Encyclopaedia Britannica [2, 7 ed.]

Table of contents :
Cover
Title
A
ABC
ABO
ABY
ACA
ACH
ACO
ADA
ADO
AER
AETN
AFR
AGA
AGR
AGR
AGR
AGR
AGR
AGU
ALB
ALE
ALG
ALG
ALG
ALG
ALG
ALL
ALP
ALP
ALY
AMB
AME
AME
AMM
ANA
ANA
ANA
ANA
ANA
ANA
ANA
ANA
Plates
Acoustics
Aerostation
Africa
Agriculture
Algebra
Alphabets
America
Anatomy

Citation preview

ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNIC! SEVENTH EDITION.

X THE

ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA OR

DICTIONARY OF

ARTS, SCIENCES, AND GENERAL LITERATURE. «

SEVENTH EDITION,

WITH PRELIMINARY DISSERTATIONS ON THE HISTORY OF THE SCIENCES, AND

OTHER EXTENSIVE IMPROVEMENTS AND ADDITIONS; INCLUDING THE LATE SUPPLEMENT,

A GENERAL INDEX, AND NUMEROUS ENGRAVINGS.

VOLUME II.

ADAM AND CHARLES BLACK, EDINBURGH; M.DCCC.XLII.

ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA

A.

A

THE first letter of the alphabet in every known } language, the Ethiopic or Abyssinian alone excepted, in which it is the thirteenth. Of the sixteen elementary sounds of the human voice, that which is represented by this initial letter is the simplest, and requires the least exertion of the organs to produce it; for its enunciation is effected by merely opening the mouth, and breathing, so that the air propelled through the glottis may resound audibly in the cavity of the mouth and nostrils. Hence this sound is remarkable for its universality as well as simplicity. Many of the lower animals possess the capacity of uttering it, as every one must be sensible who has attended to their distinguishing cries, in all, or at least in many of which, it may be easily recognised. It is also the basis, so to speak, of vocality; for, on attentive examination, it will be found that the other vowels are little more than labial, lingual, dental, or palatal modifications of this primary, universal, and most elementary sound. It is not without reason therefore that the symbol of this sound is (with one solitary exception) placed at the commencement of every known alphabet. Cicero seems to have disliked the sound of this letter; for in his treatise De Oratore, c. xlix. he denominates it insuavissima littera, probably on account of the out-breathing or expiration necessary to produce the sound of it; but, upon the same principle, the other vowels ought also to have shared his displeasure, seeing that they are merely modifications of this primary aroiyiiov or element. In the English language, A is the mark or symbol of three different sounds, termed by grammarians the broad, the open, and the slender; epithets, the two former of which have an immediate reference to organic modification, as well as to the impulse or volume of voice ; while the latter seems to apply to the degree of intonation alone. Of these varieties of sound, the first, which resembles that of the German A, occurs in such monosyllables as hall, wall, pall, thrall, where the a is pronounced in the same manner as au in cause ; that is, broad and long. The Saxons, it is probable, expressed only this sound of the letter, which is still commonly retained in the north of England, and prevails universally throughout Scotland, the only parts of the island where the genius and idiom of the Saxon language have withstood modern innovations. The open sound of A, again, resembles that of the Italian in

and such like words, and is nearly the same with that of a \n father, rather, &c. But the slender sound, which is peculiar to the English language alone, is identical with the sound of the French diphthong ai in such words as mais, paix, gai, and is exemplified in hate, late, waste, paste, place, race; as also in polysyllables, such as toleration, justification, with many others which it is unnecessary to specify. So much for the varieties of this initial sound in English words. A, however, is sometimes employed as an affix in burlesque poetry; in which case it has no other effect than to add a syllable to the line, without any alteration of the sense, just as the vowel or interjection O very often does in our old ballads, and in some modern imitations of them. It is also thought to be redundant and insignificative in such words as arise, awake, aright, adoing, agoing. But this seems a mistake ; for the a here used as a prefix, is probably the French abbreviation of the Latin preposition ad ; and hence it appears to have an intensive effect, adding to and strengthening the import of the word with which it is combined. In the line, “ Arise, awake, or be for ever fall’n,” it is evident that the words “ arise, awake,” convey a meaning stronger in degree than the simple words rise, wake would have done. The prepositionary effect in such words as a-doing, a-going, is indeed admitted by grammarians; but, if this be the case, where is the distinction between these instances and a-rise, a-wake, where the prefix is said to be redundant, except that, by usage, it has coalesced in some measure with the word to which it is prefixed ? In such compounds as afoot, a-sleep, a-week, a-head, a-man, as well as when used before local surnames, as Cornelius a Lapide, Thomas a Kempis, Thomas a Bechet, nobody has ever doubted that the o is a preposition. When a is used as an article, it is merely an abbreviation of the old primary numeral one, one, and consequently it has no plural signification. Thus a house, a field, a ship, mean one house, one field, one ship; but as it is not one of two, ten, or twenty houses, fields, or ships, but of any number, however great or small, hence it becomes in effect quite general and indefinite, or, in other words, the opposite of the, which defines and limits the attention to something spoken of, pointed out, or referred to. Among the ancients, A was a numeral letter, and stood for 500, and when a dash was placed on the top, thus, A, for ten times that number, or 5000. In the Julian calenadagio

A

2 A.

(|

A

A

L

dar it is the first of the seven Dominical Letters. Long with merchants to mark their sets of books with the letters Aa before the establishment of Christianity, it had been in use A, B, C, &c. instead of the ordinary numerals, 1, 2, 3, &c. || among the Romans as one of the eight Litterce Nundinales ; A A A is the chemical abbreviation for amalgama or Aalborg. and it was in imitation of this usage that the Dominical amalgamation. (A.) Letters were first introduced. Among logicians, the letAA, a river of the province of Groningen, in the kingter A is employed as a symbol or sign to denote an uni- dom of the Netherlands, which runs into the Dollart. It versal affirmative, in contradistinction to an universal ne- is distinguished by the name of Westerwolder Aa. gative proposition, in conformity with the following, which AA, a river in the province of Overyssel. in the Netheris the first verse of a well-known distich: lands, that runs into the Zuyder Sea. AA, a river of the province of Antwerp, in the NetherAsserit a, negat e, sed universaliter ambae. lands, which discharges its water into the Neethe. Thus, the first mode of the first figure, which is a syllogism AA, a river of France, rising in the Pas de Calais; beconsisting of three universal affirmative propositions, is said comes navigable for barges at StOmer ; and, after a course to be a syllogism in Barbara, a word in which the alphas of about forty miles, enters the sea at Gravelines. Two alone are significant, the repetition of that letter thrice de- canals are supplied from this river, that of Colme and of noting so many of the propositions to be affirmative and Bourbough. Three small streams in Switzerland bear universal, conformably to the technical classification— the same name, one in Saxony, and one in Courland. AA, a river in the Russian government of Courland, Barbara, Celarent, Darii, Ferio, dato primae. which rises in the eastern part of that province, and after In the public assemblies or comitia of the Romans the let- receiving the waters of the Sussy, the Eckau, the Pluten, ter A was used in giving votes or suffrages. When a new the Anz, and the Berse, enters the Dwina. law was proposed, each voter received a couple of wooden AA, a river in the Russian province of Livonia, which tallies or ballots, one of them marked with a capital A, runs from east to south-west into the bay of Riga. signifying Antique, q. d. antiquam volo ; and the other with AAHUS, a little town of Germany, in the circle of U. R., the initials of Uti Rogas. Those who were against Westphalia and bishopric of Munster. It is the capital of the proposed law, (or rogatio, as it was called) threw the Aahus, a small district; has a good castle; and lies northformer of these into the urn ; meaning thereby / antiquate east of Coesfeldt. Long. 7. 1. E. Lat. 52. 10. N. it, I prefer the ancient law, and desire no innovations; AALBORG, one of the four sees (stiffs) into which while such as were favourable to the bill, as we would call the Danish kingdom, properly so called, to distinguish it it, threw in the latter, signifying, Be it as you desire, or I from the two provinces of Holstein Sleswick and Lauenvote for the measure you propose. A was also marked on burg, which are a part of Germany, is divided. The see tadlies or tablets used in voting in criminal trials, and, stand- of Aalborg is the northernmost part of the peninsula of ing for Absolvo, denoted acquittal; whence Cicero, in his Jutland, encompassed on the east, west, and north sides speech for Milo, denominates it littera salutaris, or the by the ocean, and on the south bounded by the provinces letter of acquittal. We may add, in explanation, that, on of Ribe, Aarhuus, and Wiborg. The extent is 2902 square criminal trials, three of these tallies or tablets were distri- miles, or 1,857,280 English acres. The surface is genebuted to each of the judices, or persons constituting the rally level, with on the northern part a succession of assize, by whom the accused was to be tried; one of them lakes, that nearly extend from one side of the province to marked with the letter A, absolvo, I acquit; another with the other. In the north-east and east part are some hills, the letter C, {littera tristis) condemno, I condemn; and a the highest of which attain the height of 1200 feet. The third with the letters N. L. non liquet, it is not clear. From agriculture is in a neglected state, and the manufactures the number of ballots cast into the urn, those marked are in a still lower condition. The chief branch of induswith N. L. were deducted, and the praetor or magistratus try is the fishing, especially for herrings, which, when pronounced sentence of acquittal or condemnation, accord- cured, are exported in large quantities. The see is diing as the A’s or the C’s were the more numerous. In vided into three amts or bailiwicks, comprehending 10 cases of equality the prisoner was absolved. cities, 3 market towns, and 114 parishes. The inhabitants In ancient inscriptions, whether on marble, brass, or amount to about 124,000: in the year 1814 the births stone, A stands for Augustus, Augustalis, ager, agit, aiunl, were 2756, and the deaths 1997. The whole of the poaliquando, antique, assolet, aut; A A for Augusti, Aupulation are of the Lutheran profession, and speak the gusta;, Aulus Agerius, ces alienum, ante audita, apud agrum, Danish language; but among the superior classes the aurum argentum ; AAA for Augusti when they are three German is generally understood. in number, and aurum, argentum, ces; and sometimes its AALBORG, a city in Denmark, the capital of the meaning can only be determined by the context of the in- see of the same name. It is situated on the Lumfiord, scription. Isidore adds, that when this letter occurs after at the spot where the Oosterae joins it; is tolerably the word miles, a soldier, it denotes him young {miles fortified; contains a cathedral and several other public adolescens). On the reverse of ancient medals, it indi- buildings, with 830 houses, and 660d inhabitants. There cates the place where they were struck, as Argos or are manufactories of sugar, soap, snuff, chocolate, and Athens; but on coins of a modern date, it is the mark scythes, with several distilleries; but the woollen and of the city of Paris, probably taken anagramwise from the hosiery trades which formerly existed are nearly exlast letter of the word Lutetia. tinct. The entrance to the harbour is such as to require A, as an abbreviation, is likewise of frequent occurrence vessels drawing more than 10 feet of water to lighten bein the works of modern authors; as A. D. for anno Domini, fore they approach the city. The chief exports are herA. M. for artium magister, anno mundi, &c. The letter a rings, corn, wool, hides, tar, tallow, and corn spirits. It with a line above it thus, a, is used in medical prescriptions is in Lat. 57. 2. 57. N., and Long. 9. 50. 36. E. The amt for ana, of each ; and sometimes it is written thus, dd; for or bailiwick of Aalborg, which is the best part of the see, example, met. sacchar, et mann. d vel dd ; that is, extends over 1088 square miles, of which three-fifths is take honey, sugar, and manna, of each one ounce. Put ploughed land, and the rest either heaths or morasses, to bills of exchange, A is, in England, an abbreviation of with some woods. It has 3 cities, 2 towns, 113 villages, accepted, and in France of accepte. It is likewise usual and 64,600 inhabitants.

.AAR Aalen

AALEN, a bailiwick in the circle of Jaxt, in the kingdom of Wirtemherg. Its extent is 108 square miles, or Aargau. 69,120 acres. It is watered by the river Kocher, has --^v^^some lofty mountains in the southern part, and is most abundantly wooded. It produces but little corn, and neither fruit nor wine, but pastures a competent number of cattle. There are some iron mines worked. Many articles of wood-ware are produced, and some wool and cotton are spun. It contains one city, one market town, and 190 smaller towns and villages, with 17,899 inhabitants. AALEN, a city, the capital of the bailiwick of the same name. Its chief trade is in woollens and in breweries, and some cotton is spun. It contains 2370 inhabitants. It is in Lat. 48. 47. 20. N. Long. 10. 7. 27. E. AALSMEER, a town in the arrondissement of Amsterdam, in the province of North Holland. It is near the lake of Haarlem ; celebrated for its strawberries; contains 1811 inhabitants, employed in making cotton goods. AALTEN, a town in the arrondissement of Zutphen, and province of Gelderland, in the Netherlands, containing 3524 inhabitants. AAM, or HAAM, a liquid measure in common use among the Dutch, containing 128 measures called mingles, each weighing nearly 36 ounces avoirdupois; whence the Aam contains 288 English, and 148f pints Paris measure. AAMADOT, a town of Norway, in the bailiwick of Hedemarken and see of Aggerhuus. It is situated on the river Glommen, has 2729 inhabitants, and some trade in making woollen and cotton caps. AAR, the name of two rivers; one in Switzerland, the other in Westphalia, in Germany. It is also the name of a small island in the Baltic. AARASSUS, in Ancient Geography, a town of Pisidia, in the Hither Asia, thought to be the Anassus of Ptolemy. AARAU, or ARAU, a circle in the canton of Aargau, in Switzerland, containing the city from which its name is derived, and 12 other places, with 2260 houses and 11,820 inhabitants. AARAU, the chief city of the canton of the same name, on the banks of the river Aar, over which there is a covered bridge. It is well built, paved, and, at night, lighted. It has a handsome government house, a church, a hospital, 427 dwellings, and 3100 inhabitants, who are very industrious manufacturers. The chief pursuits are making silk ribbons, spinning and weaving cotton, some tanning and cutlery, bleaching, and casting cannon. It is in Lat. 47. 23. 31. N. Long. 8. 4. 32. E. AARBURG, a city in Switzerland, in the circle of Zofingen, and canton of Aargau. It stands at the confluence of the rivers Aar and Bigger, has a strongly fortified castle, the only one in Switzerland, which is the depot for military stores. The city contains 154 houses, and 1000 inhabitants, who make cotton goods and hosiery. AARDENBURG, a town in the arrondissement of Middleburg, in the province of Zealand, in the kingdom of the Netherlands, with 1376 inhabitant*. AARGAU, or ARGOVIA, one of the cantons of Switzerland. It was originally a part of Berne, but by arrangements begun in 1798, and continued in 1803, it was erected into a separate and independent canton. It is bounded on the north by the river Rhine, which divides it from the duchy of Baden, on the east by Zurich, on the south-east by Zug, on the south by Lucerne, on the south-west by Berne, and on the west by Solothurn and Basle. Its extent is about 600 square miles, and its divisions are into eleven circles, which are again subdivided into forty-eight smaller ones. By the census taken in 1814, the number of inhabitants appeared to be 143,960, and 11

AAR

3

they are supposed to have increased since that period. Aargau Then the reformed Protestants were 75,279, and the Ca|| tholics 67,000, besides which there were about 1800 Jews. Aaron. The greater part of the canton is either level or undu-^^^^-^ lating, but some of the mountains on the right bank of the Aar are of the height of 2700 feet. The chief river is the Rhine, which forms the boundary, and is navigable, though, on account of shoals and rocks, with difficulty. That river receives into it the water of the Aar, the Wigger, the Suren, the Reuss, and the Limmath, as well as that of many smaller brooks and rivulets. The climate is milder than in most parts of Switzerland. In the valley of the Aar figs and almonds ripen, and some wine is produced. The principal occupation is husbandry. The products are corn, wine, and some rape-oil, hemp, flax, potatoes, wood, and turf, and all the common kinds of cattle. Some iron is drawn from the mines by Tegerfelden. The trade consists in the export of corn and wine, and of some cotton and half-cotton goods, silk ribbons, cutlery, leather, straw hats, and some smaller wares. The legislative power is in the greater council of 150, and the smaller, of 13 members, exercise the executive. These consist of half Catholics and half Protestants. In each circle is an amtman or bailiff, and in each subdivision a justice of the peace, from whom there is an appeal to a supreme court, composed equally of Protestants and Catholics. The contingent of men for the defence of the confederation is 2410, and of money 48,200 francs. The income of the canton is supposed to amount to 500,000 francs, arising from land, salt, and gun-powder monopoly, tolls, and postage. The expenditure is 10,000 francs less than the income. AARHUUS, one of the sees {stiffs) into which Denmark is divided. It is in the southernmost part of the peninsula of Jutland. The extent is 1810 square miles, or 1,158,400 acres. It is a level country, somewhat undulating, having on its coasts several indentions forming bays, and in the exterior having several lakes, rivers, low hills, and woods. The climate is considered to be the best in Jutland. The greater part of the inhabitants are engaged in cultivation, and produce more corn, potatoes, and flax, than their consumption requires, and thus leave a portion for exportation. The ecclesiastical bishopric of Aarhuus differs from the political see. The latter is divided into two jurisdictions or bailiwicks, and 22 baronies {herrerders) comprehending 7 cities, 253 parishes, and 69 noble domains and dwellings. The inhabitants amount to 88,000, many of whom are occupied in the fisheries, and the females in spinning. AARHUUS, one of the bailiwicks into which the see of the same name in Denmark is divided. Its extent is 864 square miles, or 558,400 acres, comprehending 2 cities and 134 parishes, divided into 12 baronies, and containing 42,100 inhabitants. AARHUUS, a city, the capital of the see and of the bailiwick of the same name. It is situated on the Cattegat, in a low plain, where an inland lake empties itself into the sea. The cathedral is a Gothic building, and the largest church in Denmark. It contains 892 dwelling-houses, and about 6000 inhabitants. The harbour is small, but good and secure; and there are 46 vessels belonging to the city, chiefly in the coasting trade, but lately have gone on voyages to the West Indies. There are some sugar-houses, tanneries, and snuff-mills. The chief exports are corn, wool, and fish. It is in Lat. 56. 9. 35. N. Long. 10. 8. E. AARON, high-priest of the Jews, and brother to Moses, was by the father’s side great-grandson, and by . the mother’s, grandson of Levi. By God’s command he

AAR Aaron

i.

A B

met Moses at the foot of Mount Horeb, and they went Henry IV., Villeroy, Jeanin, '

Tovg

tmsrw ‘Tore ^

IIAEIU

ro,S

buvayivovg ffagafl-XjjcVoug

an/mimv, non os

'HTTfl.

0

the whole effort of the wind is exerted on the fore part Abacot of their surface, which readily pushes the ship astern, unAbacus. less she is restrained by some counteracting force. ABACOT, the name of an ancient cap of state worn by the kings of England, the upper part whereof was in the form of a double crown. ABACTORS, or ABACTORES, a name given to those who drive away, or rather steal, cattle by herds, or great numbers at once; and are therefore very properly distinguished from fares or thieves. ABACUS, among the ancients, was a kind of cupboard or buffet. Livy, describing the luxury into which the Romans degenerated after the conquest of Asia, says they had their abaci, beds, &c. plated over with gold. ABACUS, or ABACISCUS, in Architecture, signifies the superior part or member of the capital of a column, and serves as a kind of crowning to both. Vitruvius tells us the abacus was originally intended to represent a square tile laid over an urn, or rather over a basket. The form of the abacus is not the same in all orders: in the Tuscan, Doric, and Ionic, it is generally square; but in the Corinthian and Composite, its four sides are arched inwards, and embellished in the middle with some ornament, as a rose or other flower. Scammozzi uses abacus for a concave moulding on the capital of the Tuscan pedestal ; and Palladio calls the plinth above the echinus, or boultin, in the Tuscan and Doric orders, by the same name. ABACUS is also the name of an ancient instrument for facilitating operations in arithmetic. The exhibition of numbers by counters appears happily fitted for unfolding the principles of calculation. In the schools of ancient Grecian Greece, the boys acquired the elements of knowledge by Abacus, working on a smooth board with a narrow rim,—the Abax; so named, evidently, from the combination of A, B, F, the first letters of their alphabet, resembling, except perhaps in size, the tablet likewise called A, B, C, on which the children with us used to begin to learn the art of reading. The pupils, in those distant ages, were instructed to compute, by forming progressive rows of counters, which, according to the wealth or fancy of the individual, consisted of small pebbles, of round bits of bone or ivory, or even of silver coins. From the Greek word for a pebble, comes the verb to compute. But the same board served also for teaching the rudiments of writing and the principles of Geometry. The Abax being strewed with green sand, the pulvis eruditus of classic authors, it was easy, with a radius or small rod, to trace letters, draw lines, construct triangles, or describe circles.—Besides the original word A/3a£, the Greeks had the diminutive A(3a,'/uov; and it seems very probable, that this smaller board was commonly used for calculations, while the larger one was reserved among them for the purpose of tracing geometrical diagrams. To their calculating board the ancients make frequent allusions. It appears, from the relation of Diogenes Laertius, that the practice of bestowing on pebbles an artificial value, according to the rank or place which they occupied, remounts higher than the age of Solon, the great reformer and legislator of the Athenian commonwealth. This sagacious observer and disinterested statesman, who was, however, no admirer of regal government, used to‘compare the passive ministers of kings or tyrants to the counters or pebbles of arithmeticians, which are sometimes most important, and at other times quite insignificant.1 iEschines, in his oration for the Crown, speak-

SIVUI

roug Yrjtpoig TAI2 EHI TUN AOrmiGN. xui yao ixeivuH

(DIOG. LAERT.

in Vita Solonis.)

fi

ABA

Abacus, ing of balanced accounts, says, that the pebbles were cleared away, and none left.1 His rival, Demosthenes, repeating his expression, employs further the verb avran\uv, which means to take up as many counters as were laid down. It is evident, therefore, that the ancients, in keeping their accounts, did not separately draw together the credits and the debts, but set down pebbles for the former, and took up pebbles for the latter. As soon as the board became cleared, the opposite claims were exactly balanced. We may observe, that the phrase to clear ones scores or accounts, meaning to settle or adjust them, is still preserved in the popular language of Europe, being suggested by the same practice of reckoning with counters, which prevailed indeed until a comparatively late period. Roman The Romans borrowed their Abacus from the Greeks, Abacus. and never aspired higher in the pursuit of science. To each pebble or counter required for that board they gave the name of calculus, a diminutive formed from calx, a stone; and applied the verb calculate, to signify the operation of combining or separating such pebbles or counters. Hence innumerable allusions by the Latin authors. Ponere

calculum—subducere

or

calcidum,

to

put

down

that is, to add or subtract;

c u s. teaching the children their letters; but the notarius re- Abacus, gistered expenses, the rationarius adjusted and settled accounts, and the tabularius or calculator, working with his counters and board, performed what computations might be required. Sometimes these laborious combiners of numbers were termed reproachfully canculones or calcidones. In the fervour of operation, their gestures must often have appeared constrained and risible.

Computat, ac cevet. Cum tabula pueri.

Ponatur calculus, adsint Juv.

Sat. ix.

40.

The nicety acquired in calculation by the Roman youth, was not quite agreeable to the careless and easy temper of Horace. Romani puen longis rationibus assem Discunt in parteis centum diducere. Dicat Filius Albini, Si de quincunce remota est Uncia, quid superet ? Poteras dixisse, Triens. Eu ! Rem poteris servare tuam. Redit uncia; quid fit ? Semis.

Episl. ad Pisones.

a

It was a practice among the ancients to keep a diary, by marking their fortunate days by a lapillus, or small torum—to submit any thing to calcidation, so that the bawhite pebble, and their days of misfortune by a black lance of debtor and creditor may be struck. The emperor one. Hence the frequent allusions which occur in the Helvius Pertinax, who had been taught, while a boy, the Classics: arts of writing and casting accounts, is said, by Julius CaO diem laetum, notandumque mihi candidissimo calculo ! pitolinus, to be litteris elementariis et calcido imbutus. St PLIN. Epist. vi. 11. Augustine, whose juvenile years were devoted to pleasure diesque nobis and dissipation, acquaints us, in his extraordinary ConSignandi melioribus lapiltis ! fessions, that to him no song ever sounded more odious MART. ix. 53. than the repetition or cantio, that one and one make two, Hunc, Macrine, diem numera meliore lapillo, and two and two make four. The use of the Abacus, callQui tibi labentes apponit candidus annos. ed sometimes likewise the Mensa Pythagorica, formed an PERS. Sat. ii. 1, 2. essential part of the education of every noble Roman To facilitate the working by counters, the construction youth: of the abacus was afterwards improved. Instead of the Nec qui abaco numeros, et secto in pulvere met a a perpendicular lines or bars, the board had its surface diScit risisse vafer. PEKS. Sat. i. 131. vided by sets of parallel grooves, by stretched wires, or From Martianus Capella we learn that, as refinement even by successive rows of holes. It was easy to move advanced, a coloured sand, generally of a greenish hue, small counters in the grooves, to slide perforated beads along the wires, or to stick large nobs or round-headed was employed to strew the surface of the abacus. nails in the different holes. To diminish the number of Sic abacum perstare jubet, sic tegmine glauco marks required, every column was surmounted by a shortPandere pulvereum formarum ductibus sequor. er one, wherein each counter had the same value as five Lib. vii. De Arithmetica. of the ordinary kind, being half the index of the Denary A small box or coffer, called a Loculus, having com- Scale. The abacus, instead of wood, was often, for the partments for holding the calculi or counters, was a ne- sake of convenience and durability, made of metal, frecessary appendage of the abacus. Instead of carrying a quently brass, and sometimes silver. In the Plate enslate and satchel, as in modern times, the Roman boy was titled ARITHMETIC, we have copied, from the third voaccustomed to trudge to school, loaded with his arithme- lume of the Supplement added by Polenus to the immense Thesaurus of Graevius, two varieties of this instrutical board, and his box of counters: ment, as used by the Romans. They both rest on good Quo pueri magnis e centurionibus orti, authorities, having been delineated from antique monuLcevo suspensi loculos tubulamque lacerto. ments,—the first kind by Ursinus, and the second by HORAT. Sat. i. 6. Marcus Velserus. In the one, the numbers are repreIn the progress of luxury, tali, or dies made of sented by flattish perforated beads, ranged on parallel ivory, Avere used instead of pebbles, and small silver coins wires; and, in the other, they are signified by small round came to supply the place of counters. Under the em- counters moving in parallel grooves. These instruments perors, every patrician living in a spacious mansion, and contain each seven capital bars, expressing in order units, indulging in all the pomp and splendour of eastern tens, hundreds, thousands, ten thousands, hundred thousands, princes, generally entertained, for various functions, a nu- and millions; and above them are shorter bars following merous train of foreign slaves or freedmen in his palace. the same progression, but having five times the relative Of these, the librarius or miniculator, was employed in value. \\ ith four beads on each of the long wires, and counter,

to take it up;

co-

care aliquid ad calculum, ut par sit ratio acceptorum et da-

1

Kcf,v xaJaoai uffiv

ai

Yri,but the name, any more than the Mingrelians their north- properly denominated a township, as the dwellings are' ‘^ ^ scattered about at considerable distance from each other. ern neighbours. ABASSI, or ABASSIS, a silver coin current in Persia, The houses are 385, and the inhabitants about 2000. ABAUJVAR, one of the palatinates into which the equivalent in value to a French livre, or tenpence halfpenny sterling. It took its name from Schah Abbas II. Austrian kingdom of Hungary is divided. Its extent is about 700,000 acres, nearly one-half of which is in woods, king of Persia, under whom it was struck. ABASSUS, in Ancient Geography, a town of the the other half cultivated. It contains one city, 10 marGreater Phrygia, on the confines of the Tolistobagii, a ket towns, and 227 villages. The inhabitants are about 140,000, mostly Catholics; the remainder Lutherans, people of Galatia in Asia. ABASTAS, a town in the department of Carrion, and Calvinists, and Greek church, with some Jews. The chief pr : vince of Toro, in Spain. productions are corn, flax, hemp, tobacco, fruit, wine, and ABATAMENTUM, in Law, is an entry to lands by wood. There are also valuable quarries of marble. interposition, i. e. when a person dies seized, and another ABAUZIT, FIRMIN, a learned Frenchman, was born at Usez, in Languedoc, in November 1679. His father died who has no right enters before the heir. ABATE, in the manege, implies the performing any when he was but two years of age. To avoid the rigours downward motion properly. Thus a horse is said to abate of persecution to which the Protestants of France were or take down his curvets, when he puts both his hind legs exposed in the time of Louis XIV. young Abauzit’s to the ground at once, and observes the same exactness in mother, who was a Protestant, fled with her son to Geneva, all the times. wdiere he remained secure from danger, and enjoyed the To ABATE, (from the French abattre, to pull down, benefit of education. From his 10th to his 19th year, overthrow, demolish, batter down, or destroy,) a term his time was wholly devoted to literature; and having used by the writers of the English common law both in made great progress in languages, he studied mathematics, an active and neuter sense ; as, To abate a castle, is to physics, and theology. In the year 1698, he travelled beat it down. To abate a writ, is, by some exception, to into Holland, where he became acquainted with Bayle, defeat or overthrow it. A stranger abateth; that is, Basnage, and Jurieu. Thence he passed over to England, entereth upon a house or land void by the death of him and was introduced to Sir Isaac Newton, who entertained that last possessed it, before the heir takes possession, and a very high opinion of his merit. For this philosopher so keepeth him out: wherefore, as he that putteth out afterwards sent him his Commercium Epistolicum, accomhim in possession is said to disseize, so he that steppeth panied with a very honourable testimony: “ You are well in between the former possessor and his heir is said to worthy, says Newton, to judge between Leibnitz and me.” abate. In the neuter signification thus : The writ of the The reputation of Abauzit reached the ears of King demandant shall abate; that is, shall be disabled, frus- William, who encouraged him by a very handsome offer trated, or overthrown. The appeal abateth by covin ; that to settle in England; which he declined, and returned is, the accusation is defeated by deceit. to Geneva. In 1715 he entered into the society formed ABATELMENT, in commerce, a term used for a pro- for the purpose of translating the New Testament into the hibition of trade to all French merchants in the ports of the French language, and contributed valuable assistance to Levant who will not stand to their bargains, or refuse to this work. The chair of philosophy in the university was pay their debts. It is a sentence of the French consul, offered to him in 1723, which he refused; but in 1727 he which must be taken off before they can sue any person accepted of the office of librarian to the city, the duties of for the payment of their debts. which were neither burdensome, nor subjected him to any ABATEMENT, in Heraldry, an accidental figure sup- particular restraint. posed to have been added to coats of arms, in order to Abauzit was one of the first who embraced the grand denote some dishonourable demeanour or stain, whereby truths which the sublime discoveries of Newton disclosed the dignity of coat armour was rendered of less esteem. to the world. He defended the doctrines of that philoABATIS, an ancient term for an officer of the stables. sopher against Father Castel; and discovered an error ABATIS, or ABATTIS, in military affairs, a kind of de- in the Principia, which was corrected by Newton in the fence made of felled trees. In sudden emergencies, the second edition of his work. He was a perfect master of trees are merely laid lengthwise beside each other, with the many languages; his knowledge was extensive and probranches pointed outwards to prevent the approach of the found ; and the different sciences which he had studied enemy, while the trunks serve as a breast-work to the de- were so well digested and arranged in his retentive mind, fendants. When the abatis is employed for the defence of that he could at once bring together all that he ever a pass or entrance, the boughs of the trees are stripped of knew on any subject. Rousseau (in his Heloise) addressed their leaves and pointed, the trunks are planted in the to Abauzit one of the finest panegyrics which he ever ground, and the branches interwoven with each other. wrote; and a stranger having addressed Voltaire in a flatterABATON, a building at Rhodes, erected as a fence to ing manner, by saying he had come to Geneva to see a gre^t the trophy of Artemisia, queen of Halicarnassus, Coos, man, the poet asked him whether he had seen Abauzit. &c. raised in memory of her victory over the Rhodians ; This excellent man, having lived universally respected or rather to conceal the disgrace of the Rhodians from to the great age of 87 years, died in the year 1767, lathe eyes of the world; for, to efface or destroy the trophy mented by the republic, and regretted by the learned. was with them a point of religion. His writings are chiefly on religious subjects; but he ABATOR, in Law, a term applied to a person who was also the author of several antiquarian and critical enters a house or lands void by the death of the last pos- pieces. In his Essay on the Apocalypse, he endeavoured sessor, before the true heir. to show, that the predictions in that book were to be apABATOS, in Ancient Geography, an island in the lake plied to the destruction of Jerusalem. This work was near Memphis, formerly famous for its papyrus. It was translated into English by Dr Twells, who added a rethe burial place of Osiris. futation, which satisfied Abauzit so much that he was Abansi ||

12 Abavo II Abbas,

ABB

ABB

mistaken in his views, that he ordered an edition then ready for publication in Holland to be stopped. His other theological works are, Reflections on the Eucharist; On Idolatry; On the Mysteries of Religion; and Paraphrases and Explanations of sundry parts of Scripture. His principal works were published in Holland in 1773, by Berenger, in 2 volumes 8vo. under the title CEuvres de feu M. Abauzit.

