s control of the Tammany Hall political organization lay in the fact that the society has been continuously the owner of the Tammany Hall building. In this capacity it has always had and still has the power of dispossessing any faction hostile to the Tammany Hall leaders. As the label of party regularity became binding upon a majority of voters, no faction thus evicted could properly claim to be the Tammany organization or any part of it. This happened in 1828, 1838, 1853 and 1857 when the Sachems, as trustees of the building, excluded factions from meeting in Tammany Hall. Until 1806 Tammany Hall remained an agitational political club, the New York city representative of the Republican, later termed Democratic, Party. In that year was begun a thorough organization of Democratic voters. The main features of this comprehensive plan were general, nominating, corresponding and ward committees. In the general committee was vested the power of convening the party’s meetings and of making all necessary arrangements for elections. Composed originally of 30 members, this committee was gradually expanded until it had many thousands of members penetrating every section in the city. Tammany Hall’s strength was greatly increased when, in 1820, it decided as a matter of policy to support a New York State constitutional amendment abolishing property qualifications for voting. Effective in 1822, this amendment brought a new and everincreasing voting element into politics and generally into Tammany Hall. The change produced by manhood suffrage was not immediate. For some years more Tammany was led by bankers and merchants who used their power for self-enrichment. The Workingmen’s Party, in 1829, and its successor, the Equal Rights Party, organized in 1834, so successfully warred upon banker leaders and their colleagues that the general committee rid Tammany Hall of this element.

Gang Control and “Boss” Rule.—The period especially from 1846 onward was one in which heavy immigration, notably Irish, poured into New York city. Impecunious, and objects of religious and racial prejudice, numbers of the Irish, unable to get work, banded in street gangs. Unlike other political parties, Tammany Hall welcomed immigrants, facilitated their naturalization and gave them relief. The astute, unscrupulous and engaging Fernando Wood organized the gangs as a political power within Tammany Hall, securing his own advancement as well as assuring Tammany the redoubtable support of men equally useful in overawing opposition, packing primaries or committing frauds at the polls. Wood had been a powerful but not a supreme leader. With the ascendency of William M. Tweed in 1867, Tammany Hall came under the sway of a single leader or boss. The son of a chairmaker, Tweed had won his way through ward politics, had been a member of “The Forty Thieves” board of aldermen in 1851-52, manipulating his unprincipled way to the rule of Tammany Hall. Corruption reached its climax under Tweed when New York city was plundered of an amount conservatively estimated at $45,000,oco in direct spoliation, but ranging as high as $200,000,000 when reduced taxes and fraudulent bond issues are also considered. Only $876,000 was ever recovered. Tweed died in gaol, but most of his confederates and the other looting beneficiaries retained their wealth. Tammany Hall became a world-wide object of odium. Restored to Power.—For a time in popular disfavour, Tammany Hall, within three years after the exposures of the Tweed régime, was again in power in New York city. Succeeding Tweed as boss, John Kelly sagaciously induced Democrats who had been prominent in overthrowing Tweed to reorganize Tammany Hall. Superficial, this move in nowise affected the composition and characteristics of the Tammany organization at large. The real resusci-

tating factor was the attachment of New York city’s tenement

house masses to an organization the district leaders of which exercised a human relationship, coming into direct contact with them, treating them politically as equals, and giving a helping hand to those in want or trouble. This one large service outweighed all of the denunciations of Tammany by Republican business opponents

who often had their own less spectacular but more insidious system of corruption. After Kelly’s death in 1886, Richard Croker

succeeded as Tammany Halls boss, and he was followed by Charles F. Murphy in 1902. During this period many charges of

Tammany corruption were made and proved.

But these were per-

haps no greater than the contemporary frauds and corruptions committed by financial, insurance and other corporations. Tammany in Recent Years.—With the accession of Judge George W. Olvany to leadership of Tammany after Murphy’s death in 1924, came evidence of a still more altered Tammany Hall. Differing from his predecessors, Judge Olvany was a university graduate and lawyer, having served in the court of general

sessions. In contrast to former or older crude district leaders, the new district leaders were also men of varying degrees of education. The force behind this changing Tammany was generally

recognized to be that of Alfred E. Smith (q.v.), four times goyernor of New York and a leading Presidential candidate. On Mar.

16, 1929, Olvany suddenly resigned his leadership. Many interpreted this as meaning a loss of Smith’s power and influence after his defeat in the national election of 1928. After a month’s deadlock between the factions John F. Curry, a former ward leader of

the old type, was elected to head the organization. Tammany defi-

nitely decided to retrench and confine its attention to municipal politics. Although since 1898 New York city has been extended to include five boroughs, Tammany Hall’s organization has been confined to Manhattan and the Bronx.

The Democratic organizations

of other boroughs have been allied bodies. In Dec. 1927 The Tammany Society sold the Tammany Hall building on r4th street, which it had occupied since 1868, and bought a site for a new building at Union square, E. and 17th street, which was occupied on January I, 1929. ' See Gustavus Myers, The History of Tammany Hall; “The New Tammany,” The Century Magazine, Aug. 1926; Dennis Tilden Lynch, Boss Tweed; M. R. Werner, Tammany Hall (1928).

TAMMERFORS: TAMMUZ, died

and

rose

see TAMPERE.

Sumerian, annually

Babylonian and Assyrian god, who with

dying

and

reviving

vegetation,

originally Dumu-zi, “the son who rises, goes forth (from the nether world),”’ but generally interpreted “faithful son” Philologically both interpretations are correct, and no Accadian commentary exists to explain which meaning was accepted by them. The interpretation as “the son who rises,” “the resurrected child,” accepted in this article, is new and differs from all views held in the standard works on this cult. It is clear, however, that the main principle of this cult is the resurrection of the dying god, and the verb zz stands for the root zig to rise up, not zid, to be faithful. (See S. Langdon, Sumerian Liturgies and Psalms, p. 287, 17, usubba-za uziga-za, “In thy fall and in thy resurrection.”) There are many titles of the youthful god, loved by his sister, the earth and heaven goddess, Innini (Ishtar), who descends yearly into Aralû (under-world) at the time of his death to bring him back to earth in her bosom. Since he represents the mystery of life and death, as seen in the withering vegetation of the hot Mesopotamian summer, and the rapid renewal of its life at the season of the spring rains, Tammuz is the patron of flocks and irrigation as well as of vegetation. Titles such as god Sipa, the shepherd, umun mirsi, lord of the flood, god Ab-ú, father of vegetation, god Zulumma, god of the date palm, are not so old as those which reveal theological speculation concerning the brother, lover and husband-of the earth mother. Theology gave rise to this, the most widely spread and profoundly religious aspect of West Asiatic and Egyptian religion (where it appears as the cult of Osiris and Isis). Dumu-zi appears in the oldest texts without a divine title, c. 3200 B.c., and in Sumerian texts of Eannatum of Lagash (c. 2850 B.C.), as god Dumuzi-apsu, “risen child of the

deep,” describing him as the son of the god of the nether sea of fresh waters, Ea, Enki, a title confined apparently to early Lagash, where he appears more often under the title NingiSzida,

“Lord of the faithful tree,” a title which developed into an inde-

pendent

deity.. In the legend

of Eridu,

in which -Adapa is

sent to the gates of heaven for judgment because he had broken

the wings of the south-wind, he found Tammuz’ and Ningiszida

at the gate of heaven; they offered him bread and water of life, which he, on the advice of the water god of Eridu, refused and

TAMPA thus lost immortality. Tammuz and Ningi§zida appear to have been identified with the stars Castor and Pollux or, perhaps, Procyon and Sirius. The liturgical wailings for Tammuz during the period of his sojourn in Aral are numerous and describe every aspect of the theological doctrines concerning him. They are invariably composed in Sumerian, rarely with Accadian interlinear translation. These wailings occurred at midsummer,

and the sixth month of

the calendar at Lagash from the 28th to the 24th centuries is named the “month of the festival of Tammuz,” corresponding to September if the year began near the spring equinox. There is a variant name for this month at Nippur called, “month of the mission of her of the “month

of Innini,” referring to her descent to Aralti departed lover. The Babylonians retained the fourth month and for some reason described Tammuz,” corresponding to July, retaining

in search old name it as the the name

“month of the mission of Innini” for the sixth month (Elul). In this month (fourth) Tammuz is said to have been bound, and the liturgies speak of his having been drowned among flowers which were thrown upon him as he sank beneath the waves of the

Euphrates. He is described ‘as the shepherd who left his flocks, as the shepherds sat in the fields wailing for Tammuz. There is a strange inconsistency in the hymns of these wailings concerning the relation of the mother goddess to her lover, Tammuz. In the early Sumerian texts she is his sister, but soon the Semitic view that she is his mother prevails. The two theories appear inconsistently together throughout the entire history of the cult. He is, however, invariably the husband and lover of

the otherwise consistently described virgin goddess of love, Innini, Gestinanna, Bélit-séri (queen of the field of the lower

777

Marduk of Babylon was identifed with Tammuz. At the Nisan or new year festival at Babylon, Bêl (Marduk) was said to have been imprisoned in the lower world, and a priestess weeps at his sepulchre. A malefactor was slain with Bél and they descend together to the land of darkness. Beltis, his wife, descends to hell to seek him, and Bél’s garments are given Ishtar (mother of Tammuz). Bél was laid in a sepulchre, from which he soon comes forth. This Marduk transformation of the national Tammuz cult is only another effort of the priesthood of the capital

to enlarge the worship and importance of the local cult. It obtained nowhere else in Babylonia and Assyria, and may’ be regarded as a true interpretation of what transpired regularly in the Tammuz cult itself. That the cult had direct influence upon the origins of Christianity cannot be denied, and the Greek cult of Adonis owes its essential content to the Sumerian Tammuz. BrsriocrapHy—S. Langdon, Tammuz and Ishtar (Oxford, 1914); H. Zimmern, Der Babylonische Gott Tamiz (Leipzig, 1909) ; W. W. G. Baudissin, Adonis und Esmun, for connections with West Semitic cognate cults (Leipzig, r91z). For the hymns of the Tammuz-Ishtar wailings, S. Langdon, Sumerian and Babylonian Psalms, pp. 300-341 (Paris, 1909); H. Zimmern, Sumerisch-babylonische Tamiiszlieder (Leipzig, 1909); S. Langdon, Revue d’Assyriologie, xii. 33-45; Babylonian Liturgies, pp. 60-63; 94-103 (Paris, 1913); Sumerian Liturgies and Psalms, pp. 285-290 (Philadelphia, 1919) ; Hugo Radau, Sumerian Hymns and Prayers to God Dumu-zt (Munchen, 1913). For the Marduk-Bél ritual of the new year festival at Babylon in the late period, H. Zimmern, Zum babylonischen Neu Jahrsfest, Zweiter Beitrag (Leipzig, 1918); S. Langdon, The Babylonian Epic of Creation, chapter

on

“The

(Oxford, 1923).

Death and

Resurrection

of Bél-Marduk,”

34-59

(S. L.)

TAMPA, a city on the west coast of Florida, U.S.A., at the

head of Tampa bay (Gulf of Mexico), 330 m. S.E. of Pensacola world), and the cult is particularly associated with the great city and 220 m. N.W. of Key West; a port of entry and the county Erech, home of the cult of Anu, the heaven god, and Innini. In seat of Hillsborough county. It is on Federal highways 41 and 92; all ceremonies connected with his cult his mother or sister is has a municipal airport (240 ac.) connected with the Bay by a invariably associated with him, and it is the one aspect of canal 500 ft. wide, to accommodate seaplanes; and is served by Sumerian and Babylonian religion which may be described as the Atlantic Coast Line and the Seaboard Air Line railways, 21 universal and not largely confined to any local tradition. Bad- steamship lines, operating to both American coasts and foreign tibira, Pantibiblas of the Greek, near Erech, seems to have been ports, and four motor-bus lines, covering Florida and adjacent the original seat of the cult, and in the Sumerian tradition of the territory and connecting with lines for New York and Chicago. ten pre-diluvian kings, the name of one at Badtibira is Dumuzi- Pop. 94,743 (20% negroes and about 20% foreign-born white) in sipa, “Tammuz the shepherd”; one of the names of Tammuz is 1925 (State census) and was 101,161 in 1930 by Federal census Tibira. No great temple was built to him, and a few casual (after the annexation of West Tampa and other territory). references to a temple of Tammuz at Umma, Ur, Lagash, Agade, The city lies at the mouth of the Hillsborough river, with the clearly refer to shrines in the temple of the local deity reserved Ybor estuary on its eastern boundary, facing the islands in Hillsfor the wailings and mystic ceremonies of the cult. Worship borough bay (the eastern arm of Tampa bay). The climate is of Tammuz spread far beyond the lands to which the Sumerian delightful, with an average monthly mean temperature ranging religion was principally confined. Ezekiel speaks of it as firmly from 60-6° F in January to 81-5° in August, an average annual installed at Jerusalem in his time; it is mentioned in the Christian precipitation of 53-13 in., and an average of 66% of the “possible era in Mandean and Syriac literature, and survived among the sunshine” in the year. Tampa has been a resort since the ’80s and Ssabeans at Harran as late as the middle ages. At Byblus, in with one exception the hotels are open the year round. It is a Syria, he was identified with the West Semitic Adonis. centre for tarpon fishing, and winter headquarters for the National In astrology Tammuz was identified with Aries; in the magic Professional Polo Association. Tampa Bay hotel (the oldest one rituals he is symbolized by a white kid, and he is also connected for tourists in the city) is owned and operated by the city. There with the ram, which led to this astral identification. Under the is a municipal polo field, a municipal fishing pier and generous title Szbzzanna, “faithful shepherd of heaven,” he was identified provision for all the usual sports and recreations. The Gasparilla with Orion. During the period of deified king worship in the Carnival is an annual event in February. About 100,000 visitors Dungi period of Ur, and in the time of the Isin dynasty, the from the North stop in the city during the year. Between 1925 deified kings habitually identified themselves with Tammuz and and 1928 extensive additions were made to the public school plant were worshipped as husbands of the mother goddess. For this (according to a programme mapped out for the city by experts) reason it has been argued that the cult arose in prehistoric times, bringing its total value to $12,000,000. Tampa ships more phoswhen a king was put to death as a sacrifice to the earth mother phate rock (1,534,266 tons in 1927) and manufactures more clear in order to secure the good will of the deity of vegetation. There Havana cigars than any other city. Its water-borne commerce is, however, no evidence for this in the earlier texts, and so far amounted to 3,586,923 tons in 1927, valued at $102,034,470.. as Sumerian religion is concerned, the theory must be dismissed There are about 160 cigar factories. Tampa has a large wholesale as unproved. He was held to be a god of healing, bestower of and retail trade. The product of the city’s industries in 1927 health, and one who, like all other deities, had power over the was valued at $55,704,016. Bank debits in 1926 aggregated $921,demons. 229,000. The city’s assessed valuation for 1927 was $139,141,000: It is obvious that a cult which is based upon the death and In 1927, after seven years under a commission-manager form of resurrection of a propitiating god, and upon the love of a divine government, the city modified its charter to provide for a mayor mother who wails for her son, has direct connection with the with broad authority and a council of 12 district representatives. facts and the theological views based upon them, which gave Tampa was the name of the Indian village which de Narvaez birth to Christianity. But the form of the cult which apparently and de Soto found here in 1528 and 1539. The harbour, accordmost directly affected the origins of Christianity is that in which ing to tradition, was a favourite resort of pirates, including, the

778

TAMPERE—TANA

picturesque Capt. José Gasparilla, whose memory is kept alive in the annual carnival. In 1823 the U.S. Government established a fort (Ft. Brooke, an important base of supplies in the Second Seminole War; abandoned in 1860) and around it grew upacivil settlement. In Nov. 1862, Tampa was taken by Federal gunboats. During the Spanish-American War (1898) it was the point of embarkation for the U.S. troops that invaded Cuba. Theodore Roosevelt and his Rough Riders were encamped here for several weeks. In 1880 the population was only 720. Between 1880 and 1890 the cigar industry was established, the first railroad reached the city, and the first hotel for tourists was built. By 1890 the city had a population of 5,532, which was shown to have increased to 15,839 in 1900, 37,782 in Igo, and 51,608 in 1920.

The open-

ing of the Panama Canal (1920) greatly enhanced the importance of the port, and within a few years its traffic was doubled. Tampa was one of the principal foci of the Florida “rush” of 1924-25. The city was incorporated in 1855.

TAMPERE, formerly Tammerfors, an industrial city of Finland in 61° 28’ N., 23° 45’ E., on the rapids connecting Lakes Nasi-jarvi and Pyha-jarvi, and at a railway junction. Pop. (1925) 51,717.

It manufactures textiles, paper and leather goods.

TAMPICO, a city and leading port of Mexico, in the State of Tamaulipas, on the north bank of the Panuco river, about 6 m. from the Gulf of Mexico. In summer the climate is hot and humid, although a sea breeze modifies the temperature somewhat. In winter the temperature falls to freezing on occasional days when “northers’” blow down along the Gulf coast. Tampico is almost surrounded by swampy lands and lagoons. The eastern and poorer part of the town stands on low ground only 2 or 3 ft. above the river, and is subject to inundations. However, a modern sewer system, up-to-date street paving and a better water-supply, constructed since the beginning of the century, have greatly improved the sanitary condition and reduced the death rate from epidemics. The western part rises about 150 ft., consists largely of residential districts and is provided with still better sanitary equipment. The business section is well built, largely of stone and brick, while many of the newer structures are of reinforced concrete and rise to six and seven storeys. The city is well supplied with gas and electric light. Tampico has excellent transportation facilities, one railway line running north-north-west to Monterrey; another westward to San Luis Potosi, connecting there with the railway to Mexico City; a third short, but important line, leads southward, through the oil fields to Tuxpam. Although a bar exists at the mouth of the Pánuco river, jetties have been built and the depth has been increased by dredging so that vessels drawing up to 33 ft. can approach the water front of the city, while scows and other boats of light draught can go up the river for over roo miles. The Chijol canal, begun in 1901, affords a waterway 6 ft. deep and 25 ft. wide for about 75 m. southward through the oil-fields to Tuxpam. Modern port works, spacious enough to accommodate at the wharves 14 vessels at a time, steel sheds and warehouses, a union railway station within easy reach of the water front, and excellent equipment for loading oil tankers, make Tampico the most up-todate harbour in Mexico. Tampico owes its importance to the fact that four of the most productive oil-fields in the country (the Ebano, Panuco, Huasteca and Tuxpam) are situated within some roo m. of its site. Until Igor it was a second rate port, outlet of the fertile but relatively undeveloped hinterland, with a very bad reputation for health and sanitary conditions. The rapid exploitation of petroleum resources resulted in a marked increase of population from about 10,000 in 1900, to 16,528 in 1910 and to 24,980 in 1921 while, if the neighbouring settlements connected with the port and oil business are included, the number at this last date would approach 100,000. For some years Tampico ranked as the greatest oil port in the world. Clusters of steel petroleum storage tanks extend along

the river, particularly on the southern shore, from its mouth to a few miles above the city. Pipe lines lead from the nearby fields, 68 of them centring in Tampico in 1922, while fleets of scows bring oil from farther up the river. Pipe lines and barges together are capable of transporting some 1,200,000 bbl. of oil

daily from the fields to the port. There are many foreigners (chiefly Americans) residing in the city and its suburbs and Tampico is the most Americanized of

Mexican cities. It is essentially a bi-lingual port, its aspect is that of a busy American

town.

Up-river

from the port agricultural

activities have been stimulated, fruits, vegetables and grains being grown to supply the local food demands.

Up-to-date commercial

establishments, housed in modem structures, are stocked with American and European goods. Foreign banks afford facilities for the varied needs of the city. Hotels, clubs, restaurants and places of amusement are numerous and well served. Besides those connected directly with the oil business, the industrial establishments of Tampico include many for the handling and repair of oil well machinery, yards for the building of river

boats, an electric light and power plant, factories for making ice, clothing and fruit preserves, saw-mills, etc. In addition to

petroleum, the exports include silver bullion

(from San Luis

Potosi, Aguascalientes, Torreón and Monterrey), ixtle fibre, sugar, hides, live cattle, cotton-seed coffee and copper ores.

TAMWORTH,

cake, honey, fustic, sarsaparilla,

municipality,

Inglis

county,

New

South

Wales, Australia, on the Peel and Cockburn rivers, 285 m. by rail N. of Sydney. Pop.(1921) 7,150. It is the centre of several goldfields, at one of which, Bingera, diamonds are found. It is also the market of a pastoral and agricultural district. Brewing, malting, steam, saw and flour milling, coach building and the manufacture of boots and galvanized iron are its principal industries.

TAMWORTH,

market town, municipal borough, Lichfield

parliamentary division, Staffordshire, England, on the river Tame. The rural district of Tamworth is in the Tamworth division, Warwickshire. Pop. (1931) 7,510. It is rro m. N.E. of London on the L.M.S. railway. The castle, situated above the Anker, is chiefly of the Jacobean period, but is enclosed by mas-

sive ancient walls.

After being bestowed on the Marmions by

William the Conqueror, the castle was for many years an important fortress. The town was formerly surrounded by a ditch of which traces only remain. The church of St. Editha (8th cent.) was rebuilt, after the Danes burned it, by Edgar, who made it collegiate; the existing Decorated building was erected after a fire in 1345. The free grammar school, refounded by Edward IV., was rebuilt in.1677, and again in 1867. The charities include Guy’s almshouses (1678), endowed by Thomas Guy, founder of Guy’s hospital, London. Coal, fireclay and blue and red brick clay are dug in the neighbourhood; and there are alse market gardens. In the town are a clothing factory, paper-mills, and manufactories of small wares. `

Tamworth (Tamwurda, Thamworth, Tomworth) is situated near the Roman Watling street. It was burned by the Danes and restored in 913 by Aethelflead, who built the fort which was the origin of the later castle. The town was again destroyed by the Danes in 943. It is mentioned in Domesday. Tamworth: was incorporated by Elizabeth in 1560 by letters patent, which state that it is an “‘ancient mercate town,” and suggest that the charters have been lost or burned. The governing charter in 1835 was that of Charles II., incorporating it under the title of the bailiffs and commonalty of the borough of Tamworth in the counties of Stafford and Warwick. Edward III. granted two fairs, still kept up in 1792, to be held respectively on St. George’s day and the day of the Translation of St. Edward; another ancient fair, in honour of St. Swithin, or perhaps originally of St. Editha, is still held (July 26). Tamworth sent two members to parliament from 1562 to 1885.

TANA, a lake of North-East Africa, chief reservoir of the

Abbai or Blue Nile.

Tana lies between

11° 36’ and 12° 16

N. and 37° 2’ and 37° 4o’ E., 5,690 ft. above the sea, on the northern portion of the Abyssinian plateau. Its greatest length is 47 m., its greatest breadth 44 m., and it covers approximately

1,100 sq.m., having a drainage area, including the lake surface, of some 5,400 sq.m. The shores are well defined, generally flat, but at places the mountains descend somewhat abruptly into the water. Elsewhere the land rises in gentle undulations, except at

TANA—TANCRED

1179

The tanagers have been examined systematically by P. L. Sclater; he admits the existence of 375 species, which he arranges in 59 a bay about rz miles long, and from three to eight miles across. genera, forming six subfamilies, Procniatinae, Euphonunae, TanaFrom this bay the Abbai issues. The whole coast-line is con- grinae, Lamprotinae, Phoenicophilinae, and Pitylinae. ‘These are siderably indented and many narrow promontories jut into the of very unequal extent, for, while the first of them consists of but lake. The island of Dek (eight m. long by four broad) is in the a single species, Procnias tersa, the third includes more than 200. south-western part of the lake. Near it is the smaller island of Nearly all are birds of small size, the largest barely exceeding Dega. Numerous islets fringe the shores. a song-thrush. Most of them are remarkable for their gaudy Lake Tana is fed by three large rivers and by many petty colouring, and this is especially the case in those forming the streams. The chief tributary is the Little Abbai, which enters the genus Tanagra. Generally among the tanagers, both sexes are lake at its south-west corner. This river, and the Abbai itself or nearly alike in plumage. Insects, especially in the larval condition, Blue Nile which issues from the lake, are regarded as one and the and berries afford the greater part of their food. They have a same stream and a current is observable from the inlet to the out- pleasing song, and build a shallow nest, in which the eggs, generlet. Next in importance of the affluents are the Reb and Gumara, ally three in number, and of a greenish-blue marked with brown which run in parallel courses and enter the lake on its eastern and purple, are laid. side. The outlet of the lake is marked by openings in a rocky The scarlet tanager (Piranga erythromelas) nests in the eastern ledge, through which the water pours by two or three channels, U.S.A., west to the Plains and north to New Brunswick and Maniin a succession of rapids, uniting within a couple of miles into toba, wintering in South and Central America. The male is scarlet, one river—the Abbai with a width of 650 ft. with black wings and tail; the female is olive green, lighter below, The average annual rainfall in the Tana catchment area is with dusky wings and tail. The song is reminiscent of the Ameriestimated at 34 ft., and the volume of water received by the can robin, but is inferior. lake yearly from this source and from affluents at about 6,572,The summer tanager (P. rubra) does not reach farther north 000,000 of cubic metres. The average seasonal alteration of the than New Jersey and Kansas. The male is rosy red, the female lake level is not more than about 14 metres. olive-yellow above, dusky saffron below. The song is superior to Three technical missions have been sent by the British and that of P. erythromelas. Egyptian Governments conducted respectively by Mr. Dupuis The remaining species, P. ludoviciana, the males of which are (1903), Mr. Buckley (1916) and Mr. Grabham (1920-1) to re- mostly yellow and black, with the head only red, does not appear port on the feasibility of utilizing the lake as a reservoir’ with eastward of the Missouri plains, and has not so northerly a range. the object of regulating the supply of water (3,500 million cu.m. Another species, P. kepatica, has shown itself within the limits in a normal year) discharged from the lake into the Blue Nile of the United States. In all these the females are plainly attired. TANAKA, GIICHI, Baron (1863-1929), Japanese statesfor irrigation needs in the Sudan and Egypt. As a result a scheme of works has been proposed, and it is estimated that these works, man and general, born in Yamaguchi, graduated at the military in addition to securing a more even distribution of water during cadet’s school in 1886, and the staff college in 1892. He was minthe year, would by storing the surplus water in years of heavy ister of war in the Hara and Takahashi cabinets in 1918-21, and rainfall form a reserve of 8,000 million cu.m. to tide over the 1920. He became leader of the Seiyukwai Party in 1926, and deficiency in years of bad supply. The Abyssinian Government, formed a government in April 1927, himself taking the ministry however, has consistently opposed the project. of foreign affairs. He died on Sept. 28, 1929. Tana has been identified with the Coloe Palus of the ancients, TANAQUIL, the Etruscan name of the wife of Tarquinius which was described by Ptolemy as a chief reservoir of the Egyp- Priscus, or of one of his sons. After her immigration to Rome tian Nile and the source of the Astapos, which was certainly the she is said to have received the name Gaia Caecilia. She was faBlue Nile. In 1625 it was visited by the Portuguese priest mous for her prophetic gifts. There was a statue of her as Gaia Jeronimo Lobo, and in 1771 by James Bruce. It was formerly Caecilia in the temple of Sancus, which possessed magical powers. known by the name of Dembea. She was celebrated as a spinner of wool, and was supposed to See NILE and ABYSSINIA, and the authorities there cited. The British exercise influence over Roman brides. Tanaquil and Gaia Caecilia Blue Book, Egypt, No. 2, 1904, which contains a special report (with are, however, really distinct personalities. The anecdotes told of maps) upon Lake Tana. Also the most valuable Report of the Mission to Lake Tana (1920-2r) issued by the Egyptian Ministry of Public Gaia Caecilia are aetiological myths intended to explain certain the mouths

of the larger tributary streams, where are alluvial

plains of considerable size. At the south-east end the lake forms

Works in 1925.

(C. F. R.)

TANA, a river over 500 m. long, in Kenya Colony, which gives its name to the Tanaland province of that British protectorate. Its sources are along the watershed close to the eastern wall of the eastern rift-valley, and it enters the Indian Ocean in 2° 40’ S., about rro m. north of Mombasa. One series of its numerous headstreams traverses the Kikuyu plateau north of the Athi, others flow from Mount Kenya, all following a south-easterly direction until intercepted by the main stream which flows northeast until, when nearing the equator, it turns eastward afterwards sweeping southward to the sea. It receives tributaries only along its upper course but on entering the plain it flows along a tortuous course, has low banks, is in part forested and inundated at high water, but away from the river the country appears to con-

usages at Roman marriages.

See Livy, 1. 34, 41; Pliny, Nat. Hist., viii. 74, xxxvi. 70; Schwegler, Romische Geschichte, bk. xv. 8.

TANCRED

(d. 1112), nephew of Bohemund and a grandson

of Robert Guiscard on the female side, was the son of a certain Marchisus, in whom some have seen a marquis, and some an

Arab (Makrizi). He took the Cross with Bohemund in 1096, and

marched with him to Constantinople. Here he refused to take an oath’ to Alexius, escaping across the Bosporus in the disguise of a peasant; but after the capture of Nicaea he followed the example of the other princes, and became the man of Alexius. At Heraclea, in the centre of Asia Minor, he left the main body of the Crusaders, and struck into Cilicia, closely followed by Baldwin of Lorraine. He made himself master of Tarsus, and when he was sist of dry plains covered with mimosa scrub. The river fre- evicted from it by the superior forces of Baldwin, he pushed quently divides in its lower course, has many backwaters and has further onwards, and took the towns of Adana and Mamistra. often changed its course, especially its place of entering the sea. He joined the main army before Antioch, and took a great part in It is navigable for 150 m. from its mouth. North of the Tana is the siege. In the beginning of rog9 he was in the ranks of Raythe Ozi, a small river connected with the Tana by the Belazoni mund’s army, but he soon left the count, like so many of the other canal. pilgrims (see under RAYMUND); and he joined himself to Godfrey TANAGER, the name of birds of the family Tanagridae, of Lorraine in the final march. After the capture of Jerusalem he allied to the Fringillidae (see Fincx), and distinguished by their went to Nablous, and began to found a principality of his own. feebler conformation and more exposed nostrils. They are con- He took part in the battle of Ascalon in August; and after it he fined to the New World, and are specially characteristic of the was invested by Godfrey with Tiberias and the principality of tropical forests of Central and South America, only in a small pro- Galilee, to the north of Nablous. In 1100 he attempted, without portion reaching Mexico, and four species breeding’ in the U.S.A. success, to prevent Baldwin of Lorraine (his old enemy in Cilicia)

TANCRED—TANGA

780

from acquiring the throne of Jerusalem. Failing in this attempt, and being urgently summoned from the North to succeed Bohemund in the government of Antioch, he surrendered his smaller possessions to Baldwin. He acted as regent in Antioch until 1103, when Bohemund regained his liberty. He regained the Cilician towns for Antioch (1ror), and recaptured Laodicea (1103); he imprisoned Raymund of Toulouse, and only gave him his liberty on stringent conditions; and he caused the restoration of the deposed patriarch of Jerusalem, Dagobert, if only for a brief season, by refusing to aid Baldwin I. on any other terms. When Bohemund was set free, Tancred had to surrender Antioch to him. In rz04 he joined with Bohemund and Baldwin de Burg (now count of Odessa in succession to Baldwin of Lorraine) in an expedition against Harran, in which they were heavily defeated, and Baldwin was taken prisoner. Tancred, however, profited doubly by the defeat: He took over the government of Edessa

in Baldwin’s place; and in 1105 Bohemund surrendered to him the government of Antioch, while he himself went to Europe to seek reinforcements. Ruler of the two northern principalities, Tancred carried on vigorous hostilities against his Mohammedan neighbours, especially Ridwan of Aleppo; and in 1106 he succeeded in. capturing Apamea. In 1107, while Bohemund was beginning his last expedition against Alexius, he wrested the whole of Cilicia from the Greeks; and he steadfastly refused, after Bohemund’s humiliating treaty at Durazzo in 1108, to agree to any of its stipulations with regard to Antioch and Cilicia. To the hostility of the Mohammedans and the Greeks, Tancred also added that of his own fellow Latins. When Baldwin de Burg regained his liberty in 1108, it was only with difficulty that he was induced to restore Edessa to him. But it was against the emirs of Northern Syria that his arms were chiefly directed; and

he joined a number of Irish refugees. Having gained the ear of the French Government, Tandy was given command of a cor. vette, a small force of men, and a quantity of arms for distribytion in Ireland. Arriving at Donegal, however, he learnt that Humbert’s expedition had failed, and he thereupon fled to Ham-

burg. The refugees were surrendered on a peremptory demand from

the British

Government.

Condemned

to death, he was

finally reprieved owing it is said to Bonaparte’s intercession.

Tandy’s exploits completely captured the popular imagination, and he is still remembered as the hero of the “Wearing Green.’ In France, where his release was regarded as a diplomatic victory, he was received in March 1802, as a of distinction; and when he died, on Aug. 24, 1803, his was attended by the military and an immense number

civil population.

of the French person funeral of the

.

See R. R. Madden, The Lives of the United Irishmen, » vols. (Dublin, 1842-46); W. J. MacNeven, Pzeces of Irish History (New York, 1807); T. Wolfe Tone, Autobiography, edit. by R. Barry O’Brien, 2 vols.

(London,

1893);

W.

J. Fitzpatrick,

Secret Service

under Pitt (London, 1892) ; Sir Richard Musgrave, Memoirs of Rebel-

lions in Ireland, 2 vols. (Dublin, 1802) ; J. A. Froude, The English in Ireland in the Eighteenth Century, 3 vols. (London, 1872-74) ; Castlereagh Correspondence, i., ii.; Cornwallis Correspondence, ii,, iii.

TANEGA-SHIMA, an island lying to the south of Kyushu, Japan, in 30° 50’ N. and 131° E., 364 m. long and 74 m. broad at its widest part. It is a long low stretch of land, carefully cultivated, and celebrated as the place where Mendez Pinto landed when he reached Japan in 1543.

TANEIEV, SERGIUS (1856-1915), Russian composer and theorist, was born on Nov. 13, 1856, in the Vladimir government. He studied under Nicholas Rubenstein and Tschaikowsky at the Moscow conservatoire. After a short career as a concert pianist he became the hammer of the Turks. He died in r112, leaving he went back to Moscow as professor of instrumentation, then the government to his brother-in-law, Roger de Principatu, until first professor of pianoforte and, in 1885, director. He died at Moscow on June 15, 1915. His published works include a such time as Bohemund II. should come to his inheritance. BrBtioGRAPHY.—Tancred’s Gesta were recorded by Ralph of Caen, symphony, five string quartets, a dramatic work, Orestes (perwho drew his information from Tancred’s own conversation and formed in St. Petersburg 1895), a cantata, John of Damascus, and reminiscences. Kugler has written a work on Bohemund und Tancred choruses for male voices and for mixed voices. He also wrote a (Tiibingen, 1862) ; and Tancred’s career is also described by Rey, in treatise on counterpoint. the Revue de VOrient Latin, iv. 334-340. mee

TANCRED

(d. 1194), King of Sicily, an illegitimate son of

Roger the eldest son of King Roger II, was crowned in January 11go in succession to William IT. (g.v.). He was supported by the chancellor Matthew d’Ajello and the official class, while the rival claims of Roger II.’s daughter Constance and her husband, Henry VI., king of the Romans and emperor, were supported by most of the nobles. Tancred was a good soldier; but he was illsupported in his task of maintaining the Norman kingdom, faced with general apathy, threatened by a baronial revolt, and menaced by Richard Coeur-de-Lion, at Messina, 1190. Henry, skilfully

winning over Pisa, Genoa and the Roman Commune, isolated Tancred and intimidated Celestine III., who, on April 14, 1191, crowned him emperor at Rome. He, however, failed to capture Naples in August and retired north, leaving garrisons along the frontiers of the Regno. Tancred now sought to win over the towns by extensive grants of privileges, and at Gravina (June IIg2) was recognized by the pope, whose ineffectual support he gained by surrendering the royal legateship over Sicily. In 1192 and 1193 he successfully opposed the Apulian barons, but his death at Palermo (Feb. 20, 1194) a few days after that of Roger, his son and joint-king, made Henry’s path clear.

TANDY,

JAMES

NAPPER

(1740-1803), United Irish-

man, born in Dublin in 1740, was a prominent reformer and supporter of Lucas and Grattan. He first won popularity by his

attacks on municipal corruption and his proposal to boycott

English goods in retaliation for the restrictions imposed on Irish commerce. In 1780 Tandy was expelled from the Dublin volun-

teers (see Firoop, Henry), but he continued his revolutionary agitation, and in 1791 co-operated with Wolfe Tone in founding the Society of United Irishmen, of which he became the first secretary. A challenge sent to the attorney-general resulted in his imprisonment (1792), but on'his release Tandy assisted in raising two battalions of a “national guard,” which were suppressed. He then fled to America, and in 1798 proceeded to France, where

TANEY, ROGER BROOKE

(1777-1864), American jur-

ist, was born in Calvert county, Md., March 17, 1777. He graduated from Dickinson college, Carlisle, Pa., in 1795, and began studying law at Annapolis in 1796. He served in the State Senate in 1816-21, was attorney general.of Maryland in 1827-31; and in July 1831 entered President Jackson’s cabinet as attorney general

of the United States. He was the President’s chief adviser in the

attack on the U.S. Bank, and was transferred to the treasury department in Sept. 1833, for the special purpose of removing the Government deposits. As a result, the Senate refused to confirm his appointment as secretary of the treasury. On Dec. 28, 1835, he was nominated chief justice of the U.S. Supreme Court. After strong opposition, the nomination was confirmed on March 15, 1836. During President Jackson’s administration (1829-37), the personnel of the supreme bench was entirely changed. Five of the seven judges in 1837 were his appointees. The majority of them were Southerners who had been educated under democratic influences. As a result, the State sovereignty influence was occasionally manifest, as for example, in the opinion

(written by Taney) in the Dred Scott case (1857, 19 Howard, 393) that Congress had no power to abolish slavery in territory acquired after the formation of the National Government. Judge Taney died Oct. 12, 1864. An authoritative biography is Samuel Tyler’s Memoir of Roger Brooke Taney

TANGA,

(1872).

a seaport of Tanganyika Territory, East Africa,

lying opposite the island of Pemba in 5° 6’ S., 39° 7 E. Population about 10,000, including (1928) 431 whites. The town is regularly laid out on elevated ground on the southern shore of Tanga bay, amid coconut groves and avenues of mango trees. The harbour, which is commodious, is entered by a broad but tortuous channel five to eight fathoms deep. Tanga is the ocean terminus of a railway to the Usumbara highlands and Kilimanjaro. A motor | road (130m. long) connects it with Mombasa.

TANGANYIKA—TANGANYIKA At one time part of the sultanate of Zanzibar, Tanga passed into German possession in 1888. In 1914 a British force from India landed in the bay and attempted to capture the town. It suffered heavy losses and was compelled to re-embark. It was not until July 1916 that the place was occupied by the British, the Germans having meanwhile been defeated by Gen. Smuts.

TANGANYIKA, a longest freshwater lake in a general breadth varying 12,700 sq.m. It lies at an

vast lake in East-Central Africa, the the world, measuring about 450 m. with from 30 to 45 m., and an area of about altitude of about 2,536 ft., is 4,708 ft.

deep, therefore its floor is 2,172 ft. below sea-level. After Lake Baikal this is the deepest freshwater lake in the world.

It occu-

pies the southern end of the great western rift-valley which terminates suddenly at its southern point, but the line of depression

is continued south-eastward through Lakes Rukwa and Nyasa, from which Tanganyika is separated by the Ufipa plateau. Another branch of the rift-valley passes south-westward into the Eastern

Congo, branching from the northern end of the lake. North of Tanganyika the valley is suddenly interrupted by a line of young eruptive ridges, which dam back the waters of Lake Kivu (g.v.) but have recently been cut through (in about the year 1906) by the outlet of that lake, the Russisi which enters Tanganyika by several mouths at its northern end. The flat plain traversed by the lower Russisi was evidently once a portion'of the lake floor. Tan-

ganyika has been formed by the subsidence of a long narrow tract of country relatively to the surrounding plateaux which fall to the lake in abrupt cliffs, some thousands of feet high in places. The geological formations thus exposed show’ that the plateaux are composed of a base of Archaean gneisses and. schists, overlain by enormous deposits of unfossiliferous red sandstones, conglomerates and quartzites (the Tanganyika Sandstones), which reach 3,000 ft. in thickness at the south end of the lake. They are almost certainly Archaean in age. The formation of the riftvalley dates from late Tertiary times. Besides the plain to the north a considerable area near the Lukuga outlet was once covered by Tanganyika. Although drinkable, the water of the lake seems at times at least to be very slightly brackish, and it was supposed by some that no outlet existed until in 1874, Lieutenant Cameron showed that the surplus water was discharged periodically towards the Upper Congo by the Lukaga river, about the middle of the west coast. Observations during the last 50 years indicate that the level of the lake frequently changes but these alterations are probably due only to fluctuations in rainfall. The lake is fed by a number of rivers and small streams, but is by no means the centre of a large drainage area. The Malagarasi is the largest feeder. The lake is subject to occasional storms which leave a heavy swell and impede navigation. Vegetation is generally luxuriant, and forest clothes portions of the mountain slopes. The lake lies on the dividing line between the floral regions of East and West Africa, and the oil-palm characteristic of the latter is found on its shores. The largest timber tree is the mvule, which attains vast dimensions. The more level parts of the shores have a fertile soil and produce a variety of crops, including rice, maize, manioc, sweet potatoes and sugarcane. The waters display an abundance of animal life, crocodiles and hippopotami occurring in the bays and river mouths, which are also the haunts of water-fowl of many kinds. Fish are also plentiful.

Various: sections

of the Bantu

division

of the

negro race dwell around the lake, those on the west and southwest showing the most pronounced negro type, while the tribes on the east exhibit some intermixture with representatives of the Hamitic stock, and (towards the south) some trace of Zulu influence. The surrounding region has been overrun by Arabs and Swahili from the East African coast. The lake was first visited in 1858 by Burton and Speke who reached Ujiji, which was the spot where in 187z Dr. Livingstone

was found by Stanley. The southern half of the lake was circumnavigated by Lieutenant V. L. Cameron in 1874, and whole lake by Stanley in 1876. | In the partition of Africa among the European powers shores of Tanganyika were shared by Belgium, Great Britain Germany, Great Britain holding the southern

extremity,

first the the and Ger-

TERRITORY

many the east and Belgium the west.

781

After the World War the

German portion became part of the British mandated territory of Tanganyika whilst Belgium extended her boundaries

to include

the mountains of Urundi on the north-east of the lake shore. The chief towns on the lake are Sumbu, Niamkolo, Kasango, Ujiji and Kigoma (all British), Usumbura, Uvira, Albertville, Vua, Baudouinville and Moliro (all Belgian). Steamers ply on the lake traversing its length in about four days, the best harbours being at Kasanga, Kigoma, Usumbura and Albertville. The East African Central railway from Dar-es-Salaam terminates at Kigoma, whilst a railway passes down the Lukuga valley from Albertville. BipriocrapHy.—For earlier works see the narratives of Burton, Livingstone, Cameron, Stanley, Ramsey, Wallace, E. C. Hore, H. Glauning, E. Kohlschiitter; M. Fergusson, in Geol. Mag. August 1901; E. Stromer, in Petermanns Mitteil., December 1901; R. Codrington, in Geogr. Journal, May 1902, W. H. Hudleston, in Transactions Victoria Inst, 1904; F. S. Joelson, The Tanganyika Territory (1920); J. C. Smuts, German East Africa (Geogr. Journal, 1918) ; also papers of the results of Dr. W. A. Cunnington’s expedition in Proceedings of the Zoological Society 1906, etc.; Journal of the Linnean Society, 1907, and official reports of the Tanganyika Territory (Annual).

TANGANYIKA TERRITORY, a country of East Central Africa. It is bounded east by the Indian ocean, south by Portuguese East Africa, south-west by Nyasaland, Northern Rhodesia, west by the Belgian Congo, north-west by Ruanda-Urundi and Uganda, north-east by Kenya Colony. It includes Mafa island. The area is about 365,000 sq.m. From 1884 to 1919 the Territory, together with the provinces of Ruanda and Urundi formed German East Africa. Since 1919 Tanganyika Territory has been administered under mandate by Great Britain. Ruanda-

Urundi (q.v.) is under Belgian mandate. Physical Features.—The coast extends from the mouth of the Rovuma in the south to the Umba river in the north. It is chiefly composed of coral, is little indented, and is generally low, partly sandy, partly rich alluvial soil covered with dense bush or mangroves. Where the Arabs had settlements the coco-palm and mango tree introduced by them give variety to the vegetation. The coast plain is from ro to 30m. wide and 620m. long; it is bordered on the west by the precipitous eastern side of the interior plateau of Central Africa. This plateau, considerably tilted from its horizontal position, attains its highest elevation north of Lake Nyasa (see LivincstonE Movuntatns), with heights up to 9,000 or more feet and a mean altitude of about 3,000 to 4,000 feet. From this region the country slopes towards the north-west. A deep, narrow gorge, the so-called “eastern rift-valley,” traverses the middle of the plateau in a meridional direction. In the north it spreads into several side valleys, from one of which rises the extinct volcano Kilimanjaro (g.v.), the highest mountain in Africa (19,321ft.). Its glaciers send down a thousand rills which combine to form the Pangani river. About 4om. west of Kilimanjaro is Mount Meru (14,95sft.), another volcanic peak, with a double crater. South-east of Mount Kilimanjaro are the Pare mountains and Usambara highlands, separated from the coast by a comparatively narrow strip of plain. To the south of the Usambara hills, and on the eastern edge of the plateau, are the mountainous regions of Nguru (otherwise Unguru), Useguha and Usagara. The southern half of Victoria Nyanza and the eastern shores, in whole or in part, of Lakes Tanganyika and Nyasa, are in Tanganyika Territory. Lake Rukwa (g.v.), north-west of Nyasa, is presumably only the remnant of a much larger lake. Its extent varies with the rainfall of each year. North-west of Kilimanjaro is a sheet of water known as the Natron lake, from the mineral alkali it contains. The country is well watered, but, with the exception of the Rufiji, the rivers, save for a few miles from their mouths are unnavigable. The largest streams are the Rovuma and Rufiji (¢.v.), both rising in the central plateau and flowing to the Indian ocean. Next in importance is the Pangani river, which, as stated above, has its head springs on the slopes of Kilimanjaro. Flowing in a south-westerly direction, it reaches the sea after'a course of some 250 miles. Into Victoria Nyanza are emptied, on the east, the waters of the Mori and many smaller streams; on the west, the Kagera (g.v.), besides smaller rivers. Into Tanganyika flows the

TANGANYIKA

782

Malagarasi, a considerable river with many affluents, draining the west-central part of the plateau. The Kalambo is a comparatively small stream which enters the south-east end of Lake Tanganyika

(marking the frontier with Northern Rhodesia). Not far from its

mouth there is a magnificent fall, a large volume of water falling nearly gooft. sheer over a rocky ledge of horse-shoe shape. So great is the height that the river only reaches the bottom of the falls in the form of spray. Of the streams entering Nyasa the chief are the Songwe and the Ruhuhu. Mafia island lies off the coast immediately north of 8° N. It has an area of 200 sq. miles. The island is low and fertile and extensively planted with coconut palms. It is continued southwards by an extensive reef, on which stands the chief settlement, Chobe, on a shallow creek.

Geology.—The narrow foot-plateau of Kenya Colony broadens

out to the south of Bagamoyo to a width of over 100'miles. This is covered. to a considerable extent by rocks of recent and lale Tertiary ages. Older Tertiary rocks form the bluffs of Lindi. Cretaceous marls and limestones appear at intervals, extending in places to the edge of the upper plateau, and are extensively developed on the Makonde plateau. They are underlain by Jurassic rocks, from beneath which sandstones and shales yielding Glossopteris browniana var. indica, and therefore of Lower Karroo age, appear in the south, but are overlapped on the north by Jurassic strata. The central plateau consists almost entirely of metamorphic rocks with extensive tracts of granite in Unyamwezi. The volcanic plateau of Kenya Colony extends over the boundary in the region of Kilimanjaro. Of the sister peaks, Kibo and Mawenzi, the latter is far the oldest and has been greatly denuded, while Kibo retains its crateriform shape intact. The rift-valley faults continue down the depression, marked by numerous volcanoes, in the region of the Natron lake and Lake Manyara; while the steep walls of the deep depression of Tanganyika and Nyasa represent the western rift system at its maximum development. Fossil remains of saurians of gigantic size have been found in the Tendagura hills and other parts of the Lindi district; one thigh bone measures 6ft. 10 in., the same bone in the Diplodocus Carnegti measuring only 4ft. rrin. The examination of the sites begun by the Germans in 1909 was continued by the British, interesting discoveries being made in 1924. Climate.—The warm currents setting landwards from the Indian ocean bring both moisture and heat, so that the coast has a higher temperature and heavier rainfall than the Atlantic seaboard under the same parallels of latitude. The mean temperature on the west and east coasts of Africa is 72° and 80° Fahr. respectively, the average rainfall in Angola 36 in., in Dar-es-Salaam 60 inches. On the Swahili coast the south-east monsoon begins in April and the north-east monsoon in November. Besides the coast lands, three other climatic zones may be distinguished, as follows, though there are many local variations: (1) a hot and moderately dry zone from 300 to 2,000 ft. high between the lowlands and the central plateau; (2) the central plateau zone, between 2,000 and 4,000 feet. Here rainfall is lower—an average of 32 inches a year at Tabora—the air dry and hot with great daily and seasonal

variations; (3) a semi-temperate zone in regions over 5,000 feet. On the highest regions the climate is almost European, the nights being

sometimes

exceedingly

cold.

Two

highland

climatic conditions permitting European settlement.

TERRITORY rain-bringing monsoon are in some places covered with primeval}

forest, in which timber is plentiful. The silk-cotton tree (Bombar

ceiba), miomba, tamarisk, copal tree (Hymenaea courbaril) are frequent, besides the rubber tree (Landolphia florida), sycamores

banyan trees (Ficus indica) and the deleb palm (Borassus aethio-

pium). The plateau is partly grass land without bush or forest partly steppe covered with mimosa bush, which sometimes is almost impenetrable. Tanganyika is rich in all kinds of antelope, and the elephant, rhinoceros and hippopotamus are still plentiful in parts. Characteristic are the giraffe, the chimpanzee and the ostrich. Buffaloes and zebras occur in two or three varieties. Lions and leopards are

found throughout the country.

Crocodiles are numerous in all

the larger rivers. Snakes, many venomous, abound. Of birds there are comparatively few on the steppe, but by rivers, lakes and swamps they are found in thousands. Locusts occasion much damage, and ants of various kinds are often a plague. The tsetse

fly (Glossina morsitans) infests several districts; the sand-flea has been imported from the west coast. Land and water turtles are numerous. Inhabitants.—There are in all some 75 distinct negro tribes in the country. Two or three tribes, such as the Wahi of Lake Eyasi, are supposed to trace descent from a pygmy-like people, who

are thought

to have been the earliest

inhabitants

of the

country. But what may be called the indigenous population consists of the older or primitive Bantu races. These tribes have been subject to the intrusion from the south of more recent Bantu folk, such as the Yao, belonging to the Ama-Zulu branch

of the race, while from the north there has been an immigration of Hamito-Negroid peoples. Of these the Masai and Wakuafi are found in the region between Victoria Nyanza and Kilimanjaro. The Masai (g.v.) and allied tribes are nomads and cattle raisers, An Hamitic race, the Bahima (Hima or Huma), form the aristocratic class in the district around the south-west shores of Victoria Nyanza, and under Bahima kings Karagwe was formerly a powerful state. The Bantu tribes are in general peaceful agriculturists, though the Bantus of recent immigration retain the warlike instincts of the Zulus. The most important group of the Bantus is the Wanyamwezi (see UNyamwezz1), divided into many tribes. They are spread ; over the central plains, and have for neigh-

es Sate-T oe aN k

y

\

oy

bours on the south-east between Nyasa

aft Hs g z

and the Rufiji, the Wahehe. The Wangoni (Angoni), a branch of the Ama-Zulu are

a, agp eS AN $

BY COURTESY OF JOHNSON AFRICAN CORP

A

widely spread over the central and Nyasa

regions. The Wasambara have given their ‘| name to the Highlands between Kiliman- a| jaro and the coast. The Swahili (g.v.) inhabit the seaboard. Arabs, with some Persians and Indians, have long been settled on the coast. In 1928 there were some 4,500 European inhabitants, of whom more than half MARTIN

THE EXPEDITION

were British: the others were of many na-

tionalities including a considerable Greek The first is POISONED ARROWS THAT element and some 300 Germans. There areas

have

AN

IKOMA

HUNTER

WITH

the Usambara hills together with the Moshi and Arusha dis- PARALYZE THE ANIMAL were over 10,000 British Indians, and tricts of Kilimanjaro; the second, and larger, area stretches from BUT DO NOT MAKE THE about 1,000 Goanese. The Arabs numbered about 4,000. The natives are estiIringa on the central plateau south-west to Lake Nyasa. This TOOR URE TER area is known as the south-western highlands. In the country gen- mated to number approximately 4,107,000. Of this number erally there are two rainy seasons, the “long rains” from February 1,500,000 live in the contiguous districts of Mwanza, Bukoba and or March, and lasting two or three months, and the “lesser rains” Tabora, z.e., the north-west part of the territory. Many different dialects are spoken by the Bantu tribes, Kiswain October and November. Flora and Fauna.—The coast plains are covered by a rich hili being the most widely known. (See Bantu Lanouacss.) The tropical bush, in which the mangrove is very prominent. Coco- great majority of the natives are pagans, but most of the Swahili palms and mango trees have been planted in great numbers, and are Mohammedans, while Protestant and Roman Catholic misalso many varieties of bananas. The river banks are lined with sions have gained a considerable number of converts. Chief Towns.—The principal seaports are Tanga and Dar-esbelts of dense forest, in which are useful timber trees. The Hyphaene palm is frequent, as well as various kinds of gum- Salaam. These and Bagamoyo and Kilwa are separately noticed. producing mimosas. The slopes of the plateau which face the Pangani (pop. about 3,500), at the mouth of the river of the

TANGANYIKA same name, serves a district rich in tropical products.

Sadani is

a smaller port midway between Pangani and Bagamoyo, Lindi (10° o’ S., 39° 40° E.) is 80 m. N. of Cape Delgado. Lindi (Kiswahili for The Deep Below) bay runs inland 6 m. and is 3 m. across,

affording deep anchorage. Hills to the west of the bay rise over 1,000 feet. The chief inland towns are Tabora, Korogwe, Moshi, Mrogoro, Kilossa, Dodoma and Iringa. Korogwe is in the Usambara hills, on the north bank of the Pangani river, and 52 m. by railway from Tanga. Moshi (white pop. about 300), on the south slopes of

TERRITORY

708

(the last normal year under German rule). In 1922 the trade figures were: Imports £1,386,000; exports £1,300,000; re-exports

£141,000

(mostly transit trade from the Belgian Congo).

In

1926 domestic exports were valued at £3,025,000 and the reexports at £235,000, while trade imports totalled £3,597,000. Cotton piece goods, the chief import, came chiefly from Great Britain,

India and Japan, and those countries took the raw cotton exported (25,000 bales in 1927). In 1927 coffee exports, mostly to France and Italian East Africa, totalled 6,595 tons, and sisal (mainly to Belgium and Great Britain) 33,000 tons. The diamond Kilimanjaro and 219 m. by rail from Tanga, is the centre of large production was 18,095 carats (valued at £102,000). coffee plantations. Mrogoro is 130 m. west of Dar-es-Salaam, and Communications.—One of the great handicaps to developis the first important station on the railway to Tanganyika. Kilossa ment was the lack of adequate means of communication. The and Dodoma are farther inland on the same railway. Iringa is Germans had built two railway lines, one from Tanga to Moshi the centre of the southern highlands. Tabora (g.v.) occupies an (219 m. long) which served the important plantations in Pare,

important position on the central plateau, being the meeting place of many trade routes. .It is connected by railway with Dar-esSalaam, with Kigoma, on Lake Tanganyika, and also (since 1928) with Mwanza, the chief port on the southern shores of Victoria

Nyanza. eastern

Bukoba is on the western shore, and Schirati on the shore

of Victoria

Nyanza.

On Tanganyika

and near

Kigoma is Ujiji (g.v.). Economic Progress and Trade.—Probably no other part of Africa suffered as much as did Tanganyika Territory from the ravages of the World War, and as regards economic development almost everything had to be re-created by the British authorities, whose first task in this department was the reconditioning of the railways. It was not until 1925 that the railways paid their way. Meanwhile the sisal, coffee and cotton and rubber plantations in Usambara, Para and elsewhere, which had been owned by Germans, passed into the hands of British, Indians and Greeks. It may be noted that under the terms of the mandate no discrimination against Indians could be made in Tanganyika, which thus differed from Kenya Colony. Changed world conditions—chiefly the development of plantation rubber in the East—rendered it useless to try and revive the rubber industry, but the other products, in especial sisal hemp, yielded good returns. The European and Indian planters were not alone in cultivating coffee and cotton. The production of these crops, especially cotton, by the natives on their own account was encouraged by the Administration and by the 1924-25 season, some 75% of the cotton exported was direct native production. Sisal hemp produced is of the highest grade; the bulk of it is grown in the drier parts of the coast belt. This industry, requiring considerable capital outlay, is in the hands of Europeans, and each factory producing hemp requires at least 2,000 acres of sisal under cultivation. The industry owed its foundation to the Germans, and they devoted great attention to it. Up to 1924 the planters were, in the main, still using pre-war German machinery. Other agricultural or sylvan crops of note are copra, groundnuts, and maize The coconut plantations from which the

Usambara and the slopes of Kilimanjaro—and Tanga up to 1929 had a bigger trade than Dar-es-Salaam—the other 773 m.long from Dar-es-Salaam to Kigoma on Lake Tanganyika. This is known as the Central railway. It was not until 1924 that financial conditions allowed the undertaking of any new work. In that year a line was begun northward from Tabora, on the Central railway. This line, which passes through the rich Shinyanga cotton belt, reached Mwanza, on Lake Victoria, in 1928. It is 238 m. long and serves also the diamond and gold fields in the district. It also offers an alternative route (to that from Mombasa) to Uganda.

Another short railway was built from Moshi to Arusha, and there is a go m. line in the Lindi district. Schemes were put forward in 1924 for linking the Tanga and the Central railways, and for a line from the Central railway through the south-western high-

lands—where European settlement had begun—to Lake Nyasa or Rhodesia.

They remained in the proposal stage in 1929.

Over

25,000 m. of roads were built, on which motor traffic is possible in the dry season; they are nearly all impassable in the rains. On Lake Tanganyika there are Belgian and British steamer services, the chief traffic being with the Belgian side of the lake.

At Mwanza and Tabora are aerodromes, but there was up to 1928 no regular air service. The Tanga railway is linked to the Kenya and Uganda railway by the Kahe-Taveta-Voi branch; other-

wise Tanganyika Territory has no railway connection with the neighbouring British lands. There is wireless communication with the Belgian Congo, telegraphic connection by land wires with South Africa, and a cable from Dar-es-Salaam to Zanzibar. Communication from Tanganyika ports is maintained by several lines. Mails from London to Dar-es-Salaam take about three weeks in transit.

Administration, Education and Revenue.—tThe territory

is governed on the lines of a British Crown Colony. The governor, who is responsible to the Colonial Office in London, is aided by an executive council and, since 1926, by a nominated legislative council. The ancient tribal organization of the natives under chiefs of their own race—largely broken up under German rule—

copra is obtained: are found chiefly on the coast and in Mafia has been restored as far as possible under the supervision of island, and most of them are owned by the Arabs. Other products European administrators. The chiefs, often bearing the title exported include ivory, beeswax, gums and resins, gum-copal, of sultan, are executive officers and have their own treasuries. rice, ghee and mangrove poles. For all matters connected with the Native courts have limited civil and criminal jurisdiction (Procladevelopment of the land the Biological and Agricultural Institute mations of 1920 and 1925). Domestic slavery had been permitted at Amani, in the Usambara hills, is of great value. Founded by the by the Germans to continue, but they had decreed the freedom Germans in 1902, it is now maintained as an institute for the of all slaves born after 1905. In 1923 the British administration whole of East Africa. Stock raising is one of the main assets of abolished the status of slavery, which no longer exists in Tanganthe country, and hides and skins are an important item in the yika in any form. Neither does the administration assist in the exports. Unfortunately the tsetse fly has laid large areas waste. recruitment of labour for private enterprises. From 1924 onward There are 4,300 sq.m. of forests. Of this area over 3,700 sq.m. effective steps were taken to provide education for the natives in addition to that given by the missionary societies. In the govare State reserves. The minerals worked include mica—widely distributed—gold ernment schools instruction is in hygiene, agriculture and indusand diamonds. Cassiterite (tin-ore) is found in the Bukoba dis- tries as well as literary and moral; at Dar-es-Salaam, Tanga, trict; coal, iron, copper and lead are also found, but are not Tabora, Bukoba and other places are central schools where, among worked. The chief gold deposits are in the Mwanza district, other things, natives are trained for posts in an African Civil Where is also a diamondiferous area, while further south, near Service. There is a native teachers’ training centre at Mpapua. Shinyanga, is another diamond field. Mica and gold were mined Instruction is given in Kiswahili and English; in mission schools during the German occupation: diamond mining began in 1926, instruction is generally given in the vernacular. Up to 1925 there and at the same time the Bukoba tinfields were being worked. were no government schools for European or Indian children, It was not until 1925 that trade recovered to the level of 1913 but a grant was made to the schools of the Dutch speaking settlers

784

TVANG

DYNASTIES—TANGIER

at Arusha. Revenue is obtained chiefly from import duties and the native house, hut and poll tax (6/— to 12/— a year), about half the revenue being paid by natives. The Customs tariff is similar to but not identical with that of Kenya and Uganda. Revenue which for 1919-20 was £669,000 had increased to £1,315,000 in 1923-24, the corresponding figures for expenditure being £790,000 and £1,901,000. To that time there has been a deficit of £761,000 on the working of the railways, besides £503,000 spent in capital and extraordinary expenditure upon them. Commercial depression, the forced change in the currency from rupees at 15 to the £ to florins and then shillings—the rupees (German and Indian) being redeemed at 2/— —added to the cost of restoring the devastated regions, had reacted unfavourably on revenue. But from 1923 an improvement set in and soon became marked. The revenue for 1926-27 was f1,691,000. From April r, 1927, railway revenue was separated from the ordinary budget. For the year

ended March 31, 1928, ordinary revenue was £1,904,000 and railway revenue (which showed a surplus over expenditure of

£51,000) was £631,000.

(E. Hea.; F. R. C.) HISTORY

The years immediately preceding the outbreak of the World War had been a period of much administrative and commercial activity in German East Africa. There was a flourishing European settlement in the Usambara highlands and, as far as civil

administration was concerned, the colony was self-supporting. Post-war Administration.—The British and Belgians established their own administrations in the districts they conquered. It was not until March 22, 1921, that all the districts which Belgium had occupied but which fell within the British mandated area were transferred to Tanganyika Territory, the name officially given to the British area in Jan. 1920. A civil administration had been set up while the war was in progress, Mr. (afterwards Sir) Horace Byatt being the first administrator—a title changed in Aug. 1920 to that of governor. The country had suffered severely from the ravages of war and the work of reconstruction was diffcult and prolonged. All the German settlers were repatriated and their estates sold. Until this process was nearing completion few new land grants were made and agriculture for a time was practically at a standstill. Moreover, both the planters and the commercial community complained, with some show of reason, that the Government was indifferent to their needs. Complaint was also made by the Europeans of the competition of the Indians. As to that the administration was tied by the terms of the mandate (which were approved by the Council of the League on July 20, 1922). The mandate enjoined equality of treatment to nationals

of all members of the League in matters of “residence, trade and commerce.” The administration was hampered by lack of funds and the necessity of rebuilding a large part of the central railway (the Dar-es-Salaam-Tanganyika line); and it had as its first duty the care of the natives, many of whom were restive and demoralized by the war. It had its hands full; nevertheless, it might have paid greater attention to the needs of planters—and the Amani institute for scientific research in all things connected with

agriculture, which was one of the best works of the Germans, was allowed to go nearly to ruin. _ In Nov. 1924 Sir Horace Byatt was transferred to Trinidad and Sir Donald Cameron succeeded him as governor of Tanganyika. Meanwhile attention had been called to the suitability of the highlands in the southwestern parts of the territory for white settlement and a number of Europeans, mostly British, obtained farms there, on long leasehold, the administration having decided against freehold sales. Economic Development.—By the middle of 1925 the era of transition after the war may be said to have ended. In June of that year ex-enemies were allowed to re-enter the territory (a step which would in any case have been necessary when

Germany

entered the League of Nations in Sept. 1926). Over 200 Germans, mostly former settlers,:came to Tanganyika in the next 12 months, somewhat to the alarm of the British settlers. In a couple of years it was realized, however, that the German “invasion” was of lim-

ited extent, and a degree of co-operation was established between the British and Germans.

The development of the country led in

1926 to the setting up of a nominated legislative council and occasion was taken of its first meeting (Dec. 1926) for a message to be sent by the king, who expressed his “deep interest in al}

that concerns the welfare of the people of Tanganyika Territory,” This was more than a formality, it was intended to indicate the

permanent character of the ties linking Tanganyika with the British empire.

Agitation had been kept up in Germany for “the re-

turn of the colonies” and was directed as far as Britain was concerned to Tanganyika. Apart from the king’s message explicit declarations were made by the British Government that the mandate gave Great Britain as secure control of Tanganyika as of territories actually British. The mandate simply imposed certain

“servitudes,” and even permitted the administrative union of Tanganyika—if that were thought desirable—with the neighbouring British territories. (See BritisH East Arrica.) But economics as much as, or more than, politics engaged the attention of the administration and of the settlers. The Amani institute was reopened as a research department for the whole of East Africa; measures against the spread of the tsetse fly were taken; the rights of natives in the proprietorship of land were secured, much progress was made in education, for whites, Indians and

natives alike, and particular attention was paid to improving means

of transport.

A line from Tabora to Mwanza on Lake Victoria,

opened in July 1928, was the first addition of any considerable length to the railway system since the war. . BrsriocrapHy.— Report .on Tanganyika Territory (Cmd. 1,428), an official publication covering the period from the Armistice to the end of 1920 (1921); the Reports to the Mandates Commission (London, yearly); the text of the mandate is given, with map, in British Mandates for . . . East Africa (Cmd. 1,794) (1923); Report by Sir Benjamin Robertson Regarding the Proposed Settlement of Indian Agriculturists in Tanganyika Territory (Cmd. 1,312) (1921); G. D. Hale Carpenter, A Naturalist in East Africa (1925). See also entries under Brimsm East ArFrica, GERMAN East AFRICA and Kenya Cotony. For the Young Commission on East Africa see UGANDA.

TANG

DYNASTIES:

see

Cama:

History;

CHINESE

PAINTING; CHINESE SCULPTURE. TANGENT: see GEOMETRY;

TRIGONOMETRY. TANGENTIAL CO-ORDINATES: see CO-ORDINATES. TANGERINE (Citrus nobilis var. deliciosa), a small, thin-

skinned variety of orange belonging to the Mandarin group, frequently called the “kid-glove orange,” because of its loosely adhering skin, which may be removed without soiling the fingers. It has a very sweet, spicy flavour, a delicate perfume, dry pulp and a large amount of oil in the skin. It originated in south-eastern Asia. The tangerine is more quickly perishable than the orange

(g.v.).

TANGERMUNDE,

a town in the Prussian province of

Saxony, on the Elbe, 43 m. N.E. from Magdeburg by rail via Stendal. Pop. (1925) 13,123. It contains iron, foundries, shipbuilding yards, refineries, and other industrial establishments, and enjoys a considerable river trade in grain and leather. It has numerous brick buildings of the 14th and rsth centuries. The castle, built in the 14th century, was the residence of the margraves of Brandenburg.

TANGIER

(locally Tanya), a seaport of. Morocco, on the

Strait of Gibraltar, about 14 m. E. of Cape Spartel, nestles between two eminences at the north-west extremity of a spacious bay. The town presents a picturesque appearance from the sea, rising gradually in the form of an amphitheatre, with the citadel, the remainder of the English mole and York Castle to the right; in the central valley is the commercial quarter, while to the left along the beach runs the track to Tetuan. Several new roads have been made outside the town. In some of the ‘older streets European shops have replaced the picturesque native cupboards; drinking dens have sprung up at many of the corners, while telephones and electric light have been introduced by private companies, and European machinery is used in many of the corn-

mills, etc. The main thoroughfare leads from Bab el Marsa (Gate of the Port) to the Bab.el Suk (Gate of the Market-place)

TANGIER

785

self an Ally and the Governments interested did not hesitate to act. At the conclusion of the War Europe was too occupied (the Marchan quarter) and to the south (quarter of the beach to give thought to Tangier, and the policy of obstruction conand of Suani). The harbour, formed by the Bay of Tangier, is tinued, to the lasting detriment of the place. Peace was seldom good in all weathers except during a strong east wind, but disturbed, though the fighting in the neighbouring Spanish zone vessels of any size have to anchor a mile or so out. The impeded trade and closed the roads. The Statute of 1923.—It was not until 1923 that the question work of building a deep-water harbour was begun in 1925 and will take five years. The harbour will include several basins with of Tangier’s future was once more taken into active consideration. a depth of 74 metres, protected on the north and north-west by The situation had now changed. France’s position had become stronger since the sultan had recognized her protectorate. The a breakwater. The population of Tangier is 56,000, of which 33,000 are British Government was, however, still determined that an inMuslim, 12,000 Jews and 11,000 Europeans (9,000 Spanish, 1,500 ternational form of government must be adopted, and Spain, French). The trade of Tangier has risen to 175 millions (imports having failed to benefit by the War, supported this demand. A 146 millions, exports 29 millions). The share of France is 87 preliminary conference in London in July 1923 failed to bring millions, that of Spain 30 millions, that of Great Britain 20 about any settlement. It served, however, as a useful exchange millions. Tangier, which was formerly the first port of Morocco, of views, and in the following October British and Spanish delehas suffered a great deal during the last 20 years from the gates proceeded to Paris where the negotiations were continued. jealousies of the European Powers, which has retarded its develop- On Dec. 18, 1923, the convention was signed by the representament. Casablanca and the other ports in the French zone have tives of France and Great Britain, and on Feb. 7, 1924, by Spain. The new status of Tangier is based upon a charter of permataken its place. The opening of the Franco-Spanish railway from Tangier to Fez, which took place in 1928, will doubtless enable the nent neutral internationalisation, under the sovereignty of the port to draw, from its magnificent geographical situation, the sultan of Morocco, who maintains his control over Moslem and Jewish Moroccan subjects. The sultan is represented by a high advantages it has the right to expect. The Roman Tingis, which stood in the immediate vicinity of Moorish official, the mendoub. The administration of this town the site of Tangier, was of great antiquity; under Augustus it and its zone rests in the hands of an administrator and two assistbecame a free city, and when Otho placed the western half of ant administrators, who carry out the decisions of the legislative Mauretania under a procurator, he called it Mauretania Tingitana, assembly, subject to their ratification by the committee of conafter its capital, Tingis. It was held by Vandals, Byzantines and trol. The convention laid down that during the first six years Arabs, and when Mulai Idris passed from Tlemcen to Fez in 788, the chief administrator should be a French subject and his asTangier was “the oldest and most beautiful city” of the Maghrib. sistants a British and a Spanish subject. After that period they After many futile attempts the Portuguese obtained possession should be chosen by the assembly. A French and a Spanish engiof it in 1471, but it passed to Spain in 1580, returning again to neer superintend the public works. The committee of control, conthe Portuguese in 1656. In 1662, as part of the dowry of sisting of the consuls of all the Powers—except ex-enemy Powers Catherine of Braganza on her marriage to Charles II., it came —who signed the Algeciras Act has power, by majority decision, into the possession of the English, and they defended it against to veto the acts of the legislative assembly. The legislative assemMulai Ismail in 1680, but in 1684 it was decided, on account of bly consists of 26 members, chosen from the subjects of the expense, to abandon the place to the Moors. It was bombarded Powers represented in Tangier and from the Moorish and Jewish in 1844 by the French, then at war with Morocco. In the early population. The number of members representing each nationalyears of the 2oth century the sharif Raisuli terrorized the dis- ity is regulated by the local importance in population, trade and trict round Tangier and made captive several Europeans. As influence of the nationality in question. Clauses have been introone result of the Algeciras conference of 1906 a regular police duced into the convention and in the legal codes for progressive force was organized, and the control of the customs passed into modifications at specified periods of time should modification be European hands. deemed necessary or advisable. Regulations were made for the formation of a force of genThe Franco-German treaty after the crisis of rgr1z and the Franco-Spanish convention of 1912 provided a special regime for darmerie but not put into practice. The special legal codes are, Tangier and for a zone of 15-18 km. around the town. however, in force and justice is administered in mixed courts by | (A. Be.) judges of different nationalities. The Muslim and Jewish subjects 1912-1928 of the sultan have their own tribunals. The status was officially The declaration of a French protectorate over Morocco did introduced in June 1925 and has made very tolerable progress. Its not alter the situation at Tangier, which was understood to fall application was rendered difficult by the fact that neither the outside the effect of that declaration. The jealousies of the Italian nor the American Governments had accepted ‘its condiPowers and of their local representatives, the obstruction with tions, and that the subjects of those two Powers were therefore which certain Governments never ceased to meet every propo- not amenable to its laws or ordinances. During the summer and sition of progress, prevented Tangier from benefiting from its autumn of 1927 the French and Spanish Governments were in superb position and becoming a place of commercial and maritime negotiation for certain changes in the status, following a demand importance. So loud grew the complaints of its population that from Spain for a more prominent part in the local government. Conference of 1928.—In 1928, the French and Spanish Govthe Governments of Great Britain, France and Spain decided in 1913 to draw up a convention and introduce the special regime ernments having arrived at a compromise on the subject of the redistribution of their respective representation in the Internawhich the treaties accorded. After months of negotiation the representatives of the three tional, Administration of Tangier, and Italy having meanwhile Powers concerned were on the point of signing the convention consented to recognize the convention of 1923 on certain condiin 1914, when the World War broke out, and the Spanish Govern- tions, a conference of the four Governments concerned was held ment.refused to sign. No doubt Spain preferred to await the re- at Paris. After many meetings, the conference issued “The final sults of the War before she definitely signed away her hope of protocol of the conference for the Amendment of the Tangier known to the English as Catherine Gate. New European quarters have been built to the north of Tangier

one day possessing Tangier herself. Tangier, like the rest of Morocco, was little affected by the War. During that whole period there was but one incident of

Statute”—a name far too optimistic, as its finality was more than doubtful. With the exception of the welcome participation of Italy in Tangier’s International Administration

on an equality

importance, the expulsion of the German and Austrian chargés with England, the results of the conference were few and unimWaffaires and the personnel of their legations. The international- portant. The Belgian command of the gendarmerie, a body which sation of Tangier rendered it doubtful what steps the Allied had never been created, was abandoned and the appointment of a Governments would take on this question, but the sultan of Spanish commandant, with French and Spanish subalterns, was Morocco, under. whose direct jurisdiction Tangier lay, was bim- agreed upon. In return, the Belgians were’ granted a judgeship

786

TANGO—TANKS

in the mixed court. A “Bureau of Public Security” was introduced under a Spanish officer assisted by Spanish and French lieutenants. Their duty was “to watch over the security of Tangier and its zone.” The Italians were granted the same representation as England. These small changes in the régime were of no real importance and appear to have been accepted as a sort of compromise, no solution having been found to the more important aspects of the question—Tangier’s financial burdens, or its relations with the neighbouring Spanish zone. The reorganization of the mixed court and the revision of the code, which were also advised by the conference, would have come about in the ordinary course of affairs, and were certainly advisable. Tangier continued in a state of stagnation. Its trade showed no increase; and, except for a little more cleanliness in its streets, few changes took place. The construction of the port continued, and the railway to Rabat and Fez was opened, but there was very

little amelioration to report in the situation.

BreriocRAPHY.—Tangier Convention (Cmd. 2096, 2203); A. Cases, Tánger, dignidad nacional (1922); P. Champion, Tanger, Fès et (W.B. H. Meknès (1924).

TANGO, a slow, graceful dance in Ẹtime. It probably origi-

nated with the African negroes; in rgrz it became popular in a modified form in America and subsequently in Europe. It has

much in common with the Cuban Habanera. }, Chinese statesman, a native TANG SHAO-YI (1858of Kwantung, the first foreign-trained Chinese to rise to high office, was one of the leaders of the Chinese nationalist movement. He was educated at Columbia University, New York, and in 1898 became consul-general in Seoul in succession to Yuan Shih-kai. He organized the Tibet Convention of 1906. He was appointed special envoy to Europe and the United States (1908). He played an important part in the negotiations that followed the revolution of 1911, and in 1912, became Premier under Yuan Shih-kai. In 1919 he was one of the four directors of the Canton Government and was minister of finance at Canton 1919-22.

TANISTRY, a custom among various Celtic tribes, by which

the king or chief of the clan was chosen from among the heads of the septs and elected by them in full assembly. He held office for life and was required by custom to be of full age, in possession of all his faculties and without any remarkable blemish of mind or body. At the same time, and subject to the same conditions, a tanist or next heir to the chieftaincy was elected, who if the king died or became disqualified, at once became king. Usually the king’s son became tanist, but not because the system of primogeniture was in any way recognized; indeed, the only principle adopted was that the dignity of chieftainship should descend to the eldest and most worthy of the same blood. Tanistry was abolished by a legal decision in the reign of James I. and the English land system substituted. See BREHON Laws.

TANJORE, a city and district of British India in the Madras

presidency. The city is situated on the right bank of the river Cauvery, and is an important junction on the South Indian railway, 218m. S. of Madras. Pop. (1921) 59,913. As the last capital of the ancient Hindu dynasty of the Cholas, and in all ages one of the chief political, literary and religious centres of the south, the city is full of interesting associations. It was the scene of the earliest labours of Protestant missionaries in India. The modern history of Tanjore begins with its conquest by the Mahrattas in 1674. The British first came into contact with Tanjore by their expedition in 1749 with a view to the restoration of a deposed raja. In this they failed, and a subsequent expedition was bought off. The Mahrattas practically held Tanjore until 1799, when the district was ceded to the East India Company. The raja retained only the capital and a small tract of country round. He died in

1833 and was succeeded by his son Sivaji, on whose death in 1855 without an heir the house became extinct. Among buildings may be mentioned the palace within the fort, and the great temple of the 11th century, enclosed in two courts, surmounted by a lofty tower and including the exquisitely decorated shrine of Subrahmanya. The city is famous for its silk brocade, jewelry, carpets, inlaid copper-work, modelling in pith, etc.

The District of TANJORE has an area of 3,727 sq.m. It is irrigated by an elaborate system of dams, cuts and canals and the soil is exceedingly productive. The delta of the Cauvery occupies the flat northern part, which is highly cultivated, dotted over with groves of coco-nut trees, and densely populated. The

staple crop is rice, grown on some five-sevenths of the cultivated area, and rice-milling has developed recently. Soap and mats are made and fishing carried on. The district is traversed by the main line and several branches of the South Indian railway, The chief seaport is Negapatam. The population in 1921r was 2,326,205. See Tanjore District Gazetteer (Madras, 1906).

TANKARD, a type of drinking vessel. The word was formerly used loosely of many sizes, usually large, of vessels for hold-

ing liquids; thus it was applied to such as held two or more gallons and were used to carry water from the conduits in London in the

16th and early 17th centuries. The word is now generally applied to a plain, flat-bottomed drinking vessel of silver, pewter or other metal, or of glass or pottery mounted on metal, with a hinged cover and handle, holding from a pint to a quart of liquor. (See DRINKING VESSELS.) The derivation is obscure. It appears in O.Fr. as tanquart. It may have been metathesized from Gr. kåvðapos, Lat. cantharus, a large vessel or pot.

TANKS. The name tank was given during the World War to the bullet-proof, armed vehicle, driven by mechanical power and capable of crossing rough country and obstacles by the use of caterpillar tracks. The name was first used in Dec. 1915 as a blind to conceal the true nature of the experimental fighting machine then being secretly constructed in England; after the first appearance of the machine in the field the name was retained. To the British is due the credit of first conceiving and introducing this

weapon which was destined to exert a decisive influence on the course of the War. The Tank Idea in History.—From the earliest times men have attempted to find methods whereby they might move under some form of protection while they delivered blows at the enemy. Vehicles of many different types have been constructed throughout the ages with a view to solving these first principles of war and those vehicles were the forerunners of the tank. The earliest fighting vehicles of which there is a record, date back to 1200 B.c. The development of firearms led to the virtual disuse of the fighting vehicle. The weight of armour which was necessary to provide protection was such that no armoured vehicle could be propelled across country by man-power or horse-power. The necessity for a fighting vehicle still existed and was in fact accentuated, especially with the introduction of the machine-gun; there was, however, at the time no apparent solution to the mechanical construction of such a vehicle. As time progressed two inventions were developed and it was the combination of these that led to the construction of the tank. The two inventions were the caterpillar track and the high-speed internal-combustion engine. The former enabled heavy vehicles to cross soft ground by the use of a track or endless belt so that the weight was distributed over a large area of ground; the latter provided a light compact power unit by means of which the vehicle could be propelled. The combination produced tractors such as the Holt, invented and in common use in America before the War. Between 1907 and 1914 several inventors suggested that tractors of this nature should be constructed and provided with armour for use as a fighting vehicle in war. No official action was, however, taken in this direction. The prevailing military opinion among all nations prior to 1914 was that any future war would be mainly a war of movement, and although it was realized that a frontal attack against a defensive position would be costly, it was considered that such an attack would be greatly assisted or even avoided entirely

by envelopment or flank action.

The opening phases of the World War appeared to confirm these

views, but in September the Germans fell back and took up a de-

fensive position on the Aisne and it was then that the great strength of modern field defences became apparent. The main source of strength of these defences lay in the machine-gun pro-

tected by an extensive use of barbed wire entanglements, and

TANKS

PLATE

ee nee i Pees at k a

BY COURTESY

OF

(2, 3, 4) THE

UNITED

STATES

WAR

DEPARTMENT,

PHOTOGRAPHS,

MODERN

(1, 5) TOPICAL

TYPES

l. “Mark V.” Star tank illustrating its climbing capabilities. This type tank was developed by the British army soon after the battle of

Cambrai during the World War 2. Light standard tank of the T I. type with machine gun mounted in the turret (U. S. Army) 3. Late model of fast, light tank known as the Christie wheeled caterpillar.

PRESS

AGENCY

OF MILITARY

TANKS

Capable of unusual soeed and easy to manoeuver

4. Heavy armoured

(U. S. Army) tank in act of climbing out of a trench

5. Small, light type (Carden Loyd) of wheel-cum-track tank—or “armoured machine gun carrier’ as used in the British army. This is capable of about 30 m.p.h on its wheels and 15 m.p.h. on its tracks. More recent models attain over 40 m.p.h. on tracks

TANKS they proved to be impregnable to attack by troops, equipped as they were in 1914, without the most prodigal loss of life. The efforts of the French and British troops early in October to out-

flank the Germans in the north, led to an extension of these defences right up to the sea. The Allies were then faced with a continuous defensive position without flanks that could be turned and they possessed no means of penetrating such defences. One solution of the difficulty appeared to be a large increase in the available artillery resources, particularly in the larger pieces and the provision of high-explosive shells. This solution was acted

on at once and although no result could of course be expected for many months, it was hoped that sufficient artillery and ammunition would eventually be available to blast a way through the enemy defences and so re-establish the power of mobility. Col. Swinton’s Proposal.—Early in Oct. 1914 an officer of the

Royal Engineers, Lt.-Col. (later Maj.-Gen.) E. D. Swinton, Royal Engineers, formed the opinion that a frontal assault against prepared positions, especially with limited artillery support, had become impossible, and that some form of power-driven protected machine which could traverse trenches and barbed wire was necessary to enable the attack to overcome the power of the defence. On Oct. 20, 1914, Col. Swinton saw Col. (later Sir Maurice) Hankey, secretary of the Committee of Imperial Defence, and put forward his scheme which was briefly to develop the Holt tractor and produce a mobile armoured machine which should lead the assault and act as a machine-gun destroyer.

As a result of the interview described Col. Swinton took up the question with GH.Q. in France and Col. Hankey put the idea before Lord Kitchener; but in neither case did it lead to any result. Col. Hankey however also submitted the scheme to the prime minister as head of the Committee of Imperial Defence,

and this reached Winston Churchill who was already experimenting with armoured cars for the naval detachment of the Belgian coast. On Jan. 5, 1915, Churchill wrote to the prime minister emphasizing the importance of Col. Swinton’s suggestion. This letter was sent to Lord Kitchener, and at the same time Col. Swinton called at the War Office to discuss his proposals. As a result the matter received some attention and a few trials were carried out, after which the whole question was dropped In the meantime Churchill formed a committee at the Admiralty under the chairmanship of Sir Tennyson d’Eyncourt, to investi-

gate the problem. They carried out trials with large wheeled machines, coupled steamrollers, pedrail and caterpillar tractors, single and articulated, the underlying idea being the production of a machine for the conveyance of troops and not a machinegun destroyer. In the meantime Col. Swinton took his proposals to the commander-in-chief in France with the result that the specification of the type of machine required was sent to the War Office. By that time a joint naval and military committee had been formed and they were now able to work to a specification which detailed the military requirements. The result was the production—first of “Little Willie” which just failed to reach the standard required, and later of “Big Willie” or “Mother” as it was christened, which

passed all tests at Hatfield on Feb. 2, 1916. The chief point in the design, and in which it differed from other caterpillar machines, was its rhomboidal shape and all round track which were the invention of Lt. (later Lt.-Col.) W. G. Wilson, working in con-

junction with Sir W. Tritton. This machine, afterwards known as the Mark I. tank, was the prototype of all British machines used during the World War. In the meantime normal trench warfare had been proceeding in France. The artillery had been considerably strengthened, but even then it was found at the battle of Loos that large numbers

of enemy machine-guns would survive the heaviest bombardment and cause prohibitive casualties to the attacking infantry. G.H.Q. France therefore ordered 40 of these experimental tanks, and this number was increased by the War Office to 100 machines.

787

and material owing to the great national effort to produce munitions of every kind. The First British Tanks.—The Mark I. tank was built in two types, “male” and “female”; both types had “sponsons” mounted on the sides to carry the main armament. On the male tank

this consisted of two 6-pdr. guns and on the female tank of four Vickers machine-guns. The idea was that the tanks would work in pairs, the male tank being more capable of dealing with defences behind brick walls or steel loophole plates and the female tank having greater man-killing fire power. The total number under construction was 150, half being males and half females. The Mark I. tank was 26 ft. long, weighed 28 tons and carried a crew of eight men. The maximum speed on the level was 4 m.p.h. and the tank could cross a trench 10 ft. wide. Reference has already been made to the track which was carried all round the tank; this track was driven from the engine through a twospeed gear box (controlled by the driver) and then through a differential which carried a second gear box at each outer end of the half shafts. These secondary gears were operated by hand levers and necessitated a gearsman on each side of the tank in addition to the driver. From these the drive was carried by chain to the driving sprockets in rear. As the original idea of the inventors had been that the tank should be used as a surprise on a large front the armour was for the most part only proof against ordinary rifle ammunition. It was realized that it might be necessary, as was indeed the case, to increase the thickness of the armour, in later models, to withstand armour-piercing bullets, when the enemy had had time to produce large quantities of these bullets. The male tank carried 324 rounds of 6-pdr. shell and 6,272 rounds of S.A.A. The female tank carried 31,232 rounds of S.A.A. Both types carried sufficient petrol for about 15 m. on a cross-country

course.

A feature of this tank was the tail which consisted of a pair of steel wheels hinged on to the back of the machine and pressed down on to the ground with powerful springs. The wheels could be steered from the driver’s seat and in this way the tank could negotiate easy bends; the wheels improved the balance of the machine and also slightly increased the trench crossing capacity. In March 1916 a unit was formed to man these first tanks. For the purpose of secrecy the unit formed part of the Machine

Gun Corps and was known as the Heavy Section, Machine Gun Corps. The name was later changed to Heavy Branch, Machine Gun Corps. The unit was commanded by Col. Swinton and contained sufficient personnel to man the 150 tanks under construction. The unit was organized in six companies of 25 tanks each. As soon as the tanks began to arrive from the contractors the unit encamped at a secret area near Elvedon in Suffolk and started driving and gunnery practice. First Engagements on the Somme.—In the meantime the Somme (q.v.) offensive in France had come to a standstill. The right wing of the attack between the Somme and the Ancre which had met with some success at the start was definitely held up. The very heavy bombardments of the greatly increased artillery force had enabled the attackers to make some headway, but in the end the artillery fire had shelled away the barbed wire and replaced it by a worse obstacle, namely shell torn ground over which the infantry could only advance with difficulty, especially in wet weather. Moreover, this ground was quite impassable to transport. It was at this stage that it was decided to use the first two companies of tanks in an attempt to resuscitate the advance between the Somme and the Ancre. These two com-

panies were accordingly sent to France at the end of August. On Sept. 15, 1916, the first tank attack took place. The IV. Army was to attack and advance on the line Morval, Les Boeufs, Guendecourt and Flers and the V. Army on the left of the IV.

Army was to advance on Martinpuich and Courcelette. A total of 49 tanks were to be used, the majority with the IV. Army. They were to advance in small detachments

of two or three

A tank supply committee was formed under the Ministry of machines against the enemy strong points. The general idea Munitions with Major

(later Sir) Albert Stern as chairman.

was that they should advance so as to reach the objectives just

with the utmost secrecy, and under great difficulties of labour

before the infantry. In some cases lanes were left in the artillery barrage up which the tanks were to advance ahead of the in-

Orders were placed on Feb. 12 and production started at once

738

“TANKS

fantry. The tanks advanced at dawn in a slight mist and came as a complete surprise to the enemy; the results were, however, disappointing. The tanks had been constructed to traverse wide trenches, banks and barbed wire obstacles, but not the shell torn ground which was the result of prolonged bombardment on a small area. Of the 49 tanks which were employed, 32 reached the front line. Of these nine went ahead of the infantry and rendered valuable assistance; nine kept up or followed just behind and helped in reducing strong points where the enemy were still holding out. The remaining 14 broke down or sank and became ditched in the soft shell torn ground shortly after the battle had commenced. One tank in front of Flers gave remarkable assistance to the infantry and caused the surrender of 300 Germans. On Sept. 25 and 26, 13 tanks were employed on the same front and a few were employed later, on Nov. 13. In each case a large proportion of the tanks were unable to negotiate the shell torn

ground, but those that did rendered valuable assistance to the infantry, causing heavy casualties and the surrender of a large number of Germans. The employment of the tanks in Sept. 1916 was contrary to the views of those who had originated the arm and were responsible for its production. They considered that the tanks should be kept as a secret and used in large numbers as a surprise on a new portion of the front so as to give a chance of achieving decisive success. It did however prove that the tank was a definite reply to the machine-gun and barbed wire and that infantry accompanied by tanks could attack defended positions with every prospect of success. Improved Types.—As a result of these trials it was decided that the arm should be expanded to a force of 1,000 tanks. The tanks were not to be used again until the spring and the winter was to be spent in re-arming and training. The original six companies were expanded to nine battalions and the force in France was to become three brigades, of three battalions each, under the command of Lt.-Col. (afterwards Major-Gen.) H. J. Elles, R.E. Each battalion was organized in three companies and one mobile workshop, and each company was composed of four sections of four tanks each. : Although France had asked for 1,000 tanks, the design of the tanks had not been settled. There was much discussion as to whether a completely new design should‘ not be introduced; sug-

which could swing into the body for travelling on a railway, and so saved the labour of detaching and remounting these heavy

sponsons for every railway journey. Another feature of this tank was that it carried an unditching beam which could be fas. tened when required on to the tracks to extricate the tank from 4 ditch. The Mark IV. tank was the main machine used throughs out 1917 and the.early part of 1918.

The next action in which the tanks took part was the battle of Arras (q.v.) on April 9 in which the I, IIT. and V. Armies attacked

with a view to penetrating the German defences and allowing an Army Corps and two cavalry divisions to break through. Only 60 tanks were available for this attack and they were again used in the minor réle of assisting the infantry to “mop up” machinegun nests and small posts that had been passed over by the artillery barrage and the assault of our leading troops. The tanks were of the Mark I, II. and III. pattern and some of them

suffered heavily from armour-piercing bullets. In many cases the tanks rendered valuable assistance, overcoming enemy ma-

chine-guns and barbed wire with ease. The cavalry were prevented from breaking through owing to the usual obstacles—barbed wire and machine-guns—the tanks being far too few in numbers and too dispersed to be able to keep up the pressure and assist in further operations. Messines.—The next attack was against the Messines-Wyt-

schaete ridge on June 7 in which 76 Mark IV. and 12 supply

tanks were used. The latter were made from old converted Mark I. or II. tanks and were used to keep the fighting tanks supplied with petrol and ammunition—a need which had been much felt in former battles. The attack was in the nature of an assault in the old form of siege warfare. The result was a complete success in which the tanks only played a small part, though in a few individual cases they rendered valuable help. The ground was completely pulverized by the preliminary bombardment but very few tanks became ditched, mainly owing to the fact that there had been no rain for many weeks and that there had been time to make a close reconnaissance of the ground and pick out the best lines of advance for the tanks. After this attack the arm was renamed as the Tank Corps. On July 31 the battle of Ypres (g.v.) was launched. As the preliminary bombardment had been so successful at Messines it was decided again to use a long preliminary bombardment gestions were made that a type with much wider tracks, or pos- lasting ten days. The danger of thus rendering the ground imsibly equipped with more than one pair of tracks, should be tried. passable to tanks, especially if it rained, was explained by those In the meantime roo machines were ordered which were to be responsible for the action of tanks, but it was considered that the similar to the Mark I. machine, but with certain minor improve- value of the bombardment more than balanced the possible loss ments. These were known as the Mark II. and Mark III. ma- of the use of tanks; this did not prove to be the: case as the chines. Other than the obvious fact that’ tanks had difficulty Germans adopted a ‘defence distributed in depth which did much in crossing the pulverized ground on the Somme which was to discount the value of the bombardment. Unfortunately it covered with craters and shell holes, the only military lesson rained on the first day of the battle and although the tanks that had been learnt as regards tank construction was the fact rendered much assistance in individual cases during the early that it was not worth while fitting the tail to the tank; owing to stages of the attack, the ground soon became quite impassable its vulnerability and complications, it was constantly out of to tanks, and later it became impassable to infantry as well. Success at Cambrai.—Although the failure of the tanks at the action and was of little value. The Mark II. and ITI. machines were therefore both very similar to the Mark I., the main differ- third battle of Ypres was through no fault of the officers and ences being the provision of stronger rollers, and stronger armour men and those who commanded them, it lead to much discussion to withstand the armour-piercing bullets which the Germans as to whether tanks should be retained at all. The Germans formed the opinion that the tank was practically useless, and would be fairly certain to use in the next battle. In the meantime the authorities in England who were respon- many British officers held the same view. Fortunately this view sible for the production of tanks were becoming perturbed about was not unanimous and on Nov. 20 permission was obtained to the delay over a decision as to the design of tanks for the order launch an attack at Cambrai, in which the tanks were to be used of 1,000 machines.’ For the original idea of fighting a surprise in the way in which their originators had intended that they battle on a new front the existing design was suitable, but to should be used. This was the turning point in the history of the produce the ideal machine for traversing’ the shell torn ground Tank Corps. The action’ as fought was in almost every detail the of an old battlefield, a new and special design was necessary and execution of the plan put forward officially for the employment this would mean a complete new series of experimental trials of the tanks by Col. Swinton in Feb. 1916, seven months before involving much delay. It was not till the end of March, involv- the first tank action. The attack was to be a complete surprise ing the loss of five valuable months, that a decision was reached and no preliminary bombardment was to be used. Three brigades and it was then decided that the 1,000 machines should be of a of tanks (nine battalions) were to take part with a total of 378 type known as the Mark: IV. This type was again very similar to Mark IV. tanks and 98 administrative machines (see CAMBRAI). The attack was launched at 6.20 am. in a slight fog, Majthe Mark I., using the same engine and transmission and the same shape of hull. It included:the minor improvements already Gen. Elles leading the attack in a vanguard tank with the centre incorporated in Marks IJ. and III: and in addition had sponsons division. The operation was a-complete success; the enemy were

TANKS taken absolutely by surprise and most of the infantry bolted or surrendered. Within 12 hours the infantry had advanced 12,000 yd. on a front of 13,000 with only 4,000 casualties. A similar

penetration at Ypres had taken three months, with enormous loss of life and morale. The preliminary bombardment which had cost some £22,000,000 at Ypres was dispensed with and a further

advantage was gained in that the roads had not been torn up with shell fire and were available for use almost at once. And this had been achieved by the Tank Corps using great mechanical power, but numbering only 4,000 of all ranks. As regards tank design three main lessons were learnt from the battle of Cambrai. First of all the tanks required to be handier, and controlled by one man, without the assistance of any gearsmen, and to meet this requirement the Mark V. tank was produced. This design had been suggested but not accepted almost a year previously. Outwardly the tank had the same appearance as Marks I. to IV., but the engine and transmission were much improved. The engine developed more power and the steering was effected by using epicyclic gears on the transmission to each track; this was the best tank produced during the War. Then the difficulty of crossing the wide trenches of the Hindenburg line had been considerable, and a certain number of special long tanks were ordered for this purpose. These were made from Mark V. tanks by adding a section in the centre to obtain the required length, and were known as Mark V.* tanks. Later an improved: type was made with a more powerful engine known as the Mark V.** The third lesson was the necessity at times for a much more mobile tank for use beyond the main trench systems. These tanks would not need to cross wide trenches and hence they could be shorter and lighter and more mobile. One type, known as the whippet, had already been constructed experimentally. These lighter tanks became known as “medium” tanks, and the whippet was named the Medium Mark A.

German Offensive of March 1918.—The Tank Corps was now expanded to five brigades of 13 battalions with 320 Mark IV. machines and 50 Medium A. machines. During the winter of 1917~—18 all units were training and being equipped with new tanks. No further offensive operations were in view and there ensued a period of preparation for the expected German attack in the spring of 1918. To assist in repelling such an attack the

Tank Corps was distributed in detachments on a front of some 6o miles. The attack was launched on March 21 (see St. QUENTIN, BATTLE OF), and the Germans advanced rapidly. The tanks took part in many improvised attacks in attempting to stem the German advance. Some of these met with fair success and caused heavy casualties but the tanks were too few and too dispersed to make their real weight felt. It was during this retreat that the Medium A. tanks were first engaged in action and they met with considerable success, their additional ‘mobility being of great assistance in this type of warfare. The attack fought itself to a standstill within a month, immobility being caused more by the difficulties of transport than by the resistance offered by the Allies. The supply of ammunition and food to the advanced German troops, especially where the lines of supply crossed the old battlefields, became exceedingly difficult, and it was at this stage that the necessity for some form of cross-country transport to enable an army to pursue across the devastated country left

789

attack was a complete success. The extra handiness and mobility of this machine enabled it to be used very effectively against machine-guns, many of which were crushed and rolled into the ground.

The Triumph of the Tank.—The great French victory of Soissons on July 18, 1918 (see MARNE, SECOND BATTLE OF THE), marked the turning point of the War; the victory was largely due to the use of French tanks employed in much the same way as the British had used their tanks at Cambrai. This was followed by the opening of the British strategic offensive on Aug. 8 with the battle of Amiens (g.v.). In this attack the tank tactics were those of Cambrai modified by recent experience and adapted to the improved machines available. The attack was carried out by three army corps, a cavalry corps and 11 tank battalions; nine battalions were equipped with Mark V. tanks and the remainder with Medium A. tanks. For the first time since tanks had been used for an offensive it was possible to keep some in reserve and 42 tanks were kept in hand. The attack was a complete success, the greatest penetration of the tanks being 74 miles. The tanks continued in action till Aug. 11. From that date until the Armistice tanks took part in every main attack and in no case, where tanks were properly employed in conjunction with the other arms, did the attack fail. During this period the tanks co-operated in the battles of Bapaume, Epehy, Cambrai, St. Quentin, the Selle and Maubeuge. Tanks came to be looked upon as essential to the success of any attack, and in his final dispatch the commander-in-chief stated that the successful attacks which won great victories at Amiens and afterwards would have been impossible without tanks. The Germans also confessed that it was the tanks that had caused the downfall of their armies in the field. An expansion of the Tank Corps to 34 battalions had been sanctioned if the War continued into 1919, and the Ministry of Munitions in England had hoped to produce a total of 6,000 machines in rg19. FRENCH

AND AMERICAN TANKS

Independent Invention by the French.—The French were faced with the same difficulty as the British in the early stages of the War, and their attacks were held up by machine-guns and barbed wire although they were often well supported by artillery using high-explosive shells. It was Col. (later Gen.) J. B. E. Estienne of the artillery who first perceived the necessity for some mechanical machine which could cross the trenches and barbed wire in the face of machine-gun fire, and when this officer saw the Holt caterpillar tractors at work behind the British front for hauling guns, it occurred to him that the solution might be found in an armoured caterpillar machine. On Dec. 1, 1915, Col. Estienne put forward his idea officially to the French commanderin-chief and asked for an interview. Thus the ideas which had been thought out by the British originators in 1914 were reinvented separately and independently by the French in rors. As the result of Col. Estienne’s interview, 400 tanks were asked for and the design was to be prepared jointly between Col. Estienne and M. Brille of the Schneider Works. Later a further order for another 400 machines was placed with the St. Chamond Works. In June 1916 French Headquarters received information from British G.H.Q. as to what was being done in England. Col.

behind by the opposing force, began to be realized. The Tank

Estienne visited England and saw the Mark I. tanks in training.

tunately the Mark V. tanks were now arriving at the rate of about 60 machines per week, and on July 4 one brigade of tanks equipped with these machines carried out a surprise attack on the Germans at Hamel in conjunction with the Australians. The

French Light and Medium Tanks.—The first light.tank was produced by the Renault firm in November but the production

Corps had already foreseen its own requirements by the pro- He expressed the view that the two countries should collaborate vision of supply tanks and sledges drawn by tanks, and later by as regards the production of tanks and that as the British had progressed with the design of a large heavy machine, the French moving signalling equipment in special signal tanks. In the meantime a reaction had set in as regards the estimated might specialize with a light machine for more mobile warfare. Col. | value of fighting tanks. The critics asserted that the battle of Estienne was specially insistent in the view that neither country Cambrai could never be repeated and pointed to the lack of should forestall the other in the use of tanks, but that they decisive results achieved by: the tanks during the German ad- should co-operate and launch a great offensive in which both vance. The proposed expansion of the Tank Corps was post- British and French tanks might obtain full value from sur| : o poned and the existence of the corps seriously threatened. For- prise,

of these small machines

did not receive official support., ‘The

French classified their tanks or “chars d’assaut,” as they were

TANKS

799

called, in three categories, and this classification was generally accepted. The light tanks were under ro tons in weight and were to be transported over long distances in lorries. The medium tanks (St. Chamond and Schneider) weighed between 10 and 30 tons and could be transported by rail on ordinary trucks. The heavy tanks, of which the British Mark I. formed the only example at the time, were machines weighing over 30 tons and required special railway trucks for transport. A training centre was now formed at Marly-le-Roi and later an additional centre was started at Champlieu. On Sept. 30, the

artillerie d’assaut, which was the counterpart to the British Tank Corps, was formed under the command of Col. Estienne. The French medium tanks now began to arrive. The Schneider tank was six metres in length and driven by a 60 hop. engine. It was armed with a short 75 mm. gun and two machine-guns. The St. Chamond tank was somewhat larger and heavier, being 8 metres in length and driven by an 80 hp. engine through a petrol-electric transmission. The armament was one 75 mm. gun and four machine-guns. Both machines differed radically from the British tank in that the track was not carried round the machine but consisted of the ordinary short type used on tractors. This resulted in the machines having very limited climbing power out of shell holes or craters.

The artillerie d’assaut was

organized in “groupes”; each “groupe” had four batteries of four tanks each. The light Renault tank was used as a “command” tank and one was allotted to each “groupe.” The delivery of both types of tank was very slow and instead of 800 tanks being ready for the spring offensive in 1917 only 250 had been received. The result was that only ro “groupes” were able to take part in Gen. Nivelle’s offensive. The French high command had grave doubts whether to make use of so small a number of tanks, but eventually decided to do so. The offensive was unsuccessful and although the tanks did good work in isolated cases, the result was disappointing. The employment of tanks in this manner was a repetition of the mistakes made by the British. Success of the Renault Type.—Between this date and the end of the year 1917, the French tanks were again used on several occasions with similar results. On Oct. 23, five “groupes” took part in the battle of La Malmaison and met with much success though the battle was not launched as a surprise and was preceded by an artillery bombardment. During this period much discussion took place and designs were prepared for improved medium tanks and for heavy tanks. Finally in Dec. 1917 it was decided to concentrate on the Renault light type; this was the machine that Col. Estienne had asked for in 1916. Some of these tanks were already on order but production had been very slow. In Jan. 1918 it was decided to increase the orders to a total of 4.000 light tanks, of which 1,000 were to be ready by the

took part in practically every attack and contributed largely te the success of the final French offensive. American Tanks.—The Americans were quick to grasp the

great possibilities of tank action on the Western Front and this form of mechanical warfare appealed to their national charac. teristics. Officers were sent to study the employment of tanks

and questions relating to their construction and design. As a result the Americans decided to adopt the British heavy type of tank and the French light type known as the Renault tank In Dec. 1917 an allied commission was formed and it was de-

cided to construct a tank known as the Allied tank; this was a Wid

E

BY

COURTESY

OF

THE

ARMY

ORDNANCE

ASSO-

CIATION

U.S.A. TONS)

1921

MEDIUM

TANK

(22%

heavy tank similar to the latest British type and was to be the

Mark VIII. tank for the British Army. It was designed to use the Liberty aero engine and was known in America as the Liberty tank. A factory was erected at

Neuvy Pailleux which was eventually to be capable of construct-

ing and assembling these tanks at the rate of 1,200 a month and the first 600 were to be used for equipping the first American tank units. A large constructional programme was also started in America to produce both this type and the French Renault tank. The first tanks of this type were not constructed until just after the end of the War, but several American tank units equipped with British and French tanks took part in the latter phases of the War and met with marked success. If the War had continued the American tanks would have come in with an overwhelming effect in IQI9Q. Anti-tank Defence.—The Germans never made an attempt to construct tanks in large numbers, partly owing to the restricted manufacturing power possessed by Germany compared with the Allies, and partly to the comparative failure of the British tanks at Ypres in 1917. A rather clumsy type of heavy tank known as the A.Y.V. was constructed in small numbers. These and a number of captured machines were formed into units and used in small numbers in a few isolated cases during 1918, but owing to the way in which they were employed and handled they met with little success. On the other hand the Germans made continual attempts to introduce some form of anti-tank defence, but as the British tanks met with comparatively small success in the early stages, these measures were only developed half-heartedly. The first step was the introduction of armour-piercing bullets which was countered by the use of thicker armour on the Mark IV. tank. Next the

Germans turned their attention to the employment of field guns specially allocated

for anti-tank

defence

and often dug in or

concealed in the forward areas. The employment of field guns 64 tons. The length was four metres and in addition there was in this way seriously depleted the power of the German artillery a short skid tail in rear to assist in trencHf crossing. It was driven for other purposes, but they were meeting with considerable sucby a 35 h.p. engine. There were two types, one being armed cess until the introduction of the Mark V. tank, which, with its with a 37 mm. gun and the other with one machine-gun. The increasing mobility was able to reduce very largely the value of this field gun defence. crew consisted only of two men, one driver and one gunner. In addition the Germans often employed obstacles such as The French had hoped to use their tanks in mass in a great offensive in the spring or summer of 1918, but the German pits and barricades or mines. The former required a large amount advance’ on March 21 upset all these plans. Instead the tanks of material and labour in construction, and could usually only were used piecemeal and in local counter-attacks to stem the be made in isolated places or in defiles, and did not seriously German advance. In May and June tanks were used on occa- trouble the Allied tanks. The latter were a source of danger to sions and the Renault tank made its first appearance in battle friend and foe, and required much time and material before a on the east of the Forest of Retz. During this time the artillerie continuous line of minefield could be constructed. Although d’assaut was reorganizing and rearming. On July 18, the second tanks were blown up in isolated cases by German mines the danbattle of the Marne took place and the French tanks came into ger was never serious. The Allies made preparations to meet their own. It was in many ways a repetition of the battle of enemy tank attacks with field gun fire and in some cases by the Cambrai, but as the warfare had been of a semi-mobile nature use of male tanks kept in hand for this purpose. The latter 1s for some months, the wide trenches of static warfare were non- the most certain method of secure defence against tanks but was existent. This suited the Renault tanks. The attack was launched never adopted by the Germans. In 1918 the Germans evolved a as a surprise using a total of 120 medium tanks and 700 Renault heavy anti-tank rifle which was capable of penetrating the armour

end of March.

The Renault tank was a small machine weighing

tanks. The attack was a complete success and definitely established the value of the tank in the French army. From that date

plates of the tanks, but the rifle had a heavy recoil and was difficult to handle and did not prove successful as an anti-tank

until the Armistice, the French tanks—mainly Renault tanks—

measure.

TANKS After the success of the Allies at the battles of Soissons and Amiens in July and Aug. 1918 the Germans were awakened to the

great danger in which they stood from tank attacks. They then constructed a heavy machine-gun firing a 13 mm. bullet and capable of penetrating 30 mm. of armour.

The gun was known as

the Tuf, and great efforts were made to construct it rapidly

and secretly, but none was ready till after the Armistice. PROGRESS

IN TANK DESIGN

With the exception of the Germans, who are prohibited by the Peace Treaty from doing so, all great nations now employ tanks as part of their military force. The French have retained the Renault tank as the main armament of their tank corps and although they have carried out much experimental work, no models have been considered sufficiently advanced to standardize and construct in any large numbers. The Americans have also

constructed many experimental patterns, and after for long retaining the Mark VIII. or Allied tank as the heavy tank with which their tank units are equipped, are now superseding it by a 23 ton tank with a crew of four, a speed of 12 m.p.h., a protection of an inch of armour and an armament of one 6-pounder and two machine-guns. The Renault has also been replaced by a light tank with a speed of 18 m.p.h. and a cruising radius of 80 miles. It has a crew of two and an armament of one 37 mm. gun and one machine-gun. The British, as the originators of the tank, have sought to maintain their lead. Some months before the conclusion of the World War, when preparations were being considered for a great offensive in 1919, the specification was drawn up for a tank which was to be a great advance on the existing patterns. It was to have a speed of 20 m.p.h. and be capable of floating and propelling itself across water. Enough petrol was to be carried to travel 200 m. cross country, and the tank was to be long enough to crass a trench 12 ft. wide. This tank was to be used for attacking the enemy communications and headquarters while the more conventional tanks were attacking the main armies in front. The first experimental model was actually completed just after the Armistice. The tank used a system of spring suspension on a cable and hydraulic power for control. Although the machine attained a speed of 28 m.p.h. and swam successfully across a narrow river on several occasions, it proved to be unreliable owing to the many new devices which it contained and which required further development. The problem of steering has been found to present many mechanical difficulties and, although much work has been done, no satisfactory solution has yet been found. The Vickers Tank.—In the meantime the British Tank Corps which was reduced to four battalions after the War, was armed with the Mark V. tank and the Medium C. The Medium B. replaced the Medium A. at the end of the War, but very few of this model were made and the units were equipped with an improved type in the Medium C. This machine had a maximum speed of 12 m.p.h. and a radius of action of 70 m. and would have been a very useful tank in France. But by 1920-21 these machines were becoming worn out, and, although much knowledge had been gained, the experimental machines aiming at far higher achievements, and which have already been referred to, were not yet in a satisfactory state for production. A tank was therefore designed which was constructed on conventional lines and aimed at obtaining a high degree of mobility, if necessary at the expense of trench spanning capacity. The machine was known as the Vickers light tank. It is 18 ft. in length and weighs ro tons and is armed with one 3-pdr. gun and two machine-guns. It can attain a speed of over 20 m.p.h. and travel 150 m. on the petrol that it carries.

19A

the large tanks used in the small numbers that peace time financial stringency dictates, but if they can be split up into 20 times as many small tanks, the casualties can be reduced by the use of dispersion. Furthermore, small cheap tanks provide a means of sending out scouts and a protective screen which the tanks did not formerly possess. It was with these ideas in mind that the first of these small tanks was made. The original idea was that one man should both drive and fight the machine, and practical trials showed that this was not impossible. The advantage of having only one man was that for the same charge on army funds, a larger number of machines could be manned and maintained than if two men were used in each machine. After due consideration it was, however, decided that these small tanks should be made to take two men each, the one to drive and the other to fire the machine gun. As a result of demonstrations given with the first experimental model, the frm of Morris Commercial Cars were asked to make a number of these small tanks which were later christened tankettes. The main idea was to endeavour to use commercial components as far as possible so as to reduce the cost and thus enable large numbers to be used. The first models had many defects but they served to launch the idea and to raise interest in this new development. A little later the firm of Carden Loyd Tractors came forward with proposals which they had had in mind for some time. Their original idea was a low unarmoured one man machine but this proved to be impracticable and they then developed an armoured two man tankette. Their early models had many mechanical defects but these were gradually overcome and later models were very successful. At the end of 1927 the term tankette was replaced by light tank and the Vickers tank was renamed as a medium tank. In their present form these light tanks weigh about 2 tons and cost about £500. They can travel 20 m.p.hb. on good going, can cross most small ditches and natural obstacles, can move along tracks and pass between trees in some woods

One Man Tanks.—In 1925 a new line of development was started by the British and the first one man tank! was constructed. The essence of the idea was to produce a small cheap fighting machine which could be used in large numbers, either instead of or in addition to the much larger and more expensive fighting tanks. The anti-tank weapons have become a serious threat to 1The idea was initiated and the first tank constructed as a private experiment by Major G. le Q. Martel, D.S.O., M.C., R.E.

Mechanized Warfare—From

the moment that tanks arrived

in France during the World War there arose a demand from other arms for assistance from vehicles of this nature with track transmission. Artillerymen required track vehicles for the forward transport of some of their guns, the administrative services required track vehicles to enable them to maintain supplies across shell stricken areas, and the whole subject was grouped rather loosely under the name of mechanical warfare. The various ways in which mechanically propelled vehicles can be used to assist an army can be divided, for the sake of clearness in discussion, into strategical, tactical and administrative mechanization. Strategical mechanization is used to enable a commander to move troops over long distances with great rapidity, e.g., if the necessary vehicles are available, a complete Division can be moved 100 m. in 24 hours, and if the vehicles are of a cross country type, the move may be carried out across country where the enemy has endeavoured to impede progress by the use of extensive demolitions. Tactical mechanization is used to enable the men to fight on the move and behind armour on the battle field, e.g., the tank, the armoured car, and the gun on a self-propelled mounting. Administrative mechanization is used to assist the administrative services in several ways, e.g., mechanized artillery need far less weight and bulk in petrol than a corresponding unit in forage, and this greatly aids administration by reducing the demands on shipping. Vehicles with a cross country capacity may enable the Staff to feed troops over an area in which ordinary lorries and horses would be quite unable to cope with the work. Considerable progress has already been made with strategical mechanization. For a long time attempts were made to use track vehicles for this purpose, and considerable difficulties were encountered, but more recently the six-wheel lorry was invented, and the development of this vehicle has overcome nearly all the troubles. In the British army a start has already been made in mechanizing the first line transport of infantry battalions with these vehicles, and there is every chance of their commercial

employment, which means that the army will be able to draw on

civilian resources for mobilization,

This would pave the way

792

TANKS

for a considerable extension in mechanizing first line transport, and thus overcome the main objection to strategical mechanization, for although there has never been any great difficulty in collecting buses and lorries for the rapid transport of dismounted men, the movement of their first line transport has represented a serious difficulty in the past. By the use of six-wheel lorries, the first line transport can travel with the buses, and the whole unit can move considerable distances at high speed. There are, of course, some forms of tactical mechanization which bring with them strategical mobility, but the necessity of carrying armour reduces this mobility in a large degree. Strategical mechanization offers very considerable advantages to the commander of a force. It renders no actual assistance to the infantryman in an attack on the battlefield, but it may enable a commander to move one or more infantry divisions with great rapidity to the flank or rear of the enemy position and so achieve his object. without the use of any armoured fighting vehicles at all. Administrative mechanization is closely wrapped up with the progress that is being made with strategical mechanization. The six-wheel lorry brings with it a great saving in financial expenditure in peace time, and in war it would enable a large reduction to be made in the tonnage which has to be transported by rail or sea to maintain a force, compared with the amount that would be required for a similar force using horse transport, because the necessary quantities of petrol and oil would be far smaller in both weight and bulk than the corresponding amounts in forage. In addition, a commander with an adequate number of six-wheel lorries at his disposal can face an advance through an area over which an enemy has retreated and demolished all communication, with the knowledge that he will be able to maintain his troops with the necessary supplies and munitions. It is concerning tactical mechanization, however, that there is so much difference of opinion and discussion. Here the sixwheeler is of little value. It is true that six-wheel armoured cars will be useful for long distance reconnaissance, but their fighting value may not be great. Their mobility is entirely dependent on the pneumatic tyre, which is at present very vulnerable though recent developments may give it greater immunity. These tyres can be replaced by semi-solid tyres of various types which are unaffected by bullets, but this reduces the cross country capacity of the vehicle and the speed on roads to a considerable extent. The: six-wheeler is therefore at present mainly limited to armoured reconnaissance and armoured mounts for officers and staff, and although these duties are important, they represent only a small part of the work of armoured fighting vehicles. The present trend of thought is to divide the use of tactical mechanization into two branches—the employment of armoured fighting vehicles with normal formations such as an infantry division, and their employment in an independent mechanized force whose rôle would be to carry out turning movements and attack the enemy in flank or rear or to attack his communications. Tanks are likely to be employed for many years to come in co-operation with infantry skirmishers in any carefully staged attack against a defensive position. The smaller tanks will in addition be used for scouting and reconnaissance work, while the larger tanks are kept for the decisive attack where trenches and obstacles may have to be surmounted which would be impassable to the lighter tanks. It is the employment of an independent mechanized force, however, that presents such difficulties and yet holds out great possibilities. This is in reality the modern form of independent. cavalry, and just as the horseman was supreme on the battlefield in the early middle ages, so the advocates

fatigue of tank crews and the capabilities of the machines, which can be determined exactly, and in many ways the manoeuvres with this force will provide a valuable guide as to the capabilities of an independent force of this nature. In 1928 the American army also formed a mechanized force.

The British mechanized force was formed in ‘July 1927, and consisted of one battalion of Vickers tanks (48 tanks), two companies of armoured cars, a company of 16 light tanks, one mechanized brigade of field artillery and one light battery, one machinegun battalion carried in half-track vehicles, one mechanized company of Royal Engineers, and a specially equipped company of the Royal Corps of Signals. It was realized that there were too few light tanks and armoured cars. The vehicles with which this force was equipped were by no means ideal, but it was thought better to carry out tactical trials and gain some information in this way with vehicles that were available at the time, rather than await the development of more perfect machines. If the trials developed successfully, it was intended that the force should travel entirely in armoured vehicles so that the whole force should

be proof against small arm fire.

A series of trials were carried out on Salisbury plain. It may be argued that these rolling plains were unduly favourable for the mechanized force, and that much greater difficulties would have been encountered in almost any other part of England when the force moved across country. This is true, but on the other hand the enclosed country which is so common in England is not found to any great extent elsewhere, and Salisbury plain is much

more typical of Europe. In these trials the plan was evolved of using a light group ahead, consisting of armoured cars, light tanks and light guns, and following up with a heavy group of Vickers tanks and mechanized artillery. It was the duty of the light group to carry out long distance reconnaissance with

armoured cars, and close reconnaissance with light tanks; they were responsible for gaining and keeping touch with the enemy and holding important points. The heavy group followed close up, and when the enemy main body had been located, they were used to strike a decisive blow. At the end of 1927 the name of the force was changed to the Experimental Armoured Force. These trials are, however, in an elementary stage; as the equipment of the force improves, the anti-tank weapons of the opposing side will be developed. There are those who ‘argue that the

tanks will be developed with much heavier armour and a higher

speed, and will be capable of resisting the smaller calibres of anti-tank weapons, and that development will be on naval lines up to huge battle tanks. There is, however, this fundamental difference between the army and navy, that whereas a battleship on the open sea is all powerful and can destroy in a few moments any inferior surface craft that appears within range, a battle tank would be in no such position. A single gun concealed in a wood may be within a few hundred yards of a big powerful tank and yet quite unseen, and it could destroy the tank before a shot could be fired in return. It is possible that development will be in the other direction, ie., towards smaller and more numerous tanks which can avoid casualties by dispersion. The present attitude of nearly all armies towards tactical mechanization is to watch developments. It is possible that the progress in design of anti-tank weapons may render the supremacy of fighting vehicles short-lived. On the other hand the development of these vehicles may surpass that of anti-tank weapons. Much will be learnt from the trials with the armoured force on Salisbury plain. The formation of this force was a most progressive step; just as the British were the first to conceive and use an of an independent mechanized force consider that in this, their armoured fighting vehicle—the tank—on the battlefield, so they have been the first to extend the idea to the use ofa self-contained latest and most modern form, they will again ‘reign supreme. An Experimental Mechanized Force.—All the views that armoured force. The future progress will be watched with interest. (G. 1e Q. M.) have been expressed ‘have been based on theory, and as no one is going to re-organize an army on theory alone, the British army BIBLIOCRAPHY.—Colonel John Frederic Charles Fuller, On Future formed an experimental mechanized force. In this force the tanks Warfare (1928) ; Brevet Colonel John Frederic Charles Fuller, Tanks The and the. necessary supplementary arms and weapons are being in the Great War, 1914-1918 (1920); Victor Wallace Germains, on of War (1927) Army Service Schools, Fort Leaventested out, and facts will: be gained which will supplement or Mechanizati worth, Kansas, The Tactical Employment of Tanks in Battle (1923); replace theories. There are many lessons which can never be T. E. Compton, Tke French Tanks in Royal United Service Instabution

learnt: except on the battlefield, but there are others, such as the

Journal (1920) ; Pierre Lestringuez, Sous armure; les chars d'assaut

TANNA—TANNENBERG francais pendant la guerre (1919). George H. Rarey, Tank and Anti-

tank Activities of the German army in Infantry Journal (1927) ; Fritz Heigl, Taschenbuch der tanks (Munich, 1926) ; Sir A. G. Stern, Tanks, 1914-18 (1919); D. Browne, The Tank in Action (1920); J. F.C.