ABAVO, in

Botany,

a synonyme of the

ADANSONIA.

ABB, a term among clothiers applied to the yarn of a weaver’s warp. They say also Abb-wool in the same sense. ABBA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Africa Propria, near Carthage. ABBA, in the Syriac and Chaldee languages, literally signifies a father ; and figuratively, a superior, reputed as a father in respect of age, dignity, or affection. It is more particularly used in the Syriac, Coptic, and Ethiopic churches, as a title given to the bishops. The bishops themselves bestow the title of Abba more eminently on the bishop of Alexandria; which occasioned the people to give him the title of Babba, or Papa, that is Grandfather; a title which he bore before the bishop of Rome. It is a Jewish title of honour given to certain Rabbis called Tanaites: and it was particularly used, by some writers of the middle age, for the superior of a monastery, usually called ABBOT. ABB AC H, a town of the kingdom of Bavaria, on a stream flowing into the Danube, with a castle, in which the Emperor Henry II. was born. It is in the district of Kellhaim, and circle of Regensburg, with 600 inhabitants. ABBADIE, JAMES, an eminent Protestant divine, born at Nay in Bern in 1654i; first educated there under the famous John la Placette, and afterwards at the university of Sedan, from whence he went into Holland and Germany, and was minister in the French church of Berlin. He left that place in 1690; came into England ; was some time minister in the French church in the Savoy, London ; and was made dean of Killalo in Ireland. He was strongly attached to the cause of King William, as appears in his elaborate defence of the Revolution, and his History of the Assassination Plot. The materials for the last were furnished by the secretaries of state. He had great natural abilities, which he improved by useful learning. He was a most zealous defender of the primitive doctrine of the Protestants, as appears by his writings; and that strong nervous eloquence for which he was so remarkable, enabled him to enforce the doctrines of his profession from the pulpit with great spirit and energy. He possessed uncommon powers of memory. It is said that he composed his works without committing any part to writing, till they were wanted for the press. He died in London in 1727, after his return from a tour in Holland. He published several works in French that were much esteemed; the principal of which are, A Treatise on the Truth of the Christian Religion ; The Art of Knowing one’s Self; A Defence of the British Nation, that is, of the Revolution 1688 ; the Deity of Jesus Christ essential to the Christian Religion; The History of the last Conspiracy in England, called the Assassination Plot, written by order of King William III.; and the Triumph of Providence and Religion, or the opening the Seven Seals by the Son of God. ABBAS, Mahomet’s Uncle, opposed his nephew with all his power, regarding him as an impostor and traitor to his country; but in the second year of the Hegira, being overcome and made a prisoner at the battle of Beder in 623, a great ransom being demanded for him, he represented to Mahomet, that his paying it would reduce him to beggary, which would bring dishonour on the family.

Mahomet, who knew that he had concealed large sums of Abbas money, said to him, “ Where are the purses of gold that II you gave your mother to keep when you left Mecca ? Mb03** Abbas, who thought this transaction secret, was much surprised; and conceiving that his nephew was really a prophet, embraced his religion. He became one of his principal captains, and saved his life when in imminent danger at the battle of Honain, against the Thakesites, soon after the reduction of Mecca. But besides being a great commander, Abbas was one of the first doctors of Islamism. He is said to have read lectures on every chapter of the Koran, as his nephew pretended to receive them from heaven. He died in 652, and his memory is held in the highest veneration among the Mussulmans to this day. ABBAS, Schah, the Great, was third son of Codabendi, 7th king of Persia of the race of the Sophis. Succeeding to his father in 1585, at the age of 18, he found the affairs of Persia at a low ebb, occasioned by the conquests of the Turks and Tartars. He regained several of the provinces they had seized; but death put a stop to his victories in 1629, after a reign of 44 years. He was the greatest prince who had reigned in Persia for many ages ; and it was he who made Ispahan the metropolis of Persia. His memory is held in the highest veneration among the Persians. ABBAS, Schah, his grandson, 9th king of Persia of the race of the Sophis, succeeded his father Sesi at 13 years of age. He was but 18 when he made himself master of the city of Candahar, which had surrendered in his father’s reign to the great Mogul, and all the province about it; and he preserved it afterwards against this Indian emperor, though he besieged it more than once with an army of 300,000 men. He was a very merciful prince, and openly protected the Christians. He had formed a design of extending the limits of his kingdom toward the north, and had for that effect levied a powerful army; but death put a stop to all his great designs, at 37 years of age, A. D. 1666. ABBASSIDES, the name of a race who possessed the caliphat for 524 years. There were 37 caliphs of this race who succeeded one another without interruption. ABBATEGGIO, a town in the kingdom of Naples, in the province of Abruzzo Citeriore, with 440 inhabitants. ABBE', in a monastic sense, the same with ABBOT. ABBE', in a modern sense, the denomination of a class of persons which has been popular in France. They were not in orders; but having received the ceremony of tonsure, were entitled to enjoy certain privileges in the church. The dress of abbes was that of academics or professed scholars. In colleges they were the instructors of youth, and were employed as tutors in private families. Many of them have risen to a distinguished rank in the state, while others have been no less eminent in science and literature. ABBEHAUSEN, a bailiwick or circle of Oldenburg, in the duchy of Holstein Oldenburg, in Germany. It contains 1255 houses and 6263 inhabitants. The chief town of the same name has 303 houses and 1502 inhabitants. ABBESS, the superior of an abbey or convent of nuns. The abbess has the same rights and authority over her nuns that the abbots regular have over their monks. I he sex indeed does not allow her to perform the spiritual functions annexed to the priesthood, with which the abbot is usually invested; but there are instances of some abbesses who have a right, or rather a privilege, to commission a priest to act for them. They have even a kind of episcopal jurisdiction, as well as some abbots who are exempted from the visitation of their diocesans. Martene, in his treatise on the rights of the church, observes, that abbesses formerly confessed nuns; but

ABB Abbeville he adds, that their excessive curiosity carried them such

II

lengths, that there arose a necessity of checking it. HowAbbey. ever> st Basil, in his Rule, allows the abbess to be pre' sent with the priest at the confession of her nuns. ABBEVILLE, an arrondissement of the department of the Somme, in the north-east of France, which extends over 606 square miles, or 387,840 acres. It is divided into 11 districts and 178 communes, and contains 120,303 inhabitants. ABBEVILLE, a city, the capital of the arrondissement of that name, through which the river Somme passes. It is strongly fortified, and the country around it can be easily inundated. It is built in the old mode, has several bridges, 4 squares, 14 churches, one of them, St Wulfram’s, very antique and curious; 3641 houses, and 17,900 inhabitants. It has long been the seat of the woollen manufacture, besides which there are manufactories for linen, cotton, soap, leather, and twine. The river is navigable by the help of the tides; and by it oil, linseed, and hemp, are exported. It is in Lat. 50. 7. 4. N. Long. 1. 43. 50. E. ABBEY, a monastery, or religious house, governed by a superior under the title of abbot or abbess. Abbeys differ from priories in this, that the former are under the direction of an abbot, the latter of a prior; for abbot and prior (we mean a prior conventual) are much the same thing, differing in little but the name. Fauchet observes, that, in the early days of the French monarchy, dukes and counts were called abbots, and duchies and counties abbeys. Even some of their kings are mentioned in history under the title of abbots. Philip I. Louis VI. and afterwards the duke of Orleans, are called abbots of the monastery of St Aignan. The dukes of Aquitain were called abbots of the nwnastery of St Hillary at Poictiers ; and the earls of Anjou, of St Aubin, Sfc. Monasteries were at first established as religious houses, to which persons retired from the bustle of the world to spend their time in solitude and devotion. But they soon degenerated from their original institution, and obtained large privileges, exemptions, and riches. They prevailed greatly in Britain before the Reformation, particularly in England; and as they increased in riches, so the state became poor: for the lands which these regulars possessed were in mortua manu, i. e. could never revert to the lords who gave them. This inconvenience gave rise to the statutes against gifts in mortmain ; and Lord Coke tells us, that several lords, at their creation, had a clause in their grant, that the donor might give or sell his land to whom he would (exceptis viris religiosis et Judceis) excepting monks and Jews. These places were wholly abolished in England at the time of the Reformation; Henry VIII. having first appointed visitors to inquire into the lives of the monks and nuns, which were found in some places to be extremely irregular. The abbots, perceiving their dissolution unavoidable, were induced to resign their houses to the king, who by that means became invested with the abbey lands: these were afterwards granted to different persons, whose descendants enjoy them at this day. Though the suppression of religious houses, even considered in a political light only, was a national benefit, it must be owned, that at the time they flourished, they were far from useless. Abbeys or monasteries were then the repositories, as well as the seminaries, of learning; many valuable books and national records, as well as private history, having been preserved in their libraries, the only places in which they could have been safely lodged in those turbulent times. Many of those which had escaped the ravages of the Danes, were destroyed with more than Gothic barbarity at the dissolu-

A B

B

33

tion of the abbeys. These ravages are pathetically lament- Abbey ed by John Bale : “ A number of those,” says he, “ who II purchased these superstitious mansions, reserved of the library books, some to serve their jakes, some to scour the candlesticks, and some to rub their boots; some they sold to the grocer and soapseller; and some they sent over sea to the bookbinders, not in small numbers, but in whole ships full; yea, the universities of this realm are not clear of so detestable a fact. I know a merchant that bought the contents of two noble libraries for 40s. price; a shame it is to be spoken ! This stuff hath he occupied instead of gray paper, by the space of more than these ten years, and yet he hath store enough for as many years to come. I shall judge this to be true, and utter it with heaviness, that neither the Britons under the Romans and Saxons, nor yet the English people under the Danes and Normans, had ever such damage of their learned monuments as we have seen in our time.” Every abbey had at least one person whose office it was to instruct youth; and the historians of this country are chiefly beholden to the monks for the knowledge they have of former national events. In these houses also the arts of painting, architecture, and printing, were cultivated. They were hospitals for the sick and poor, and afforded entertainment to travellers at a time when there were no inns. They were likewise an asylum for aged and indigent persons of good family. ABBEYBOYLE, a town of Ireland, in the county of Roscommon, and province of Connaught. It is remarkable for an old abbey. ABBEYHOLM, a town in Cumberland, so called from an abbey built there by David king of Scots. It stands on an arm of the sea. ABBIATE GRAFFO, a town in the Austrian delegation of Pavia, in Italy. It is situated on the great Naviglio, where that river divides into three branches. It contains 4000 inhabitants, who cultivate around the place large portions of rice. ABBOT, or ABBAT, the superior of a monastery of monks erected into an abbey or priory The name Abbot is originally Hebrew, where it signifies father. The Jews call father, in their language, Ab ; whence the Chaldeans and Syrians formed Abba ; thence the Greeks ASCag, which the Latins retained; and hence our Abbot, the French Abbe, &c. St Mark and St Paul use the Syriac Abba in their Greek, by reason it was then commonly known in the synagogues and the primitive assemblies of the Christians; adding to it, by way of interpretation, the word father, A££a 6 . if 1619, 4to. AiM. vel AIM. Aimilius, iEmilia. tionl^ ABBOTS-BROMLEY, a town in Staffordshire. After A. G. Animo grato, vel Aulus Gellius. the dissolution of the monasteries, it was given to Lord AG. Ager, vel Agrippa. Paget; and has since been called Paget's Bromley. But A. K. Ante kalendas. it retains its old name in the king’s books, and with re- ALA. I. Ala prima. * gard to the fairs. Population in 1801, 808; in 1811, A. MILL. XXXV. A milliariis triginta quinque, vel ad 1019; and in 1821, 1533. milliaria triginta quinque. ABBOTSBURY, a small town in Dorsetshire. The A. M. XX. Ad milliare vigesimum. abbey near this town was founded by a Norman lady, AN. A. V. C. Anno ab urbe condita. about the year 1026. Edward the Confessor and William AN. C. H. S. Annorum centum hie situs est. the Conqueror were considerable benefactors to it. Po- AN. DCLX. Anno ^excentesimo sexagesimo. pulation in 1801, 783; in 1811, 812; and in 1821, 907. AN. II. S. Annos duos semis. ABBOTS-LANGLEY, a village in Herts, 4 miles from AN. IVL. Annos quadraginta sex. St Alban’s, famous as the birth-place of Pope Adrian IV. Po- AN. N. Annos natus. pulation in 1801,1205 ; in 1811, 1313; and in 1821, 1733. ANN. LIII. H. S. E. Annorum quinquaginta trium hie ABBREVIATION, or ABBREVIATURE, a contraction situs est. of a word or passage, made by dropping some of the let- ANN. NAT. LXVI. Annos natus sexaginta sex. ters, or by substituting certain marks or characters in ANN. PL. M. X. Annos vel annis plus minus decem. their place. A late philosophical writer on grammar di- AN. 0. XVI. Anno defunctus decimo sexto. vides the parts of speech into words which are necessary AN. V. XX. Annos vixit viginti. for the communication of thought, as the noun and verb, AN. P. M. Annorum plus minus. and abbreviations which are employed for the sake of dis- A. XII. Annis duodecim. patch. The latter, strictly speaking, are also parts of AN. P. M. L. Annorum plus minus quinquaginta. speech, because they are all useful in language, and each A. XX. H. EST. Annorum viginti hie est. has a different manner of signification. Mr Tooke, how- AN. P. R. C. Anno post Romam conditam. ever, seems to allow* that rank only to the necessary AN. V. P. M. II. Annis vixit plus minus duobus. * words, and to consider all others as merely substitutes of AN. XXV. STIP. VIII. Annorum viginti quinque stipenthe first sort, under the title of abbreviations. They are diorum octo. employed in language in three ways—in terms, in sorts of A. P. M. Amico posuit monumentum. words, and in construction. Mr Locke in his Essay on the AP. Appia, Appius. Human Understanding treats of the first class ; numerous A. P. V. C. Anno post urbem conditam. authors have written on the last; and for the second class APVD. L. V. CONV. Apud lapidem quintum conveneof abbreviations, see the work of Mr Tooke entitled Diverrunt. sions of Parley. * Lawyers, physicians, &c. use many ab- , A. RET. P. III. S. Ante retro pedes tres semis. breviations, for the sake of expedition. But the Rabbis AR. P. Aram posuit. are the most remarkable for this practice, so that their ARG. P. X. Argenti pondo decem. writings are unintelligible without the Hebrew abbrevia- ARR. Arrius. tures. The Jewish authors and copyists do not content A. V. B. A viro bono. themselves with abbreviating words like the Greeks and A. V. C. Ab urbe condita. Latins, by retrenching some of the letters or syllables; B. they frequently take away all but the initial letters. They B. Balbus, Bulbius, Brutus, Belenus, Burrus. even take the initials of several succeeding words, join B. Beneficiario, beneficium, bonus. them together, and, adding vowels to them, make a sort B. Balnea, beatus, bustum. of barbarous words, representative of all those which they B pro V, berna pro verna, bixit pro vixit, bibo pro vivo, have thus abridged. Thus, Rabbi Moses ben Maimon, bictor pro victor, bidua pro vidua. in their abbreviature, is Rambam, &c. B. A. Bixit annis, bonus ager, bonus amabilis, bona aurea, bonum aureum, bonis auguriis, bonis auspiciis. The following ABBREVIATIONS are of most frequent occurB. B. Bona bona, bene bene. rence in the Writings and Inscriptions of the Romans. B. DD. Bonis deabus. A. B. F. Bona fide, bona femina, bona fortuna, bene factum. AB. Abdicavit. B. F. reversed thus, g. q. Bona femina, bona filia. AB. AUG. M. P. XXXXI. Ab Augusta millia passuum B. H. Bona hereditaria, bonorum hereditas. quadraginta unum. B. I. I. Boni judicis judicium. AB. AUGUSTOB. M. P. X. Ab Augustobriga millia pas- B. L. Bona lex. suuqj decem. B. M. P. Bene merito posuit. ABN.' Abnepos. B. M. P. C. Bene merito ponendum curavit. AB. U. C. Ab urbe condita. B. M. S. C. Bene merito sepulcrum condidit. A. CAMB. M. P. XL A Camboduno millia passuum un- BN. EM. Bonorum emptores. decim. BN. H. I. Bona hie invenies. A. COMPL. XIIII. A Compluto quatuordecim. B. RP. N. Bono reipublicae natus. A. C. P. VI. A capite vel ad caput pedes sex. B. A. Bixit, id est, vixit annis. A. D. Ante diem. BLGINTI. Viginti. ADJECT. H-S. IX. CD. Adjectis sestertiis novem mille. BfXIT. BIXSIT. BISSIT. Vixit. ADN. Adnepos. BIX. ANN. XXCI. M. IV. D. VII. Vixit annis octoginta ADQ. Adquiescit, vel adquisita pro acquisita. unum, mensibus quatuor, diebus septem. iED. II. II. VIR. II. iEdilis iterum, duumvir iterum. BX. AN VS. VII. ME. VI. DI. XVII. Vixit annos septem, iED. II. VIR, QUINQ. iEdilis duumvir quinquennalis. menses sex, dies septemdecim.

Abbrevia*

Q,

ABBREVIATIONS.

EID. Idus. ^* C. Caesar, Cala, Caius, censor, civitas, consul, condemno. EIM. Ejusmodi. 'C. C. Carissimae conjugi, calumniae causa, consilium cepit. E. L. Ea lege. C. C. F. Caius Caii Alius. E. M. Elexit vel erexit monumentum. C. B. Commune bonum. EQ. M. Equitum magister. C. D. Comitialibus diebus. EQ. O. Equester ordo. C. H. Gustos hortorum vel heredum. EX. « A. D. K. Ex ante diem kalendas. C. I. C. Caius Julius Caesar. EX. A. D. V. K. DEC. AD. PRID. K. IAN. Ex ante CC. VV. Clarissimi viri. diem quintum kalendas Decembris ad pridie kalendas CEN. Censor, centuria, centurio. Januarias. CERTA. QUINQ. ROM. CO. Certamen quinquennale EX. H-S. X. P. F. I. Ex sestertiis decern parvis fieri jussit. Romae conditum. EX. H-S. CIO. N. Ex sestertiis mille nummum. CL. Claudius. EX. H-S. GO CD oo OD. Ex sestertiis quatuor millia. CL. V. Clarissimus vir. EX. H-S. N. CC. L. GO. D. XL. Ei sestertiis nummorum CH. COM. Cohors. ducentis quinquaginta millibus quingentis quadraginta. C. M. vel CA. M. Causa mortis. EX. H-S. DC. co.D. XX. Ex sestertiis sexcentis millibus CN. Cneus. quingentis viginti. C. O. Civitas omnis. EX. KAL. IAN. AD. KAL. IAN. Ex kalendis Januarii COH. I. vel II. Cohors prima vel secunda. ad kalendas Januarii. COS. ITER. ET. TERT. DESIG. Consul iterum et ter** F. tium designatus. F. Fabius, fecit, factum, faciendum, familia, famula, fastus, COS. TER. vel QUAR. Consul tertium vel quartum. Februarius, feliciter, felix, fides, fieri, fit, femina, filia, COSS. Consules. filius, frater, finis, flamen, forum, fluvius, faustum, fuit. COST. CUM. LOC. H-S. oo. D. Custodiam cum loco F. A. Filio amantissimo, vel filiae amantissimae. sestertiis mille quingentis. F. AN. X. F. C. Filio vel filiae annorum decern faciendum C. R. Civis Romanus. curavit. CS. IP. Caesar imperator. F. C. Fieri vel faciendum curavit, fidei commissum. C. V. Centumviri. F. D. Flamen Dialis, filius dedit, factum dedicavit. D F. D. Fidejussor, fundum. D. Decius, decimus, decuria, decurio, dedicavit, dedit, FEA. Femina. * devotus, dies, divus, Deus, dii, Dominus, domus, donum, FF. C. Ferme centum. datum, decretum, &c. F. F. Fabre factum, filius familias, fratris filius. D. A. Divus Augustus. » " F. F. F. Ferro, flamma, fame ; fortior, fortuna, fato. D. B. I. Diis bene juvantibus. FF. Fecerunt. D. B. S. De bonis suis. FL. F. Flavii filius. DCT. Detractum. F. FQ. Filiis filiabusque. ^ DDVIT. Dedicavit. FIX. ANN. XXXIX. M. I. D. VI. HOR. SCIT. NEM. D. D. Dono dedit, Deus dedit, decurionum decreto. "Vixit annos triginta novem, mensem unum, dies sex, D. D. D. Datum decreto decurionum. boras scit nemo. D. D. D. D. Dignum Deo donum dedicavit. FO. FR. Forum. DDPP. Depositi. F. R. Forum Romanum. D. D. Q. O. H. L. S. E. V. Diis deabusque omnibus hunc G. locum sacrum esse voluit. G. Gellius, Gaius pro Caius, genius, gens, gaudium, gesta, DIG. M. Dignus memoria. gratia, gratis, &c. D. M. S. Diis manibus sacrum. GAB. Gabinius. D. O. M. Deo optimo maximo. GAL. Gallus, Galerius. D. O. JE. Deo optimo aeterno. G. C. Genio civitatis. D. PP. Deo perpetuo. GEN. P. R. Genio populi Romani. DR. Drusus. GL. Gloria. DR. P. Dare promittit. GL. S. Gallus Sempronius. D. RM. De Romanis. GN. Gneus pro Cneus, genius, gens. D. RP. De republica. GNT. Gentes. D. S. P. F. C. De sua pecunia faciendum curavit. GRA. Gracchus. DT. Duntaxat. GRC. Graecus. DVL. vel DOL. Dulcissimus. H. DECAXIII. A\G. XII. POP. XL Decurionibus denarii’s H. Hie, habet, hastatus, heres, homo, hora, hostis, hems. tredecim, augustalibus duodecim, populo undecim. H. A. Hoc anno. D. IIII. ID. Die quarta idus. HA. Hadrianus. -* ^ D. VIIII. Diebus novem. HC. Hunc, huic, hie. D. V. ID. Die quinta idus. HER. Heres, hereditatis, Herennius. E. HER. vel HERC. S. Herculi sacrum. E. Ejus, ergo, esse, est, erexit, exactum, &c. H. M. E. H-S. CCIOO. CCIOO. 100, N. Hoc monumenE. C. F. Ejus causa fecit. tum erexit sestertiis viginti quinque mille nummum. E. D. Ejus domus. H. M. AD. H. N. T. Hoc monumentum ad heredes non ED. Edictum. transit. E. E. Ex edicto. H. O. Hostis occisus. EE. N. P. Esse non potest. HOSS. Hostes. EG. Egit, egregius. H. S. Hie situs vel sita, sepultus vel sepulta. E. H. Ejus heres. H-S. N. IIII. Sestertiis nummum quatuor. VOL. II. c

ti0

17

18

ABB RE V I A T I O N S.

.Abbrevia- H-S. CCCC. Sestertiis quatuor centum, L. ADQ. Locus adquisitus. Abbrevia. tlons tions. H-S. QD. N. Sestertiis mille nummum. LB. Libertus, liberi. L. D. D. D. Locus datus decreto decurionum. H-S. CD. CCI33. N. Sestertiis novem mille nummum. LECTIST. Lectisternium. H-S. CCIOD. CCIDO. Sestertiis viginti mille. LEG. I. Legio prima. H-S. XX. M. N. Sestertiis viginti mille nummum. L. E. D. Lege ejus damnatus. H. SS. Hie suprascriptis. LEG. PROV. Legafus provinciae. I. I. Junius, Julius, Jupiter, ibi, immortalis, imperator, in- LIC. Licinius. feri, inter, invenit, invictus, ipse, iterum, judex, jussit, LICT. Lictor. LL. Libentissime, liberi, libertas. jus, &c. L. L. Sestertius magnus. I A. Intra LVD. SiEC. Ludi saeculares. I. AG. In agro. LVPERC. Lupercalia. I. AGL. In angulo. LV. P. F. Ludos publicos fecit. IAD. Jamdudum. M. IAN. Janus. IA. RL Jam respondi. M. Marcus, Marca, Martius, Mutius, maceria, magister, magistratus, magnus, manes, mancipium, marmoreus, I. C. Juris consultus, Julius Caesar, judex cognitionum. Marti, mater, maximus, memor, memoria, mensis, meus, IC. Hie. I. D. Inferis diis, Jovi dedicatum, Isidi deae, jussu Dei. miles, militavit, militia, mille, missus, monumentum, mortuus, &c. ID. Idus. I. D. M. Jovi Deo magno. MAG. EQ. Magister equitum, MAR. VLT. Mars ultor. I. F. vel I. FO. In foro. MAX. POT. Maximus pontifex. IF. Interfuit. IFT. Interfuerunt. MD. Mandatum. I. FNT. In fronte. MED. Medicus, medius. IG. Igitur. MER. Mercurius, mercator. I. H. Jacet hie. MERK. Mercurialia, mercatus. 1.1. In jure. MES. VII. DIEB. XI. Mensibus septem, diebus undecim. IM. Imago, immortalis, imperator. M. I. M. CT. In medio civitatis. numentum jussit. IMM. Immolavit, immortalis, immunis MIL. COH. Miles cohortis. IM. S. Impensis suis. MIN. vel MINER. Minerva. IN. Inimicus, inscripsit, interea. M. IN. A. P. XX. In agro pedes viginti. M. IN. vel INL. V. I. S. Inlustris vir infra scriptus. MNF. Manifestus. I. R. Jovi regi, Junoni reginae, jure rogavit. MNM. Manumissus. I. S. vel I. SN. In senatum. M. P. II. Millia passuum duo. I. V. Justus vir. MV. MN. MVN. MVNIC. Municipium, vel municeps. IVD. Judicium. IVY. Juventus, Juvenalis. N. N. Neptunus, Numerius, Numeria, nonis, Nero, nam, non, II. V. Duumvir,.^ duumviri. natus, natio, nefastus, nepos, neptis, niger, nomen, nonce, III. Y. vel III. VIR. Triumvir, vel triumviri. noster, numerarius, numerator, numerus, nummus vel IIII. VIR. Quatuorvir, vel quatuorviri, vel quatuorviratus. IIIIII. Y. vel VIR. Sextumvir, vel sevir, vel sexvir. numisma, numen. NAV. Navis. IDNE. vel IND. aut INDICT. Indictione vel indictio. K. N. NB. vel NBL. Nobilis. K. Caeso, Caius, Caio, Caelius, Carolus, calumnia, candidatus, caput, carissimus, clarissimus, castra, cohors, Car- N. NEG. vel NEGOT. Negotiator. thago, &c. NEP. S. Neptuno sacrum. K. KAL. KL. KLD. KLEND. Kalendae, aut kalendis ; et N. sic de cceteris ubi mensium apponuntur nomina. N. KARC. Career. N. M. Nonius Macrinus, non malum, non minus. KK. Carissimi. NN. Nostri. NNR. vel NR. Nostrorum. KM. Carissimus. NO. Nobis. K. S. Carus suis. , KR. Chorus.. . . NOBR, November. NON. AP. Nonis Aprilis. KR. AM. N. Carus amicus noster. NQ. Namque, nusquam, nunquam. L. L. Lucius, Lucia, Laelius, Lollius, lares, Latinus, latum, N. V. N. D. N. P. O. Neque vendetur, neque donabitur, neque pignori obligabitur. legavit, lex, legio, libens vel lubens, liber, libera, liberNVP. Nuptiae. tus, liberta, libra, locavit, &c. O. . .. L. A. Lex alia. O. Officium, optimus, olla, omnis, optio, ordo, ossa, osLA. C. Latini coloni. tendit, L. A. D. Locus alteri&c. datus. Obiit. L. AG. LexOB. agraria. OB. Anius, C. S. Ob servatos. annis. L. AN. Lucius velcives quinquaginta OCT. Octavianus, October. L. AP. Ludi Apollinares. O. LAT. P. VIII. E. S. Latum pedes octo et semis. LONG. P. VII. L. P. III. Longum pedes septem, latum O. ONA. Omnia. pedes tres.

ABBREVIATIONS. S. S. EQ. Q. O. ET. P. R. Senatus equesterque ordo et populus Romanus. . SEMP. Sempronius. SL. SYL. SYL. Sylla. . ' . * S. L.perpetuus, Sacer ludus, sine lingua. P. Publius, passus, patria, pecunia, pedes, pius, plebs, populus, pontifex, posuit, potestas, pra;ses, praetor, S. M. Sacrum manibus, sine manibus, sine maid. pridie, pro, post, provincia, puer, publicus, publice, pri- SN. Senatus, sentelitia, sine. S. P. Sine pecunia. mus, &c. S. P. Q. R. Senatus populus que Romanus. PA. Pater, patricius. S. P. D. Salutem plurimam dicit. PAE. ET. ARR. COS. Paeto et Arrio consulibus. P. A. F. A. Postulo an fias auctor. S. T. A. Sine vel sub tutoris auctoritate. SET. Scilicet. PAR. Parens, Parilia, Parthicus. S. E. T. L. Sit ei terra levis. PAT. PAT. Pater patriae. SIC. Y. SIC. X. Sicuti quinquennalia, sic decennalia. PBLC. Publicus. SSTVP. XVIIII. Stipendiis novemdecjm. PC. Procurator. ST.patronus XXXV. coloniae, Stipendiis triginta quinque. P. C. Post consulatum, patres conscript!, ponendum curavit, praefectus corporis, pactum eonvenT. T. Titus, Tullius, tantum, terra, tibi, ter, testamentum, tum. PED. CXV. S. Pedes centum quindecim semis. titulus, terminus, triarius, tribunus, turma, tutor, tutela, &c. PEG. Peregrinus. TAB. Tabula. TABVL. Tabularius. P. II. cc. L. Pondo duarum semis librarum. TAR. Tarquinius. P. II. S ::. Pondo duo semis cum triente. TB. D. F. Tibi dulcissimo filio. P. KAL. Pridie kalendas. TB. PL. Tribunus plebis. POM. Pompeius. TB. TI. TIB. Tiberius. P. P. P. C. Propria pecunia ponendum curavit. P. R. C. A. DCCCXLIIII. Post Romam conditam annis T. THR. Thrax. octingentis quadraginta quatuor. PROC. Proconsul. P. PR. Propraetor. P. PRR. Proprae- T. L. Titus Livius, Titi libertus. TIT. Titulus. tores. PR. N. Pronepos. TM. Terminus, thermae. TR. PO. Tribunitia potestas. P. R. V. X. Populi Romani vota decennalia. PS. Passus, plebiscitum. TRAJ. Trajanus. PUD. Pudicus, pudica, pudor. TUL. Tullus vel Tullius. PUR. Purpureus. TR. V. Triumvir. TT. QTS. Titus Quintus. Q. Q. Quinquennalis, quartus, quintus, quando, quantum, qui, 0. vel TH. AN. Mortuus anno. quae, quod, Quintus, Quintius, Quintilianus, quaestor, ©. XIII. Defunctus viginti tribus. quadratum, quaesitus. X Q. B. AN. XXX. Qui bixit, id est, vixit, annos triginta. V. QM. Quomodo, quem, quoniam. V. Quinque, quinto, quintum. QQ. Quinquennalis. QQ. V. Quoquo versum. V. Vitellius, Volera, Volero, Volusus, Vopiscus, vale, vaQ. R. Quaestor reipublicae. leo, Vesta, vestalis, vestis, vester, veteranus, vir, virgo, Q. V. A. III. M. II. Qui vel quae vixit annos tres, menses vivus, vixit, votum, vovit, urbs, usus, uxor, victus, vicduo. tor, &c. R. V. A. Veterano assignatum. R. Roma, Romanus, rex, reges, Regulus, rationalis, Ra- V. A. I. D. XL Yixit annum unum, dies undecim. vennae, recta, recto, requietorium, retro, rostra, rudera, V. A. L. Vixit annos quinquaginta. &c. V. B. A. Viri boni arbitratu. RC. Rescripturn. V. C. Vale conjux, vivens curavit, vir consularis, vir claR. C. Romana civitas. rissimus, quintum consul. REF. C. Reficiendum curavit. VDL. Videlicet. REG. Regio. V. E. Vir egregius, visum est, verura etiam. RP. RESP. Respublica. VESP. Vespasianus. RET. P. XX. Retro pedes viginti. VI. V. Sextumvir. VII. V. Septemvir. VIII. VIR. REQ. Requiescit. octumvir. RMS. Romanus. VIX. A. FF. C. Vixit annos ferme centum. ROB. Robigalia, Robigo. VIX. AN. i*.. Vixit annos triginta. x RS. Responsum. X RVF. Rufus. ULPS. Ulpianus, Ulpius. . ‘ semis, senatus, sepultus, V. M. Vir magnificus, vivens mandavit, volens merito. S. Sacrum, sacellum, scriptus, V. N. Quinto nonas. sepulcrum, sanctus, servus, serva, Servius, sequitur, si- V. MUN. Vias munivit. bi, situs, solvit, sub, stipendium, &c. VOL. Volcania, Voltinia, Volusus. SAC. Sacerdos, sacrificium. VONE. Bona;. SAi. vel SiEC. Saeculum, saeculares. VOT. V. Votis quinquennalibus. SAL. Sal us. VOT. V. MULT. X. Votis quinquennalibus, multis deS. C. Senatus consultum. cennalibus. SCI. Scipio. VOT. X. Vota decennalia.

ibbrevia- 00. Omnes, omhino. O. O. Optimus ordo. tions. OP. Oppidum, opiter, oportet, optimus, opus. , ^v^x,^/ORN. Ornamentum. OTIM. Optima;.