Fuller, Tanks in the Great War (1920) ; E. G. Beck, Tank Construction (Manchester,

1921);

Royal

Tank

Corps,

Armoured

Training

Car

(1921); see also Journal of the Tank Corps Training Centre (1919, in prog.).

TANNA: see GAON. TANNAHILL, ROBERT

(1774-1810),

Scottish

song-

writer, son of a Paisley silk-weaver, was born on June 3, 1774. He was apprenticed to his father’s trade at the age of 12, and, inspired by the poetry of Robert Burns, he wrote verses as he drove the shuttle to and fro. He began in 1805 to contribute verses to Glasgow and Paisley periodicals, and published an edition of his poems by subscription in 1807. Three years later, on May

17, 1810, he committed suicide. Tannahill wrote some charming songs. “Loudon’s Bonnie Woods and Braes,” “Jessie, the Flower o Dunblane,” and “Gloomy Winter’s Noo Awa” are the best. Tannahill’s centenary was celebrated at Paisley in 1874. See edition by D. Semple (1876) for details of his life; also Brown’s Paisley Poets (vol. i, 1889).

TANNENBERG, BATTLE OF. No portion of the earth’s surface has been more fought over than East Prussia.

It was in

1410, on the field of Tannenberg, that the Teutonic knights were utterly routed by their enemies the Poles and Lithuanians, and the German victory of soo years later was in some degree the reversal of this defeat. The Tannenberg of 1914 was the greatest victory achieved by any of the combatants at the commencement of the World War, and its strategic and moral effect upon the struggle were farreaching. France and Russia had been joined by military convention since 1892 and their chiefs of staff had made careful arrangements for concerted action. In case of war with the Central Powers it had been agreed that Germany was the main enemy and that the principal military effort must be made against her. Owing to the vastness of her territory and to the comparatively undeveloped state of her railways, Russia’s rate of concentra-

793

Slavdom and constituted a difficult problem of defence for Germany. True to her policy of concentration of force at the decisive point, she had decided to advance against France with her main forces whilst maintaining only a minimum of strength in the East. Not wishing to abandon national territory without a blow, she had decided to concentrate this minimum strength in East Prussia, despite the dangers involved in such action. Germany’s strength in the East was to consist of 11 divisions, six first-line and five second-line, with but a single cavalry division. Taking the East Prussian front as it appeared to the Russians, we can divide it militarily as follows: (a) Kénigsberg Area——A more or less fortified area extending over the Königsberg peninsula, of a depth of 19 m. from north to south. In the centre lay the obsolete fortress, strong against anything but heavy artillery. The area could be reinforced by sea through the canal from Pillau. It formed a strong flanking position from which to attack any force to the south.

(b) Insterburg Gap—A gap of 43 m. of open country, down which ran the main Insterburg-Allenstein railway. The River Angerapp running north and south blocks this gap. It formed an excellent line of defence with the right flank resting against the impassable Lake Mauer. (c) Masurian Lakes—A line of continuous lakes from Angerburg to the Russian frontier at Johannisburg, a distance of 50 miles. The narrow gaps between the lakes could be held with few troops, and the whole line presented an almost impregnable front behind which the Germans could operate to either flank. (d) Johannisburg-Dzialdowo (Soldau) Front.—A distance of 75 m. running east and west. On the Russian side the country had been left a desert as a defence against Germany. The Russian Plan of Invasion.—The Russian plan for the invasion of East Prussia was to advance with two armies north and south of the line of lakes, with the object of enveloping the German forces supposedly concentrating behind this line. The northern army under Rennenkampf was to advance first, towards the Insterburg gap, with the object of drawing the Germans as far to the east as possible. The southern army under Samsonov was to advance to the line Rastenburg-Allenstein, with the object of striking the rear of the Germans opposing Rennenkampf. Rennenkampf’s army crossed the frontier on Aug. 17 with a strength of 64 divisions and 54 cavalry divisions. On the 20th an action was fought with the German VIII. Army at Gumbinnen. Prittwitz, the German commander in the East, had concentrated his main strength to meet Rennenkampf, six divisions and a cavalry division, whilst leaving some two divisions to face Samsonov’s

army, which was concentrating on the River Narew. Rennenkampf had moved off without a great portion of his

tion was considerably slower than that of France, so much so that there was a danger of the latter being crushed before the attack on Germany in the East could begin to exert its effect. Unfortunately, under the pressure of French insistence, the good will and optimism of Russia’s military leaders exceeded practical possibilities and the outbreak of war found her military plans in some disorder. All their initial operations in East Prussia were in

transport and found himself forced to halt on the 20th. Prittwitz advanced to attack him. There were serious miscalculations in the German movements, with the result that the action was indecisive, both sides suffering heavy losses. That evening the news arrived that Samsonov had not only started to advance, but that two of his corps were already close to the frontier and that he had at least five corps with him. The German commander abandoned all hope of defeating Rennenkampf on the 21st and contemplated a withdrawal to the Vistula. On communicating this on the telephone to the supreme command, he and his chief of staff were at once superseded. The new commander, Hindenburg, had not yet been employed in the War. His chief of staff, Ludendorff, reached supreme headquarters at Coblenz on the 22nd and the situation in the East was explained to him. He immediately ordered the troops retreating in front of Rennenkampf to halt at once and to prevent him from pursuing, and issued instructions for a concentration against Samsonov. General Hindenburg joined Ludendorff’s train at Hanover and took over the command at Marienburg on the 23rd. Luckily for the new command, Hoffmann, the chief of the operations section under Prittwitz, had already carried out many, steps facilitating the concentration desired by Ludendorff, and the situation, though alarming, had not grown worse since the

fact hasty improvisations. . Geographically, East Prussia points forward into the heart of

the frontier near Ortelsburg and his left between Neidenburg

English Miles. 0 20 30 #0

Kilometres.

SO

00 2 30 W 50 Railways «eiere

4

supersession of Prittwitz. Samsonov’s right was indeed well over

TANNENBERG

794

and Działdowo (Soldau) but the Russian advance appeared to be slowing up. The German XX. Corps had taken up a position north of Neidenburg and was awaiting attack. The leading units of the I. Corps were detraining south of Deutsch Eylau and were moving up on the right of the XX. Corps. The 3rd Res. division had detrained at Allenstein and was moving up on the left of the XX. Corps. A Landwehr division and units from the Vistula garrison troops were also coming up. Thus, a strength of about six or seven divisions had been collected to oppose ten divisions and three cavalry divisions of Samsonov’s army. No decisive results could be expected from such strength, and decisive operations were the Germans’ only hope. The most important feature of the situation, however, was that Rennenkampf had made no forward move since Gumbinnen and had lost all touch with the enemy in front of him. Ludendorff therefore conceived the idea of withdrawing all the troops from Rennenkampf’s front, with the exception of the cavalry division, and of directing them against the right flank of Samsonov’s army. Another four divisions thus obtained would give him an actual superiority over Samsonov and the direction of their attack might indeed be decisive.

An Account of the Battle—Samsonov, who in peace time was the governor-general of Turkistan, had arrived from sick-leave in the Caucasus on Aug. 12. He had seen neither his subordinate generals nor his staff before, and his immediate superior Jilinsky, commander of the north-western front, was urging him forward to cross the frontier on the 19th. The original concentration areas of his army behind the Bobr and the Narew had been considered to be too far to the east and a general move of all corps to the

west was in progress. By the 20th, the right wing (VI. and XIII. Corps) had reached the frontier, with the ath Cav. Div. well behind on the right. The left wing (XV. and I. Corps) was just short of the frontier, with the 6th and 15th Cav. Divs. covering it. Of the XXIII. Corps, one division was two days’ march behind the left wing and the other had not yet detrained at Warsaw. The troops had been marching for a week across the desert area north of Ostroteka, over execrable roads in very hot weather. Much of the transport had been left behind, the men were tired and unfed and numbers had been much reduced by sickness. No contact had been gained with the enemy and the army was already more than 24 hours late in crossing the frontier. Reports from Rennenkampf of his victory at Gumbinnen and, during his advance westwards on the 24th and 25th, of the signs of a hurried retreat on the part of the Germans, brought further urgings from Jilinsky to Samsonov to hurry. Samsonov obeyed to the best of his ability, and by the morning of the 26th his position was as follows:— ` His centre of two corps (XIII. and XV.) was advancing northwest and was close on the line Allenstein-Hohenstein. On his right was one corps (VI.) and the 4th Cav. Div. at Rothfliess, at two days’ march from the centre. On his left was a corps (I) and the 6th and 15th Cav. Divs. near Koschlau, at one day’s march from his centre. The XXIII. Corps troops which were up were moving into the gap between the centre and the left. His forces were thus much dispersed. Reconnaissance had been bad and he had little information as to the enemy’s dispositions.

He seems to have thought that the

Germans flying in front of Rennenkampf had already crossed his front in their march to the Vistula and that he was too late to cut them off. He had deviated from his instructions to advance with his left on Allenstein and now had practically the whole of his force to the west of that town. He had no knowledge of the whereabouts of Rennenkampf’s army and did not realize that he was increasing the space between the two Russian armies and thereby facilitating the German operations. His supply system had broken down utterly and his men were half-famished and worn out with the fatigue of excessive marching. The signal service had also broken down and orders had been sent out to corps by wireless. The Russian signals were easily read by the Germans, who thus had absolutely accurate information as to their opponents’ dispositions and intentions. Germans

Attack

Samsonov.—The

new German

Command

had galvanized the dispirited VIII. Army from the first and hope of success ran high. The attacks on Samsonov’s two flanks were to be launched simultaneously on the 26th. On the right, the German I. Corps, strengthened by the Vistula garrisons, attacked only half-heartedly.

Francois, the commander of the I. Corps, was

short of some of his heavy artillery and he contented himself with driving in some of the Russian outposts. On the 27th, however, he launched his attack in earnest. At dawn a hurricane bombardment was opened on the Russian I. Corps’ positions on

either side of Uzdowo.

The famished Russians did not wait for

the infantry attack but broke and ran. By 10 p.m. that night there was nothing left of the Russian left wing except a small rear-guard just north of Działdowo; and that too had disappeared before the next morning. The rear of the Russian centre was now completely exposed and François directed his march on Neidenburg. Opposition there was none, and by the night of the 28th his leading troops had reached Muschaken, 8 m. E. of Neidenburg. By the night of the 29th the whole length of the road from Neidenburg to Willenberg was held by a line of entrenched pickets. The Russian retreat to the south was completely blocked. During the 3oth Francois was attacked at Neidenburg by fresh Russian troops coming up from Mława and actually lost the town for a time. He held stoutly on to the line of his pickets, however, and on the 31st

Neidenburg was reoccupied.

On the left, the German XVII. and I. Res. Corps, having turned their backs on Rennenkampf and marched due south, had arrived within striking distance of the Russian right at Rothfliess on the night of the 25th. Their attack on the morning of the 26th came as a complete surprise. The Russian VI. Corps withdrew in confusion, losing 6,000 men and 16 guns. By the night

of the 27th the Russian right was 32 m. S. of Rothfliess and in a state of hopeless demoralization. The rear of the Russian centre

was now exposed on its other flank. The German XVII. Corps continued its march to the south, whilst the I. Res. Corps moved in closer towards Allenstein. The story of the fighting in the Russian centre is not so inglorious as that on the two flanks. In accordance with Samsonov’s plan the centre (XIII. and XV.

Corps) continued their advance on the 26th towards the line Allenstein-Hohenstein. The XIII. Corps encountered no opposition, but the XV. had to fight its way steadily forward. For the 27th, the advance was to be continued. Second German Blow.—Ludendorff, with his accurate information of the events on either flank, now decided that the German centre had retired enough. The reinforced XX. Corps was therefore ordered to attack on the 27th. The battle which ensued between the Russian XV. Corps and the German XX. Corps was particularly fierce, the Russians holding their own and even advancing a little on their left. The Russian XIII. Corps rendered no help to its neighbour. On the 28th the Germans renewed their attacks and this time the hardly-tried Russian XV. Corps commenced to break. The XIII. Corps, moving down to assist, found itself assailed in rear by troops arriving from Allen-

stein and for the second time brought no help. When night fell the two Russian Corps were on a line from Grieslienen to Waplitz and in close touch with the Germans. Hoping to escape from pursuit, they commenced to withdraw during the night. The withdrawal soon became a rout, and a mass of troops and transport, both unfed and unwatered, became inextricably mixed in the depth of the Forest of Gruntfliess. Determined attempts were made during the 29th to break through to the south of Muschaken and to the north at Kalten-

born, but the German ring held fast. Only some 2,000 men effected their escape.

The greater portion of these two corps sur

rendered to the German parties clearing the forest during the 30th and 3rst.

Samsonov himself had moved up to Neidenburg on the 27th 1

order better to control the battle. He was greeted with the news of the disaster to both his flanks and met streams of stragglers coming

into the town. He decided to go to the headquarters of the XV. Corps and take personal charge, and left Neidenburg on the

morning of the 28th with a small staff, all mounted on horses.

TANNER—TANTALUM At once he became mixed in the mass of transport in the forest and could exercise no effective command. He then decided to ride to the south, but during the night of the 28th-2z9th he became exhausted after having walked for some distance. He drew aside in the darkness and his staff heard a single shot. A careful search brought no result their unfortunate at the turn which Results.—The

and the staff continued their way, certain that commander had taken his own life in his despair events had taken. practical result of the fighting from Aug. 26~30

was the total annihilation of two Russian corps and the reduction of three other corps to half their strength in numbers. The whole Russian IIT. Army was so demoralized and was so deficient in essential material, such as artillery and transport, that it was no longer of any fighting value. The Germans claimed 125,000 prisoners and 500 guns It is certain that their booty was very great, for 60 train loads of captured material left Puchallowen after the battle and the captured horses were driven in herds to improvised camps at Neidenburg. Although greatly inferior in the whole eastern theatre, the Germans had yet managed to concentrate a superiority on the field of battle. The Russians had 132 battalions, 96 squadrons and 620 guns, including 12 heavy, whilst the Germans had 155 battalions, 48 squadrons and 818 guns, including 128 heavy. BIBLIOGRAPHY. —W. von Stephani, Mit Hindenburg bei Tannenberg (1919); H. von François, Marneschlacht und Tannenberg (1920) ; P. von Hindenburg, Out of my Life (1920); E. Ludendorff, My War Memories (1922) ; J. Daniloff, Russland im Weltkrieg, ro14-15 (1925) ; French trans. La Guerre Mondiale (1927); Hoffmann, The War of Lost Opportunities (1924); Eolorin, Istoriya Voini rorg (Prague, 1925) ; Ironside, Tannenberg (1925); Camon, Ludendorff sur le Front Russe rorg-r5 (1926); François, Tannenberg (1926); Hoffmann, Tannenberg (1927). (See also WorLp War: BEDRAEKUPMI ko m

TANNER,

HENRY

OSSAWA

(1859-

), American

artist, of Negro descent, was born at Pittsburgh, Pa., on June 21,

1859. He was the son of Benjamin Tucker Tanner (born 1835), who became bishop of the African Methodist Episcopal Church in 1888. Henry Tanner was a pupil of Thomas Eakins, in Philadelphia, and of J. P. Laurens and Benjamin Constant in Paris. He first exhibited at the Salon in 1895. Examples of his work are in the galleries of the Luxembourg, Chicago, Des Moines, Los Angeles, etc. His “The Destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah” (1925) is in the Metropolitan museum, New York. He is a knight of the Legion of Honour, a member of the Paris Society of American Painters, of the American Art Association in Paris and of the National Academy of Design, New York. TANNHAUSER or Tanuvuser, German Minnesinger of the 13th century, who lived for a time at the court of Frederick II., duke of Austria. After Duke Frederick’s death he was received at the court of Otto II., duke of Bavaria; but he spent much time in wandering about Germany. He also went as a Crusader to the Holy Land. His poems belong to the decadence of the Minnesang, and combine a didactic display of learning with descriptions of peasant-life. His adventurous life led him to be identified, in the popular imagination, with the knight Tannhäuser who, after many wanderings, comes to the Venusberg, or Hörselberg, near Eisenach. He enters the cave where the Lady Venus—the Frau Hulda of German folk-lore—holds her court, and abandons himself to a

795

Grasse, Die Sage von Tannhäuser (1846; 2nd ed. 1861); A. Ohlke,

Zu Tannhdusers Leben und Dichten (1890); J. Siebert, Tannhauser, Inhalt und Form seiner Gedichte (1894).

|

TANNIN or TANNIC ACID, the generic name for a widely

disseminated group of vegetable products, so named from their property of converting raw hide into leather (g.v.). They are soluble in water, and their solutions which have an acid reaction and an astringent taste, are coloured dark blue or green by ferrous

salts, a property utilized in the manufacture of ink (g.v.). Some tannins appear to be glucosides of gallic acid, since they yield this acid and a sugar on hydrolysis, e.g., oak tannin, whilst others yield protocatechuic acid and phloroglucinol, e.g., moringa-tannin; common tannin, however, is a digallic acid.

Common tannin, or tannic acid, C14HioO.-2H2O0, occurs to the extent of 50% in gall-nuts, and also in tea, sumach and in other plants. It may be obtained by extracting powdered gall-nuts with a mixture of ether and alcohol. When pure the acid forms a colourless, amorphous mass, very soluble in water, less so in alcohol, and practically insoluble in ether. It may be obtained artificially by heating gallic acid with phosphorus oxychloride or dilute arsenic acid; and conversely on boiling with dilute acids or alkalis it takes up a molecule of water and yields two molecules of gallic acid (HO)sCsH2-CO2H. The tannin of oak, CygH1gQ10, which is found, mixed with gallic acid, ellagic acid and quercite, in oak bark, is a red powder; its aqueous solution is coloured dark blue by ferric chloride. The tannin of coffee, C3oHisO1g, found in coffee beans, is not precipitated from its solutions by gelatin. Hydrolysis by alkaline solutions gives a sugar and caffeic acid; whilst fusion with potassium hydroxide gives protocatechuic acid. Moringa-tannin or maclurin, Ci3Hi0O¢-H2O0, found in chlorophora tinctoria, hydrolyses on fusion with caustic potash to phloroglucinol and protocatechuic acid. Catechu-tannin occurs in the extract of Mimosa catechu; and kinotannin is the chief ingredient of kino (q.v.). Tannic acid is employed either alone or in conjunction with antimony salts as mordant in dyeing cotton with basic colouring matter. Medicine.—Tannic acid is officinal in both the British and United States pharmacopoeias. It is incompatible with mineral acids, alkalis, salts of iron, antimony, lead and silver, alkaloids and gelatin. The British pharmacopoeial preparations are (1) glycerinum acidi tannici; (2) suppositoria acidi tannici; (3) trochiscus acidi tannici. The United States also has a collodium stypticum and an ointment. In the intestine tannic acid controls intestinal bleeding, acting as a powerful astringent and causing constipation; it has been recommended to check diarrhoea. Tannic acid is used in the treatment of various ulcers, sores and moist eruptions. The glycerin solution is used in tonsilitis and the lozenges in pharyngitis. For bleeding haemorrhoids tannic acid suppositories are useful, or tannic acid can be dusted on directly. The collodium stypticum is a valuable external remedy. Tannic acid is absorbed as gallic acid into the blood and eliminated as gallic and pyrogallic acids, darkening the urine. TANNING, a term describing the conversion of natural skins

into leather.

The word tan means the bark of the oak, which

contains tannin or tannic acid; this has the power to combine

with skin-fibre and render it imputrescible. Modern tannage may be (1) vegetable tanning, z.e., performed with the water extract life of sensual pleasure. By and by he is overcome by remorse, of barks, woods, nuts, etc., containing tannin; (2) mineral tanand, invoking the aid of the Virgin Mary, he obtains permission ning, principally with compounds of chromium or aluminium; to return for a while to the outer world. He then goes as a pilgrim (3) combination mineral and vegetable tanning; (4) oil tanning, to Rome, and entreats Pope Urban to secure for him the for- i.e., chamois leather. (See LEATHER.) giveness of his sins. The pope declares it is as impossible for TANTA, a town of Lower Egypt, in a central position nearly him to be pardoned as for the staff he has in his hand to blossom. midway between the two main branches of the Nile, and conTannhäuser departs in despair, and returns to the Venusberg. In verging-point of several railways traversing the Delta in all directhree days the staff begins to put forth green leaves, and the pope tions. It has a population of 57,000, is the capital of the rich sends messengers in all directions in search of the penitent, but province of Gharbia, and is noted for its fairs and Muslim festihe is never seen again. The legend has been reproduced by several vals, which are held three times a year and are sometimes attended modern German poets, and by Richard Wagner in the famous by 200,000 pilgrims and traders. music drama. : = TANTALUM, a metallic chemical element. belonging to a For Tannhiuser’s lyric poetry, see F. H. von der Hagen’s Minne-

family of three metals which includes vanadium (g.v.) and colum-

14. Jahrhunderts (3rd ed. 1893), No. 47. See also F. Zander, Die Tannhdusersage und der Minnesinger Tannhäuser (1858); J. G. T.

bium (g.v.). It occurs in certain rare but widely distributed minerals usually associated with columbium. Cclumbite (Massachu-

singer, ii. (1838); K. Bartsch, Deutsche Liederdichter des 12. bis

TANTALUS—TANTIA

796

setts), the native ferrous columbate, Fe(CbOs3)2, and tantalite, ferrous tantalate, Fe(TaQs)2, frequently contain both columbium

and tantalum with manganese partially replacing iron. Fergusonite is a complex columbo-tantalate of iron and the rare earth metals, samarskite has an even more complicated composition since it also contains uranium. It is accordingly not surprising that the history of tantalum is closely intermingled with that of colum-

TOPI

prisms, m.p. 97°, b.p. 229° C). Addition of potassium fluoride to the pentafluoride solution gives potassium tantalifluoride which crystallises in needles. Solutions of tantalates furnish insoluble

yellow tantalum ferrocyanide. Tantalum pentachloride, white hygroscopic needles melting at 211° C, and boiling at 241-6° Ç, is produced by heating the pentoxide to redness’ in a stream of chlorine and carbon tetrachloride. A suboxide (hypotantalic oxide) (TaO2)2, 1s a grey mass produced by heating the pentoxide the to bium, some confusion having arisen formerly in regard carbon, or magnesium; the corresponding sulphide, TaS,, with a Struverite, metals. allied closely these of identities separate from the action of hydrogen sulphide and carbon disulphide titaniferous tantalum ore (Ti0246-0%, Ta,Os 36-0%) found exten- results on the heated pentoxide. sively in Malaya, is a valuable source of both tantalum and titanTritantalum hexachloride (“tantalum dichloride”) Ta;Cl, ium by heating the pentachloride with lead at 600° C, is exformed filament a as The first successful application of tantalum was hydrochloric acid and left as a green precipitate on with tracted for the incandescent electric lamp, but for this purpose it has now evaporating vacuo. Saturation of the extract with hydrogen im been superseded by tungsten. chloride yields the green crystalline tritantalochloric acid Separation and Extraction.—Tantalum is extracted from [TasCl,H:0]H,3H:0. Acids of mixed type the foregoing minerals by one of the following processes -—(i.) [TasCl,Br,H.0 ]H,3H20 and [TasClssO.] Ho, Fusion with potassium fluoride and extraction of the melt with are obtained by the use of hydrogen bromide and dilute sulphuric potassium solution, the evaporating On acid. dilute hydrofluoric acid respectively. In these compounds tantalum is bivalent, and tantalifluoride, K,TaFz, separates first, as one part of this salt analogous substances have been prepared containing bivalent potassium whereas water, cold of parts r55 in only is soluble molybdenum and tungsten (K. Lindner and others, 1924). columbium oxyfluoride, K,CbOF;, H:O, being soluble in 12-13 BIBLIOGRAPHY.—T. E. Thorpe, Dictionary of Applied Chemistry, Alkali parts of water, is obtained on further concentration. (ii.) vol. vi. (1926); B. S. Hopkins, Chemistry of the Rarer Elements carbonpotassium or potash caustic peroxide, fusion with sodium (1923) ; ÙU. R. Evans, Metals and Metallic Compounds (1923). (G.T. ate and acidification of the melt with dilute hydrochloric acid, Tmolus and or precipitated. Zeus of are son Ta,Os legend, and Greek in , Cb.O; oxides TANTALUS the boiling, on when

Gii.) Fusion with potassium bisulphate,

and extraction

with

acidified water, removal of tin and tungsten with ammonium sulphide and of silica and titania with hydrofluoric and sulphuric acids. Final'neutralisation with ammonia and boiling with salicylic acid leads to precipitation of the two pentoxides. Metallic tantalum was first obtained by Berzelius (1820) on heating potassium tantalifluoride with potassium; a more modern procedure is to reduce it in an evacuated electric furnace with either potassium or sodium. The product compressed and fused in the electric furnace with exclusion of air led to the pure metal

(W. von Bolton, 1905). Moissan reduced the pentoxide with car-

bon in the electric furnace (1902). Other methods of obtaining the metal include electrolysis of the fused K,TaF; or of tantalum compounds in dilute sulphuric acid. Tantalum (symbol Ta, atomic number 73, atomic weight 181- 5) is a white metal; its melting point is 2,850° C and its specific gravity 16-6. It is very ductile and malleable with considerable toughness. It may be drawn into very thin wires. Its tensile strength is greater than that of steel or platinum; its coefficient of expansion is less than that of the latter metal so that it may be sealed into glass. On heating, it absorbs large volumes of hydrogen or nitrogen and these gases are only removed by heating to fusion in a vacuum. It resists all single acids except hydrofluoric and hot concentrated sulphuric acids. Applications.—Because of its resistance to corrosive agents tantalum may be used instead of platinum in standard weights and crucibles. Chemical apparatus in ductile tantalum, which is much cheaper than platinum, excels in its degree of resistance to acid corrosion. Metals may be deposited electrolytically on tantalum cathodes and since tantalum is not attacked by aqua regia the - metallic deposit may be removed completely. Tantalum is claimed to surpass steel for surgical instruments and special tools, since these do not rust. It is uséd extensively as an electrolytic valve since it has the property shared with certain other metals of allowin one direction only when immersed in ing electric current to pass

acid. But unlike most metals, it is not subject to acid corrosion and hence it makes an ideal material for rectifiers and under the trade name of “Balkite” it forms the essential constituent of many . rectifying units.

Compounds of Tantalum.—The pentoxide, Ta2,0;, is a white

‘infusible mass obtained by heating the metal in oxygen or by ignit-

|

ing tantalic acid.

Pluto (Wealth), daughter of Himantes, the father of Pelops and

Niobe. He was the traditional king of Sipylus in Lydia (or of Phrygia), and was the intimate friend of Zeus and the other gods, to whose table he was admitted. But he abused the divine favour by revealing to mankind the secrets he had learned in heaven

(Diod. Sic. iv. 74), or by killing his son Pelops (g.v.) and serving him up to the gods at table, in order to test their power of observation (Ovid, Metam. vi. 401); another story was that he stole nectar and ambrosia from heaven and gave them to men (Pindar, Ol. i. 60); a fourth that he was guilty of perjury (Antoninus Liberalis, 36). The punishment of Tantalus in the lower world was famous. He stood up to his neck in water, which flowed from him when he tried to drink of it; and over his head hung fruits

which the wind wafted away whenever he tried to grasp them

(Odyssey, xi. 582). This myth is the origin of the English word “tantalize.” Another story is that a rock hung over his head

ready to fall and crush him (Euripides, Orestes, 5). The sins of Tantalus were visited upon his descendants, the Pelopidae. Ancient historical reminiscences and natural phenomena, espe-

cially volcanic catastrophes, are at the bottom of the legend. The tomb of Tantalus on Mt. Sipylus was pointed out in antiquity, and has been in modern times identified by C. F. Texier with the great cairn beneath Old Magnesia; but Sir W. M. Ramsay inclines to a remarkable rock-cut tomb beside Magnesia. The story of Tantalus is an echo of a semi-Greek kingdom, which had its seat at Sipylus, the oldest and holiest city of Lydia, the remains of which are still visible. There was a tradition in antiquity that the city of Tantalus had been swallowed up in a lake on the mountain; but the legerid may, as Ramsay thinks, have been suggested by the vast ravine which yawns beneath the | ts acropolis. See Petors, Parycra; Sir W. M. Ramsay in Journal of H ellenic

Studies, iii., Frazer’s Pausanias, iii. p. 555; V, p. 392; J. Hylen,

De Tantalo (Uppsala, 1896).

TANTIA

TOPI

(c. 1819-1859),

rebel leader during the

Indian Mutiny, was a Mahratta Brahman in the service of Nana Sahib. He instigated the massacre of Cawnpore, and commanded

at the battle of Bithur, where he was defeated by General Havelock. With the aid of the Gwalior contingent he pressed General

Windham hard at Cawnpore on Nov. 27-28, 1857, but was defeated by Sir Colin Campbell on Dec. 6. Together with the Rani of Jhansi he was besieged by Sir Hugh Rose in the Jhansi

Si Tantalic acid, HTaQs, is a gelatinous precipitate obtained on fort, but escaped and collected a force of 20,000 men which decisive the was This siege. the relaxing without defeated Hugh ‘adding water to tantalum pentachloride; it dissolves in aqueous alkalis to yield solutions of alkali tantalates, and is soluble in action of the campaign in Central India, and Tantia Top! Was hydrofluoric

acid to’ form

tantalum

pentafluoride

(colourless

obliged to seek refuge in the jungles of Rajputana and Bundelk-

TAOISM—TAPACULO hand, where he was taken by Major Meade, condemned and executed on April 18, 1859. He was the only rebel leader in the

Mutiny who showed INDIAN MUTINY.)

TAOISM.

any conspicuous military ability.

The term Taoism has two meanings:

(See

(1) the

philosophical system attributed to Lao Tzu (b. 604 B.C.) and Chuang Tzu (b. 330 B.c.); (2) the popular religion of the Chinese. Taoism as a Philosophical System.—The term Tao originally meant the revolution or the way of the heavens about the earth. This movement of the heavens was merer regarded as the cause of the phenomena on AF earth. The Tao was located about the [>> celéstial pole, which was considered to be ira the seat of power because all revolves Em4 about it. In the course of time this con- p

crete expression became, abstract, and the Tao was viewed as the .universal cosmic energy behind the visible order of nature. 0 This cosmic energy regarded as being is Cee

impersonal,

omnipresent

and

eternal;

x

the negative and the positive, female and

$

The Tao produced the yin and the yang, Ẹ

beings. The human order is the product of the eternal energy.

to that of the government of China. At the head was Yui Huang Shangti, the Pearly emperor, pantheon.

who presided over an elaborate

Buddhist Influence.—Through contact with Buddhism in the first six centuries of our era the Taoists appropriated the Buddhist world view, adopted the monastic system and imitated the Buddhist pantheon. Lao Tzu was deified and was associated with Pan Ku and Yui Huang Shangti in the Taoist Trinity patterned after the Three Jewels of Buddhism. Present-day Taoism is a conglomeration of animism, polytheism and magic.

(1925), and “Taoism” in Encyclopaedia of Religion and a =

TAOIST PRIEST COSTUME, CHIN

xii,

TAORMINA, a town on the east coast of Sicily (ancient

—_

Sr

descendants of Chang Tao-Ling were recognized by the Government and in 1016 were given a fief at Lung Hu Shan in Kiangsi. Their function consisted of a general oversight of the Taoist priests and monks and the rule over the world of the gods. The system developed a hierarchy among the gods which corresponded

Ancient China (1922) ; A. Forke, The World Conception of the Chinese

male principles of nature. These by their f> interaction brought forth heaven and earth. Heaven and earth gave birth to all

successful rebellion in the latter part of the 2nd century, and established a state in Szechuan based on Taoist principles. The

BretiocrapHy.—H. A. Giles, Chuang Tzu (London, 1889); James Legge, The Texts of Taoism, pts. 1 and 2. (SBE XXXIX. and XL.) (Oxford, 1891); Paul Carus, Lao-Tzws Tao Teh-King (Chicago, 1898); Spurgeon Medhurst, Tao Teh Ching (Chicago, 1903); R. K. Douglas, Confucianism and Taoism (1906); E. H. Parker, Studies in Chinese Religion (1910); D. T. Suzuki, A Brief History of Early Chinese Philosophy (1914); H. Doré, Researches into Chinese Superstitions, vol. i. 7; Hu Shih, Development of the Logical Method in

i

viewed as becoming it works spontaneously, orderly, unselfishly and continuously for the highest good of all beings.

797

IN FULL CANTON,

Tauromenium), in the province of Messina, from which town it is 30:1. S.S.W. by rail. Pop. (1921) 4,980. It is a favourite winter resort, chiefly on account of its fine situation and beautiful views. It lies on an abrupt hill 650 ft. above the railway station, and was occupied at least as early as the 8th cent. B.C.

Philosophic Aspect.—Taoism has usually been regarded as a mystic religion, but it was also an economic and political philosophy. It advocated frugality, simplicity and the joys of the peasant (as the discovery of a Sicel cemetery of that period shows). It life in contact with the soil. It opposed the educational pro- was refounded by the Carthaginian Himilco in 397 B.c., after gramme of the Confucianists, and advocated the theory that the the destruction, by Dionysius the Elder of Syracuse, of the people should be kept in innocence (not in ignorance). The neighbouring city of Naxos. In 392 Dionysius occupied it and Taoist philosophy is responsible for that remarkable trait of the settled his mercenaries there. In 358 the exiles from Naxos at Chinese, namely, their contentment in situations which offer a last found a home there. It was the city at which both Timoleon minimum of comfort and their prizing of culture above possession. and Pyrrhus first landed. During the First Punic War it belonged Political Aspect.—In politics Taoism opposed a highly cen- to the kingdom of Hiero, and after his death it was allied to Rome. tralized government and favoured the maximum autonomy for During the first Servile War it. was occupied by Eunous and the people. Lao Tzu and his successors promoted the small vil- some of his followers, but was at length taken by the consul lage state which enjoyed full autonomy and lived in harmony Publius Rupilius in 132. It was one of the strongholds of Sextus with its neighbours. All forms of bondage and legal restraints Pompeius, and after defeating him Augustus made it into a were opposed. Non-resistance was exalted and militarism was colonia. In the time of Strabo it was inferior in population to Messana and Catana; its marble, wine and mullets were highly condemned. The ethics of Confuciahism met with the strongest opposition esteemed. In A.D. g02 it was taken and burnt by the Saracens; on the part of the Taoists. Such virtues as love, justice, reverence, it was retaken in 962, and in 1078 fell to the Normans. The ancient town perhaps had two citadels; one the hill above wisdom and sincerity were regarded as the first steps departing from the harmony of the simple life in the Tao, and producing the the town to the W., now crowned by a mediaeval castle, the other the hill upon which the theatre was afterwards constructed. distracting contraries which marred the purity of life. The Taoists were mystics, but they were practical mystics, who There are some remains of the city walls, The church of San hoped to realise the best social order through a harmonious rela- Pancrazio, Just outside the modern town, Is built into a temple tionship with the Tao. Their ideal was “this worldly.” Their mys- of the 3rd century B.c., dedicated to Serapis, the south wall of ticism had three stages: (1) the purgation, casting out selfishness the cella of which is alone preserved. The other ruins belong and self-seeking; (2) union with the Tao, by which the indi- in the main to the Roman period. The theatre, largely hewn in vidual lost his individuality with the distraction of the contraries; the rock, is of Greek origin, but entirely reconstructed. The (3) power, which enabled the individual merged with the Tao to stage and its adjacent buildings, especially the wall, in two storeys, at the back, are preserved. The view is of exceptional escape the limitations of time and space. Taoism, as a Religion.—Taoism as a religion is inherent in beauty, Mount Etna being ‘seen from the summit to the base on Taoism as a philosophy. The early mystics practised breathing the south-west, while to the north the rugged outlines of the and abstaining from food, and sought longevity and a future life coast and the mountains of Calabria across the sea to the northin the Taoist paradise. The religious aspect did not become prom- east make up one of the most famous views in the world: There inent, however, until the Han dynasty (206 B.c—A.D. 221), when are also remains of a much smaller theatre (the so-called Odeum,), the Taoists occupied themselves in compounding the elixir of life and some large cisterns; ‘a large bath or tank which was ‘apparand in making journeys to the Isles of the Immortals. They ently open, known as the Naumachia, measures 4264 ft. in length also developed several sects which practised exorcism and fortune- and 394 in width. There are remains of houses, tombs, etc., of the Roman period, and fine specimens of Romanesque and Gothic telling and exercised considerable political power. The rise of Taoism as a church is.attributed to Chang Tao-Ling architecture (notably the Palazzo Corvaia).in the modern town: See Rizzo, Guida di Taormina e dintorni, Catania, 1902. i a (b. A.D. 34), who developed a high degree of magic power which TAPACULO, the name given in Chile to a bird (Pteroptohe transmitted to his heirs, together: with the political prestige Which reputation for such power brought. These took part in a chus albicollis) and applied in an extended sense to “its allied |

TAPANULI—TAPESTRY

798

forms, which constitute a small Passerine family, Pteroptochidae, peculiar to South America. About 20 species are known. The true tapaculo (P. albicollis) has a resemblance to the females of some of the smaller shrikes (Lanius), but differs in its shortened wings and powerful feet. It rarely flies, hops actively on the ground or among bushes with its tail erect, and continually utters various and strange notes—some, says Darwin, are “like the cooing of doves, others like the bubbling of water, and many defy all similes.” The Turco, Hylactes megapodius, is larger, with greatly developed feet and claws, but is very similar in colour and habits. The Turco is distributed through central and northern Chile.

TAPANULI, a residency on the west coast of Sumatra, D. E.

Indies, area, 38,227 sq.km., bounded north by Achin, east by the government of the East Coast of Sumatra, south by the residency of Sumatra West Coast, and west by the Indian Ocean. It is very mountainous, but has flat stretches of alluvial land on the coast between spurs of the great central range of mountains which traverses the length of the residency from north to south and forms a great massif from the centre of the residency to its eastern border which includes the mountain lake Toba, along the eastern shore of which the Tapanuli boundary runs. This lake, regarded as holy, was not seen by a European until 1863 (van der Tuuk). Previous attempts to reach it met with disaster, three Frenchmen and two Americans being murdered on their way to it, in 1835, while, in 1850, Ada Pfeiffer was obliged to turn back on account of native hostility. The lake, which is 3,000 ft. above sea level, is 56 m. long, with an area of 23 sq.m. and a greatest depth of 1,500 feet. It has a large hilly island, Samosir, in the centre, divided from the mainland on the west by a narrow channel. It is bordered on all sides by steep rocks, overhung with vegetation, and surrounded by mountains, and affords magnificent views. A good motor road runs to it from the coast, and there is a road around the lake from Balige to Prapat. There is also a

motor boat service. The mountains of Tapanuli include Malea, in the south, 6,545 ft., Ulu Darat, in the centre, 7,010 ft., and Sibutan, on the northeastern border, 7,972 ft. Small rivers flow westwards from the mountains to the sea, the Gadis, Turu and Sibundong, but they are almost useless for navigation. The coast is either rocky or marshy, but in Tapanuli Bay, which is surrounded by mountains and shut off from the effects of the south-west monsoon by Morsala Island, there is a good harbour with secure anchorage. Cultivation is confned to the valleys and the flat coastal strips, where maize, rice, coco-nuts, coffee, nutmegs and rubber are grown. Gold and silver are known in close association. Pop. (1927) 895,416, largely Batak. The inhabitants consist of Mohammedans and Christians, whilst many remain pagans, with traces of Hinduistic practices mingled with their animism. (See SUMATRA.) They grow rice, coffee, tobacco and maize, also fruit and vegetables, and keep horses, cattle, pigs and buffaloes, build picturesque houses, are patriarchal in society, and are good craftsmen in wood, ivory and copper, whilst the women weave their own clothes. Cannibalism has been shed, and as the country becomes more opened up the Bataks become more amenable to outside civilizing influences. They have many languages. The capital and chief port of Tapanuli is Sibolga, pop. 5,822, the headquarters of the Resident, which is connected by road with Lake Toba and the interior generally, and, by the road round the southern end of Lake Toba, with Pematang Siatar, the terminus of the Sumatra West Coast railway, giving access to Medan and Belawan on the coast. A road through the Padang Highlands connects Sibolga with Padang, and a branch from this leads to Natal, a small port on the coast, in the south, whilst there is road connection between Sibolga and Barus, a small port in the north, connected by cable and overhead telegraph with Padang, and, by vessels of the Royal Packet Navigation Company between Barus, Sibolga, Natal and Padang, Bencoolen and Batavia. Exports (1926), were 14,899,537 and imports 5,072,923 guilders. Tapanuli was annexed piecemeal by the Dutch during the nineteenth century.

- TAPE MACHINES see Ticxer. t

TAPESTRY, a term that came to be applied, in English, to stout woven materials of various kinds for hangings, curtains coverings and upholstery. The word is also heir of the term “arras,” so called from the city in Flanders, but has gained a technical meaning of its own. It is in this latter sense that the word is to be used in this article.

Much that used to be called

tapestry is not included, while everything that was formerly called

arras comes within its scope. The differentiation between tapestry and arras continued into the 17th century. George Herbert, in The Temple (1633), writes of “the cloth of State . . . not

of rich arras, but mean tapestrie.” The elimination of the word “arras” and the assumption of its meaning by “tapestry” was accomplished gradually during the 18th century. Origin and Method.—Tapestry is a fabric woven by a primitive and very simple method. Whether the invention took place in one locality, thence becoming known throughout the world, cannot be decided from existing evidence. It is found in early times in places so far apart as Peru, Egypt and China and this is a good reason for the assumption that so obvious a method of weaving threads into a texture came naturally, wherever primitive mankind took to weaving at all. There is no simpler way of pass-

ing threads across one another, over and under, so as to form a coherent texture. It is really on account of this essential simplicity that it came to be used for the large and elaborate pictorial hangings which come first to the mind when the word “tapestry”

is mentioned.

The method is pliable in the hands of the worker,

who is freed from the limitations of the power-loom.

In the

latter, the exact repetition of the design follows as naturally as the multiplication of copies of a printed book, while there is no more reason why tapestries should be alike than why paintings should be. Like other woven fabrics, tapestry consists of warp and weft threads. The warp is the series of parallel threads set out on the loom to the width of the fabric. In some forms of primitive weaving, not yet entirely out of use in remote districts, these warps were hung from a beam, with a weight attached to the lower end of each separate thread to keep it relatively taut during the weaving process. A well-known representation of this form of loom is on a Greek vase from Chiusi, painted with a scene from the Odyssey in which Penelope delays her suitors by working at the loom, during the absence of Ulysses. The first step forward in method was that of securing both ends of the warp by stretching them across a rectangular frame. With the subsequent addition of a simple contrivance for pulling forward the threads in succession in order to pass the weft through behind, the tapestryloom was perfected for its work. This frame or loom, with its parallel row of warp threads, is placed for weaving either upright, when it is known as “high-warp,” or horizontally (low-warp)

with the threads running directly away from the weaver. The former is the better method though the results in each case are approximately the same. Low-warp weaving is about one-third quicker, and the cost is usually about one-half that of high-warp tapestry.

The weft threads, which form the pattern, are inserted by hand, alternately over and under the warps, generally with the aid of a wooden bobbin, a pointed peg-like implement round which the thread is wound. This is the special feature of tapestry-weaving; there is no shuttle passing backwards and forwards right across the fabric, but the threads are only inserted to cover the particular space for each colour as required by the design. Thus 4 tapestry may be compared to a mosaic. In the large tapestry hangings of Europe the warps may be as few as ten to the inch, or as many as 30; in the majority of cases there are less than 20. The higher figure is often exceeded in the fine work such as the Chinese and the Egyptian.

Materials and Colours.—The high-warp weaver sits at the

back of his loom, with the cartoon to be copied placed conveniently near him. A mirror hung before the warp on the other side enables him to gauge the effect as the work goes forward. The loose

ends of the warp at the start and finish of each patch of colour are pulled through to the side at which he works, and are thus left to hang at the back of the finished fabric; otherwise back and

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susceptiveness: (1) submarine cable; (2) quadruplex; (3) multiplex; (4) duplex; and (5) single Morse. Because of the extensive use of multiplex telegraphy interference with circuits of that type is by far the most serious. Small amounts of potential from extraneous sources result in impairment of the maximum speed at which these circuits may be operated; large amounts render the circuits inoperative.

With extremely high potentials persons

operating the circuits may suffer bodily injury, or property dam-

TELEGRAPH age may result. To mitigate the interference from these parasitic currents various means may be applied to the telegraph circuit or to the source of the interference, if this be an electric railway or power supply system. In application to telegraph circuits these mitigative devices may take the form of impedances whose function is to filter out the extraneous current, or of transformers or generators whose function is to interpose in the circuit a potential to counteract that from the outside source. In application to electric railway or power systems, impedances inserted at appropriate points, selection of proper transformer connections, favourable operating methods or transpositions may often be advantageously employed to reduce the inductive influence of the interfering system. Sometimes, however, an increase in the physical separation between systems is the only practicable remedy. Telegraph Statistics——The tabulated statement on p. 890 shows the telegraph wire mileage of the world and the number of messages transmitted. The wire mileage in all cases, except where otherwise indicated, is as of Jan. 1, 1927, and the number of messages transmitted is for the year 1926, except in the cases of Brazil, Ecuador, Paraguay and Guatemala, for which countries statistics for 1926 are not available. In the cases of a few countries there are no statistics of telegrams transmitted, and the space

for such statistics in the table is left blank. SUBMARINE

TELEGRAPHY

History.—Although suggested as early as 1798 by the Spanish

891

is a total of about 3,500 cables in the world, with an aggregate length of over 300,000 miles. It was early realized, even before the first Atlantic cable was laid, that a very sensitive instrument would be needed for the reception of signals on long cables. The mirror galvanometer, invented by Prof. William Thomson, later Lord Kelvin, filled this need for many years. The syphon recorder invented in 1867, which had the advantage of leaving a written record, gradually replaced the mirror galvanometer, and in its improved form is still largely used on long cables. In 1871 the duplex system was introduced, permitting simultaneous transmission of messages in both directions, and the speed of operation has been gradually increased from the initial 15 letters per minute of 1858 to the successful transmission of upwards of 2,500 letters per minute in recent years, while the rate charged dropped from a minimum of about $100 per message to a maximum, between New York and London, of 25 cents per word. Construction.—Fig. 23 shows the constructional details of a modern submarine cable. The conductor is made of copper, stranded or having a central wire surrounded by strips wound

spirally. Over this is moulded the insulation. Some of the shorter cables have made use of india rubber as an insulator, but although progress has been and is still being made to develop substitutes, gutta-percha remains the best material for the purpose. The operating characteristics of a cable depend upon the size of the conductor and the thickness of the insulating wall. Some of the very recent cables are loaded by means of a thin ribbon or thread of highly permeable nickel-iron alloy wound around the copper conductor, which has the effect of greatly increasing the

scientist Salva, and made the subject of several experiments in the early part of the roth century by Morse, Wheatstone and others, which demonstrated the possibility of submarine telegraphy, it was not until the introduction of gutta-percha as an insulator and the invention of a machine for applying it to wire, speed at which the cable can be worked. To protect the insulation against injury by marine borers, such as the teredo worm, a brass that the submarine cable became commercially attractive. In 1850 a cable was laid between England and France, but it tape is wound around the gutta-percha on all cables except those was broken shortly after communication was established because lying in very deep water. Next comes a filler of jute yarns which of its inherent physical weakness. The addition of galvanized acts as a cushion for the armour or sheathing wires. These are iron armour wires, wound with a long spiral lay on a cushion of wound on with a long spiral lay. For cables used in the deeper portions of the ocean it is the practice to use galvanized steel wires jute yarns around the central gutta-percha-covered copper conof high tensile strength, and as the depth of water decreases the ductor, contributed the necessary strength when the next attempt steel wires are replaced by galvanized wrought iron wires of larger was made in 1851, and this cable, between Dover and Calais, size. As the cable approaches the shore the armouring is made proved successful. In the next few years a number of cables were heavier until at the shore it is doubly sheathed. This added prolaid between England and adjacent shores, between Denmark and tection in shallow water is necessary to prevent damage by ships’ Sweden, and in the Mediterranean. The first attempt to lay a anchors, trawling gear, rocks and, in northern latitudes, icebergs. cable across the Atlantic in 1857 ended in failure when the cable An outer double wrapping of tarred jute yarn, or tape steeped in broke at a depth of 2,000 fathoms. In the absence of any means a compound of tar and pitch, preserves the armour from corroof recovering the end the project had to be abandoned. In Aug. sion. So efficacious is this covering that lengths of cable have 1858 a cable was successfully laid between Valentia, Ireland, and been picked up in deep water after more than 40 years of cohHearts Content, Newfoundland. This was operated for about tinuous submersion with the jute wrapping and compound still three months, when it became interrupted in deep water and could adhering to the armour wires, the latter being to all intents and not be repaired. In the years 1865 and 1866 two more cables were purposes as good as ever. In addition, extra protection is now TYPE 0? 15/0? Y.S, given to deep-sea armourings by taping each individual armour TYPE D 18/131 Y.S. wire. The outside diameter of the ordinary deep-sea type of cable Type B '2/,° y.s. is about 1 in., and the weight in air about two tons per nautical mile. The shore-end types run as large as 34 in. in diameter and weigh as much as 30 tons per nautical mile. bA INTERMEDIATE DEEP SEA Cable Laying.—It is the usual practice for the manufacturer SHORE END to lay the cable and test it to ascertain whether the specified elecDEEP SEA CABLE CONDUCTOR 18 No. 134(.090//) trical characteristics have been met before turning it over to the DOUBLE YARN SERVING GALY. AND COMPOUND operating company. The ships used for laying are specially constructed to carry cable in cylindrical tanks which are built into the ship’s structure. The largest ship of its kind anywhere in = COPPER WIRE FIG 23.—CONSTRUCTIONAL DETAILS OF A MODERN SUBMARINE CABLE the world, the C.S. “Dominia,” which is both owned and operlaid; the first broke when about two-thirds laid, but the second ated by the Telegraph Construction and Maintenance Company was successfully laid, and soon afterwards the end of the 1865 has four of these tanks, which have a combined net coiling cable was picked up with difficulty and its layiig was completed. capacity of 190,000 cubic feet. In them may be stowed away a These cables, with which the nares of the American financier, cable over 3,000 m. long. The cable is coiled down around a cen-

Cyrus Field, and the British scientist, Lord Kelvin, are closely associated, were operated by the Atlantic Telegraph Company without competition until 1869, when thé Frerich Atlantic Tele-

graph Company opened a cablé for traffic. With the success of the Atlantic cables established, the growth of submarine cable systems was tapid until at present (1929) there are 21 cables across

the Atlantic between North America atid Europe alone, and there

tral hub-shapéd cone in horizontal layers, starting at the tank wall and coiling in toward the centre. When the cone is reached the cable is run out radially to the wall, again with wédge-shaped strips of wood, called “feather-edges,” on either side to protéct it from the weight of the layers above, and the process is repeated. When paying out the cable it is pulled through a circular hatch in the deck above the cone, several hands being stationed in the

892

TELEGRAPH

tank to guard against kinks forming, or the cable fouling. In loading the vessel the cable from the top of one tank is led over into the bottom of the adjacent tank, making it necessary only to slacken the speed of paying out when changing over from one tank to the next. From the tank the cable passes to the paying out gear. This machinery for controlling the stress on the cable is placed both at the bow and stern. All long pay-outs are made over the stern, but it is often more convenient to pay out short sections over the bow, as it is to this point that the cable is brought for splicing. The machine consists of a large drum 6 ft. in diameter, around which several turns of cable are taken to provide the necessary friction. On the same shaft is a series of water-cooled adjustable band brakes and connected to it is a large fan brake. The cable then passes through a dynamometer, which gives an indication of the stress, leaving the ship over the bow or stern guide, as the case may be. It is not uncommon for the stress on the cable in paying out in deep water to amount to as much as two tons. In order to check the amount of slack in the cable there is paid out at the same time a taut steel piano wire which is carefully measured and compared with the length of cable paid out. When passing over fairly smooth bottom the amount of slack paid out rarely exceeds 10%, but care is taken not to leave the cable in a state of tension on an uneven bottom, or suspended in bights over rocks, etc., as injury to the cable would result. The heavy shore end of the cable is landed from a smaller ship which is moored close to the beach and a line sent ashore, supported by barrel floats. When enough of the cable has been landed the barrels are cut away. The remaining length on the smaller ship is then paid out and the end buoyed in water sufficiently deep to permit the deep sea ship to approach. The latter takes the buoyed end aboard over the bow, a splice is made, and the cable transferred to the stern. The ship then starts on her long voyage. When approaching her destination the cable is cut and the end buoyed in deep water. When this shore end of the cable has been laid out to meet the buoyed deep-sea end, both ends are taken aboard and tested; the final splice is then made and the cable dropped over the bow. During cable laying testing is carried on continuously by a staff of electricians, whose duty it is to detect and report any fault in the cable. Should the cable develop a fault or break while being laid, the ship is equipped with special means of coping with the trouble. From the results of electrical testing it is possible to arrive at the length of cable between the ship and the fault.

Cable Repairing—When

trouble develops in a submarine

cable it is usually possible to localize the fault or break with a fair degree of accuracy by determining the electrical resistance or capacity of the core between the testing point and the point of failure by the Wheatstone bridge method. Knowing the characteristics of the cable it is possible to deduce the distance in miles, which interpreted in conjunction with the charted route enables the navigator of the repair ship to place a mark buoy within working range. In deep water it is necessary to use a cutting grapnel which automatically grips the cable and cuts away one end when it is lifted. The very ingenious construction of the Lucas grapnel permits it to be set so as to cut away whichever end is desired. A suddenly increased stress on the grapnel rope which passes through the dynamometer gives an indication when the prongs of the grapnel encounter an obstacle. The vessel is stopped and the picking-up gear is started. When the cable has been raised to the surface it is secured with a rope,.or chain stopper and taken aboard. Test leads are attached to determine the electrical condition of the cable and the fault is localized. When the line is electrically clear to one of the shore stations the end is buoyed.

in both directions; the cable from the ship’s tanks is stoppered off and cut, and the final splice is made on the ship’s deck in a bight both sides of which are secured with stoppers, by means of which it is eased over the bow and the lines holding it are cut away. OPERATION

Simplex.—The simplex method—sending single messages in one direction only—of operating submarine cables is not generally

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employed except where it is difficult to maintain a duplex balance. The cable capacity when using the simplex method is approximately 40% lower than when operated by the duplex method. When it is considered that a modern cable of about 2,000 m. in length costs about $4,000,000 and that the annual expense for maintenance and operation is approximately $600,000 it can be readily seen that the highest possible traffic-carrying capacity is essential in reducing operating costs.

Duplex.—Duplex operation, or the transmission of messages in both directions at the same time, is made possible by so arranging the recording instruments that while responding to signals

from the distant end of the cable they do not respond to signals sent into the end of the cable at which they are located. There are several methods of duplexing, all of which depend upon the use of an artificial line for balancing, as is the case in land line duplex operation. The artificial line for ocean cable operation must more nearly duplicate the real cable in electrical characteristics and it is therefore designed and built to suit the cable which it is to balance. Transmission.—Transmission of messages over. ocean cables may be accomplished manually or by automatic means. The common code employed is an adaptation of International Morse in which dots and dashes are transmitted as impulses of equal duration but opposite in polarity. The manual means of transmitting the international code makes use of a double lever key, which is so arranged that the depression of one key connects one polarity of battery to the line to form a dot, and a depression of the other key connects the other polarity of the battery to make the dash. In automatic transmission signals are transmitted by means of a motor-driven transmitter controlled by a perforated paper tape.

The tape is prepared in a keyboard perforator (Plate I., fig. 7) by means of which the depression of a single key will perforate the entire combination of dots and dashes corresponding to the letter. This tape (fig. 24) is then passed through the transmitter in which

RREA

transmitting contacts for either dot or dash polarity are controlled

through mechanical levers by the perforations in the tape. The

A

FIG. 25.—UNDULATING LINE EMBODYING CODE

transmitter is operated at the highest speed permitted by the

electrical characteristics of the cable. Receiving.—The reception of submarine cable signals necessitates the use of extremely sensitive and delicate instruments. The underlying principle of older types of cable receiving appaShould the cable be in danger of parting, a length of new cable ratus is that of the galvanometer, an instrument whose, function from the ship’s tanks is spliced on and paid out until all the cable it is to determine whether an electric current is present in a given suspended off the bottom is new. The ship is then free to go after conductor and in what, direction it is flowing, The recorder. comthe cable on the other side of the fault. When this end has been monly used consists of a galvanometer, to the moving coil of raised and the tests indicate its continuity and satisfactory insula- which is attached an ink syphon resting upon a moving paper tape. tion all the way to the shore station, cable from the ship’s tanks When no signals are being received. the syphon will draw a conis spliced on and paying out commences towards the buoyed end, tinuous straight line along the centre of the tape. As signals are which, when it is reached, is taken aboard. Final tests are taken received the resulting deflections of, the galvanometer will cause

TELEKI—TEL EL AMARNA the syphon to move above or below its normal position, causing undulations in the line. Undulations above the centre indicate dots and those below the line indicate dashes. For operating cables up to approximately 600 m. in length at a

speed of about 200 letters per minute the received signal is of sufficient strength to operate the recorder directly from the cable. In order to increase the operating speed of a long cable above a point where satisfactory results can be obtained with a syphon recorder alone, it is necessary to magnify the weakened incoming signals before passing them through the recorder. The instrument most extensively used for this purpose is known as a magnifier, the application of which is similar to that of a Morse relay in land line operation. The magnifier, like the recorder, comprises a galvanometer which is so arranged that deflections of the galvanometer control current in a local circuit containing a recorder. The important feature of the magnifier is maximum sensitivity and to obtain this functional losses and inertia of moving parts are kept at a minimum. Several means are employed for accomplishing this purpose. In one type the armature of the galvanometer carries a small mirror which deflects a beam of light so that it will fall on a light-sensitive cell connected in the local circuit containing the recorder. Variations of light intensity falling on the cell cause its resistance to be varied, resulting in corresponding variations in the local current through the recorder. In another common type the galvanometer moves a fine light wire carrying a portion of the. local currents into proximity with a heating coil or blast of air, so that it becomes heated or cooled, thus varying its resistance and causing variations in the local current. In recent installations magnifiers have been replaced by vacuum tube amplifiers associated with shaping networks to amplify and improve the shape of the received signals.

893

peater is used, similar to the regenerative repeaters employed on land lines. ' In recent years printing systems have been applied to ocean cables, and on the high-speed loaded cables an adaptation of the American multiplex system is being used. Chief Submarine Cables of the World.—There are at the present time upwards of 3,000 submarine cables in the world with an aggregate length of more than 300,000 nautical miles. The preceding table shows the number and length of important cables operated by Governments and the principal cable companies or systems. Short channel and harbour cables are omitted. Almost 75% of the total cable mileage is privately owned and operated. Breriocrarpny—G. M. Baines, Beginner’s Manual of Submarine Cable Testing and Working (London, 1921) ;,J. H. Bell, R. B. Shanck and D. E. Branson, “Metallic Polar Duplex Telegraph System for Long Small-Gauge Cables,” Transactions, A.J.E.E., vol. xliv., pp. 316-326 (1925); Sir Ch. Bright, Submarine Telegraphs (London), The Story of the Atlantic Cable (New York, 1903) ; F. J. Brown, Cable and Wireless Communications of the World (London, 1927); D. H. Cameron, Submarine Telegraphy (1927); J. C. Douglas, Manual of Telegraph Construction (London, 1875); J. A. Fleming, The Propagation of Electric Currents in Telephone and Telegraph Conductors (New York, 1927); H. H. Harrison, Printing Telegraph Systems and Mechanisms (New York, 1923), “Historical Basis of Modern Printing Telegraphy” Inst. Post Office Electrical Engineers, A. Paper (London, April 19, 1905) ; E. Hausman, Telegraph Engineering (New York, 1922); T. E. Herbert, Telegraphy (London, 1920); E. J. Houston and A. E. Kennelly, Electric Telegraphy (New York, 1896); H. W. Malcolm, The Theory of the Submarine Telegraph and Telephone Cable (London, 1917); D. McNicol, American Telegraph Practice (New York, 1913) ; H. Nyquist, R. B. Shanck and S. 1. Cory, “Measurement of Telegraph Transmission,” Transactions, AI.E.E., vol. xlvi. pp. 367-376 (1927) ; H. W. Pendry, Baudot Printing Telegraph System (London, 1919), Elementary Telegraphy (London, 1921) ; A. H. Reiber, “Printing Teleyes nabe n eaa gape eyes Shee to Lae

xli, pp. 39-51

(1922) ; G. A. Schreiner,

Cabtes ang W ire-

to repeat | &-L-E.-E. vol. Automatic Relays.—In many cases it is desirable the Foreign Relations of the United States less and Their Role in Sellars, . . . . “A Brief Chronology for Students of (Boston, 1924); H. G. automatically from one section of cable into another signals Posts,” The Telegraph and Telephone Jourand Telephones Telegraphs, | used relay cable a that essential rather than to record them. It is for this purpose shall have a reliable method for making electrical | nal (London, Nov. 1927 seg.) ; W. D. Weaver, Catalogue of the.Wheeler -Z agepre 2 e 2 Aera contact. All of the standard types of cable relays employ: the | Gift 2 neds eee cal oe Engineers also See ones ew k York, 1909). > : ar CER and differ only in the | gree UUE SOI of the moving coil Agalvanometer, relay may be used with or without Western Union engineering department text-books, prepared

principle method of making contact.

a magnifier in the circuit, the relay alone being approximately as

sensitive as a syphon recorder. The relay in passing signals merely strengthens the current for the next cable section. l

for the American School of Correspondence, Chicago, Ill., dealing with various phases of construction, maintenance, operation of telegraph lines and cables, systems, etc.

TELEKI, PAUL, Count (1879-

JON (N. C.) ), Hungarian politician

If the signals to be repeated are being received from a cable and geographer, studied jurisprudence and geographyi in Budasection approximately 100 m. or more in length, they will be so pest. After being elected to Parliament in 1905 he spent some ; abroad, and published Atlas zur Gedistorted that the use of a relay of the type described above would years in geographical study be impracticable. In such instances a regenerative type of re- schichte der Kartographie der Japanischen: Inseln (Budapest, 1909), crowned with the Prix Jomard by the French -Soviété de . :

Géographie. He was foreign minister in the cabinet of Admiral

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Ikhnaton: (Amenophis IV.) as the new capital of his empire (in place of Thebes) when he abandoned the worship of Ammon and

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In 1924 he served in a scientific capacity on the commission

appointed by the League of Nations to enquire into the Mosul — frontier dispute between Great Britain and Turkey. © TEL EL AMARNA, the name now given to a collection of rums and rock tombs in Upper Egypt near the east bank of the Nile, 58 m. by river below Assiut and 190:m. above Cairo.

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professor of economic geography in the University of Budapest.

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The ruins are those of Akhet-Aton, a city built c. 1360 B.c. by

devoted himself to that of Aton, z.e., the sun. Shortly: after the

death of Ikhnaton the court returned to: Thebes,..and the city,

after an existence of perhaps only twenty years—of fifty, years

at the utmost—was abandoned. Not having been inhabıted since, the lines of the streets and the ground-plans of many buildings,

can still be.traced. ‘The chief ruins are those of the royal palace, and of the House of the Rolls; there are scanty remains of the

great temple. In the palace are four pavements of painted stucco

work in fair preservation. They were discovered in 1891-92 by Prof. Flinders Petrie. In the Rolls House were discovered in 1887 by the fellahin some 300 clay tablets inscribed with cunei-

form characters. They are letters and state documents addressed

894

TELEMACHUS— TELEPHONE

to Amenophis IV. and his father, from the kings of Babylon, Assyria, etc., and from the Egyptian governors in Syria and neighbouring districts. The greater part of them were purchased for the Berlin Museum, but a large number were secured for the British Museum. Their contents proved invaluable for the reconstruction of the history, social and political, of Egypt and Western Asia during that period. Hewn out of the sides of the hills on the east are two groups of tombs; one group lies 14 m. N.E., and the other 3 m. S. of the city. The tombs, all of which belong to the time of Ikhnaton, are full of interesting scenes in the peculiar style of the period, accompanied by hymns to the sun god. The most important tomb is, perhaps, that of Meri-Ra, high priest of the sun, which has a façade nearly roo ft. long and two large chambers. In the early

centuries of Moslem rule in Egypt the northern tombs were inhabited by Copts, one tomb, that of Pa-Nehesi, being turned into a church. The tombs and the great stelae sculptured on the cliffs which mark the bounds of the city of Akhet-Aton have been the object of special study by N. de G. Davies on behalf of the Archaeological Survey of Egypt. The results, with numerous plates and plans, are embodied in a series of memoirs, Rock Tombs of El Amarna (six parts, 1903-08).

TELEMACHUS, in Greek legend, son of Odysseus and Penelope (Odyssey, i-iv., xv.-xxiv.; Hyginus, Fab. 127). When he reached manhood he visited Pylos and Sparta to make inquiries about his father. On his return, he found that Odysseus had reached home before him. Then father and son, aided by Eumaeus and Philoetius, slew the suitors of Penelope (see OpvsSEUS). According to later tradition he married Circe (or Calypso) after Odysseus’ death.

TELEMARK

or THELEMARK,

a district of southern

Norway, in the amt (county) of Bratsberg. It covers the uplands and fjelds of the southward projection of the country, having its highest point in the Gaustafjeld (6,200 ft.); and contains several large lakes, as Nordsj6, Bandaksvand, Tinsjé, Mjésvand

and Totakvand.

The two first are connected by the Bandaks

canal, giving access from the port of Skien to Dalen at the head of Bandaksvand. From Dalen, a driving road much frequented by travellers runs north-west, through beautiful scenery. It

crosses the fjelds at a height of 3,088 ft. on the way to Réldal

from which branches run to Odde and through Bratlandsral respectively. One of the finest waterfalls in Europe, Rjukanfos (415 ft.), provides power for nitric acid works, and Ulefos, near the Bandak canal, for pulp mills. Notodden is a growing town with saltpetre works. Skien, the capital (g.v.) is a port; also Kraguö, Porsgrund (pop. 8,850), and Brevik.

TELEOLOGY, in philosophy and biology, means explanation

by reference to the realisation of some purpose or end (Greek Tédos, an end), contrasted with explanation by efficient causes only. Teleology is one of the oldest, probably the oldest, mode of explanation. Human conduct is nearly always explained by reference to the ends pursued, or alleged to be pursued; and the tendency to explain everything else after the analogy of human

behaviour is very old, as old probably as human nature itself. The method of explanation by reference to ends received formal and explicit recognition in Aristotle’s list of four causes which

included “final” causes. Aristotle, of course, insisted on the importance of discovering the “material,” “formal,” and “efficient” causes as well as the “final” causes. But during the middle ages the others tended to be ignored more or less, and too much attention was paid to “final” causes even in physical and chemical investigations, which consequently became rather fantastic. The

founders of modern science had a hard struggle to instate or re-

instate the “mechanical philosophy” at least side by side with teleological explanation. The pendulum naturally swung to the other extreme. Not only physical and chemical phenomena, but even biological phenomena were explained mechanically. Descartes, for example, regarded the lower animals as mere automata. In time, however, it was found impossible to explain biological facts adequately by means of mechanical conceptions only, and teleology of one kind or another has met with increasing recognition in recent times.

See MECHANISM;

EMERGENCE;

EVOLUON;

METAPHYSICS:

Screntiric

Meruop;

L. T. Hobhouse,

Development

and Pur.

pose (1913, etc.). TELEOSTEI. In the classification issued in 1846 by Johannes

Müller, the recent bony fishes were arranged in three sub-classes,

Dipneusti, Ganoidei and Teleostei, the last including the great

majority of the fishes, all those with a homocercal caudal fin. Subsequent work, especially on fossil fishes, has shown that the ganoids are not a natural group, some being related to very primi-

tive fishes, others approaching the teleosts, namely the Holostei, which include the recent Amia and Lepidosteus. The extinct Pholidophoridae and Oligopleuridae are exactly intermediate in struc. ture between the Holostei and Teleostei, and have been in. cluded by some authorities in the one group, by others in the other. This has led C. T. Regan to combine the Holostei and Teleostei

to

form

one

sub-class,

termed

Neopterygii.

(See

FISHES.)

TELEOSTOMI,

a name given by some authorities to the

bony fishes, either with or (usually) without the lung-fishes: in the former sense it is equivalent to the class Pisces, above the level of the Selachians. (See Fiswes.) TELEPATHY was defined by F. W. H. Myers, who invented the word in 1882, as “the communication of impressions of

any kind from one mind to another, independent of the recog-

nized channels of sense.” It is to be noted that Myers does not postulate that both or either of the minds he mentions should be the minds of living persons; for supernormal communication between the minds of living persons the phrase “telepathy between the living” should in strictness be used, but often “telepathy” by itself is loosely used in this sense. ‘“Thought-transference” is a less technical word with the same meaning. (See also Cramr-

VOYANCE, PSYCHICAL RESEARCH.) TELEPHONE. Ina broad sense, the term telephone or tele-

phony includes the entire art of speech transmission with the many accessories and operating methods which research, development, and invention have supplied to facilitate and extend conversation at a distance by electrical means. The telephone was invented in 1876, at Boston, Mass., U.S.A., by Alexander Graham Bell (g.v.). While endeavouring to construct a “harmonic telegraph” with which he hoped to send several telegraphic messages simultaneously over a single wire, Prof. Bell was also trying to transmit speech electrically. On June 2, 1875, he succeeded in transmitting by wire the sound of a twanging clock spring. Further

experiments produced on March ro, 1876, an instrument which successfully transmitted a complete sentence, Prof. Bell’s sum-

mons to his assistant in another room: “Mr. Watson, come here, I want you.” Bell himself, during his experiments, stated the correct principle of telephone transmission as follows:

If I could make a current of electricity vary in intensity precisely as the air varies in density during the production of sound, I should

be able to transmit speech telegraphically.

Bell was the first to utilize a continuous current, intensified and diminished in proportion to the sound waves projected into the transmitter. Others had predicted the possibility of transmitting speech by wire but had not hit upon the only practicable method. Charles Bourseul, a Frenchman, published an article as early as 1854 in which he described a method that he believed might be used to transmit speech electrically. An Italian named Antonio Meucci, about 1857 sought some way of transmitting the voice by wire. In 1861 Philipp Reis, a German, produced an instrument constructed along lines similar to those laid down by Bourseul, which would transmit sound of a constant pitch, but proved incapable of transmitting continuous speech. In the

United States, several other experimenters were working along

lines similar to Bell’s at about the same time. Prof. Elisha Gray, in fact filed a caveat (q.v.) on the subject in the United States Patent Office only a few hours after Bell filed his application for a patent on his “improvement in telegraphy,” as he described his invention of the telephone. The claims of Prof. Gray and of other American inventors, notably Prof. A. E. Dolbear and Daniel Drawbaugh, were threshed out iùn prolonged litigation which resulted in Bell’s patent being upheld and his claims to be the in-;

ventor of the telephone being officially established.

2

IN THE UNITED STATES]

TELEPHONE

Introduction.—Public apathy in the United States and in Great Britain and other countries was one of the most disheartening difficulties faced by those who were endeavouring to introduce the tele-

phone. The development of the telephone business was under-

895

not affording physical connection with the Bell System. The total

investment in telephone plant and equipment in the United States was, on March 32, 1929, over $3,850,000,000, of which $3,415,-

000,000 represented the investment of the Bell System. During taken by a group of Prof. Bell’s backers, under the leadership of the year ending March 31, 1929, the Bell System traffic averaged Thomas Sanders and Gardiner G. Hubbard, whose daughter Bell daily 57,448,000 exchange conversations and 2,902,000 toll consoon afterwards married. They began renting or lending tele- versations, a total of 60,350,000. In addition, the connecting and phones in pairs to individuals for local communication. The tele- non-connecting companies transmitted a daily average of 17,900,phoning was all done over a single iron wire connecting the two ooo exchange conversations and 370,000 toll conversations, a total instruments with grounded return circuits. There were no switch- of 18,270,000 conversations. The grand total of telephone mesboards to afford communication among a number of users, calling sages for the United States during that year was more than devices were extremely crude and transmission was uncertain and 78,000,000 completed conversations a day. About 415,000 perpoor at best. sons are employed by the telephone industry in the United In 1878 the first telephone switchboard for commercial service States, of whom 350,000 are employees cf the Bell Telephone was placed in operation at New Haven, Conn., with twenty-one Companies. In addition, some 65,000 are employed by the Westsubscribers. Those interested in introducing the Bell telephone ern Electric Company, which manufactures standardized telephone to public use early adopted the permanent policy of leasing tele- equipment and apparatus for the Bell System. The Bell Telephones instead of selling them, and granted licenses to authorized phone Laboratories, Inc., which conducts research along lines conagents or licensees for the commercial development of the tele- nected with every phase of the electrical transmission of speech, phone business in many parts of the United States. These licensee employs a total of about 5,100 people. agencies gradually developed into local exchange systems and DEVELOPMENT AS TO USE ultimately into local operating companies. The owners of the teleThe telephone industry in the United States has attained its phone patent early incorporated their business, and funds were raised for its progressive development, under the leadership of present development in response to a rapid and sustained growth Theodore N. Vail, who became General Manager in 1878. Within in public demand for telephone service throughout the country. ten years after the issuance of the Bell patent the Bell Telephone This is illustrated in the following table showing the increase in System had attained an organization approximating its present the total number of telephones in the United States since 1877: Telephone Development in the United States form. The local systems were gradually brought together into regional companies operating throughout a state or several states. Number of Telephones per The telephone systems of these regional companies were linked together by long distance circuits operated by the American Telephone and Telegraph Company. This company was originally formed to build and operate the long lines as a subsidiary of the American Bell Telephone Company, which had become the parent company of the Bell System by acquiring the ownership of the Bell patents and purchasing stock in the regional telephone companies. Later the American Telephone and Telegraph Company exchanged its stock for that of the American Bell Telephone Company and became the parent company of the Bell System.

Growth of the Business.—Following the expiration of the basic telephone patent, a large number of so-called “independent” telephone companies, not affiliated with the Bell System, were established all over the country. In many cases these companies brought telephone service to places in which the Bell System did not operate. Some, however, engaged in competition with the Bell telephone companies in their localities; and it required actual experience of the inconveniences of telephone competition to convince the public of the fact that two telephone companies In a single community are a source of annoyance and unnecessary expense to the telephone-using public. The fact that one had to subscribe for both of the competing telephone services in order to be in communication with all of the telephone subscribers in the locality finally resulted in a popular demand for the unifica-

tion of the telephone service. In many communities competing telephone systems were consolidated. Other independent companies were afforded facilities for physical connection with the lines of the Bell System. The linking up of these local telephone systems, which are now known as “connecting companies,” makes possible interconnection among more than gg per cent. of all the telephones in the United States. Subscribers of the Bell telephone companies and of the connecting companies are thus alike afforded access over the long distance lines of the Bell System to almost any other telephone anywhere in the United States as well as to other countries in North America and overseas. On March 31, 1929 the twenty-four Associated Companies, which with the American Telephone and Telegraph Company make up the Bell System, owned and operated 14,784,000 telephones and 6,242 central offices. In addition, the connecting companies, which number nearly 8,300 besides more than 30,000 Bell connecting rural lines, owned and operated 4,670,000 telephones and 13,065 central offices. There were also in the United States at that date 142,000 telephones owned and operated by companies

End of year

1877 1880 1885 1890 80s Ig00

TOOK I9IO IQI5

. a .

Te. o

. a wt

telephones

-%

a. se‘

1920

$o

a a]

2,400 47,900 155,800 227,900 339,500 1,355,900

O°005 0:09 0.27 0°36 0.48 1°76

4,126,900 7,635,400 10,523,500

4.85 8-19 10.39

13,329,400

12:43

18,523,000

15°79

1925

16,935,900

1928

19,341,000

1927

100 Population

14.76 16.32

This growth is evidence of the extent to which the American people have acquired the “telephone habit.” In rural sections the

telephone has mitigated the discomforts of life in isolated farm houses, and is of assistance in marketing.

The usefulness of the telephone is largely increased by the fact that it has become almost universal, so that practically any point can be reached by telephone. Business concerns find it profitable to make the telephone service an integral part of the organization for the administration of their business, thus keeping their main offices in direct, constant touch with branch establishments and travelling representatives, and making systematic use of the telephone in sales campaigns. The uses of the telephone for business,

social and other purposes are, of course, too numerous to be mentioned in detail. In newspaper work, in connection with police and fire protection, in train dispatching, în the operation of taxicabs, in finance, in personal shopping, the telephone is filling an ever wider field of usefulness. It is said that New York brokerage houses do more than 75 per cent. of their business by telephone. TELEPHONE

PLANT IN THE UNITED

STATES

The term ‘‘telephone plant” includes (1) the telephone apparatus and wiring at the subscribers’ premises; (2) the central office switching equipment (with the buildings that contain it) for interconnecting subscribers’ lines; and (3) the aerial and underground wires and cables with their pole lines and conduits, which connect the subscribers’ stations with the central offices and the latter with each other, whether they be in the same city or in different cities. This plant makes it possible, at the present time, for any user of the telephone service to be connected promptly with any other station of the telephone system, and to converse easily,

896

TELEPHONE

[IN THE

UNITED

STATES

by electrical means, with the person called, after the connection is seded by the granular carbon type, growing out of an invention by established, regardless of distance. The systems which enable this nation-wide service to be rendered are necessarily complex and intricate and they include a multitude of auxiliary devices and appurtenances. The following brief description deals only with the principal kinds of telephone plant.

Hunnings and employing a variable resistance element consisting of a small chamber filled with granules of carbon. The “solid back” type, an improved form of granular carbon transmitter and a prototype of modern instruments, was the invention of Anthony

Plant at Subscribers’ Stations.—This includes the sets (of either the “wall” or “desk” pattern); receivers, transmitters, and induction coils; bell boxes, coin boxes, paystation booths and also

directed toward the further improvement of transmitters. Plate I., fig. 1, shows a cross-section of a modern telephone transmitter. Substation Wiring Plans—-In the case of business offices and residences, additional telephone facilities in great variety, be-

the private branch exchange switchboards, such as are found in hotels, department stores and large mercantile establishments. Substation Sets—-There are three types of telephone sets in

general use: (1) the “wall set” (Plate I., fig. 4) adapted for attachment, at convenient height, on the wall of a room; (2) the “desk set” consisting of a pedestal, rising from a substantial base, and supporting the transmitter, and the receiver hung on a

switchhook; (3) the “hand set” (Plate I., fig. 5) in which a transmitter and a receiver, of suitable design, are attached at opposite ends of a handle. This unit normally rests on a cradle surmounting a circular base. Both “desk” and “hand” sets are provided with flexible connecting cords so that they are movable within the limits fixed by the length of the cord. With them is used a bell box, usually mounted beneath a desk or in some other inconspicuous place, containing the call bell, induction coil and other auxiliary apparatus. For carrying on the telephonic conversation, two instruments are required, the transmitter and ‘the receiver. The former converts the speech waves in the air into their electrical replicas on the wire; the latter performs the reverse operation of converting electrical speech waves into sound waves in the air. At first, a single instrument, placed alternately to the mouth and the ear, was used for talking and listening. Shortly, however, it was found desirable to provide each subscriber with two identical instruments, one (the receiver) to be used for listening, the other (the transmitter) to be used for talking. Bell’s first instruments required a battery in the circuit, but the instruments that were first employed commercially had permanent magnets and the speech currents were generated by the motion of the diaphragm. The Receiver—Although the basic scientific principle of the modern telephone receiver follows the original invention of Bell, the structure and design of the instrument have been changed in every essential feature and its efficiency has been greatly increased as the result of continuous experimentation and development work. An early commercial type of receiver was known,

from its shape, as the “butter stamp.” To the end of a permanent magnet was attached a soft iron pole-piece on which was wound a coil of insulated, fine wire. A circular diaphragm of iron, supported by the case or shell of the instrument, was placed with its center close to the end of the pole-piece, but not in contact with it. Speech currents, passing through the winding, varied the attraction of the permanent magnet for the diaphragm, causing the latter to vibrate and produce sound waves in the air corresponding to the speech currents. o S Plate I., fg. 2, shows a cross-section of a type of receiver now

widely used in the United States. Among the improvements embodied in it are a bipolar magnet with two pole-pieces and windings, welded construction, dust-proof case, special kinds of steel, accurate spacing of diaphragm and pole-pieces. and, throughout, the most effective proportioning of its parts. .These features collectively have resulted in increasing its .efficiency and the naturalness of its reproduction of the voice. The Transmitter—The transmitters first used were of the magneto type, similar to receivers, but Bell himself early pointed the way to improvements by his liquid transmitter which contained the principle of the variation of the electrical resistance of the transmitting element under the control of the vibrations of the voice.

Important improvements in the transmitter came

from the use of the principle of the microphone, employing vari-

C. White. Scientific research has been continuously, and still is,

yond the scope of a single set, are frequently employed to meet

the ever-increasing requirements

of modern

life.

“Extension”

telephone sets, connected with the substation line, enable calls to be originated or received from different points in the subscriber’s residence or place of business. By pressing a button,

an extension telephone may be cut off when desired and, where several stations, and more than one line are provided, any one of the stations may be connected to any one of the lines. In some cases, means are provided whereby a secretary may answer calls

on either of two lines and, by suitable switch keys, perform various operations such as holding a call on one line while the principal is talking on another. Many combinations of master sta-

tions, control stations and extension bells in combination with one or more lines are available for the telephone user. Private Branch Exchanges.—A “private branch exchange” is

a switchboard, generally of small size, located at the subscriber’s premises. To it are connected the substation sets of the subscriber’s establishment and it is connected with the central office switchboard by a sufficient number of trunk lines to handle the traffic. Plate I., fig. 3, shows a private branch exchange switchboard for a small number of stations and trunk lines. This is capable of being placed on a desk and operated by a clerk who may also

perform other duties. With this equipment all of the operations

of connecting and disconnecting the local stations with each other and with the central office are performed by means of switch keys. Larger private branch exchanges resemble small central office switchboards, and require the attendance of one or more operators Private branch exchanges are also available which operate in a manner similar to the dial central offices to be described later. Central Office Switching Equipment.—To enable telephone conversations to take place, two substations must be connected together by a pair of wires constituting an electrical circuit called the “line.” If each person having a telephone wished only to talk to one other person and never to any others, the telephone plant would be very simple. Its complications arise from the necessity for connecting together and providing a satisfactory talk between any two of more than rg million stations in the United States. This is a very important aspect in which telephone service differs from such services as water supply, gas and electric light and power, where each customer satisfies his demands by drawing what he needs from a set of mains, and the demands of other

users do not normally affect his own service. To the central office switchboard runs one line (ordinarily one pair of wires) from each telephone individually served. The switchboard must provide means, such as tiny electric lamps, one associated with each line, whereby the calling party can signal the operator when he removes his receiver from its switchhook

to originate a call; means such as a cord and plug and listening key whereby an operator can connect her telephone set momen-

tarily to the calling party’s line to receive the call; means such as the multiple and out-going trunk jacks to enable the operator to connect the calling party’s line with the line of the person

with whom he wishes to talk, whether that line be connected to the same switchboard as is his own, or to some other switchboard in the same city, or whether it must be reached over a trunk line

to some suburban point or over a “toll” or “Long Distance” line. extending to some remote city or town; means for determining whether the line called for is already in use, or “busy”; means

able resistance contacts in a battery circuit. Following the. Ber-

for, ringing the bell at the called station and, finally, when signals indicate that the conversation is ended, means for restoring all

the Bell System in 1878. These early instruments were super-

be either manually operated or of the “dial” type. The general

liner and Edison transmitters of 1877 based on this principle came the Blake transmitter, an improved. type, introduced into

circuits to a state of readiness for another call. Switchboards may

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C. Central

F. Aluminium

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A. Gurrent

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APPARATUS branch-exchange

dial. showing

switchboard.

4. Automatic

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telephone

set

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of manually

operated

switchboard.

7. Photograp

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1. Interior of panel dial office showing frames containing subscribers’ multiple terminals and associated selecting apparatus

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, 3. Rear view of manually operated switchboard. The heavy cabling at the top ts the subscribers’ multiple. One of these switchboards may require as many as 120 operators, and frequently contains as much

AMERICAN

CENTRAL

OFFICE

as 4,000 miles of internal wiring, and as many as 2,000,000 soldered

connections

4. View of 1,200 pair of subscribers cable fanned out to show wires 5. Section of main distributing frame by means of which the subscribers’ lines are connected with the switchboard. It shows the wires cross connecting between incoming cable pairs and interior cable going to the switchboard

TELEPHONE

IN THE UNITED STATES] oeLTIPLE ACKS Ñ

ANSWERING JACK ANSWERING PLUG

ANSWERING JACK

MULTIPLE JACKS TALKING

KEY

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OPERATORS TALKING CIRCUIT AND TELEPHONE SET BY

COURTESY

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AMERICAN

TELEPHONE

AND

TELEGRAPH

CO.

FIG.

1.—SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF TELEPHONE CONNECTION IN COMMON BATTERY EXCHANGE When the subscriber (left) removes his “Receiver” from the ‘“‘Switchhook” an electrical circuit is completed through his set, the “Line Relay” and the battery at the Central Office (the several batteries shown are actualiy one common storage battery). The armature of this relay closes the circuit through the “Line Lamp” associated, with his line, causing it to glow and attract the operator. She inserts the “Answering Piug” in the subscriber’s “Answering Jack” and by operating the “‘Taiking Key’’ is enabled to talk with him. Ascertaining the number desired , she If the line is touches the tip of the ‘‘Calling Plug’ to the sleeve of one of the “Multiple Jacks” associated with the line having that number. “not busy” she inserts the caliing plug and uses the “Ringing Key” to call the subscriber. The heavy lines show the paths of the voice currents in the completed connection. The “Cut-off Relay” disconnects the line relay from across the line when a plug ts inserted in either the multiple or answering Jacks. “Supervisory Lamps” are controlled through the ‘Supervisory Relays” by the position of the subscriber's receiver or handset. In the circuit shown both lamps are dark showing that the subscribers have their receivers off and are talking. When both supervisory lamps light she knows the conversation is finished and will take down the connection by removing the plugs from the jacks

functions of the dial system are similar to those of the manually operated system, the electro-mechanisms of the former, however, being so contrived that most operations, instead of being per-

formed by human operators, are completed by means of switches set in operation and controlled by the electrical impulses which are sent over the line from the substation dial. There are certain limits to the number of telephones which can be given service advantageously on one switchboard. One of these is the economic limit which indicates that, in order tokeep down the length and cost of the lines connecting the telephones with the central office, the subscribers’ stations in certain conveniently sized areas should be grouped to. one central office in each area and the several central offices interconnected by trunk lines. The locations for the central offices, the boundaries of their areas, the type of switchboard to employ and the character and number of the trunk lines are all matters requiring careful study and intricate planning. To reach the smaller central offices, in outlying sections of a large city, from central offices in a distant portion of the city, it is sometimes desirable to use two or more trunk lines connected in “tandem” by the various Pepis at the points between the two offices. Historical.—The first telephone switchboard was put ‘nto service in New Haven, Connecticut, on January 28, 1878, and provided primitive means for accomplishing the fundamental operations of interconnecting substation lines. It served 21 stations on eight grounded lines. In contrast, Plate I., fig. 6 shows a large manually operated switchboard in use in 1928. Such switchboards as this are capable of serving perhaps 20,000 telephones on 10,000 lines and may require as many as 120 operators on duty at the busiest period of the day. One of these large switchboards takes over a year to build and install. It will frequently contain as much as 4,000 miles of internal wiring and as many as two million soldered connections. Plate II., fig. 3 is a rear view of a section of this kind of switchboard and Plate II., fig. 5 shows the “main” frame by means of which the subscribers’ lines are connected with the switchboard. The. electrical, circuit of the manually operated common battery

switchboard is shown diagrammatically in fig. 1, its operation being explained in the text below the figure. Switchboards employing electrical mechanism, controlled by dials at the subscribers’ stations, to replace human operators as far as practicable, have come into Wide use both in the United States and elsewhere. This “dial” apparatus is the subject of a subsequent section.

The “multiple” principle was an important step in the evolution of the modern type of switchboard. It is employed in dial as well as in manually operated switchboards. As the telephone

business grew, the number of subscribers which a single operator could serve was soon exceeded. For a time the situation was met by providing trunk circuits from one operator to another, but this reduced the speed of service. The invention of the multiple

principle relieved this condition by permitting any one of the operators at a switchboard to establish a connection directly between any subscriber whose line she served and any other subscriber connected with the switchboard. In the multiple system, a “jack” or switch for every line is placed within the reach of each operator at the switchboard. In practice this means one multiple jack per line for every three adjacent operators. With the provision of this increased facility

for interconnecting subscribers’ lines, it became necessary for the operator to know whether or not a line, with which connection was desired, was already in use through a connection made at some remote part of the switchboard. The method and means for determining the condition of the line is known as the “busy test.” Its invention was a necessary accompaniment to the use of the multiple principle. To accomplish the busy test the operator touches the “sleeve” of the jack with the “tip” of a connecting plug. If the line is busy, a click is head in the operator’s receiver. Plate IT., fig. 3, shows the rear of a multiple switchboard; the upper part of the cabling is that used to carry the “multiple” of subscribers’ lines through the switchboard. For many years batteries were required at ‘each subscriber’s station to furnish the current for actuating the transmitter. An important forward step was the development of the common, or centralized battery, system of operation in which a storage battery at the central office overcame the necessity for local batteries at the individual substations. The common battery system also provided a way by which the subscriber could signal the operator merely by removing the receiver from its switchhook, thereby lighting a tiny electric lamp associated with his line at the switchboard. Before this system was devised and perfected, the subscriber signaled the central office by turning a crank that caused a small electrical generator to send a current over

his line which operated an electro-mechanical

annunciator or

“drop” at the switchboard. Improved forms of the latter system, known as the “magneto,” are still advantageous for use in small communities. Buildings —While, in small communities, telephone’ central of-

fice equipment is frequently installed in rented quarters, in the larger places the requirements of the service usually make desir-

able the erection of buildings specially adapted for telephone purposes. The headquarters buildings, located in the larger cities. generally house not only the central administrative forces of the

898

TELEPHONE

telephone company, but often several central office switchboards. Telephone Lines.—Telephone lines connect (r) each telephone to a central office; (2) each central office in a city to every other central office in that city; and (3) all cities, towns, villages and community centres, by means of a vast network of wires. These wire lines are of two forms—cable and open-wire. Cable consists of insulated copper wires, twisted in pairs and assembl ed

into a core which is covered with an envelope of lead alloy.

Ninety per cent. of the telephone wire mileage in the United States is in cable placed either in ducts beneath the streets or suspended aerially by means of steel rope attached to poles. Openwire lines consist of bare wires, generally of copper, attache d to glass insulators supported on pins in crossarms attache d to the tops of poles. The lines in a city area may be divided into two classes: (1) Subscribers’ lines connecting the subscribers’ stations to a central office and (2) trunk lines which connect the offices together. In a typical city installation, a rubber covered pair of wires, known as the “drop” Wire, runs from the subscriber’s premises to a cable terminal. In densely built blocks the connection is frequently made by wires attached to the walls of buildings. From the cable terminal, the line is continu ed toward the central office in a small cable, often containing 25 or so pairs of wires and known as “block” cable, which connects with the larger “feeder” cables that run as directly as practicable to a central office. In densely built areas the feeder cables are generally placed in underground ducts; elsewhere they are placed overhead. As the result of the cable development work describ ed in a later section, telephone cables containing many hundre ds of pairs of wires are now available and are employed in the more congested districts. Plate I., fig. 8 shows a cable, of the type used for main feeder routes, containing 1,818 pairs of 26-gauge wires. The installation of the subscribers’ cable distribution plant, consisting of block cables, and main and subsidiary feeder cables is preceded by a careful engineering study of the present and probabl e future demand for telephone service in order that the plant may be so planned as to enable these demands to be adequat ely met. Trunk cables usually contain larger wires than subscribers’ cables. In large metropolitan districts, where there are many central offices, the number of trunk circuits requir ed is very large; sometimes as high as one trunk circuit for each eight subscribers’ lines. Trunk routes are usually “double-tracked,” t.e., two groups of circuits (one for traffic in each direction) are ordinarily required between each pair of central offices, except where tandem or intermediate switching is employed. To provide adequate transmission efficiency in the case of the longer trunk circuits, it is frequently economical to “load” them, as described in a subsequent section. The loading coils are contai ned within large iron cases. The cable pairs used for subscribers’ line distribution and inter-office trunking form the great bulk of the 70 million miles of wire used for telephone purposes in the United States. Toll and Long

Distance

Lines.— Until comparatively

re-

cently, the toll and long distance plant was compos ed largely of open-wire

lines, the largest size of hard drawn copper

wire employed being 165 mils in diameter, weighing 435 pounds to the mile. Within recent years, radical improvements in the telephonic art have permitted the use of long intercity cables in increasing amounts until, at the present time, fully two-thi rds of the toll and long distance wire mileage is in cables which cover important backbone routes. Fig. 2 shows present and proposed routes in north-eastern United States. One of the first of these long intercity cables was placed in service in 1906, between New York City and Philadelphia. In ror3 an underground cable was provided between Boston and Washington to care for the rapidly increasing trafic and to insure service under such weather conditions as might affect open-wire lines adversely. This cable was equipped with loading coils. It provided a storm-p roof route along the northern Atlantic coast. Many of the more recent long cables shown in fig. 2 have been of the aerial type except where passing through urban areas. They have combined the use of loading coils and telephone repeaters and, for the longer distances, so-called “four-wire” circuits have been used in which a separat e pair of wires is utilized for transmission in each direction.

e

The sheath of a typical diameter. The conductors elther 51 mils in diameter, mils in diameter, weighing

[IMPROVEMENTS

long cable is about 2$ in. in outside placed in such a cable are usually weighing 41 Ib. to the wire mile or 36 204 Ib. In the construction of this

type of cable, two wires, each insulated with dry paper, are first twisted together to form a “pair.” Then two of these pairs are

twisted together to form what is termed a “quad.” Each quad KEY EXISTING ROUTES AS OF AUG. 1 1928 CABLE UNDER CONSTRUCTION OR PROPOSED EXISTING REPEATER STATIONS

—— ~=© @

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TELEGRAPH

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furnishes three talking paths:—two “physical” circuits and one “phantom” circuit, the latter resulting from a combina tion two physical circuits. Approximately 140 of these quads of the formed together and enclosed in a metallic sheath make a full-sized cable which, in a typical case, furnishes about 300 telepho ne circuits and an equal, or even greater, number of telegra ph circuits. The cable is attached to a steel wire strand of high tensile strength strung on short stocky poles. Nothing short of a storm of most unusual severity can Interrupt service with construc tion

of this type. In passing through cities, the cable is usually placed in underground ducts. Loading coils are connected in each telephone circuit a little over a mile apart and, at intervals of about

50 miles, “repeater” stations for amplifying the speech currents are placed along the route. EXAMPLES

OF IMPROVEMENTS

Many times during the more than 50 years that have since the invention of the telephone, scientific researc h gineering development have not only found the way out cult situations which threatened to hamper the growth

elapsed and enof diffof telephone service but, in advance of immediate needs, often created new instrumentalities which, in turn, they have have led to further extensions and improvements of the service.

Cables.—Telephone cables not only provide the sole means for

placing a large number of telephone circuits compac tly either

overhead or underground, but they enable the lines to be carried

across the beds of rivers and other waterways. In the cables first employed, single wires with a ground return were used and the wires were

insulated with either gutta-percha or rubber. It was

soon found, however, that such cables were not well suited for telephone purposes. After experiments with many kinds of insulating materials it was found that dry paper was the best for telephone cables. This discovery and the concurrent development of means for encasing the paper insulated wires in a metalli c

sheath or tube which protected them from moisture laid

foundation for the modern telephone cable. Research and the dievelopment covering many materials and processes have made it

possible gradually to increase the number of wires, ina full-sized cable for subscribers’ lines, from ofa pairs maximum of 50 in the year 1888 to 1,800 in 1928. This progre ss has resulted in a greatly increased effectiveness of utilization of the space in under-

IMPROVEMENTS]

TELEPHONE

899

ground ducts in addition to other marked advantages, including a reduction in the cost per mile of cable pair (including ducts) to less than one-tenth of its cost in 1888. The increase in the number of pairs in a single cable has been accompanied by a reduction in the size of the wires, those used in the 1,800-pair cable, for example, weighing only about 4 lb. per wire mile, while those used in the So0-pair cable, of 1888, weighed about 25 lb. per wire

a reduction in the size of loading coils to about one-third of their previous size, accompanied, in spite of the more expensive material, by a reduction in cost, but also, due to the reduction in size, smaller cases can be used to contain the coils, resulting in space economies in the underground vaults.

that the complex wave shape of speech, including the entire “band” of frequencies, must be transmitted over the line with as little distortion as possible. Loading assists to an important de-

be accurately known but the use of repeaters has a ‘bearing on

Repeaters.—As the telephonic currents pass over the line, they decrease in strength so that, after travelling a distance which mile. Such fine wires could not be used had it not been for im- varies with the character of the line, they become too weak to provements in many other parts of the telephone plant, such as actuate properly the telephone receiver. The idea of inserting one transmitters, receivers and coils. Plate II., fig. 4 shows a 1,200- or more repeaters in a line for the purpose of reinforcing the telepair subscribers’ cable with its wires fanned out. The design, phonic currents from some local source of energy is almost as old manufacture, laying and splicing of cables, as well as the choice as the telephone itself, but many years elapsed before the quest of a type to meet a given set of conditions, have required a large for a satisfactory repeater culminated in success. The solution amount of engineering study. A typical problem has been the of this problem involved the production of a repeater element prevention of “cross-talk,” or overhearing, between the pairs which, when actuated by weak telephonic currents, is capable of necessarily placed close together in a large cable. This has been emitting greatly strengthened currents without appreciable loss accomplished by twisting the wires together according to various in the clearness of voice transmission. A so-called “mechanical” element was first used but this presented inherent limitations plans. Loading.—For some time prior to the year 1900, it had been owing to the mechanical inertia of the moving parts. A satisknown to those technically skilled in the art of telephony that factory solution of the problem was found by improving and the transmission efficiency of long telephone circuits could be utilizing the three-electrode vacuum tube in which the weakened improved by increasing their electrical property known as the speech currents control a local source of energy by means of a “uniformly distributed inductance.” This knowledge did not, practically weightless stream of electrons. The three-electrode however, lead to practically beneficial results because no one was vacuum tube of De Forest, prior to its development for use in able to suggest any feasible method of increasing this property of telephone repeaters, was employed for radio telegraph reception. a telephone circuit without bringing in, at the same time, diffi- In the form in which it was used for that purpose it was found culties of one kind or another which were fatal. Numerous in- to be quite unsuited to meet the rigid requirements of telephony. vestigators sought unsuccessfully to simulate the beneficial effect A large amount of research and development work was required of increasing the uniformly distributed inductance by introducing, before a satisfactory tube could be produced. The continuing work into the circuit, inductance concentrated, or lumped, in the form on the development of tubes has involved the fundamental study of coils. It was reserved for Professor Pupin of Columbia Uni- of electronic emission from heated filaments together with the versity to discover, in 1900, that the proper spacing of the coils study of proper materials and dimensions for the elements of along the telephone circuit was the key to the solution and it was the tube, means for securing a high vacuum and other necessary conditions. from failure to establish this that earlier workers had failed. To illustrate the progress that has been made it can be stated The term “loading” comes from the mechanical analogy of a “loaded” string, the study of which was utilized in developing that the life of the vacuum tube most commonly used in 1917 the theory of electrical “loading.” When a series of small weights was about 1,000 hours. Tubes of a new type first introduced in was placed at intervals on a string it was found that mechanical 1927, have a life of fully 25,o00 hours, which is equivalent to waves, produced in the string, did not die out as quickly as when about three years of continuous operation. In addition, the first the string was not weighted. The mechanical loading reduced the cost was reduced by more than one-half and the power required to dying out of the waves in the string and the analogous electrical heat the tube filaments was also reduced to less than one-half of loading reduces the attenuation of the waves of speech current that required in 1917. The amount of testing needed to secure in the telephone circuit. It makes the line a better path for elec- good operation was likewise decreased. As an indication of the trical waves. To indicate its practical value, it can be stated that, extent to which repeaters are used in the telephone plant in the under favourable circumstances, a loaded cable circuit is as good United States, there were more than 90,000 vacuum tubes in use a conductor for telephonic currents as would be a non-loaded for this purpose at the end of 1928, and it is estimated that.go,ooo more will be placed in service during 1929. The repeater element circuit of conductors weighing about eight times as much. Loading, in telephony, is accomplished by inserting coils of would have been of little use without the concurrent development wire, wound on toroidal iron cores, into the telephone line at regu- of efficient and convenient circuits and auxiliary equipment to lar intervals. In addition to reducing the attenuation of the electri- enable the repeater element to be associated properly with the line cal waves, loading has another beneficial effect. Telephony requires circuits. This problem was partially solved as early as 1904 when the transmission of waves having frequencies ranging from about an elementary form of mechanical repeater was first used com200 cycles per second to more than 2,000 cycles per second. Plate mercially. The development of a satisfactory repeater has carI, fig. 7, is a photograph of an oscillogram showing the electrical ried with it the necessity for extensive investigations of the waves produced when the word “telephone” was spoken into a characteristics of telephone lines in which the repeater must transmitter. Good voice reproduction from the receiver requires work. Not only must the electrical characteristics of the line

gree in accomplishing this. The principal fields of application for loading are (1) in the case of the longer trunk circuits interconnecting the central offices in the larger cities and (2) in

association with telephone repeaters permitting the use of cables, instead of wires spread out on crossarms, for the groups of circuits that link distant cities together. The latest improvement in loading coils is the result of a basic

scientific discovery by G. W. Elmen, in the Laboratories, of a material called “permalloy” unusual magnetic properties peculiarly suited to of telephony. The permalloy used in the cores

Bell Telephone having new and the requirements of loading coils

the type of line circuit selected and on the type of loading employed. A long cable with its repeaters, loading, associated switchboard apparatus, echo suppressors and temperature controlled transmission regulators must be engineered as a unit in order to obtain the best overall results. Dial Telephones.—As progress was made in the improvement of manually operated switchboards, the tendency was constantly toward the substitution of automatic devices for human labour. The accomplishments in this direction became more marked after the introduction of common battery operation with lamp signal-

ling. After a time, so much progress in this direction had been made that the question began to be raised whether ultimately in

is an alloy of about four-fifths nickel and one-fifth iron, specially

large cities it might not be possible to eliminate the operator entirely by the substitution of electrically controlled machinery.

heat treated. The use of this material has made possible not only

The development of autornatic switching has paralleled that of

TELEPHONE

Q00

other forms of switchboard. Basically, all forms of automatic switching involve the substitution of electrical impulses for the voice of the subscriber in making known his desires and the use of electrical machinery instead of human operators at the central office as the means for interpreting these desires and performing the desired switching operations. Modern panel type automatic switching equipments such as are employed in great metropolitan areas are so complex as to require the concentrated attention of specialists for their comprehension. All that can be attempted here, therefore, is merely an outline of some of the major steps. U.S. patents covering an automatic switching system were first applied for in 1879, but the system which they described never became a commercial success. In 1889, however, A. B. Strowger, invented a system which was subsequently improved by others and is used successfully at the present time under the name of “step-by-step” system. Other automatic systems containing important features contributing greatly to the success of automatic switching appeared both in America and abroad. The Bell System became actively engaged in the development of automatic switching equipment prior to 1900. In its desire to perfect and simplify the operation of switching in every practicable way, it sought to determine fundamentally the type of machinery best suited to the needs of a universal service. As a result of protracted and searching inquiry, a large installation of automatic equipment was made in 1914. In this, the central office equipment was of the so-called “panel” type. The installation was designed not as a final test of a complete automatic system but as a trial on a large scale of the efficacy of the machinery which seemed most likely to give the desired results when applied to a complete automatic system. In this trial, the subscribers called the operators in the usual manner but from the operator onward, the connection was completed entirely by the use of automatic switches. As a result of this and subsequent modifications, the details of the panel system were perfected. The first exchange giving complete automatic operation with panel type switches was installed in 1921. Since that time, the application of dial telephones has grown rapidly until in 1929, about 19 per cent. of the telephones in the United States are operated on a dial basis, through either panel or step-by-step switches. Plate II., fig. 1, shows a portion of dial operated central office equipment. Before dial systems could be widely employed they not only had to work properly within themselves, but means had to be devised whereby they could also be made to work successfully in conjunction with existing manually operated systems. The foregoing are but a few of the many improvements brought about by development and research. Among others may be mentioned “carrier” telephony, by means of which more than one telephone conversation can be carried on simultaneously over a single line; transatlantic telephony by means of which service is now possible between America and large portions of Western Europe; and telephotography, which enables pictures to be reproduced at distant points. ' Extension

of Long Distance

Communication.—The

first

[IMPROVEMENTS

54,448,000 miles of exchange wire and 9,067,000 miles of toll

wire), 66%, or 41,908,000 miles, was in underground cable; about 27%, or 16,937,000 miles, was in aerial cable; and the remainder, 4,670,000 miles, was in open wire. A large part of the most highly industrialized section of the United States is now covered by the spreading network of telephone cables shown in fig. 2. One cable extends from New York to St. Louis, by way of Chicago, and an additional cable

has also been placed in service between New York and Cleveland, Ohio. Telephone messages can now be transmitted through cable from Portland, Me., in the northeast, to Madison, Wis., in the northwest, 1,371 miles; to St. Louis, Mo., in the west, 1,538 miles; and to Petersburg, Va., in the south, 683 miles. The cable

between New York and Cleveland when utilized to capacity provides facilities for the transmission of 250 telephone conversations and at least as many telegraphic messages simultaneously.

The New York—Chicago-St. Louis telephone ‘cable is 1,204 miles in total length, containing 1,036 miles of aerial sections and 168 miles of underground sections. Its total weight is 50,800,000 1b., and it consists of 14,205 sections, having 7,441,000 separate wire splices. The aerial sections are supported on 50,700 poles. Chicago and New York were connected in 1928 by the following telephone cable routes: (1) New York-—Pittsburgh—-New Castle—Cleveland—South Bend—Chicago. (2) New York-Pittsburgh-Wheeling-Indianapolis-Terre Haute-Chicago.

2

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DEVELOPMENT

IN THE

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United States they cover completed messages

STATES

only.

AND

EUROPE

Americans,

during the year 1927, used the telephone 224-7 times per capita, while Canada was next with 221-5 conversations per capita. There were 178-9 telephone conversations per person in New Zealand, 136-8 in Denmark, 114-6 in Sweden and 76-2 in Norway during the same period. Germany had a total of 35-5 telephone conversations per capita during that year. Great Britain and Northern Ireland had 28-6 and France had 17-2. In Austria there were 69-5 telephone conversations per person during the year, in Australia there were 59-6 and in the Netherlands 58.4. Much has already been accomplished toward the integration of telephone communication facilities not only in countries like the

10

15

United States, Canada, Sweden and elsewhere, but also in regard to international communications on the North American and European continents and by the transatlantic radio circuit between America and Europe. The day is probably still far distant when

20

Telephones per 100 Population

CITIES, JAN. 1928

total telephones than was the case in Europe. As a rule, the most intensive use of the telephone in countries outside of North America was to be found in the large cities. A third of all the French telephones were in Paris and a third of all the British O

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 8D 90 100IID Tes120 130 140 150 160.170 190 200210 220 2c e00ele to 180 Oo 180 be ioe

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BY COURTESY OF THE AMERICAN TELEPHONE AND TELEGRAPH COs FIG. 5.—TELEPHONES PER 100 POPULATION OF LARGE

CANADA

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ao

January Ist of each year a

5

UNITED STATES

POPULATION PER TELEPHONES 100

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Electric Currents in Telephone and Telegraph Conductors (London. 1927); H. H. Harrison, Elements of Telephone Transmission (New York, 1927); J. G. Hill, Telephonic Transmission; Theoretical and Applied (London, 1920); A. N. Holcombe, Public Ownership of Telephones on the Continent of Europe (Boston, rg11); S. G. McMeen and K. B Miller, Telephony: A Comprehensive and Detailed Exposition of the Theory and Practice of the Telephone Art. (Chicago, 1912, 1922); J. G. Mitchell, Principles and P uctice of Telephony (New York, 1923); A B. Smith, Telephony, Including Automatic

Switching (Chicago, 1924); H. J. Van der Bijl, Thermionic Vacuum

GREAT BRITAIN amn BELGIUM : FRANCE aa HUNGARY

Ọ

anyone anywhere in the world can communicate by telephone with anyone else anywhere in the world. Progress in extending the range of telephone communication during the past few years has brought this ideal measurably nearer to accomplishment. Present indications point to further progress at an accelerated pace. BreriocraPHy.—W., Aitken, Automatic Telephone Systems (London, 1921-24); F. G. C. Baldwin, The History of the Telephone in the United Kingdom (London, 1925); J. A. Fleming, Propagation of

16 20 30 40 SO 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 160 150 160 170 180 190 200 210 220

Telephone conversations per capita BY COURTESY OF THE AMERICAN TELEPHONE AND TELEGRAPH CO. , FIG. 6.—-NUMBER OF TELEPHONE CONVERSATIONS PER CAPITA, JAN. 1928

Tube and Its Applications (New York, 1920); H. L. Webb, The Development of the Telephone in Europe (London, 1910). See also Bell Telephone Quarterly; Bell System Technical Journal; Electrical Communication; Journal of the Institution of Electrical Engineers; Post Office Electrical Engineers Journal; Transactions of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers; American Telephone and Telegraph

Company,

Things Worth

Knowing

About

the Telephone

(1928):

P. E. Erikson, The Present State of Long Distance Cable Telephony im

Europe (1927). Publications of the Comité Consultatif International des Communications Téléphoniques 4 Grande Distance, CWS Gy

telephones were in London. Paris had ro-8 telephones per hundred people and London had 7-7 at the date to which these figures re-

TELEPHOTO: see TELEPHONE; TELEGRAPH; BROADCAST-

San Francisco had 32-8.. Stockholm had 28-9 per one hundred inhabitants. Copenhagen had 16-4, Oslo 16-9 and Malmo 13.6. Toronto, Canada, had 26:4 telephones per one hundred people, Berlin had ro-9, Frankfort-on-Main had 11-4 and Hamburg-Altona had 12.2. Tokio had 5-8 telephones for every one hundred popu-

adopted by Galileo as éarly as 1612; it came into English use much later, supplanting the terms trunk and cylinder which were

ING; TELEVISION. Á a : late. New York at the same time had 26.1 telephones for every TELESCOPE, an optical instrument employed to view disone hundred inhabitants, Chicago 28-4, and Los Angeles 26.3. tant objects (Gr. Tie, far, oxometvy, to see). The name was

used at first.

end

Early History.—The telescope was invented in Holland about

1608.

The credit has been attributed variously to three individ-

TELESCOPE uals. Hans Lippershey and Zacharias Jansen, spectacle-makers in

Middleburg, and James Metius of Alkmaar (brother of Adrian Metius, the mathematician). The common story is that Lippershey, happening one day whilst holding a spectacle-lens in either hand, to direct them towards the steeple of a neighbouring church, was astonished on looking through the nearer lens to find that the weathercock appeared nearer. Accordingly he fitted the lenses in a tube to preserve their relative distance and thus constructed the first telescope. From the archives at The Hague it appears that on Oct. 2, 1608, the assembly of the States-general

considered the petition of Hans Lippershey, inventor of an instrument for seeing at a distance. On Oct. 4 a committee was ap-

pointed to test the instrument, and on Oct. 6 the assembly voted goo florins for it. Further, on Dec. 15 they examined a binocular instrument made by Lippershey. at their request, and ordered two such instruments at 900 florins each; but, as many other persons had knowledge of this new invention to see at a distance, they did not deem it expedient to grant him the exclusive right to sell such instruments. A petition by Metius (to whom the invention is attributed by Descartes) was presented to the States-general on Oct. 17 of the same year. He stated that he had discovered the instrument by accident when engaged in experiments, and had so far perfected it that distant objects were made as visible and distinct as by the instrument lately offered to the Statesgeneral by Lippershey. Telescopes were made in considerable numbers and found their way over Europe: soon after their invention. Galileo, in his Nuncius Siderius, states that, happening to be in Venice about May 1609, he heard that a Belgian had invented a perspective instrument for making objects appear nearer and larger, and that he discovered its construction by considering the effects of refraction. The day after his return to Padua he made his first telescope by fitting a convex lens in one end of a leaden tube and a concave lens in the other end. A few days afterwards having succeeded in making a better telescope than the first, he took it to Venice, where he communicated the details to the public, and presented the instrument itself to the doge Leonardo Donato, sitting in full council. The senate, in return, settled him for life in his lectureship at Padua and doubled his salary, which was previously 500 florins and which then became treble that which any of his predecessors had enjoyed. Galileo devoted all his time to improving and perfecting the telescope. He conquered the difficulties of grinding and polishing the lenses, and soon succeeded in producing telescopes of greatly increased power. His first telescope magni-

905

astronomical instruments of precision. It was not till about the middle of the r7th century, however, that Kepler’s telescope came

into general use, and then, not so much because of the advantages

pointed out by Gascoigne, but because its field of view was much

larger than that of the Galilean telescope. The first powerful tele-

scopes of this construction were made by Huygens, after much

labour, in which he was assisted by his brother. With one of these, of 12 ft. focal length, he discovered the brightest of Saturn’s satellites (Titan) in 1655, and in 1659 he published his Systema Saturnium, in which was given for the first time a true explanation of Saturn’s ring, founded on observations made with the same instrument. The sharpness of image in Kepler’s telescope is very inferior to that of the Galilean instrument, so that when a high magnifying power is required it becomes essential to increase the focal length.

G. D. Cassini discovered Saturn’s fifth satellite (Rhea) in 1672

with a telescope of 35 ft. and the third and fourth satellites in 1684 with telescopes made by Campani of roo and 136 ft. focal length. Huygens states that he and his brother made objectglasses of 170 and 210 ft. focal length, and he presented one of 123 ft. to the Royal Society of London. Adrien Auzout (d. 1691) and others are said to have made telescopes of from 300 to 600 ft. focus, but it does not appear that they were ever able to use them in practical observations. James Bradley, on Dec. 27, 1722, actually measured the diameter of Venus with a telescope whose object-glass had a focal length of 2124 feet. In these very long telescopes no tube was employed, and they were consequently termed aerial telescopes. Reflecting Telescopes.—It

was not until the middle of the

18th century that these unwieldy instruments were supplanted by the achromatic telescope. Meanwhile the refracting type of telescope had a rival in the reflecting telescope invented by Sir Isaac Newton. It was in fact Newton who discovered what was the trouble with the refractor, which led to the need for excessive length. It had been supposed that the only imperfection in the image arose from the error known as spherical aberration, and the efforts of opticians were concentrated on devising lenses of suitable forms of curvature to correct this. In 1666 Newton discovered the different refrangibility of light of different colours, and he soon perceived that the fault of the refracting telescope was that the light of different colours followed different paths; so that if, for example, the telescope was focused sharply for blue light—the green image would be altogether out of focus and blurred. He over-hastily concluded from rough experiments (Optics, bk. i. pt. ii. prop. 3) “that all refracting substances diverge the prismatic colours in a constant proportion to their mean refraction.” If this were true no combination of refracting substances could bend the path of the light without introducing colour, and therefore no improvement could be expected in the refracting telescope. He therefore turned his attention to the construction of reflectors. The form now known as the Gregorian reflector had already been proposed by James Gregory in 1663; but he had not succeeded in constructing the instrument practically. Newton, after much experiment, selected an alloy of tin and copper for his specula, and he devised means for grinding and polishing them. He did not attempt the formation of a parabolic figure on account of the probable mechanical difficulties, and he

fied three diameters; but he soon made instruments which magnified eight diameters, and finally one that magnified thirty-three diameters. (This last power is as’ great as can advantageously be employed with non-achromatic lenses.) With this last instrument Galileo discovered in 1610 the satellites of Jupiter, and soon afterwards the spots on the sun, the phases of Venus, and the hills and valleys on the moon. He demonstrated the rotation of the satellites of Jupiter round the planet, and gave rough predictions of their configurations, proved the rotation of the sun on its axis, established the general truth of the Copernican system as compared with that of Ptolemy, and fairly routed the fanciful dogmas of the philosophers. These brilliant achievements, together with the immense improvement of the instrument under the hands of Galileo, overshadowed in ‘a great degree the credit due to the original discoverer, and led to the had besides satisfied himself that the chromatic and not the spheuniversal adoption of the name of Galilean telescope for the form rical aberration formed the chief fault of previous telescopes. Newton’s first telescope so far realized his expectations that he of instrument invented by Lippershey. In the Galilean telescope the object-glass is a convex lens and could see with its aid the satellites of Jupiter and the horns of the eye-piece concave. Kepler was the first to explain the theory Venus. Encouraged by this success, he made a second telescope and some of the practical advantages of a convex eye-piece in of 64 in. focal length, with a magnifying power of 38 diameters, his Catoptrics (1611). The first person who actually constructed which he presented to the Royal Society in Dec. 1671. A third a telescope of this form was the Jesuit, Christoph Scheiner, who form of reflecting telescope was devised in 1672 by Cassegrain. gives a description of it in his Rose Ursina (1630). William Gas- No further practical advance appears to have been made in the coigne pointed out one’ great advantage of the form of telescope design or construction of the instrument till the year 1723, when suggested by Kepler; viz.; the visibility of the image of a distant John Hadley (best known as the inventor of the sextant) preobject simultaneously with that of a small material object placed sented to the Royal Society a reflecting telescope of the Newin‘the common focus of the two lenses. This led to his ‘invention tonian construction, with a metallic speculum of 6 in. aperture of the micrometer and ‘his application of telescopic sights to and 62§ in. focal length, having eye-pieces magnifying up to 230

TELESCOPE

906

diameters. The instrument was examined by Pound and Bradley, the former of whom reported upon it in Phil. Trans., 1723. Bradley and Molyneux, having been instructed by Hadley in his methods of polishing specula, succeeded in producing some telescopes of considerable power, one of which had a focal length of 8 ft.; and, Molyneux having communicated these methods to Scarlet and Hearn,

two

London

opticians, the manufacture

of

telescopes as a matter of business was commenced by them. However, it was reserved for James Short of Edinburgh to give practical effect to Gregory’s original idea. Born at Edinburgh in 1710 and originally educated for the church, Short attracted the attention of Maclaurin, professor of mathematics at the university, who permitted him about 1732 to make use of his rooms in the college buildings for experiments in the construction of telescopes. In Short’s first telescopes the specula were of glass, as suggested by Gregory, but he afterwards used metallic specula only, and succeeded in giving to them true parabolic and elliptic figures. Achromatic Telescopes.—The historical sequence of events now brings us to the discovery of the achromatic telescope. The first person who succeeded in making achromatic refracting telescopes seems to have been Chester Moor Hall, a gentleman of Essex. He argued that the different humours of the human eye so refract rays of light as to produce an image on the retina which is free from colour, and he reasonably concluded that it might be possible to produce a like result by combining lenses composed of different refracting media. After devoting some time to the enquiry he found that by combining lenses formed of different kinds of glass the effect of the unequal refrangibility of light was corrected, and in 1733 he succeeded in constructing telescopes which exhibited objects free from colour. The principal development of the achromatic refractor is due to John Dollond who invented it independently (Phil Trans., 1758). In principle his object-glasses were of the pattern mainly used at the present day; viz., convex lens of crown glass combined with a concave lens of flint glass. The concave lens is of less power than the convex, so that the combination converges the light as a single convex lens would do; but the flint glass having much wider difference of refractive index for light of different colours, is able to correct the colour dispersion introduced by the more powerful crown lens. A triple objective, consisting of two convex lenses of crown glass with a concave lens of flint glass between them, was introduced in 1765 by Peter, son of John Dollond. This type is also employed in some modern telescopes. The subsequent improvement of both reflecting and refracting telescopes has been mainly a matter of technical detail in the making, figuring, and mounting of Jarge lenses and mirrors. At present the largest refractor has an aperture of 40 in. (Yerkes

observatory), and the largest reflector an aperture of 100 in. (Mt. Wilson, observatory). A limit to the aperture of refractors is set by the difficulty of casting large enough discs of glass of the necessary transparency and homogeneity; moreover, if this were overcome, we should ultimately reach a point at which the strain on the lens caused by its own weight would spoil its optical qualities. The size of reflectors appears to be limited only by consideration of expense, not only of making the mirror, but of providing a mounting for its practical use. Funds have been provided for the construction of a reflector of 200 inches aperture, and it is expected that the instrument will be built in the course of a few years. Pictures of typical modern telescopes are given in the plate illustrating the article OsseRvATorY. Introductory remarks on thé general use of astronomical telescopes will be found under ASTRONOMY: Practical Astronomy. ; THEORY OF THE TELESCOPE It is important to realize that magnifying power is not the only

quality, perhaps not even the chief quality, desired in a telescope. We have to pay attention to (1) magnifying power, (2) resolving power, (3) light-grasp, (4) a wide field of good definition, and (5) suitability for making accurate measurement.