19

D tions.

P

S

F

20

ABC

Abbrevia- VOT. XX. vel XXX. vel XXXX. Yota vicennalia, aut tritors cennalia, aut quadragenalia. ,

.

V. R. Urbs Roma, votum reddidit.

Abchasien. yy

ca

yiri

ciariSsimi.

UX. Uxor.

X. AN. Decennalibus.

X. X. K. OCT. Decimo kalendas Octobris. X. M. Decern millia. X. P. Decern pondo. X. V. Decemvir. XV. VIR. Quindecimvir. ABBREVIATORS, a college of 72 persons in the chancery of Rome, who draw up the pope’s brieves, and reduce petitions, when granted by him, into proper form for being converted into bulls. ABBS, ST, a promontory on the eastern coast of Scotland, Lat. 55.55. N. Long. 2. 8. 30. W. The shore around is steep and rocky, and there is a depth of 30 or 40 fathoms water not far from land. The tide runs by it with a strong current, and a little wind causes a great rolling sea. ABBUTALS signify the buttings or boundings of land towards any point. Limits were anciently distinguished by artificial hillocks, which were called botemines; and hence butting. In a description of the site of land, the sides on the breadth are more properly adjacentes, and those terminating the length are abbutantes; which, in old surveys, were sometimes expressed by capitare, to head ; whence abbutals are now called head-lands. ABCEDARY, or ABCEDARIAN, an epithet given to compositions, the parts of which are disposed in the order of the letters of the alphabet: thus we say, Abcedarian psalms, lamentations, hymns, &c.; such * are Psal. xxv. xxxiv. cxix. &c. ABCHASIEN, a province of the Asiatic Russian empire, on the border of the Black Sea, comprehended between Lat. 42. 30. and 44. 45. N., and between Long. 37. 3.'and 40. 36. E. The high mountains of Caucasus on the north and north-west divide it from Circassia; on the south-west it is bounded by Mingrelia; and on the south, south-west, and north-west by the Black Sea. The extent is about 5080 square miles. The climate is generally mild, being defended from the northerly winds by the lofty range of mountains. The sea-coast is in many parts a sandy soil; but in many of the vallies which run up between the projections of the Caucasus the land is fertile, but better adapted for pasturage than for the growth of corn ; and hence the greater part of the inhabitants are in the pastoral state. The grape and all other fruits come to perfection. Under the Turkish dominion the trifling commerce was with the Asiatic provinces of that power; but its course is now changed, and passes towards the north. The number of inhabitants is estimated at 56,500, of whom 40,000 are aboriginal. The Turcomans, Nogay Tartars, with the Greeks, Armenians, and Jews that occupy the towns and ports on the coast, are reckoned to be 15,000, and the Russians and Cossacks 1500. In early times the Abchasiens were heathens, but adopted Christianity under the Emperor Justinian, who built a church to the Virgin Mary in 550, and sent missionaries. Under the Turks their Christianity gradually disappeared; and at present the higher classes adhere to Mahomedanism, whilst the mass of the people follow each a separate species of idolatry. Though by the peace of 1812 Russia entered into all the rights enjoyed by the Turks, it scarcely interfered with the interior authority of the several chiefs, who by force gain the superiority; nor does it draw any revenue from the country, but is satisfied with possession of a few commanding fortresses, and with the trade which falls into the new channels from the effect of the political changes.

A B D ABDALLA, the son of Abdalmotalleb, was the father Abdalla of the prophet Mahomet. He was the most beautiful I! and modest of the Arabian youth ; and when he married Abdallatif, Amina, of the noble race of the Zahrites, 200 virgins are^-*^"^ said to have died of jealousy and despair. Several other Arabians of eminence bore the same name. ABDALLATIF, or ABDOLLATIPH, a celebrated physician and traveller, and one of the most voluminous writers of the East, was born at Bagdad, in the 557th year of the Hegira, being the 1161st of the Christian era. Of the life of this learned person there has fortunately been preserved a memoir, written by himself, together with some additions by a contemporary biographer, named Osaiba. The whole of this curious piece has been translated into French, and published with a work of Abdallatif’s, of which we shall afterwards give some account. Long before the period of his birth, the empire of the Caliphs had begun to decline; but their capital still continued to enjoy those advantages for education which it had originally derived from their liberal patronage of learning and science. Abdallatif was carefully instructed in every branch of knowledge then taught in that renowned city; and the biographical piece just alluded to is not a little interesting, from the glimpses it affords of the studies which engaged the attention of the more aspiring of the Mussulman youth. After learning to read, the rules of grammar appear to have been studied with a degree of care and earnestness, which has not perhaps been equalled in any other country. With the study of grammar was joined that of the Koran and the traditionary doctrines, and the whole of the sacred book was carefully committed to memory. This faculty seems, indeed, to have been severely taxed ; for it was also thought necessary to be able to repeat several treatises on grammar and jurisprudence, besides some of the choicer collections of Arabian poetry. In these arduous exercises, Abdallatif says that he was for a considerable time accustomed to pass the greater part of the night. Having attained to great proficiency in the usual studies, he afterwards applied to the natural philosophy of that day, and to medicine ; and with the view of still further improving himself by converse with the learned of other places, he set out, when in his twenty-eighth year, to Mosul in Mesopotamia. Having resided about a year in this city, he next proceeded to Damascus, then a place of great resort to the learned of the surrounding countries. Abdallatif found here many of the most eminent men of that age, part of whom were busied in the chimerical pursuits of the Hermetic art, and part in philological and speculative inquiries. He seems always to have entertained great contempt for the sort of chemistry then in vogue, but he entered with eagerness into speculative discussions ; and he at this time composed a treatise upon the Divine essence and attributes, in consequence of some discussions with Alkendi, a philosopher of eminence, who was not, however, thought to be quite orthodox in his faith. The active curiosity of Abdallatif was next directed to Egypt; and he accordingly proceeded to Acre, where its sultan, the great Saladin, was at the time encamped, in order to solicit his permission to visit that country. This monarch was a liberal protector of the learned, and fond of their conversation ; but having been lately defeated by the crusaders under Richard Cceur de Lion, he was too much occupied with the cares consequent upon this disaster, to admit Abdallatif to the expected honour of a personal interview. He was, however, received in a

A £ D Abdallatif. courteous manner by the Vizier A1 Fadhel, whom he found in his tent writing and dictating at the same time to two secretaries; employments which he continued whilst he conversed with his visitor upon sundry points of grammar and philology. Having obtained the necessary credentials from this minister, he proceeded to Cairo; and the munificence which Saladin and his courtiers extended towards the learned, was strikingly exemplified in his reception and treatment in that city. He was provided with a house, with provisions, and money; and the vizier seldom failed to recommend him anew, in those letters of business which he had occasion to write to the governor of the place. Here Abdallatif enjoyed the long wished for opportunity of conversing with that Eagle of the Doctors, as he was called, the celebrated Maimonides, who had been for a considerable time settled in Egypt, and was physician to the sultan. Here, too, he was fortunate enough to meet with a sage, who weaned him of his admiration for the writings of Avicenna, by pointing out the superior value of the ancients. But the philosophers of Grand Cairo were not all of this stamp ; for some of them were pretenders to the transmutation of metals, and one boasted that his art enabled him to fabricate a tent of the waters of the Nile. Having passed a considerable time in making various observations and collections in this interesting city, Abdallatif set out for Jerusalem, on learning that he would there see Saladin, who had at length concluded a truce with the crusaders. Saladin received him with every mark of respect for his talents, and bestowed upon him a pension. He was then busied in repairing the walls of the Holy City, himself, says Abdallatif, often carrying stones upon his shoulders, to animate the undertaking. But in spite of all his cares and projects, he daily conversed with the learned men whom his bounty had drawn around him. Abdallatif mentions, that when first introduced, he found him in the midst of a circle of this description; and he adds, that upon all the various subjects which were discussed, the sultan spoke with the most agreeable address, as well as ingenuity. From Jerusalem, Abdallatif returned to Damascus; and, after a considerable interval, a fresh opportunity having occurred of revisiting Egypt, he again proceeded to Cairo, where he taught medicine and philosophy for several years. During this period, Egypt w'as visited with a terrible famine and pestilence, of which, and the horrors and crimes which ensued, he has given a most appalling description in the two last chapters of his Account of this country. Human nature was scarcely ever presented to observation under so hideous an aspect; the wretched Egyptians were driven, not only to feed upon the bodies of those who had fallen victims to want or disease, but to seize upon children, whom they killed and devoured; and Abdallatif asserts, that they thus cam# to acquire such a relish for those inhuman repasts, that they with difficulty refrained from them after the famine had subsided. It was likewise during his second stay in Egypt that he witnessed an insane attempt to pull down the Pyramids ; a project to which the reigning sultan (a son of Saladin’s, who, after his death, succeeded to this part of his dominions) had been instigated by some of his favourites, and in which he persisted for eight months, without being able to make any sensible impression upon these indestructible monuments of the ancient world. About the year 1207, Abdallatif left Egypt for his former residence, Damascus; and here he for some time practised as a physician, and lectured upon medicine with great success. But his love of new scenes, and desire of

A B D 21 extending his knowledge and fame, still urged him to tra- Abdallatif vel; and he seems to have passed the rest of his life in || Aleppo, and various parts of Armenia and Asia Minor, Abdalmaelc acquiring both wealth and glory by his abilities as a phy- ^ * sician and an author. Having returned to his native city, purposing to present some of his works to the caliph, and then to set out on a pilgrimage to Mecca, he was seized with illness soon after his arrival, and died1 there in the year 1231. He was undoubtedly a person of great knowledge, and of an ardent, inquisitive, and penetrating mind. According to his Arabian biographer, to whom he was well known, he showed himself, in conversation, somewhat vain of his own attainments; and was accustomed to speak rather scornfully of most of his contemporaries. But it ought to be mentioned, to the credit of his understanding, that his derision seems partly to have flowed from his contempt of those chemical fooleries to which they were so much addicted, that, to use the words of Gibbon, “ the reason and the fortune of thousands were evaporated in the crucibles of Alchemy.” Of that long list of treatises on medicine, philosophy, and literature, which Osaiba has appended to the account of Abdallatif’s life, one only has found its way into Europe; nor do any of the others appear to be known at this day in the East. The work here alluded to is his Account of Egypt, which was fortunately discovered and brought to this country by our celebrated orientalist Pococke. The manuscript, which is a very old one, is still preserved in the Bodleian Library. Of this work, an elegant edition, with a Latin translation, notes, and a life of Abdallatif, was published in 1800, by Dr White, professor of Arabic in the University ofx Oxford. A French translation, with enlarged notes, was published at Paris in 1810, by M. Silvestre de Sacy ; and to this, among other valuable illustrations, is appended a translation from an Arabic manuscript, of the curious biographical memoir to which we have above alluded. This account of Egypt consists of two books ; the first of which, in six chapters, gives a general view' of the country, of its plants, animals, antiquities, buildings, and modes of navigating on the Nile ; and the second, in three chapters, treats at large of this river, and of that terrible famine already mentioned, which was occasioned by a failure in the usual annual increase of its waters. The book undoubtedly is, upon the whole, one of the most interesting productions which has come to us from the East; inasmuch as it presents us with a detailed and authentic view of the state of Egypt during the middle ages, and thus supplies a link which was wanting between the accounts of ancient and of modern times. See Abdollatiphi Historicc AEgypti Compendium, Arahice et Latine, Lond. 1800, 4to. Relation de VEgypte, par Abdallatif, traduit par M. Silvestre de Sacy, de 1’Institut de France. Paris, 1810, 4to. ABDALMALEK, the son of Mirvan, and the fifth caliph of the race of the Ommiades. He surpassed all his predecessors in power and dominion; for in his reign the Indies were conquered in the east, and his armies penetrated Spain in the west: he likewise extended his empire toward the south, by making himself master of Medina and Mecca. Under his reign the Greek language and character were excluded from the accounts of the public revenue. If this change, says Gibbon, w'as productive of the invention or familiar use of the Arabic or Indian ciphers, which are our present numerals, a regulation of office'has promoted the most important discoveries of arithmetic, algebra, and the mathematical sciences. He began his reign in the 65th of the Hegira, A. b. 684;

22 A B D A B D Abdalma- reigned 15 years; and four of his sons successively en- they came. At length he was met at Tours by Charles Abdest laU j°yed the caliphate. Martel, who had received reinforcements of Germans |[ Abdalmalek. See Avenzoar. and Gepidae; and after many skirmishes, the Saracen Abduction, ABDALONYMUS, or Abdolonymus, in classic his- army, in a general action, was totally routed, and Abdertory, of the royal family of Sidon, and descended from ahma was killed, with 370,000 Moors. This great event, King Cinyras, lived in obscurity, and subsisted by culti- which first broke the power of the Saracens, and taught vating a garden, while Strato was in possession of the the Europeans that they were not invincible, happened -crown of Sidon. Alexander the Great having deposed about the year 732 of the Christian era, and of the HeStrato, inquired whether any of the race of Cinyras was gira 114. living, that he might set him on the throne. It was geABDEST, a Persian word, properly signifying the wanerally thought that the whole race was extinct; but at ter placed in a basin for washing the hands ; but it is used last Abdalonymus was thought of, and mentioned to Alexan- to imply the legal purifications practised by the Mahoder, who immediately ordered some of his soldiers to fetch metans before prayer, entering the mosque, or reading him. I hey found the good man at work, happy in his the Alcoran. poverty, and entirely a stranger to the noise of arms, with ABDIAS of Babylon, one of the boldest legendwhich all Asia was at that time disturbed; and they could writers, who boasted that he had seen Christ, that he was scarcely persuade him they were in earnest. Alexander one of the 70 disciples, had been eye-witness of the acwas convinced of his high descent by the dignity of his tions and prayers of several of the apostles at their deaths, person; and not only bestowed on him all that belonged and had followed into Persia St Simon and St Jude, who, to Strato, but augmented his dominions, and gave him a he said, made him the first bishop of Babylon. His book, large present out of the Persian spoils. entitled Historia Certaminis Apostolici, was published by ABDALS, in the eastern countries, a kind of saints Wolfgang Lazius, at Basil, 1551; and has passed through supposed to be inspired to a degree of madness. The several editions in other places. word is perhaps derived from the Arabic, Abdallah, the ABDICATION, the action whereby a person in office servant of God. Hurried on by excess of zeal, especially renounces and gives up the same before the term of serin the Indies, they often run about the streets, and kill vice is expired. all they meet who are of a different religion. The English This word is frequently confounded with resignation ; sailors call this running a muck, from the name of the in- but differs from it: for abdication is done purely and strument, a sort of poniard, which they employ on those simply, whereas resignation is in favour of some third desperate occasions. If they are killed, as it commonly person. In this sense, Dioclesian is said to have abdihappens before they have done much puschief, they cated the crown; Philip IV. of Spain resigned it. It is reckon it highly meritorious ; and are esteemed, by the said to be a renunciation, quitting, and relinquishing, so vulgar, martyrs for their faith. as to have nothing further to do with a thing; or the ABDERA, in Ancient Geography, a maritime town of doing of such actions as are inconsistent with the holding Thrace, not far from the mouth of the river Nessus, on of it. On King James’s leaving the kingdom, and abdithe east side. The Abderites, or Abderitani, were very cating the government, the lords proposed that the word much derided for their want of wit and judgment: yet desertion should be employed ; but the commons thought their city has given birth to several eminent persons ; as that it was not sufficiently comprehensive. Among the Protagoras, Democritus, Anaxarchus, Hecataeus the his- Roman writers it is more particularly used for the act torian, Nicenaetus the poet, and many others, who were whereby a father discarded or disclaimed his son, and exmentioned among the illustrious men. In the reign of pelled him the family. It is distinguished from exhcereLysimachus, Abdera was afflicted for some months with datio or disinheriting, in that the former was done in the ^ucianus, a most extraordinary disease :x this was a burning fever, father’s lifetime ; the latter, by will at his death : so that quomodo whose crisis was always on the seventh day, and then it Hist, sit left them; but it so distracted their imaginations, that whoever was abdicated, was also disinherited; but not conscriben they fancied themselves players. After this, they were vice versa. dus initio. ABDOMEN, in Anatomy, is that part of the trunk of ever repeating verses from some tragedy, and particularly the body which lies between the thorax and the bottom from the Andromeda of Euripides, as if they had been of the pelvis. upon the stage ; so that many of these pale meagre actors ABDOMINALIS, or Abdominal Fishes, constitute were pouring forth their tragic exclamations m every the lourth Order of the Fourth Class of Animals, in the street. This delirium continued till the winter following ; Linnaean system. which was a very cold one, and therefore fitter to remove ABDON, an island of the India Sea, of the Papuan it. Lucian, who has described this disease, endeavours group, to the north of Wageeoo. It is not more than to account for it in this manner : Archelaus, an excellent three or four miles in circumference, is scarcely cultivatplayer, acted the Andromeda of Euripides before the Ab- ed, the few inhabitants subsisting chiefly by the fishery. derites, in the height of a very hot summer. Several had Lat. 0. 30. N. Long. 131. 15. E. a fever at their coming out of the theatre ; and as their ^ ABDUCTION,in Logic, a kind of argumentation, by the imaginations were full of the tragedy, the delirium which Greeks called apagoge, wherein the greater extreme is the fever raised perpetually represented Andromeda, Per- evidently contained in the medium, but the medium not seus, Medusa, &c. and the several dramatic incidents, and so evidently in the lesser extreme as not to require some called up the ideas of those objects, and the pleasure of further medium or proof to make it appear. It is called the representation, so strongly, that they could not for- abduction, because, from the conclusion, it draws us on to bear imitating Archelaus’s action and declamation: And prove the proposition assumed. Thus, in the syllogism, from these the fever spread to others by infection. “ All whom God absolves are free from sin; but God * ABDERAHMA, a Saracen viceroy in Spain, who re- absolves all who are in Christ; therefore all who are in volted and formed an independent principality at Cordova. Christ are free from sin,”—the major is evident; but the He had several successors of the same name. A viceroy minor, or assumption, is not so evident without some other and captain-general of this name led the Saracens and proposition to prove it, as, “ God received full satisfaction their followers into France, ravaging the country wherever for sin by the sufferings of Jesus Christ.”

ABE Abductor ABDUCTOR, or Abducent, in Anatomy, a name given )| to several of the muscles, on account of their serving to Abelard, withdraw, open, or pull back the parts to which they belong. ABDULPOOR, a town in the centre of the southern Indian peninsula, in the province of Beeder, 20 miles north-west from Hyderabad, in Lat. 17. 12. N. Long. 76. 4L E. ABEJAR, a town in the province of Soria, in Old Castile, in Spain. ABEL, second son of Adam and Eve, was a shepherd. He offered to God some of the firstlings of his flock, at the same time that his brother Cain offered the fruits of the earth. God was pleased with Abel’s oblation, but displeased with Cain’s ; which so exasperated the latter, that he rose up against his brother and killed him. These are the only circumstances Moses relates of him. It is remarkable, that the Greek churches, who celebrate the feasts of every other patriarch and prophet, have not done the same honour to Abel. His name is not to be found in any catalogue of saints or martyrs till the 10th century ; nor even in the new Roman martyrology. However, he is prayed to, with some other saints, in several Roman litanies said for persons who lie at the point of death. Abel-Keramin, or Vinearum, beyond Jordan, in the country of the Ammonites, where Jephthah defeated them, seven miles distant from Philadelphia, abounding in vines, and hence the name. It was also called Abela. Abel-Meholah, the country of the prophet Elisha, situated on this side Jordan, between the valley of Jezreel and the village Bethmael, in the plains of Jordan, where the Midianites were defeated by Gideon. Judges, vii. 22. ABEL-Mizraim, (called also the Threshing-floor of Atad) signifying the lamentation of the Egyptians ; in allusion to the mourning for Jacob, Gen. 1. 3, 10, 11. Supposed to be near Hebron. AnEL-Sattim, or Sittim, a town in the plains of Moab, to the north-east of the Dead Sea, not far from Jordan, where the Isi'aelites committed fornication with the daughters of Moab : So called, probably, from the great number of sittim trees there. ABELARD, Peter, an eminent scholastic philosopher of France, of noble descent, was born at Palais near Nantes in Bretagne, in the year 1079. Devoted to letters by his father’s appointment, and by his own inclination, his literary attainments could at this time only be exhibited in the field of scholastic philosophy ; and, that he might be fitted for his destined career of life, he was placed, after a previous course of grammatical studies, under the tuition of Rosceline, a celebrated metaphysician, and founder of the sect of the Nominalists. Under the instructions of this able master, at the early age of sixteen, he furnished himself with a large store of scholastic knowledge, and acquired a subtiltyand quickness of thought, a fluency of speech, and facility of expression, which were necessary qualifications in scholastic disputation. Having spent some time in visiting the schools of several provinces, in the twentieth year of his age he fixed his residence in the university of Paris, then the first seat of learning in Europe. The master, William de Champeaux, was at that time in high repute for his knowledge of philosophy, and his skill in the dialectic art; to him he committed the direction of his studies, and was at first contented with receiving instruction from so eminent a preceptor. De Champeaux was proud of the talents of his pupil, and admitted him to his friendship. But the aspiring youth ventured to contradict the opinions of his master, and in the public school held disputations with him, in which he was frequently victorious. The jealousy

ABE 23 of the master and the vanity of the pupil naturally occa- Abelard, sioned a speedy separation. Elated by success, and confident of his own powers, Abelard, without hesitation, at the age of twenty-two, opened a public school of his own. Melun, a town ten leagues from Paris, where the court frequently resided, was the place which lie chose for this bold display of his talents. But it was not without considerable difficulty that Abelard executed his plan ; for De Champeaux, who regarded him as a rival, openly employed all his interest against him. Abelard at length prevailed, his school was opened, and his lectures were attended by crowded and admiring auditories. Emboldened by this success, and perhaps stimulated by unworthy resentment, Abelard resolved to maintain an open contest with his master, and for this purpose removed his school to Corbeil near Paris. The disputants frequently met in each other’s schools; and the contest was supported on each side with great spirit, amidst crowds of their respective scholars. The young champion was in the end victorious, and his antagonist was obliged to retire. Constant application and violent exertions had now so far impaired Abelard’s health, that it was become necessary for him to interrupt his labours ; and, with the advice of his physician, he withdrew to his native country. Two years afterwards, he returned to Corbeil, and found that De Champeaux had taken the monastic habit among the regular canons in the convent of St Victor; but that he still continued to teach rhetoric and logic, and to hold public disputations in theology. Returning to the charge, he renewed the contest, and his opponent was obliged to acknowledge himself defeated. The scholars of De Champeaux deserted him, and went over in crowds to Abelard. Even the new professor, who had taken the former school of De Champeaux, voluntarily surrendered the chair to the young philosopher, and requested to be enrolled among his disciples. A triumph so complete, while it gratified the vanity of Abelard, could not fail to provoke the resentment of his old master, who had influence to obtain the appointment of a new professor, and drive Abelard back to Melun. De Champeaux’s motive for this violent proceeding was soon perceived ; even his friends were ashamed of his conduct ; and he retired from the convent into the country. When Abelard was informed of the flight of his adversary, he returned towards Paris, and took a new station at the abbey on Mount St Genevieve. His rival, the new professor, was unequal to the contest, and was soon deserted by his pupils, who flocked to the lectures of Abelard. De Champeaux, too, returning to his monastery, renewed tire struggle; but so unsuccessfully, that Abelard was again victorious. During a short absence, in which Abelard visited his native place, De Champeaux was preferred to the see of Chalons. The long and singular contest between these philosophers terminated; and Abelard, perhaps for want of a rival to stimulate his exertions, or possibly through envy of the good fortune of his rival, determined to exchange the study and profession of philosophy for that of theology. He therefore quitted his school at St Genevieve, and removed to Laon, to become a scholar of Anselm. From this celebrated master he entertained high expectations ; but they were soon disappointed. On attending his lectures, he found that, though he possessed uncommon fluency of language, he left his auditors without instruction. Abelard gradually retired from these unprofitable lectures, but without offering offence either to the veteran professor or his scholars. In conversation one of them asked him, what he thought of the study of the Scriptures ? Abelard replied, that he thought the ex-

24 ABE Abelard, planation of them a task of no great difficulty; and to prove his assertion, he undertook to give a comment, the next day, upon any part of the Scriptures they should mention. They fixed upon the beginning of the prophecy of Ezekiel; and the next morning he explained the passage in a theological lecture, which was heard with admiration. For several successive days, the lectures were, at the request of the»audience, continued ; the whole town pressed to hear them ; and the name of Abelard was echoed through the streets of Laon. Anselm, jealous of the rising fame of this young theologian, prohibited his lectures, under the pretence that so young a lecturer might fall into mistakes, which would bring discredit upon his master. Abelard, whose ambition required a wider field than that of Laon, obeyed the prohibition, and withdrew. He returned to Paris, whither the fame of his theological talents had arrived before him, and opened his school with his lectures on the prophecy of Ezekiel. His auditors were delighted; his school was crowded with scholars ; and he united in his lectures the sciences of theology and philosophy with so much success, that multitudes repaired to him from various parts of France, from Spain, Italy, Germany, Flanders, and Great Britain. Hitherto Abelard has appeared with high distinction, as an able disputant, and a popular preceptor: we must now view him under a different character, and when nearly arrived at the sober age of forty, see him, on a sudden, exchanging the school of philosophy for the bower of pleasure, and even disgracing himself, as will too plainly appear in the sequel, by forming and executing a deliberate plan for the seduction of female innocence. It happened that there was at this time, resident in Paris, Pleloise, the niece of Fulbert, one of the canons of the cathedral church, a lady about eighteen years of age, of great personal beauty, and highly celebrated for her literary attainments. Abelard, whose vanity had been satiated with fame, and the vigour of whose mind was now enervated by repose, found himself inclined to listen to the voice of passion. He beheld with ardent admiration the lovely Heloise, and confident that his personal attractions were still irresistible, he determined to captivate her affections. Fulbert, who doubtless thought himself honoured by the visits of so eminent a scholar and philosopher, received him into his house as a learned friend. He was soon afterwards prevailed upon, by a handsome payment which Abelard offered for his board, to admit him into his family ; and, apprehending no hazard from a man of Abelard’s age and profession, requested him to undertake the instruction of Heloise. Abelard accepted the trust, but, as it seems, without any other intention than to betray it. The hours of instruction were employed in other lessons than those of learning and philosophy ; but Fulbert’s respectful opinion of the philosopher, and his partiality for his niece, long concealed from him an amour, which was become the subject of general conversation. Upon discovering her pregnancy, it was thought necessary for her to quit her uncle’s house ; and Abelard conveyed her to Bretagne, where his sister was prepared to receive them. Here Heloise was delivered of a son, to whom they gave the whimsical name of Astrolabus. Abelard, upon the birth of the child, proposed to Fulbert to marry his niece, provided the marriage might be kept secret: Fulbert consented, and Abelard returned to Bretagne to fulfil his engagement. Heloise, partly out of regard to the honour of Abelard, whose profession bound him to celibacy, and partly from a romantic notion that love like hers ought not to submit to ordinary restraints, at first gave Abelard a peremptory refusal. He, however, at last prevailed, and they were privately married at Pa-

A B E ris. Heloise from this time met with severe treatment Abelard, from her uncle, which furnished Abelard with a plea for removing her from his house, and placing her in the abbey of Benedictine nuns, in which she had been educated. Fulbert concluded, perhaps not without reason, that Abelard had taken this step, in order to rid himself of an encumbrance which obstructed his future prospects. Deep resentment took possession of his soul, and he meditated revenge. He employed several ruffians to enter his chamber by night, and inflict upon his person a disgraceful and cruel mutilation. The deed was perpetrated ; the ruffians were taken, and suffered, according to the Lex Talionis, the punishment they had inflicted; and Fulbert, for his savage revenge, was deprived of his benefice, and his goods were confiscated. Unable to support his mortifying reflections, Abelard resolved to retire to a convent. At the same time he formed the selfish resolution, that, since Heloise could no longer be his, she should never be another’s, and ungenerously demanded from her a promise to devote herself to religion ; and even insisted upon her taking the holy vow before him, suspecting, as it seems, that if he first engaged himself, she might violate her promise, and return to the world. A few days after Heloise had taken her vows, Abelard assumed the monastic habit in the abbey of St Denys, determined, as it seems, to forget, in hope of being for-* gotten by the world. However, his admirers and scholars in Paris were unwilling that the world should lose the benefit of his labours, and sent deputies to entreat him to return to his school. After some deliberation, he again yielded to the call of ambition; and at a small village in the country, he resumed his lectures, and soon found himself surrounded with a numerous train of scholars. The revival of his popularity renewed the jealousy of other professors, who took the first opportunity of bringing him under ecclesiastical censure. A treatise which he published at this time, entitled, The Theology of Abelard, was supposed to contain some heretical tenets. A synod was called at Soissons in the year 1121 ; the work was condemned to be burnt, and Abelard was commanded to throw it into the flames. After being involved in other controversies, new charges were brought against him, and he fled to the convent of St Ayoul at Provins in Champagne, the prior of which wras his intimate friend. The place of his retreat was soon discovered, and threats and persuasions were in vain employed to recall him : at last he obtained permission to retire to some solitary retreat, on condition that he should never again become a member of a convent. The spot which he chose was a vale in the forest of Champagne, near Nogent upon the Seine. Here Abelard, in 1122, erected a small oratory, which he dedicated to the Trinity, and which he afterwards enlarged, and consecrated to the Third Person, the Comforter, or Paraclete. Here he was soon discovered, and followed by a train of scholars. A rustic college arose in the forest, %nd the number of his pupils soon increased to six hundred. Jealousy again provoked the exertions of his enemies, and he was meditating his escape, when, through the interest of the duke of Bretagne, and with the consent of the abbot of St Denys, he was elected superior of the monastery of St Gildas, in the diocese of «Vannes, where, though not without frequent and grievous vexations, he remained several years. About this time, Suger, the abbot of St Denys, on the plea of an ancient right, obtained a grant for annexing the convent of Argenteuil, of which Heloise was now prioress, to St Denys; and the nuns, who were accused of irregular practices, were dispersed. Abelard, informed of the dis-

ABE Abelard tressed situation of Heloise, invited her, with her comil panions, eight in number, to take possession of the PaAbella. raclete. / It was during Abelard’s residence at St Gildas that the interesting correspondence passed between him and Heloise, which is still extant. The letters of Heloise, in this correspondence, abound with proofs of genius, learning, and taste, which might have graced a better age. It is upon these letters that Mr Pope has formed his celebrated Epistle from Eloisa to Abelard. Here, too, Abelard probably wrote his Theology, which again subjected him to persecution. His opinions were pronounced heretical by a council; and although he appealed to Rome, the judgment of the council was confirmed by the pope; and he was sentenced, unheard, to perpetual silence and imprisonment. By the interposition of some friends, however, and by a submissive apology, he obtained his pardon, with permission to end his days in the monastery of Cluni. At Cluni he was retired, studious, and devout. The monks of the convent importuned him to resume the business of instruction. In a few occasional efforts he complied with their solicitations ; and his lectures were heard with undiminished applause. But his health and spirits were much enfeebled, and gradually declined till he died in the 63d year of his age, A. d. 1142. His body was sent to Heloise to be interred in the convent of the Paraclete. Heloise survived her husband 21 years, a pattern of conjugal affection and monastic virtue ; and was buried in the same grave. The writings of Abelard will not give the reader a high idea of his genius or taste ; but it cannot be questioned, that the man who could foil the first masters of the age at the weapons of logic, draw round him crowded and admiring auditors, and collect scholars from different provinces and countries wherever he chose to form a school, must have possessed extraordinary talents. Had his love of truth been equal to his thirst of fame, and had his courage in adhering to his principles been equal to his ingenuity in defending them, his sufferings and persecutions might have excited more regret, and his title to honourable remembrance would have been better established. His principal works, written in Latin, are, An Address to the Paraclete on the Study of the Scriptures ; Problems and Solutions; Sermons on the Festivals; A Treatise against Heresies; An Exposition of the Lord’s Prayer; A Commentary on the Romans; A System of Theology; and his Letters to Heloise and to others. Of some of those letters, and the answers, there are translations in Bonnington's History of the Lives of Abelard and Heloise. The best Latin edition is that of Rawlinson, London, 1716, 8vo. ABELIANS, Abeolites, or Abelonians, in church history, a sect of heretics mentioned by St Austin, which arose in the diocese of Hippo in Africa, and is supposed to have begun in the reign of Arcadius, and ended in that of Theodosius. Indeed it was not calculated for being of any long continuance. Those of this sect regulated marriage after the example of Abel; who, they pretended, was married, but died without ever having known his wife. They therefore allowed each man to marry one woman, but enjoined them to live in continence ; and, to keep up the sect, when a man and woman entered into this society, they adopted a boy and a girl, who were to inherit their goods, and to marry upon the same terms of not begetting children, but of adopting two of different sexes. ABELLA, now Avella, anciently a town of Campania, near the river Clanius. The inhabitants were called VOL. II.