Not

all of these can be developed to perfection in the same instrument, and accordingly telescopes of different design are employed for

different purposes. For example, the ordinary field-glass is useless for viewing the stage in a theatre; and accordingly an opera-glass is employed which gives a more brilliant though smaller image. In general, resolving power and magnifying power go together. It is little use making the object appear larger if we do not at the same time sharpen the image so that greater detail may ap. pear. We might be content to increase the resolving power (i.¢,, sharpen the detail in the image) without magnification if that

were possible; but optical laws forbid an increase of resolving power without a corresponding increase

of magnification.

The

magnifying power of a telescope can be understood by reference to the theory of geometrical optics alone; to explain the increase of resolving power, reference must be made to physical optics

(the wave-theory of light). Light does not consist of strictly linear rays, but of a wave disturbance which tends to spread and blur any image that is being formed; this tendency to spread is not cured by any perfecting of the figures of the lenses and mirrors, but only by increasing the aperture so that a wider area

of wave-front is taken in and concentrated into the eye-pupil. The resolving power of a telescope (free from ordinary optical defects) is simply proportioned to the diameter of aperture of the object-glass or mirror. But in order that the beam filling the object-glass may be narrowed down on emergence from the telescope so as to enter the eye, the magnifying power must be not Jess than the ratio of the aperture of the telescope to the aperture of the eye-pupil; if lower power is used an outer ring of the objectglass is left unused so that its effective aperture and resolving power are reduced. In looking for faint nebulae we should like to use the large object-glass merely to concentrate more light, and not to dissipate the light again by enlarging the image which it forms; this, however, is impracticable because we cannot effectively use the full aperture of the object-glass without employing a corresponding magnification. For this reason comparatively little progress in our knowledge of nebulae can be made by visual observation, and most of the work is done by photography. Refracting Telescopes.—In its simplest form the telescope consists of a convex lens (object-glass) which forms an image of a distant object at its focus. This image is then magnified by another small lens (eye-piece) which is used just as an ordinary magnifying glass is used. The object-glass is of long focus F, and the eye-piece of short focus f, and the ratio F/f, is equal to the magnifying power of the telescope. Since eye-pieces are inexpensive it is usual to provide a number of them, so that different magnifying powers can be used; it may be noted that the smallest eye-pieces have the highest power. The combination just described is Kepler’s form of telescope. The course of the rays is shown in fig. x. In Galileo’s form the eye-lens is concave (or negative), and is placed so as to intercept the rays from the object-glass before they reach the focus (fig. 2). This form is common in binocu-

lars for terrestrial observation, because it FIG. 1.—DIAGRAM SHOW- gives an erect image, whereas in Kepler’s i

eee

telescope objects are seen upside-down un: less a second erecting eye-piece is added. (OR POSITIVE) Tn stellar observation we do not much mind

the inversion of the image and Kepler’s form is always preferred.

In all modern instruments both the eye-piece and object-glass are compound, consisting of at least two lenses. A single eye-lens would generally give good enough definition at the centre of the field of view, but all the outer parts would be out of focus. Two well-known types of double eye-piece, the Huygens and the Ramsden eye-piece, give a large flat field of view. The construction of eye-pieces for the telescope and for the microscope is essentially the same problem. (See Mrcroscopr.) The use of two lenses in the object-glass is necessary in order to correct the defect of colour dispersion already mentioned. In spite of im-

provements in the manufacture of optical glass, practically the same crown and flint glasses as those used by John Dollond in 1758 are employed in the largest modern telescopes. Owing to

what is termed “irrationality of dispersion” no combination of crown and flint lenses will completely get rid of colour dispersion.

TELESCOPE

BY

COURTESY

OF

(2)

COLUMBIA

UNIVERSITY,

NEW

TELESCOPES

YORK,

AND

(3,

6)

TIME

THE

SUPERINTENDENT

SERVICE

OF

THE

U.S.

NAVAL

APPARATUS

TAIE

OBSERVATORY,

IN LARGE

(4,

5)

THE

DIRECTOR

OF

THE

LICK

OBSERVATORY

OBSERVATORIES

1. Dominion Astrophysical Observatory, Victoria, B.C. Reflecting telescope with 72-in. mirror, mounted equatorially (German type): a Cassegrain spectrograph attached is shown at the lower end. 2. Equatorial telescope at Columbia university. (The rising floor is about one-third of the way from the top.) 3, 6. U.S. Naval Observatory, Washington; 26-inch Equatorial with which the satellites of Mars were discovered in 1877. Time service, transmitting and sending apparatus. 4, 5. The Lick Observatory. 36-inch refractor with spectrograph attached; the Crossley reflector, showing moving observing platform. 7. Mount Wilson Observatory, California. The Hooker reflecting telescope with 100-in. mirror, the largest in the world in 1928, mounted Equatorially (English type)

TELESCOPE

997

In some of the newer glasses the irrationality of dispersion has eye-piece Æ. The surface of the large mirror should be a parabeen reduced to a minimum, but they have nothing approaching boloid of revolution, that of the small mirror a true optical the same difference of dispersive power as the ordinary crown and plane. When used for photography the inclined mirror is reflint glass (a difference of 1 to 13); deeper curves and thicker moved; and the photographic plate is supported in a carrier lenses would be required, which would neutralize all the advan- mounted at the principal focus of the large mirror. tages of using them. Accordingly in practice the achromatism is Most modern reflectors are made so that they can be used made as perfect as possible for the part of the spectrum that will alternatively in the Cassegrain or Newtonian form by inserting chiefly be employed; viz., near the yellow light for visual work, and in the blue and ultra-violet for photographic work. For this reason separate telescopes are used for visual and photographic work, respectively. By using three lenses to form the object-glass photo-visual telescopes can be made, sufficiently achromatic for all parts of the spectrum. The additional surfaces and

thickness of glass, however, involve some

FIG. 2.—DIAGRAM SHOWING COURSE OF RAYS WHEN THE EYE-LENS IS CONCAVE (OR NEGATIVE)

loss of light; and the combination has the great drawback that its focal length changes very rapidly when the temperature drops at nightfall. Reflecting Telescopes.—The following

are the various forms of reflecting teleScopes: : The Gregorian telescope is represented in fig. 3. AA and BB

eee

FIG.

4.—DIAGRAM

OF

THE

ieee

catia erea e ea pa

NEWTONIAN

TELESCOPE

alternative small mirrors. In the earlier reflectors the mirrors are concave mirrors having a common axis and their concavities were made of metal. The art of making specula was notably facing each other. The focus of A for parallel rays is at F, that developed by Sir William Herschel, who may be said to have of B for parallel rays at f—between B and F. Parallel rays created the fame of the reflector. His greatest telescope, made falling on AA converge at F, where an image is formed; the rays in 1789, was of 4 ft. aperture and 4o ft. focal length. In 1845 are then reflected from B and converge at P, where a second and Lord Rosse erected the Parsonstown reflector of 6 ft. aperture. more enlarged image is formed. Gregory himself showed that, These suffered from the great drawback that whenever the mirror if the large mirror were a segment of a paraboloid of revolution became tarnished, the re-polishing was likely to spoil the figure whose focus is F, and the small mirror an ellipsoid of revolution of the mirror. To preserve the quality the figuring must be done whose foci are F and P respectively, the resulting image will be | all over again, and the telescope became virtually a new instruplane and undistorted. The image formed at P is viewed through ment with different optical behaviour. In modern practice the the eye-piece at E, which may be of the Huygenian or Ramsden reflecting surface is a film of silver deposited on a glass disc type. The practical difficulty of constructing Gregorian tele- ground to the proper curvature. When the surface loses its brilscopes of good defining quality is very considerable, because if liance the silver film is washed off (once or twice a year) and a spherical mirrors are employed their aberrations tend to increase new film deposited. each other, and it is extremely difficult to give a true elliptic figure Photography.—When a photograph is to be taken the eyeto the necessarily deep concavity of the small speculum. Short piece is removed and the photographic plate is placed in the appears to have systematically conquered this difficulty, and his focal plane of the object-glass or mirror. It is not a question of Gregorian telescopes attained great celebrity. The use of the adding a camera to a telescope, but of turning the telescope into Gregorian form is, however, practically abandoned. a camera, the main lens or mirror of the telescope acting as the The Cassegrain telescope differs from the Gregorian only in the lens of the camera. In visual observation it is no great drawback substitution of a convex hyperboloidal mirror for a concave ellip- if the definition falls off in quality towards the outside of the field soidal mirror as the small speculum. This form has two distinct of view, because the observer cannot pay minute attention to more advantages: (1) if spherical mirrors are employed their aber- than one object at a time; but in astronomical photography it rations have a tendency to correct each other; (2) the instrument may be a great advantage to have objectives giving good definiis shorter than the Gregorian, caeteris paribus, by twice the focal tion over a wide field many degrees in diameter. This makes length of the small mirror. For spectroscopic purposes the Cas- severe demands on the skill of the designer in correcting the various aberrations of the lens system, which usually increase

rapidly with the distance from the centre of the field of view. In general, a doublet, consisting of two similar pairs of lenses

FIG.

3.-—DIAGRAM

OF THE

GREGORIAN

TELESCOPE

segrain form has peculiar advantages, because in consequence of the less rapid convergence of the rays after reflection from the convex hyperboloidal mirror, the equivalent focus can be made very great in comparison with the length of the tube. This permits the employment of a spectroscope furnished with a collimator of long focus. The Newtonian telescope is represented in fig. 4. AA is a concave mirror whose axis is aa. Parallel rays falling on AA converge on the plane mirror BB, and are thence reflected at right angles to the axis, forming an image in the focus of the

separated by a wide interval, is employed. The problem of constructing these wide-angle lenses is essentially the same as that of constructing a good camera lens for terrestrial photography | (where a wide field is also necessary); and indeed a good portrait lens can be usefully employed in celestial photography. The fact that the whole instrument is of insignificant size is irrelevant when speed and not magnification is the main essential. As is wellknown in terrestrial photography the speed depends on the ratio of the aperture to focal length, and not on the absolute dimensions of either; and this ratio can be made greater in a doublet

than in an ordinary refractor or reflector. For detecting faint diffuse light (e.g., the limits of the tail of a comet, or the extended nebulosity in Orion or in the Pleiades) an instrument the size of a hand camera is more effective than a 100 in, telescope.

Mounting.—If a telescope is kept fixed, the stars in their apparent diurnal rotation pass rapidly across the field of view. Hence for most purposes a telescope should be mounted in such a way that it can automatically “follow” a star. This is contrived by an “equatorial” mounting. Fig. 5 shows the so-called English

form. AA is the “polar axis,” which is parallel to the axis of the

TELESILLA

908

earth’s rotation, and therefore elevated at an angle equal to the latitude of the observatory. By rotating the whole instrument about this axis the effect of the earth’s rotation is precisely counteracted, and the telescope remains pointing in the same absolute direction in space, że., to the same star. The necessary rotation about AA is given by a driving-clock. The telescope tube is also free to turn about a “declination axis” at right-angles to AA, so that it can be pointed to objects of higher or lower declination; the declination is read off on the graduated circle BB. DD is a similar circle for reading the right ascension or hour-angle.

The English mounting had generally been considered rather

under independent control by the observer at the eye end and the assistant at the desk. Forty motors are used in the dome. The mirror is supported by a counterpoise system. In order to minimize the effect on the mirror of changes in the temperature of the air, it is surrounded by an insulating sheath of cork-board. Means

were originally provided for keeping the mirror cell jacketed with brine, which was automatically held at a constant temperature,

jj

but they were eventually discarded and reliance was placed on the

4

PA,

antiquated, and all modern instruments were made on a plan which (although the same in principle) avoided the necessity of supporting the polar axis at its upper end; but its reputation is perhaps rehabilitated by the fact that it was found necessary to revert to it for the roo in. reflector at Mt. Wilson. An important adjunct to an equatorial mounting is the drivingclock. For visual work no great perfection is required, but for photography it is essential that the image should remain fixed at one point on the plate throughout the exposure. For this purpose the rate of the driving-clock is first controlled by a mechanical governor, which keeps it approximately steady. Then there is an electrical control, which puts in an accelerating or retarding mechanism, according as the clock is ahead of or behind current signals coming once a second from a freely swinging pendulum. Finally, since no automatic control can compensate for the changing displacements by refraction as the object rises or descends in the sky, the ultimate correction is made by hand. The observer watches a star seen in a parallel guiding telescope (or by some equivalent device); and whenever he detects a tendency to drift away from the original position marked by cross-wires he brings it back by a hand-control. TWO

LARGE

TELESCOPES

-=

l

The following are some details of the two largest telescopes at present existing. (See photographs in article OBSERVATORY.) The Mount Wilson Telescope.—The diameter of the mirror

is 100-4 in. (255 cm.), the focal length 42-3 ft. (12-89 metres). The tube of the telescope is swung in a split polar axis, the cross pivots on which the tube rotates serving as the declination axis. The great weight of the telescope (100 tons) is carried by large drums situated at the upper and lower ends of the polar axis, which float in troughs of mercury, while the actual direction of the axis is determined by self-aligning spherical bearings near its two extremities. The telescope can be used either in the Newton-

ian or Cassegrain form, separate terminal sections of the tube being

—

m:

£

k

a

mamma e:

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FIG. 6.—ONE-HUNDRED INCH REFLECTING TELESCOPE WITH CASSEGRAIN SPECTROGRAPH OF MOUNT WILSON OBSERVATORY, CALIFORNIA, AT THE TIME OF ITS CONSTRUCTION THE LARGEST IN THE WORLD cork insulation as well as on the protective covering of the dome. The Victoria Telescope (British Columbia).—The diameter

of the mirror is 72-5 in. (184-15 cm.) the focal length 30-1 ft. (9-180 metres). Critical features of this telescope are the polar axis bearings and the construction of the tube. The polar axis rotates in ball bearings of large size, unrelieved by supporting or flotation devices. This departure from usual practice in the construction of large telescopes has proved very successful. The lattice-work part of the tube is built as a unit, without removable end pieces such as those of the Mt. Wilson telescope, provision being made for the direct interchange of the Cassegrain mirror, the Newtonian mirror and the focal plane apparatus without the removal of a terminal section of the tube. The telescope is electrically operated. A new telescope, 200 inches in diameter, will soon be under construction, which will be double the size and have four times the light-gathering power of the reflector on Mount Wilson, California, at present (1929) the largest in the world. A half billion stars that cannot now be seen by any telescope will be revealed. Funds for the cost of this telescope will be provided by the International Education Board, which administers Rockefeller benefactions, and the instrument will be under the control of the Cali-

FIG.

5.——-DIAGRAM

OF

THE

EQUATORIAL

TELESCOPE

(ENGLISH

FORM)

provided as carriers for the auxiliary mirrors of each. These carriers, or “cages” as they are called, are very massive, and are removed and exchanged with the aid of an electric crane. When it Is necessary to remove the mirror for silvering, which is about twicea year, it is lowered by means of a large hydraulic jack into a laboratory just beneath the floor. Two large tubes lying parallel to' the telescope contain weights that can, be moved longitudinally

fornia Institute of Technology. When completed it will be used to extend present researches in spectrum photography of the stars, direct photography of faint celestial objects, investigation of the nature of spiral nebulae and in radiometry. | REFERENCES.——Special forms of telescope (other than equatorials) are

treated under TRANSIT CIRCLE and ZENITH TELESCOPE. See also OBSERVATORY, where illustrations are given. For a survey of the technical details of construction of telescopes and general instrumental equip-

ment of a large observatory, see Gell, History and Description of the Cape Observatory (1913). (D. Gr.; A. S. E.)

TELESILLA, Greek poetess, a native of Argos, one of the ‘to'perfect the balance: The instrument is provided with quick and so-called nine lyric muses. According to the traditional story, slow motion devices operated electrically, and essentially all when Cleomenes, king of Sparta, invaded the land of the Argives movements of it and of the dome are accomplished by motors

in 510 B.C., and slew all the males capable of bearing arms, Tele-

TELESIO—TELEVISION silla, dressed in men’s clothes, put herself at the head of the|write the message on the tape at the same time that it I women and repelled an attack upon the city of Argos. Of Tele-_ it. Also, it is bemg attempted to operate by radio a ##€tyg silla’s poems only two lines remain, quoted by Hephaestion, automatically records typewritten matter. The develoDIN Serer | W. Morey apparently from a Parthenion, or song for a chorus of maidens. teletypesetter is credited to Frank E. Gannett, Waltéf See Pausanias ii. 20, 8; Plutarch, De Virtut. Mulierum, 8; Clement of Alexandria, Stromata, iv. 19, p. 522 ;. Bergk, Poetae Lyrici Graeci, uii.; and especially Macan, Herodotus iv.—vi., i. 336 seq. and notes.

TELESIO, BERNARDINO

(1509-1588), Italian philoso-

pher and natural scientist, was born of noble parentage at Cosenza near Naples in 1509. He was educated at Milan, Rome and Padua.

He began his attack upon the mediaeval Aristotelianism which then flourished in Padua and Bologna. He began to lecture at Naples and finally founded the academy of Cosenza. In 1565 appeared his great work De natura rerum iuxta propria principia, which was followed by a large number of scientific and philosophical works of subsidiary importance. After his death, at Cosenza in 1588, his books were placed on the Index. Telesio was the head of the great South Italian movement which protested against the accepted authority of abstract reason, and sowed the seeds from which sprang the scientific methods of Campanella and Bruno, of Bacon and Descartes. He proposed an inquiry into the data given by the senses, from which he held that all true knowledge comes. Instead of postulating matter and form, he bases existence on matter and force. This force has two opposing elements: heat, which expands, and cold, which contracts. These two processes account for all the diverse forms and types of existence, while the mass on which the force operates remains the same. The harmony of the whole consists in this, that each separate thing develops in and for itself in accordance with its own nature while at the same time its motion benefits the rest. The obvious defects of this theory, (1) that the senses alone cannot apprehend matter itself, (2) that it is not clear how the multiplicity of phenomena could result from these two forces, and (3) that he adduced no evidence to substantiate the existence of these two forces, were pointed out at the time by his pupil, Patrizzi. His system is a forerunner of all subsequent empiricism, and marks the period of transition from authority and reason to experiment and individual responsibility. Beside the De Rerum Natura, he wrote De Somno, De his quae in aere fiunt, De Mari, De Cometis et Circulo Lacteo, De usu respirationis, etc. See G. Gentile, Bernardino Telesio, con appendice bibliographico (Bari, 1911); E. Troilo, Bernardino Telesio (Modena, 1911).

TELESPHORUS, bishop of Rome from about 126 till about 137. St. Irenaeus says that he suffered martyrdom.

TELETYPESETTER, a new invention to set type by tele-

graph. It operates automatically either a linotype or intertype typesetting machine and will considerably increase production. It is estimated that one man can easily operate four or five of them when controlled by teletypesetters. From one transmitting distributor, type will be set on any number of typesetting machines situdted in any place that can be reached by telegraph. It will be valuable also in newspaper offices and in printing plants for purely local.work where the tape can be perforated and sent to the composing room to operate the typesetting machines. On

the receiving end in newspaper offices a mechanical printer can be operated simultaneously for typewriting the message. In the printing of books, the rolls made by the teletypesetter can be used as a permanent record, making unnecessary storing of metal plate. The teletypesetter is made of three units: sending, receiving and typesetting. At the sending station the apparatus consists of a perforator, a counter and a transmitting distributor. The perforator, resembling a portable typewriter, produces a tape with coded perforations which the distributor changes into electrical impulses. The receiving apparatus is made up of a reperforator and a printer, the purpose of the latter being to enable the receiver to read the matter transmitted. Beyond the reperforator are the transmitting distributor, through which the tape runs to be changed into electrical impulses, the selecting units, with magnets to operate the typesetting machine, and a panel: box, containing relays to control the machine and. furnish power to.operate the automatic elevator. [eee are under way to make the tileiypesetter type-

and the Morkrum-Kleinschmidt Corporation.

(J. C. Os.)

TELEVISION, by virtue of usage, has come to mean the transmission, to a distant point, usually by electrical means, of moving scenes, to be viewed at the distant point practically simultaneously with their original occurrence. Television is thus differentiated from the viewing of distant events by a telescope, from the electrical transmission of still pictures, and from the projection of motion pictures from films transported to a distance. Analysis of the Problem.—The problem of electrical television consists essentially in the production of electrical signals by light, the transmission of these signals to a distant point, and the recreation of light from them. If these three processes can be carried out with adequate speed and accuracy the transmission of complete moving images may be attained. The process of obtaining an electrical signal from light at one place and of using this signal to control light at another place is a comparatively simple matter as long as a single light signal is all that is required. In the case of image transmission, however, it is necessary to transmit not one but a vast number of signals in a very brief time. Any image or picture may be considered as made up of a very large number of small uniform areas or elements each of different brightness. When an image is viewed by the eye, the rods and cones of the retina perform this analysis of the image into small elements, and the many fibrils of the optic nerve simultaneously transmit to the brain the impulses set up by light in each of the rods and cones. It would be theoretically possible to build a television system in which a large number of photosensitive cells were simultaneously exposed to an Image, and a separate electrical circuit connected with each one carried the electrical signals to a distant point, where again a bank of lamps was controlled by the signals. Such a multi-channel scheme is not, however, practical, and all successful methods of television have resorted to a process of scanning, by means of which the whole of an image is traversed point by point and the signals corresponding to the various degrees of light and shade are transmitted im sequence instead of simultaneously. ‘This is the method which is used in the trans-

mission of still pictures over telephone lines, but television is differentiated from still picture transmission by the much greater speed which it requires. While the transmission of a still picture may take several minutes, in television the entire image must be traversed in a small fraction of a second (about 1/20), in order that, through persistence of vision, the image when reconstructed may appear complete, and may change its character sufficiently rapidly to reproduce motion of the object without flicker.

Scanning Apparatus.—Various devices, such as vibrating mirrors and wheels of lenses have been proposed for the rapid scanning of an image for television purposes. The means which

thus far has been found most practical is a flat circular disc provided with a spiral of small holes, first proposed by Nipkow in 1884. By the rotation of this disc each hole of the spiral passes in turn across the field of view, so that upon each complete rotation of the spiral, the whole image. has been covered. The most straightforward way of utilizing such a disc is shown in Fig. 1, where an image of the scene to be transmitted is formed, by means of a lens, upon an aperture in front of the disc. When the disc is rotated at a speed of 15 to 20 revolutions a second, the image transmitted through the holes appears virtually complete and steady, although actually built up of a sequence of light signals. The Nipkow disc, while simple and convenient for the analysis of an image into a small number of elements, is inherently inefficient, and becomes impractically. large when really fine grain images are required. For this reason other scanning means of more compact form, or means which may dispense altogether with mechanically moving parts, in particular devices employing cathode ray beams, are receiving considerable attention. Transformation of Light into Electrical Signals.—=In order to produce’-electrical currents for transmission. purposes

TELEVISION sthe light passing through the scanning disc, use is made of =a liott sensitive device. This light sensitive device must be mety rapid in its action and should, if possible, give currents of a magnitude acceptable for transmission over ordinary transmission channels such as telephone lines. For this purpose earlier

this band must be of uniform efficiency and in proper phase relation with each other. The nature of the problem may be comprehended by considering a typical case. If the image to be trans. mitted is scanned by a disc apparatus having so holes, the analysis

of the entire image corresponds to dividing it into 50 times 50, or

experimenters used selenium, which, however, is relatively sluggish

2,500 elements.

in its response. on television, a a glass tube on potassium. The

image must be completely scanned about 20 times a second. This means that signals corresponding to 50,000 elements per second must be transmitted. In terms of alternating current frequencies,

More recently, in the photoelectric cell has whose inner wall is a incidence of light on

most successful experiments been used. This consists of layer of alkali metal such as the sensitive surface causes PHOTOELECTRIC CELL

WITH SPIRAL OF HOLES

FIG. 1 FIG. 2 FIG. 1.—DIAGRAM ILLUSTRATING DIRECT SCANNING OF AN IMAGE FOR TELEVISION FIG, 2.—DIAGRAM ILLUSTRATING TELEVISION SCANNING BY THE “BEAM” METHOD. THE OPTICAL PATH IS REVERSED, AS COMPARED WITH THE DIRECT SCANNING METHOD SHOWN IN FIG. í

the emission of electrons, thus producing an electric current which, in the case of properly designed photoelectric cells is directly proportional to the intensity of the light, and follows variations of light intensity at very high speeds. Photoelectric currents as excited by the light available from ordinarily illuminated objects suffer from the disadvantage that they are excessively minute. It is necessary to amplify these currents by means of vacuum tube amplifiers before they are available for transmission purposes. It is, in fact, largely owing to the recent development of vacuum tube amplifiers, that it has been possible to bring television to a successful stage, since the general principles by which television might be accomplished have been recognized for a long time. Even, however, when image-forming lenses of the largest light gathering power are used it is necessary for the original object to be very brilliantly illuminated if the method of image formation and scanning shown in Fig. 1 is to be employed. It has been possible, by constructing the television apparatus of large dimensions, whereby more light can be gathered, and by the development of very sensitive photoelectric cells, to demonstrate this “direct” method of scanning with objects in the relatively intense illumination of outdoor daylight. An alternative method of scanning, which utilizes the available light much more efficiently although limited to indoor scenes, is the method of “beam” scanning. In this (Fig. 2) the relative positions of the photoelectric cell and the light sources as shown in Fig. I are reversed, and a narrow beam of light is projected through the hole in the scanning disc and traverses the object rapidly from side to side. The light reflected from the object is then picked up by the photoelectric cells, which may be made of very large area so as to collect the maximum amount of light. An exemplification of the direct method of scanning is shown in Plate, fig. 4 where a scanning disc of 3 ft. diameter containing a spiral of 50 scanning holes is utilized to produce television signals from a full length human figure. Plate, fig. 6 shows in skeletonized form a practical exemplification of apparatus for the beam method of scanning. Here the light from an arc lamp is condensed upon the back of a scanning disc which carries a spiral of 50 holes, and a narrow beam of light is projected by means of a lens to the face of the sitter. Three large photoelectric cells collect the reflected light, and the electric currents thus produced are amplified by means of vacuum tube amplifiers close to the cells. Subsequent amplification to the order of several thousand millionfold raises these currents to sufficient strength for transmission. Transmission.—The problem of transmitting television signals presents considerable difficulty for the reason that an exceedingly wide band of frequencies must be transmitted, and all parts of

In order to create the illusion of continuity the

this means approximately 25,000 cycles per second. Now speech transmission by the telephone is successfully accomplished by a frequency band of approximately 2,000 cycles, and the best radio broadcasting stations use ‘“‘sidebands” about 5,000 cycles in width, It is, therefore, obvious that the transmission of a relatively crude image, corresponding in quality to considerably less than a square inch of newspaper halftone, requires transmission facilities of extraordinary character, Furthermore, the requirements increase rapidly with the complexity of the scene to be transmitted. While a single face may be recognizably rendered with the 2,500 elements just considered, the amount of detail shown in the very coarsest newspaper halftones of news events demand 100,000 or more elements. While with sound the same apparatus

and transmission channel will handle a chorus as well as a solo, in television the width of transmission channel increases with the number of performers. The transmission of an extended scene in

any detail requires transmission facilities equivalent to a very large number of radio broadcasting channels, The transmission of television signals may be accomplished either over wire or wireless channels. In the case of wire transmission, it has been found most practical to transmit the television signals directly, utilizing a channel which transmits from below 20 cycles per second up to the highest frequency called for by the degree of resolution of the image. In radio transmission, the television signals are placed upon an appropriate high frequency carrier in the usual manner. In either case, the lowest frequencies—below the repetition frequency of the images—to which are due the general brightness of the picture, are not transmitted, this element of picture quality being arbitrarily inserted as a direct current component at the receiving end. This expedient is resorted to because of the serious technical difficulty of amplifying and transmitting very low frequencies. In the case of wire transmission, the system must be reasonably free from interference such as produces what in voice transmission is called “noise,” which in the case of television causes specks or streaks obscuring the image. In the case of wireless transmission, there are additional sources of trouble, particularly those associated with fading and multiple reflection of wireless signals in the Kennelly-Heaviside layer. These latter produce multiple images whose prominence varies with the wavelength, the transmission distance, and the time of day. Reception of the Image.—The simplest method of reconstructing the image from the television signals consists in the use

of a disc with a spiral of holes at the receiving end similar to that at the sending end. Combined with this is a light source, which can be viewed through the disc, which will follow faithfully the

variations in strength of the incoming signals. The most successful light source for this purpose is a neon glow lamp furnished with a large flat electrode which when placed behind the disc fills the whole field of view. In the Plate, fig. 2, is shown this arrangement of disc and neon lamp and in the Plate, fig. 3, a neon lamp

of a type commonly used. As the observer watches the rapidly

rotating disc, he sees at any instant a bright point of light which is of the intensity corresponding to the incoming signal.. This in turn corresponds to the photoelectric current generated at the sending end, that is, to the brightness of the image on the ’sending disc. Due to persistence of vision, the observer is conscious only of a completely illuminated field differing in brightness ‘in its different elements. If the receiving disc is rotating at exactly the

speed of the sending disc and exactly in phase with it, the image “Seen at the receiving end is similar to that at the sending end.

While nearly all experimenters in television have used receiving apparatus of this general sort, it is recognized that the disc with

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plate the in aperture the square television Watching 2. a illusion the picture produce of varies to brightness whose lamp glow Neon 3. a

TELFORD-—TELL its spiral of holes is inefficient and unhandy in size where images of many elements are desired. Efforts have been made to develop more compact forms of receiving device. An attractive possibility, demonstrated on an experimental scale, is the use of the Braun tube or cathode ray oscillograph. In this a stream of electrons, controlled in intensity by the incoming signals, is caused to sweep over a fluorescent screen by a varying magnetic field. Apparatus of the sort just described is suitable for viewing only by small groups of observers. One form of apparatus by which the received image may be observed by a large audience is shown

in the Plate, fig. 1. In place of the small neon lamp with a single electrode, a lamp composed of So straight parallel glass tubes is utilized. Each tube is furnished with 50 electrodes and the incoming electrical signals are transmitted to each of these electrodes in turn by the distributing device shown in the Plate, fig. 5. Here again, by persistence of vision, the whole area of the grid of neon tubes appears to be continuously illuminated and the image is developed by the varying intensity of the glow at each electrode. In another form of apparatus for producing large pictures, the light from a high intensity arc lamp is passed through two polarizing prisms and a Kerr cell. The electric field across the Kerr cell is controlled by the incoming signals, causing the light transmitted by the cell and polarizing prisms to vary in intensity. A series of small lenses mounted spirally on a rotating disc then cooperate with a projection lens system to throw moving images of

QII

is its use as an adjunct to the telephone, although this has been done only on an experimental basis. Here the image to be transmitted—the human face—requires only a number of image elements which can be handled satisfactorily by existing practical signal generating and transmitting apparatus. In a demonstration installation for two-way television in conjunction with speech in New York the American Telephone and Telegraph Company usés two booths, located in two of their buildings, several miles apart. Two scanning discs are used at each booth, one for beam scanning, the other for viewing the neon lamp. Telephone instruments, which would interfere with vision of the face, are not used, but in their place is a system of concealed microphones and loud speakers. The two parties to the conversation talk to and see each other as though sitting on opposite sides of a table. An image of 4,400 elements is used, which reproduces facial expressions quite adequately. In order, however, to carry the two sets of

television signals, the telephone currents and the synchronizing signals, transmission facilities are used which in present telephone practice could otherwise carry fifteen telephone conversations. The radio broadcasting of television for entertainment purposes is still in an experimental stage, with no clear answer as yet whether television may ultimately be expected to compare in value with sound broadcasting. Regular television programs have been broadcast for some time by the Baird Television Company in England, and by several stations in the United States, most of the the arc crater on the rear of a translucent screen. latter transmitting from motion picture film. In all cases the Synchronization.—In order that the scanning and receiving number of image elements is small, from 30 to 60 scanning holes means which have been described shall faithfully reproduce the being used, with a consequent restriction to very simple objects scene, it is essential that the speed of operation of the two ends such as one or two faces. While this limitation to coarse grained shall be identical to a high degree of accuracy. Deviations images is in part set by the state of development of the television from the proper speed produce motion and distortion of the apparatus itself, it is also governed by the radio bands available. received image. The necessary accuracy of synchronization has In the United States several bands of 100 kilocycle width have been achieved by the use of synchronous motors with a large been set aside by the Radio Commission for “experimental” telenumber of poles, operated by relatively high frequency signals. vision. It is recognized that the entertainment value of images These high frequency signals (1,000 to 2,000 cycles per second) which can be transmitted over such bands is small, but on the may be generated by a vacuum tube oscillator, or by light re- other hand the demand for ether space for ship, airplane and ceived by an auxiliary photoelectric cell from holes, or reflecting other radio services is such that wider bands will be increasingly spots on the disc. The synchronizing signals may be transmitted difficult to obtain. Television images containing the wealth of either over a separate communication channel, or as has been detail of the motion picture film, which may be taken as the goal proved practical, may be produced by piezo-electric crystal oscil- of television broadcasting, demand complexity of apparatus, and transmission facilities, far beyond anything now in prospect. lators separately operated at the two ends. Some success has been achieved in using the image signals Whether a working compromise will be attained in which the themselves to control synchronization, whereby separate syn- value of the simultaneity of event and viewing, which is the chronizing circuits are avoided. Another means of securing essence of television, will be great enough to offset the crudity of synchronization is presented where all the receiving stations and a commercially possible picture, is for the future to disclose. the sending station are on the same alternating current power or (H. E. I. TELFORD, THOMAS (1757-1834), British civil lighting system. It is then only necessary to operate the receiving E sets on suitable synchronous motors. This kind of synchroniza- was born at Westerkirk in Eskdale, Dumfriesshire, Aug. 9, 1757. tion, because of the low frequencies (usually 60 cycles) used and At 15 he was apprenticed to a stone-mason. He studied in his the relatively wider tolerances for power purposes, as compared spare time, and published verses in the local press. In 1780 he with ideal television requirements, is apt to call for occasional went to Edinburgh, where he was employed in the erection of correction by hand adjustment of the image position. With the houses. In 1793 he was appointed engineer of the Ellesmere continually increasing practice of operating city and other large canal, for which he built the Chirk and Pont-y-Cysyllte aquearea public service electrical supplies in synchronism for clock ducts, and this work established his reputation as a canal engineer. Telford was commissioned by the British Government to report control and other purposes, this method of regulating the speed of television apparatus appears of practical promise. on the improvement of communications in the Highlands of ScotApplications of Television.—A number of applications of land. He was appointed engineer for the Caledonian canal and television are suggested by considering parallel cases in sound for the construction of 920 m. of roads, a great part through diffitransmission. In sound we have the use of the telephone for con- cult country. He was employed on the improvement of the road versation between individuals, the use of loud speaking systems between Carlisle and Glasgow, on plans for a system of roads for carrying speeches to large audiences, and finally, broadcasting through the more inaccessible parts of Wales, which included the equipment for transmitting voice or music to home receiving sets. magnificent suspension bridge across the Menai Straits, and the We can similarly imagine television to be used in connection with Conway bridge. The fisheries and industries of Scotland benefited the telephone, for displaying public speakers or athletic events to by the improvements he effected at many of the harbours; and his audiences at a distant point (see Plate, fig. 1), or for the broad- last piece of professional work was a plan for the improvement of casting of scenes into homes. At the present time (1931), while Dover harbour. Other achievements were the drainage of the all of these possibilities as well as some special developments, north level of the eastern Fen district, an area of 48,000 ac., and such as television in color, have been experimentally demon- erection of the Dean bridge, Edinburgh, and of the Broomielaw strated, the practical and economic barriers to transmitting really bridge, Glasgow. He died on Sept. 2, 1834, in London. See Telford’s Memoirs, written by himself and edited by John Ricksatisfactory images are so great as to oppose very serious obstacles man (1838) ; also Smiles’s Lives of the Engineers. to the general use of television. Probably the most completely worked out phase of television TELL, WILLIAM. The story of William Tell’s skill in

gI2

TELLICHERRY—TELLURIUM

shooting at and striking the apple which had been placed on the

head of his little son by order of Gessler, the tyrannical Austrian

show (what could not hitherto be proved) that at the time when legend places the rising of Uri, Tell exploit, etc., the dukes of

bailiff of Uri, is so closely bound up with the legendary history of the origin of the Swiss Confederation that they must be considered together. Both appear first in the rsth century, probably as results of the war for the Toggenburg inheritance (1436-50); for the intense hatred of Austria, increased by her support of the claims of Zürich, favoured the circulation of stories which assumed that Swiss freedom was of immemorial antiquity, while, as the war was largely a struggle between the civic and rural

Austria really had disputes with Uri. The alleged proofs of the existence of a real William Tell in Uri in the 14th century break down hopelessly. (x) The entries

elements in the Confederation, the notion that the (rural) Schwyzers were of Scandinavian descent at once separated them from and raised them above the German inhabitants of the towns.

gemeinde” held in 1388, at which 114 men were present who had been personally acquainted with Tell, was never heard of till

in the parish registers are forged. (2) As to the Tell chapels— (a) that in the “hollow way” near Ktissnacht was not known to

Melchior Russ and is first mentioned by Tschudi (1572). (0d) That on Tell’s Platte is first mentioned in 1504. The document which alleges that this chapel was built by order of a “lands-

1759. The procession in boats to the place where the chapel The Tell story is first found in a ballad the first nine stanzas of stands may be very old, but is not connected with Tell till about

which (containing the story) were certainly written before 1474. It is probably to this ballad that Melchior Russ of Lucerne (who began his Chronėcle in 1482) refers when he excuses himself from giving the story. He narrates how Tell then stirred up his friends against the governor, who seized him and took him by boat to his castle on lake Lugano. A storm arose, and Tell, on account of his great strength, was given the rudder, on his promise to bring the boat to land. He steers it towards a shelf of rock, called in Russ’s time Tell’s Platte, springs on shore, shoots the bailiff dead with his cross bow, and returning to Uri, stirs up the strife which ended in the battle of Morgarten. In these two accounts, which form the basis of the Uri version of the origin of the Confederation, it is Tell who is the leader. We first hear of the cruelties of the Austrian bailiffs in the Forest districts in the Bernese Chronicle of Conrad Justinger (1420), who makes no allusion to Tell. The Tell story and the “atrocities” story are first found combined in a ms. known as the White Book of Sarnen. They are contained in a short chronicle written between 1467 and 1476, probably about 1470, and based on oral tradition. ' The task of smoothing away inconsistencies and rounding off the tale, was accomplished by Giles Tschudi (q.v.), whose recension was closely followed by Johannes von Müller in his History of the Confederation (1780). The final recension of

1582. (c) The chapel at Bürglen is known to have been founded in 1582.

In general see two excellent works by Franz Heinemann, Tell Iconographie, Lucerne, 1902 (reproductions, with text, of the chief representations of Tell in art from 1507 onwards), and Tell Bibliographie (including that of Schiller’s play), published in 1908 at Bern. See also W. Vischer, Die Sage von der Befreiung der Waldstitte (Leipzig, 1867); E. L. Rochholz, Tell und Gessler, with a volume of documents 1250-1513 (Heilbronn, 1877); and P. Lang, Die Schweiz. Tellspiele (1924). (W. A. B. C.; X.)

TELLICHERRY, a seaport of British India, in the Malabar district of Madras, on the Madras railway, between Cannanore and the French settlement of Mahe. Pop. (1921) 27,576. Itisa healthy and picturesque town, built upon a group of wooded hills running down to the sea, and is protected by a natural breakwater of rock. Ships are able to anchor 2 miles from the shore. A pier and sea-wall have recently been built and the port can be used during the monsoon season. Tellicherry was at one time defended by a strong mud wall and the old fort still stands to the north of the town. The East India Company established a factory here in 1683 for the pepper and cardamom trade. For two years (1780-82) the town withstood a siege by Hyder’s general, and in the subsequent wars with Mysore Tellicherry was the base of operations for the ascent of the Ghats.

Tschudi’s Chronicle (1734-36), which differs in many particulars from the original draft preserved at Ziirich, tells how Albert of TELLURIUM, a chemical element and the third member of Austria, in order to deprive the Forest lands of their ancient the sulphur and selenium family (symbol Te, atomic number 52, freedom, sent bailiffs (among them Gessler) to Uri and Schwyz. atomic weight 127-5). It is a complex element having three Their tyranny resulted in a rising, planned at the Riitli, on Nov. isotopes (g.v.) with atomic weights 126, 128 and 130. Tellurium 8, 1307, and led by Werner von Stauffacher of Schwyz, Walter Furst of Uri, Arnold von Melchthal in Unterwalden, each with ten companions, among whom was William Tell, to expel the oppressors. On Nov. 18 the Tell incident takes place (described according to the Whité Book version), and on Jan. 1, 1308 the

general rising. Tschudi thus finally settled the date, which had before varied from 1260 to 1334. He distorts the historical circumstances. In his first draft he speaks of the bailiff as Gryssler ——the usual name up to his time, except in the White Book and in Stumpff’s Chronicle of 1548—but in his final recension he calls him Gessler, knowing that this was a real name. Later writers added a few more particulars. Johannes von Miiller (1780) de-

scribed: the oath at the Rutli by the three (Tell not being counted

in), and threw Tschudi’s version into a literary form.

play (1804) gave the tale a world-wide renown.

Schiller’s

is a brittle, silvery white, metallic substance of specific gravity 6-27; it melts at 452° C and boils at 1,390° C; its hardness is 2-3 (Mohs). It crystallises in hexagonal-rhombohedral prisms and is isomorphous with the stable grey modification of selenium (g.v.). Tellurium was first recogniséd as a distinct element in 1798 by M. H. Klaproth, although it had already attracted the notice of mineralogists and metallurgists who on account of its peculiar

properties termed it “aurum paradoxum” or “metallum problematum.” It is widely distributed although in small amounts. Rarely found native as metallic tellurium, it more generally occurs in combination with metals in such minerals as sylvanite, (Au,Ag)Tes, petzite, (Au,Ag)2Te, tetradymite, Bi.(Te,S)3, and telluric ochre, TeO2. The red tellurium sulphur of Japan contains 99-76% S, 017% Te, 006% Se and oor% As. Tellurium minerals are found in Germany, Colorado, California, Ontario, Mexico, South America and West Australia, often accompanying gold deposits. The chief sources of tellurium are the slimes from copper and lead refineries and the flue dusts from telluride gold ores. The slimes contain both tellurium and selenium, and similar processes are used in the extraction of both elements. The slimes from copper refining contain more selenium, those from lead yield more tellurium. The dusts or slimes are fused with

The general result of the researches of various’ students, J. E. Kopp, Vischer, Rochhoglz and others, has been to show that a mythological marksman and an impossible bailiff bearing the name of a real family have been joined with confused and distorted reminiscences of the events of 1245-47, in which the names of many real persons have been inserted and many unauthenticated acts attributed to them. Th. von Liebenau has, however, shown (in an article reprinted from the Katholische sodium carbonate and nitrate, the melt being lixiviated with water. Schweizerblatter in the Bollettino Storico della Svizzera Italiana The alkaline liquors containing sodium tellurite and selenite are for 1899) that in 1283 the’ Emperor Rudolf of Habsburg gave cautiously acidified with sulphuric acid when tellurium dioxide the right of receiving the tolls for escort over the St. Gotthard is precipitated. The dioxide may be reduced in the dry way with Pass to his sons, the dukes of Austria. The levying of these tolls powdered charcoal or dissolved in hydrochloric acid and reduced

gave rise to various disputes between the men of Uri and the with sulphur dioxide, when tellurium is precipitated. Further puti-

bailiffs of the dukes of Austria, and by 1319 (if not already in fication is effected by dissolving tellurium in dilute nitric acid

1309) the claim: to levy them was silently given up. These facts | (sp.gr. 1-255) and crystallising the basic nitrate, 2TeO,,HNOs.

TELPHERAGE Applications.—Despite the labours of the chemical research school at Wisconsin University, no extensive use has been found for tellurium, although comparatively large supplies are available,

1920-1922). The substance and its homologues have outstanding bactericidal properties, even in extremely dilute solutions. ye

it being estimated that in the U.S.A. alone 125,000 lb. of the metal could be produced without material alterations in existing plants. Most of the output is sold to makers of wireless equip-

a

ment, since metallic tellurium has some merit as a rectifier or

CH.

crystal detector. A noteworthy application was the addition of diethyl telluride to motor spirit as an anti-knock material, but although effective this substance has been superseded by lead tetraethyl (see LEAD, COMPOUNDS OF; ORGANO-METALLIC CoMPOUNDS: Fourth Series). Colloidal tellurium has been suggested as an insecticide and fungicide in wood preservation. To a limited extent tellurium has been employed in colouring glass or porcelain, developing brown, blue or red shades. Acid solutions of the dioxide have been used as a dip for silver ornaments, giving a “platinum finish” to the metal. Soluble tellurium compounds are utilised in toning baths in photography. Tellurium and compounds have been tested therapeutically without marked success. Physical Properties.—Tellurium is a poor conductor of heat and electricity and the latter property varies only slightly with change of illumination. Its electrical resistance of 200,000 microhms per cubic centimetre is the highest of any metal. Its yellow vapour has a density corresponding with the molecular

formula Te:. Allotropy (g.v.) is far less definite than with selenium and sulphur. There is an amorphous modification of tellurium, a crystalline variety, and colloidal preparations of tellurium are made by reducing dilute solutions of telluric acid with hydrazine or sulphurous acid with or without protective colloids. Compounds.—Hydrogen telluride or telluretted hydrogen, H2Te, is a very unstable gas with a repulsive odour; its boiling point is o° C and it melts at —48° C. It is best prepared by decomposing aluminium telluride, Al,Tes3, with water or dilute hydrochloric acid. Tellurium furnishes two chlorides, both prepared by direct combination of the metal with chlorine. The dichloride, TeCl, is a brown amorphous mass which melts indefinitely to a black liquid boiling at 327° C. The tetrachloride,

obtained with excess of chlorine, is a snow-white, crystalline mass melting at about 220° and boiling at 380° C. It is hydrolysed by water. Similar compounds are formed with bromine. Tellurium dioxide is a white crystalline mass produced by igniting telluric acid or by oxidising tellurium with nitric acid; it becomes yellow on heating, melts at dull red heat and distils in a vacuum at bright red heat. It is only slightly soluble in water but is amphoteric, dissolving in either aqueous acids or alkalis. Tellurium trioxide, an orange-yellow, crystalline substance, is left on igniting telluric acid at a red heat. Telluric acid, H:TeO.,2H20, a snow-white crystalline powder, is made by oxidising tellurium or its dioxide with either chromic acid or chlorates.

ots go CO

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The condensation of aluminium telluride with pentamethylene ac-dibromide gives rise to three cyclic tellurium compounds from which cyclotelluropentane (formula III.) can be prepared. This compound, the parent substance of the ketonic series (II.) is a very oxidisable yellow oil (b p. 82-83°/12 mm.) with disagreeable odour, and gives rise to crystalline dihalides, CsHio:TeX2 (G. T. Morgan and H. Burgess, 1928). When tellurium tetrachloride reacts with acetic anhydride, the product furnishes tellurodiacetic and ditellurodiacetic acids, together with a compound, CH2(TeCls)2, containing no oxygen. This hexachloride on reduction with bisulphite loses all its chlorine and yields ditelluromethane (CH: :Tez)«, a solid existing in red and black modifications

(Morgan and Drew, 1925). Detection

and

Estimation.—Tellurium

is precipitated

by

hydrogen sulphide and is separated from selenium owing to the greater facility with which the latter is liberated from its compounds by reducing agents. In strongly acid solutions sulphur dioxide eliminates red selenium but not tellurium. The excess of acid and sulphur dioxide are boiled off; potassium iodide is added. and black Tel, is precipitated, redissolving in excess of reagent to K:Tels,

from which

dark red solution sulphur dioxide now

readily precipitates tellurium. as such or as the oxide.

Tellurium may be weighed either

BIBLIOGRAPHY.—R. Abegg, F. Auerbach and I. Koppel, Handbuch der Anorganischen Chemie, Vol. IV. (Leipzig, 1927) , with a chapter on the colloid chemistry of tellurium; a S. Hopkins, Chemistry of the Rarer Elements (New York, 1923) ; . A. Roush, The Mineral Industry (New York, 1916 and ioe containing an epitome of the industrial development of tellurium in the U.S.A. (G. T. M)

TELPHERAGE.

During the World War the Italian Army

made extensive use of the telpher (see MoNo-RaIrLs AND TELPHERS) system of transport for fighting in the Alps. It had prevlously been thought impossible to conduct military operations on the high peaks, but the early days of the war saw whole companies of men clinging hand and foot to the rocky summits. The building of roads could not always meet the requirements of troops operating in Alpine districts. Wire railways or “telphers” were provided, thus economising time, labour and oil, and avoiding congestion of roads. These telphers are a kind of suspension railway. A double metal cable called “bearer” is extended on trestles placed in a straight line at different distances on the sides ORGANIC DERIVATIVES OF TELLURIUM of the mountain. There are two stations, one at the starting point The dialkyl tellurides are prepared by distilling potassium tel- and the other at the end of the line. In one of these stations there luride with the salts of alkyl sulphuric acids. Dimethy] telluride, is a motor which works an endless cable (the “drawer’”) to which a liquid of repulsive odour, boils at 82° C. It is probably the are fixed two or more small wagons. The cable turns and draws the origin of the unpleasant garlic odour noticed in the breath and wagons supported by the “bearer” cable by means of small wheels perspiration of patients or animals treated with tellurium or which run on it. 1, Telefori—These were provisional lines moved by man tellurium compounds. Diethyl telluride, the proposed anti-knock compound, boils at 137-5° C. When heated together at 80° tel- power and used in the most advanced zones to supply isolated lurium and methyl iodide combine to form red dimethyltel- posts or trenches. Their average length was soo metres and each luronium di-iodide, (CH3)2TeIs, converted by silver oxide into could carry about 50 quintals a day. 2. Dismountable Teleferiche.—These were run by motors dimethyltelluronium dihydroxide, (CH3)2Te(OH)2, a base which on heating yields the complex oxide (CH3)3Te-0-Te(CHs) :O. |and were put up in advanced zones. Their average length was This oxide forms two iodides, (CH3)3TeI and CH;TelIs, which | from 1,000 to 2,000 metres, and each could carry from ro to 20 unite together yielding greenish-black spangles of the complex quintals an hour. They could be dismounted and were portable

iodide [(CH3)3Te][TeCH;I.]

(H. D. K. Drew, 1929).

By the action of tellurium tetrachloride on acetylacetone and certain of its homologues, a series of cyclic organotellurium compounds have been obtained containing the cyclotelluropentane ring. The initial product, cyclotelluropentane-3 :5-dione dichloride, m.p. 115° C (formula I.), is reduced by alkali bisulphites to cyclotelluropentane-3:5-dione (II.) crystallising in golden yellow

needles and melting at 182° C (G. T. Morgan and H. D. K. Drew,

3. Permanent Teleferiche.—These were run by motors and

were fixed. They were employed at some distance from the lines, and reached a maximum length of 8,000 metres. ‘They could carry about 150 quintals per hour. The telphers covered on an average

a rise of 650 metres from the starting-point to that of arrival; buti in some cases even 1,500. The trestles were often at very great distances from one another and placed on peaks, while the wagons ran over fearful abysses. In the highest regions the lines often

914

TELPHERS—TEMPERA

ran at a height of 2,000 to 3,000 metres; a few were installed even at 3,500 metres above sea-level.

The telpherage lines laid

on the Italian front transported in all 33,000,000 quintals, the

load of 330,000 railway trucks.

TELPHERS: see MonoraILs AND TELPHERS. TELUGU, one of the five great Dravidian languages.

The

substances

were

also employed.

Among

them

were

the liquid

obtained by boiling parchment or the skins of animals in water, which is practically the same thing as using glue. Pliny mentions

the use of milk as a medium. In more modern times it was the medium of the Italian Primitives. Cimabue learnt it from the Greeks, or so says Vasari,

Telugu-speaking peoples are partly subjects of the nizam of and Giotto, Fillipo, Lippi, Ghirlandajo, Botticelli and many others Hyderabad and partly under British rule, beginning north of Mad- used it for their inspired works. Raphael, Titian and Tintoretto ras city and extending north-west to Bellary, where Telugu meets probably used it, at least for under-painting. In northern Europe Kanarese, and north-east to near Orissa. In many respects it tempera was earlier supplanted by oil than in Italy, but many occupies an independent position and can be characterized as the of the Flemish and German Primitives employed it. Process.—The ground used by Cimabue, Giotto and their only descendant of the Andhra dialect of Old Dravidian. See Bishop Caldwell, Comparative Grammar of the Dravidian Lan- compatriots was usually gesso (plaster of Paris). Cennini gives guages, and Linguistic Survey of India, vol. iv. (1906).

TEM, a people in north-west Dahomey speaking a language related to Kokomba. They live in extended family groups in compounds in villages surrounded by a defensive wall.

TEMBU

(Ama-Tembu),

a powerful Kaffir tribe, who have

given their name to Tembuland, a division of Cape Colony south-west of Griqualand East. They are traditionally descended from Tembu, elder brother of Xosa, from whom most “Kafārs” claim descent.

TEMENOS,

the Greek term in archaeology’ given to the

enclosed sacred area around a temple or sanctuary.

TEMPE, VALE OF, the ancient name of the gorge, through

which the river Peneus (mod. Salambria) reaches the sea from the plain of Lower Thessaly. Greek legend attributed this chasm to Poseidon; before it was riven, between Olympus and Ossa, Thessaly was a lake. It is about four and a half miles long, and towards the middle of the pass, where the rocks are highest, the precipices in the direction of Olympus fall steeply to the stream; but those which descend from Ossa are the loftiest, for they rise in many places not less than 1,500 ft. from the valley. It was a position easily defended, but has often offered a practicable entrance to Thessaly from the north; a number of castles (of which the ruins still exist) were built at different times at the strongest points. The mediaeval road follows sometimes one bank, sometimes the other; the railway is wholly north of the stream. Being still forested, with numerous lateral valleys, the scenery is unusually picturesque for Greece: its beauty was famous in antiquity. Tempe was sacred to Apollo, to whom a temple was erected on the right bank. Every ninth year a sacred mission visited the valley to pluck laurel for the chaplets for the Pythian games.

very full instructions for the making of gesso panels. This was a complicated

process

involving,

first, the preparation

of the

panel of poplar, lime tree or willow wood, of which all the interstices were to be filled with a mixture of size and sawdust The panel was then covered with old linen cloth held in position by more size. On this surface the gesso grasso, or heavy plaster of Paris, ground in size, was spread with a spatula. The gesso sottile or final ground, composed of thoroughly slaked plaster of Paris mixed with size was then applied with a brush. Devotees of tempera painting as practised by the Italians are convinced, not only of its great permanency, but of its peculiar charm. To quote Miss Herringham, the translator of Cennini: “There is no doubt that while fresco and tempera produce a decorated space in itself pleasant and figures and other objects can be

suggested in slight chiaroscuro (g.v.) without appearing unfinished or crude, this is not the case in oil painting, which seems incap-

able of giving that pleasantness to the surface of a wall and requires a completeness in values, tones and tactile qualities which makes the spectator look into the picture and forgeť the surface. Therefore the one art is monumental, where the surface must not be forgotton or obliterated and the other on the whole appears op-

posed to monumental painting.” Roger E. Fry, writing in the Burlington Magazine of the charm of classic tempera says: “One may sum up the whole question of tempera as a medium by saying that, while it is more difficult than in oil painting to produce any effect at all, it is yet more difficult, almost impossible indeed, to produce with tempera those thoroughly ugly and uninviting surfaces which it requires pro-

found science to avoid in the clayey mixtures of oil paint. Nothing would be likely to have a more restraining and sobering influence on our art than the substitution of tempera for oils as TEMPELHOF FIELD, the airport of Berlin, Germany, was the ordinary medium of artistic expression.” Modern Uses.—Egg tempera, the medium to which both of constructed on the site of Tempelhof Military Field soon after the World War. The airport consists of 1,500,000 sq. metres and is these laudatory comments apply, is doubtless a most charming admirably situated, being within the city limits. During 1928, medium and an exceedingly permanent one, as demonstrated by 31,547 passengers and 615 tons of freight, baggage and mail were the apparently magnificent preservation of many specimens of handled through Tempelhof. The airport is provided with numer- very great antiquity. It does, however, as Fry points out, present ous hangars, two of which cover an area of about 26,000 sq.ft. many technical difficulties, principally because of its exceedingly each. The wireless station supplies weather reports from all parts rapid drying. “Transitions of colour” says Fry, “must be made of Europe. Close to this office is the headquarters of the air by hatched strokes or else by continual laying one thin coat over police, above which is placed the field-control tower, from which another until the transition is produced.” This was the practice all departing and arriving aeroplanes are regulated. There is of the early Italians. In these days of “ready mixed” colours, also a powerful beacon which is visible at a distance of 60 miles. procurable anywhere, there is not much occasion for the keeping A modern system of lighting has been provided to facilitate night- alive of the ancient practices. Occasionally, however, an artist flying. Every aeroplane landing at or leaving Tempelhof undergoes uses them successfully for current work. strict inspection by the air police. (See AIRPORTS.) In different fields, certain workers do find it desirable to-day TEMPERA, the name given to the painting processes in to combine dry colours with a tempera medium. For example, which the medium employed is an albuminous, gelatinous or commercial illustrators have discovered that it is possible, by the colloidal material. Practically, this is equivalent to saying that admixture of dry pigment with a gum arabic-glycerine compound, any painting process in which a vehicle, or binding material, to obtain colour of much stronger intensity—saturation—than other than oil is employed is tempera. can be had in commercial water-colour. This method of working History.—The earliest known painting was undoubtedly of has the advantage that the strength of the prepared colour is this nature. The wall paintings of ancient Egypt and Babylon and within the artist’s control. It is also claimed that it is possible to those of Mycenean Greece, as well as the mummy cases and obtain a very even and flat tone and one that, because of the papyrus rolls in the first named country, were executed in some absence of reflections, is particularly adapted to photographic form of tempera. The same is probably true of the wall paint- reproduction. ings in Italian tombs. Doubtless there are many other forms of artistic endeavour Yolk of egg, either alone or with the addition of a little in which use is made of tempera mediums with dry colour, as vinegar, was the vehicle most generally used, but many other in some forms of modern fresco, for example, but tempera, m

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1. Head of woman painted on wood with coloured powder mixed with white wax. Graeco Egyptian. In the Louvre. 2, ‘‘Madonna and Child Enthroned”’ by Giotto (c. 1267-1337). Uffizi Gallery, Florence. 3. “‘Pallas Taming a Centaur” by Botticelli (1444—1510). Uffizi Gallery. 4. “Rape of Helen” by Benozzo Gozzoli (c. 1424— ? ). 5. “St. Lawrence Enthroned between

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Saints Cosmos and Damian” by Fra Fillipo Lippi (1406-69). 6. Portrait of Duranty by Hillaire G. E. Degas (1834-1917). Probably is partly done in thin ols with distemper in the dry—ai.e., pastel—used for the face. 7. American contemporary “The Bridge—Right Bank” by Yarnall Abbott.