ABE *25 Abellani, and said to have been a colony of Chalcidians. Abellinum The nux Avellana, called also Prcenestina, or the hazel nut, (1 takes its name from this town, according to Macrobius. AberbroABELLINUM, now Avellino, anciently a town of the. lluckHirpini, between Beneventum and Salernum. Long. 14. 50. E. Lat. 41. 0. N. ABEN-EZRA, Abraham, a celebrated rabbi, born at Toledo in Spain, called by the Jews the wise, great, and admirable Doctor, was a very able interpreter of the Holy Scriptures ; and was well skilled in grammar, poetry, philosophy, astronomy, and medicine. He was also a perfect master of the Arabic. His principal work is, Commentaries on the Old Testament, which is much esteemed: these are printed in Bomberg’s and Buxtorf’s Hebrew Bibles. His style is clear, elegant, concise, and much like that of the Holy Scriptures: he almost always adheres to the literal sense, and everywhere gives proofs of his genius and good sense; he, however, advances some erroneous sentiments. The scarcest of all his books is entitled Jesud Mora, which is a theological work, intended as an exhortation to the study of the Talmud. He also wrote Elegantice Grammaticce, printed in octavo at Venice in 1548. He died in 1174, aged 75. Aben Meller, a learned rabbi, who wrote a commentary on the Old Testament in Hebrew, entitled, The Perfection of Beaidy. This rabbi generally follows the grammatical sense and the opinions of Kimchi. The best edition is that of Holland. ABENAS, a town of France, in the department of Ardesche; and upon a river of the same name, at the foot of the Cevennes. Long. 4. 20. E. Lat. 44. 37. N. ABENHEIM, a market town in the bailiwick of Alzey, and province of the Rhine, in the grand duchy of Hesse Darmstadt, with 940 inhabitants, who make some excellent wine. ABENSBERG, a bailiwick in the circle of Regen, in the kingdom of Bavaria. Its extent is 160 square miles, or 102,400 acres. It is watered by the Danube on its north-west boundary. The land is even, the soil partly good, and some excellent. Both corn, green crops, and grazing, are pursued with success. The numbers of swine are very great, which are bred and sold to other districts to be fattened. The inhabitants, in 2 cities, 3 towns, and 361 villages, amounted in 1817 to 15,330. Abensberg, a small city, capital of the bailiwick of the same name, in Bavaria. The inhabitants at present are only 1054. It was formerly the seat of the Counts Abenberg. A great battle was fought near this place between the French and Austrians in the year 1809, in which the latter were defeated. ABENSPERG, a small town of Germany, in the kingdom of Bavaria, and in the government of Munich. It is seated on the river Abentz, near the Danube. Long. 11. 38. E. Lat. 48. 45. N. ABERAVON, a borough town of Glamorganshire, in Wales, seated at the mouth of the river Avon, 194 miles west of London. Long. 3. 35. W. Lat. 51. 40. N. Population in 1801, 275 ; in 1811, 321 ; and in 1821, 365. ABERBROTHICK, or Arbroath, a seaport town of Scotland, in the county of Angus, situated at the discharge of the little river Brothic into the sea, as the name imports, Aber in the British implying such a situation. It is a flourishing place, well built, and still increasing. Having been in an improving state for the last forty years, it has now a considerable trade, and employs about 6000 tons of shipping, chiefly in the importation of flax, the raw material of its manufactures; of flax-seed, timber, iron, &c. from the Baltic. The chief employment of the inhabitants is the spinning of flax by machinery, D

26 ABE Aberbro- and its subsequent manufacture into sheetings. A consithick derable coasting trade is carried on to London and to the II ports on the east coast of England, as well as to Leith Abercrora- anc] ^}le other ports in the frith of Forth. At this place, in default of a natural harbour, an artificial one of piers has been formed, where, at spring tides, which rise here fifteen feet, ships of two hundred tons can come, and of eighty at neap tides ; but they must lie dry at low water. Its chief fault is that it is small, and offers no refuge from the German Ocean in easterly storms, though it is capable of improvement, and, with some expense, might be rendered secure. A battery, which was erected for its defence in 1781, in consequence of an attack from a French privateer, has since been dismantled. This port is of great antiquity: there is an agreement yet extant between the abbot and the burghers of Aberbrothick, in 1194 " *'at 3 miles south-west of the river, where there is a good Whence this people came by the appellation is much dis- Abortlonharbour; and thence the goods are sent by small craft to puted. St Jerome says, they were so called, as being Abo. The great church is in Lat. 60. 27. 14. N. and in absque origine, the primitive planters of the country after Long. 22. 18. 10. E. from Greenwich. the flood: Dionysius of Halicarnassus accounts for the ABO ARD, the inside of a ship. Hence any person name, as denoting them the founders of the race of inhawho enters a ship is said to go aboard: but when an bitants of that country: others think them so called as enemy enters in the time of battle, he is said to board; being originally Arcadians, who claimed to be earth-born, a phrase which always implies hostility To fall aboard and not descended from any people. The term Aboriof is to strike or encounter another ship when one or both gines, in modern geography, is applied to the primitive inare in motion, or to be driven upon a ship by the force of habitants of a country, in contradistinction to colonies, or the wind or current.—Aboard-main-tacJi, the order to new races of people. draw the main-tack, i. e. the lower corner of the main-sail, ABORTION, in Midwifery, the premature exclusion down to the Chess-tree. of a foetus. It has sometimes been doubted whether this ABOCRO, or Aborrel, in Geography, a town near unnatural practice was ranked as a crime in the laws of the river Ankobar or Cobre, on the African Gold Coast. Greece and Rome. This question has been revived, and It gives name to a republican province. elaborately discussed in France, by some members of the ABOD, a market town of Hungary, in the circle of Institute. The subject, it seems, had been incidentally hither Theiss, and the district of Erlau, where woollen alluded to in a discourse of Gregoire’s upon the influence manufactories are established. of Christianity on the condition of the female sex, read in ABOLA, in Geography, a division of the Agow, in the early part of 1814. This produced two dissertations, Abyssinia, is a narrow valley, through which runs a river one by M. Clavier, and the other by M. Boissonade; the of the same name, whose waters receive many tributary first maintaining the impunity of the practice among the streams from the lofty, rugged, and woody mountains that ancients, the last, that it was on the contrary viewed as a form the valley. penal offence. ABOLI1ION, in the Roman law, is the annulling a We find, says M. Clavier, that in one of Plato’s diaprosecution, or legal accusation: and in this sense it is logues (Theat.) Socrates is made to speak of artificial different from amnesty; for, in the former, the accusation abortion, as a practice not only common, but allowable; might be renewed by the same prosecutor, but in the and Plato himself authorizes it in his Republic, (lib. v.) latter it was extinguished for ever. Within 30 days after Aristotle {Polit. lib. vii. c. 17) gives it as his opinion, that a public abolition, the same accuser, with the prince’s no child ought to be suffered to come into the world, the licence, was allowed to renew the charge ; after a private mother being above forty, or the father above fifty-five abolition, another accuser might renew it, but the same years of age. Lysias maintained, in one of his pleadings could not. Abolition was also used for expunging a per- quoted by Harpocration, that forced abortion could not be son s name from the public list of the accused, hung up considered homicide, because a child in utero was not an in the treasury. It was either public, as that under Au- animal, or separate existence. M. Clavier admits, that, gustus, when all the names which had long hung up were in a treatise ascribed to Galen, (An animal sit quod in expunged at once; or private, when it was done at the utero est ?) there is mention made of enactments by Solon motion of one of the parties. and Lycurgus against this crime; but he maintains that ABOLLA, in antiquity, a wrarm kind of garment, lined this is a spurious production, and that, at any rate, his or doubled, worn by the Greeks and Romans, chiefly out testimony cannot be opposed to that of so many writers of the city, in following the camp. Critics and antiquaries who lived long before his age. Among the Romans, Ovid are greatly divided as to the form, use, kinds, &c. of this (Amor. lib. ii.), Juvenal (Sat. vi. v. 594), and Seneca garment. . Papias makes it a species of the toga, or gown; (Consol, ad Helv. 16), though they lament in strong but Nonnius, and most others, suppose it to be a species terms the frequency of this enormity, yet they never alof the pallium, or cloak. The abolla seems rather to have lude to any laws by which it might be suppressed. Varistood opposed to the toga, which was a garment of peace, ous other writers, it is said, preserve the same silence on as the abolla was of war ; at least Varro and Martial place this point, whilst joining in general reprobation of the *n °PPosite light. There seem to have been crime. different kinds of abollee, appropriated to different characOn the other hand, M. Boissonade appeals not only to ters and occasions. Even kings appear to have used the the authority of Galen, but of Cicero, (Pro Cluentio,) as abolla.- Caligula was offended with King Ptolemy for placing it beyond a doubt, that, so far from being allowed appearing at the shows in a purple abolla, the splendour to pass with impunity, the offence in question was someoi which drew the eyes of the spectators from the empe1 times punished with death. WTith regard to the authoror to himself. rity of Lysias, he states, that the pleading referred to is ABON, Abona, or Abonis, in Ancient Geography, a quoted by Harpocration himself as of dubious authentitown and river of Albion. The town, according to Cam- city ; and, as to Plato and Aristotle, he observes, that their den, is Abingdon ; and the river, Abhon or Avon. Others speculative reasonings, in matters of legislation, ought not take the town to be Porshut, at the mouth of the river to confounded with the actual state of the laws. And Avon, near Bristol. Abuin or Avon, in the Celtic lan- he be adds, that Stobseus (Serm. 73) has preserved a passguage, denotes a river. age from Musonius, in which that philosopher expressly ABORAS, in Ancient Geography, by Xenophon called Araxes, a river of Mesopotamia, which flows into the states, that the ancient lawgivers inflicted punishments on who caused themselves to abort. Euphrates at Circesium. In the negotiation between females It seems indeed difficult to believe, that the practice in JJioelesian and Narses, near the end of the third century, question should have been allowed to prevail without being i was hxed as the boundary between the Roman and denounced as criminal by the lawgivers of Greece and Persian empires. Rome; but it is not so clear that there was any law which

40 ABO Abortion punished it with death. Thnse readers who have any II curiosity to enter more deeply into the inquiry, will be Aboulfeda. enabled to do so by consulting the various authorities to which M. Clavier and M. Boissonade have appealed, in support of their respective views of the question. The notorious frequency of the practice forms an odious feature in the manners of ancient times. Seneca makes it a ground of distinction for Helvia, that she had never, like others of her countrywomen, destroyed the child in her womb, in order to preserve her shape. « By the law of England till lately, the only party held to be guilty of murder in forcingabortion was the woman, when she was proved to have taken means to destroy a child quick in the womb, and actually to have thereby destroyed it. But in 1803, an act was passed, inflicting the punishment of death upon all concerned in administering any noxious substance with the intent to procure the miscarriage of any woman quick with child. The procuring or attempting it before the child has quickened, is punishable only with imprisonment or transportation. This law is evidently grounded upon a false hypothesis, that the foetus is not quick or alive till its motion in the womb becomes perceptible to the mother; and, what is of more importance, it makes no provision against the attempt to procure abortion by manual application. The reader will find a curious illustration of this defect, in a trial which occurred at the assizes held at Bury St Edmunds in 1808. See Trial of William Pizzy, &c. Ipswich, 1808. The case of John Fenton, tried at Perth in 1763, was the first instance of a criminal prosecution for this offence in Scotland; and here the public prosecutor restricted the libel to an arbitrary punishment. Our writers indeed agree, that, by the law of Scotland, the forcing of abortion is not homicide, whether the child be quick or not, except where the mother is killed in the process. Imprisonment or transportation may, and is all that can, in any case, be inflicted. Abortive Vellum, is made of the skin of an abortive or immature calf. ABOUKIR, a small town of Egypt, with a castle and a little island adjoining, with which it is connected by a chain of rocks. It stands at the eastern extremity of the long neck of land between the sea and the lakes Mareotis and Maadie, upon which Alexandria, about twelve miles to the westward, is also situated. Eastward lies the spacious bay of Aboukir, reaching to the mouth of the Nile. This vicinity was the scene of some of the greatest events which distinguished the late war between Britain and France. In the bay of Aboukir, Nelson found the French fleet which had conveyed Buonaparte to Egypt, and instantly penetrating its line, gained that signal victory usually called the “ Battle of the Nile,” in which the whole of the enemy’s fleet, with the exception of two vessels, were destroyed or captured. It was at Aboukir also that Sir Ralph Abercromby, in 1801, effected his landing, and having driven the enemy up the sand hills, took possession of the place. In other respects Aboukir is not of much importance. ABOULFEDA, or Abulfeda, the most celebrated of the Arabian writers on history and geography. Among his contemporaries he was also distinguished both as a ruler and a warrior. His descent was in a direct line from Ayoub, father to Saladin, and from whom the house of that conqueror received the appellation of Ayoubites. Omar, the grandson of Ayoub, was one of Saladin’s most distmguished generals, and enjoyed the privilege, which he transmitted to his posterity, of being placed always on the right of the army. In reward of his services, he was created Prince of Hamah, the ancient Apamea, which,

ABO with some territories adjoining, became hereditary in his Aboulfeda family. They were transmitted, in the course of succession, to Mahommed Mahmoud, and to Mahommed, the uncle of Aboulfeda. Although none of these princes equalled the military glory of Omar, they were yet distinguished both in arms and letters. Continually engaged in military expeditions, their court was at the same time open to learned men. It is mentioned, among the proofs of their zeal for science, that Mahmoud caused to be constructed at Hamah, a gilded sphere of great magnitude, on which all the stars then known were represented. Aboulfeda was son to Ally, the brother of Mahommed. He was born at Damascus in the year 672 of the Hegira, (1273 a. d.) His early years were spent in the study of the Koran and of the sciences. By the age of twelve, however, he was summoned to the field, and was present at the attack of Marcab, a castle belonging to the knights of St John. Syria was then shaken by continual war, and thus scarcely a year elapsed, in which the young prince wras not called out upon some military expedition. He successively assisted at the sieges of Tripoli, Acre, and Roum. In 1298, Prince Mahmoud, his cousin, who held the sovereignty, died, and left Aboulfeda heir. The succession, however, being violently disputed by his two brothers, the court, in consequence of their dissensions, took occasion to supersede all the three ; and the Ayoubites lost the principality which they had enjoyed for more than a century. Aboulfeda, however, by his valour and other eminent qualities, soon recommended himself to the favour of the Sultan Melik-el-Nassir. He was present, and took an active part in the victory gained at Alkoroum in 1302, and in the still more signal one near Damascus in 1303, by which Syria was for the time delivered from the incursions of the Tartars. But peace was soon followed by internal dissensions. The throne of Egypt was disputed with Melik-el-Nassir by Bibars, who at first succeeded in obtaining possession of it. His rival, however, being supported by the great men of Syria, among whom Aboulfeda took a conspicuous part, finally triumphed. Aboulfeda, who had always stood well with Melik-el-Nassir, rose then into peculiar favour. The sultan took the first opportunity of establishing him in his patrimonial dignity of Prince of Hamah. Honours continued to shower upon him ; he was invested with the distinctive marks of sovereignty, which consisted in the power of coining money, and in having prayers said in his name. The epithet Melik Mowayyad, victorious Prince, was conferred upon him; and it is stated by an Arabian author, that the sultan, in writing, addressed him by the appellation of brother. The rest of Aboulfeda’s life was spent in splendour and tranquillity, devoted to the government of his territory, and to the pursuits of science. Besides cultivating, he patronised literature; and his court became the rendezvous of all the learned men of the East. He conversed with them familiarly, bestowed upon them honours and pensions, and being himself superior to all in learning, felt no jealousy of their acquirements. During the same period he composed the works which have transmitted his name to posterity. In this enviable manner he spent the period of twenty years, when an illness, of which the particulars are not related, carried him off on the 26th October 1331. He was succeeded by his son Melik-el-Afdhal, of whom little is recorded, and who was the last Prince of Hamah. The two works by which Aboulfeda is known in Europe, are his Geography and his History. The former ranks at least equal to any composed upon that subject by the Arabian writers. It partakes indeed of their general defects; for, although he seems to have paid more attention to the latitudes and longitudes than the rest of his coun-

A B R A B R 41 joulfeda trymen, yet the imperfect application of astronomy, and after. Though Abrabanel discovers his implacable aver-Abracada e,rm 1 the obscurity or his notation, diminished the „n u:. he . treated. .bra his —— writings, yet rabanel.„„i i„i have Itmuch • .v • sion to Christianity in all value of this part* of his labours. is chiefly .in the ,hisChristians with politeness and good manners in the comtorical and descriptive parts that he can now be regarded mon affairs of life. Abraham. as an authority. Here too his knowledge, as he himself ABRACADABRA, a magical word, recommended by candidly confesses, is chiefly confined to the circle of Serenus Samonicus as an antidote against agues and seMoslem dominion ; but within those limits, the information veral other diseases. It was to be written upon a piece conveyed by him is undoubtedly valuable. of paper as many times as the word contains letters, His History possesses still higher claims to distinction. omitting the last letter of the former every time, as in the His method, as was usual with his countrymen, is entirely margin,1 and repeated in the same order ; and then sus» that of annals, and is in many parts too much abridged; but pended about the neck by a linen thread. Abracadabra abracadabra abraca, the work contains much valuable information with regard was the name of a god worshipped by the Syrians, the labrh ahrn to the Saracen, and even to the Greek empire. It is di- wearing of whose name was a sort of invocation of his aid. abracadab ‘-^ vided into five parts, beginning at the creation of the world, ABRAHAM, the father and stock whence the faithful abracada and ending with the year 1328. spuing, was the son of Ferah. He was descended from abracad There are copies of his Geography in manuscript in the Noah by Shem, from whom he was nine degrees removed. abraca national library of France, in that of the university of Ley- Some fix his birth in the 130th year of Terah’s age, but abrac den, and in the Bodleian. It has hitherto been published others place it in his father s 70th year. It is highly pro- abra abr only in fragments, of which the following are the principal. bable he was born in the city of Ur, in Chaldea, which he ah Chorasmia et Mawaralnahra a Joan. Gravio, Londini; re- and his father left when they went to Canaan, where they a printed along with Arabia, in Hudson’s Geographi Greed remained till the death of Terah ; after which, Abraham Minores, Oxford, 1698-1712.— Tabula Syri, Arab.et Lat. resumed his first design of going to Palestine. The Scripby Koehler and Reiske, 4to. Leipsic, 1766.—Descriptio tures mention the several places he stopped at in Canaan; jEgypti, Arab, et Lat. Michaelis, Getting. 8vo. 1776.— his journey into Egypt, where his wife was carried off Africa, Arab, cum notis J. G. Eichhorn, Getting. 1791.— from him; his going into Gerar, where Sarah was again Arabia cum commentario, Chr. Rommel, Getting. 4to. 1801. taken from him, but restored as before; the victory he Complete editions were undertaken by Bishop Hyde, by obtained over the four kings who had plundered Sodom; D’Arvieux in conjunction with Thevenot, and by Gagnier, his compliance with his wife, who insisted that he should the translator of the life of Mahomet; but different cir- make use of their maid Hagar in order to raise up chilcumstances prevented their execution. dren ; the covenant God made with him, sealed with the I he History of Aboulfeda is also found in manuscript ceremony of circumcision; his obedience to the command in the Irench, Bodleian, and Escurial libraries. A great of God, who ordered him to offer up his only son as a sapart of the copy preserved in the first is believed to be crifice, and how this bloody act was prevented ; his marautograph. This work has been published only in frag- riage with Keturah; his death at the age of 175 years; ments. Life of Mahomet, Arab, et Lat. Gagnier, fol. and his interment in the cave of Machpelah, near the body Oxoniae, 1723. Annales Moslemici, Lat. Reiske, Lipsim, of Sarah his first wife. 1754—Annales Moslemici, sumptibus P. F. Suhmii, 5 tom. Abraham is said to have been well skilled in many 4to. Hafniae, 1/89—94. Suhm was historiographer and sciences, and to have written several books. Josephus2 * Jntig. lib. chamberlain to the King of Denmark. The edition is ex- tells us that he taught the Egyptians arithmetic andi. cap. 7, 8. cellent, and enriched with notes by Reiske. geometry ; and according to Eupolemus and Artapan, he See Notice Historique sur Abulfeda et ses Ouvrages, par instructed the Phoenicians, as well as the Egyptians, in Am. Jourdain. Malte-Brun. Annales des Voyages, tom. astronomy. A work which treats of the creation has been xvm. long ascribed to him: it is mentioned in the Talmud,3 3 HekWA UTIGE a town of and the rabbis Chanina and Hoschia used to read it on ger, Hist. i Mile, B? where > they made Upper the the bestEgypt, opiumininAfrica, all thenear Le- the eve before the Sabbath. In 4the first ages of Christian-tom Patriarch. vant. It was formerly a large, but now is a mean rplace. ity, according to St Epiphanius, an heretical sect, called -iL N. Lat. 26. 50. AEEA’ a silver coin struck in Poland, and worth about Sethimans, dispersed a piece which had the title of Abra- ^ hams Revelation. Origen mentions also a treatise sup-nJT one shilling sterling. It is current in several parts of posed have been written by this patriarch. The book 286“. Germany, at Constantinople, Astracan, Smyrna, and on the tocreation was printed at Paris in 1552, and translatGrand Cairo. ed into Latin by Postel: Rittangel, a converted Jew, and ABRABANEL, Abarbanel, or Avrava^el, Isaac, at Kbnigsberg, gave also a Latin translation of it, a celebrated rabbi, descended from King David, and born professor at Lisbon a. d. 1437. He became counsellor to Alphon- with remarks, in 1642. Abraham, Ben Chaila, a Spanish rabbi, in the 13th so V. king of Portugal, and afterwards to Ferdinand the a 10 ic, but in 1492 was obliged to leave Spain with century, who professed astrology, and assumed the chathe other Jews. In short, after residing at Naples, Corfu, racter of a prophet. He pretended to predict the coming and several other cities, he died at Venice in 1508, aged of the Messiah, which was to happen in the year 1358; but fortunately he died in 1303, fifty-five years before " V, • Abrabanel passed for one of the most learned of the rabbis; and the Jews gave him the names of the Sage, the time when the prediction was to be fulfilled. He the Prince, and the Great Politician. We have a com- wrote a book, De Nativitatibus, which was printed at mentary of his on all the Old Testament, which is pretty Rome in 1545. scarce : he there principally adheres to the literal sense ; . Abraham Usque, a Portuguese Jew, who, in conjuncaud “is style is clear, but a little diffuse. His other works tion with Tobias Athias, translated the Hebrew Bible into are, A 1 realise on the Creation of the World; in which Spanish. It was printed at Ferrara in 1553, and reprinted in Holland in 1630. This Bible, especially the first etJrfnlA Anstatle’ who imagined that the world was edition, which is most valuable, is marked with stars at re Se n the Ex )lication of th rehflnJ ° 1 against I the Christians: e Prophecies relating /to l the ™ Messiah, A book certain words, which are designed to show that these concerning Articles of kaith ; and some others less sought words are difficult to be understood in the Hebrew, and that they may be used in a different sense.

A B R 42 Abraham Abraham, or Abram, Nicholas, a learned Jesuit, born li in the diocese of Toul, in Lorrain, in 1589. He obtained Abraxas. rank of divinity professor in the university of Pont-aMouson, which he enjoyed 17 years, and died September 7. 1655. He wrote Notes on Virgil and on Nonnius; A Commentary on some of Cicero’s Orations, in two vols. folio ; an excellent collection of theological pieces in folio, entitled Phams Veteris Testamenti ; and a Hebrew Grammar m verse. ABRAHAMITES, an order of monks exterminated for idolatry by Theophilus in the ninth century. Also the name of another sect of heretics who had adopted the errors of Paulus. ABRAHAMSDORF, or Abrahamsfalva, a village in Hungary, in the circle of hither Theiss, one of sixteen which were formerly part of Poland, but in 1772 united with Hungary, in consequence of which they all enjoy some peculiar rights of exemption from the Austrian taxes and judicatories. ABRANTES, a town of Portugal, in the province of Estremadura. It is situated on the Tagus, near its junction with the Zezare, which is navigable for barges. The situation is delightful, on the upper part of a sloping hill, with a country below it covered with olive trees, and interspersed with vineyards. One of Buonaparte’s generals had the title of .duke of this place conferred on him. It has 4 monasteries, 1 hospital, 1 poor-house, and 3500 inhabitants. Its trade with Lisbon employs 100 boats. ABRASAX, or Abraxas, the supreme god of the Basilidian heretics. It is a mystical or cabbalistic word, composed of the Greek letters a, £, g, a, a, (, which together, according to the Grecian mode of numeration, make up the number 365. For Basilides taught, that there were 365 heavens between the earth and the empyrean ; each of which heavens had its angel or intelligence, which created it; each of which angels likewise was created by the angel next above it; thus ascending by a scale to the Supreme Being, or first Creator. The Basil idians used the word Abraxas by way of charm or amulet. ABRASION is sometimes used among medical writers for the effect of sharp corrosive medicines or humours in wearing away the natural mucus which covers the membranes, and particularly those of the stomach and intestines. The word is composed of the Latin ab and rado, to shave or scrape off. ABRAVANNUS, in Ancient Geography, the name of a promontory and river of Galloway in Scotland, so called from the Celtic term Aber, signifying either the mouth of a river or the confluence of two rivers, and Avon, a river. ABRAUM, in Natural History, a name given by some writers to a species of red clay, used in England by the cabinet-makers, &c. to give a red colour to new mahogany wood. We have it from the Isle of Wight; but it is also found in Germany and Italy. ABRAXAS, an antique stone with the word abraxas engraven on it. They are of various sizes, and most of them as old as the third century. They are frequent in the cabinets of the curious; and a collection of them, as complete as possible, has been desired by several. There is a fine one in the abbey of St Genevieve, which has occasioned much speculation. Most of them seem to have come from Egypt; whence they are of some use for explaining the antiquities of that country. Sometimes they Rave no other inscription besides the word: but others have the names of saints, angels, or Jehovah himself annexed ; though most usually the name of the Basilidian god. Sometimes there is a representation of Isis sitting on a lotus, or Apis surrounded with stars; sometimes

A B R monstrous compositions of animals, obscene images, Phalli Abreast and Ithyphalli. The engraving is rarely good, but the word i [I on the reverse is sometimes said to be in a more modern style than the other. The characters are usually Greek, Hebrew, Coptic, or Hetrurian, and sometimes of a m6ngrel kind, invented, as it would seem, to render their meaning the more inscrutable. It is disputed whether the Veronica of Montreuil, or the granite obelisk mentioned by Gori, be Abraxases. ABREAST (a sea term), side by side, or opposite to; a situation in which two or more ships lie, with their sides parallel to each other, and their heads equally advanced. This term more particularly regards the line of battle at sea, where on the different occasions of attack, retreat, or pursuit, the several squadrons or divisions of a fleet are obliged to vary their dispositions, and yet maintain a proper regularity by sailing in right or curved lines. When the line is formed abreast, the whole squadron advances uniformly, the ships being equally distant from and parallel to each other, so that the length of each ship forms a right angle with the extent of the squadron or line abreast. The commander-in-chief is always stationed in the centre, and the second and third in command in the centres of their respective squadrons.—Abreast, within the ship, implies on a line with the beam, or by the side of any object aboard ; as, the frigate sprung a leak abreast of the main hatchway, i. e. on the same line with the main hatchway, crossing the ship’s length at right angles, in opposition to afore or abaft the hatchway. ABRIDGEMENT, in Literature, a term signifying the reduction of a book into a smaller compass. “ The mode of reducing,” says the author of the Curiosities of Literature, “ what the ancients had written in bulky volumes, practised in preceding centuries, came into general use about the fifth. As the number of students and readers diminished, authors neglected literature, and were disgusted with composition; for to write is seldom done, but when the writer entertains the hope of finding readers. Instead of original authors, there suddenly arose numbers of abridgers. These men, amidst the prevailing disgust for literature, imagined they should gratify the public by introducing a mode of reading works in a few hours, which otherwise could not be done in many months; and observing that the bulky volumes of the ancients lay buried in dust, without any one condescending to examine them, the disagreeable necessity inspired them with an invention that might bring those works and themselves into public notice, by the care they took of renovating them. This they imagined to effect by forming abridgements of these ponderous volumes. “ All thes?e Abridgers, however, did not follow the same mode. Some contented themselves with making a mere abridgement of their authors, by employing their own expressions, or by inconsiderable alterations. Others composed those abridgements in drawing them from various authors, but from whose works they only took what appeared to them most worthy of observation, and dressed them in their own style. Others, again, having before them several authors who wrote on the same subject, took passages from each, united them, and thus formed a new work. They executed their design by digesting in common-places, and under various titles, the most valuable parts they could collect, from the best authors they read. To these last ingenious scholars we owe the rescue of many valuable fragments of antiquity. They happily preserved the best maxims, the characters of persons, descriptions, and many other subjects which they found interesting in their studies.