TEMPERAMENT—TEMPERANCE its modern application is, like oil painting, almost entirely a matter of the use of prepared colours. These are ground by the manufacturers in various colloidal, gelatinous or albuminous vehicles and sold put up in tubes, pans or pots, but, unlike oil, the products of different manufacturers differ so greatly in character as to necessitate completely different techniques. The product of some colourmen is to be used with the addition only of water, while in other varieties the use of prepared “tempera mediums” is necessary. These are, naturally, compounds similar to the vehicles in which the particular colours are ground. It may be noted that ordinary water-colour, show-card colour and the like, are of course, strictly tempera, being ground in gum arabic and glycerine, although water-colour is only characteristic of the tempera medium when used as gouache or body colour. As noted above, the products of different colourmen vary so radically that it is difficult to give any idea of present day tempera technique. In common they all present the quality of opacity; they may be used upon a great. variety of surfaces and, in most cases, the permanency of the results depends only upon that of the ground. Due to their opacity, they may be used to very great advantage on dark grounds—a method of painting which has much to commend it. Most of the temperas in the market, however, are subject to the rather serious objection that

the colours become lighter in drying. Except as used for under-painting, tempera painting of to-day is a direct process. Unlike oil the colour usually dries very quickly upon the ground and any alteration of a tone by “painting into” it is difficult to achieve successfully. This directness, this premier

coup quality, is one of the charms of the medium and also makes it desirable for quick sketching. Most users of tempera to-day are in the habit of employing it very flatly, frequently in the form of spots or “lozenges,” so to speak, of clean colour applied to grounds which vary from grey or brown to black. This technique is highly characteristic of tempera painting as it is found in the water-colour shows of

the United States. But some forms of commercial tempera may be used in a manner which approaches oil in appearance and in which the broken quality of a partially mixed tone may be preserved. For this type of painting very little or no medium is used; heavy water-colour paper is employed as a ground and this may be obtained in a variety of tints from white to black. A number of prominent artists still use tempera as the medium with which to commence paintings which are completed in oil. Emil Carlsen, one of the most noted of those who employ this technique, uses an absorbent canvas, certain commercial colours and a commercial egg medium. For the first painting he recommends the using of the colour thinly, with water as a medium. This completed, the canvas is allowed to dry for a day or two, is then given one or two coats of tempera varnish A, and again let dry for a few hours. The picture is now given a light wash of the egg tempera medium and the painting is continued, using egg tempera as the medium instead of water. The colours can now be used solidly but it is necessary to lay layer over layer and let them dry between times or the colour will crack. “The result,” says Mr. Carlsen, “is an extremely hard and light underpainting, that, if varnished with a good coat of tempera varnish, well dried, will hold up a piece of painting wonderfully and give it more luminosity in the picture’s future than any other process.” It will be evident that the art of tempera painting is even more difficult to limit and define than is painting in oil. It is an art the technique of which varied greatly, as did the vehicles employed, even in its classic period, and this is equally true as to the more or less sporadic revivals of the old processes which are employed to-day, while, as to the commercial tempera of the shops, the colours supplied by one manufacturer may possess radically different qualities and call for a totally different technique from those of another manufacturer, and still be equally desirable. But in this very Jack of uniformity is an incentive to the artist who is seeking for an individual, a personal technique. Whether he seeks for this in the use of prepared products or in the study and application of the ancient methods he will

915

find in tempera a number of subtle and illusive charms which will well repay him for the search. (See also PAINTINGS; OIL PAINTINGS; PAINTS, CHEMISTRY OF.) BwæeLrrcraray.—Cennino Cennini, Z7 Libro delľ Arte (c. 1432), trans. by C. J. Herringham with “Notes on Mediaeval Art Matters” (London, 1899) ; Vasari on Technique, trans. by Louisa S. Maclehose

(New York and London, 1907); M. Toch, Materials for Permanent Painting (London, 1911); A. P. Laurie, The Pigments and Mediums

of the Old Masters (London, 1914), The Painter’s Methods and Materials (Philadelphia, 1926); M. Armfield, “Tempera,” Int. Studio (Dec. 1916) ; Roger E. Fry, ‘Tempera Painting,” Burlington Magazine, vol. vil, p. 175 (1895); Sir Arthur H. Church, Chemistry of Paints and Painting ; Theophilus, Schedula diversarum artium (Vienna, 1874), Papers of the Society of Painters in Tempera (London, 1891-1907), and Papers of the Society of Mural Decorators and Painters in Tempera (Brighton, 1907-24). (X. A.)

TEMPERAMENT,

in psychology, means a kind of lasting

emotional mood or temper. Some people are habitually cheerful, others are as habitually melancholy, and so on. The oldest known classification of temperaments is considerably over two thousand years old, and the names associated with that classification are still in daily use. It originated with a Greek medical school known as the Hippocratic school (see Hippocrates), and was based upon a theory about the varying proportions of four juices (or “humours’’) in bodies (Latin temperare means “‘to measure”). The four liquids in the body were alleged to be blood, phlegm, black bile and yellow bile. And according as one or other of these four preponderates in the body of a person, there results the sanguine temperament (Latin sanguis, blood), the phlegmatic temperament, the melancholic temperament (Gr. peNayxodtKds, with black bile), or the choleric temperament. The sanguine temperament is quick, predisposed to pleasant emotions, but weak, and inclined to change quickly from one interest to another. The phlegmatic temperament is slow, lacking in vivacity, but calm and strong. The melancholic temperament is predisposed to sad emotions, slow and weak. The choleric temperament is predisposed to anger, and emotionally quick and strong. In Music.—Temperament is the manner in which the limited number of notes of a keyed instrument are tuned or “tempered,” various methods being possible, e.g., unequal temperament, mean-tone intonation and equal temperament. In the case of an instrument tuned in unequal temperament a few keys will be as near as possible to the mathematical ideal of just intonation, but all the other keys will be more or less seriously out of tune. Thus supposing the key of C to be tuned in just intonation, with G tuned in consequence as a really exact fifth, this same G will not be in tune when it is required to serve, not as the fifth to C, but as, say, the third to E flat or the fourth to D. Hence therefore the adoption as a compromise of the system known as equal temperament, whereby these inaccuracies of intonation are equally distributed over all the keys, with the result that no one key is better than another but all are sufficiently in tune for practical purposes and can be used with equal freedom. The mean tone system was an unequal temperament that split the difference between the major tone (8: 9) and the minor tone (9: 10). It long had its warm advocates, but finally had to yield to the superior practical advantages of equal temperament. (See Harmony; KEY; MUSICAL NOTATION.)

TEMPERANCE.

The word “temperance,” which strictly

means moderation, has acquired a particular meaning in connection with intoxicating liquor, and it is here used in that sense. Historical.—Ever since man in some distant age first discovered that process of fermentation by which sugar is converted into alcohol and carbonic acid, and experienced the intoxicating effects of the liquor so produced, there has been, in a sense, a temperance question. The records of the ancient oriental civilizations contain many references to it, and from very remote times efforts were made by priests, sages or law-givers in India, Persia, China, Pales-

tine, Egypt, Greece and Carthage to combat the vice of drunkenness. But the evil appears never to have been so great or the object of so much attention in the ancient world as in Western countries and our own era. Two circumstances mainly differentiate the modern problem; one is the use of distilled waters or spirits as a beverage, and the other the climatic conditions pre-

916

TEMPERANCE

vailing in the more northern latitudes which are the heme of more than a million members. The campaign was, for the most Western civilization. The intoxicating drinks used by the ancients part, directed against the use of spirits only, and the proposal to were wines obtained from grapes or other fruits, and beers from include all alcoholic drinks in the pledge of abstinence, though various kinds of grain. These products were not confined to the adopted by a few societies, was rejected in 1833 by the American East, but were known to the ancient civilizations of Mexico and society, but accepted in 1836 and retained ever since. Peru and even to primitive peoples who used the sugar-containing In Europe the earliest organizations were formed in Ireland. A juices and other substances indigenous in their country. In the temperance club is said to have been started at Skibbereen in 1818, time of the Romans the barbarians in the north of Europe used and others followed; but it was in 1829 that the organized movefermented liquors made from honey (mead), barley (beer) and ment began to make effectual progress with the formation of the apples (cider) in place of grape-wine. All such drinks produce Ulster Temperance Society. By the end of that year there were 25 intoxication if taken in sufficient quantity; but their action is societies in Ireland and two or three in Scotland. In 1830 the movement spread to Yorkshire and Lancashire, and supported a much slower and less violent than that of distilled spirits. Distillation of essences from various substances seems to have newspaper called the Temperance Societies’ Record, according to been known to the ancients and to have been carried on by the which there were then 127 societies with 23,000 paying members Arabians in the dark ages; but potable spirits were not known until and 60,000 associated abstainers. In 1831 the British and Foreign the 13th century. The distilled essence of wine or aqua vitae Temperance Society was founded in London with the bishop of (brandy) is mentioned then as a new discovery by Arnoldus de London (Blomfield) for president and Archbishop Sumner for one Villa Nova, a chemist and physician, who regarded it, from the of the vice-presidents. This important society, of which Queen chemical or medical point of view, as a Divine product. It prob- Victoria became patron on her accession in 1837, came to an ably came into use very gradually, but once the art of distillation end in 1850, when the whole cause was under an eclipse. The had been mastered it was extended to other alcoholic substances in most remarkable episode in the temperance campaign at this countries where wine was not grown. Malt, from which beer had period was the mission of the Rev. Theobald Mathew, of Cork, been made from time immemorial, was naturally used for the pur- commonly known as Father Mathew, the greatest of all tempose, and then gin or Geneva spirits and whisky or usquebagh perance missionaries. He travelled through Ireland in the years (Irish for “water of life”) were added to grape brandy; then 183842 and everywhere excited intense enthusiasm. People came corn brandy in the north and east of Europe, rum from flocked to hear him and took the pledge in crowds. In 1841 the sugar canes in the Indies, potato spirit, and eventually, as the number of abstainers in Ireland was estimated to be 4,647,000, process was perfected, rectified ethyl alcohol from almost any- which is more than the entire population to-day. In three years thing containing sugar or starch. the consumption of spirits fell from 10,815,000 to 5,290,000 galThe concentrated form of alcohol, thus evolved, for a long time lons. This was not all due to Father Mathew, because great carried with it the prestige of a Divine essence given to it in the depression and distress prevailed at the same time, but he unmiddle ages when chemistry was allied to all sorts of superstitions. questionably exercised an extraordinary influence. In 1843 he It had potent properties and was held to possess great virtue. went to England, where he had less, though still great, success, and This view is embodied in the name “water of life,” and was at in 1850 to America. He died in 1856, by which time the cause had one time universally held; traces of it still linger among the very fallen into a depressed state in both countries. In the United ignorant. Ardent spirit seemed particularly desirable to the habi- States a flash of enthusiasm of a similar character, but on a tants of the cold and damp regions of northern Europe, where the smaller scale, known as the Washingtonian movement, had appeople took to it with avidity and imbibed it without restraint peared. In 1845 a law prohibiting the public sale of liquor was when it became cheap and accessible. That happened in England passed in New York State but repealed in 1847; in 1851 State in the early part of the 18th century (see Liquor Laws); and prohibition was adopted in Maine (see Liquor Laws). out of the frightful results which followed there eventually arose Since that time the organized movement has embraced both the modern temperance movement. The legislature had been busy elements, the voluntary and the compulsory, and has combined with the liquor traffic for more than two centuries previously, but the inculcation of individual abstinence with the promotion of its task had been the repression of disorder; the thing was a nui- legislation for the reduction or suppression of the traffic. On the sance and had to be checked in the interests of public order. It whole the latter has predominated, particularly in the United is significant that though drunkenness had been prevalent from the States, where organized agitation has for more than half a century earliest times, the disorder which forced legislative control did not made temperance a political question and has produced the make its appearance until after the introduction of spirits. various experiments in legislation of which an account is given Intemperance was one of many questions which we can now in the article on Liquor Laws. In addition to combining the see were struggling into existence during the latter half of the 18th moral and the political elements the modern movement is charcentury, to become the subject matter of “social reform” in the acterized by the following features: (1) international organization, roth. Like the majority of them it was a question of bodily wel- (2) organized co-operation of women, (3) juvenile temperance, fare, of health. A breach had been made in the unthinking tradi- (4) teaching of temperance in schools and elsewhere, (5) scientific tional belief in the virtue of alcoholic liquor by the experiences study of alcohol and inebriety. referred to; and medical thought, as soon as it began to busy itself (1) International organization appears to have been started by with health as distinguished from the treatment of disease, took the Order of Good Templars, a society of abstainers formed, in the matter up. In 1804 Dr. Trotter, of Edinburgh, published a r85r, at Utica, in New York State. It spread over the United book on the subject, which was an expansion of his academic States and Canada, and in 1868 was introduced into Great Britain. thesis written in 1788; Dr. Benjamin Rush, of Philadelphia, a dis- Some years later it was extended to Scandinavia, where it is very tinguished American physician and politician, who had studied in strong. Temperance societies had previously existed in Norway Edinburgh and London, wrote a striking paper on the same subject from 1836, and in Sweden from 1837; these seem to be the earliest in the same year; and very soon after this the organized tem- examples on the continent of Europe. The Good Templars organperance movement was set on foot in the United States. ization has spread to several other European countries, to AusTemperance Organization.—In 1808 a temperance society tralasia, India, South and West Africa and South America. There was founded at Saratoga in the State of New York, and in 1813 are several other international societies, and international conthe Massachusetts Society for the Suppression of Intemperance gresses have been held, the first in 1885 at Antwerp. A World’s

made its appearance. These seem to have been the earliest organizations, though the device of a pledge of abstinence had been introduced in 1800. The movement made rapid progress

mainly under the influence of the Churches. In 1826 the American Society for the Promotion of Temperance was founded in Boston, and by 1833 there were 6,000 local societies in several States with

Prohibition Conference was held in London in 1gog. It was attended by about 300 delegates from temperance societies in nearly all parts of the world, and resulted in the foundation of an International Prohibition Federation, which embraces every coun-

try in Europe with three or four minor exceptions, the United States, Mexico, Argentina, the British self-governing dominions,

TEMPERANCE India, China, Japan, Palestine, Tunisia and Hawaii.

(2) The organization of women, which has also become inter-

national, dates from 1874, when the National Women’s Christian

Temperance Union was founded at Cleveland in the United States. In 1907 it had branches in every State in the Union and in about 10,000 towns and villages, with an aggregate membership of 350,ooo. It employs all means, educational and social as well as political, and has exercised great influence in promoting that drastic legislation which characterizes the United States. It has also taken up many other questions relating to women, and has adopted the white ribbon as badge. About 1883 Miss Frances Willard, who had been the moving spirit of the Union, carried the organization of women into other lands and formed the World’s Women’s Christian Temperance Union, which now possesses branches in some 50 countries. (3) The inclusion of children in temperance organization goes back to 1847, when a society of juvenile abstainers who had taken the pledge was formed at Leeds; it took the name of Band of Hope. The practice spread, and in 1851 a Band of Hope Union was formed. There are now a number of such unions, for Scotland,

Ireland and separate counties in England; the Bands of Hope are said to number 15,000 in all. (4) The teaching of temperance in schools, which has become a great feature of the moral propaganda, was begun by private effort in 1852, when the late John Hope inaugurated a regular weekly visitation of day schools in Edinburgh. In 1875, at the invitation of the National Temperance League, Sir Benjamin Richardson wrote his Temperance Lesson Book, which was adopted by many schools as a primer. In 1889 school-teaching by travelling lecturers was taken up by the U.K. Band of Hope Union, and the example was followed by many other societies, which have spent large sums on itinerant lecturers; and object-lessons on the

nature and effects of alcoholic drinks are given to children in the schools. The Church of England Temperance Society carries on similar work and examines children in the subject of temperance, the annual Report for 1926 stating that 20,000 people of all grades and ages came under instruction in the year. Voluntary temperance teaching having grown continuously and become very extensive, the central education authorities took action; im 1906 the Board of Education in Ireland made “Hygiene and Temperance” a compulsory subject in the public schools; in 1909 the English board issued a syllabus of temperance teaching, the adoption of which in elementary schools is optional (a revised edition, which includes the physiology of food also, was issued in 1922); in Scotland also courses of teaching in hygiene and temperance are permissive and have been adopted by many local educational authorities. In the United States compulsory teaching is of much longer standing and more advanced. The question was first taken up by the Women’s Christian Temperance Union (see above) in 1879; it was believed that by teaching the physiological effects of alcohol to all children the problem of intemperance would be effectually solved, and a systematic political campaign was planned and carried out for the purpose of obtaining compulsory legislation to give effect to this idea. The campaign was successful in New York in 1884, in Pennsylvania in 1885 and subsequently in other States. Laws have now been passed in every State and territory, making anti-alcohol teaching part of the curriculum in the public schools, and tobacco is usually included. School-teaching is compulsory in Canada, except in Quebec and Prince Edward Island, where it is permissive; in France since 1902; in Sweden since 1892, and in Iceland. It is recognized by authority but optional in Australia, South Africa, some provinces of India, Belgium, Finland, Denmark, Norway, Germany, AustriaHungary and Switzerland. The movement in favour of schoolteaching is, which has become widespread, continuously and generally advancing. (5) The scientific study of the physiology and pathology of alcohol is a very large subject in itself. As has been shown above, the pioneers of the temperance movement were medical men; and though the Churches soon became the chief moving force, doctors have always exercised an influence, and in more recent times since people learnt to bow down to the name of science there has been

gay

a marked tendency to have recourse to scientific authority for arguments and support, of which the teaching of temperance as a branch of physiology or hygiene is an illustration. Medical abstinence societies have been formed in England, Germany, Belgium, Holland, Norway, Sweden and Denmark. Present State of the Movement.—In recent years the temperance movement has grown and spread, but there are no comprehensive figures of its numerical strength. The Alliance Year Book, however, contains a directory of societies, which give some idea of its wide distribution. It contains the names of over 600 organizations including local branches in Great Britain alone, em-

bracing religious (54), women’s (48) and juvenile societies (47). It further mentions

four

international

organizations,

eight in

Australia, 12 in Canada, eight in South Africa and nine in the United States; there are, no doubt, central offices. The periodicals enumerated number 37 in Great Britain, mostly monthly, 14 in Australia, nine in Canada, five in India, two in South Africa and eight in the United States. The Church of England Temperance Society is much the largest. It was founded in 1862, and re-constituted in 1873 on a dual basis of (1) total abstinence, and (2) general promotion of the society’s objects, which are (a) promotion of habits of temperance; (b) reformation of the intemperate; (c) removal of the causes which lead to intemperance. It was incorporated in 1907, re-constituted in 1911 and 1921, and recognized by the Church Assembly in 1923. Its activity is many-sided; it carries on an extensive publication department and educational courses, police court and prison gate missions to seamen, travelling vans, and inebriate homes. The King and Queen are its patrons, the archbishops of Canterbury and York its presidents, and the bishop of London its chairman. The United Kingdom Alliance, founded in 1853, is the chief political fighting organization. Its object is prohibition of the drink trade, but it has adopted the policy of local prohibition by means of the option. It has for many years furnished the “national drink bill,” a calculation of the national expenditure on alcoholic liquors. No details of the membership are given, but the expenditure in 1927 was £9,420. Other legislative organizations are the National Temperance League, the British Temperance League, the National United Temperance Council, the National Temperance Federation, the Temperance Legislation League, and others in Scotland, Ireland and Wales. There is also a Royal Army Temperance Association, of which the King is the patron, and a Royal Naval Temperance Society. The National British Women’s Total Abstinence Union has 44 county branches. The International societies enumerated are the World League against Alcoholism, the World Prohibitive Federation, the International Orders of Good Templars and the World’s Women’s Christian Temperance Union. Effects of the Temperance Movement.—The organized agitation against the abuse and, in most cases, also the use, of alcoholic liquor is a very interesting feature of social life in those countries where it is mainly carried on. These are the United States of America, the British Islands and Dominions, and the northern countries of Europe, particularly Scandinavia and Finland. It is largely a matter of climate. In the wine-producing countries it is either weak or non-existent. In France alcohol means spirits, and that is generally the case on the Continent. In Spain, Portugal and along the Mediterranean there is no need to check drunkenness, because the people are naturally sober. But in the countries first mentioned that is not the case. It is here that the temperance movement is carried on with great energy,

and when we come to ask what effect it has had, the enquiry is found to be full of difficulty. Of the societies some rely on moral influence, others aim at legislation, but too often at unattainable legislation. Nevertheless they must be credited with a large part in procuring the very varied and constantly changing mass of legislation dealing with drink; and, so far, the laws must be considered as results. Consumption.—The following table gives the amount consumed in the United Kingdom per head of population in gallons from 1870 onwards:

TEMPERANCE

918

England and Wales Convictions for Drunkenness—Cont’d

Spirits

Year Igis

Convictions

Year

Convictions

135,811

I92I

- 775789

.

1916 .

. 84,191

1922.

IQI}

. 46,410

1923

1918 . OIG. . 1920. . The table shows

29,075 . 57,948

1924. 1925.

. 95,763

1926.

- 76,347 .

- 77,094

- 79,082 » 75,077

67,126

a fall corresponding with that of consump. tion down to rg10 and then a rise preceding the war; thereafter

a rapid fall down to 1918, with a subsequent rise in 1919~20, followed by a pretty level rate, with a sharp fall for the year 1926, which was signalized by the general strike and the seven months’

mining struggle. The general correspondence between the police *Great Britain only.

The most notable feature in this table is the great change in 1914—26, the years of war and the subsequent period. The World War has, indeed, produced a greater change than any other event throughout the centuries of liquor control. Apart from this we notice a fluctuating tendency, with a general downward movement, which is most striking in the spirits column. The rise and fall correspond with the state of trade; consumption always rises with good trade and falls with bad. The year of the greatest consumption is 1875, which marked the close of the most prosperous

trading period ever known. The years 1885-88 were years of extreme depression, followed by a short rise and later by a longer one, culminating in 1899. This slowly gave way to another depression, which lasted until 1909, when a rise began again. But throughout these fluctuations a general downward movement is discernible. The high-water mark is never so high as the previous one, while low-water mark is lower. The general decline is due ' to a change of social habits, to which many causes have contributed—the spread of education, the provision of alternatives to the public-house, the growth of sport and athletics, the example of the higher classes, and the temperance movement. Coming to the World War we find the effects of a drastic and progressive interference with the drink trade. The interference operated in three ways: (1) Reduction of the amount available for drinking, (2) raised prices, (3) reduced hours of sale. Together with the withdrawal of men for service, these three conditions fully account for the fall of consumption shown in the table from 1914 to 1918, when the lowest point was reached. Their subsequent partial relaxation, with the return of men to civil life, accounts for the rise in 1919~20, when a period of temporary prosperity prevailed. That consumption remained still far below the level of 1913 was due to the fact that the war time restrictionswere relaxed only in part; and to that has since been added a marked depression of trade, notably in 1922, when the consumption of beer, the most tell-tale commodity, fell heavily. In 1921 a new Licensing Act was passed, which embodied certain restrictions. The most important of these were the hours of sale, which had been reduced during the war from 16, 17 and, in London, 194 to five and one-half; they were now extended to eight and in London to nine, but a break between the morning and evening is retained. At the same time the prices of drink remained unaltered, as affected by the high taxation of roos. on a barrel of beer and 72s. a gallon on spirits. In the budget of 1923 a remission of 20s. a barrel on beer enabled brewers to lower the price by id. a pint. The continued state of comparative sobriety in subsequent years must be attributed to these three conditions: (1) Hours of sale, (2) high prices, (3) the depression of trade. Prevalence of Drunkenness.—The table of convictions for drunkenness corresponds broadly with that of consumption. The following figures are taken from the licensing statistics of the Home Office: Year 1905 _ 1906

1907 1908 1909

England and Wales Convictions for Drunkenness Convictions Year Convictions 207,171 199,014

197,064 187,803 169,518

Igro IQII

1912 1913 1914

161,992 172,130

182,592 188,877 183,828

figures and the statistics of consumption proves the trustworthiness of the former, which is further confirmed by the medical records: England and Wales Drunkenness and Medical Results Year

Convictions for

drunkenness

Deaths from

Deaths from alcoholism

cirrhosis of the liver

IQI3

M. F. I53,II12 | 35,765

M. 2,088

1914

140,517 | 37,311

2,253 | 1,620

IQIS 1916

102,600] 33,211 62,946 | 21,245

F. 1,586

1,994 1,736

1,421 1,096

1917 1918 IQIQ 1920 IQ2I 1922

34,103 | 21,853 | 46,765 | 80,517 | 64,897 | 63,253 |

12,307 7,222 11,183 15,246 12,892 13,004

1,423 1,063 goo 1,085 1,188 1,168

775 575 510 550 585 588

1923 1924 1925

63,850 | 13,244 66,139 | 12,943 62,843 | 12,224

1,071 1,036 1,114

551 573 597

1926

State

55,836 | II,200

Control.Other

I,I31

points

in war

experiments

to be considered in view of temperance activities.

6or

remain

One of these

is State control. It was adopted in South Carolina in 1893 and was inaugurated for Russia in 1895. It was brought to the front in Great Britain by the war experience. Among the powers conferred on the Liquor Control Board were those of purchasing and carrying on the trade, which meant State purchase. The Board made use of these powers to a very limited extent, directly connected with the war. In 1926 it took over the trade in four areas —Cromarty and Invergordon—at the instance of the Admiralty,

Enfield at that of the Ministry of Munitions, Carlisle and the adjoining district of Gretna because of an enormous factory erected for munitions. The Carlisle and Gretna area is the only one of permanent importance. It was placed under the usual restrictions in Nov. 1915, but they failed to prevent an immense increase of drunkenness due to the presence of 22,000 navvies, engaged on construction work (the figures were given by the resident engineer). The board felt impelled to take drastic action and began the process, in Jan. 1916, by purchasing public-houses in the villages. Its operations were gradually extended until they embraced an area of about 500 sq.m. with a population of 140,000, In which Carlisle (52,000) was the only considerable town. The changes introduced into the liquor trade included: (x) Its concentration, (2) reduction in the number of licensed houses, (3) their re-arrangement and improvement, (4) the pro-

vision of meals, (5) salaried managers, (6) minor changes including the abolition of ‘grocers’ licences.” All these were very thoroughly carried out in the years following. In Carlisle itself only

two establishments, a hotel and a restaurant, remain outside the State scheme, which has been carried on by the Home Office, after the dispersal of the Control Board in 1921.

The competition of clubs has been mentioned above. By the

act of rg21 the hours of sale are the same as for the publichouse, and registration has been compulsory since 1903, which involves power to strike a club off the roll for misconduct. But clubs are in a privileged position, and since the war they have increased steadily and rapidly from 7,972 in 1918 to 12,480 i

TEMPERANCE 1927, while public-houses have become fewer, as already shown. A large number of the clubs are political, and there is a strong agitation for freeing them from all restrictions; while, on the other hand, the unfair competition with the public-house is insisted on. The Temperance (Scotland) Act has no connection with the World War; it was passed in 1913, but did not come into operation until 1920. It is a local option act, which gives constituencies the power: (1) To remain as they are, (2) to vote for limitation of licences, (3) to vote for no licence. The Drink Bill—The following figures, which give an estimate of the national expenditure in Great Britain on drink, have been supplied by the courtesy of the United Kingdom Alliance:

1900 1913

Great Britain Per head of Expenditure population £ . 168,500,000 4-10-44 . 153,500,000 3-125

1920

. 453,000,000

IO— 0—0

181,000,000

1927

298,000,000

6-153

128,500,000

Year

Taxation 36,800,000 34,800,000

The great rise shown in 1920 and 1927 over the previous figures is due to the high prices of drink caused mainly by taxation, though it is to be noted that, in 1927, the nation spent on drink alone, quite apart from tax, nearly £40,000,000 more than in Igoo. World Changes.—In 1927 a Licensing Act was passed by the Irish Free State following a commission of enquiry. The principal measure was a reduction of the hours of sale; but the great change effected since the war is nation-wide Prohibition in the United States. It is separately dealt with (see PROHIBITION), and therefore little will be said about it here. It was not due to the war, as for many years past individual States have been adopting Prohibition; but the war gave a stimulus to the movement, which in r919 reached the point required for an amendment to the Constitution. This step has given rise to an immense and interminable controversy, in which opinions of great weight can be quoted on both sides; but its effect outside the United States has been rather to check the movement for Prohibition, which was at first stimulated by the action of the United States. What follows is taken from the International Record and other sources. Austria. A great campaign for reform of the liquor laws is being carried on. The proposals include: (1) Prohibition of sale from noon on Saturday to Monday morning; (2) prohibition of sale to persons under 18; (3) gradual extinction of licences; (4) debts for drink to be irrecoverable; (5) local option. Belgium. By a law promoted by M. Vandervelde the retail sale of spirits for consumption on the premises is prohibited, but consumption has increased. Bulgaria. The director of health has proposed a bill providing for (1) Local option; (2) the limitation of licences in proportion to population; (3) other restrictions of locality; (4) hours of sale to be from 8 a.m. to mid-day and from 2 to 6 P.M.

with closing on Sundays and holidays; (5) prohibition of sale to persons under 20, sick people, students and police. Czechoslovakia. An active campaign is being carried on under the presidency of Prof. Fourtka. Temperance teaching in schools is encouraged by the Government. Denmark. The Temperance Commission appointed in ro14 has issued a final report. The majority of nine members think that education will suffice; the minority of six propose that the people shall have power locally to veto the granting of new licences and nationally to suppress liquor containing more than

24% of alcohol. Finland. Finland is the one Prohibition country on the Continent. It was adopted there in 1916. Drunkenness is said to be excessive and a recent unofficial plebiscite declared against Prohibition, but its repeal is unlikely. France. The temperance movement is directed mainly against spirits; the minister of commerce recently prohibited publicity concerning wines and spirits in post offices and on all administrative documents.

O79

Germany. A strong movement in favour of local option is in progress. Holland. The minister of labour has introduced a licensing bill, providing for local option. Hungary. The licensing laws have been amended by a provision prohibiting the sale of drink to persons under 18. _ Iceland. Iceland has Prohibition, and has experienced the difficulty of enforcement. Recently the Government has appointed supervisors with a view to enforcing the law more effectually. Italy. The most interesting movement in Italy is one favoured by the Government for manufacturing non-alcoholic drinks from grapes and other fruits. The Ministry of Labour has forbidden

the use of all kinds of alcoholic drinks in factories.

Norway. In 1927 Norway, by popular vote, gave up Prohibition of spirits in favour of local option. Poland. The temperance organizations are active and made their first entrance into the electoral field at the last general election by urging electors to vote only for candidates in favour of reform legislation. Rumania. The Government has in hand a bill for “progressive prohibition,” whereby licenced houses will be reduced and gradu-

ally closed until in 12 years’ time there will be none. Russia. In Russia, where the Government monopoly of the manufacture and sale of vodka, which ceased in the war, has been

restored, complaints of drunkenness and illicit distillation are rife; but the Government is too dependent on the revenue from vodka to give it up. Sweden. During the war spirits were severely rationed, with the result of encouraging illicit distillation. After the war the country returned to the system of disinterested management, known as the Gothenburg system, as modified by Dr. Bratt. Switzerland. There appears to be a conflict between the Federal

Council and the temperance organizations. The former has introduced a bill in the national parliament, giving peasants the right to distil their own fruit, but providing that any excess, not re-

quired for domestic use, should be handed over to the liquor monopoly. This is opposed by the temperance societies. Turkey. Prohibition was abandoned by Turkey in 1924, in favour of a Government monopoly. Australia. The Prohibition movement is strong, but the wine

business, which has become extensive and lucrative, is against it. The States have their own liquor systems, decided by popular vote; but no State has yet voted for Prohibition. Queensland voted in 1922 for continuance of licences. New South Wales has had no poll. Victoria will poll in 1930, West Australia voted

against Prohibition in 1925. New Zealand. New Zealand adopted local option in 1893 and 12 electorates secured no licence. Canada. The greatest reaction against Prohibition is shown by Canada, which has repealed it in one province after another, except Nova Scotia, mostly in favour of Government control, though in some provision is made for local option. Newfoundland, after trying Prohibition for five years, has given it up for Government sale.

Science and Alcohol.—In 1916 the Liquor Control Board appointed a scientific advisory committee, which reported in 1918 and furnished a “review of the existing state of scientific knowledge regarding the action of alcohol on the human organism” as

a “provisional basis for further research.” This review was valuable, because it put together in a systematic way a large number of observations occurring only in various scientific journals. The committee continued the further research, with the addition of

two members, and in 1920 prepared a revised version, which was not, however, published. In 1921 on the dissolution of the Control Board the Medical Research Council were invited by the home secretary to re-appoint the committee as one of their own investigation committee, and so to preserve the continuity of the work.

They did so, and in 1924 published a revised version of their report, together with the two prefaces written in 1917 and 1920 by Lord D’Abernon, chairman of the Control Board and of the advisory committee. See also PROHIBITION, LOCAL OPTION, LICENSED VICTUALLER,

920

TEMPERATURE

OF BODY—TEMPLARS

GOTHENBURG LICENSING SYSTEM, DISINTERESTED MANAGEMENT, Drink BIL. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—Registrar-general, Annual Reports, Parl. Papers, Ist rep., vol. xvi., p. 1 (1839), etc.; Judicial Statistics, Parl. Papers, Session II., vol. xxxv. (1857), etc.; Inspector under Inebriates Acts, Annual Reports, Parl. Papers, ist rep., vol. xxiii, p. şor (1881) etc.; Licensing Statistics, Parl. Papers, vol. 1x., p. 715 (1889) etc.; Board of Trade, Statıstical Tables relating to Alcoholic Beverages, Parl. Papers, vol. lxxix., p. ı (1897), etc.; U.S. Dept. of Commerce, Bureau of Census, General Statistics of Cities (Washington, 1917); Church of England Temperance Society, Annual Reports (1862), etc.; The Brewers Almanack (annual, 1893), etc.; University college, London, Eugenics Laboratory Memoirs, Francis Galton Laboratory (1907), etc.; The New Encyclopaedia of Social Reform, 2 vols. (edit. W. D. Bliss, etc., new enlarged ed., 1909) ; Alliance Year Book ledit. G. B. Wilson, Manchester, r910), etc.; W. D. Morrison, Crime and its Causes (1891); J. Rowntree and A. Sherwell, The Temperance Problem and Social Reform (1899); A. Shadwell, Drink, Temperance and Legislation (1902), and Drink in rorq—-22, a Lesson in Control (1923); E. A. Pratt, Licensing and Temperance in Sweden,

Norway and Denmark (1907); T. N. Kelynack, The Drink Problem in its Medico-sociological Aspects in the New Library of Medicine (edit. C. W. Saleeby, 1907); D. Pickett, The Cyclopedia of Temperance (N.Y., 1917); H. Carter, The Church and the Drink Evil (1922); E. H. Starling, The Action of Alcohol on Man (1923); Alcohol: its Action on the Human Organism (Medical Research Council, 1924); W. R. Miles, Alcohol and Human Efficiency (Washington, 1924) ; W. R. Chapple, Alcohol and Self Control (1925); H. M. Vernon, The Alcohol Problem (1928). See also the American Prohibition Year Book. (A. St.)

TEMPERATURE TEMPERING

OF BODY: see Anrmat Hear.

is the imparting of a certain degree of hard-

ness to a tool or spring. The older practice was that of first hardening a tool to the limit, and then “letting it down,” e.g., allowing access of heat until a certain colour was shown on a part polished bright for observation, and then quenching in water or oil. This method is still practised on a large scale, but with the use of furnaces and pyrometers the tempering heat can be raised accurately without going through the hardening process first. Tempering colours range from the bright yellow down to grey, covering such tints as pure yellow, dark yellow, brown yellow, red brown, purple red, violet, cornflower blue, pale blue. The bright yellow gives the hardest temper suitable for steel engraving tools and certain metal cutting tools, while at the other end of the range lie saws for wood and most springs. See also ANNEALING and HARDENING.

TEMPLARS.

The Knights Templars, or Poor Knights of

Christ and of the Temple of Solomon (pauperes commilitones Christi templique Salomonict), formed one of the three great military orders, founded in the rath century. Unlike the Hospitallers and the Teutonic Knights it was a military order from its very origin. Its founders were a Burgundian knight named Hugues de Payns and Godeffroi de St. Omer, a knight from northern France, who in 1119 undertook the pious task of protecting the pilgrims who, after the first crusade, flocked to Jerusalem and the other sacred spots in the Holy Land. They were quickly joined by six other knights and soon afterwards organized themselves as a religious community, taking an oath to the patriarch of Jerusalem to guard the public roads, to forsake worldly chivalry, “‘of which human favour and not Jesus Christ was the cause,” and, living in chastity, obedience and poverty, according to the rule of St. Benedict, “to fight with a pure mind for the supreme and true King.” To this nascent order of warrior monks Baldwin IIL., king of Jerusalem, handed over a part of his royal palace lying next to the former mosque of al-Aksa, the so-called “Temple of Solomon,” whence they took their name. They had at first no distinctive habit, wearing any old clothes that might be given to them. Nor was their community exclusive. Their primitive rule seems to have enjoined them especially to seek out excommunicated knights, and to admit them, after absolution by the bishop, to their order, and they thus served a useful purpose in at once disciplining and converting the unruly rabble of “rogues and impious men, robbers and committers of sacrilege, murderers, perjurers

plunder and salvation. It was this rule which led later to the most important privilege of the order, the immunity from sentences of excommunication pronounced by bishops and parish priests, This practice might have brought them at once under the suspicion of the Church, and it soon became expedient to obtain the highest sanction for the new order and its rules. In the autumn of 1127 accordingly Hugues de Payns, with certain companions, appeared in Europe, where he was fortunate enough to secure the enthusiastic support of the all-powerful abbot of Clairvaux

Grateful pilgrims had already begun to enrich the order; the De laude novae militiae, a glowing panegyric of this new and holy conception of knighthood, addressed by Bernard to Hugues de Payns by name, insured the success of his mission. In 1128 the council of Troyes discussed and sanctioned the rule of the order, Rule of the Temple.—No ms. of the original French Rule of

the Temple (Règle du Temple) exists; but in essentials the later copies preserve the matter and spirit of the primitive Rule, and they prove that to the end the order was, in principle at least, submitted to the same strict discipline as at the beginning. Of a secret Rule, in spite of the most diligent research, no trace has ever been found. It is now generally held that none ever existed. The legend of its existence, so fatal to the order, is probably

traceable to the fact that the complete Rule was jealously guarded by the chief office-bearers of the order. The Règle du Temple in its final form as we now possess it contains the rules for the constitution and administration of the order; the duties and privileges of the various classes of its personnel; the monastic rules, regulations as to costume and as to religious services; rules for the holding of chapters, and a summary of offences and their punishment; the procedure at the election of a grand master and at receptions into the order: a definition of the relations of the order to the pope, and to other religious orders. At the head of the order was the master of the Temple at Jerusalem (in Cyprus after the fall of the Latin Kingdom), known as the grand master. His authority was very great—except in certain reserved cases his word was law—but he was not absolute. Thus in matters of special importance—alienation of the estates of the order, attack on a fortress, declaration of war, conclusion of an armistice, reception of a new brother—he had to consult the chapter, and was bound by the vote of the majority; nor could he modify or abrogate a decree of the council of the order without their consent. He had to obtain the consent of the chapter also to the nomination of the grand commanders of the provinces of the order; the lesser offices were absolutely in his gift. He was elected by a complicated process, a chapter summoned ad hoc electing a “commander of the election” and one other brother who, after vigil and prayer, co-opted two more, these four choosing another two, and so on till the number of the twelve apostles had been reached. A chaplain, representing Jesus Christ, was then

added to complete the electoral college. (See Curzon, Règle du Temple, p. xxxv.). Of peculiar importance were the chaplains (fratres capellani). These did not originally form part of the order, which was served by priests from outside. The bull Omne datum optimum of 1163 imposed on clerics attaching themselves to the order an oath of life-long obedience to the grand master; by the middle of the 13th century the chaplains took the same oath as the other

brothers and were distinguished and the privileges these implied humiliating punishments, shaved to drink out of). The order thus

from them only by their orders (e.g., they were spared the more the face, and had a separate cup had its own clergy, exempt from

the jurisdiction of diocesan bishops and parish priests, owing obedience to the grand master and the pope alone.

It remains to be said that the brethren were admitted either for

life or for a term of years.

Married men were also received, but

on condition of bequeathing one History.—Long before St. order was established in almost dom, and every establishment

half of their property to the order. Bernard’s death (1153) the new every kingdom of Latin Christenwas the recipient of rich endow-

and adulterers”? who streamed to the Holy Land in hope of ‘Bernard of Clairvaux, De laude novae militiae, cap. v. (in Migne, ments. Henry I., for example, granted them lands in Normandy; Patrol. lat. 182, p. 928). and Louis VII. in the latter years of his reign gave them a

TEMPLARS piece of land outside Paris, which in later times became known as the Temple, and was the headquarters of the order in Europe, and Stephen of England granted them the manors of Cressing and Witham in Essex, and his wife Matilda that of Cowley, near Oxford. Spiritual privileges were granted to them by the popes as lavishly as temporal possessions by the princes and

people.

Pope Adrian IV. allowed

them

to have their own

churches; Eugenius III. added to these the right to have churchyards. They were, moreover, as defenders of the Church exempted from the payment of tithes. Finally, they were exempted from the action even of general censures and decrees of the popes, unless mentioned in them by name. Very soon the order refused to submit in any way to the ordinary jurisdiction of the diocesan bishops and formed in effect a separate ecclesiastical organization under the pope as supreme bishop. The result was that, scarce twenty-five years after its foundation, the order was at open feud with bishops and parish priests, and the popes found it necessary to issue decree after decree to protect it from violence and spoliation. So long, however, as the attention of the papacy and of Christendom was fixed on the problem of recovering and safeguarding the Holy Land, the position of the Templars was un-

assailable and all efforts to curb the growth of their power vain. The later history of the Templars is therefore the history of the CRUSADES (q.v.). Fall of Latin Kingdom.—There is something Homeric in the story of the fall of the Latin kingdom as related by the historians of the next century. A French knight, Gerard de Riderfort, coming to the East in quest of fortune, attached himself to the service of the ambitious Raymond, count of Tripoli; looking for the hand of some wealthy widow in reward. Failing ignominiously in this, Gerard enrolled himself among the Templars, biding his time for revenge, and was elected grand master in 1184. Baldwin IV., king of Jerusalem, died in 1185, leaving the throne to his young nephew Baldwin V., the son of his sister Sibylla, under the guardianship of Raymond, whose term of office was brief, as the little king died in September 1186. This was Gerard’s opportunity. The Templars carried the body of their dead sovereign to Jerusalem for burial; and then, unknown to the barons of the realm, Gerard and the patriarch crowned Sibylla and her husband Guy de Lusignan, Raymond’s rival. This was the overthrow of Raymond’s ambition; and both Latin and Arabic writers are agreed that the Christian count and the Mohammedan sultan now entered into an alliance. To break this friendship and so save the kingdom, Gerard and the grand master of the Hospitallers were sent north to make terms with Raymond. But the rash valour of the Templars provoked a hopeless contest with 7,000 Saracens. The grand master of the Hospitallers was slain; but Gerard

made his escape with three knights to Nazareth (rst May 1187). In this emergency Raymond became reconciled with Guy; and

Gerard placed the Temple disposal. Once more it was disastrous battle of Hittin into the hands of Saladin,

treasures of Henry II. at his king’s the Templars’ rashness that led to the (4th July). Gerard and the king fell but were released about a year later;

Raymond of Tripoli made his escape through treachery or for-

tune; and 230 Templars fell in or after the battle, for the fight was scarcely over before Saladin ordered all the Templars and Hospitallers to be murdered in cold blood. One after another the Christian fortresses of Palestine fell into the hands of Saladin. Jerusalem surrendered on 2nd~3rd October 1187, and the treasures of the Temple coffers were used to purchase the redemption of the poorer Christians, part of whom the Templar warriors guarded on their sad march from the Holy City to Tripoli. Part of their wealth was expended by Conrad of Montferrat in the defence of Tyre; but, when this prince refused to admit Guy to his city, both the Templars and the Hospitallers from the neighbouring parts flocked to the banner of their released xing and accompanied him to the siege of Acre (22nd August 1189). In his company they bore their part in the two years’ siege and the terrible famine of 1rg0—-91; and their grand master died in the great battle of 4th October r189, refusing to survive the slaughter of his brethren.

92I

On the capture of Acre Philip Augustus established himself in the palace of the Templars, who are, however, stated to have sympathized with Richard. The English king sold them the island of Cyprus for 100,000 besants; but, unable to pay the purchase money, they transferred the debt and the principality to Guy of Lusignan. Richard consulted them before deciding on any great military movement; and in June 1192 they advocated the bold plan of an advance on Egypt rather than on Jerusalem. It was in the disguise of a Templar and in a Templar galley that Richard left the Holy Land, after the failure of his own military schemes. When Acre was recovered, the Templars, like the Hospitallers, received their own quarters in the town, which from this time became the centre of the order. On the death of Henry of Champagne (1197) they vetoed the election of Raoul de Tabarie; after the death of his successor Amalric they refused to renew the truce with Saladin’s brother, Saif al-Din, and led an expedition against the Saracens before the arrival of the new king, John de Brienne, at whose coronation in 1210 William de Chartres, the grand master, was present. Seven years later, with the aid of Walter de Avennis and of the Teutonic Knights, they commenced the building of their fortress of Castle Pilgrim, near Acre, on a rocky promontory washed by the Mediterranean on every side except the east. It was from this castle that In May 1218 the fifth crusade started for the expedition against Egypt. The Templars were the heroes of the siege of Damietta, at which William de Chartres was slain. “First to attack and last to retreat,” they saved the Christian army from annihilation on 29th August 1219; and when the city surrendered (5th November) the only one of its twentyeight towers that had begun to give way had been shaken by their engines. On the other hand, it was largely owing to their objections that John de Brienne refused the sultan’s offer to restore Jerusalem and Palestine. From the very first the Templars seem to have been opposed to Frederick II., and when he landed at ‘Acre (7th September 1228) they refused to march under the banners of an excommunicated man, and would only accompany his host from Acre to Joppa in a separate body. They were accused of notifying Frederick’s intended pilgrimage to the Jordan to the sultan, and they were certainly opposed to Frederick’s ten years’ peace with Al-Kamil, the sultan of Egypt, and refused to be present at his coronation in Jerusalem. On neither side was the treaty fully observed; and preparations were made in Europe for a fresh crusade. In the meantime open dissension broke out between the Templars and the Hospitallers, the former advocating negotiations with the sultans of Damascus and Kerak, the latter with the sultan of Egypt; and when Richard of Cornwall arrived (11th October)

he had to decide between the two rival orders and their opposing policies. After some hesitation he concluded a treaty with the sultan of Egypt, much to the annoyance of the Templars, who openly mocked his efforts. On his departure the three orders came to open discord: the Templars laid siege to the Hospitallers in Acre and drove out the Teutonic Knights “in contumeliam imperatoris.” They were successful on all sides. The negotiations with Damascus and Kerak were reopened, and in 1244 Hermann of Perigord wrote to the princes of Europe that after a “silence of fifty-six years the divine mysteries would once more be celebrated in the Holy City.” ; It was in this moment of danger that the sultan of Babylon called in the barbarous Kharizmians, whom the Mongol invasions had driven from their native lands These savages, entering from the north, flowed like a tide past the newly built and impregnable Templar fortress of Safed, swept down on Jerusalem, and annihilated the Christian army near Gaza on October 18th, 1244. From this blow the Latin kingdom of the East never recovered; 600 knights took part in the battle; the whole force of the Templars, 300 in number, was present, but only 18 survived, and of 200 Hospitallers only 16. The masters of both orders were slain or taken prisoners, and Jerusalem was lost to Christendom once more. The havoc caused by the Kharizmians was alleged by pope Innocent IV. as the reason for again summoning Christendom to the rescue of the Holy Land Recognizing the fact that the true

922

TEMPLARS Calendar of Documents, France (1899), vol. i., ed. J. H. Round,

way to Jerusalem lay through Egypt, Louis IX. led his host to the banks of the Nile, being accompanied by the Templars. Their master, William de Sonnac, attempted in vain to restrain the rash advance of the count of Artois at the battle of Mansura

No. 1084. Suppression

(8th February 1250), which only three Templars survived.

before its ruin.

St.

Louis, when captured a few weeks later, owed his speedy release to the generosity with which the order advanced his ransommoney. A new enemy was now threatening Mohammedan and Christian alike. For a time the Mongol advance may have been welcomed by the Christian cities, as one after another the Mohammedan principalities of the north fell before the new invaders. But this new danger stimulated the energies of Egypt, which under the Mameluke Bibars encroached year after year on the scanty remains of the Latin kingdom. The great Frankish lords, fearing that all was lost, made haste to sell their lands to the Templars and Hospitallers before quitting Palestine for ever. But they lost their power of resistance, and became so enfeebled as to welcome the treaty which secured them the plain of Acre and a free road to Nazareth as the result of the English crusade of 1272. While thus weak against external foes, the Templars were strong enough for internal warfare. In 1277 they espoused the quarrel of the bishop of Tripoli, formerly a member of the order, against his nephew Bohemond, prince of Antioch and Tripoli, and began a war which lasted three years. In 1276 their conduct drove Hugh II., king of Cyprus and Jerusalem, from Acre to Tyre. In the ensuing year, when Mary of Antioch had sold her claim to the crown to Charles of Anjou, they welcomed this prince’s lieutenant to Acre and succeeded for the moment in forcing the knights of that city to do homage to the new king. Thirteen years later (26th April 1290) Tripoli fell, and next year Acre, after a siege of six weeks, at the close of which (16th May) William de Beaujeu, the grand master, was slain. The few surviving Templars elected a new master, and sailed for Cyprus, which now became the headquarters of the order. Power and Influence of the Order.—For more than a hundred years the Templars had been one of the wealthiest and most

of the Order.—Never

had the order of the

Temple been to all appearance more powerful than immediately Sovereign power,

in the sense

of that of the

Teutonic Knights in Prussia or the Knights of St. John in Rhodes and later in Malta, it had never possessed; but its privileges and immunities constituted it a church within the church and—ip France at least—a state within the state. Philip IV., indeed, in pursuance of his policy of centralizing power in the crown, had from 1287 onwards made tentative efforts to curtail the power and wealth of the order; but soon his necessities forced him

to a temporary change of policy. In January 1293 the privileges of the order in and about Paris were confirmed and extended, and

in 1297 Philip borrowed 5,200 livres tournoises from the Paris Temple. Then came the great quarrel with Pope Boniface VIIL., and on the roth of August 1303 the king signed with Hugues de Peraud, the general visitor of the French Templars, a formal treaty of alliance against the pope. On the 6th of February 1304 Boniface’s successor, Benedict XI., once more confirmed all the Templars’ privileges; while Philip, for his part, appointed Hugues de Peraud receiver of the royal revenues and, under pressure of the disastrous campaign in Flanders, in June granted a charter exempting the order from all hindrances to the acquisition of property. Two years later the king took refuge in the Temple from the violence of the Paris mob, and so late as the spring of 1307 was present at the reception of a new Templar. Yet for some two years past the king had been plotting a treacherous attack on the order. His motives are clear: he had used every expedient to raise money, had robbed and expelled the Jews and the Lombard bankers, had debased the coinage; the suppression of the Templars would at once rescue him from their unwelcome tutelage and replenish his coffers. He cherished also another ambition. The question of an amalgamation of the great military orders had often been mooted; the project had been approved by successive popes in the interests of the Holy Land; it had been formally proposed at the Lyons council of 1274, only influential factors in European politics. If we confine our at- to be rejected by the opposition of the Templars and Hospitallers tention to the East, we realize but a small part of their enormous themselves. To Philip this scheme commended itself as an power. Two Templars were appointed guardians of the dis- opportunity for bringing the orders under the control of the puted castles on the betrothal of Prince Henry of England and French crown; there was to be but one order, that of the “Knights the French princess in 116z. Other Templars were almoners of of Jerusalem,” of which the grand master was always to be a Henry III. of England and of Philip IV. of France. One grand prince of the royal house of France. Clearly, it only needed an master was godfather to a daughter of Louis IX.; another, despite excuse and a favourable opportunity to make him attack the the prohibition of the order, is said to have been godfather to a Templars; and, once having attacked them, nothing short of their child of Philip IV. They were summoned to the great councils entire destruction would have been consistent with his safety. The of the Church, such as the Lateran of 1215 and the Lyons council excuse was found in the denunciation of the order for heresy and of 1274. Frederick II.’s persecution of their order was one of the unspeakable immoralities by a venal informer; the opportunity main causes of his excommunication in 1239; and his last will was the election of a pope, Clement V., wholly devoted to the enjoined the restoration of their estates. Their property was interests of the king of France. scattered over every country of Christendom, from Denmark to For perhaps half a century there had been strange stories Spain, from Ireland to Cyprus. But the wealth of the Templars circulating as to the secret rites practised by the order at its was due not so much to their territorial possessions as to the fact midnight meetings, stories which probably had their origin in that they were the great international financiers and bankers the extreme precautions taken by the Templars, originally perof the age. The Paris Temple was the centre of the world’s haps for military reasons, to secure the secrecy of their proceedmoney market. In it popes and kings deposited their revenues, ings, which excited popular curiosity and suspicion. ‘and these vast sums were not hoarded but issued as loans on In the spring of 1304 or 1308 a certain Esquiu de Floyran adequate security. Above all, it was the Templars who made of Béziers pretended to betray the “secret of the Templars” to the exchange of money with the East possible. It is easy, indeed, James II. of Aragon. The pious king, who had every reason to to see how they were the ideal bankers of the age; their strong- think well of the order, did not affect to be convinced; but the holds were scattered from Armenia to Ireland, their military power prospect of spoils was alluring, and he seems to have promised and strict discipline ensured the safe transmission of treasure, the informer a share of the booty if he could make good his while their reputation as monks guaranteed their integrity. Thus charges. Esquiu now turned to Philip of France, with more imthey became the predecessors, and later the rivals, of the great mediate success. For the purpose of collecting additional evidence Italian banking companies. To take interest (usury) was of course the king caused twelve spies to find admission to the order, and in unlawful. The method of circumventing this seems to have been the meantime sought to win over the pope to his views. Clement that the mortgagees paid to the mortgagors a nominal rent which V. owed the tiara to the diplomacy of Philip’s agents, perhaps was used towards the reduction of the debt. The difference be- to their gold; but though a weak man, and moreover a martyr to tween this and the real rent represented the interest. A docu- ill health, he was not so immediately accommodating as the king ment throwing a vivid light on the banking methods of the Tem- might have wished, expressing his disbelief in the charges against plars and Hospitallers is a charter of Margaret, queen of the the order, and, though promising an inquiry, doing his best to English, A.D. 1186, from the abbey of Fontevrault, printed in procrastinate. Philip determined to force his hand. All France

TEMPLARS was at this time under the jurisdiction of the Inquisition, and the Inquisition could act without consulting the pope. The grand inquisitor of France, William of Paris, was Philip’s confessor and creature. The way was thus open for the king to carry out his plan by a perfectly legal method. His informers denounced the Templars to the Inquisition, and the grand inquisitor—as was the customary procedure in the case of persons accused of heresy—demanded their arrest by the civil power. On the rath of September 1307, accordingly, Philip issued writs to his baillis and seneschals throughout the kingdom, directing them to make preparations to arrest the members of the order. The Templars had for some time past been aware of the charges

923

France, and of the grand preceptors of Cyprus, Normandy and Aquitaine he reserved to himself. Inquisition was to be made

into the conduct of the order in each country by special papal commissions; and the fate of the order as a whole was to be decided by a general council, summoned at Vienne for the rst of October 1311, when the question of the guilt of the order might be considered. Meanwhile the pope and cardinals had elaborated the organization of the new inquisition. There was much confusion and delay, however, and the actual public trial did not begin till the rrth of April, 1310. Many Templars, trusting in the assurance implied in their citation, had volunteered to defend the order and withdrew their previous confessions. They against them. On the 6th of June 1306 Pope Clement had sum- were soon undeceived; the commission was packed with creatures moned Jacques de Molay, the grand master, from Cyprus to of the crown. The evidence given in Paris for or against the France, in order to consult him on the projected crusade. He had order was, it was soon found, used against the individual Tempobeyed the call, and, in an interview with the pope, had taken the lars on their return to the provinces; the retractation of a conopportunity to demand a full inquiry. They had, however, taken fession, under the rules set up for the diocesan inquisition, was no measures to defend themselves; the sudden action of the king punished with death by fire. Sixty-seven Templars perished in this took them wholly by surprise; and on the night of Friday, the way during May 1310. Meanwhile Clement and Philip had come 13th of October 1307, their arrest was effected without difficulty, to terms. The pope condemned the Templars. The council of Jacques de Molay himself with sixty of his brethren being seized Vienne met in October 1311. A discussion arose as to whether the in Paris. Templars should be heard in their own defence. Clement, it is said, The Templars were caught in toils from which there was no broke up the session to avoid compliance; and when seven Tempescape. To force them to confess, they were first tortured by lars offered themselves as deputies for the defence he had them the royal officials, before being handed over to the inquisitors to cast into prison. Towards the beginning of March Philip came be, if need were, tortured again. In Paris alone thirty-six died to Vienne, and he was seated at the pope’s right hand when that under the process. The result was, at the outset, all that the pontiff delivered his sermon against the Templars (3rd April king could desire. Of 138 Templars examined in Paris between 1312), whose order had just been abolished, not at the general the roth of October and 24th of November, some of them old council, but in private consistory (22nd March). On znd May men who had been in the order the greater part of their lives, 1312 he published the bull Ad Providam, transferring the goods 123 confessed to spitting on (or ‘“‘near’) the crucifix at their of the society, except for the kingdoms of Castile, Aragon, Portureception. Many of the prisoners confessed to all the charges, gal and Majorca, to the Knights of St. John. The final act of the stupendous tragedy came early in 1314. however grotesque. But the most damning confession was that of the grand master himself, publicly made with tears and pro- Jacques de Molay, the grand master, had not hitherto risen to testations of contrition and embodied in a letter (October 25) sent the height of his great position; the fear of torture alone had to all the Templars in France. He had been guilty, he said, of been enough to make him confess, and this confession had been used to extract avowals from his brethren, subject as they were denying Christ and spitting on the cross. To the pope, meanwhile, the proceedings in France were to to unspeakable sufferings and accustomed to yield to the military the highest degree unwelcome. He had, indeed, become con- chief. Humiliation on humiliation had been heaped on the vinced, if not of the general guilt of the order, at least of the wretched man, public recantations, reiterated confessions. Before guilt of some of its members. But the affair was one which he the papal commission he had flamed into anger, protested, equivodesired to reserve for his own judgment; Philip’s action he cated—only in the end to repeat his confession once more. The interpreted, rightly, as an encroachment of the civil power on same had happened before the commission of cardinals at Chinon; the privileges and property of the Church, and his fears were the audience with the pope, which he demanded, he had never increased when the French king, without consulting him, sent obtained. On the 6th of May 1312 Pope Clement issued his final letters to King James of Aragon, Edward II. of England, the decision as to the fate of the Templars in general; that of the German king Albert and other princes, calling upon them to five great offices of the order he reserved in his own hand. With imitate his example. On the 27th of October Clement issued this a silence falls over the history of the Templars; the fate letters suspending the powers of the Inquisition in France. What of the order had been decided, that of the individuals still under followed is not clear, for the documentary evidence for these trial was of little interest to contemporary chroniclers. Then the months is very defective; but on the 22nd of November the pope veil is suddenly lifted. Jacques de Molay has found his wonted issued a bull calling on all kings and princes to arrest the Temp- courage at last, and with him Gaufrid de Charney, the preceptor lars everywhere, his motive probably being to forestall the prob- of Normandy; on the 14th of March 1314 they were brought out able action of the secular powers and keep the affair in his own on to a scaffold erected in front of Notre Dame, there in the hands. All scruples and hesitations now vanished. In England presence of the papal legates and of the people to repeat their the Templars were arrested on the roth of January 1308, in confessions and to receive their sentence of perpetual imprisonSicily on the 24th of the same month, in Cyprus on the 27th of ment. Instead, they seized the opportunity to withdraw their conMay; in Aragon and Castile the process was less easy, for the fessions and to protest to the assembled thousands the innocence knights, forewarned, had put their fortresses into a state of of the order. King Philip the Fair did not wait to consult the defence, notably their strong castle of Monzon, which was only Church as to what he should do; he had them burnt. A word must be added as to the significance of the work of taken after a long siege on the 17th of May, while the last of the the Templars and of the manner of their fall in the history of Templars’ strongholds, Castellat, did not fall until Nov. 2nd. Meanwhile, on the 26th of May, Philip had made his solemn the world. Two great things the order had done for European entry into Poitiers, where the pope and cardinals had already civilization: in the East and in Spain it had successfully checked assembled for the purpose of conferring with the king on the the advance of Islam; it had deepened and given a religious matter. After stormy debate, an arrangement was made. The sanction to the idea of the chivalrous man, the komo legalis, and king agreed to hand over to the papal commissioners the property so opened up, to a class of people who for centuries to come were and persons of the Templars; Clement, for his part, withdrew the to exercise enormous influence, spheres of activity the beneficent sentence of suspension against the grand inquisitor of France and effects of which are still recognizable in the world. On the other ordered an inquisition into the charges against individual Temp- hand, the destruction of the Templars had three consequences lars by the diocesan bishops with assessors nominated by himself. fateful for Christian civilization. (1) It facilitated the conquests The examination of the grand master, of the grand visitor of of the Turks by preventing the Templars from playing in Cyprus

924

TEMPLE

the part which the Knights of St. John played in Malta. (2) It partly set a precedent for, partly confirmed, the cruel criminal procedure of France, which lasted to the Revolution. (3) It set the seal of the highest authority on the popular belief in witchcraft and personal intercourse with the devil, sanctioned the expedient of wringing confessions of such intercourse from the accused by unspeakable tortures, and so made possible the hideous witch-persecutions which darkened the later middle ages and, even in Protestant countries, long survived the period of Reformation. On the question of the guilt or innocence of the Templars in respect of the specific charges on which the order was condemned opinion has long been divided. Their innocence was maintained by the greatest of all their contemporaries, Dante (Purg. xx. 92), and by the historian Villani and others. In more recent times a certain heat was introduced into the discussion of the question owing to its having been for centuries brought into the arena of party controversy, between Protestants and Catholics, Gallicans and Ultramontanes, Freemasons and the Church. Thus in 1654 Pierre Du Puy, librarian of the Bibliothéque Royale, published his work on the Templars to confute those who sought to establish their innocence in order to discredit a king of France. On the other hand, Nicolas Gurtler published his Historia Templariorum (Amsterdam, 1691, 2nd ed. 1703) to show, as a good Protestant, that the Templars had the usual vices of Roman Catholics, while, according to Loiseleur, the later editors of Du Puy were Freemasons who, under false names, garbled the old material and inserted new in the interests of the supposed origin of their own order in that of the Templars. Several Roman Catholic champions of the order now entered the field, notably the Premonstratensian canon R. P. M. Jeune, prior of Etival, who in 1789 published at Paris his Histoire critique et apologétique de l’ordre des chevalers . . . dits Templiers, a valuable work directed specifically against Gurtler and Du Puy. In the roth century a fresh impetus was given to the discussion by the publication in 1813 of Raynouard’s brilliant defence of the order. The challenge was taken up, among others, by the orientalist F. von Hammer-Purgstall who, in a paper entitled “Mysterium Baphometis” (Fundgraben des Orients, vol. vi. Vienna 1818), attempted to prove that the Templars followed the doctrines and rites of the Gnostic “Ophites” (g.v.), and gave reproductions of obscene representations of supposed Gnostic ceremonies znd of mystic symbols said to have been found in Templars’ buildings. W. F. Wilcke (Geschichte des Tempelherrenordens, 1826, 2nd. ed. 1860), while rejecting Hammer’s main conclusions as unproved, argued for the existence of a secret doctrine based not on Gnosticism

TEMPLE, FREDERICK (1821-1902), English divine, archbishop of Canterbury, was born in Santa Maura, one of the Ionian Islands, the son of Major Octavius Temple. He was educated at Blundell’s School, Tiverton, and at Balliol College, Oxford. The “Tractarian Movement” had set in five years before he went up to Oxford, but the memorable tract, No. go, had not yet been written After much discussion and reflection he drew closer to the camp of “the Oxford Liberal Movement.” In 1842 he took a “‘double-first” and was elected fellow of Balliol, and lecturer in mathematics and

logic. Four years later he took orders, and with the aim of helping forward the education of the very poor, he accepted the headship of Kneller Hall, which served at that time for the training of

masters of workhouse and penal schools. But the experiment was not altogether successful, and Temple himself advised its abandonment in 1855. He then accepted a school-inspectorship, which he held until he became headmaster of Rugby in 1858. In the

meantime he had attracted the admiration of the prince consort, and in 1856 he was appointed chaplain-in-ordinary to the queen. In 1857 he was select preacher at his university.

At Rugby Temple showed great energy and bold initiative. Whilst making the school a strong one on the classical side, he instituted scholarships in natural science, built a laboratory, and gave importance to that side of the school work. He had the courage also to reform the games, in spite of all the traditions of the playing fields. His school sermons were deeply impressive: they rooted religion in the loyalties of the heart and the conscience, and taught that faith might dwell secure amid all the bewilder-

ments of the intellect, if only the life remained rooted in pure affections and a loyalty to the sense of duty. Two years after he had taken up his work at Rugby Essays and Reviews appeared.

The first essay in the book, “The Education of the World,” was by Dr. Temple. Temple refused, so long as the storm lasted, to comply with the request that he would repudiate his associates, and it was only at a much later date (1870) that he saw fit quietly to withdraw his essay. In the meantime, however, he printed a volume of his Rugby sermons, to show definitely what his own religious positions were. His appointment by Gladstone as bishop of Exeter in 1869 raised a fresh storm. G. A. Denison, archdeacon of Taunton, Lord Shaftesbury, and but on the monotheism of Islam, of which Baphomet (Mahomet) was a symbol. On the other hand, Wilhelm Havermann (Geschichte others formed a strong committee of protest, whilst Pusey dedes Ausganges des Tempelherrenordens, 1846) decided in favour of clared that “the choice was the most frightful enormity ever perthe innocence of the order. This view was also taken by a succession of German scholars; in England, by C. G. Addison; and in France petrated by a prime minister.” At the confirmation of his election by a whole series of conspicuous writers: Mignet, Guizot, Renan, and counsel was instructed to object to it, and in the voting the chapter others. On the other hand, Hans Prutz, in a series of brilliant con- was divided. But Gladstone stood firm, and Temple was duly contributions, of which the most well-considered is his Entwicklung und secrated on Dec. 21, 1869. On the death of Dr. John Jackson in Untergang des Tempelherrenordens (1888), maintained that the custom 1885, he was translated to London, the appointment gave general of denying Christ and spitting on the cross was often, and in some provinces universally, practised at the reception of the brethren, “as satisfaction. In 1884 he was Bampton Lecturer, taking for his suba coarse test of obedience, of which the original sense had partly been ject “The Relations between Religion and Science.” In 1885 he forgotten, partly heretically interpreted under the influence of later was elected honorary fellow of Exeter College, Oxford. heresies.” Prutz points out that the failure of the Crusades had weakTemple led a strenuous life as bishop.of London. His normal ened men’s absolute belief in Christianity, at least as represented by the mediaeval Church (Kulturgeschichte der Kreuzzige, p. 268 ff.). working day at this time was one of fourteen or fifteen hours, and H. C. Lea, in his History of the Inquisition (1888, vol. iii.), had he was felt by many of his clergy and by candidates for ordination already come independently to the conclusion that the Templars were innocent. Lastly appeared the fascinatingly interesting and closely reasoned book of Professor H. Finke (1907) which, based partly on a mass of new material drawn from the Aragonese archives, had for its object to establish the innocence of the order on an incontrovertible basis (Papsthum und Untergang des Templenordens, 1907). BIBLIOGRAPHY.—The original sources given by Du Puy, though often valuable, were selected and edited with a purpose; but Michelet’s Procés des Templiers (2 vols., 1851, 1861), gives the original minutes of the trial preserved at the Bibliothéque Nationale. This is analysed

by Gmelin (op. cit.). Of documents published elsewhere, the most important are in Finke (op. cit, from the Aragonese archives) and K. Schottmüller (Untergang des Templerordens, 1887, from the Vatican archives). The Rule of the Temple has several times been published; the most convenient edition is that of H. de Curzon, La Règle du Temple (1886) ; see also Maillard du Chambure, Règle et statutes secrets des Templiers (1840). In addition to the works already mentioned, the following may be named: M. Lavocat, Procès des frères et de Pordre du Temple (Paris, 1888) ; G. Schnürer, Die ursprüngliche Templerregel (1903); C. G. Addison, The Knights Templars (3rd ed. 1854), which contains a valuable account of the suppression of the order in England; Marquis d’Albon, Cartulaire général de Ordre du Temple (1922) ; G. Lizerand (ed.), Le Dossier de Paffaire des Templiers

(1923).

na

(W. A. P.; X.)

to enforce almost impossible standards of diligence and efficiency.

The working classes instinctively recognized him as their friend. When, in view of his growing blindness, he offered to resign the bishopric, he was induced to reconsider his proposal, and on the sudden death of Archbishop Benson in 1896, though now seventysix years of age, he accepted the see of Canterbury. As archbishop he presided in 1897 over the decennial Lambeth Conference. In the same year Temple and his brother archbishop issued an able reply to an encyclical of the pope which denied the validity of Anglican orders. In 1900 the archbishops again acted together, when an appeal was addressed to them by the united episcopate, to decide the vexed questions of the use of incense in

divine service and of the reservation of the elements. After full hearing of arguments they gave their decision against both the practices in question. During his archbishopric Dr. Temple was deeply distressed by the divisions which were weakening the Church of England, and many of his most memorable sermons

were calls for unity. His first charge as primate on “Disputes in the Church” was felt to be a most powerful plea for a more

catholic and a more charitable temper, and again and again during

TEMPLE the closing years ef his life he came back to this same theme. While speaking in the House of Lords on Dec. 2, 1902 on the Education Bill of that year, he was seized with sudden illness, and, though he revived sufficiently to finish his speech, he never fully recovered, and died on Dec. 23, 1902. He was interred in Canterbury cathedral four days later. See Archdeacon E. G. Sandford, Frederick Temple: an Appreciation (1907), with biographical introduction by William Temple; Memoirs of Archbishop Temple, by “Seven Friends,” ed. E. G. Sandford (1906).

TEMPLE, RICHARD GRENVILLE-TEMPLE, ist EARL (1711-1779), English statesman, eldest son of Richard Grenville (d. 1727) of Wootton, Buckinghamshire, was born on Sept. 26, 1711. His mother was Hester (c. 1690-1752), daughter, and ultimately heiress, of Sir Richard Temple, Bart. (16341697), of Stowe, Buckinghamshire, and sister of Richard Temple, Viscount Cobham, whose title she inherited under a special remainder in 1749; in the same year, her husband having been long dead, she was created Countess Temple. Her son, Richard Grenville, was educated at Eton, and in 1734 was returned to parliament as member for the borough of Buckingham. In 1752, on the death of his mother, he inherited her titles together with the estates of Stowe and Wootton; and took the name of Temple in addition to his own surname of Grenville. By the marriage of his sister Hester with William Pitt, afterwards earl of Chatham, Temple’s career was linked with that of his brother-in-law. In November 1756 Temple became first lord of the admiralty in the ministry of Devonshire and Pitt. He was disliked by George II., who dismissed both him and Pitt from office in April 1757. But when the coalition cabinet of Newcastle and Pitt was formed in June of the same year, Temple received the office of privy seal. He alone in the cabinet supported Pitt’s proposal to declare war with Spain in 1761, and they resigned together on Oct. 5. From this time Temple became one of the most violent and factious of politicians, and it is difficult to account for the influence which he exerted over his brother-in-law. He was at variance with his younger brother, George Grenville, when the latter became first lord of the treasury in April 1763, and he had no place in that ministry; but the brothers were reconciled before 1765, when Temple refused to join the government, and persuaded Pitt to refuse likewise. By 1765, however, the old friendship between the brothers-inlaw was dissolving; and when at last in July 1766 Pitt consented to form a government, Temple refused to join, being bitterly offended because, although offered the head of the treasury, he was not to be allowed an equal share with Pitt in nominating to other offices. Temple forthwith began to inspire the most virulent libels against Pitt; and in conjunction with his brother George he concentrated the whole Grenville connection in hostility to the government. After George Grenville’s death in 1770 Lord Temple retired almost completely from public life. He died on Sept. 12, 1779. . See The Grenville Papers (1852), a considerable portion consists of Earl Temple’s correspondence; Horace Walpole, of the Reign of George II., 3 vols. (1847) ; Memoirs of the George III., 4 vols. (1845 and 1894); Earl Waldegrave,

of which Memoirs Reign of Memoirs 1754-58 (1821); Sir N. W. Wraxall, Historical Memoirs, ed. H. B. Wheatley, 5 vols. (London, 1884); Correspondence of Chatham, ed. W, S. Taylor and J. H. Pringle, 4 vols. (1838-40) ; W. E. H. Lecky, History of England in the Eighteenth Century, vols. ii. and iii. (7 vols., 1892).

TEMPLE,

SIR WILLIAM,

Bart. (1628-1699), English

statesman, diplomatist, and author, was born in London. He was the eldest son of Sir John Temple (1600-1677), Irish master of the rolls, whose father was Sir William Temple (1555-1627),

provost of Trinity college, Dublin.

Temple was educated at the

grammar-school at Bishop Stortford, and at the Puritan college of Emmanuel at Cambridge, where he came under the influence of Cudworth. In 1647 he started to travel abroad. In the Isle of Wight he met Dorothy Osborne, the daughter of the Royalist governor of Guernsey, Sir Peter Osborne; and though her family were opposed to the match, he married her in 1655. In 1660 Temple sat in the convention parliament, and in its

successor, at Dublin as member for Carlow.

He removed to

925

England in 1663, attached himself to Arlington, secretary of state, and two years later was employed in various negotiations on the continent. In 1666 he became the English representative at the viceregal court at Brussels. While the Dutch war continued,

Temple’s duties consisted chiefly in cultivating good relations with neutral Spain, which was threatened by the claims of Louis AIV. on the Spanish Netherlands. Louis’s designs became apparent in the spring of 1667, when he marched an army into Flanders. This event was one of those which led to the peace of Breda, and to the subsequent negotiations, which are Temple’s chief title to fame. The French conquests were made at the expense of Spain, but were almost equally dangerous to the United Netherlands, whose independence would have been forfeited had Louis succeeded in annexing Flanders. While the French were taking town after town, Temple made a journey into Holland and visited De Witt. Temple had for some time pressed on his government the necessity of stopping the French advance, and had pointed out the way to do so, but it was not till December 1667 that he received instructions to act as he had suggested. He at once set out for The Hague, and in January 1668 a treaty was made between England and the United Netherlands, which, being joined shortly afterwards by Sweden, became known as the Triple Alliance. It was a defensive treaty, made against the encroachments of France. The skill and celerity with which the negotiations were conducted and the results of the treaty, reflect great credit on Temple. The French king was checked in mid-career, and, without a blow being struck, was obliged to surrender almost all his conquests. Unfortunately the policy thus indicated was undone by Charles’s personal policy embodied in the secret treaty of Dover which reversed the policy of the Triple Alliance. (See CHARLES II.) Meanwhile Temple had developed the good understanding with the Dutch by contracting a commercial treaty with them (February 1668), and had acted as English plenipotentiary at Aixla-Chapelle, where peace between France and Spain was made in May 1668. Shortly afterwards he was appointed ambassador at The Hague. Here he lived for two years on good terms both with De Witt and with the young prince of Orange, afterwards William III. The treaty of Dover led to Temple’s recall, but Temple nominally held his post for another year. He perceived, however, that his day was over and retired to his house at Sheen. In June 1671 he received his formal dismissal. The war with the Netherlands broke out next year, and was almost as discreditable to England as that of 1665. Want of success and the growing strength of the opposition in parliament forced Charles to make peace, and Temple was commissioned to carry through the change of front. After a negotiation of three days, carried on through the medium of the Spanish ambassador, the treaty of Westminster was made (February 1674). As a recognition of his services Temple was now offered the embassy to Spain. This he declined, as well as the offer of a far more important post, that of secretary of state, but accepted instead a renewal of his embassy to The Hague. In the March following he was nominated ambassador to the congress at Nijmwegen; but, owing to the tortuousness of Charles’s dealings, it was not till July 1676 that he entered that town. The negotiations dragged on for two years longer, for Charles was still receiving money from France, and English mediation was no more than a ruse. In the summer of 1677 Temple was summoned to England and received a second offer of the secretaryship of state, which he again declined. In the autumn of the same year he had the satisfaction of bringing about the marriage of William and Mary, an event which seemed to complete the work of 1668 and 1674. Louis still remaining obstinate in his demands, Temple was commissioned in July 1678 to make an alliance with the states, with the object of compelling France to come to terms. This treaty was instrumental in bringing about the general pacification which was concluded in January 1679. This was Temple’s last appearance in the field of diplomacy. His plan for the reform of the privy council failed. His name was removed from the list of the council in 1681, and thenceforward he lived in retirement, first at Sheen, and then at Moor Park

TEMPLE

926 in Surrey. When William pressed to take office, but war, but committed suicide at Moor Park on Jan. 27,

III. came to the throne Temple was refused. His son became secretary at immediately afterwards. Temple died 1699.

cave structures, and the great groups of temple caves in India, as

well as certain early cave temples along the Yangtse river, China, show that this tendency was wide spread. High Places.—Not only do such primitive hill-top altars, comTemple’s works include An Essay on the Present State and Settlement mon to many parts of western Asia, indicate the love for such of Ireland (1668) ; The Empire, Sweden, etc., a survey of the different positions, but also megalithic remains like those of Stonehenge Governments of Europe and their relations to England (1671); Ob(g.v.) indicate a similar feeling. It is noteworthy that even in servations upon the Umted Provinces (1672); Essay upon the Original and Nature of Government (1672); Essay upon the Advancement of China the great Temple of Heaven in Peking takes the form of Trade in Ireland (1673). Some of these were published in the first part a series of circular terraces, obviously pointing to a primitive of his Miscellanea (1679). In the same year apparently his Poems were desire to imitate hill forms, and the Assyrian ziggurat (q.v.), as privately printed. In 1683 he began to write his Memoirs. The first well as the Mexican and Central American pyramids are merely part, extending from 1665 to 1671, he destroyed unpublished; the second, from 1672 to 1679, was published without his authority in 1691; variant expressions of the same controlling emotion. This probably explains the situation of the temple at Jerusalem upon the the third, from 1679 to 1681, was published by Swift in 1709. See Life and Works of Sir William Temple (2 vols., 1720; 2nd ed., hill top, and, combined with ease of military defence and love with Life by Lady Giffard, 1731) ; a more complete edition, including of architectural effect, the site of the temples of the Greek the Letters, was published in 4 vols. in 1814; Burnet, History of his cities. own Time; T. P. Courtenay, Memoirs of the Life, etc., of Sir William Temple (2 vols., 1836); Macaulay, Essay on Sir William Temple; A. F. Sieveking, Sir W. Temple and other Carolean Essays (1908); and E. S. Lyttel, Sir William Temple (Oxford, 1908).

TEMPLE, WILLIAM

(1881-

_), English divine, second

son of Frederick Temple, archbishop of Canterbury (g.v.), was born at Exeter on Oct. rs, 1881, and educated at Rugby and at Balliol College, Oxford, where he was president of the Oxford Union. From 1904-10 he was fellow and lecturer in philosophy at Queen’s College, Oxford. In 1914 he resigned the headmastership of Repton School, which he had held from rg10, to take charge of St. James’s, Piccadilly. During this period (1915-18)

Egyptian Temples.—With the civilization of Egypt the struc-

tural temple assumes a controlling importance, for the cave temples of Egypt are exceptional and secondary. The developed Egyptian temple shows a complex type which is evidently the accretion of many stages.

The earliest examples were probably

simple, square or rectangular shrines of small size and with no openings but a door. Occasionally four columns supported the roof of flat stone. As worship grew more complex and wealth increased, additional halls were added in front of and around the original shrine, with a monumental, colonnaded hall open at the front, probably for the combined purposes of narthex (or vestihe was editor of The Challenge. He resigned from St. James’s in bule) and prayer hall. Finally, a large court with entrance pylons 1917, and was then made a canon of Westminster (1919), and in of enormous size became part of the scheme, and by far the 1921 bishop of Manchester. For 16 years (1908-24) he was presi- greater number of the Egyptian temples existing show all of dent of the Workers’ Educational Association, to which he these elements. The result was characteristic; both the widest and rendered powerful assistance. In Nov. 1928 he was appointed the highest elements in the building were toward the front (pylons, forecourt, hypostyle hall) and the narrowest and lowest at the archbishop of York to succeed Dr. Lang. TEMPLE, a city of Bell county, Texas, U.S.A., 73 m. N. by E. rear (the shrine). The mystical effect of this gradual narrowing of Austin, on Federal highway 81x, and served by the Missouri- down and darkening of the interior scheme is impressive. In Kansas-Texas and the Santa Fe railway systems. Pop. (1920) addition to these simple elements, the great temples of Thebes 11,033 (19% negroes), 15,345 in 1930 by the Federal census. It is (Karnak and Luxor), representing the building of many generathe trade centre and shipping point for a rich agricultural region, tions and many dates, have the shrines surrounded with a maze raising chiefly cotton, grain and live stock. Its cotton gins and of small rooms, courts and corridors, whose use is difficult to compresses handle 70,000 bales in a normal season. There are assign. The most perfect example of Egyptian temples, so well railway shops and other manufacturing industries, with a total preserved that its ancient effect can be readily judged, is the late output in 1927 valued at $2,737,318. Temple was founded in 1881 temple at Edfu (237—257 B.C.). Western Asia.—The principal feature of Assyrian and Chalby the Gulf, Colorado and Santa Fe Railway company, and was chartered as a city in 1884 Since 1922 it has had a commission- dean temples was the ziggurat (g.v.) or stepped pyramid, with stairs or an inclined plane leading up to the terraces of the steps manager form of government. TEMPLE, a word signifying, loosely, any enclosed space or and the summit. The walls were decorated with glazed brick or structure erected for purposes of worship, or to protect a cult painted stucco, and in some cases, at least, each stage was dediimage or cult objects. In a figurative sense the word is used for cated to a separate divinity, as in the famous example at Babylon, (1) any shrine; (2) any building built in a style similar to that in which each of the seven stages was dedicated to a separate of a classic temple; (3) for the meeting houses of certain noncon- planet. It is undoubtedly to a ziggurat that the biblical tradition formist denominations; (4) for synagogues; (5) for the meeting of the Tower of Babel refers. Besides a ziggurat the temple group comprised a court or courts and various rooms for priests places of certain fraternal orders. Cave Temples.—Although perhaps antedated by existing tem- and for the storage of temple treasures and archives. Further ple remains of the earliest Chaldean and Egyptian periods, a prim- west, on the Mediterranean coast, a different type occurs, in itive type of cave temple culturally much earlier is that of certain which a small, enclosed room is fronted with a monumental encave temples of the Mediterranean basin, of which the most re- trance, frequently flanked by columns. This type is not only markable are those on the island of Malta, apparently dating orig- known from various small Phoenician models, but is also clearly inally to a neolithic culture, although undoubtedly in use for a represented in the biblical descriptions of the various temples at thousand years afterwards. It is remarkable that in these temples, Jerusalem. The earliest description of Solomon’s temple is that despite their early date (?5000 B.c.), great care is shown in the of I Kings, vi. 7, which, despite its completeness, is open to many decoration and finish of altar stones, doors and other important interpretations and an enormous number of different restorations features, and that many steatopygous female statues were found have been based upon it and indications found on the site. The in the temples. This, together with the large size and important essential elements are, however, clear and consist of a courtyard, position of many phallic stones, would seem to indicate that the a great altar of burnt offerings, traditionally placed upon the sacred temple was dedicated to a god or goddess of fertility, or perhaps rock now known as the sakhra, and the temple building itself. to a pair. The most important sites are Hagar Kim, Hal Tarxien This was entered through a lofty porch or gateway of obviously and Mnaidra. There is also at Hal Saflieni a large, neolithic series Egyptian pylon type, which was flanked or fronted by two enorof caves which seem to have been both for habitation and wor- mous free-standing columns, which were purely decorative or traship; the presence of enormous numbers of human bones also in- ditional and may represent a lingering of the same neolithic tradidicates that part of it was used as an ossuary. The much later tion that set the phallic stones in the Malta temples. Through the

Egyptian cave temples at Abu Simbel (time of Rameses the Great) are merely highly developed descendants of such primitive

pylon one entered the naos (the holy place or hékal), 40 cubits

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TEMPLE feet). It was lighted by a row of lattice windows, probably a clerestory set high in the wall, like the somewhat similar clerestory windows at Karnak. Behind the naos, and entered from it,-was the Holy of Holies or débir, 20 cubits in all three dimensions. Within this sanctuary was kept the Ark of the Covenant, flanked by two cherubim. Surrounding the naos and sanctuary were three storeys of small chambers. In the details described, this temple shows an interesting combination of forms with origins in all the surrounding countries. Thus the pylon porch and the diminution of height from front to back are purely Egyptian, while the greater number of the ornamental motives (cherubim, etc.) are of Mesopotamian origin. In construction, however, the combination indicated of stone, timber and metal is distinctively of the Mediterranean

coast. The temple was destroyed (586 B.c.) and rebuilt 70 years later, largely in accordance with the older type, with certain differences, the most important of which was the use of a great curtain to separate the naos from the sanctuary and the existence of two courts instead of one. In ¢. 20 B.c. Herod built a third temple which was hardly completed in its entirety before the capture of the city and the razing of the temple by Titus (A.D. 70). The Aegean World and Greece.—The Minoan civilization has left remains which indicate that both caves and high places were deemed sacred. Representations on seals and wall paintings also show that small shrines existed in great numbers, but up to the present time (1928) no large, monumental temples have been discovered. The most ordinary type of Aegean shrine of preGreek date is well represented on a fresco in the palace at Knossos (c. 1500 B.C.), showing a wall surrounding a temenos or sacred area, planted with trees, and filled with worshippers. In the early Hellenic Greek world it would seem that the temenos with its altar was the most common form of temple; the constructed building not appearing until two or three centuries had elapsed after the Dorian migration. The earliest temples were of various forms, patterned on primitive dwellings, but the rectangular form was finally adopted and developed. The construction was apparently of sun-dried brick, with wall ends and openings cased in wood. A porch in front was early added, between solid end walls, which were the continuation of the side walls of the cella or enclosed portion. As building skill increased, and the need for larger and more splendid temples was felt, columns were added, first in one row down the centre, to decrease the unsupported span of the roof, and later in two rows, dividing the covered space into nave and aisles. On the outside columns on the porch matched those within. Later, another porch was added at the rear, and finally a colonnade would be continued entirely around the building, giving the developed type which has been famous as the characteristic classic type ever since. One of the earliest of large size, of which many remains exist, is the temple of Hera at Olympia (variously ascribed to many dates between the roth and 7th centuries B.c.). Its stone foundations were obviously originally designed to carry sun-dried brick walls and its wood cased antae (g.v.), or pilaster-like wall ends, and door jambs are of the most primitive type. It is reported by Pausanius that the original wooden columns of the colonnade were replaced by stone columns of various shapes and sizes during the entire history of classic Greece, differences in contemporary styles accounting for the relative delicacy or crudity of the columns. Naturally, the greater number of the architectural fragments found are of late date. By the middle of the 7th century B.c. the Greek temple type was thoroughly established and the ruined temple at Corinth, of this date, had a stone colonnade in which all the elements of the later perfected Doric order are found. There is also a large group of archaic temples in south Italy and Sicily, where the Greek colonies of the time had reached a high level of wealth and established civilization. Thus at Syracuse, at Segesta, Selinus, Agrigentum (Acragas) and Paestum there are many examples of archaic Doric temples of the late 7th and 6th

centuries B.C. In all of these the columns are heavy and low, closely spaced and with widely projecting, heavily convex capitals, and the entablature above is heavy in proportion. Sculpture of a crude type appears during this period, notably in the metopes and the pediments, or gable ends.

927

The type of temple building thus set remained constant throughout the history of Greek architecture, although the refinements of taste and growing structural skill of the period succeeding the Persian wars led to the use of slenderer columns and more delicate entablatures. The typical temple- was surrounded by a colonnade, usually with six columns at each end, and with 12 or more on the sides. The walls of the enclosed cella were usually separated from the columns of the colonnade by a space wider than that between the columns and, following the old tradition, frequently projected in front of the doorway proper, forming, as it were, a little subsidiary porch inside the main colonnade. Within, the building was sometimes divided into two chambers, the larger in front, the smaller, rear chamber, being entered occasionally from the larger, but often, as in the Parthenon (447-

438 B.C.), entered only from the rear porch, This rear chamber was frequently used as a treasury. The larger room was usually divided into a nave and aisles by two rows of columns, in most cases in two storeys, either with or without a gallery at the level

of the lower entablature. At the end of the nave, opposite the entrance, stood the statue of the deity, which might be either an antique and shapeless tree trunk, going back to prehistoric times, or the most perfect colossal work of a sculptor like Pheidias, whose gold and ivory statues of Zeus in Olympia and of Athena in the Parthenon at Athens were perhaps the two most admired works of art of the ancient world. The interior was probably lighted only by light entering through the door; this illumination, upon the rich colours of the painted architectural detail and the mass of votive offerings, and reflected from the white and gold of the statue, undoubtedly produced an effect of sombre and impressive richness. The same richness of colour and sculpture

decorated the exterior. The entablature glowed with deep blues and reds, against which the metope sculptures were sharply relieved. In the pediments above, great groups of free-standing sculpture, brilliantly composed, gave an adequate crown. In some cases the exterior walls were probably painted, as well. The typical Greek temple, however, consisted usually of more than a single building, which was only the most important feature

of the temenos. The sacred enclosure might contain, as well, smaller shrines of heroes or related deities; treasury buildings for gifts from special localities, like the treasuries at Olympia and Delphi; colonnades, as at Argos; and, in special cases, halls for mysteries and the like. Thus, such temples or sacred areas as those at Eleusis, Argos, Delos, Delphi and Olympia became vast congeries of all sorts of buildings devoted to the common purpose and use of aiding in some way the cult, and usually representing many periods of Greek history down to, and even later than, the Roman conquest. In Asia Minor the Ionian influence, working on the same basis, produced effects of a different type. Not only was the Ionic order most commonly used in place of the Doric, but also the sense of scale was different, and when the Doric builders sought beauty through perfection of detail and every possible refinement, the Jonians sought it through enormous size and lavish richness. Thus even the archaic temple of Artemis at Ephesus (early 6th century B.C.) was of a scale scarcely ever attempted in Greece proper, prior to Roman times, and in the much later temples at Priene, Miletus and Sardis, great size and scale was the controlling force.

Etruria and Rome.—Etruscan temples are little known except from literary descriptions and certain remains of terra-cotta revetments, or covering decorations for wooden members. It is well established that the cella was much shorter than in Greek examples, approaching a square in plan, and that columns were limited to a porch in front, usually of great depth. The construction of the roof and entablature was apparently usually in wood, sometimes covered with terra-cotta plaques, and the spacing between columns was much greater than in Greek temples. Roman temples, in plan, always retained the influence of their Etruscan prototypes, and the great temple of Jupiter on the Capitoline hill preserved to the end its primitive Etruscan lay out—a wide, shallow cella divided into three chambers, all opening out upon a deep, many-columned porch. The peripteral scheme, with columns on all four sides of the cella, appeared only in imperial

928

TEMPLE

times and was always rare, being reserved for the very largest and most monumental temples, such as the enormous double temple of Venus and Rome at Rome, designed for Hadrian, by Apollodorus of Damascus. The normal type, with a porch only in front, nevertheless, frequently had the cella walls decorated with pilasters or engaged columns. Thus the temple of Fortuna Virilis at Rome (variously attributed to the beginning of the znd and the beginning of the 1st century B.c.), has a range of engaged columns around three sides of the cella, matching exactly the columns of the porch The same treatment, on a much larger scale,

is found in the Maison Carrée at Nîmes (c. A.D. 1), which is the most perfect example of a Roman temple extant. Similarly based upon Etruscan tradition is the fact that all Roman temples were raised upon high podia (base or pedestal), whose side walls projected forward and received the ends of a great flight of entrance steps. Roman temple interiors were usually both larger and more lavish than the interiors of Greek temples, and the larger examples were frequently vaulted with richly coffered barrel vaults. This led also to a greater enrichment of wall design, and walls,

beside being cased in rich marbles, were often enriched with pilasters or engaged columns, and further decorated with small niches pediment-crowned and flanked by columns. The most extraordinary examples of this type of development extant are the temples comprising the great group at Baalbek in Syria, the ancient

Heliopolis (begun during the reign of Hadrian and completed early in the 3rd century). The cella of the temple of Bacchus, the smaller of the group, still remains, in large measure complete up to. the cornice, and shows ranges of engaged Corinthian columns, and between them arched recesses below, and pedimented statue frames above. The great temple of Jupiter is chiefly remarkable for its enormous forecourt, colonnaded and with great niches, and in front of that an hexagonal court, and the colonnaded propylaea. Both of these temples have colonnades all around, in the Greek manner, and the same is true of the contemporary double temple of Venus and Rome at Rome, in which the surrounding colonnade was double. This temple is also remarkable

for the two apses back to back in which the statues of the two

A. Those affecting general distribution of parts. Prostyle—with a porch or portico in front. Amphiprostyle—with a porch or portico both at front and rear. Peripteral—with a colonnade completely surrounding the cella, either rectangular in plan, as in the typical Greek temple, or circular, as in the temple of the Sybil at Tivoli. Pseudoperipteral—with a porch or portico only in front, but with the exterior walls of the cella decorated by engaged columns or pilasters, as in the Maison Carrée at Nimes. B. Terms describing detailed arrangement or position of temple columns. In antis—columns placed between the pilaster-like decorations at the ends of the side walls of a naos or cella when these walls are projected forward beyond the front of the building to form a porch between them. Dipteral—with a double colonnade along the sides. Pseudodipteral—with the columns of the side colonnade separated from the cella walls by a space wide enough to allow a double colonnade but without an inner row of columns. Distyle, tetrastyle, pentastyle, hexastyle, octostyle, decastyle, etc.—with two, four, five, six, eight or ten columns in front. Such words composed of “style,” with a Greek numerical prefix, may be multiplied indefinitely, to describe buildings or porticos with any number of columns. Indian Temples.—Indian temples show clearly the development from sacred cave to free-standing structure. The earliest existing monumental temples are all rock-cut and developed with caves. The earlier temples, such as those at Behar, and at Karli, near Bombay, show a great cave interior, divided by piers or columns into nave and aisles, with a small stupa, or solid masonry curve-topped structure enclosing a relic of Buddha, and a facade cut in the face of the rock, with doorway below and huge horseshoe-shaped window above, all in imitation of wooden construction. A second common type of rock-cut temple consists of those in which, in addition to the shrine proper, there are great courtyards surrounded by cells for monks. These are known as viharas. The most remarkable groups of cave temples are those at Ajanta and Ellora. In both there are temples of Buddhism and also Brahmanism, and the types of detail known as Dravidian and Jain are both found. The dates vary from the znd century B.c to the 6th and yth centuries A.D. The Dravidian and Jain constructed temples both show a power and heaviness of general mass with an amazing intricacy of carved detail that is more typical of rock-cut than free-standing structures, and the characteristic

divinities were placed. The side walls were treated with niches and columns in a way much resembling the Baalbek example. The surroundings of Roman temples never had the informal charm of the Greek temenos, but were usually surrounded by a rectangular courtyard with colonnades, like that of the temple of Venus and Rome, or the temple of Apollo in Pompeii (rebuilt c. AD. 65). Other temples were placed merely at street corners, like the temple of Fortune at Pompeii, of early imperial date, or the temple of Fortuna Virilis at Rome. Many temples were also placed in or facing the forum, which served, itself, as the temenos or sacred area. Many exceptional types of Roman temples are found. Thus the temple of Vespasian at Brescia (A.D. 72) had three chambers pyramidal towers, with their strongly marked horizontal mouldings in the cella with the six-columned portico in front of the central and vertical projections have almost the character of artificial one projecting far beyond the small porticos of the side chambers. mountains and cliffs. The rôle played by figure sculpture in its That of Concord, at Rome (7 B.C. to A.D. 10) had the main en- lavishness, its multitude of figures and their bold relief, is untrance to the cella in the middle of one of the long sides, with like that played in any other structural style, and without doubt a superb portico in front of it. Remarkable also is the great owes much, also, to rock-cut prototypes. The plan type shows development of round temples, either of comparatively small usually a vast rectangular enclosure entered through several size, like the temple of the Sybil at Tivoli (usually attributed monumental gateways, crowned with enormous, solid towers. to the beginning of the rst century B.c.); the so-called temple of Within are smaller enclosures and subsidiary buildings, and someHercules at Rome; or the so-called temple of Venus at Baalbek, times an additional closed court, also with monumental gates in which the cella is surrounded with a portico of Corinthian Near the centre is the shrine proper, containing the cult statue, columns, whose entablature is scalloped or star-shaped in plan. sometimes approached by vast, colonnaded halls, and every exThe most magnificent of the round temples is the Pantheon posed surface of the great towers and the interior columns and (g.v.) at Rome (A.D. 110-125), whose vast domed hall, over walls is covered with a rich network of sculpture and ornament. 140 ft. in diameter, is one of the most impressive interiors in East Indies.—Indian influence is marked in the temple ruins the world. found in scattered places through Cambodia, Burma, Java and Classic Temples: Technical Definitions—In architectural nearby islands. All of the great temples are elaborations of the descriptions of the classic temple a number of technical words stupa idea, and consist in essence of one or more stupas on have become common. Many of these owe their origin to the work raised terraces. Thus in the Shwe Dagon pagoda at Rangoon there of Vitruvius, author of a complete Roman treatise on architec- are a multitude of small stupas crowned with high, spire-like ture of the time of Augustus. The most tommon of these terms finials, surrounding a central stupa which rises to a height’ of descriptive of the general arrangement and of the position of over 350 ft., and the whole surface is heavily gilded. At Borocolumns may be shortly defined as follows: Budur, Java, the great Buddhist temple (? 7th or 8th century

TEMPLE

BAR—TEN

BRINK

929

a bar or chain marked the extra-mural jurisdiction of the Corat the top of which is a large stupa surrounded by 16 smaller poration. Temple Bar stood at the junction of the present Strand ones. All of the stone lining of the terrace walls is covered with and Fleet street, over against the Law Courts. A bar is frst menexquisite relief sculpture, not only illustrating the life of Buddha, tioned here in 1301, but the name is most familiar in its applicabut also containing many pictures of ordinary, every day events. tion to the gateway designed by Sir Christopher Wren, which reThe most remarkable of these eastern Buddhist temples is placed an older structure on this spot in 1672. This was removed Angkor-Wat at Angkor in Cambodia (attributed to the rst half in 1878, and set up in 1888 at the entrance to Theobalds park near of the 12th century, and apparently originally intended as a Cheshunt, Hertfordshire. A pedestal surmounted by a dragon or Brahmin temple, being converted to Buddhist uses later). This “sriffin” marks the old site. When the sovereign is about to enter consists of three great symmetrical terraces with elaborate stairs, the city in state, whether by Temple Bar or elsewhere, the Lord corner towers, porticos and colonnaded halls, with a great stupa- Mayor, in accordance with ancient custom, presents the sword of like tower as the climax in the centre. The sculpture and orna- the city to him, and he at once returns it. Formerly the bar or ment, although typically Khmer, show distinct traces of Hindu gate was closed until this ceremony was carried out. TEMPO (it.), term used in music signifying literally time, influence. The extremely classic character of some of the pier though in practice it has come to mean more often the speed at and column capitals is noteworthy. China and Japan.—Further east an entirely contradictory which a composition is, or should be, performed. It is however tradition governs temple design, that of the columned prayer still used in the other sense in such expressions as tempo ordinarto, halls of Japan and China. The expression of this in China differs meaning “in common time”; likewise in tempo rubato (literally from that in Japan. The typical Chinese temple, whether Taoist “robbed time”), meaning the slight deviations from strict time or Buddhist, is basically symmetrical and rectangular. Through which the performer makes for expression. (See. TIME.) a gate-house, frequently vaulted, an outer court is entered, in TENANT: see LANDLORD AND TENANT. TENANT-RIGHT, in law, a term expressing the right which which on either side of the main axis is a small tower, one containing a drum and the other a bell. Directly opposite is the a tenant has, either by custom or by law, against his landlord for main prayer hall of the temple, with many columns, and a richly compensation for improvements at the determination of his tenbeamed and coffered ceiling. Against the back wall is a large ancy. In England it is governed for the most part by statute; e.g., pedestal, usually supporting three statues, and in front of it the Agricultural Holdings Act, 1923, and the Small Holdings and a table-like altar with its ritual utensils. In temples of Con- Allotments Acts, 1908—26 (see ALLOTMENTS; LANDLORD AND TENfucius, a simple, richly decorated shrine replaces the statues. ANT; SMALL Horprncs). A right to compensation for improveThere is often, in addition, a court at the rear, with another hall ments is created in favour of tenants of business premises by the shrine on its axis. In large groups, the number of courts and Landlord and Tenant Act, 1927. In Ireland tenant-right was a shrines is increased and additional halls at the sides of the courts custom, prevailing particularly in Ulster, by which the tenant acserve the purpose of chapels. In Taoist temples, the most im- quired a right not to have his rent raised arbitrarily at the expiraportant shrine is sometimes in the centre of the court, and bell tion of his term. Tenants of houses and shops in urban districts, and drum towers are absent. There is also, at times, a long gal- towns or villages in Ireland enjoy a statutory tenant-right to comlery containing statues of the 500 Lohans, or holy men. The pensation for improvements and disturbance (see the Town Tenarchitectural character varies with the locality. Those in the ants [Ireland] Act, 1906). north are full of the monumental grandeur of the Peking school, No custom giving rise to tenant-right seems ever to have existed as in the temple of Confucius, or such monasteries in the western in the United States, and no right of compensation in favour of hills as that of Wo Fu Tsu (both of the Ming and subsequent tenants exists apart from agreement or local statutes dynasties). Those in the Yangtse valley are more picturesque, TENASSERIM, a division of Lower Burma, bordering on with exaggeratedly curved roofs, and slimmer supports, as in the Siam. Area, 35,788 sq. miles. Pop. (1921) 1,613,523, including 18th century Sheng Yan Sze monastery near Hangchow. In | 35,883 Christians, the great majority of whom are Karens. The those in the south, granite supports replace the wooden columns headquarters of the commissioner are at Moulmein. It is divided found further north. Roof ridges are of extraordinary intricacy into six districts: Toungoo, Salween, Thatén, Amherst, Tavoy and and the wood carvings of the interiors exquisitely rich and deli- Mergui. It formed the tract south of Pegu conquered from Burma cate, as in the 18th century temple of the Chen family in Canton. in 1826, which was for many years known as the Tenasserim provIn Japan the elaborate formality of the typical Chinese temple ince. The southern extremity of the division approaches the is absent. In fact, the native Shinto temples are based upon insular region of Malaya, and it is fringed along its entire exceedingly primitive house ideas, and are simple, rectangular western coast by a number of islands, forming in the north the buildings with heavily thatched roofs. Architectural effect is Moscos and in the south the Mergui Archipelago. The eastern gained, however, through the monumental zorii or gateways which frontier is formed by a mountain range 5,000 ft. high, the watercross the main entrance paths. Many votive stone lanterns also parting between Tenasserim and Siam. (See BURMA.) decorate the grounds. In the Buddhist temples the halls themTEN BRINK, BERNHARD EGIDIUS KONRAD selves are based entirely on Chinese prototypes, but the detail is (1841—92), German philologist, of Dutch origin, was born at Amtypically Japanese in its composition and its mannered realism, sterdam on Jan. 12, 1841, and educated at Düsseldorf, Münster and roof and cornice details are endlessly varied. In disposition and Bonn. In 1870 he became professor of modern languages at there is little attempt at absolute symmetry. Instead, there is Marburg, and in 1873 professor of English at Strasbourg univera brilliant grasp of informal balance and composition, and a sity. In 1874 he began to edit, in conjunction with W. Scherer, E. remarkable genius in adapting the exigencies of the plan to the Martin and E. Schmidt, Quellen und Forschungen zur Sprache und picturesque hillside site so loved by the Japanese. Outstanding Kulturgeschichte der germanischen Völker. In 1877 he published examples are the temples of the magnificent group at Nikko, Chaucer: Studien zur Geschichte seiner Entwickelung und zur largely of the 17th century, and the Hong Wanji temple at Kyoto. Chronologie seiner Schriften; in 1884, Chaucers Sprache und The genius for placing temples is well seen in the island temples Verskunst. He also published critical editions of the Prologue and that dot the Inland sea, especially those of the sacred island of the Compleynte to Pité. Ten Brink’s work stimulated a revival of Itaku Shima, near Hiroshima, where the chief temple was founded Chaucer study in the United Kingdom as well as in Germany, and to him was indirectly due the foundation of the English Chaucer in 587. Gas also CHINESE ARCHITECTURE; EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE; GREEK society. His Beowulf-Untersuchungen (1888) proved a hardly ARCHITECTURE; INDIAN ARCHITECTURE; JAPANESE ARCHITECTURE}; less valuable contribution to the study of Early English literature. RELIGIOUS AND MEMORIAL ÅRCHITECTURE; ROMAN ARCHITECTURE; His best known work is his Geschichte der englischen Literatur WESTERN ASIATIC ARCHITECTURE, FROM. EGYPT TO S a

A.D.) consists of a series of terraces around a hill 150 ft. high,

TEMPLE BAR, an historic site in London, England. In more

than one of the main roads converging upon the city of London

(1889-93) (English by H. Kennedy in Bohn’s Standard Library),

which was never completed, and broke off just before the Elizabethan period. He died at Strasbourg Jan. 29, 1892.

930

TENBY—TENGYUEH

TENBY, municipal borough and seaside resort, Pembroke-

shire, Wales, on a promontory on the south coast of the county.

Pop. (1931) 4,108. Its two sandy beaches and mild climate contribute to its success as a watering-place. The settlement is first

definitely mentioned as a Danish fishing station, and the old Welsh name is Dynbych-y-Pyscod (the “precipice of fishes”). The name Tenby may be derived from “Dynbych”; but is usually said to come from the Scandinavian “Daneby.” Flemish cloth-workers came here in the early r2th century. The earls-palatine of Pembroke often had to defend it from, and refortify it after, Welsh attacks. The town was associated with the Tudors during the

his whole body invulnerable except the part of the heel by which she had held him, and in this heel he later received a mortal

wound. TENEBRAE,

an office sung in Roman Catholic churches on

the afternoon or evening of Wednesday, Thursday, and Friday of Holy Week. Durandus (vi. 72, n. 2) derives the name from the fact that “the church on these days cultivates darkness (żenebras

colit)” in sorrow for the Lord’s Passion, celebrating his exequies

on three days since for three days He was dead, and it symbolizes the darkness that fell on the earth while the Sun of justice was crucified.

TENERIFFE [Tenerife], the largest of the Canary islands; Pop. (1900) 138,008; area, 782 sq.m. It is of irregular shape, 60 walls were repaired in 1588 when a Spanish invasion was feared. m. long, with an extreme breadth of 30 m. The celebrated peak, During the rsth and 16th centuries Tenby traded by sea with locally known as the Pico de Teyde (or Teide) with its supports Bristol and had wealthy mercantile families. It declined after and spurs, occupies nearly two-thirds of the whole island. It has the Restoration. During the 18th century it was a market centre. a double top; the highest point, El Piton, is 12,200 ft. above the The large parish church, St. Mary’s, has a 13th century tower of sea; the other, Chahorra, connected with the first by a short local type, with spire, but is mostly rsth century. The ancient narrow ridge, has a height of 9,880 ft. They are both orifices in town walls are almost intact on the north and west. The ruins of the same grand dome of trachyte. Snow remains for about four the castle, part of the keep and outer walls, stand on Castle Hill, months on the upper part of the peak. For more than one-half of its circumference the base of the N.E. of the town. TENCH (Tinca tinca). A cyprinid fish of Europe, Asia Minor true peak rises from an elevated but comparatively level tract. and Siberia, greenish, with small scales and rounded fins. It On the south-east, south and south-west there is a high curved thrives in weedy ponds. Specimens exceeding 8 lb. are rare. The ridge overlooking the Pumice-Stone Plains, and presenting a very steep face to the peak. Between the ridge and the sea flesh is more palatable than that of most cyprinids. TENDA, the name given by the Fulani to the peoples known the slope is more gradual, and there are intervening tablelands. as Bassari, Koniagui and Badiar. They call themselves Ayan, Peaks rise from the ridge, one of which (Guajara) attains the Awonhen or Akus, and live between the Upper Gambia and the height of 8,900 ft. Both El Piton and Chahorra have craters on Rio Nunez, in confederated villages, each village forming a their summits, from which issue steam and a little sulphurous political and a religious unit. They have three degrees of initiation vapour. The crater on El Piton is partly surrounded by a wall of to corresponding age classes, with a chief for each class, and a lava, which has been made white by the action of sulphurous higher dignitary over all who in turn is subject to the paramount vapours. The crater is about 300 ft. across, with a depth of 70 ft. chief. The women are organized into societies. Marriage is pro- The crater on Chahorra has a diameter of 4,000 ft.; its depth is hibited between relations of the direct paternal or maternal line scarcely 150 ft. The entrance to the Llano at a sort of natural and collaterally within three degrees, but marriage is common gateway (called Portillo) between two basaltic hills, is about between second cousins; the woman’s consent is necessary. Fam- 7,000 ft. above the sea. Between two and three hours are conily property is administered by the head of the family, and there sumed in crossing the Llano to the base of the cone, the lower is personal property. Succession is based on maternal kinship, part of which is ascended to a point 9,750 ft. above the sea. To the north-west of the grand cone, some thousands of feet the eldest brother coming first, then younger brothers and finally nephews. The Tenda are excellent cultivators of millet, maize, below Chahorra, there are many small cones of eruption, showing that the intensity of volcanic action was greatest on this side. earth-nut and tobacco, and breed oxen, sheep and goats. See Delacour, “Les Tenda,” Revue d’Ethnographie et de: Sociologie Eastward from the ridge bounding the Pumice-Stone Plains (1912-13). extends a chain of mountains to the north-eastern extremity of TENDER, (1) An adjective meaning soft, either physically the island. The highest peaks are Izana (7,374 ft.), Perejil or figuratively (Fr. tendre, Lat. tener, soft, allied to tenuis, thin). (6,027), and Cuchillo (5,467). (2) A legal term meaning an offer for acceptance, particularly There is no record of eruptions from either crater of the an offer in money for the satisfaction of a debt or liability or an peak. In 1795 a great quantity of lava was poured out from offer to pay or deliver according to the terms of a contract; for three vents on the eastern side; and in the same year lava streams “legal tender” see PayMENT. The term is also applied to an offer issued from a crater near Guimar, half-way between Santa Cruz to do a specified piece of work or to supply certain goods for a and the peak. In the year 1706 a vent on the north-western side certain sum or at a certain rate or to purchase goods at a certain of the peak discharged a copious stream, which flowed down to rate. Contracts for important works or for the supply of large the sea, and nearly filled up the harbour of Garachico. For three Wars of the Roses and Jasper Tudor rebuilt its walls.

The early

charters were confirmed by that of Elizabeth in 1580 and the

amounts of goods are usually put out to tender in order to secure the lowest price. In this sense the word is from “to tender,” to

offer (Fr. tendre, Lat. tendere, to stretch out). (3) A “tender” is also one who “attends” (Lat. attendere, to stretch towards, to give heed to), and so is applied particularly to a small vessel which brings supplies, passengers, etc., to a larger vessel or which is used to take or bring messages, and similarly to a carriage attached to a locomotive engine on a railway, which carries fuel and water.

months in 1798 much lava and other volcanic matter were ejected. Santa Cruz, the capital of Teneriffe and of the Canaries, and La Laguna, the former capital, are described in separate articles. A good road connects Santa Cruz and Orotava, a town on the north coast 25 m. W.N.W. Date-palms form a striking feature

in the landscapes. The town of Orotava (pop. 9,192) is 1,040 ft. above the sea. The houses are solidly built, but it has a deserted aspect. A stream of water is conducted through every street. Port Orotava, 3 m. N. of the town, is a clean place, with about

TENDON OF ACHILLES, the large tendon at the back of 4,500 inhabitants. The streets are broad and the houses well the ankle. It is the tendon of the calf muscles which extend and built. (See also CANARY IsLANDS.) invert the foot, and is inserted into the heel bone (calcaneus). TENGYUEH (Burmese Momern), a town in the province of

These muscles often become shortened, owing to overdevelopment,

or sometimes to the continued use of high heels, or they may be congenitally short. This defect sometimes leads to fallen arches and foot pain so severe that the tendon has to be lengthened by surgical operation. This tendon is named after Achilles, a famous hero of the Trojan war. According to Greek legend when Achilles was born his mother plunged him into the river Styx. This made

Yunnan, south-west China, near the Burmese frontier, with an estimated Chinese population of 18,000. It is situated at an elevation of 5,400ft., in a region of heavy monsoonal rainfall,

between the parallel north to south valleys of the Salwen and Irrawaddy. The town dates from the 14th century, when the Shan principality of Nankao was conquered by the Chinese, and

Tengyueh was built as an outpost. The town lies on the old trade

TENIERS—TENNESSEE

931

route from Yunnan-fu to Bhamo, a Burmese trade-centre in the upper Irrawaddy valley. Trade is conducted by mule-transport; the journey to Yunnan-fu, over difficult country, takes about 24 days, while Bhamo is a seven days’ journey. The town was opened to foreign trade in 1897, but the actual customs opening did not take place until 1902. Foreign piece goods, cotton yarn, kerosene oil and matches are imported, while there is an export trade in carpets, musk, split bamboo hats and Szechuan raw silk. In times of difficulty, as in 1926, the Szechuan silk is exported via Szemao, a neighbouring frontier port. In 1925 (a normal year) the net foreign imports were valued at 3,701,194 Haikwan taels, and the exports at 1,755,263 taels.

omitted, every one being inscribed with a number and the name of its author, so that the ensemble of these paintings might serve as an illustrated inventory of the collection. Still more interesting is a canvas, now in the Munich Gallery, showing Teniers at work in the palace, with an old peasant as a model and several onlookers. When Leopold returned to Vienna, the pictures travelled to Austria. Teniers remained in high favour with the new governor-

flourished at Antwerp and Brussels during the 17th century. Davip Tenters, the elder (1582-1649), was born at Antwerp, the son of Julian Teniers, a mercer who settled at Antwerp in 158. He received his first training in the painter’s art from his brother Juliaen, then studied under Rubens in Antwerp, and subsequently under Elsheimer in Rome; he became a member of the Antwerp gild of painters in 1606. Though he tried his skill in large religious, historical and mythological compositions, his fame depends chiefly on his landscapes and paintings of peasants carousing, of kermesse scenes and the like, which are marked by a healthy sense of humour, and which are not infrequently confused with the early works of his son David. A large painting by the elder Teniers at St. Paul’s church in Antwerp, represents the “Works of Charity.” At the Vienna Gallery are four landscapes painted by Teniers under the influence of Elsheimer, and four small mythological subjects, among them “Vertumnus and Pomona,” and “Juno, Jupiter and Io.” The National Gallery has a characteristic scene of village life, “Playing at Bowls,” a “Conversation,” and a “Rocky Landscape.” Other examples of his work are to be found at the galleries of Leningrad, Madrid, Munich, Dresden and Berlin (“The Temptation of St. Anthony”). He died at Antwerp on July 29, 1649. Davip Tenrers, the younger (1610-1690), his more celebrated son, was born in Antwerp and was baptized on Dec. 15, 1610. Through his father, he was indirectly influenced by Elsheimer and by Rubens. We can also trace the influence of Adrian Brouwer at the outset of his career. In 1637 Teniers married the ward of Rubens, Anne Breughel, the daughter of John (Velvet) Breughel. He became a “master” in the gild of St. Luke in 1633. The Berlin Museum possesses a group of ladies and gentlemen dated 1634. Some first-rate works—the “Prodigal Son” and a group of “Topers” in the Munich Gallery, and a party of gentlemen and ladies at dinner, termed the “Five Senses,” in the Brussels Museum—are instances of the perfection attained by the artist when he was probably scarcely twenty. His touch is of the rarest delicacy, his colour at once gay and harmonious. He was little over thirty when the Antwerp gild of St. George enabled him to paint the marvellous picture now in the Hermitage Gallery in Leningrad —the “Meeting of the Civic Guards.” Correct to the minutest detail, yet striking in effect, the scene, under the rays of glorious sunshine, displays acquired knowledge and natural good taste. An-

son, a painter of talent and reputation, died in 1685. One of this third Teniers’s pictures—‘‘St. Dominic Kneeling before the Blessed Virgin,” dated 1666—is in the church at Perck.

TENIERS, the name of a family of Flemish artists who

general, Don Juan, a natural son of Philip IV. Shortly after the death of his wife in 1656 Teniers married Isabella de Fren, daughter of the secretary of the council of Brabant, and strove to prove his right to armorial bearings. In 1663 Teniers founded the Academy at Brussels.

Teniers died in Brussels on April 25, 1690. David, his eldest

See T. Smith, Catalogue Raisonné IIT, (1831); John Vermoelen, Notice historique sur David Teniers et sa famille (Antwerp, 1871); Alph. Wauters, Histoire des environs de Bruxelles (1851); and Les tapisseries bruxelloises (1878) ; Max Rooses, Geschichte der M alerschule Antwerpens (Munich 1880); A. v. Wurzbach, D. Teniers (1877); J. van den Branden, Gesch. d. Antw. Schilderschool (1883); A. Rosenberg, David Teniers (Leipzig, 1901).

TENISON,

THOMAS

(1636-1715),

English archbishop,

was born at Cottenham, Cambs., on Sept. 29, 1636. He was educated at Corpus Christi college, Cambridge, of which he became a fellow in 1639. After holding cures at Cambridge, where he gave devoted care to sufferers from the plague, and at Norwich,

he was presented in 1680 by Charles II. to the vicarage of St. Martin’s-in-the-Fields, London, where he endowed schools, established a public library, and was a champion of Protestantism during the reign of James IJ. Monmouth sent for him before his execution. Under William III., Tenison was in 1689 named a member of the ecclesiastical commission appointed to prepare a reconciliation of the Dissenters, the revision of the liturgy being specially entrusted to him. He preached a funeral sermon on Nell Gwyn (d. 1687) in which he represented her as truly penitent—a charitable judgment which did not meet with universal approval. He was made bishop of Lincoln in 1691 and archbishop of Canterbury in Dec. 1694. He attended Queen Mary during her last illness and preached her funeral sermon in Westminster Abbey. During William’s absence in 1695 Tenison was appointed one of the seven lords justices to whom his authority was delegated. With Burnet he attended the king on his death-bed. He enjoyed little favour with Queen Anne, but was a commissioner for the Union with Scotland in 1706. A strong supporter of the Hanoverian succession, he was one of the three officers of state to whom on the death of Anne was entrusted the duty of appointing a. regent till the arrival of George I., whom he crowned on Oct. 31, 1714. Tenison died in London on Dec. 14, 1715. Tenison’s works include The Creed of Mr. Hobbes Examined (1670) and Baconia, or Certain Genuine Remains of Lord Bacon (1679). He was one of the founders of the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel.

TENNESSEE (tén’e-sé’), popularly known as the “Volunteer State,” is a S. central State of the American Union. It lies between lat. 35° and 36° 40’ N. and between long. 81° 37’ and go° . London, is “The Village Féte.” 28’ W. of Greenwich. Tennessee is bounded on the north by preto Antwerp of council Teniers was chosen by the common side over the gild of painters in 1644. The archduke Leopold Kentucky and Virginia; on the east by North Carolina along William, who had assumed the government of the Spanish Nether- the line of the crest of the Unaka mountains to within 26 m. of lands, employed Teniers not only as a painter but as keeper of Georgia, where the boundary turns due south; on the south by the collection of pictures he was then forming. With the rank and Georgia, Alabama and Mississippi along the 35th parallel of N. title of “ayuda de camara,” Teniers took up his abode in Brussels lat.; on the west by the Mississippi river, which separates it from in 1651. Immense sums were spent in the acquisition of paintings Arkansas and Missouri. The extreme length of the State from for the archduke. A number of valuable works of the Italian E. to W. is 432 m., and the extreme breadth is 109 m., its area masters, now in the Vienna Museum, came from Leopold’s gallery being 42,022 sq.m., of which 335 are water surface. The popular after having belonged to Charles I. and the duke of Buckingham. name “Volunteer State’ was given to Tennessee because of her De Bie (1661) states that Teniers was some time in London, col- remarkable record in furnishing volunteers in the Civil War. Physical Features.—The State is popularly divided into three lecting pictures for the duke of Fuensaldafia, then acting as Leolarge divisions known as east, middle and west Tennessee. The pold’s lieutenant in the Netherlands. Paintings in Madrid, Munich, Vienna and Brussels show what the imperial residence was at the first extends from the heights of the Unaka ridges along the North time of Leopold, who is represented as conducted by Teniers and Carolina border, across the valley of the Tennessee river to the admiring some recent acquisition. No picture in the gallery is heights of the Cumberland plateau. The middle section includes other work of the same year (1643), now in the National Gallery,

934

TENNESSEE

a part of the Cumberland plateau, all the Highland Rim plateau and the Central basin, and extends westward to the Tennessee river. The western division includes the plateau region from the Tennessee river to the precipitous escarpment overlooking the Mississippi Flood plain; also a narrow strip of low land which extends to the Mississippi river. From a maximum elevation of 6,593 ft. at Mt. Le Conte near the North Carolina border, in Sevier county, the surface descends to 182 ft. on the Mississippi river in Shelby county. The mean elevation of the State is ap-

proximately goo feet. The general slope, however, is west by north. The Unaka mountains, which occupy a belt 8 to ro m. wide along the State’s eastern border, are a series of somewhat irregular ridges developed on complexly folded and faulted crystalline rocks. Sixteen peaks exceed 6,000 ft. in height. That part of the Great Appalachian valley which traverses Tennessee is commonly known as the valley of East Tennessee. It consists of parallel ridges and valleys developed by erosion on folded sandstones, shales and limestones, the valley quality predominating because the weak limestones were of great thickness. The valley areas vary in height from 600 ft. in the south-west to 1,400 ft. in the northeast. In the north-east the ridges are more numerous and higher than in the south-west, where White Oak ridge and Taylor’s mountain are among the highest, although Missionary and Chickamauga ridges are better known, because of their association with battles of the Civil War. Along the north-west border of the valley a steep escarpment, known as the Cumberland Scarp, rises to the Cumberland plateau. This plateau has a mean elevation of about 1,800 ft., is only slightly rolling, and the northern portion slopes gently toward the north-west. The western edge of the plateau is much broken by deep indentations of stream valleys, and drops suddenly downward about 1,000 ft. to the Highland Rim plateau, so named from the scarp formed by its western rim about the Central and (farther north) Louisville basins. It is fairly level generally except where it is cut by river valleys. The Central basin, with a more rolling surface, lies for the most part 400 to 600 ft. below the Rim; a few hills or ridges, however, rise to the level of the Rim. The Basin is elliptical in form, ex-

berland plateau, in the inner portion of the Highland rim and in the western slope of the East Gulf plains, there is for the most

part a light sandy soil, much of it too poor for cultivation.