A B R A B R 43 Abridge- “ There have been learned men who have censured 1 u n mt0 6 P esGara w,llc]l ’ , Vv . thewhich province Abruzzo. ment these Abridgers, as the cause of our having lost so many Abruzzo Citeriore, or’ into thebounds Tronto, is thetowards boun-^V"w exce ent ent re dary on the Papal frontier. The extent of the province Abruzzo coming ^ less studious, * works was of the ancients ; for posterity besatisfied with these extracts, is 1140 square miles, or 730,600 English acres. The culand neglected to preserve the originals, whose voluminous tivation is badly conducted, and many districts are almost size was less attractive. Others on the contrary say, that left in a state of natural wildness. The art of irrio-ation these Abridgers have not been so prejudicial to literature is not understood, nor embankment of the rivers practisas some have imagined ; and that had it not been for their ed, so that the best of the land is often rendered useless. care, which snatched many a perishable fragment from There are owners of two or three hundred acres of land,' that shipwreck of letters which the barbarians occasioned, who scarcely raise sufficient food for their families; ami we should perhaps have had no works of the ancients re- yet the soil, when tolerably managed, will yield 12 grains maining. of wheat for one. The corn most cultivated and preferred “ Abridgers, Compilers, and even Translators, in the is maize. Hemp and flax are raised, but, like corn, merepresent fastidious age, are alike regarded with contempt; ly sufficient for the home supply. Olives, almonds, figs, yet to form their works with skill requires an exertion of grapes, and chesnuts, are abundant, as is wood for conjudgment, and frequently of taste, of which their con- struction and fuel. The number of inhabitants is 157,339, temners appear to have no conception. It is the great according to the late census. They are a hardy, bold, misfortune of such literary labours, that even when per- idle, and superstitious, race. The most industrious of formed with ability, the learned will not be found to want them stroll yearly into the territories of the Church to them, and the unlearned have not discernment to appre- w ork at harvest and in making charcoal, and return home ciate them.” (DTsraeli’s Curiosities of Literature.) in winter with their wages. The province is divided into ABRIES, a town in France, in the department of the two districts, Teramo and Civita di Penne. The city of Upper Alps, and arrondissement of Briancon. It was for- Teramo is the capital of the province. merly a portion of Savoy. Inhabitants 2030. Abruzzo Ulteriore Second, a province in the contiABROGATION, the act of abolishing a law, by au- nental division of the kingdom of Naples. It is an inland thority of the maker; in which sense the word is syno- district, bounded on the north by the Papal States, on the nymous with abolition, repealing, and revocation. north-east by Abruzzo Ulteriore First, on the south-east Abrogation stands opposed to rogation: it is distin- by Abruzzo Citeriore, on the south by the province Terra guished from derogation, which implies the taking away di Lavora, and on the west by the States of the Church, only some part of a law; from subrogation, which denotes The extent is 2210 square miles, or 1,414,400 acres. the adding a clause to it; from abrogation, which implies The whole province is nearly covered with mountains of the limiting or restraining it; from dispensation, which various heights, one of which, the Grand Casso dTtalia, only sets it aside in a particular instance; and from anti- near Aquila, is the loftiest peak of the Appenines. There quation, which is the refusing to pass a law. are no plains ; but among these mountains some beautiABROKANI, or Majllemolli, a kind of muslin, or ful and fruitful vaileys have been formed by the various clear, white, fine cotton cloth, brought from the East In- streams that run through them. None of the rivers are dies, particularly from Bengal. navigable, but all of them have abundance ofwrater, except ABROTONUM, in Ancient Geography, a town and in the hottest of the summer months. The largest fresh lake harbour on the Mediterranean, one of the three cities that of the kingdom is that of Cellano, 14 miles long, and 9 formed Tripoli. broad, surrounded with hills. A canal, built by the Romans ABRUCENA, a town on the district of Guadix, in the to carry off the surplus water, has been long neglected province of Granada, in Spain, between the Sierra Ne- and stopped up, but is now in course of being cleaned and vada and Jaen. opened. The air is generally temperate, and the sirocco ABRUD-BANYA, a town of Hungary, in the province is never felt. The cultivation just suffices to provide sufof Magyoren, in the circle of Weissenburg. It is situated ficient corn for the inhabitants, who, when the maize is on the river Ampoy, has one Reformed and one Greek dear, make out their subsistence by the help of chesnuts. church, is the seat of a board of mining, and in its vicinity Olives and vines rarely bring their fruit to full ripeness. mines of gold and of silver are wrought. It is in Lat. 46. Some flax and hemp are raised, and a vast quantity of 14. 9. N. and Long. 23. 49. 3. E. saffron, which is generally preferred to all other. The ABRUS, in Botany, the trivial name of the Glycine. sheep produce fine wool when the flocks migrate, and the ABRUZZO, one of the four provinces into which the flesh is good. The cows yield good butter and cheese, continental part of the kingdom of Naples, or of the two which form the chief articles of exportation to the neighSicilies, was formerly divided, but now the name given to bouring provinces. The inhabitants amount to 249,600. three out of the 17 provinces of the later division of that Like all mountaineers, they are a strong and active race, country. It is, with altered boundaries, now distinguish- and frugal in their habits. The manufactures are insignified as Abruzzo Ulteriore First, Abruzzo Ulteriore Second, cant, consisting of some little woollen and linen cloth, and Abruzzo Citeriore. some paper, pottery, and wood-ware ; but not sufficient of Abruzzo Ulteriore hirst, is a maritime province on any for the demand of the territory, which is supplied by the Adriatic Sea,which is its boundary towards the north- the exchange of almonds, figs, saffron, wool, butter, and east. On the north-west the Papal dominions bound it, cheese. The chief city is Aquila. on the south-east Abruzzo Citeriore, and on the southAbruzzo Citeriore, a province in the kingdom of west Abruzzo Ulteriore Second. The western part of the Naples. It is bounded on the north-west by Abruzzo province is very mountainous; the highest crest of the Ulteriore First, on the north-east by the Adriatic Sea, Appenines divides it from Abruzzo Ulteriore Second, and on the south-west by the province Molise, and on the extends towards the sea. The district on the sea-coast is flat, but everywhere else hilly. The valleys between the west by that of Abruzzo Ulteriore Second. This province is less hilly than the other two Abruzzos, but the mils possess a rich soil, well watered by rivulets and Appenines are extended through the south-west part. brooks in the winter and spring, but which are generally dried up in the summer months. These streams either They, however, gradually decline in height, and extend themselves in wide plains of sand and pebbles. The rivers

44 A B S Abruzzo all run to the Adriatic, and are very deficient in water II during the summer months. Agriculture is in a very rus13' hcickwai’d state, and the soil is rather ungrateful when labour is bestowed upon it; and the inhabitants prefer the chase and the fishery to it. The corn is sufficient for the population, who grow and consume much more maize and rice than wheat or barley. On the coast some oil and some silk are produced, which, with wine, form the chief export articles. Hemp, flax, liquorice, almonds, and figs, are grown for home consumption. The cattle are more neglected than in the other Abruzzos, though there is excellent pasture both for sheep and cows. There are, however, abundance of swine, goats, and asses. The manufactures are very insignificant. All the exchange of commodities is carried on by land; for though the province has an extensive frontier to the sea, it has no harbour or secure anchoring places. The extent is 1920 square miles, or 1,228,800 acres. The inhabitants are 222,730. There is but one decent road through the province. The capital is Civita di Chieti, formerly called Teti. ABSALOM, in Scripture History, the son of David by Maacah, was brother to Tamar, David’s daughter, who wras ravished by Amnon, their eldest brother by another mother. Absalom waited two years for an opportunity of revenging the injury done to his sister ; and at last procured the assassination of Amnon at a feast which he had prepared for the king’s sons. He took refuge with Talmai, king of Geshur; and was no sooner restored to favour than he engaged the Israelites to revolt from his father. Absalom was defeated in the wood of Ephraim: as he was flying, his hair caught hold of an oak, where he hung till Joab came and thrust him through with three darts. David had expressly ordered his life to be spared, and extremely lamented him. The weight of Absalom’s hair, which is stated at “ 200 shekels after the king’s weight,” has occasioned much critical discussion. If, according to some, the Jewish shekel of silver was equal to half an ounce avoirdupois, 200 shekels would be 6^ pounds; or, according to Josephus, if the 200 shekels be equal to 5 minse, and each mina 2^ pounds, the weight of the hair would be 121 pounds, a supposition not very credible. It has been supposed by others, that the shekel here denotes a weight in gold equal to the value of the silver shekel, or half an ounce, which will reduce the weight of the hair to about 5 ounces ; or that the 200 shekels are meant to express the value, not the weight. ABSCESS, in Surgery ; from abscedo, to separate ; a cavity containing pus, or a collection of puriform matter in a part: So called, because the parts which were joined are now separated; one part recedes from another, to make way for the collected matter. ABSCISSE, in Conics, a part of the diameter or transverse axis of a conic section, intercepted between the vertex or some other fixed point and a semiordinate. See Conic Sections. ABSCONSA, a dark lantern used by the monks at the ceremony of burying their dead. ABSENTEE. See Ireland. ABSIMARUS, in History, having dethroned Leontius, cut off his nose and ears, and shut him up in a monastery, was proclaimed by the soldiers emperor of the East, a. d. 698. Leontius himself was also an usurper. He had dethroned Justinian II. who afterwards, with the assistance of the Bulgarians, surprised and took Constantinople, and made Absimarus prisoner. Justinian, now settled on the throne, and having both Absimarus and Leontius in his power, loaded them with chains, ordered them to lie down on the ground, and with a barbarous pleasure held a foot on the neck of each for the space of an hour

A B S in presence of the people. They were beheaded A. d. Absinth! 705. * ated ABSINTHIATED, any thing tinged or impregnated II with absinthium or wormwood. Bartholin mentions a " u‘ woman whose milk was become absinthiated, and rendered as bitter as gall, by the too liberal use of wormwood. Vinum absinthites, or poculum absinthiatum, “ wormwood wine,” is much spoken of among the ancients as a wholesome drink, and even an antidote against drunkenness. Its medical virtues depend on its aromatic and bitter qualities. Infused in wine or spirits, it may prove beneficial in cases of indigestion or debility of the stomach. ABSINTHIUM, in Botany, the trivial name of the common wormwood. ABSOLUTE, in a general sense, something that stands free or independent. Absolute is more particularly understood of a being or thing which does not proceed from any cause, or does not subsist by virtue of any other being, considered as its cause ; in which sense God alone is absolute. Absolute, in this sense, is synonymous with independent, and stands opposed to dependent. Absolute also denotes a thing that is free from conditions or limitations; in which sense the word is synonymous with unconditional. We say, an absolute decree, absolute promise, absolute obedience. Absolute Government, that in which the prince is left solely to his own will, being not limited to the observance of any laws except those of his own discretion. Absolute Equations, in Astronomy, is the aggregate of the optic and eccentric equations. The apparent inequality of a planet’s motion, arising from its not being equally distant from the earth at all times, is called its optic equation, and would subsist even if the planet’s real motion were uniform. The eccentric inequality is caused by the planet’s motion being uniform. To illustrate which, conceive the sun to move, or to appear to move, in the circumference of a circle, in whose centre the earth is placed. It is manifest, that if the sun moves uniformly in this circle, it must appear to move uniformly to a spectator on the earth; and in this case there will be no optic nor eccentric equation : but suppose the earth to be placed out of the centre of the circle, and then, though the sun’s motion should be really uniform, it would not appear to be so, when seen from the earth; and in this case there would be an optic equation, without an eccentric one. Imagine further, the sun’s orbit to be not circular but elliptic, and the earth in its focus; it will be as evident that the sun cannot appear to have an uniform motion in such ellipse : so that his motion will then be subject to two equations, the optic and the eccentric. Absolute Number, in Algebra, is any pure number standing in any equation without the conjunction of literal characters ; as 2 a? 36 = 48 ; where 36 and 48 are absolute numbers, but 2 is not, as being joined with the letter x. ABSOLUTION, in Civil Law, is a sentence whereby the party accused is declared innocent of the crime laid to his charge. Absolution, in the Canon Law, is a juridical act, whereby the priest declares the sins of such as are penitent remitted.—The Romanists hold absolution a part of the sacrament of penance ; the council of Trent, sess. xiv. cap. iii. and that of Florence, in the decree ad Armenos, declare the form or essence of the sacrament to lie in the words of absolution, “ I absolve thee of thy sins.” The formula of absolution, in the Roman church, is absolute; in the Greek church, it is deprecatory; and in the churches of the Reformed, declarative.

A B S A B S 45 osolution Absolution is chiefly used among Protestants for a persons as could not partake of the cup of the eucharist Abstergent H sentence by which a person who stands excommunicated on account of their natural aversion to wine. Calvinists Medicfnes bstemii. js released or freed from that punishment. allow these to communicate in the species or bread only, II J ^ ABSORBENT, in general, any thing possessing the fa- touching the cup with their lip; which, on the other hand, Absticulty of absorbing, or swallowing up another. is by the Lutherans deemed a profanation. nence. Absorbent Medicines, testaceous powders, or subA.BSTERGENT Medicines, those employed for restances into which calcareous earth enters, as chalk, crabs solving obstructions, concretions, &c. such as soap, &c. eyes, &c. which are taken inwardly, for drying up or abABSTINENCE, in a general sense, the act or habit of sorbing any acid or redundant humours in the stomach or refraining from something to which there is a strong prointestines. They are likewise applied externally to ulcers pensity. Among the Jews, various kinds of abstinence or sores with the same intention. were ordained by their law. The Pythagoreans, when Absorbents, or Absorbing Vessels, in Anatomy, a initiated, were enjoined to abstain from animal food, exname given promiscuously to the lacteal vessels, lympha- cept the remains of sacrifices; and to drink nothing but tics, and inhalant arteries ; a minute kind of vessels found water, unless in the evening, when they were permitted in animal bodies, which imbibe fluids that come in contact to take a small portion of wine. Among the primitive with them. On account of their minuteness and transpa- Christians, some denied themselves the use of such meats rency, they escape observation in ordinary dissection. as were prohibited by that law, others regarded this abThey have, however, been detected in every tribe of ani- stinence with contempt; of which St Paul gives his opinmals, and, in the animals which have been examined, in ion, Rom. xiv. 1-3. The council of Jerusalem, which was every part of the body. held by the apostles, enjoined the Christian converts to ABSORPTION, in the animal economy, is the function abstain from meats strangled, from blood, from fornicaof the absorbent vessels, or that power by which they tion, and from idolatry. Abstinence, as prescribed by the take up and propel substances. This power has been as- gospel, is intended to -mortify and restrain the passions, cribed to the operation of different causes, according to to humble our vicious natures, and by that means raise tlie theories which physiologists have proposed. Some our minds to a due sense of devotion. But there is anattribute it to capillary attraction, others to the pressure other sort of abstinence, which may be called ritual, and of the atmosphere, and others to an ambiguous or un- consists in abstaining from particular meats at certain known cause, which they denominate suction; for this times and seasons. It was the spiritual monarchy of the last is nothing else than the elastic power of one part of western world which first introduced this ritual abstithe air restoring the equilibrium, which has been destroy- nence, the rules of which were called rogations ; but grossed by the removal or rarefaction of another part. ly abused from the true nature and design of fasting. In Absorptions of the Earth, a term used by Kircher and England, abstinence from flesh has been enjoined by others for the sinking in of large tracts of land by means statute since the Reformation, particularly on Fridays and of subterranean commotions, and many other accidents. Saturdays, on vigils, and on all commonly called/is/a days. Pliny tells us, that in his time the mountain Cybotus, The like injunctions were renewed under Queen Elizawith the town of Curites, which stood on its side, were beth ; but at the same time it was declared that this was wholly absorbed into the earth, so that not the least trace done, not out of motives of religion, as if there were any of either remained; and he records the like fate of the difference in meats, but in favour of the consumption of city of 1 antalis in Magnesia, and after it of the mountain fish, and to multiply the number of fishermen and marinSipylus, both thus absorbed by a violent opening of the ers, as well as to spare the stock of sheep. The great earth. Galanis and Gamales, towns once famous in fast, says St Augustin, is to abstain from sin. Phoenicia, are recorded to have met the same fate; and Abstinence is more particularly used for a spare diet, the vast promontory called Phegium, in Ethiopia, after a or a slender parsimonious use of food. Physicians relate violent earthquake in the night-time, was not to be seen wonders of the effects of abstinence in the cure of many in the morning, the whole having disappeared, and the disorders, and protracting the term of life. The noble earth closed over it. These and many other histories, Venetian Cornaro, after all imaginable means had proved attested by the authors of greatest credit among the an- vain, so that his life was despaired of at 40, recovered, cients, abundantly prove the fact in the earlier ages ; and and lived to near 100, by the mere effect of abstinence; there have not been wanting too many instances of more as he himself gives the account. It is indeed surprising modern date. (Kircher’s Mund. Subter. p. 77.) to what a great age the primitive Christians of the East, Picus, a lofty mountain in one of the Molucca isles, who retired from the persecutions into the deserts of Arawhich was seen at a great distance, and served as a land- bia and Egypt, lived, healthful and cheerful, on a very mark to sailors, was entirely destroyed by an earthquake; little food. Cassian assures us, that the common rate for and its place is now occupied by a lake, the shores of 24 hours was 12 ounces of bread, and pure water: with which correspond exactly to the base of the mountain. such frugal fare St Anthony lived 105 years; James the In 1556, a similar accident happened in China. A whole Hermit, 104; Arsenius, tutor of the Emperor Arcadius, province of the mountainous part of the country, with all 120; St Epiphanius, 115; Simeon the Stylite, 112; and the inhabitants, sunk in a moment, and was totally swal- Romauld, 120. Indeed, we can match these instances of lowed up: the space which was formerly land was also longevity at home. Buchanan informs us, that one Laucoveied with an extensive lake of water. And, during the rence arrived at the great age of 140 by force of temperearthquakes which prevailed in the kingdom of Chili, in ance and labour ; and Spotswood mentions one Kentigern, the year 1646, several whole mountains of the Andes afterwards called St Mongah or Mungo, who lived to 185 sunk and disappeared. by the same means. Abstinence, however, is to be reABSORUS, Apsorus, Absyrtis, Absyrtides, (Stra- commended only as it means a proper regimen; for in b°, Mela, Ptolemy); islands in the Adriatic, in the gulf general it must have bad consequences when observed o Carnero; said to be so called from Absyrtus, Medea’s without a due regard to constitution, age, strength, &c. brother, there slain. They are now called Cherso and According to Dr Cheyne, most of the chronical diseases, Usero. the infirmities of old age, and the short lives of EnglishABSTEMII, in church history, a name given to such men, are owing to repletion, and may be either cured.

A B S 46 Abstinence prevented, or remedied by abstinence; but then the kinds of abstinence which ought to be observed, either in sickAbstract or health, are to be deduced from the laws of diet Mathema- ness tics. and regimen. Among the inferior animals, we see extraordinary instances of long abstinence. The serpent kind, in particular, bear abstinence to a wonderful degree. We have seen rattle-snakes which had lived many months without any food, yet still retained their vigour and fierceness. Dr Shaw speaks of a couple of cerastes (a sort of Egyptian serpents), which had been kept five years in a bottle close corked, without any sort of food, unless a small quantity of sand in which they coiled themselves up in the bottom of the vessel may be reckoned as such; yet when he saw them, they had newly cast their skins, and were as brisk and lively as if just taken. But it is natural for divers species to pass four, five, or six months every year, without either eating or drinking. Accordingly, the tortoise, bear, dormouse, serpent, &c. are observed regularly to retire, at those seasons, to their respective cells, and hide themselves, some in the caverns of rocks or ruins; others dig holes under ground; others get into woods, and lay themselves up in the clefts of trees; others bury themselves under water, &c. And these animals are found as fat and fleshy, after some months’ abstinence, as before.—Sir G. » Phil. Ent1 weighed his tortoise several years successively, at Trans. its going to earth in October, and coming out again in No. 194. March; and found, that of four pounds four ounces, it only used to lose about one ounce. We have instances of men passing several months as strictly abstinent as other creatures. In particular, the records of the Tower mention a Scotsman imprisoned for felony, and strictly watched in that fortress for six weeks, during which time he did not take the least sustenance ; and on this account he obtained his pardon. Numberless instances of extraordinary abstinence, particularly from morbid causes, are to be found in the different periodical Memoirs, Transactions, Ephemerides, &c. It is to be added, that, in most instances of extraordinary abstinence related by naturalists, there were said to have been apparent marks of a texture of blood and humours, much dike that of the animals above-mentioned. Though it is no improbable opinion that the air itself may furnish something for nutrition, it is cei'tain there are substances of all kinds, animal, vegetable, &c. floating in the atmosphere, which must be continually taken in by respiration ; and that an animal body may be nourished thereby, is evident in the instance of vipers; which, if taken when first brought forth, and kept from every thing but air, will yet grow very considerably in a few days. So the eggs of lizards are observed to increase in bulk after they are produced; and in like manner the eggs or spawn of fishes grow and are nourished with the water. And hence, say some, it is that cooks, turnspit dogs, &c. though they eat but little, yet are usually fat. ABSTINENTS, or Abstinentes, a set of heretics that appeared in France and Spain about the end of the third century. They are supposed to have borrowed part of their opinions from the Gnostics and Manicheans, because they opposed marriage, condemned the use of flesh meat, and placed the Holy Ghost in the class of created beings. We have, however, no certain account of their peculiar tenets. ABSTRACT, in a general sense, any thing separated from something else. Abstract Ideas, in Metaphysics. See Abstraction. Abstract Mathematics, otherwise called Pure Mathematics, is that which treats of magnitude or quantity, absolutely and generally considered, without restriction to

A B T any species of particular magnitude; such are Arithmetic Abstract and Geometry. In this sense, abstract mathematics is lumbers opposed to mixed mathematics; wherein simple and ab- *11 stract properties, and the relations of quantities primitively considered in pure mathematics, are applied to sensible objects, and by that means become intermixed with physical considerations: such are Hydrostatics, Optics, Navigation, &c. Abstract Numbers, are assemblages of units, considered in themselves, without denoting any particular and determinate things. Thus, six is an abstract number when not applied to any thing; but if we say 6 feet, 6 becomes a concrete number. Abstract Terms, words that are used to express abstract ideas. Thus beauty, ugliness, whiteness, roundness, life, death, are abstract terms. Abstract, in Literature, a compendious view of any large work; shorter and more superficial than an abridgement. ABSTRACTION, in Metaphysics, is a term used to denote the mind’s power of considering certain qualities or attributes of an object apart from the rest; or the power which the understanding has of separating the combinations which are presented to it. Abstraction is chiefly employed in these three ways. First, When the mind considers any one part of a thing, in some respect distinct from the whole; as a man’s arm, without the consideration of the rest of the body. Secondly, When we consider the mode of any substance, omitting the substance itself; or when we separately consider several modes which subsist together in one subject. This abstraction the geometricians make use of when they consider the length of a body separately, which they call a line, omitting the consideration of its breadth and thickness. Thirdly, It is by abstraction that the mind forms general ideas. Thus, when we would understand a thinking being in general, we gather from our self-consciousness what it is to think; and omitting those things which have a particular relation to our own minds, or to the human mind, we conceive a thinking being in general. Ideas formed in this manner, which are what we properly call abstract ideas, become general representatives of all objects of the same kind. Thus the idea of colour that we receive from chalk, snow, milk, &c. is a representative of all of that kind; and has a name given it, whiteness, which signifies the same quality wherever found or imagined. See the article Metaphysics. ABSURDUM, reductio ad absurdum, is a mode of demonstration employed by mathematicians when they prove the truth of a proposition by demonstrating that the contrary is impossible, or leads to an absurdity. It is in this manner that Euclid demonstrates the fourth proposition of the first book of the Elements, by showing that the contrary involves a manifest absurdity, viz. That two straight lines can inclose a space. ABSYRTUS, in heathen mythology, the son of iEetes and Hypsea, and the brother of Medea. The latter running away with Jason, after her having assisted him in carrying off the golden fleece, was pursued by her father; when, to stop his progress, she tore Absyrtus in pieces, and scattered his limbs in his way. ABTERODE, a town in the bailiwick of Bilstein, in Hesse-Cassel, in Germany, with 972 inhabitants, who find employment chiefly in making woollen cloth. ABTHANES, in History, a title of honour used by the ancient inhabitants of Scotland, who called their nobles thanes, which in the old Saxon signifies king's ministers; and of these the higher rank were styled abthanes, and those of the lower underthanes.

Abu 'I

ABU ABU 47 ABU and CANDU, a group of twelve islands in the ABUKESO, in commerce, the same with Aslan. Abukeso southern division of the Indian Ocean, to the south of the ABUKOR, a town near Lepanto, in the province of || Maldives, in Lat. 5. 6. S. and Long. 74. 23. E. They are Aimabochte, in Turkey in Europe. Abundant Number rocky, but have good anchorage, under the shelter of a ABULAHOR, a town of Turkey in Europe, on the . reef. There are no inhabitants, nor has any good water river Aspre, in the Sandschacor Standard of Joanina, and'^~v'v‘-' been found. province of Romelia. ABU-ARISCH, the capital of the territory of the same ABULAWO, a town of Russia, in the circle of Kraname, on the Red Sea, in a fruitful plain, with rock-salt piwna, and government of Tula. mines near it. It is in Lat. 16. 45. N. and Long. 42. 33. E. ABULFARAGIUS, Gregory, son of Aaron, a physiABUBEKER, or Abu-Becr, the first caliph, the im- cian, born in 1226, in the city of Malatia, near the source mediate successor of Mahomet, and one of his first con- of the Euphrates in Armenia. He followed the profession verts. His original name was Abdulcaaba, signifying ser- of his father, and practised with great success; but he vant of the caaba or temple, which, after his conversion to acquired a higher reputation by the study of the Greek, Mahometanism, was changed to Abdallah, servant of God; Syriac, and Arabic languages, as well as by his knowledge and on the marriage of the prophet with his daughter of philosophy and divinity; and he wrote a history which Ayesha, he received the appellation of Abu-Becr, Father does great honour to his memory. It is written in Arabic, of the virgin. Illustrious by his family, and possessed of and divided into dynasties. It consists of ten parts, being immense wealth, his influence and example were power- an epitome of universal history from the creation of the ful means of propagating the faith he had adopted, and world to his own time. The parts of it relating to the in gaining converts to the new religion. Abubeker was a Saracens, Tartar Moguls, and the conquests of Jenghis sound believer; and although he lived in the greatest fa- Khan, are esteemed the most valuable. He professed miliarity with Mahomet, he had always the highest vene- Christianity, was bishop of Aleppo, and is supposed to have ration for his character. He vouched for the truth of his belonged to the sect of the Jacobites. His contemporarevelations after his nightly visits to heaven, and thus ob- ries speak of him in a strain of most extravagant panegytained the appellation of the faithful. He was employed ric. He is styled the king of the learned, the pattern of in every mission of trust or importance, was the constant his times, the phoenix of the age, and the croivn of the virfriend of the prophet, and when he was forced to fly from tuous. Dr Pococke published his history with a Latin Mecca, was his only companion. But notwithstanding translation in 1663, in 2 vols. 4to. his blind devotion to Mahometanism, his moderation and ABULFAZEL, who is called by Sir William Jones, prudence were conspicuous in checking the fanatical zeal “ a learned and elegant,” and by others, “ the most eleof the disciples of the new religion on the death of Ma- gant” writer that the East has produced, was vizier and homet. I his event threatened destruction to the doc- historiographer to the Great Mogul, Akber. We have trines of Islamism. Its followers could not doubt that it not been able to discover the year of his birth, but his had taken place, and they were afraid to believe it. In death took place in 1604, when he was assassinated on his this uncertainty and fluctuation of belief, Omar drew his return from a mission to the Decan. According to some sword, and threatened to cut in pieces all who dared to writers, this foul act was perpetrated at the instigation of assert that the prophet was dead. Abubeker, with more the heir apparent to the throne, who had become jealous coolness and wisdom, addressed the people, Is it, says he, of the minister’s influence with the emperor. Akber Mahomet ivhom you adore, or the God whom he has re- greatly lamented the loss of a man who was not only an vealed to you ? Know thaff this God is alone immortal, able minister of state, but of such talents as a writer, as aiul that all those whom he has created are subject to death. to make it a common saying in the East, “ that the neighAppeased and reconciled by this speech, they elected him bouring monarchs stood more in awe of his pen than of successor to Mahomet, and ^ie assumed the modest title the sword of his master.” He wrote, by the emperor’s of caliph, which has continued with all his successors. command, a history of his reign, which came down to the Ali, the son-in-law of the prophet, regarding the elevation forty-seventh year, in which he was assassinated. In conof Abubeker as a violation of his legal rights to the suc- nection with this, he also compiled a volume, intended to cession, refused at first to recognise the appointment, till exhibit a geographical and statistical view of the empire, he was forced by threats into compliance and submission. and of the revenue, household, and expenses of the soveHis partisans, however, still considered him as the legiti- reign. It likewise embraces an account of the religion of mate successor, and their opinion has prevailed among the Hindoos, of their sacred books, and their several sects many Mussulmans, who believe that the sovereign authority, in religion and philosophy. This work, which is fraught both spiritual and temporal, remains with his descendants. with much curious and valuable information, is known Abubeker first collected and digested the revelations of under the name of the Ayeen Akbery. It has been transMahomet, which had hitherto been preserved in detached lated into English with great accuracy by Mr Francis fragments, or in the memories of the believers ; and to this Gladwin. The translation was undertaken and published the Arabians gave the appellation Almoshaf or the Book. at Calcutta, under the intelligent patronage of Mr HastHe died in the 13th year of the Hegira, respected as a ings. “ Such a work,” he said, in a minute of council, prudent and equitable ruler. “ could not but prove peculiarly useful; as it comprehends ,. ABUCCO, Abocco, or Abochi, a weight used in the the original constitution of the Mogul Empire, described kingdom of Pegu. One abucco contains 121 teccalis ; two under the immediate inspection of its founder, and will abuccos make a giro or agire ; two giri, half a hiza ; and serve to assist the judgment of the Court of Directors on a hiza weighs an hundred teccalis; that is, two pounds points of importance to the first interests of the tive ounces the heavy weight, or three pounds nine ounces many company.”—The Calcutta edition, published in 1783-6, in the light weight of Venice. three volumes quarto, is a splendid book, and the most ABUCHOW, a village in Russia, in the circle of Bo- valuable in every respect, as the London reprints are by goradsk, and government of Moscow, where are mills be- no means accurate. longing to the emperor, from whence 10,000 poods of gunABUNA, the title given to the archbishop or metropopowder are annually delivered. It stands on the river litan of Abyssinia. ivliasma, whose stream turns seven mills. ABUNDANT Number, in Arithmetic, is a number, the

48

ABU

A

B

Y

Abundan- sum of whose aliquot parts is greater than the number which collections is that called the Hamasa. Sir William Abutia itself. Thus, the aliquot parts of 12 being 1, 2, 3, 4, and Jones speaks of it as a very valuable compilation. Many Teman '' II 6, they make, when added together, 16. An abundant of the elegant specimens of Arabian poetry contained in Abu. number is opposed to a deficient number, or that which is Professor Carlyle’s well-known work, were translated from rem j“Vgreater than all its aliquot parts taken together; as 14, pieces contained in this miscellany. A large portion of whose aliquot parts are 1, 2, and 7, which makes no more it, with a Latin version, was annexed by Schultens to his than 10; and to a perfect number, or one U> which its edition of Erpenius’s Arafo'c Grammar,published atLeyden aliquot parts are equal, as 6, whose aliquot parts are 1, 2, in 1748; and there are also many extracts from it in the collection entitled Anthologia Arabica, published at Jena and 3. ABUNDANTIA, a heathen divinity, represented in in 1774. ABUTILON, in Botany, the trivial name of several ancient monuments under the figure of a woman with a pleasing aspect, crowned with garlands of flowers, pouring species of the sida. ABUZOW, a town of Russia, in the circle of Sergatsch, all sorts of fruits out of a horn which she holds in her right hand, and scattering grain with her left, taken pro- and government of Rishegorod. ABYDOS, in Ancient Geography, anciently a town miscuously from a sheaf of corn. On a medal of Trajan built by the Milesians, in Asia, on the Hellespont, where she is represented with two cornucopiae. ABUS, in Ancient Geography, a river of Britain, now it is scarce a mile broad, opposite to Sestos, on the European side. It was famous for Xerxes’s bridge, and for the the Humber. ABUS AID, Ebn Aljaptu, sultan of the Moguls, suc- loves of Leander and Hero (Musaeus, Ovid); celebrated ceeded his father anno 717 of the Hegira. He was the also for its oysters (Ennius, Virgil). The old castle of the last monarch of the race of Jenghis Khan, who held the Dardanelles, built by the Turks, lies a little southward of undivided empire of the Moguls; for after his death, Sestos and Abydos. ABYDUS, in Ancient Geography, an inland town of which happened the same year that Tamerlane was born, it became a scene of blood and desolation, and was broken Egypt, between Ptolemais and Diospolis Parva, famous for the palace of Memnon and the temple of Osiris. into separate sovereignties. ABYLA (Ptolemy, Mela), one of Hercules’s pillars, on ABUSIR, a town of Egypt, twelve hours to the west of Alexandria. It is in a ruinous condition, with remains the African side, called by the Spaniards Sierra de las of an ancient temple, and many scattered vestiges of for- Monas, opposite to Calpe in Spain, the other pillar ; supmer extent and population. posed to have been formerly joined, but separated by HerABUSUMBOL, or Ebsambul, or Ipsambul, a town cules, and thus to have given entrance to the sea now callon the Nile, in Nubia, to the south of the island of ed the Mediterranean ; the limits of the labours of HercuKogos, in Lat. 22. 20. 11. N. and Long. 31. 40. 57. E. les. (Pliny.) About twenty feet above the river is a temple hewn out of ABYSS, in a general sense, denotes something prothe perpendicular face of the rock. At the entrance are found, and, as it were, bottomless. The word is originalsix colossal figures of young persons, in bas-relief, and ly Greek, aCuS tions of Mr Bruce, yet bears ample and willing the province of Wojjerat, a plain inhabited by negroes testimony to the general accuracy of his descriptions and called Doha, and a district of the Galla tribe. Soon afternarrative; and records, in more than one instance, the wards he reached the town of Mocurra, and the village of astonishment which the Abyssinians expressed at the Dufat on one of the high Lasta mountains ; his course durknowledge which Mr Bruce displayed of their history and ing the whole of this part of his journey being nearly south. country. Mr Browne and Mr Antes, who had excellent After passing the village of Dufat he arrived at the town oppoi tunities of comparing Mr Bruce’s statements with of Senare, and visited the sources of the river Tacazze, 11e accounts given by persons well acquainted with having before this met with no stream of importance. He , yssmia, bear testimony to the general accuracy of his now changed his route, following the course of the river, etai s; and Dr C larke, while at Cairo, obtained from an nearly due north, and afterwards north-east to Socota, the Abyssinian Dean, whom he met there, direct and specific reputed capital of Lasta, the district which, before his de'evidence in favour of the correctness of some parts of his parture from Antalo, he was advised to pass through, as narrative, which had till then been regarded w ith suspicion. lying in the most accessible road to Gondar. From Socota r VOL. ii. H

ABYSSINIA. 58 Abyssinia, he proceeded northwards along the banks of the Tacazze, imported, and of all the salt. Tigre comprehends about Abyssin 'and, having crossed it, entered the province of Samen, the four degrees of latitude, and the same of longitude; it mountains of which he ascended till he reached Mishekka, possesses the sea-coast, is naturally strong, and is inhabitand afterwards descended them to Inchetkaab, where Ras ed by a warlike people. Its divisions are, 1. Tigre proGabriel resided. Here having learned that Ras Welud Se- per ; the general character of which is, a range of hills, inlasse, with whom he had been left by Mr Salt at Antalo, tersected by deep gullies and cultivated plains. 2. Agame, was in danger of being attacked by the Galla, he return- which lies to the east of Tigre proper. This division, ed to that town by a more direct route than he pursued being level land, at a considerable height above the sea, in his journey to Inchetkaab. His next excursion was, and consequently enjoying a favourable climate, is rich in company with the Ras, against his enemies, through and fertile. On its eastern frontier, and near the Taltal, Lasta; and, the Galla having been defeated, he went into it is strong; the salt-plain is in its vicinity. 3. The dithe plains of the Edjow. Next year, engaging again in the vision of Enderta, to the south of Agame, is mostly mouncampaign, he accompanied the army into Hamazen. He tainous ; its capital is Antalo, in which the Ras resides, on also passed over the salt-plain by Amphila. These were account of its being situated so as to protect the southern the principal parts of Abyssinia which Mr Pearce had an provinces from the Galla. 4. To the south of Enderta ia opportunity of visiting, during the interval between Mr the division of Wojjerat; a wild district, full of forests, in which the lion, elephant, and rhinoceros are found. 5. . Salt’s departure from and return to that country. Mr Salt, in his second journey, proceeded from the Adjoining to Wojjerat, is the small and low division of coast of the Red Sea, by the route of Weah, to the foot of Wofila, which borders on the lake Ashangel. Here the the Taranta mountains, which he crossed to Dixan, and Galla are intermixed with the native Abyssinians, and prothence proceeded to Chelicut. Here he ascertained that fess the Christian religion. 6. The division of Lasta is rugit was impracticable to accomplish the immediate object ged, and almost entirely composed of inaccessible mounof his journey, the personal delivery of the presents with tains. To the north of this there are two mountainous which he had been intrusted by his Majesty to the em- districts ; and between them and the Tacazze are two low peror of Abyssinia; as that monarch lived entirely neglect- districts, inhabited by Christian Agows. 7. Farther to ed, and in fact a prisoner at Gondar, which was in the the north lies the division of Avergale. It is very narrow, possession of Guxo, a chief of the Galla, and the decid- and stretches, for about fifty miles north and south, along ed opponent of Mr Salt’s friend, Ras Welud Selasse. Dis- the Tacazze. It is inhabited by the Agows. 8. The appointed in this object, he made’an excursion to the Ta- division of Samen, which is to the east of the Tacazze, is cazze, through the province of Avergale, a distance of the highest land in Abyssinia. Its mountains run north sixty miles west from Chelicut; and on his return to the and south, about eighty miles. 9. Between the northern latter town, he made another excursion to Antalo. On border of Samen and Tigre proper lies the valuable disfinally quitting Chelicut, he passed through the high dis- trict of Zemben. 10. Above Zemben, to the west of trict of Giralta, whence he descended the steep pass of Axum, is the division of Shire, the most picturesque part Atbara, to the banks of the Warre. His route was next of Abyssinia, abounding in rich valleys, flowery meadows, to Adowa, over several ridges of hills. From Adowa he and shady groves. 11. The last division of Tigre is commade an excursion to Axum, for the purpose of re-exa- monly called the kingdom of the Baharnegash. The second independent state is that which still retains mining its ruins and inscriptions. Having accomplished this object, he returned to Adowa, and thence to the sea- the name of Amhara. This is almost entirely in the possession of the Galla, whose chief is Guxo, the enemy of coast. From this brief outline of Mr Salt’s two journeys, and Ras Welud Selasse. His power on the west side of the of the excursions of Mr Pearce, it will appear that neither Tacazze is absolute; and it is much strengthened and inof them penetrated so far into Abyssinia as Mr Bruce had creased by his connection with the southern Galla. His done; nevertheless, their narratives are of very consider- cavalry are estimated at twenty thousand, chiefly from the able value, not only on account of the new information district of Begemder. Gondar belongs to him. The third grand division, which lies in the south of which they supply, but also as they enable us to place more steady confidence in such parts of Mr Bruce’s state- Abyssinia, is now entirely separated from the two others ments regarding Abyssinia as they had the opportunity by the Galla : it consists of the united provinces of Shoa of verifying; and to ascribe to his Travels their just de- and Efat, which are supposed to retain a larger portion of Ethiopian literature and manners than any other part of gree of value and accuracy. The voyage of Hemprich, Ehrenberg, and their compa- Abyssinia. Efat lies between the ninth and eleventh denions, of which we have as yet only a rapid sketch from grees of north latitude. It is principally high land, running the pen of M. Humboldt, does not promise to throw much north and south, and gradually declining on each side into light on the civil and interior state of Abyssinia. It appears a plain country. Streams flow from both sides of the mounthat they never passed the barrier chain of mountains, but tains, and fall into the Nile and Hawush. Two branches merely explored that north-eastern face which looks to of the latter nearly encircle this province. The present the Red Sea. Their researches and collections relative ruler is the grandson of Yasous, mentioned by Bruce (but, to the natural history of this region, as well as of Nubia, as Dofter Esther informed Mr Salt, incorrectly) as having and the others to which their journey extended, appear to visited Gondar while he was there. He resides at Ankohave been very extensive ; but the details have not yet ber, the capital of Efat. This district is one of the finest in Abyssinia, and in power equal to that of Ras Welud Sebeen communicated to the public. Present It will now be our object to draw, from the narratives lasse. Its force is chiefly cavalry, who are very skilful state of . . of Mr Bruce pand —j Mr Salt, a connected view of the statis- and courageous. The province of Shoa lies on a lower Abyssmia. tjc^ an(j t e c an(j gociai con(liti0n of this remark- level than that of Efat; there is extremely rich pasturage in its valleys ; it contains several large towns, and many able country. When Mr Salt was last in Abyssinia, it was divided into monasteries. The district of Walaka and Gondar are de* three distinct and independent states. Tigre, which was pendent on the united provinces of Shoa and Efat. Of the rivers, the Tacazze rises from three small springs the most powerful, was under the dominion of Ras Welud Selasse, who possessed the monopoly of all the muskets in the plains of Margilla; it is joined by the river Arequa,

ABYSSINIA. 59 . which runs through the province of Avergale, in a north- produces a kind of figs, but these are not eatable. When Abyssinia, west direction, in the district of Zemben ; and it forms one used for food, it is to be cut immediately above the small of the larger branches of the Nile. The Bahr-el-Azrek, or detached roots, or perhaps a foot or two higher, according Blue River, or Azergue, the chief Abyssinian branch of to the age of the plant. The green is to be stripped from the Nile, rises from two fountains in Sacala, near Geesh, the upper part till it becomes w'hite; and when soft, it flows through the lake of Dembea, sweeps, after quitting affords an excellent food when eaten with milk or butter. the lake, in a semicircular direction round the provinces 5. Rack is a large tree, growing not only in Abyssinia, but of Damot and Gojam, and unites with the Bahr-el-Abiad, in many places of Arabia Felix. Its wood is so hard and or White River, at Wed Hogela, in latitude 16. N. This bitter, that no worm will touch it; for which reason it is river, the real Nile, is supposed to rise in the Jibbel- used by the Arabs for constructing their boats. It grows, el-Kumri, or mountains of the Moon. The other rivers like the mangrove, among the salt water of the sea, or are, the Maleg, which joins the Abyssinian Nile, after a about salt springs. 6. Cusso, or Banksia anthelmintica, is parallel course, on the west; the Mareb, which forms the a very beautiful and useful tree, being a strong anthelminboundary between Tigre and the kingdom of the Baharne- tic, and used as such by the Abyssinians. 7. Teff is a gash ; the Hanazo and Hawush, which flow in an opposite kind of grain sown generally throughout Abyssinia, and direction, towards the entrance of the Red Sea; and the constituting the bread commonly made use of by the inJemma. The principal lakes are, Dembea, or Tzana, about habitants. They have indeed plenty of wheat, and are as sixty miles long, and thirty broad, where most extensive, skilful in forming it into bread as the Europeans; but this and in the wet seasons; the lake of Lawasa, in the south- is only made use of by people of the first rank: however, ern extremity of Abyssinia, a chief source of the Hawush ; the teff is sometimes of such an excellent quality, that the the lake of Haik, near the rocks of Geshen and Ambazel; bread made from it is held in equal estimation with the and the Ashangel. finest wheat. From the bread made of this grain a The great difference of climate, owing to the vast ex- sourish liquor called bouza is prepared, which is used for tent and variety of elevation in different parts of this em- common drink like our small beer. A liquor of the same pire, is very perceptible in its soil and productions. The kind, but of inferior quality, is made from barley cakes. mountains in many places are not only barren, but alto- Some have been of opinion that the use of teff occasions gether inaccessible, except by those who make it their worms; but this is controverted by Mr Bruce. 8. Nook, constant practice to climb amongst them; and even by a plant not to be distinguished from our marigold, either them they cannot be ascended without great difficulty and in shape, size, or foliage, is also sown very generally over danger. The shapes of these mountains, as we have al- the country, and furnishes all Abyssinia with oil for the ready had occasion to observe, are very strange and fan- kitchen and other uses. tastical ; exceedingly different from those of Europe : some Our knowledge in this department is considerably inresembling towers and steeples, while others are like a creased by Dr Murray’s edition of Bruce, and Mr Salt’s two board or slate set up on end ; the base being so narrow, journeys. The lehem, or Toberne montana, a tree common and the whole mountain so high and thin, that it seems near the lake of Dembea, is remarkable for its beauty and wonderful how it can stand. In the valleys, however, and fragrance ; it grows to a considerable size, the extremities flat parts of the country, the soil is excessively fruitful,, of its branches trailing along the ground, laden with flowers though in the warmest places grain cannot be brought to from top to bottom in great profusion, each cluster conperfection. Wine is also made only in one or two places; taining between eighty-five and ninety, open or shut; the hut the greatest profusion of fruits of all kinds is to be met fruit is eaten, but has rather a harsh taste. The anguah, with everywhere, as well as many vegetables not to be found near the Tacazze, produces a gum resembling frankfound in other countries. There is a vast variety of flowers, incense. The leaves of the geesh, which is very common, which adorn the banks of the rivers in such a manner as are put by the Abyssinians into their maize; they are to make them resemble fine gardens. Among these a likewise reduced to powder, and mixed with the other maspecies of rose is met with, which grows upon trees, and terials of which they make sown. The mergombey, a speis much superior in fragrance to those which grow on cies of Solarium, is used as a cathartic ; and from the niche, bushes. Senna, cardamom, ginger, and cotton, are likewise or niege, they extract their vegetable oil: it is a species produced here in great quantities. of Sesanum. These are the principal plants, descriptions Among the rare plants to be met with in Abyssinia, and plates of which are given from Mr Bruce’s manuscripts Mr Bruce particularly describes the following:—1. The and drawings, by Dr Murray. Mr Salt’s researches have papyrus, the ancient material for paper; which our au- added eight new genera, and one hundred and twentythor supposes to have been a native of Ethiopia, and not four new species, to botany. Near Shela, a species of of Egypt, as has been supposed. 2. Balessan, balm, or narrow-leaved Ficus grows, called by the natives chekunit; balsam plant; a tree growing to the height of 14 or 15 the inner rind of the bark of which, having been bruised feet, and used for fuel along with other trees in the coun- on a stone, twisted round a stick, and dried, is used as try- It grows on the coast of the Red Sea, among the matches for their fire-arms. Near Adowa, Mr Salt found myrrh trees behind Azab, all the way to Babelmandel. a new and beautiful species of Amaryllis, bearing ten or Dus is the tree producing the balm of Gilead mentioned twelve spikes of bloom on each stem, from one receptacle, in Scripture. 3. The sassa, myrrh, and opocalpasum trees. as large as those of the belladonna. The corolla is white; These grow likewise along the coast of the Red Sea. The each petal is marked down the middle with a single streak sassa or opocalpasum is used in manufactures; and, ac- of bright purple ; it is sweet-scented, like the lily of the cording to our author, resembles gum adragant, probably valley; the bulbs are frequently two feet under ground. tragacanth. The tree which produces it grows to a great Mr Salt brought this plant to England. size, and has a beautiful flower, scarce admitting of descripThe domesticated animals are oxen. The Galla oxen, tion without a drawing. 4. Ensete, an herbaceous plant, or sanga, were not seen by Mr Bruce; and his account growing in Narea, in swampy places; but it is supposed of them is not strictly correct, their large horns not being to grow equally well in any other part of the empire, the effect of disease. The largest Mr Salt ever saw was where there is heat and moisture sufficient. It forms a four feet in length, and the circumference at the base great part of the vegetable food of the Abyssinians. It twenty-one inches. The horns of one of them are in the

60 AB Y S Abyssinia, museum of the College of Surgeons in London. The animal itself is of the usual size, and of various colours ; it is by no means common in Abyssinia, being brought only by the cqfilas, or salt caravans, as a valuable present, from the south. The sheep are small and black ; the horses strong and beautiful. Besides these, there are mules, asses, a few camels, and two species of dogs ; one of which owns no master, but lives in packs in the villages, like the paria dog in India; the other is kept for game, especially for Guinea fowls, which it catches very expertly. The wild animals are, the elephant, which is hunted by the Shangalla for their teeth : the cawe leopard, only found in the interior districts ; very shy; its skin is an article of barter : the two-horned rhinoceros, only found in the forests of Wojjerat, and the low land near the Funge; its horns have no connection with the bone of the head, consequently the opinion of Sparman, that they can raise and depress them at pleasure, may be correct. This rhinoceros has no folds in the skin, as the one-horned has; its skin is used for shields ; its horns for handles to swords and daggers, and, according to the Abyssinian Dean whom Dr Clarke interrogated at Cairo, as a lining to drinking vessels, being regarded as an antidote to poison. The foremost horn is two feet long, and very large in other respects. The buffalo is very common in the forests of Ras-el-fil; shields are made from its skin with great art. The zebra, in the south chiefly ; its mane decorates the collars of the war-horses belonging to chiefs of great rank on days of state. The wild ass is found in some parts; lions occasionally, especially in the sandy districts near the Tacazze. Whoever kills one wears the paw on his shield : the skin, richly ornamented, forms a dress like that worn by the Caffre chiefs. There are several species of leopard, one black, extremely rare, the skin of which is worn only by governors of provinces. The lion-cat, tiger-cat, or grey lynx, and wild-cat, are not uncommon. From the libet, civet is procured, and is an article of commerce. The hyena: Mr Salt remarks that it has a singular cry—three distinct deep-toned cries ; then silence for a few minutes, succeeded by the same kind of cry. The hyena and dog seldom fight; they even feed on the same carcass. A small kind of wolf; common fox; sea fox; and jackal. There is a great variety of antelopes, one of which is probably allied to the chamois,' being confined to the cold and mountainous district of Samen. Several species of monkey ; the wild boar ; porcupine ; cavy, nearly allied to that of the Cape ; a small grey hare, deemed by the natives unclean ; squirrel; rats, very numerous in the fields; an undescribed species of lemur, the size of a cat, with a long tail, faintly striped with black and white, with white bushy hair at the end : the hair on the body is long, and of a clear white, except on the back, where there is a large oval spot covered with short deep-black hair. Of this every man in Tigre endeavours, if possible, to have a piece on his shield. The hippopotami are chiefly found in the deep pits, like lochs, between the fords of the Tacazze ; they roll and snort like a porpus; they cannot remain longer than five or six minutes under water; their colour is a dusky brown, like the elephant; their usual length sixteen feet. Whips are made of their skin, and used to brush away the flies, which are very troublesome in hot weather : the butt-ends of the whips are ornamented with hair from the tail of the camelopard. The number of birds in this country is immense. Great numbers of eagles, vultures, hawks, and others of that kind, are met with, and come punctually every year after the tropical rains have ceased. They feed at first upon the shell-fish, which are met with in great quantities on

S IN I A. the edges of the deserts, where they had lived in the salt Abyssi springs, but being forced from their natural habitations's-^v' when these springs were swollen by the rains, are afterwards left to perish on dry land. When these fail, their next resource is from the carcasses of the large animals, such as the elephant and rhinoceros, which are killed in the flat country by the hunters. Their next supply is afforded by the multitude of rats and field-mice which infesi the country after harvest. The vast slaughter of cattle made by the Abyssinian armies, the multitude of persons killed, whose bodies are allowed to rot on the field of battle, &c. furnish them also with another resource. These supplies, however, all fail at the beginning of the rainy season, when the hunters and armies return home, and the vast quantity of water which continually overflows the ground renders it impossible for them to find any other food. The rarest birds brought home by Mr Salt from Abyssinia are, a new species of JBttcco, since called JB. Saltii, which clings like the woodpecker to the branches of trees: a variety of the Upupa erythrorhynchos, with a black tail; it feeds on the figs of the Ficus sycamorus : a non-descript species of Merops; a non-descript species of Tanapq, which perches on the backs of the cattle, and feeds on the grubs which infest them in hot weather; the Columba Abyssinica, wild among the daro trees, eaten by the Abyssinians ; the Tringa Senegalla ; the Erodia a?nphilorsis, allied in some degree to the Arodea Pondiceriana, probably a new genus ; the Cursorius Europceus, an extremely rare bird, shot on the sandy plains near the Tacazze. Bees are domesticated in the province of "Wojjerat, which is famous for white honey, sold at Antalo. Mr Salt gives a dreadful account of the ravages of the Abys* sinian locust. Little is known respecting the mineralogy of Abyssinia. Near Weah there are low hills of granitic rocks, resting on a bed of micaceous earth. In the district of Tigre the soil is sandy; the rocks, composed of slate, schistus, and granite, lie in perpendicular strata. In the districts of Geralta and Enderta the strata are rather horizontal. But the salt-plain is the most interesting, not only in a mineralogical, but also in an economical view, as from it the Abyssinians obtain the pieces of salt which they use as money. This plain lies near the country of the Assa Durwa, about fifty miles west of Amphila, on the road to Massowa ; it is about four days’ journey in extent from north-east to south-west, and is crossed in sandals made of the leaves of a species of palm. The plain is perfectly flat; for the first half-mile the salt is soft; it then becomes hard and crystallized, like ice on which snow has fallen after it has been partially thawed: branches of pure salt occasionally rise above the surface. It is cut with an adze into pieces the shape of a whetstone. For about two feet immediately under the surface it is hard and pure ; afterwards it is coarse and softer, till exposed to the air. The employment of cutting the salt is very dangerous, on account of the Galla, who frequently attack the workmen : none, therefore, are employed except the lowest order of the natives, who lie down on their backs, or flee to the mountains, on the approach of the Galla. Salt caravans, called cafilas, are regularly sent for salt from Antalo; and the situation of Balgudda, or protector of these caravans, is of great importance as well as emolument; for on their safe arrival mainly depends the internal and external commerce of the Abyssinians: when they arrive, therefore, they are received with great acclamation and joy. The Galla frequently attack them. The pay of the Balgudda is derived from the duty imposed on the importation of salt;—-a camel, the usual load of which is two hundred pieces,

I i ysainia. pays eleven; a mule, carrying eighty, pays nine ; an ass I^ pays six. With respect to the climate, Mr Salt found that the thermometer, in March, April, and May, averaged 70° at Chelicut, 65° at Antalo, 95° on the banks of the Tacazze, and on the mountains of Samen he supposed it to be below the freezing point. He contradicts, from his own observation, Mr Bruce’s statement, that snow is not known in Abyssinia. The Samen mountains were covered with snow at the time Mr Salt saw them; and Mr Pearce, in his passage over them, experienced a heavy fall. IjriculTwo varieties of1 wheat are cultivated, of which they tu; make large loaves, either baked or prepared by steam. These, however, are used only at the tables of the great. The teff, which is their usual food, varies in colour from white to black. The Abyssinian Dean informed Dr Clarke that beer, or sowa, was made from selleh, and not from teff; and that it is not made from the latter, is confirmed by the testimony of Michael, Mr Bruce's servant. (Murray’s Life of Bruce, 4to. p. 252.) The neug, which is like the raggy of India, is next in esteem to the teff, with which, or with barley, it is mixed to make bread. It is harsh and dry. Two kinds of barley are sown; the black in great quantity, but it is only given to horses and mules. Maize is much cultivated between Galla and Dixan, but not made into bread. The vetch is cultivated for the purpose of mixing it with teff, or forming it with ghee and curds into balls. It is eaten in the morning. The worst grain of every kind is generally used for seed. As almost every man cultivates enough for his family, it is seldom sold. On the low lands there are two crops. The ploughs are rudely made, from the root or branch of a tree ; sometimes the shares are of iron. They are drawn by oxen. The land is twice ploughed, afterwards the clods are broken by women; and when the corn is half ripe, it is weeded by men, women, and children, singing as they work: only females reap, and when strangers pass they utter a sharp shrill cry, the Liralect of Syria, where it is used on the same occasion. It is produced by trilling the tongue against the roof of the mouth, without any distinct words, but a constant repetition of the syllable al, uttered with the utmost rapidity. In some parts the grain, when carried, is secured from the weather by means of tanned kid-skins. The plain of Larai> near Dixan, resembles the vale of Evesham. It is highly cultivated, and irrigation is practised in it. Cotton is grown near the Tacazze, and sold at Adowa. pltoms, Mr Saifs description of a brind feast, though not so Ir highly coloured as that of Mr Bruce, is still sufficient to prove the barbarism of the Abyssinians. The sides of the table are covered with piles of thin cakes made of teff, reaching to the height of a foot, and two feet and a half in diameter ; in the middle a row of curry dishes is placed. Near f the lias there are a number of fine wheaten rolls, for his own use, and that of his favourites. The signal to begin the feast is given by his breaking and distributing them : immediately female slaves, having washed their hands, dip the tell into the curry, and serve it to all the guests, except the Has, who receives his portion from a male slave, and afterwards distributes it among the chiefs, who acknowledge the favour by standing up and bowing. Balls composed of teff, greens, and curds, are next handed about. In the mean time the process of killing the cattle proceeds in the adjoining yard. That process is simple:— the beast is thrown on the ground, and its head separated from the body with a Jambea knife, during which an invocation is always pronounced. The skin is immediately stript oh one side, and the entrails being taken out, are devoured by the attendants. While the fibres are yet quivering,

the flesh is cut into large pieces. These are of no regu- Abyssinialar size; but generally a piece of bone is attached to the^-^v^-' flesh, by which it is brought into the dining-room. The chiefs with their crooked knives cut off large steaks, which they divide into long stripes, half an inch in diametey. If they are not pleased with the piece they haye got, they hand it to a dependant, who, in his turn, if not pleased, hands it to another, till it comes to one whose taste or rank does not induce or authorize him to reject it. As soon as the first party is satisfied, they rise from the table and give way to others. The last cakes are scrambled for with a great noise. It appears from Mr Salt, that though the chiefs sometimes feed themselves at these feasts, yet more frequently, as Mr Bruce relates, they feed one another. Mr Pearce witnessed a live meal, when travelling with the Lasta soldiers. Plaving fasted long, one of them proposed to cut out the shulada: a cow was throwjn down, and two pieces of flesh, weighing about a pound, cut from the buttock, which they called the shulada. Whenever Mr Salt mentioned the term, he was always understood. After the pieces were cut out, the wounds were sewed up, and plastered over with cow-dung. The animal was driven on, but killed at the end of the journey. The Abyssinians are very expert in dissecting a cow, as there are always a number of applicants, each of whom claims a right to a particular portion. The Abyssinians are very fond of pictures. Their churches are full of them ; and such chiefs as can afford it ornament their principal rooms with them. They paint their pictures on the surface of the walls, tracing the outline with charcoal; they afterwards go over it with coarse Indian ink; and lastly, introduce the colours, which are excessively gaudy. They exaggerate the size of the eye, and paint all classes with full faces, except the Jews, whom they uniformly paint with side faces. On their journeys they sing extemporary verses, one person alone composing and singing them at first, after which they are repeated in chorus by the rest. Their dress consists of a large folding mantle, and close drawers. To these the priests add a vest of white linen next the skin. On their head they wear a small shawl of white cotton, with the crown exposed. Their houses are of a conic form, covered with thatch. In Dixan the houses are flat-roofed, without windows : instead of chimneys, there are pots of earthen ware on the roofs. There are also caves near this place used as dwellings, which are expeditiously made, in a very simple manner—the earth being dug out, and the mortar tempered occasionally with the blade-bone of an ox, and the stones that are used shaped with an adze. Their principal liquor is called maize, made of honey fermented with barley, and strengthened with the root of the Rhamnus inebrians, called sadoo. The liquor is drunk out of Venetian decanters, called brulhes. But the common drink among the lower class is made of the bread left at their feasts, and parched barley ; it is called sowa, and is drunk out of horns. Marriage is generally a civil contract. The female, who is seldom consulted on the occasion, is carried to the house of her husband on his shoulders, or those of his friends. The bride and bridegroom are sometimes seated on a throne of turf, shaded with boughs, round which the relations, &c. dance. The dowry consists of gold, cattle, muskets, and cloth, and is always kept apart, and returned in case of separation. Marriage by civil contract can be dissolved at pleasure ; by religious contract it is more sacred, especially when the parties take the sacrament after marriage. Ladies of rank retain their estates ancl

62 ABYSSINIA. Abyssinia, maiden names, and assume great superiority over their low dress, with cords round their waists, resort to theAbyssk husbands. At Dixan they allow the nails on their left rich and beautiful plains of Walasse, where they spend hand to grow to a great length, and cover them with their time, by no means innocently, amidst its retired cases of leather to preserve them. In some parts it is not groves. uncommon for one man to have several wives ; only one, The Christians near Dixan are distinguished by a cross however, is deemed his lawful wife: each has her sepa- on their breast, arm, &c. and a blue silk string round their neck. They say prayers over whatever they eat, drink, rate residence. When a person is seized with a species of fever called receive, or give, and afterwards blow on it, turning their Tigre-ter, his relations show him all the gold and silver heads to the east. They turn the heads of animals to the ornaments, fine clothes, &c. which they can collect, mak- west when they kill them. A striking resemblance may ing, at the same time, a dreadful noise with drums and be traced between some of the superstitions of the Abysother musical instruments, to drive the devil out; for sinians and those which still linger in our own country. they believe all diseases come from the devil. When The falcon, called goodie-goodie, is never killed by them; death is at hand, the drums, &c. cease ; and when it ac- and when an Abyssinian sets out on a journey and meets tually takes place, howling and tearing the hair and one, he watches it carefully; if it sit still, with its breast skin from the temples ensue. No time is lost in washing towards him till he is past, he regards it as a good omen; the body and fumigating it with incense, after which it if its back is towards him, it is unpropitious; and if it is sewed up in the clothes of the deceased, and buried in fly away, no motive will induce him to proceed on his great haste. Wben the burial is over, the toscar or feast journey. It is a prevalent belief, that every worker in of the dead commences; an image of the deceased, in iron transforms himself, at night, into an hyena, and preys rich garments, on his favourite mule, is carried through on human flesh ; but if, while thus transformed, he is the town, accompanied by other mules, &c. in gay ap- wounded, the wound remains in the corresponding part of parel, and by female hired mourners, crying out, as in his own body. The languages spoken in Abyssinia and the neighbourIreland, “ Why did you leave us ? had you not houses and land ?” When the procession returns, cattle are killed, ing districts are, a corruption of the Geez, called Tigre, and an immense number of people feasted: a repetition Amharic, Falasha, Gafat, Agow, Tcheretch Agow, Shanof this feast, at certain intervals, is given by the different galla, and Galla. According to Dr Murray, the written relations of the deceased, who vie with one another in Geez is the oldest dialect of the Arabic in existence. The profusion and splendour. Amharic, the modern language of Abyssinia, is likewise When a person is murdered, the criminal is generally an Arabic dialect, more simple than the Geez in the form given up to the relations of the deceased, who take him of its verbs, but in all other respects the same. The to the market-place, and dispatch him with their knives Falasha is spoken by the tribes professing the Jewish reand spears, every relation and friend making a point of ligion, who formerly ruled in Dembea, Samen, and near striking a blow. When a person accused of any crime is the Angrab and Kahha ; it is one of the ancient Ethiopian apprehended, he is tied by his garments to another; and tongues, and has no affinity to the Arabic or Hebrew. The it is always considered a sure proof of guilt, if he runs language of the Gafat nation is a corrupted dialect of the away and leaves his garments behind. The Ras decides Amharic. disputes ; before him each party makes his statement, and Respecting the tribes which border upon, or are interstakes a quantity of salt, a mule, slaves, gold, &c. on the mixed with, the Abyssinians, Mr Salt has supplied us veracity of his statement; the party convicted is punished with some additional information. by the forfeiture to the Ras of what he staked. Lands The Jews are very numerous in Gondar and the prodescend from father to son; when there is no son, they go vinces of Samen and Kuara; they are chiefly employed to the brother. All the children and relations have a claim in building and thatching houses. on the property of the deceased; if he has neither, he The Hazorta tribe inhabit the mountains near Tubbo, generally directs it to be sold, and one half to be given to and command the only practicable passage into Abyssinia. the priests, and the other to the poor. They are a brave and rude people. Their population is Their Lent continues fifty-two days, during which they about 5000, over whom there are five chiefs. They posnever taste food till after sunset. The chief amusement sess many cattle, which they seldom kill, but barter with on the holydays after Lent, among the lower classes, very the Abyssinians for grain, being almost entirely ignorant much resembles the English game of bcmdy. of the art of raising corn. They assist the Abyssinians in On the feast of Epiphany, which, according to the Abys- getting in their harvests. During the rainy season they sinians, is the 11th of January, they assemble, in com- go to the sea-side for three, four, or five months, and on memoration of our Saviour’s baptism, near brooks, into their return bring salt, which they exchange for grain with which they jump, after having received the blessing of the the Abyssinians. When they beat their tom-toms, they priest, leaping, dancing, ducking one another, and shout- clap their hands, and hiss in such a manner, that the sound ing. In the performance of baptism three priests are en- resembles the quick alternate pronunciation of the letters gaged ; one Avith the incense, another with a golden cross, p t s. Only one person dances at a time, generally a and the third with the consecrated oil from the patriarch chief; his feet move little, but his body, and particularly of Alexandria. The person to be baptized is first washed his shoulders, is extremely agitated with a kind of writhover with water, and afterwards crossed on the forehead ing gesture. with some of that element, over which the incense has The name Shangalla (or, according to Bruce, Shankala) been waved, and into which the consecrated oil has been is applied by the Abyssinians to the whole race of nedropped. When the person is a Mahometan, every joint groes. One tribe of them were represented to Mr Salt and limb is crossed with the consecrated oil; he is then as living three days’ journey beyond the Nile, and as wrapped in a white linen cloth, and partakes of the sacra- having a very imperfect notion of any supreme being. ment. No unbaptized person is allowed to enter a church. The only species of adoration which they exhibit occurs The sacrament is given in both kinds, with new leavened during a great holyday, when all the people assemble and bread, and wine made of a red grape common in some kill a cow, by stabbing it in a thousand places. They parts of the country. Great numbers of pilgrims, in a yel- have no priests or rulers, but pay respect to old age; the

ABYSSINIA. 63 its common use, circulates as money: a coarse piece sixAbyssinia, j yssinia. old men being allowed to drink first, and take two wives. In their marriages they mutually take each other’s sisters. teen cubits long, one and three-fourths wide, is equal to* If one of the parties has no sister, he gives one of his thirty pieces of salt, or one dollar; a piece not so coarse, female slaves. The women assist the men in ploughing, fifty cubits long, sufficient to make a dress for a chief, is &c. and have an equal share of the produce of the land. equal to twelve dollars. Coarse carpets, from sheeps’ wool, These people are named from some circumstances relating and the hair of goats dyed red and light blue, are manuto their birth, as “ Born in the nightor “ Born while factured at Gondar and in Samen. In some parts the making boozaor from some marks on their bodies. sheep-skins are tanned, and worn by the women round They are buried in their clothes, without ceremony, the their waists, or over their shoulders, whenever they stir relatives feasting on the cattle of the deceased, his wife out. At Axum, skins are made into parchment, and getting the household furniture, and the sons his arms, finished well. Manufactures of iron and brass are comland, and agricultural implements. When hunting, they mon ; the former is procured from Sennaar, Walkayt, and eat whatever they can procure, even an elephant or a rat. Berbera: knives are made at Adowa, and spears at AnThey tie the legs of their prisoners, and employ them in talo: highly finished chains of brass are made by the making cloth, or manufacturing iron. Those who cannot Galla. There are many fairs and weekly markets. At work, they kill. The Abyssinians consider it as sport to a weekly market near Abha, were exposed for sale, iron, wrought and unwrought, for ploughshares, &c. cattle, hunt the Shangalla. There are at least twenty tribes of the Galla, some of horses, skins, cotton, ghee, butter in round balls and very whom, entering Abyssinia from the south, have become white, &c. It is not infamous, as Mr Bruce asserts, for naturalized, and adopted the manners of the Abyssinians. men to attend the markets. Through Adowa, there are imported for Gondar and The tribes out of Abyssinia have little connection with one another, though they speak the same language; each the interior of Abyssinia, lead, block-tin, gold-foil, Perhas its own chief, and they are often engaged in mutual sian carpets, raw silks from China, velvets, French broad hostilities. There are two divisions larger than the rest, cloths, coloured skins from Egypt, and glass beads and one of which, near the Abiad, or White River, retains its decanters from Venice. Ivory, gold, and slaves, are the natural ferocity: they drink warm blood, adorn them- principal exports through Adowa to the coast. A few selves with the entrails of animals, and ride on oxen. slaves from Abyssinia reach Cairo, by way of Cossir and The Assubee Galla wear garments like the Abyssinians ; Suez; they are esteemed more beautiful than those of grease and powder their hair; and cover their arms with Soudan. In estimating the probability that Abyssinia may afford bracelets, and with trophies, according to the number of a new opening for British commerce, there are two cirthe enemies slain. The inhabitants of Hamazen differ from the rest of the cumstances which require particular consideration. There Abyssinians, being darker and stronger limbed, and more can be no doubt, that, in so far as a more accurate knowlike the Funge, who live near Sennaar; they fight des- ledge of the navigation of the Red Sea, and convenient perately with two-edged swords. In the province ofWoj- places for landing the goods, are requisite for this object, jerat, also, the men are larger and stouter than the other the journeys of Lord Valentia and Mr Salt have been of Abyssinians. They are said to be the descendants of great utility; but there can be no communication with Portuguese soldiers. Their fidelity to their rulers is pro- Gondar and the interior of Abyssinia, unless we could verbial. The plain, eight hours’ distance from Wojjerat, either form an alliance with the chief who commands is inhabited by the Doha, one of the isolated tribes of ne- there,—in which case we should be exposed to the engroes found in all parts of Africa. They are mentioned by mity of the Ras of T^gre, and thus be prevented even Alvarez, as, in his time, not marrying till they could make from advancing to a short distance from the coast,—or oath that they had put to death twelve Christians. assist the Ras to liberate his sovereign, and replace him The Agows, who were worshippers of the Nile till the on his throne. Direct assistance could not be given, and seventeenth century, always fix their residence near the the result seems very doubtful were we only to furnish the great branches of that river, for whose waters they still Ras with a supply of arms. In the. second place, supposretain a veneration so great, that they will supply a ing the communication with Gondar to be open and easy, stranger with milk, but not with water. Their buildings Abyssinia at present can furnish nothing in exchange are without mortar. The houses of the higher ranks are for our goods. We could indeed supply them, either in the form of Egyptian temples. At the earliest dawn from Britain or from our Indian possessions, with most of day they assemble before the doors of their chiefs, and of the articles which they procure from Arabia ; especialchant their prayers, ly with India goods and raw cotton from India, for which, i inufac- It has already been mentioned, that one of the objects as cotton is used for clothing in the greater part of Africa, 1 an( H es l of Mr Salt’s journeys was to ascertain whether Abyssinia there must be a great demand : besides, our goods could imerce- was jjjjgjy f.0 affortt any new openings to British com- be sold cheaper, being exempt from the heavy duty immerce. How far this is likely, will best appear from a posed on what they now import. But for exchange with us, sketch of the manufactures and commerce of that coun- Abyssinia produces only ivory and gold : the latter in small try. The former are few and contemptible : though cot- quantities; the former we can procure cheaper elsewhere. ton grows in many parts, and is of a superior quality, yet On the whole, therefore, when we consider that the they import a considerable quantity from India, which communication with the interior will probably always be they manufacture into a coarse cloth. As they have no liable to interruption; and that, even if the case were otherdark blue colour, they unravel the threads of the blue cloth wise, no returns could be looked for, except from the inof Surat, and weave them again into their own webs: creased industry and skill of the Abyssinians, or from rethey procure a black dye from an earth, and red, yellow, gions with which the intercourse is slow and precarious; and light blue from vegetables. Fine cloth is manufac- there seems but little reason to expect that this country tured at Gondar, and coarse at Adowa ; the latter, besides will afford any new openings to British commerce.