Tennessee has a delightful climate. The mean summer temperature varies according to elevation from 62° F. on the Unaka mountains to 72° on the Cumberland plateau, or 75° in the valley of East Tennessee and on the Highland rim, 77° in the Central basin, and about 78° on the East Gulf plains. The mean winter

temperature for each of these divisions varies little from 38°,

and the mean annual temperature ranges only from 57° in East

Tennessee to 58° in Middle Tennessee and to 60° in West Tennessee. Usually the highest temperatures of the year are in July and the lowest in January. Killing frosts are rare, especially in the southern and western parts of the State, between the third week in April and the middle of October. An average annual precipitation of about 50 in. is quite equally distributed over the

State, and a little more than one-half of it is well distributed

through the spring and summer months. The average annual snowfall is about 8 inches. The warm, moisture-bearing winds blow low from the south or south-west with a free sweep across the State in a direction nearly parallel with the trend of the mountains. The commingling of these winds with upper cold currents from the north gives rise frequently to westerly and occasionally to easterly winds. Government.—With the exception of the administrative changes made in 1923, few alterations have been made in the Government of Tennessee since the present Constitution was adopted in 1870; and this was only a revision of the State’s second Constitution, which was adopted in 1834. Every attempt to amend or revise the existing Constitution has been unsuccessful, because of the difficult procedure involved in such changes. Amendments may be proposed not oftener than once in six years by a majority of the members elected to each house of the legislature; but before an amendment can be adopted, it must be agreed to by two-thirds of the members elected to each house of the next succeeding legislature, and later by a majority of all the citizens of the State voting for representatives at the next regular election. The legislature tending nearly across the State from north-east to south-west may also submit to the people the question of calling a convention with an extreme width of about 60 m.; near its centre is the city to amend or revise the Constitution, and such a convention must of Murfreesboro, and Nashville lies in the north-west. Westward be called whenever, upon the submission of this proposition, a from the lower Tennessee river the surface of the East Gulf majority of the votes are cast in favour of it. The election of the Coastal plain rises rapidly to the summit of a broken cuesta or governor, members of the general assembly and congressmen is ridge and then descends gently and terminates abruptly in a bluff held biennially, in even-numbered years, on the first Tuesday after overlooking the Mississippi Flood plain. The eastern slope, about the first Monday in November, but the election of judicial and a quarter of the length of the western slope, is steep and rocky, county officers is held on the first Thursday in August. The governor is the only State executive officer elected by the and the western slope is broken by the valleys of numerous streams. The bluff, 150 to 200 ft. in height, traverses the State people. He is elected for a term of two years and is not eligible in a rather straight course; between it and the meandering Mis- for more than three consecutive terms. There is no lieutenantsissippi, except at a few points where that river touches it, lie low governor; in case of a vacancy in the office of governor, the speaker bottom lands varying in width according to the bends of the river of the senate becomes acting governor. The secretary of State and and containing numerous swamps and ponds. In the northern comptroller of the treasury are elected by a joint ballot of the portion, principally in Lake county, is Reelfoot lake, which oc- senate and the house of representatives, each for a term of two cupies a depression formed by an earthquake in 1811. It is 18 m. years; the attorney-general is appointed by the judges of the long, has a maximum width of 3 m., and is the only large lake supreme court for a term of eight years. In 1923 the administrative system of the State was reorganized, 64 boards, commissions, in the State. The whole of the Appalachian province of Tennessee and the agencies, etc., being combined into nine departments, each witha southern portion of the Cumberland plateau, the Highland rim, commissioner at its head. These are known as the departments otf and the Central basin are drained southward and westward by Insurance and Banking; Highways and Public Works; Labour; the Tennessee river and its tributaries. The valley of the lower State Institutions; Agriculture; Finance and Taxation; Railroads Tennessee is drained northward by the same river. The northern and Public Utilities; Public Health; and Education. Both senators and representatives are elected for a term of two portion of the Cumberland plateau, Highland rim and Central basin is drained northward and westward by the Cumberland years by counties or by districts having approximately the same river and its tributaries. The western slope of the East Gulf population. The number of representatives is limited by the plains is drained directly into the Mississippi by several small Constitution to 99, and the number of senators to one-third the streams. number of representatives. The legislature meets biennially, in ‘The Central basin, the less elevated parts of the valley of East odd-numbered years, on the first Monday in January, and the Tennessee and parts of the outer portion of the Highland rim length of the session is limited by a provision that the members have a fertile soil of limestone origin. There are narrow strips shall be paid four dollars a day, besides an allowance for travelling of rich alluvium along many other rivers. The soils on the expenses, for a period not exceeding 75 days; when the governor ‘mountains, on the ridges of the valley of East Tennessee, and calls an extra session, they are paid for not more than 26 days. on the eastern slope of the East Gulf plains vary greatly, ac- Bills of whatever character may originate in either house, but no cording to the rocks from which they are derived. In the Cum- bill can become a law until it has passed both houses by a majority

TENNESSEE of all the members to which the house is entitled under the constitution, and if the governor vetoes a bill it cannot become a law until it has again passed both houses by such a majority. The Constitution provides that no minister or priest is eligible to a seat in either house of the legislature. The administration of justice is vested in a supreme court, a court of civil appeals, chancery courts, circuit courts, criminal courts, county courts, justice of the peace courts, and, in certain cities and towns, a recorder’s court. The supreme court consists of five judges elected by the State at large for a term of eight

years, one for each of the three grand divisions (Eastern, Middle and Western) and two for the State at large. The judges designate one of their number to preside as chief justice. The court has appellate jurisdiction only. The court of civil appeals, which in 1907 was substituted for the court of chancery appeals, is composed of nine judges elected for a term of eight years. This court has jurisdiction of appeals from equity courts in which the amount in controversy does not exceed $1,000, except in cases involving the constitutionality of a Tennessee statute, a contested election, State revenue or an ejectment suit; it has jurisdiction also of civil cases tried in the circuit and common law courts in which writs of error or appeals in the nature of writs of error are applied for. It may transfer any case to the supreme court. The state is divided into 13 chancery districts, in each of which a chancellor is elected for a term of eight years, and at every county seat in each district a court of chancery is held; exceptions are the roth district, which has three chancellors, and the 15th, which has four. There are also ten criminal judges, principally in the larger cities, and there is one probate judge in the city of Memphis. The State is also divided into 19 circuits, in each of which a circuit judge is elected for a term of eight years, and at every county seat in each circuit a circuit court is held. In several of the counties the county court is composed of a county judge, elected for a term of eight years, together with the justices of the peace in the county, and in the other counties it consists of the justices of the peace alone, who elect a chairman. Each county is divided into civil districts, varying in number according to population or other factors, and each district elects at least two justices of the peace for a term of six years; each county town or incorporated town also elects one justice of the peace. A recorder has concurrent jurisdiction with a justice of the peace. The government of each county is vested principally in the county court. This body represents and acts for the county as a

corporation; has charge of the erection and repair of county buildings; levies the county taxes; divides the county into highway districts, and chooses a highway commissioner for each district for a term of two years; and chooses a superintendent of schools (except where this is done by popular ballot), a surveyor, a public administrator and public guardian, a board for the equalization of taxes, a coroner, and a county physician or health officer, each for a term of two years, three commissioners of the poor for terms of three years (one chosen each year), and a keeper and sealer of weights and measures to serve during the pleasure of the court. A county trustee, whose duty it is to collect State and county taxes, and a sheriff are elected by the people of the county for a term of two years; a clerk of the county court and a registrar are also elected by the voters of the county for a term of four years. The capital

city of Tennessee is Nashville. Population.—The population in the census of selected years

was as follows: 35,691 in 1790; 105,602 in 1800; 681,904 in 1830; 1,002,717 in 1850; 1,542,359 in 1880; 1,767,518 in 1890; 2,020,616 In 1900; 2,184,789 In 1910; 2,337,885 in 1920. The population on April 1, 1930, was 2,616,556, according to the United States census. The increase of population in the decade 1920~30 was 278,671, or I1-9%, as compared with 7% in the preceding decade. The negro population during 1910~20 decreased numerically from 473,088 to 451,758, and decreased proportionately from 21-7% of the total to 19-3%. The average density of population in 1930 was 62-8 per sq.m.; in 1920 it was 56-1. The urban population (in places of 2,500 inhabitants or more) increased from 20-2% of the

total in 1910 to 26-1% in 1920. The population of the chief cities in 1930 and 1920 was as follows: Memphis, 253,143, and 162,351"

933

Nashville, 153,866, and 118,342; Chattanooga, 119,798, and 57,

895; Knoxville, 105,802, and 77,818; Johnson City, 25,080, and 12,442; Jackson, 22,172, ‘and 18,860. Finance —In common with the other States of the Union, Tennessee has had a great increase in State expenditures. Also as in other States, highway expenditures rank first, and educational second in importance. The chief sources of revenue are: motor-car

2,250,000

sees

1.750.000

ale

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GRAPH OF GROWTH OF POPULATION IN TENNESSEE, 1790-1920, SHOWING RELATIVE PROPORTIONS OF WHITES AND NEGROES AT EACH CENSUS

licences and other revenue of the highway department, a general property tax, a gas-privilege tax, a State tax on insurance companies, a sales tax on tobacco, an excise tax and an inheritance tax. Various privilege taxes, fines and forfeitures also help to augment the State’s revenue. "The property assessment for 1926 was $1,724,357,940, on which a rate of 25 cents per $100 gave the State a tax of $6,431,089. The gross receipts for the fiscal year July 1, 1926, to June 30, 1927, were $27,191,448; the disbursements for the same period were $26,185,582. Some of the chief disbursements for the fiscal year July 1, 1926, to June 30, 1927, were as follows: highways, $13,751,274; education, $5,616,156; charitable institutions, $2,850,206; pensions (soldiers and widows), $731,547; State debt and interest, $835,748. The funded indebtedness of the State, as on June 30, 1927, was $14,572,000. Education and Charities.—The first steps toward the creation of a common-schaol system for Tennessee were taken in 1823, when an act was passed setting aside for school purposes, the revenue and taxes accruing from public lands. From that beginning until the adoption of a uniform school code in 1925, more than 1,000 different acts were passed pertaining to the educational system. Under the new code the administration is vested in a State commissioner of education; a State board of education, consisting of the commissioner, the governor and nine other members; a county superintendent and a county board in each county; and in cities, city boards of education. The commissioner and the other members of the State board are appointed by the governor. The county superintendent is elected biennially by either the county court or by popular ballot. The county board consists of seven members (unless otherwise provided), elected by the county court for a term of seven years, one retiring annually. The State board of education conducts examinations for county superintendents and issues certificates of qualification, classifies the high schools, maintains and controls the State teachers’ colleges and establishes a salary schedule. No teacher may receive pay from the public school funds unless he or she has received a certificate from the State commissioner of education. The quarterly county court has power to issue bonds, levy taxes and provide funds for buildings for the county schools. The court is under obligation to maintain at least one four-year high school within the county. Public schools are free to all persons above the age of six years; attendance is compulsory between the ages of seven and 16 unless

TENNESSEE

934

high-school standing has been attained. Separate schools are maintained for the white and for the coloured. In 1927 the scholastic population between six and 17 years of age, inclusive, was 601,407.

On the same date 649,007 were enrolled in the public elementary and secondary schools. Of these, 590,126 were in kindergarten and elementary schools and 58,881 were in secondary schools. In 1924 there were 22,900 pupils enrolled in private and parochial schools. The average length of school term for rural public schools in-

creased from Iro days in 1915 to 154 days in 1927. From 1900 to 1925 the per capita expenditure for public schools based on population between five and 17 years of age, inclusive, increased from $6.32 to $23 6x. Illiteracy among persons over ten years of age decreased from 13-6% in 1910 to 10-3% in 1920. The State provides for higher education in the University of Tennessee, at Knoxville; the Polytechnic Institute, at Cookeville; East Tennessee Teachers college, at Johnson City; Middle Tennessee Teachers college, at Murfreesboro; and West Tennessee Teachers college, at Memphis. The Agricultural and Industrial Normal college for negroes is at Nashville. Other schools maintained by the State are: a school for the deaf, at Knoxville; a school for the blind, at Nashville; Tennessee Industrial school, at Nashville; Tennessee Girls’ Vocational school, at Tullahoma; State Training and Agricultural school for boys at N ashville; and a vocational school for coloured girls at Nashville. Peabody college for teachers, at Nashville, founded with proceeds

of the George Peabody fund for the improvement of education in the south, is not State controlled (see PEABODY, GEORGE). Other institutions of higher learning not under the control of the State are: Vanderbilt university (non-sectarian), at Nashville; University of the South (Episcopal), at Sewanee; Southwestern Presbyterian college, at Memphis; Cumberland university (Presbyterian), at Lebanon; Union university (Baptist), at Jackson; Christian Brothers’ college (Catholic), at Memphis; Bethel college (Presbyterian), at McKenzie; University of Chattanooga

(Methodist), at Chattanooga;

Milligan college (Christian), at

Milligan; Carson-Newman (Baptist), at Jefferson City; Lincoln Memorial university (non-sectarian), at Cumberland Gap; Tusculum college (non-sectarian), at Greenville; King college (Presbyterian), at Bristol; Maryville college (Presbyterian), at Maryville; Bryson college, at Fayetteville, and Tennessee college, at Murfreesboro. Education for the coloured is provided by Fisk university, at Nashville; Lane college, at Jackson; Le Moyne Institute, at Memphis; and Knoxville college, at Knoxville. The State maintains a Confederate Veterans’ Home near Nashville, on the “Hermitage,” the estate formerly belonging to Andrew Jackson; the Eastern hospital for the Insane, at Knoxville; Central hospital for the Insane, at Nashville; Western hospital for the Insane, at Bolivar; and various schools, as mentioned above under

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1910 to 1925 the average acreage per farm decreased from 81.s to 70-4. The farm population decreased from 1,271,708 in 1920 to 1,173,316 in 1928. Of the 252,669 farmers in 1925, 218,022 were

white and 34,647 were negroes. Of all farmers in 1925, 148,627 were owners; 103,718 were tenants; and 324 were managers. In 1920 there were 11,374 women farmers. The total value of farm crops in 1919 was $318,285,307; in 1926, it was $175,614,000.

In

1926 ‘Tennessee ranked 22nd among the States of the Union, in total value of farm products. The following table shows the comparative acreage, production and value of six important crops for 1919 and 1927: Crop

Acreage

Production

Value

Indian corn

3,301,075

70,639,252 bu.

Oats

2,944,000 162,417 179,000

127,150,649 58,644,480

$ .

2,413,409 3,043,000 6,362,357

684,497

Wheat

Hay

70,656,000

1,402,000

807,770

Tobacco

138,561 81,500

943,000

5,137,000

1,907,345 tons 1,822,000 4,

1,75 I,I 23

Cotton

1,826,000

14,500,174

3,696,000

528,000

and

forage

2,534,082

49,649,657

306,974 bales

27,114,000 48,808,866

345,000

5

32,775,000

71,435,000

+3

12,858,000

112,367,567 lb.

24,720,869

The number and value of the principal domestic animals on Jan. 1, 1927 were: cattle, 912,000, valued at $27,816,000; swine,

968,000, valued at $12,584,000; sheep, 300,000, valued at $3,030,000; horses, 219,000, valued at $11,826,000; and mules, 352,000, valued at $24,288,000. The three national forests that lie in part in Tennessee had, in 1925, a total area of 267,939 ac. within the State. According to the United States Bureau of Mines, Tennessee ranked 25th among the 48 States in the value of minerals produced in 1925. In that year the production had a value of $38,869,198. The principal products in order of value were coal, cement, clay products and stone. The coal-producing area is a belt running from north-east to south-west, a little east of the centre of the State, production being reported in 16 counties. Valuable building marble is quarried in the eastern part of the State. Tennessee produces most of the copper mined in the Southern States. Its entire production of copper, gold and silver comes from mines worked primarily for copper in Polk county, Rock phosphate is mined in five counties in the central and southcentral sections of the State. The most important products, in 1925, were: coal, 5,454,011 short tons, worth $10,077,000; clay products exclusive of pottery,

worth $3,941,395; stone, 1,835,-

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veloping rapidly. The total land area in farms decreased from 20,041,657 ac. in 1910 to 17,901,139 ac. in 1925. The number of farms increased from 246,012 in Igro to 252,669 in 1925; from

MeydbideélllD Ye POUNDS MILLIONS OF

TOBACCO CROP EACH YEAR, 1909-1927; ALSO (HORIZONTAL LINES CROSSING THE FIGURE) IN 1839, 1859, 1879 AND 1899 “Education.” The main penitentiary is located on a farm of 4,000 ac. near Nashville. Another penitentiary, known as Brusby Mountain prison, is located in the coal region in East Tennessee. The prisoners are kept at labour principally in the State coalmines, on the farm, or at mechanical employment within the prison walls. Contract labour was not entirely abolished until 1917. All charitable and corrective institutions are under the supervision of the department of State institutions. Industry, Trade and Transport.—The interests of the State remain predominantly agricultural, though manufacturing is de-

150 short tons, worth $4,334,891; copper, 19,788,234 lb., worth $2,809,929; rock phosphate, 464,240 long tons, worth $2,334,995; zinc, 16,256 short tons, worth $2,- AVERAGE VALUE OF MANUFACTURED 470,912. Other products of PRODUCTS AT EACH CENSUS, 1914economic value are: sand and gravel, lime, iron ore, barite, lead, gold, silver and petroleum (see PETROLEUM). Manufacturing is growing rapidly in Tennessee. In 1925 there were 2,162 establishments, employing 107,645 wage-earners; the wages amounted to $95,255,480. The value of the products was

$601,488,472, as compared with $546,499,264 in 1923 and $374,038,000 in 1921. The chief industries according to value of product were: knitted goods, $44,006,467; food preparations, $40,297,255; timber products, $35,527,699; flour and grain mill products, $31,810,028; construction and repair in steam railway

shops, $26,711,694;

planing-mill products, $26,086,641;

cotton

TENNESSEE goods, $23,706,355; cotton-seed oil, meal and cake, $23,045,442;

935

regulations for recording deeds and wills were made. Courts were held, but any conflict of jurisdiction with Virginia or North

printing and publishing, $21,404,448; chewing and smoking tobacco and snuff, $16,819,438. Carolina was avoided. In 1775 the settlement on the Nollichucky The steam railway mileage of Tennessee increased continuously was forced to join the association, and in the same year the land until 1920, when the total was 4,078, but by 1925 this had was bought from the Cherokee Indians in the hope of averting decreased to 4,063. The chief railways operating in the State in war. With the approach of the American Revolution, the dream 1925 were: Louisville and Nashville; Nashville, Chattanooga and of becoming a separate colony with a royal governor was abanSt. Louis; Southern Railway; Tennessee Central; and Illinois doned, and on petition of the inhabitants the territory was anCentral. In the above year there were 417 m. of electric railway nexed to North Carolina in 1776 as the Washington district, within the State, operated chiefly as city systems. The navigable which in 1777 became Washington county, with the Mississippi waterways include the Mississippi, Tennessee and Cumberland river as the western boundary. The population increased rapidly, rivers. The State highway department controlled 5,051 m. of and soon several new counties were created. During the American Revolution the hardy mountaineers under roadways in 1927, of which 3,555-5 m. were surfaced. New surfacJohn Sevier and Evan Shelby did valiant service against both the ing placed during the year amounted to 291-7 miles. royal troops and the Loyalists in South Carolina, chiefly as parHISTORY tisan rangers under Charles McDowell (1743~1815). Major Exploration and Early Settlements.—What is now Ten- Patrick Ferguson, with several hundred Loyalists and a small nessee was visited and claimed in turn by Spaniards, French and body of regulars, made a demonstration against the western English. The final success of the English was achieved only after settlements; but at King’s Mountain in South Carolina, he was the desperate struggle which ended in the Treaty of Paris of 1763. completely defeated by the Americans. By its provisions France was driven from North America and the Relations with North Carolina.—After the American Revopower of Spain was greatly limited. lution the legislature of North Carolina in 1784 offered to cede The daring Spanish explorer Hernando de Soto reached the her western territory to the general Government, provided the Mississippi river in 1541, at a high bluff occupied by Chickasaw cession be accepted within two years. The Watauga settlers, villages, believed to be the present site of Memphis. After a indignant at this transfer without their consent, and fearing to be brief halt to collect food from the Indians and to build rafts, left without any form of Government whatever, assembled in De Soto left the territory by crossing the Mississippi. It was convention at Jonesboro on Aug. 23, 1784, and chose delegates 132 years before another white man saw Tennessee. The French to a later convention to form a new State. Meanwhile North missionary and explorer Father Marquette, in his voyage down the Carolina repealed the act of cession and created the western Mississippi by canoe in 1673, camped upon the western border, counties into a new judicial district. A second convention, in and eight years later La Salle and his companions left Canada November, broke up in confusion without accomplishing anyto complete the exploration of the river. La Salle built Ft. thing; but a third adopted a Constitution, which was submitted Prud’homme in 1682 upon the Chickasaw Bluff, near the present to the people, and ordered the election of a legislature. This body site of Memphis, but it was soon abandoned. Later the French met early in 1785, elected Sevier governor of the new State of built Ft. Assumption, where Memphis now stands, and kept a Franklin (at first Frankland), filled a number of offices, and garrison there, but made no attempt at colonization. The territory passed several laws in anticipation of an autonomous existence. was a part of the English grant to Sir Walter Raleigh in 1584, On account of the scarcity of a circulating medium more than 20 and of the later Stuart grants, including that in 1663 to the articles were valued and declared legal tender. Among them were proprietors of Carolina. James Adair, of South Carolina, a fur fox skins, 1s. 6d.; beaver skins, 6s.; bacon, 6d. per Ib.; rye whistrader and explorer, is supposed to have been the first to go from ky, 2s. 6d. the gallon. Four new counties were created, and taxes the English colonies into Tennessee. A party of Virginians led were levied. Later in the year another convention, to which the by Dr. Thomas Walker (1715-94) in 1750 reached the Cumber- proposed Constitution had been referred, adopted instead the land river and Cumberland mountains and named them in honour Constitution of North Carolina with a few trifling changes, and of the royal duke. In 1756 or 1757, Ft. Loudon, named in honour William Cocke was chosen to present to Congress a memorial of John Campbell, earl of Loudon, was built on the Little Ten- requesting recognition as a State. Congress, however, ignored nessee river, about 30 m. south of the present site of Knoxville, the request, and the diplomacy of the North Carolina authorities as an outpost against the French who were now active in the caused a reaction. For a time two sets of officials claimed recogwhole Mississippi valley, and was garrisoned by royal troops. nition, but when the North Carolina legislature a second time The fort was captured by the Cherokee Indians in 1760, and both passed an act of oblivion and remitted the taxes unpaid since 1784, the tide was turned. No successor to Sevier was elected. the garrison and the neighbouring settlers were massacred. Eastern Tennessee was recognized as a common hunting- He was arrested on a charge of treason, but was allowed to ground by the Cherokees, Creeks, Miamis and other Indian tribes. escape, and soon afterwards was again appointed brigadier-general The Iroquois of New York claimed much of the central portion of militia. by right of conquest, and the western section was the home of Meanwhile, settlers had pushed on farther into the wilderness. the Chickasaws. By the treaty of Ft. Stanwix, in 1768, the On March 17, 1775 Col. Richard Henderson and his associates Iroquois ceded whatever claim they had to the English, and in extinguished the Indian title to an immense tract of land in the 1769 several cabins were built along the Holston and Watauga valleys of the Cumberland, the Kentucky and the Ohio rivers rivers upon what was thought to be Virginia soil. A settlement (see Kentucky). In 1778 James Robertson (1742-1814), a near the present Rogersville was made in 1771, and in the next native of Virginia, who had been prominent in the Watauga year another sprang up about the store of Jacob Brown on the settlement, set out with a small party to prepare the way for ` Nollichucky. After the failure of the Regulator insurrection in permanent occupation. He arrived at French Lick (so called from North Carolina in 1771, hundreds of the Regulators made their a French trading post established there) early in 1779, and in way into the wilderness. A survey of the western boundary-line the same year a number of settlers from Virginia and South Carobetween Virginia and North Carolina showed the settlements to lina arrived. Another party, led by John Donelson, arrived in be in North Carolina, but that colony made no effort to assert 1780, and after the close of the War of Independence the immijurisdiction nor to protect the settlers from Indian depredations. grants came in a steady stream. A form of Government similar Therefore in 1772 the residents of the first two settlements met to the Watauga Association was devised, and blockhouses were to establish a form of government since known as the Watauga built for defence against the Indians. Robertson was sent as a Association. A general committee of 13 was elected to exercise delegate to the North Carolina legislature In 1783, and through legislative powers. This committee elected from its members a his instrumentality the settlements became Davidson county. committee of five in whom executive and judicial powers were Nashville, which had been founded as Nashborough in 1780, belodged. A sheriff, an attorney and a clerk were elected, and came the county seat. Finally, in 1843, it became the State

TENNESSEE

936

capital. Robertson, the dominant figure in the early years, were suppressed only by local vigilance committees. The peculiar struggled to counteract the efforts of Spanish intriguers among the topographical conditions made the three sections of the State Indians, and when diplomacy failed, he led the settlers against almost separate commonwealths, and demand for better means of communication was insistent. The policy of State aid to the Indian towns. Tennessee Becomes a Separate State.-—On Feb. 25, 1790 internal improvements found advocates very early, in spite of North Carolina again ceded the territory to the United States the Republican affiliations of the State, but a definite programme Government, stipulating that all the general provisions of the was not laid out until 1829, when commissioners for internal ordinance of 1787 should apply except that forbidding slavery. improvements were appointed and an expenditure of $150,000 Congress accepted the cession and, on May 26, 1790, passed an was authorized. In 1835 the State agreed to subscribe oneact for the government of the “Territory south of the River third to the capital stock of companies organized to lay out Ohio.” William Blount was appointed the first governor, and in turnpikes, railways, etc., and four years later the proportion be1792 Knoxville became the seat of Government The chief came one-half. Though these agreements were soon repealed, events of Blount’s administration were the contests with the the general policy was continued, and in 1861 more than $17,000,Indians, the purchase of their lands, and the struggle against ooo of the State debt was due to these subscriptions, from which Spanish influence. A census ordered by the Territorial legislature there was little return. Though President Andrew Jackson was for many years practiin 1795 showed more than 60,000 free inhabitants (the number prescribed before the Territory could become a State), and cally a dictator in Tennessee politics, his arbitrary methods and accordingly a convention to draft a State Constitution met in his intolerance of any sort of independence on the part of his Knoxville on Jan. 11r, 1796. The instrument, which closely fol- followers led to a revolt in 1836, when the electoral vote of the lowed the Constitution of North Carolina, was proclaimed with- State was given to Hugh Lawson White, then United States out submission to popular vote. John Sevier was elected governor, senator from Tennessee, who had been one of Jackson’s most and William Blount and William Cocke United States senators. devoted adherents. White’s followers called themselves anti-Van In spite of the opposition of the Federalist party, whose leaders Buren Democrats, but the proscription which they suffered drove foresaw that Tennessee would be Republican, it was admitted to most of them into the Whig party, which carried the State in presidential elections until 1856, when the vote was cast for James the Union as the 16th State on June 1, 1796. With the rapid increase of population, the dread of Indian and Buchanan, the Democratic candidate. The Whig party was so Spaniard declined. Churches and schools were built, and soon strong that James K. Polk (Democrat), a resident of the State, many of the comforts and some of the luxuries of life made their lost its electoral vote in 1844. With the disintegration of the Whig appearance. The question of a circulating medium was acute party, the State again became nominally Democratic, though during the first half of the rgth century, and State banks were Union sentiment was strong, particularly in East Tennessee. There organized, which suspended specie payments in times of financial were few large plantations and few slaves in that mountainous stringency. The bank of Tennessee, organized in 1838, had behind region, while the middle and western sections were more in it the credit of the State, and it was hoped that money for harmony with the sentiment in Mississippi and Alabama. In 1850 representatives of nine Southern States met in a convention

at Nashville (g.v.) to consider the questions at issue between the

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North and the South. The vote of the State was given for Bell and Everett in 1860, and the people as a whole were opposed to secession. The Civil War.—tThe proposition to call a convention to vote on the question of secession was voted down on Feb. 9, 1861, but after President Lincoln’s call for troops the legislature submitted the question of secession directly to the people, and meanwhile, on May 7, 1861, entered into a “Military League” with the Confederacy. An overwhelming vote was cast on June 8 in favour of secession, and on the 24th Gov. I. G. Harris (1818-97) issued a proclamation declaring Tennessee out of the Union. Andrew

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Johnson, then a United States senator from Tennessee, refused to resign his seat, and was supported by a large element in East

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A

Tennessee. A Union convention, including representatives from all the eastern and a few of the middle counties, met on June 17, 1861 and petitioned Congress to be admitted as a separate State. The request was ignored, but the section was strongly Unionist in sentiment during the war, and has since been strongly Republican. The State was, next to Virginia, the chief battle-ground during the Civil War, and a historian has counted 454 battles and skirmishes that took place within its borders. In Feb. 1862, General U.S. Grant and Commodore A. H. Foote captured Ft. Henry on the Tennessee river and Ft. Donelson on the Cumberland. The Confederate line of defence was broken and General D. C. Buell occupied Nashville. Grant next ascended the Tennessee river to Pittsburg Landing, with the intention of capturing the Memphis

MADISON AVENUE, THE WALL STREET OF MEMPHIS, LOOKING EAST and Charleston Railway, and on April 6 and 7 defeated the Coneducation and for internal improvements might be secured from federates in the battle of Shiloh. The capture of Island No. 10 its profits. The management became a question of party politics, in the Mississippi on April 7 opened the river as far S. as Memand during the Civil War its funds were used to advance the phis, which was captured in June. On Dec. 31 and Jan. 2 General Confederate cause. The development of the western section Wiliam S. Rosecrans (Federal) fought with General Braxton along the Mississippi was rapid after the beginning of the cen- Bragg (Confederate) the bloody but indecisive battle of Stone tury. Memphis, founded in 1819, was thought as late as 1832 to river (Murfreesboro). In June, 1863 Rosecrans forced Bragg to be in Mississippi, and not until 1837 was the southern boundary, evacuate Chattanooga. Bragg, however, turned upon his pursuer, which according to the North Carolina cession was Lat. 35°, finally and on Sept. 19 and 20 one of the bloodiest battles of the war was established. As in other river towns, the disorderly element in fought at Chickamauga. General Grant now assumed command, Memphis was large, and the gamblers, robbers and horse thieves and on Nov. 24-25 defeated Bragg at Chattanooga, thus opening

TENNESSEE the way into East Tennessee. There General A. E. Burnside at first met with success, but was shut up in Knoxville by General James Longstreet, who was not able, however, to capture the city, and on the approach of General W. T. Sherman retired into Virginia. Almost the whole State was now held by Federal troops, and no considerable military movement occurred until after the fali of Atlanta in Sept. 1864. Then General J. B. Hood moved into Tennessee, expecting Sherman to follow him. Sherman, however, sent reinforcements to Thomas and continued his march to the sea. Hood fought with General John M. Schofield at Franklin, and on Dec. 15-16 was utterly defeated by Thomas at Nashville, the Federals thus securing virtually undisputed control of the State. Reconstruction and Politics.—After the occupation of: the State by the Federal armies in 1862, Andrew Johnson was appointed military governor by the President (confirmed March 3, 1862), and held the office until he was inaugurated vice president on March 4, 1865. Republican electors attempted to cast the vote of the State in 1864, but were not recognized by Congress. Tennessee was the first of the Confederate States to be readmitted to the Union (July 24, 1866), after ratifying the Constitution of the United States with amendments, declaring the ordinance of secession void, voting to abolish slavery, and declaring the war debt void. Tennessee freed her own slaves by an amendment to the State Constitution ratified by a vote of the people on Feb. 22, 1865, but suffrage was not conferred upon the negro until two years later (Feb. 25, 1867). The State escaped “carpet bag” government, but the native whites in control, under the leadership of William G. Brownlow, exhibited almost every phase of the reconstruction policy. All persons who had either directly or indirectly taken part in the war against the Union or had given aid to the Confederacy were denied the right of suffrage. In the election of 1869, the acting governor, D. W. C. Senter, ordered the election commissioners to issue to all actual citizens of the State permits to vote. The Democrats united with the Conservative Republicans and Senter was easily elected. At the same time a Democratic and Conservative legislature was elected, thus placing the State Government again in the control of officers elected by the majority of the people. The Ku Klux Klan, originating in 1865 as a youthful prank at Pulaski, Tenn., spread over the State and the entire South, and in 1869 nine counties in the middle and western section were placed under martial law because of the Klan’s activities against the Loyal League and the negroes. A constitutional convention, which met in Jan., 1870, revised the old Constitution, and the revision became the present Constitution when ratified by the people the following May. In 1873 a school law was passéd which provided for State and county superintendents and separate schools for white and coloured children and levied a State tax to

aid in paying the expenses of these schools. Another progressive step was the final compounding of the old State debt at so cents on the dollar by an act of the legislature in 1883. With the exception of the administration of Alvin Hawkins, 1881-83, the Democratic Party controlled the executive office from 1871 to 1g11; but in 1890 the Farmers’ Alliance was able to control the Democratic Party. In 1920, for the first time since 1868, the State’s electoral votes were cast for the Republican candidate for President. The prohibition question long played an important role in State politics, and many acts were passed tending toward the abolition of the liquor traffic. Twentieth Century Reforms.—In 1904 the Adams law, prohibiting the sale of intoxicating liquors in towns of 5,000 inhabitants or less, was passed, largely through the efforts of the AntiSaloon League; an act prohibiting the manufacture of intoxicating liquor in the State became effective on Jan. I, 1910; in Oct. 1913 Governor Hooper called a special session of the legis-

lature and secured the passage of the so-called Nuisance Act, designed to close every saloon in the State by enforcing the law forbidding the sale of intoxicating liquor within four miles of any school; in 1915 provision was made for removal from office of State, county or city officials who failed to enforce the prohibition laws; and on Feb. 2, 1917, Governor Rye signed a bill forbidding

RIVER

937

the importation of liquor into the State. In r915 a law was passed providing for mothers’ pensions. In 1917 the letting of prison labour to private contractors was prohibited, and an act was passed forbidding the limiting of the output of coal in order to increase the price. In the same year a State budget commission was created. On Aug. 18, 1920, the house, by 50 to 46, voted for concurrence in the senate resolution (adopted on Aug. 13, by 5 to 4) ratifying the proposed amendment to the Federal Constitution, providing for woman suffrage. As the 36th State (out of the 48 in the American Union) to ratify, Tennessee brought the number to the requisite three-fourths. Many progressive school laws were passed in the years between 1913 and 1925, when the revised school code was adopted. Additional revenue was made accessible for all branches of education, better supervision was provided and ages for compulsory attendance were extended. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—The best bibliography of material relating to Tennessee is Calvin Morgan McClung Historical Collection (Knoxville, 1921). There is no complete history of Tennessee that is entirely satisfactory. S. E. Scates, A School History of Tennessee (1925), gives a brief elementary survey up to 1925. Tennessee, the Volunteer State, 1769-1923, edited by J. T. Moore and Austin P. Foster (4 vols., 1923), is a more detailed work. Historical works of greater merit are: James Phelan, History of Tennessee (1888); W. R. Garrett and A. V. Goodpasture, History of Tennessee (1903); G. R. McGee, A History of Tennessee from 1663 to 1919; J. Haywood, Civil and Political History (1823; reprinted, 1891); J. G. M. Ramsey, Annals (1853); A. W. Putnam, History of Middle Tennessee, or the Life and Times of General James Robertson (1859) ; Theodore Roosevelt, The Winning of the West (1889-96); John Carr, Early Times in Middle Tennessee (1857); Edward Albright, Early History of Middle Tennessee (1908); Constance L. Skinner, Pioneers of the Old Southwest (1919). A confused mass of history and biography can be found in the following: W. T. Hale and D. L. Merritt, A History of Tennessee and Tennesseans (8 vols., 1913) ; Samuel G. Heiskell, Andrew Jackson and Early Tennessee History (3 vols., 1920-21); and Samuel C. Williams, History of the Lost State of Franklin (1924). For the Civil War period see Report of Joint Committee on Reconstruction (US. Public Documents, 1866); James W. Fertig, Secession and Reconstruction of Tennessee (1898); John R. Neal, Disunion and Reconstruction in Tennessee (1899); O. P. Temple, East Tennessee and the Civil War (1899). On administration see the Reports of the various administrative departments; Tennessee Directory (annual) ; Baldwin’s Cumulative Code Supplement, Tennessee (1920); Tennessee Statutes; and J. W. Caldwell, Studies in the Constitutional History of Tennessee (1895; new ed., 1907). For education see Public School Laws of Tennessee (1925) and Reports of the State department of education. For population, agriculture and manufactures consult the Fourteenth U.S. Census, the Agricultural Yearbook and the volumes of the Census of Manufactures. The mineral resources and physical features are described in the Reports of the Tennessee Geological Survey (1840 seq.) and Mineral Resources of the United States (U.S. bureau of mines; annual). (C. E. A.)

TENNESSEE

RIVER,

the largest tributary of the Ohio

river, U.S.A. It is formed by the confluence of the Holston and the French Broad rivers 4.5m. above Knoxville (Tenn.), flows south south-west to Chattanooga, there turns west through the Cumberland Plateau and into the north-east corner of Alabama, continues west across the northern part of Alabama, turns north on the boundary between Alabama and Mississippi, and continuing north across Tennessee and Kentucky unites with the Ohio at Paducah. Its principal tributaries rise in the Appalachian Mountains; the Holston and the Clinch on the mountain slopes that flank the Appalachian valley in western Virginia; and the French Broad, the Little Tennessee and the Hiwassee in the mountains of western North Carolina. The Tennessee itself is 652m. long, and with the Holston and the North Fork of the Holston forms a channel about goom. long. Its drainage basin covers about 44,o00sq.m., and its low-water discharge at Paducah is 10,60ocu.ft. per second. Its average fall is o-79ft. per m— o-gs6ft. from Knoxville to Chattanooga; 1-19ft. from Chattanooga to Florence (Ala.), and o-39ft. from Florence to its mouth. The banks are everywhere easily accessible except at Knoxville and Chattanooga, where, for short distances, high elevations rise precipitously, from the water; and as the banks are mostly of clay or rock the channel is permanent and the river is unusually free from silt. The Tennessee is navigable by steamboats throughout its entire course of 652m. for several months of the year.

In 1904 the Federal Government authorized the construction,

938

TENNGLER—TENNYSON

with private capital, of a lock and dam at Hales Bar to provide a

unforced and fresh; and it never suggests, what is the fact, that

channel 6ft. deep between it and Chattanooga, the water-power to the artist’s work is drawn exclusively from memory, and never be used by the company furnishing the capital. The Colbert and from the model. It may be mentioned that Tenniel’s wonderful Bee Tree shoals were improved by the Colbert Shoals lock and observation has been conducted, and his knowledge accumulated, canal, opened in rgrz. In 1917 the U.S. Government undertook literally through a single eye, the other having been lost during the construction of a navigation power dam (Wilson or dam No. a fencing bout in his youth. It was in recognition not only of his 2), 95{t. high at Muscle shoals (qg.v.) and by 1926 the work had ability as an artist in black and white, but of his service in infusing been completed, except the lock, at a cost of $43,387,709 for con- good humour and good taste into one phase of political life, that struction and $359,592 for maintenance. A second lock and dam a knighthood was conferred upon him on Mr. Gladstone’s recom(known as No. 1), below Wilson dam, was completed and put mendation in 1893. Without pronounced political opinions of his in operation in March 1926, at a cost of $960,515. The Federal own, Sir John Tenniel adopted in his work those of his paper, of Government had spent, up to 1927, about $30,000,000, exclusive of which the Whig proclivities were to some degree softened by his the Muscle Shoals dams, on improving navigation on the Ten- pencil. The political history not of England only, but to some nessee and its tributaries. The total commerce carried on the extent of the world, of half a century appears in Sir John Tenvarious sections of the Tennessee had, in 1925, an aggregate value niel’s weekly cartoons, which are dignified by a number of types of $12,441,364; the commerce of its principal tributaries amounted

invented by the artist, the classic beauty of which may be looked

to $142,959. TENNGLER,

for in vain in kindred work by any previous cartoonist. (Take, for example, Sir John’s famous picture of “Dropping the Pilot,” which appeared in Punch on March 20, 1890, xcviii. 150-51.)

ULRICH, German jurist, was born in the

middle of the 15th century in Heidenheim near Nördlingen. He served as chief clerk of Nördlingen, 1479—83, and afterwards, until his death, was governor of Höchstädt. He died sometime in the first four months of 1511. He is noted chiefly as the author of the Layenspiegal (1509 and later editions. After 1516 the work was frequently issued in editions containing also Sebastian Brant’s Klagspiegal). This was a systematic encyclopaedia of popular jurisprudence, which had wide influence and for more than half a century was the authority in Germany for the settlement of legal questions. TENNIEL, SIR JOHN (1820-1914), knighted 1893, English humorous and satirical artist—specially identified with Punch —was born in London on Feb. 28, 1820. Although he became a probationer, and then a student, of the Royal Academy, he soon left the schools, where at that time there was little teaching. In 1836 he sent his first picture to the exhibition of the Society of British Artists, and in 1845 contributed a 16-ft. cartoon, “An Allegory of Justice,” to the competition, held in that year, of designs for the mural decoration of the new Palace of Westminster. For this he received a £200 premium and a commission

to paint a fresco in the Upper Waiting Hall (or “Hall of Poets”) in the House of Lords. He was already known and appreciated as a humorist, and his early companionship with Charles Keene fostered and developed his talent for scholarly caricature. In 1850 he was invited by Mark Lemon to fill the position of joint cartoonist (with John Leech) on Punch, in succession to Richard Doyle. His first “cartoon” was “Lord Jack the Giant Killer”; it showed Lord John Russell, whose letter on the “aggression” had recently been published, valiantly assailing with the sword of truth and liberty Cardinal Wiseman armed with a crozier. In 1852 we find Tenniel’s first superb lion, and his first obituary cartoon. Gradually he took over altogether the weekly drawing of the political “big cut,” which John Leech was happy to resign into his hands in order to restrict himself to his pictures of life and character. Leech’s work consisted for the most part of farce; Tenniel’s was high comedy, and not infrequently tragedy; and the freedom of the humorist heightened the severer beauties of the

satirist. When Leech died his friend continued his work alone. About 2,300 cartoons, innumerable minor drawings, double-page cartoons for Punch’s Almanac and other special numbers, and 250 designs for Punch’s Pocket-books, comprise the sum of Sir John

Tenniel’s work for the periodical in the service of which he spent the greater portion of his life. He retired in 1901. In 1874 he had been made a member of the Royal Institute of Painters in Water Colours. He died on Feb. 25, 1914. The main quality of Sir John Tenniel’s work is accuracy of drawing, precision of touch, grace and dignity of conception, and ——so far as such things can be compatible—geniality of satire. Tenniel raised the political cartoon into a classic composition, from which a sense of nobility is rarely absent. The beauty and statuesqueness of his ideal figures recall the influence, perhaps, of Cornelius and Overbeck—that German manner which was characteristic of many of our finer draughtsmen upon wood in the middle of the rgth century. But Tenniel’s work is always original,

Public exhibitions of Sir John Tenniel’s work were held in 1895 and in 1900. Sir John Tenniel is also the author of one of the mosaics, “Leonardo da Vinci,” in the South Court in the Victoria and Albert Museum, while his highly stippled water-colour drawings appeared from time to time in the exhibitions of the Royal Institute of Painters in Water Colours, of which society he was elected a member in 1874. As an illustrator on the wood-block he stands very high; his “Lalla Rookh” is perhaps the finest of all his work in point of conception, refinement, power and technical excellence. Works ILLustratep.—(1) Juvenile Verse and Picture Book (1846) ; (2) Undine (1846); (3) Aesop’s Fables, roo drawings (1848); (4) Blair’s Grave (1858) ; (5) Shirley Brooks’s The Gordian Knot (1860), and (6) The Silver Cord (1861); (7) Moore’s Lalla Rookh, 69 drawings (1861); (8) Lewis Carroll’s Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland (1866); (9) The Mirage of Life (1867); (10) Carroll’s Through the Looking-Glass (1870); and the following in collaboration: (xr) Pollok’s Course of Time (1857); (12) Poets of the Nineteenth Century (1857); (13) Poes Works (1857); (14) Home Affections (1858) ; (15) Cholmondeley Pennell’s Puck on Pegasus (1863); (16) The Arabian Nights (1863); (17) English Sacred Poetry (1864); (18) Legends and Lyrics (1865); (19) Tupper’s Proverbial Philosophy; (20) Barry Cornwall’s Poems, and other books. He also contributed to Once a Week, the Art Union publications, etc. See also Cartoons by Sir John Tenniel (1901); M. H. Spielmann, History of Punch (z895); Cosmo Monkhouse, Life and Works of Sir John Tenniel (Art Annual, 1901).

TENNIS: see Lawn Tennis AND TENNIS. TENNON, in architecture, a projecting tooth, peg or lug, cut

upon the end or edge of a structural member, and arranged to fit into a socket or mortice designed to receive it in an adjacent structural member, in order to strengthen and stiffen the connection between them.

TENNYSON, ALFRED TENNYSON,

rst Baron (1809-

1892), English poet, was born at Somersby, Lincolnshire, on Aug. 6, 1809. He was the fourth of the 12 children of the Rev. George Clayton Tennyson (1778-1831) and his wife Elizabeth Fytche (1781~1865). The Tennysons were an old Lincolnshire family settled at Bayon’s Manor. The poet’s grandfather, George Tennyson, M.P., had disinherited the poet’s father, who was settled hard by in the rectory of Somersby, in favour of the younger son, Charles Tennyson D’Eyncourt. The rich pastoral scenery of this part of Lincolnshire influenced the imagination of the boy, and is plainly reflected in all his early poetry. At a very early age he began to write in prose and verse. At Christmas 1815 he was sent to the grammar school at Louth, where he remained for five years, and then returned to Somersby to be trained by his father. In the rectory the boys had the run of an excellent library, and here the young poet based his wide knowledge of the English classics. The news of Byron’s death (April 19, 1824) made a deep impression on him. “It was a day,” he said, “when the whole world seemed to be darkened for me’; he went out into the woods and carved “Byron is dead” upon a rock. Tennyson was already writing copiously—he had constructed “an epic of 6,000 lines” at the age of twelve, composed a drama in blank verse when he was I4, and so on.

TENNYSON In 1827 Frederick Tennyson (1807-1898), the eldest surviving

959

brother, uniting with his younger brothers Charles and Alfred,

came “variable and his spirits indifferent.” The earliest effect of Hallam’s death upon his friend’s art was seen, in the summer

published at Louth an anonymous collection of Poems by Two Brothers. The “two” were Charles and Alfred (whose contribu-

beginnings of the Idylls of the King and of In Memoriam, over

tions predominated), and who shared the surprising profits, £20. On Feb. 20, 1828, Charles and Alfred matriculated at Trinity college, Cambridge, where Frederick was already a student. The poet subsequently told Edmund Gosse that his father would not let him leave Somersby till, on successive days, he had recited from memory the whole of the odes of Horace. The brothers took rooms at 12 Rose Crescent, and afterwards moved into Trumpington Street (now 157 Corpus Buildings). They were shy, and at first made few friends; but they gradually gathered selected associates around them, and Alfred grew to be looked up to in Cambridge “as to a great poet and an elder brother” by a group which included Richard Chenevix Trench, Monckton Milnes

(Lord Houghton), James Spedding, W. H. Thompson,

Edward

FitzGerald, W. H. Brookfield, and, above all, A. H. Hallam (18111833). Charles Tennyson (1808-1879) afterwards took the additional name of Turner. He published four volumes of sonnets which have been highly praised. In June 1829 Alfred Tennyson won the Chancellor’s prize medal for his poem called “Timbuctoo.” With great imperfections, this study in Miltonic blank verse displays the genius of a poet, in spite of obscurity both of thought and style. Here are already both richness and power. But by this time Tennyson was writing lyrics of still higher promise, and, as Arthur Hallam early perceived, with an extraordinary earnestness in the worship of beauty. The results of this enthuslasm and this labour of the artist appeared in the volume of Poems, chiefly Lyrical, published in 1830. This book would have been astonishing as the production of a youth of 21, even if, since the death of Byron six years before, there had not been a singular dearth of good poetry in England. Here at least, in the slender volume of 1830, was a new writer revealed, and in ‘‘Mariana,” “The Poet,” “Love and Death,” and “Oriana,” a singer of wonderful though still unchastened melody. Through these, and through less perfect examples, was exhibited an amazing magnificence of fancy, at present insufficiently under control, and a voluptuous pomp of imagery, tending to an over-sweetness. In the summer of 1830 Tennyson and Hallam volunteered in the army of the Spanish insurgent Torrijos, and marched about a little in the Pyrenees, without meeting with an enemy. Tennyson came back to find his father ailing, and in Feb. 1831 he left Cambridge for Somersby, where a few days later Dr. George Tennyson died. The new incumbent was willing that the Tennysons should continue to live in the rectory, which they did not leave until six years later. Arthur Hallam was now betrothed to Emily Tennyson (afterwards Mrs. Jesse, 1811-1889), and stayed frequently at Somersby. This was a very happy time, and one of great physical development on Alfred’s part. He took his ‘ share in all kinds of athletic exercises, and it was now that Brook-

field said, “It is not fair that you should be Hercules as well as

Apollo.” This high physical zest in life seems to have declined after 1831, when his eyes began to trouble him, and he became liable to depression. The poetical work of these three years, mainly spent at Somersby, was given to the world in the volume of Poems which (dated 1833) appeared at the end of 1832. This was certainly one of the most astonishing revelations of finished genius ever produced by a young man of less than fourand-twenty. Here were “The Lady of Shalott,” “The Dream of Fair Woman,” “Oenone” “The Lotos-Eaters,” “The Palace of Art,” and “The Miller’s Daughter,” with a score of other lyrics, delicious and divine. The advance in craftsmanship and command over the matériel of verse shown since the volume of 1830

is astonishing. It was well that its publication was completed before the blow fell upon Tennyson which took for a while all the light out of him. In Aug. 1833 Arthur Hallam started with his father, the historian, for Tirol. On the way young Hallam

died suddenly (Sept. 15) of a broken blood-vessel at Vienna. His body was brought back to England, and buried on Jan. 3, 1834. Hallam’s death affected Tennyson extremely. He grew less than ever willing to come forward and face the world; his health be-

of 1834, in The Two Voices; and to the same period belong the both of which he meditated long. In 1835 he visited the Lakes, and saw much of Hartley Coleridge, but would not “obtrude on the great man at Rydal,” although “Wordsworth was hospitably disposed.” Careless alike of fame and of influence, Tennyson spent these years mainly at Somersby, in a uniform devotion of his whole soul to the art of poetry. In 1837, to their great distress, the Tennysons were turned out of the Lincolnshire rectory where they had lived so long. They moved to High Beech, in Epping Forest, which was their home until 1840. The poet was already engaged, or “‘quasi-betrothed,” to Emily Sellwood, but ten years passed before they could afford to marry. At Torquay, in 1838, he wrote Audley Court on one of his rare excursions, for he had no money for touring, nor did he wish for change; he wrote at this time, “I require quiet, and myself to myself, more than

any man when I write.” In 1840 the Tennysons moved to Tunbridge Wells, and a year later to Boxley, near Maidstone, to be close to Edmund Lushington, who had now married Cecilia Tennyson. Alfred was from this time frequently a visitor in London. In 1842 the two-volume edition of his Poems broke the ten years’ silence which he had enforced himself to keep. Here, with many pieces already known to all lovers of modern verse, were found rich and copious additions to his work. These he had originally intended to publish alone, and an earlier privately printed Morte d’Arthur, Dora, and other Idylls, of 1842, is the despair of book-collectors. Most of those studies of home-life in England, which formed so highly popular a section of Tennyson’s work—such as “The Gardener’s Daughter,” “Walking to the Mail,” and “The Lord of Burleigh”—were now first issued, and, in what we have grown to consider a much higher order, “Locksley Hall,” “Ulysses,” and “Sir Galahad.” To the older and more luxurious lyrics, as reprinted in 1842, Tennyson did not spare the curbing and pruning hand, and in some cases went too far in restraining the wanton spirit of beauty in its youthful impulse. It is from 1842 that Tennyson took his place as the leading poet of his age in England. Among the friends whom he now made, or for the first time cultivated, were Carlyle, Rogers, Dickens, and Elizabeth Barrett. Material difficulties now, however, for the first time intruded on Tennyson’s path. He became the victim of a certain “earnestfrothy” speculator, who induced him to sell his little Lincolnshire estate at Grasby, and to invest the proceeds, with all his other money, and part of that of his brothers and sisters, in a “Patent Decorative Carving Company”; in a few months the whole scheme collapsed, and Tennyson was left penniless. He was attacked by so overwhelming a hypochondria that his life was despaired of, and he was placed for some time under the charge of a hydropathic physician at Cheltenham, where absolute rest and isolation gradually brought him round to health again. The state of utter indigence to which Tennyson was reduced greatly exercised his friends, and in Sept. 1845, at the suggestion of Henry Hallam, Sir Robert Peel was Induced to bestow on the poet a pension of £200 a year. Tennyson’s health slowly became restored, and in 1846 he was hard at work on The Princess; in the autumn of this year he took a tour in Switzerland, and saw great mountains and such “stateliest bits of landskip” for the first time. In 1847 nervous prostration again obliged him to undergo treatment at Prestbury: ‘They tell me not to read, not to think; but they might as well tell me not to live.” Dr. Gully’s water-cure was tried, with success. The Princess was now published, in a form afterwards considerably modified and added to. Carlyle and FitzGerald “gave up all hopes of him after The Princess,” or pretended that they did. It was true that the bent of his genius was slightly altered, in a direction which seemed less purely and austerely that of the highest art; but his concessions to public taste vastly added to the width of the circle he now addressed. The home of the Tennysons was now at Cheltenham; on his occasional visits to London he was in the habit of seeing Thackeray, Coventry Pat-

TENNYSON

940 more,

Browning

and

Macready,

as well as older friends, but | the Arthurian traditions. He had now become an object of boundless personal curiosity, being already difficult to find, and

he avoided “society.” In 1848, while making a tour in Cornwall, Tennyson met Robert Stephen Hawker of Morwenstow, with whom he seems—but the evidence is uncertain—to have talked about King Arthur, and to have resumed his intention of writing an epic on that theme. In his absent-minded way Tennyson was very apt to mislay objects; in earlier life he had lost the ms. of Poems, chiefy Lyrical, and had been obliged to restore the whole from scraps and memory. Now a worse thing befell him, for in February 1850, having collected into one “long ledger-like book” all the elegies (In Memoriam) on Arthur Hallam which he had been composing at intervals since 1833, he left this only ms. in the cupboard of some lodgings in Mornington Place, Hampstead Road. By extraordinary good chance it had been overlooked by the landlady, and Coventry Patmore was able to recover it. Jn Memoriam was published, in its original anonymous form, in May 1850. The public was at first greatly mystified by the nature and object of this poem, which was not merely a chronicle of Tennyson’s emotions under bereavement, nor even a statement of his philosophical and religious beliefs, but, as he long afterwards explained, a sort of Divina Commedia, ending with happiness in the marriage of his youngest sister, Cecilia Lushington. In fact, the great blemishes of Jn Memoriam, its redundancy and the dislocation of its parts, were largely due to the desultory manner of its composition. The poet wrote the sections as they occurred to him, and did not think of weaving them together into a single

the centre of amusing legends. It was in 1857 that Bayard Taylor saw him, and carried away the impression of a man “tall and broad-shouldered as a son of Anak, with hair, beard and eyes of southern darkness.” This period of retirement embraced a tour in Wales in 1857, a visit to Norway in 1858, and a journey

through Portugal in 1859. In 1857 two Arthurian poems had been tentatively and privately printed, as Enid and Nimue, or the True and the False, to see how

the idyllic form would be liked by the inner circle of Tennyson’s friends. In the summer of 1859 the first series of Jdylls of the King was at length published, and achieved a popular success far beyond anything experienced before by any English poets, save

perhaps Byron and Scott. Within a month of publication, 10,000 copies had been sold. The idylls were four in number, “Enid,” “Vivien” (no longer called ““Nimue”’), “Elaine” and “‘Guinevere.” These were fragments of the epic of the fall of King Arthur and the Table Round which Tennyson was so long preparing, and which he can hardly be said to have ever completed, although nearly thirty years later he closed it. The public and the critics alike were entranced with the “sweetness” and the “purity” of the treatment. A few, like Ruskin, were doubtful about “that increased quietness of style”; one or two already suspected that the “sweetness?” was obtained at some sacrifice of force, and that the “purity” involved a concession to Victorian conventionality. Urged by the duke of Argyll, Tennyson now turned his atten-

tion to the theme of the Holy Grail, though he progressed with it but fitfully and slowly. In 186r he travelled in Auvergne and Sarah Sellwood (1813-1896). Of this union no more need be the Pyrenees, with Clough, who was to die a few months later; to said than was recorded long afterwards by the poet himself, this year belong “Helen’s Tower” and the “Dedication” of the “The peace of God came into my life before the altar when I Idylls to the prince consort, “These to his Memory.” The latter wedded her.” On Nov. 19, 1850, Queen Victoria appointed Tenny- led to Tennyson’s presentation in April 1862 to the queen, who son poet laureate, in succession to Wordsworth. The salary con- “stood pale and statue-like before him, in a kind of stately innonected with the post was very small, but it had a secondary value cence,” which greatly moved his admiring homage. From this in stimulating the sale of his books. The young couple took a time forth the poet enjoyed the constant favour of the sovereign, house at Warninglid, in Sussex, which did not suit them, and then though he could never be moulded into a conventional courtier. one in Montpelier Row, Twickenham, which did better. In April He now put the Arthurian legends aside for a time, and devoted 1851 their first child was born dead. At this time Tennyson was himself to the composition, in 1862, of “Enoch Arden,” which, brooding much upon the ancient world, and reading little but however, did not appear until 1864, and then in a volume which Milton, Homer and Virgil. This condition was elegantly defined also contained “Sea Dreams,” “Aylmer’s Field”? and, above all, by Carlyle as “sitting on a dungheap among innumerable dead “The Northern Farmer,” the first and finest of Tennyson’s redogs.” In the summer of 1851 was made the tour in Italy, of markable studies in dialect. In April of this year Garibaldi visited Farringford; in Feb. which The Daisy is the immortal record. Of 1852 the principal events were the birth of his eldest son Hallam, the second Lord 1865 Tennyson’s mother died at Hampstead in her 85th year; Tennyson, in August, and in November the publication of the in the ensuing summer he travelled in Germany. The time slipped by with incidents but few and slight, Tennyson’s popularity in Ode on the Death of the Duke of Wellington. In the winter of 1853 Tennyson took a little house and farm Great Britain growing all the time to an extent unparalleled in called Farringford, near Freshwater, in the Isle of Wight, which the whole annals of English poetry. This universality of fame he leased at first, and afterwards bought; this beautiful place, led to considerable practical discomfort; he was besieged by ringed round with ilexes and cedars, entered into his life and sightseers, and his nervous trepidation led him perhaps to exagcoloured it with its delicate encharitment. In 1854 he published gerate the intensity of the infliction. In 1867 he determined to The Charge of the Light Brigade, and was busy composing Maud make for himself a haven of refuge against the invading Philistine, and its accompanying lyrics; and this volume was published in and bought some land on Blackdown, above Haslemere, then a July 1855, just after he was made D.C.L. at Oxford: he was secluded corner of England; here Mr. (afterwards Sir) James received on this occasion, which may be considered his first public Knowles began to build him a house, ultimately named Aldworth. appearance, with a “tremendous ovation.” The reception of Maud This is the time of two of his rare, privately printed pamphlets, from the critics, however, was the worst trial to his equanimity ie Coen or, the Loves of the Wrens (1867), and The Victim 1868). which Tennyson had ever had to endure, nor had the future anything like it in store for him. He had risen in Maud far above The noble poem Lucretius, one of the greatest of Tennyso