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64 A B Y Abyssi*. ABYSSINIAN, in Ecclesiastical History, is the name nian. 0f a sect in the Christian church, established in the empire of Abyssinia. The Abyssinians are a branch of the Copts or Jacobites, with whom they agree in admitting but one nature in Jesus Christ, and rejecting the council of Chalcedon: whence they are called Eutychians or Monophysites, and stand opposed to the Melchites. They are only distinguished from the Copts, and other sects of Jacobites, by some peculiar national usages. The Abyssinian sect or church is governed by a bishop or metropolitan styled Abuna, sent them by the Coptic patriarch of Alexandria residing at Cairo, who is the only person that ordains priests. The next dignity is that of Komos, or Hegumenos, who is a kind of archpresbyter. They have canons also, and monks : the former of whom marry; the latter, at their admission, vow celibacy, but with a reservation: these, it is said, make a promise aloud, before their superior, to keep chastity; but add in a low voice, as you keep it. The emperor has a kind of supremacy in ecclesiastical matters. He alone takes cognizance of all ecclesiastical causes, except some smaller ones reserved to the judges; and confers all benefices, except that of Abuna. The Abyssinians have at different times expressed an inclination to be reconciled to the see of Rome; but rather out of interests of state than any other motive. The Emperor David, or the queen regent on his behalf, wrote a letter on this head to Pope Clement VII. full of submission, and demanding a patriarch from Rome to be instructed by; which being complied with, he publicly abjured the doctrine of Eutychius and Dioscorus in 1626, and allowed the supremacy of the pope. Under the emperor Sultan Seghed all was undone again; the Romish missionaries settled there had their churches taken from them, and their new converts banished or put to death. The congregation de propaganda have made several attempts to revive the mission, but to little purpose.—The doctrines and ritual of this sect form a strange compound of Judaism, Christianity, and superstition. They practise circumcision, and are said to extend the practice to the females as well as males; th^ observe both Saturday and Sunday as Sabbaths ; they eat no meats prohibited by the law of Moses; women are obliged to the legal purifications ; and brothers marry their brothers’ wives, &c. On the other hand, they celebrate the Epiphany with peculiar festivity, in memory of Christ’s baptism ; when they plunge and sport in ponds and rivers ; which has occasioned some to affirm that they were baptized anew every year. They have four Lents : the great one commences ten days earlier than ours, and is observfed with much severity, many abstaining therein even from fish, because St Paul says there is one kind of flesh of men, and another of fishes. They allow of divorce, which is easily granted among them, and by the civil judge ; nor do their civil laws prohibit polygamy itself. They have at least as many miracles and legends of saints as the Romish church ; which proved no small embarrassment to the Jesuit missionaries, to whom they produced so many miracles, wrought by their saints, in proof of their religion, and those so well circumstantiated and attested, that the Jesuits were obliged to deny miracles to be any evidence of a true religion ; and in proof hereof, to allege the same arguments against the Abyssinians which Protestants in Europe allege against Papists. They pray for the dead, and invoke saints and angels; have so great a veneration for the virgin, that they charge the Jesuits with not rendering her honour enough. They venerate images in painting ; but abhor all those in relievo, except the cross. They hold that the soul of man is not creat-

A C A ed ; because, say they, God finished all his works on the sixth day. They admit the apocryphal books, and the canons of the apostles, as well as the apostolical constitutions, for genuine. Their liturgy is given by Alvarez, and in English by Pagit; and their calendar by Ludolph. ACA, Ace, or Acon, in Ancient Geography, a town of Phoenicia, on the Mediterranean ; afterwards called Ptolemais ; now Acre. ACACALOTI, the Brazilian name of a bird called by some corvus aquaticus, or the water raven : properly, the pelicanus carbo, or corvorant. ACACIA, Egyptian Thorn, or Binding Bean-tree, in Botany, a species of mimosa, according to Linmeus; though other botanists make it a distinct genus. The flowers of a species of the acacia are used by the Chinese in making that yellow which we see bears washing in their silks and stuffs, and appears with so much elegance in their painting on paper. The method is this: They gather the flowers before they are fully open; these they put in a clean earthen vessel over a gentle heat, and stir them continually about as they do the tea-leaves, till they become dryish and of a yellow colour; then to half a pound of the flowers they add three spoonfuls of fair water, and after that a little more, till there is just enough to hold the flowers incorporated together; they boil this for some time, and the juice of the flowers mixing with the water, it becomes thick and yellow; they then take it from the fire, and strain it through a piece of coarse silk. To the liquor they add half an ounce of common alum, and an ounce of calcined oyster-shells reduced to a fine powder. All is then well mixed together; and this is the fine lasting yellow they have so long used. The dyers of large pieces use the flowers and seeds of the acacia for dyeing three different sorts of yellow'. They roast the flowers, as before observed ; and then mix the seeds with them, which must be gathered for this purpose when fully ripe : by different admixtures of these they give the different shades of colour, only for the deepest of all they add a small quantity of Brazil wood. Mr Geofff oy attributes the origin of bezoar to the seeds of this plant; which being browsed by certain animals, and vellicating the stomach by their great sourness and astringency, cause a condensation of the juices, till at length they become coated over with a stony matter, which we call Bezoar. Acacia, in the Materia Medica, the inspissated juice of the unripe fruit of the Mimosa Nilotica. The juice is brought to us from Egypt, in roundish masses wrapt up in thin bladders. It is outwardly of a deep brown colour, inclining to black; inwardly of a reddish or yellowish brown; of a firm consistence, but not very dry. It soon softens in the mouth, and discovers a rough, not disagreeable taste, which is followed by a sweetish relish. This inspissated juice entirely dissolves in watery liquors, but is scarce sensibly acted on by rectified spirit. Acacia is a mild astringent medicine. The Egyptians give it in spitting of blood, in the quantity of a drachm, dissolved in any convenient liquor; and repeat this dose occasionally: they likewise employ it in collyria for strengthening the eyes, and in gargarisms for quinsy. Among us, it is little otherwise used than as an ingredient in mithridate and theriaca, and is rarely met with in the shops. What is usually sold for the Egyptian acacia, is the inspissated juice of unripe sloes; this is harder, heavier, of a darker colour, and somewhat sharper taste, than the true sort. See the next article. German Acacia, the juice of unripe sloes inspissated nearly to dryness over a gentle fire, care being taken to

Aca t|

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L cacia prevent its burning. It is moderately astringent, similar I || to the Egyptian acacia, for which it has been commonly A'demy, substituted in the shops. It is given in fluxes, and other v /, ^' ^' $sorders where styptic medicines are indicated, from a scruple to a drachm. Acacia, among antiquaries, something resembling a roll or bag, seen on models, as in the hands of several consuls and emperors. Some take it to represent a handkerchief rolled up, wherewith they made signals at the games ; others, a roll of petitions or memorials ; and some, a purple bag full of earth, to remind them of their mortality. ACACIANS, in ecclesiastical history, the name of several sects of heretics; some of which maintained, that the Son was only a similar, not the same, substance with the Father; and others, that he was not only a distinct but a dissimilar substance. Two of these sects had their denominations from Acacius, bishop of Caesarea, who lived in the fourth century, and changed his opinions so as, at different times, to be head of both. Another was named from Acacius, patriarch of Constantinople, who lived in the close of the fifth century. ACACIUS, surnamed Luscus, because he was blind of one eye, was bishop of Caesarea in Palestine, and succeeded the famous Eusebius: he had a great share in the banishment of Pope Liberius, and bringing Felix to the see of Rome. He gave name to a sect, and died about !the year 365. He wrote the life of Eusebius, which is lost, and several other works. Acacius, Saint, bishop of Amida in Mesopotamia, in 420, was distinguished by his piety and charity. He sold the plate belonging to his church, to redeem seven thousand Persian slaves who were perishing with hunger. He gave each of them some money and sent them home. Veranius, their king, was so affected with this noble instance of benevolence, that he desired to see the bishop; and this interview procured a peace between that prince and Theodosius I. There have been several other eminent persons of the same name; particularly, a martyr under the Emperor Decius; a patriarch of Antioch, who succeeded Basil in 458, and died in 459 ; a bishop of Miletum in the fifth century; a famous rhetorician in the reign of the Emperor Julian ; and a patriarch of Constantinople in the fifth century, who was ambitious to draw the whole power and ! authority of Rome by degrees to Constantinople, for which he was excommunicated by Pope Felix II. He in his turn passed sentence of excommunication against the pope. Still, however, he held his patriarchate till his death in 488. ACAD, or Achad, in Ancient Geography, the town in

A C A 65 which Nimrod reigned, called Archad by the Seventy; Academics situated in Babylonia, to the eastward of the Tigris. || ACADEMICS, or Academists, a denomination given Academy, to the cultivators of a species of philosophy originally de-'^^-^^ rived from Socrates, and afterwards illustrated and enforced by Plato, who taught in a grove near Athens, consecrated to the memory of Academus, an Athenian hero ; from which circumstance this philosophy received the name of Academical. Before the days of Plato, philosophy had in a great measure fallen into contempt. The contradictory systems and hypotheses which had successively been advanced were become so numerous, that, from a view of this inconstancy and uncertainty of human opinions, many were led to conclude, that truth lay beyond the reach of our comprehension. Absolute and universal scepticism was the natural consequence of this conclusion. In order to remedy this abuse of philosophy and of the human faculties, Plato laid hold of the principles of the academical philosophy; and, in his Phaedo, reasons in the following manner: “ If we are unable to discover truth,” says he, “ it must be owing to two circumstances: either there is no truth in the nature of things; or the mind, from a defect in its powers, is not able to apprehend it. Upon the latter supposition, all the uncertainty and fluctuation in the opinions and judgments of mankind admit of an easy solution: Let us therefore be modest, and ascribe our errors to the real weakness of our own minds, and not to the nature of things themselves. Truth is often difficult of access : in order to come at it, we must proceed with caution and diffidence, carefully examining every step ; and, after all our labour, we will frequently find our greatest efforts disappointed, and be obliged to confess our ignorance and weakness.” Labour and caution in the researches, in opposition to rash and hasty decisions, were the distinguishing characteristics of the disciples of the ancient academy. A philosopher possessed of these principles will be slow in his progress, but will seldom fall into errors, or have occasion to alter his opinion after it is once formed. In his essay on the academical or sceptical philosophy, Mr Hume has confounded two very opposite species of philosophy. After the days of Plato, the principles of the first academy were grossly corrupted by Arcesilaus, Carneades, &c. This might lead Mr Hume into the notion, that the academical and sceptical philosophy were synonymous terms. But no principles can be of a more opposite nature than those which were inculcated by the old academy of Socrates and Plato, and the sceptical notions which were propagated by Arcesilaus, Carneades, and the other disciples of the new academical school.

ACADEMY. ^j^CADEMY, axaSjj/A/a, axaSjj^e/a, or i-mhrigita, (the first two forms being probably derived from axoj, medela, and driyog, populus, and the last from exag, procul or seorsim, and drifiog, populus), a garden, villa, or grove, situated in the Ceramicus, one of the suburbs of Athens, about six stadia, or nearly a Roman mile to the north-west of the city. The common tradition is, that it took its name from one Academus or Ecademus, the original owner, who was contemporary with Theseus, and made it a kind of gymnasium ; and that after his death it retained his name, and was consecrated to his memory. When Castor and Pollux came to Athens to reclaim by force of arms the person of their sister Helena, who, according to the legend, ad been carried off by Theseus, and concealed in some VOL. II.

obscure retreat by the ravisher, the Athenians declared that they knew not where the lady was to be found ; but as this answer was not deemed satisfactory by the warlike brothers, Academus, cognisant with the secret, and anxious to avert a contest about so frivolous a subject of dispute, apprized them that she was concealed in the town of Aphidna; which was immediately attacked, taken by assualt, and razed to the ground. Grateful for this traditionary service, the Lacedemonians, who worshipped the Dioscuri (Castor and Pollux), spared the house and gardens known by the name of the Academy, when they ravaged the suburbs of Athens; and, in consideration of the disclosure just mentioned, they honoured the memory of the original owner, from whom the place took its I

66 ACADEMY. 1 .Academy, name. Such is the legend which the Greek writers have but which have since fallen into the most profound neglect Acadti transmitted to us. With regard to the spot itself, which and oblivion. Ptolemy Soter, having by his victories secured undisafterwards became so famous, in connection with the name of Plato and his philosophical disciples, it appears to have turbed possession of the throne of Egypt, and wishing to remained almost in a state of nature, covered with stag- unite to the title of conqueror the more glorious appellanant water, and exceedingly insalubrious, until the time of tion of patron of learning, founded, under the name of Cimon, when it was drained, planted with alleys of trees, Musaeon, the celebrated Academy of Alexandria, and and embellished with groves and with fountains: after provided it with a collection of books, which formed the which it became the promenade of the most distinguished nucleus of the Alexandrian library. Here he assembled the Athenians, and particularly of the Platonic philosophers, most distinguished philosophers and scholars of his time, thence called the Academics ; just as the Lyceum, another charging them with the investigation of philosophical truth gymnasium, situated to the south-east of Athens, became and the improvement of art; and it was to the care and rethe pi’omenade of the Aristotelian sect of philosophers, searches of these eminent men and their successors that called also Peripatetics (a mynursw, obambulo), from the the famous library, commenced by Ptolemy, and afterlocomotive fashion in which they communicated or dis- wards so barbarously given up to the flames by the Caliph coursed concerning their peculiar doctrines. The Aca- Omar, was enlarged and improved, until it became the demy formed part of the Ceramicus (a word derived from pride of Egypt and the glory of the world. This academy, ■Aipayog, signifying potter s earth or earthen vase, from its distinguished alike for its useful labours and its improvebeing filled with cinerary urns), and was therefore devoted ments in science, has served as a model to modern acato purposes of sepulture; it being then the practice to demies, both as regards the principles on which it was inter in a public garden or grove, as in a sort of elysian founded, and the object and end of its institution. It field, those who had signalized themselves by rendering admitted into the number of its associates the poets and important services to their country. Cicero, desirous to philosophers of all countries: persons came from every revive or preserve the name of the Academy, bestowed.it part of the earth to seek instruction, or to deposit new on his villa or country-seat near Puzzuoli, where he loved information in its bosom : and all parties were enriched by to converse with his friends on philosophical subjects, and the continual interchange of ideas and discoveries. For a where, also, he composed his Academical Questions, his long period it was the great centre of knowledge. All treatise on the Nature of the Gods, and his celebrated the literary treasures, scattered throughout the different work on the Commonwealth, a considerable portion of countries which the tide of barbarism had overflowed, were which was, several years ago, recovered from rescribed or there collected together: towards the period when Greece palimpsest manuscripts, by Signor Angelo Maio, libra- began to decline, the spirit and the genius which once presided in her schools of philosophy were in some degree rian of the Vatican. Academy, in its generalized acceptation, is employed to revived in that of Alexandria; and it shone forth like a signify a society of learned men, established for the im- resplendent beacon-light in the midst of the surrounding provement of science, literature, or the arts. This term, darkness, shooting forth rays which have traversed the as we have seen, is one of very high antiquity. It was long course of ages, and guided the academies of modern amidst the umbrageous recesses of the gardens of Aca- times in their researches and investigations. Rome had no academies. In the eyes of the conquedemus, so favourable to philosophical meditation, that the divine Plato, surnamed the swan of the Academy, esta- rors and masters of the world, the sciences appeared only blished his school, collected his disciples, and taught his a secondary object, and of comparatively little importance. sublime morality; wherefore the sect of this illustrious This Virgil has admitted in his iEneid, where he says, that philosopher was called the Academic, and the philosophers in art and in science the Romans must yield the palm to who adopted his doctrines Academics. For a long pe- other nations, and content themselves with the glory of means by which it riod, accordingly, this title marked out the disciples of conquest, and a knowledge of the 2 Plato alone; but it came afterwards to be applied to all might be secured and maintained. The Latin poets and those who belonged to the different learned or literary writers, indeed, were formed by the study of Greek models. societies instituted, under the name of Academies, in imi- But no national establishment fostered their genius and tation of the school of Athens, and in order to extend the favoured their progress, either under the republic, which boundaries of human knowledge. Of these institutions despised letters, or under the imperial tyrants, who dreadseveral were established in Athens itself, but none ever ed them. Augustus himself only patronised and rewardequalled the renown of that founded by Plato; and, in ed the poets who flattered him ; while Maecenas, in surpoint of fact, they were merely schools where Arcesilaus, rounding himself wdth assemblages of celebrated writers, Carneades, Philo, Antiochus, and other philosophers of thought less of extending the boundaries of learning, than less note, explained the different systems with which each of tasting the pleasures of learned society, and wearing in his turn sought to supersede those of his predecessors, off the fatigues of business amidst the sweets of an inter1 From certain expressions of Eupolis, and this among others, e» ivaxioa 'bov^cimi Bcov, “ in the umbrageous groves of the god Academus,” it would appear that this person was accounted not merely a hero, but a sort of divinity. Hence the Academy was consecrated to Bacchus Academus, or to the beneficent sun of the ascending signs ; as the Lyceum with its tcmenos or hicus was dedicated to Apollo Lycseus (so called from Xvkos, a wolf), or to the destroying sun of the descending signs of the zodiac: and hence also these schools were the astronomical symbols or representatives of the celestial houses of the two solstices; the Academy, of the higher, and the Lyceum, of the lower solstice. 2 Excudent alii spirantia mollius sera, Credo equidem; vivos ducent de marmore voltus; Orabunt caussas melius, ccelique meatus Describent radio, et surgentia sidera dicent: Tu regere imperio populos, llomane, memento; Hse tibi erunt artes; pacisque imponere morem, Parcere subjectis, et debellare superbos. , . JEneid. lib. vi. L 848.

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ACADEMY. 67 remain, yet it unquestionably gave an impulse to learning, Academy, Ldemy. course entirely Epicurean, or of enjoyments such as lite- diffused a taste for knowledge, and probably laid the first L.v'C'rature alone can afford to men of refined and cultivated foundations of the French language, which was then a rude mi When the darkness which had settled down upon Eu- idiom, composed of a barbarous mixture of the language rope after the fall of the Western Empire began at length of the Goths, of Latin, and of the dialect of Celtic spoken to disperse, and when a faint glimmering of light, symp- by the ancient Gauls. This idiom the academy subjecttomatic of slowly approaching day, began to flicker and ed to principles, forming it into a regular language, which tremble on the dusky brow of the long night of ignorance afterwards became the provencal, or language of romance: and barbarism, a passion for instruction became in some and when it had thus, as it were, been licked into shape, measure the mode, and gave birth simultaneously to a Charlemagne proposed to have the hymns, the prayers, multitude of learned associations; and these proceeded at and the laws translated into it, for the benefit of the peoonce to the study and improvement of the sciences and ple ; a proposal which reflects the greatest honour on his arts, long neglected, and almost lost in those very coun- memory. But the clergy resolutely set their faces tries where they had formerly been cultivated with the against an innovation which would have deprived them of greatest success. The Gauls, however, although partial- part of their influence as the sole expounders both of the ly civilized by the Romans and by Julian the philosopher civil and the divine laws, and thus in a great measure (vulgarly called the Apostate), had relapsed, under the in- frustrated the principal object which Charlemagne had in dolent and imbecile monarchs of the first race, into the view in founding his academy. Still its labours, though most profound ignorance ; while the monks, who passed for in some respects neutralized by the personal interest of learned men when they could read, were from policy op- the monks, were not altogether useless, but, on the conposed to the instruction of the people. The spirit of mo- trary, were instrumental in diffusing the first gleams of nopoly and exclusion was then, as afterwards, a prominent light throughout France, and in preparing it to emerge characteristic of the ecclesiastical system; and the danger from a state of barbarism. In the following century, Alfred, a man worthy of being of educating the people was as vehemently exaggerated as by certain alarmists of our own day. “ The clergy,” said classed with the first French legislator, founded an acaCharlemagne, “ wish to monopolize all learning, and to demy at Oxford, which formed the basis of the University continue the sole expounders of the sciences and the afterwards established there; but this being a school for laws.” Nevertheless this prince, who would have done instruction rather than an institution for exciting emulahonour to an age far less barbarous, attempted to resusci- tion among the instructed, it does not, for that reason, tate letters, with which he had some acquaintance ; and fall within the scope of the present article. About the with this view he, encouraged by the celebrated Alcuin, same period the Moors of Spain, celebrated for their galfounded in his palace an academy for promoting the study lantry, their chivalrous manners, and their taste for poetry, of grammar, orthography, rhetoric, poetry, history, and the music, and letters, had also their academies at Granada mathematics. This academy was composed of the principal and Cordoba; but of the precise nature and object of I ‘ wits of the court, Charlemagne himself being a member. these institutions little or nothing is known. In the year In their academical conferences, every member was to give 1325, the Academy of the Floral Games was established an account of the ancient authors which he had read ; and at Toulouse. This academy is still in existence, and is of in order to efface all distinctions of rank among the acade- course the most ancient establishment of the kind in micians, he required each of them to choose a name pure- Europe. The members assumed the somewhat fantastical ly literary (as, for example, that of some ancient author name of Maintainers of the Gay Science; and the or celebrated person of antiquity), which should in no prizes which it awarded, consisting of flowers of gold and degree serve to recall the birth, station, or dignity of the silver, excited a strong spirit of emulation among the person assuming it. Accordingly, Egilbert, a young lord, Troubadours of Languedoc and Provence. This society, and one of the grandees about the court, modestly took to which Clemens Isaurus bequeathed the whole of his prothe name of Homer; the archbishop of Mayence called perty, still enjoys a considerable reputation; and many of himself Damcetas; Alcuin became Flaccus Albinus; the young poets of France, who aspire to be one day Eginhard, Calliopus ; Adelard, abbot of Corbie, Augustin; crowned with the genuine laurels of Parnassus, repair to Theodulph, Pindar; and Charlemagne himself, somewhat it, at the commencement of their career, to dispute for the forgetful of his own rule, David.1 Fantastical as all this violet, the marigold, the amaranth, and the eglantine. A whole host of academies sprung up in different counmay appear to us, it was nevertheless productive of good. The nobles, who had been accustomed to value themselves tries immediately after the revival of letters in the fifteenth solely on their birth and ancestry, began to acquire a re- century; but it was in Italy that they were most numelish for more substantial distinctions, and to feel the force rous, every city in fact having its own; and they were of Charlemagne’s remark, that the state was likely to be frequently distinguished by appellations remarkable either better served by men who had improved their minds and for their oddity or extravagance. Thus, Rome had its cultivated their talents, than by those who had no other re- Lincei; Naples, its Ardenti; Parma, its Insensati; and commendation than overweening pride and a long pedigree. Genoa, its Addormentati;—names which some modern Hence the academy of Charlemagne soon obtained great academicians might adopt without the slightest improcelebrity; and although few monuments of its labours priety. Many flourishing academies existed in France 1 Some modern writers have supposed that this assumption of ancient or classical names originated in an ardent admiration of antiquity, blended with the genius of an age essentially pedantic ; and thus they have endeavoured to account for Alcuin taking the surname of Horace as a prsenomen, and calling himself Flaccus Albinus. But from what is stated in the text, this appears to be a mistake. With regard to the circumstance of Charlemagne taking the name of David, which, as a royal one, appears to have been a contravention of his own rule, it is evident that his choice was determined by his passion for the composition ot canticles or psalms, in which he believed himself to be eminently skilful, and also by his decided preference of sacred to profane literature. 1 he emperor, in fact, had great pretensions as a theologian ; and on one occasion, when reproaching Iteibode, archbishop of Treves, with his admiration of Virgil’s poetry, he remarked of himself, that he would much rather possess the spirit of the four evangelists than that of the twelve books of the ASneid.

68 ACADEMY. Academy, before the Revolution, most of them having been esta- thority, at Paris; the members of which were not only ^cade v ^v-'^blished and endowed by the munificence of Louis XIV. to publish their own observations and improvements, and'^-y In Britain we have but few, and those of the greatest those of their correspondents, but also to give an account note fall to be classed under a different appellation, name- of the various publications on surgery, and to compose a ly, Society, to which the reader is referred. complete history of the art from the works of all the In giving an account of the principal academies, which authors, ancient and modern, who have treated of it. Beis all that this article professes to do, we shall, for the sake sides, a question in surgery was to be annually proposed, of clearness, arrange them under different heads, accord- as the subject of a prize essay, and a gold medal of the ing to the subjects for the cultivation and improvement of value of 200 livres given to the successful competitor. which they were instituted. And we shall commence with The Academy of Surgery at Vienna was instituted by I. Medical Academies. Of this description are, the the present emperor, under the direction of the celebratAcademy of the Naturce Curiosi of Germany; that found- ed Brambella. In it there were at first only two profesed at Palermo in 1645; that established at Venice in sors; and to their charge the instruction of a hundred 1701, which used to meet weekly in a hall near the grand and thirty young men was committed, thirty of whom had hospital; and an institution which took its rise at Geneva formerly been surgeons in the army. But latterly the in 1715. The Royal Colleges of Physicians at London number both of teachers and pupils was considerably inand Edinburgh have also been ranked by some in the creased. Gabrielli was appointed to teach pathology and number of academies, but, in our opinion, erroneously; for practice; Boecking, anatomy, physiology, and physics; they are rather of the nature of corporations, organized Streit, medical and pharmaceutical surgery; Hunczowsky, with a view to guard the privileges and promote the in- surgical operations, midwifery, and the chirurgia forensis; terests of a particular profession, than academies insti- and Plenk, chemistry and botany. To these was also tuted for facilitating the advancement of medical science. added Beindel, as prosector and extraordinary professor This is the exclusive object of the Royal Medical Society, of surgery and anatomy. Besides this, the emperor proand other institutions of the same sort; which, however, vided a large and splendid edifice in Vienna, which affall to be treated of under a different head, viz. that of fords accommodation both for the teachers, the students, Society. pregnant women, patients for clinical lectures, and serThe Academy of Naturae Curiosi, called also the Leo- vants. For t^e use of this academy the emperor also purpoldine Academy, was founded in 1662, by J. L. Bau- chased a medical library, which is open every day ; a comschius, a physician, who, imitating the example of the plete set of chirurgical instruments ; an apparatus for exEnglish, published a general invitation to medical men periments in natural philosophy; a collection of natural to communicate all extraordinary cases that occurred in history ; a number of anatomical and pathological prepathe course of their practice: and, the scheme meeting rations ; a collection of preparations in wax, brought from with success, the institution was regularly organized, and Florence ; and a variety of other useful articles. AdjoinBauschius elected president. The works of the Naturae ing to the building, also, there is a good botanical garden. Curiosi were at first published separately; but this being With a view to encourage emulation among the students attended with considerable inconvenience, a new arrange- of this institution, three prize medals, each of the value ment was formed, in 1770, for publishing a volume of obser- of 40 florins, are annually bestowed on those who return vations annually. From some cause, however, the first the best answers to questions proposed the year before. volume did not make its appearance until 1784, when it These prizes, however, are not entirely founded by the came forth under the title of Ephemerides ; and the work emperor, but are in part owing to the liberality of Brenwas afterwards continued, at irregular intervals, and with dellius, formerly protochirurgus at Vienna. some variations in the title. In 1687, the Emperor LeoIII. Ecclesiastical Academies. Under this head may pold took the society under his protection, and granted be mentioned the academy at Bologna in Italy, instituted its members several privileges, the most remarkable of in 1687, for the purpose of investigating the doctrine, which was, that its presidents should be entitled to enjoy discipline, and history, of each age of the church. the style and rank of counts palatine of the holy Roman IV. Cosmographical Academies; as that at Venice, empire; and hence the title of Leopoldine which it in called the Argonauts. This was instituted at the solicitaconsequence assumed. But though it thus acquired a tion of F. Coronelli, for the improvement of geographical name, it had no local habitation or fixed place of meeting, knowledge. Its design was to publish exact maps, partiand no regular assemblies; instead of which there was cular as well as general, both of the celestial and terresa kind of bureau or office, first established at Breslau, trial sphere, together with geographical, historical, and and afterwards removed to Nuremberg, where letters, astronomical descriptions. Each member, in order to observations, and communications from correspondents, defray the expense of such a publication, was to subscribe were received, and persons properly qualified admitted a proportional sum, for which he was to receive one or as members. By its constitution, the Leopoldine Aca- more copies of each piece published. To this end three demy consists of a president, two adjuncts or secre- societies were established ; one under F. Moro, provincial taries, and colleagues or members, without any limita- of the Minorites in Hungary; another under the Abbot tion as to numbers. At their admission, the last come Laurence au Ruy Payenne au Marais; and the third ununder a twofold obligation; first, to choose some subject der F. Baldigiani, Jesuit, professor of mathematics in the for discussion out of the animal, vegetable, or mineral Roman College. Ihe device of this academy is the terkingdom, provided it has not been previously treated of raqueous globe, with the motto Plus ultra; and at its by any colleague of the academy; and, secondly, to apply expense all the globes, maps, and geographical writings . themselves to furnish materials for the annual Epheme- of I. Coronelli have been published. rides. Each member also bears about with him the In the year 1799, a Geographical Academy was estasymbol of the academy, consisting of a gold ring, whereon blished at Lisbon, principally for the purpose of elucidatis represented a book open, with an eye on one side, and ing the geography of Portugal. By the labours of the on the other the academical motto of Nunquam otiosus. members of this academy, an accurate map of the counII. Chirurgical Academies. An association of this try, which was much wanted, has been completed. sort was, not many years ago, instituted, by public auV. Academies of Science. These comprehend such

ACADEMY. 69 Aulemy. as have been erected for improving natural and mathe- demy of Sciences, Belles Lettres, and Arts, was established Academy, urv-^S matical knowledge, and are otherwise called Philosophical at Padua by the senate, near the close of the eighteenth' and Physical Academies. century. It is composed of twenty-four pensionaries, The first of these was instituted at Naples, about the twelve free associates, twenty-four pupils, twelve assoyear 1560, in the house of Baptista Porta. It was called ciates belonging to the ci-devant Venetian States, and the Academy Secretmum Naturce; and was succeeded twenty-four foreigners, besides honorary members. It by the Academy of Lined, founded at Rome by Prince has published several volumes of memoirs in the ItaFrederic Ceoi, towards the end of the same century. lian language. The Academy of Sciences and Belles This academy was afterwards rendered famous in conse- Lettres of Genoa was established in 1783. It consists quence of the discoveries made by some of its members, of thirty-two members; but their labours have been among whom, the first place is due to the celebrated Ga- chiefly directed to poetry, nor are we aware that they lileo, one of the most illustrious names of which the his- have published any memoirs. The Academy of Milan tory of science can boast. Several other academies, in- was preceded, and perhaps introduced, by a literary asstituted about this time, also contributed to the advance- sembly, consisting of ten persons, who published a sheet ment of the sciences; but none of them was in any re- weekly, containing short remarks on subjects of science, spect comparable to that of the Lined. belles lettres, and criticism. This society terminated in Some years after the death of Torricelli, the Accademia 1767. But soon afterwards another was established, the del Cimento made its appearance, under the protection of transactions of which, published under the title of Scelta Prince Leopold, afterwards Cardinal de’ Medici. Redi was d’Opuscoli Scientifici, contain several very interesting paone of its chief members. In so far as regards the studies pers. The Academy of Sciences at Siena, instituted in pursued by the other academicians, a very correct idea of 1691, published the first volume of its transactions in them may be formed from the curious experiments pub- 1761, and has since continued them, at long intervals, unlished in 1667, by their secretary Count Laurence Magu- der the title of Atti dell'Accademia di Siena. Between lotti, under the title of Saggi di JSaturali Esperienze ; a the years 1770 and 1780, M. Lorgna established at Vecopy of which was presented to the Royal Society, trans- rona an academy of sciences of a novel description. The lated into English by Mr Waller, and published at Lon- object of it was to form an association among the princidon in 4to. pal scientific men in all parts of Italy, for the purpose of The Accademia degVLnquieti, afterwards incorporated publishing their memoirs. The first volume appeared in into that of Della Tracia, in the same city, followed the the year 1782, under the title of Memode di Matematica example of that of Del Cimento. Some excellent dis- e Fisica della Societa Italiana. The most celebrated courses on physical and mathematical subjects, by Gemi- names that appear in this volume are those of Boscovich, niano Montenari, one of the chief members, were published the two Fontanas, and Spallanzani. There are also sciin 1667, under the title of Pensieri Fisico-Matematici. entific academies at Mantua, Pisa, Pavia, and Modena; The Academy of Rossano, in the kingdom of Naples, but several of these do not publish their transactions. was originally an academy of belles lettres, founded in Towards the beginning of the seventeenth century, F. 1540, and transformed into an academy of sciences in Mersenne is said to have given the first idea of a philoso1695, at the solicitation of the learned abbot Don Giacin- phical academy in France, by the conferences of naturalists to Gimma; who being made president, under the title of and mathematicians occasionally held at his lodgings. At Promoter General of the institution, gave it a new set of these Gassendi, Descartes, Hobbes, Roberval, Pascal, regulations. He divided the academicians into the fol- Blondel, and other celebrated persons, assisted. F. Merlowing classes: grammarians, rhetoricians, poets, histo- senne proposed to each certain problems to be examined, rians, philosophers, physicians, mathematicians, lawyers, or certain experiments to be made, and acted, to use a and divines; with a class apart for cardinals and persons Gallic idiom, as the centre of re-union. By and by these of quality. To be admitted a member, it was requisite to private assemblies were succeeded by more public ones, have taken a degree in one or other of the faculties. The formed by M. Montmort, and by Thevenot the celebrated members were not allowed to take the title of Academi- traveller. Nor was this spirit confined to France. Anicians mthc title-pages of their works, without a written mated by the example which had been set in that counpermission from their president, which was not granted try, several Englishmen of learning and distinction institill their works had been examined by the censors of the tuted a kind of philosophical academy at Oxford towards academy; and this permission was the greatest honour the the close of Cromwelfs government; and this, after the academy could confer, as they thereby adopted the works Restoration, was erected into a Royal Society. (See Sothus examined, and became answerable for them against ciety.) And the English example, in its turn, re-acted all criticisms that might be made upon them. To this law upon France; for, in 1666, Louis XIV., assisted by the the president or promoter himself was subject; and no acacounsels of Colbert, founded at Paris demician was allowed to publish anything against the writThe Royal Academy of Sciences. Being desirous of ings of another without leave obtained from the society. establishing the sciences, arts, and literature upon a solid But Italy boasts of a number of scientific academies foundation, Louis, immediately after the peace of the Pybesides those above mentioned. The Royal Neapolitan renees, directed M. Colbert to form a society of men of Academy was established in 1779; and the published known abilities and experience in the different branches memoirs contain some valuable researches on mathema- of knowledge, who should meet together under the king’s ica subjects. The Royal Academy of Turin was established by the late king when duke of Savoy. Its memoirs protection, in order to communicate freely their respective were originally published in Latin, under the title of Mis- discoveries ; and with the view of carrying his design the cellanea 1 hilosophica Mathematica Societatis Privata: Taud- more effectually into execution, he appropriated a suffiMnsis; and the first volume appeared in 1759. Among cient revenue, not only to defray the charge of experiments, but likewise to afford moderate salaries to the memthe original members of this institution the most cele- bers. The commands of the Grand Monarque were executbrated was Lagrange, who burst on the scientific world ed with equal zeal and ability by his minister. For having quite unexpectedly, by the novelty and depth of his papers m the first volume of the transactions. An Aca- conferred with those who were at that time most celebrated for their learning, M. Colbert resolved to form a society

70 A C A D E M Y. Academy, of such persons as were conversant in natural philosophy functions of the heart, he had only to signify his intention Acadei and mathematics; to join to them persons skilled in his- through the president, and as many as he pleased were^-^v tory and other branches of erudition ; and, lastly, to draw brought him at the king’s charge. The motto of the acatogether those who were engaged in the cultivation of demy was Invenit et perfecit. what was then called the belles lettres, as well as of In the year 1716, the Duke of Orleans, then regent, grammar, eloquence, and poetry. The geometricians made an alteration in the constitution of this body, augand natural philosophers were ordered to meet on Tues- menting the number of honorary members and of associdays and Saturdays, in a great hall of the king’s library, ates eligible from among foreigners, admitting regular where the books of mathematics and natural philosophy clergy among such associates, and suppressing the class were contained; the learned in history to assemble, on of eleves, the existence of which had been attended with Mondays and Thursdays, in the hall where the books of some inconveniences, particularly that of producing too history were arranged; and the class of belles lettres great an inequality among the academicians, and of giving to meet on Wednesdays and Fridays; while all the dif- rise to misunderstandings and animosities among the memferent classes were directed to assemble together upon bers. At the same time he created two other classes; the first Thursday of every month, and by their respective the one consisting of twelve adjuncts, who, like the assecretaries to make a report of the proceedings of the pre- sociates, were allowed a deliberative voice in matters revious month. In a short time, however, the classes of lative to science; and the other of six free associates, history and belles lettres were united to the French Aca- who were not attached to any particular science, nor obdemy, which was originally instituted for the improvement liged to pursue any particular work. of the French language; in consequence of which the From the period of its re-establishment in 1699, this Royal Academy contained only two classes, viz. that of academy was very exact in publishing annually a volume containing either the works of its own members, or such natural philosophy and that of mathematics. In the year 1696, the king, by an ordonnance datecf the memoirs as had been composed and read to the academy 26th of January, gave this academy a new form, and put it during that year. To each volume was prefixed a hisupon a footing still more respectable. By this decree it was tory of the academy, or an extract of the memoirs and of provided, that henceforth it should consist of four descrip- the res gestcc of the different sittings ; and appended to the tions of members, viz. honorary, pensionary, associates, history were eloges pronounced on such academicians as and eleves ; which last were a kind of pupils or scholars, had died in the course of the year. M. Rouille de Mesone of whom was attached to each of the pensionaries. lay, counsellor to the parliament of Paris, founded two The first class was to contain ten persons, and each of the prizes, one of 2500 and the other of 2000 livres; the forrest twenty. The honorary academicians were to be all mer for the best work, essay, or treatise, on physical asinhabitants of France, the pensionaries were all to reside tronomy, and the latter for any treatise or improvement in Paris, and the eleves were also to live in the capital; relating to navigation and commerce. But notwithstandbut eight of the associates might be chosen from among ing all the advantages which the members of this acaforeigners. The officers were, a president, named by the demy enjoyed, and the great facilities afforded them for king out of the class of honorary academicians, and a the prosecution of their researches, the institution latterly secretary and treasurer, who held their offices for life. Of degenerated; in consequence, doubtless, of the perpetual inthe pensionaries, three were to be geometricians, three terference of the court in behalf of its favourites, or to effect astronomers, three mechanicians, three anatomists, three the exclusion of men of unquestionable merit who had inbotanists, and the remaining two perpetual secretary and curred its displeasure. The effect of all this was, that persons treasurer. Of the twelve associates, two were to apply of inferior acquirements were frequently admitted, while themselves to geometry, two to botany, and two to che- those of the most distinguished talents and reputation mistry ; while the eleves were to devote themselves to the were excluded ; and hence it gradually sunk in public esparticular branches of science cultivated by the pension- timation, until admission not only ceased to be an honour, aries to whom they were respectively attached, and not but even became a subject of contempt and derision. to speak except when called to do so by the president. Hence the well-known lines— Clerical persons, whether regular or otherwise, were deCi git Pirot, qui ne fut rien, clared inadmissible, except into the class of honorary Pas meme Academicien. academicians; nor could any one be admitted an associate The Revolution swept away the academy amidst the or pensionary unless known by some considerable printed wrecks of the monarchy. It was suppressed by the Conwork, some machine, or other discovery. The assemblies vention in the year 1793; and being new-modelled and were held on Wednesdays and Saturdays, except when re-organized upon a better and more efficient plan, it either chanced to be a holyday; in which case the meeting received the name of Institute, an appellation which it was held on the day immediately preceding. To en- still bears, notwithstanding the great political changes courage members to pursue their inquiries and researches, which have since taken place. See Institute. the king engaged to pay not only the ordinary pensions, The French had also considerable academies in most of but even to confer extraordinary gratifications according their great cities. Montpellier, for example, had a royal to the degree of merit displayed in their respective per- academy of sciences on nearly the same footing as that formances ; and, furthermore, his Majesty became bound, at Paris, of which, indeed, it was in some measure the as we have already stated, to defray the whole expense counterpart; Toulouse also had an academy under the of experiments and other investigations which it might be denomination of Lanternists; and there were analogous judged necessary from time to time to institute. Flence, institutions at Nismes, Arles, Lyons, Dijon, Bordeaux, if any member gave in a bill of charges for experiments he and other places. Of these several, we believe, are still had made, or desired the printing of any book, and ten- in existence, if not in activity. dered an account of the disbursements required to effect The Foyal Academy of Sciences at Berlin was founded that object, the money was immediately paid by the king, in 1700, by Frederic II. king of Prussia, on the model of upon the president’s allowing and signing the bill. In like the Royal Society of England; excepting that, besides manner, if an anatomist required, we shall say, live tor- natural knowledge, it likewise comprehended the belles toises in order to make experiments on the action and lettres. In 1710, it was ordained that the president should

ACADEMY. .demy, be one of the counsellors of state, and nominated by the month the society assembled for the first time. On the 1st Academy, king. The members were divided into four classes : the of August 1726, Catharine honoured the meeting with her' first for prosecuting physics, medicine, and chemistry; the presence, when Professor Bulfinger, a German naturalist second for mathematics, astronomy, and mechanics ; the of great eminence, pronounced an oration upon the adthird for the German language and the history of the vances made in the theory of magnetic variations, and country; and the fourth for oriental learning, particularly also on the progress of research in so far as regarded the in so far as it concerns the propagation of the gospel among discovery of the longitude. A short time afterwards the heathen nations. Each class was empowered to elect a empress settled a fund of L.4982 per annum for the supdirector for itself, who should hold his post for life. The port of the academy; and fifteen members, all eminent members of any of the classes were entitled to free ad- for their learning and talents, were admitted and pensionmission into the assemblies of the other classes. ed, under the title of Professors in the various branches of The great promoter of this institution was the celebrat- science and literature. The most distinguished of these ed Leibnitz, equally distinguished as a jurist, philologist, professors were Nicholas and Daniel Bernoulli, the two linguist, antiquary, mathematician, and philosopher, and De Lisles, Bulfinger, and Wolf. who accordingly was chosen the first director. The first During the short reign of Peter II. the salaries of the volume of their transactions was published in 1710, under members were discontinuetl, and the academy utterly nethe title of Miscellanea Berolinensia; and although the glected by the court; but it was again patronised by the institution received but few marks of the royal favour for Empress Anne, who even added a seminary for the edusome time, they continued to publish new volumes in 1723, cation of youth, under the superintendence of the pro1727, 1734, and 1740. But Frederic III., the late king of fessors. Both institutions flourished for some time under Prussia, at length imparted new vigour to this academy, the direction of Baron Korf; but upon his death, towards by inviting to Berlin such foreigners as were most dis- the latter end of Anne’s reign, an ignorant person being tinguished for their merit and literature, at the same time appointed president, many of the most able members that he encouraged his own subjects to prosecute the study quitted Russia. At the accession of Elizabeth, however, and cultivation of the sciences ; and thinking that the aca- new life and vigour were infused into the academy. The demy, over which some minister or opulent nobleman had original plan was enlarged and improved; some of the till that time presided, would derive advantage from having most learned foreigners were again drawn to Petersburg; a man of letters at its head, he conferred that honour on and, what was considered as a good omen for the literaM. Maupertuis. At the same time he gave a new set ture of Russia, two natives, Lomonosof and Rumovsky, of regulations to the academy, and took upon himself the men of genius and abilities, who had prosecuted their title of its protector. studies in foreign universities, were enrolled among its The effect of these changes, however, it is not neces- members. Lastly, the annual income was increased to sary to enlarge upon, as innovations still more recent have L. 10,659, and sundry other advantages were conferred been introduced, with a view to direct the attention of upon the institutioh. the members to researches of real utility, to improve the The late Empress Catharine II., with her usual zeal for arts, to stimulate national industry, and to purify the dif- promoting the diffusion of knowledge, took this useful soferent systems of moral and literary education. To attain ciety under her immediate protection. She altered the these ends a directory was chosen, consisting of a presi- court of directors greatly to the advantage of the whole dent and the four directors of the classes, and two men body, corrected many of its abuses, and infused a new of business, not members of the academy, though at the vigour and spirit into their researches. By her Majesty’s same time persons of acknowledged learning; and to the particular recommendation the most ingenious professors body thus constituted was intrusted the management of visited the various provinces of her vast dominions ; and the funds, and the conduct of the economical affairs of as the funds of the academy were not sufficient to defray the institution. I he power of choosing membei'S was the whole expense of these expeditions, the empress supgranted to the academy; but the king reserved to him- plied the deficiency by a grant of L.2000, which was reself the privilege of confirming or annulling their choice, newed as occasion required. as he might think fit. The public library at Berlin, and The purpose and object of these travels will appear the collection of natural curiosities, were united to the from the instructions given by the academy to the several academy, and intrusted to its superintendence. persons who engaged in them. They were ordered to The academicians hold two public assemblies annually ; institute inquiries respecting the different sorts of earths at the latter of which is given, as a prize, a gold medal of and waters; the best methods of cultivating barren and fifty ducats value. The subject prescribed for this prize desert spots; the local disorders incident to men and is successively taken from natural philosophy, mathema- animals, together wuth the most efficacious means of retics, metaphysics, and general erudition. lieving them; the breeding of cattle, particularly of The Imperial Academy of Sciences at St Petersburg was sheep ; the rearing of bees and silk-worms ; the different projected by the Czar Peter the Great. That despotic places and objects for fishing and hunting; minerals of reformer, haying in the course of his travels observed the all kinds; the arts and trades; and the formation of a advantage of public societies for the encouragement and Flora Russica, or collection of indigenous plants. They promotion of literature, formed the design of founding an were particularly instructed to rectify the longitude and a fdemy of sciences at St Petersburg. By the advice latitude of the principal towns; to make astronomical, of Wolf and Leibnitz, whom he consulted on this occaand meteorological observations; to trace sion, the society was accordingly regulated, and several geographical, the courses of the rivers; to construct the most exact earned foreigners were invited to become members. charts; and to be very distinct and accurate in remarkI eter himself drew the plan, and signed it on the 10th of ing and describing the manners and customs of the differFebruary 1724 ; but he was prevented, by the suddenness ot his death, from carrying it into execution. His de- ent races of people, their dresses, languages, antiquities, traditions, history, religion; in a word, to gain every cease, however, did not prevent its completion; for on information might tend to illustrate the real state ie ~lst of December 1725, Catharine I. established it of the wholewhich Russian empire. More ample instructions according to Peter’s plan, and on the 27th of the same cannot well be conceived; and they appear to have been

72 ACADEMY. Academy, very zealously and faithfully executed. The consequence ciety attracted the notice of the king; and, accordingly, Acaden ^-^v^^has been, that perhaps no country can boast, within the on the 31st of March 1741, it was incorporated under'^-'V' space of so few years, such a number of excellent publi- the name of the Royal Swedish Academy. Not receivcations on its internal state, its natural productions, its to- ing any pension from the crown, it is merely under the pography, geography, and history, and on the manners, protection of the king, being directed, like our Royal customs, and languages of the different tribes who inhabit Society, by its own members. It has now, however, a large fund, which has chiefly arisen from legacies and other it, as have issued from the press of this academy. The first transactions of this society were published in donations; but a professor of experimental philosophy, 1728, and entitled Commentarii Academice Scientiarum and two secretaries, are still the only persons who receive Imperialis Petropolitance ad annum 1726, with a dedica- any salaries. Each of the members resident at Stocktion to Peter II. The publication was continued under holm becomes president by rotation, and continues in this form until the year 1747, when the transactions were office during three months. There are two kinds of memcalled Novi Commentarii Academice, &c.; and in 1777, the bers, native and foreign; the election of the former deacademy again changed the title into Acta Academice scription takes place in April, that of the latter in July; and Scientiarum Imperialis Petropolitance, and likewise made no money is paid at the time of admission. The dissertasome alteration in the arrangement and plan of the work. tions read at each meeting are collected and published The papers, which had been hitherto published in the four times in the year: they are written in the Swedish Latin language only, are now written indifferently either language, and printed in octavo; and the annual publicain that language or in French ; and a preface is added, en- tions make a volume. The first forty volumes, which titled Partie Historique, which contains an account of its were completed in 1779, are called the Old Transacproceedings, meetings, the admission of new members, and tions ; for in the following year the title was changed into other remarkable occurrences. Of the Commentaries, that of New Transactions. The king is often present at fourteen volumes were published: the first of the New the ordinary meetings, and regularly attends the annual asCommentaries made its appearance in 1750, and the sembly in April for the election of members. Any pertwentieth in 1776. Under the new title of Acta Aca- son who sends a treatise which is thought worthy of being demice, a number of volumes have been given to the printed, receives the Transactions for that quarter gratis ; public ; and two are printed every year. These transac- together with a silver medal, which is not esteemed for its tions abound with ingenious and elaborate disquisitions value, being worth only three shillings, but for its rarity upon various parts of science and natural history; and it and the honour conveyed by it. All the papers relating may not be an exaggeration to assert, that no society in to agriculture are published separately under the title of Europe has more distinguished itself for the excellence of (Economica Acta. Annual premiums, in money and gold its publications, particularly in the more abstruse parts of medals, principally for the encouragement of agriculture and inland trade, are also distributed by the academy. the pure and mixed mathematics. The academy is still composed, as at first, of fifteen The fund for these prizes is supplied by private donations. The Royal Academy of Sciences at Copenhagen owes its professors, besides the president and director. Each of these professors has a house and an annual stipend from institution to the zeal of six individuals, whom Christian VI., in Besides 1742, ordered to arrange his are cabinet L. 200 to L.600. the professors, there four of medals. adjuncts, with pensions, who are present at the sittings of These persons were, John Gram, Joachim Frederic Ramus, the society, and succeed to the first vacancies. The Christian Louis Scheid, Mark Woldickey, Eric Pontodirection of the academy is generally intrusted to a per- pidan, and Bernard Moelman, who, occasionally meeting for this purpose, extended their designs ; associated with son of distinction. The buildings and apparatus of this academy are ex- them others who were eminent in several branches of traordinary. There is a fine library, consisting of 36,000 science ; and forming a kind of literary society, employed curious books and manuscripts; together with an exten- themselves in searching into, and explaining the history sive museum, in which the various branches of natural and antiquities of their country. The Count of Holstein, history, &c. are distributed in different apartments. The the first president, warmly patronised this society, and latter is extremely rich in native productions, having been recommended it so strongly to Christian VI. that, in 1743, considerably augmented by the collections made by Pal- his Danish majesty took it under his protection, called it las, Gmelin, Guldenstaedt, and other professors, during the Royal Academy of Sciences, endowed it with a fund, their expeditions through the various parts of the Russian and ordered the members to join to their former purempire. The stuffed animals and birds occupy one apart- suits, natural history, physics, and mathematics. In conment. The chamber of rarities, the cabinet of coins, &c. sequence of the royal favour, the members engaged with contain innumerable articles of the highest curiosity and fresh zeal in their pursuits; and the academy has pubvalue. The motto of the society is exceedingly modest: lished fifteen volumes in the Danish language, some of which have been translated into Latin. it consists of only one word, Paulatim. The Academy of Sciences at Bologna, called the InstiThe American Academy of Sciences was established in tute of Bologna, was founded by Count Marsigli in 1712, 1780, by the council and house of representatives in the for the cultivation of physics, mathematics, medicine, province of Massachusetts Bay, for promoting a knowledge chemistry, and natural history. Its history is written by of the antiquities of America, and of the natural history M. de Limiers, from memoirs furnished by the founder of the country; for determining the uses to which its himself. various natural productions might be applied; for enThe Academy of Sciences at Stockholm, or the Royal couraging medicinal discoveries, mathematical disquisiSwedish Academy, owes its institution to six persons of tions, philosophical inquiries and experiments, astronomidistinguished learning, amongst whom was the celebrated cal, meteorological, and geographical observations, and imLinnaeus. They originally met on the 2d of June 1739, provements in agriculture, manufactures, and commerce; when they formed a private society, in which some dis- and, in short, for cultivating every art and science which sertations were read; and in the latter end of the same may tend to advance the interest and increase the hapyear their first publication made its appearance. As the piness of the people. The members of this academy can meetings continued and the members increased, the so- never exceed 200, nor fall below forty.

ACADEMY.

73

AcJemy. The Royal Irish Academy arose out of a society establish- established by the Empress Elizabeth, at the suggestion Academy. 's^./'O'edatDublinabouttheyear 1782, and consisting of a num- of Count Shuvalof, and annexed to the Academy of'^'v-v./ ber of gentlemen, most of whom belonged to the Univer- Sciences. The fund for its support was L.4000 per ansity. They held weekly meetings, and read essays in turn num, and the foundation admitted forty scholars. The late on various subjects. The members of this society after- empress formed it into a separate institution, augmented wards formed a more extensive plan, and, admitting only the annual revenue to L.12,000, and increased the numsuch names as might add dignity to their new institution, ber of scholars to three hundred : she also constructed, became the founders of the Royal Irish Academy; which for the use and accommodation of the members, a large professed to unite the advancement of science with the circular building, which fronts the Neva. The scholars history of mankind and polite literature. The first are admitted at the age of six, and continue until they volume of their transactions for 1787 appeared in 1788, have attained that of eighteen. They are clothed, fed, and seven volumes were afterwards published. A society and lodged, at the expense of the crown; and are all inwas formed in Dublin, similar to the Royal Society in structed in reading and writing, arithmetic, the French London, as early as the year 1683; but the distracted and German languages, and drawing. At the age of state of the country proved unpropitious to the cultivation fourteen they are at liberty to choose any of the followof philosophy and literature. ing arts, divided into four classes, viz. first, painting in all The Academy of Sciences at Manheim was established its branches, of history, portraits, battles, and landscapes, by Charles Theodore, Elector Palatine, in the year 1755. architecture, mosaic, enamelling, &c.; secondly, engravThe plan of this institution was furnished by Schaepflin, ing on copperplates, seal-cutting, &c.; thirdly, carving on according to which it was divided into two classes, the his- wood, ivory, and amber ; fourthly, watch making, turning, torical and physical. In 1780, a sub-division of the latter instrument making, casting statues in bronze and other took place, into the physical properly so called, and the metals, imitating gems and medals in paste and other meteorological. The meteorological observations are compositions, gilding, and varnishing. Prizes are annually published separately, under the title of Ephemerides So- distributed to those who excel in any particular art; and cietatis Meteorologicce Palatines. The historical and phy- from those who have obtained four prizes, twelve are sesical memoirs are published under the title of Acta Aca- lected, who are sent abroad at the charge of the crown. demice Theodoro-Palatines. A certain sum is paid to defray their travelling expenses; The Electoral Bavarian Academy of Sciences at Munich and when they are settled in any town, they receive an was established in 1759, and publishes its memoirs under annual salary of L.60, which is continued during four the title of Abhandlungen der Baierischen Akademie. years. There is a small assortment of paintings for the Soon after the Elector of Bavaria was raised to the rank use of the scholars; and those who have made great proof King, the Bavarian government, by his orders, directed gress are permitted to copy the pictures in the imperial its attention to a new organization of the Academy of collection. For the purpose of design, there are models Sciences of Munich. The design of the king was, to in plaster, all done at Rome, of the best antique statues render its labours more extensive than those of any simi- in Italy, and of the same size with the originals, which the lar institution in Europe, by giving to it, under the direc- artists of the academy were employed to cast in bronze, tion of the ministry, the immediate superintendence over The Royal Academy of Arts in London was institutall the establishments for public instruction in the king- ed for the encouragement of designing, painting, sculpdom of Bavaria. The Privy-Councillor Jacobi, a man of ture, &c. &c. in the year 1768. This academy is under the most excellent character, and of considerable scientific immediate patronage of the king, and under the direction attainments, was appointed president. of forty artists of the first rank in their several profes? The Electoral Academy at Erfurt was established by sions. It furnishes, in winter, living models of different the Elector of Mentz, in the year 1754. It consists of a characters to draw after; and in summer, models of the protector, president, director, assessors, adjuncts, and as- same kind to paint after. Nine of the ablest academicians soeiates. Its object is to promote the useful sciences, are annually elected out of the forty, whose business it is Their memoirs were originally published in the Latin lan- to attend by rotation, to set the figures, to examine the guage, but afterwards in German. The Hessian Academy performance of the students, and to give them necessary of Sciences at Giessen publish their transactions under instructions. There are likewise professors of painting, the title of Acta Philosophico-Medica Academice Scien- architecture, anatomy, and perspective, who annually read tiaruni Principalis Hessiacce. In the Netherlands there public lectures on the subjects of their several departare scientific academies at Flushing and Brussels, both of ments; besides a president, a council, and other officers, which have published their transactions. The admission to this academy is free to all students proA branch of the royal family of Portugal established perly qualified to reap advantage from the studies cultiat Lisbon, a number of years ago, a Royal Academy of vated in it; and there is an annual exhibition of paintings, the sciences, agriculture, arts, commerce, and economy in sculptures, and designs, open to all artists of distinguishgeneral. It is divided into three classes ; natural science, ed merit. mathematics, and national literature. It is composed of The Academy of Painting and Sculpture at Paris. honorary members, as ministers of state and persons of This took its rise from the disputes that happened bemgh rank in Lisbon; foreign members, called socios ve- tween the master painters and sculptors in the French teranos ; and acting members. The total number is sixty, capital; in consequence of which, MM. le Brun, Sarrazin, of which twenty-four belong to the last class. They enjoy Corneille, and others of the king’s painters, formed a dean allowance from government, which has enabled them sign of instituting a particular academy; and having preo establish an observatory, a museum, a library, and a sented a petition to the king, obtained an arret dated printing office. Their published transactions consist of January 20. 1648. In the beginning of 1655, they obemoruis de, Litteratura Portugueza, and Memorias Econo- tained from Cardinal Mazarin, a brevet, and letters paS nuras, c sides Scientific Transactions. I hey have also pub- tent, which were registered in parliament; in gratitude 18

l ec ao e VT • L?cademies f d Livros ineditos Historia Portugueza. for which they chose thevice-protector. cardinal their protector, or Schools of de Arts. Under this we and made favour, the chancellor their In 1663, may mention, first of all, the academy at Petersburg, they obtained, through M. Colbert, a pension of 4000

ACADEMY. 74 Academy, livres. The academy consisted of a protector, a viceAn Academy of the Fine Arts was founded at Stock- AcadJj protector, a director, a chancellor, four rectors, adjuncts holm in the year 1733 by Count Tessin. In its hall arev->~v to the rectors, a treasurer, fodr professors (one of whom the ancient figures of plaster presented by Louis XIV. to was professor of anatomy, and another of geometry), seve- Charles XL The works of the students are publicly exral adjuncts and counsellors, an historiographer, a secre- hibited, and prizes are distributed annually. Such of them as display distinguished talents obtain pensions from tary, and two ushers. Every day for two hours in the afternoon, the Academy government, to enable them to reside in Italy for some of Painting held a public assembly, to which the painters years, for the purposes of investigation and improvement. resorted either to design or to paint, while the sculp- In this academy there are nine professors, and generally tors modelled after the naked figure. There were twelve about four hundred students. In the year 1705, an Academy professors, each of whom kept the school for a month ; and of Painting, Sculpture, and Architecture was established there was an equal number of adjuncts to supply their at Vienna, with the view of encouraging and promoting places in case of need. The professor upon duty placed the fine arts. The Royal Academy of Music is a name given in France the naked figure as he thought proper, and set it in two different attitudes every week. This was what they call- to the grand opera, which is considered as in some sort a ed setting the model. In one week of the month he set combination of all the liberal arts ; painting, music, and the two models together, which was called setting the group. dance forming the principal part of that enchanting specThe paintings and models made after this model, were tacle. The opera is of Venetian origin; and the Abbe called academics, or academical figures. They had likewise Perrin, who officiated as master of the ceremonies to Gasa woman who stood as a model in the public school. ton, Duke of Orleans, was the first who introduced it at Three prizes for design were distributed among the eleves Paris. He obtained letters patent from the king, dated or disciples every quarter; and four others, two for paint- the 28th June 1669, conferring upon him the privilege of establishing Operatic Academies in Music and in French ing, and two for sculpture, every year. There was also an Academy of Painting, Sculpture, &c. Verse throughout the kingdom. Latterly, the theatre at Rome, established by Louis XIV., wherein those who where operas are represented has been denominated the had gained the annual prize at Paris were entitled to be Theatre des Arts ; a name which has probably been sugthree years entertained at the king’s expense, for their gested by the following verses of Voltaire, which convey a just definition of this delightful entertainment:— further improvement. In 1778, an Academy of Painting and Sculpture was II faut se rendre a ce palais magique, Ou les beaux vers, la danse, la musique, established at Turin. Their meetings were held in the L’art de tromper les yeux par les couleurs, palace of the king, who distributed prizes among the most L’art plus heureux de sdduire les coeurs, successful members. In Milan, an Academy of ArchitecDe cent plaisirs font un plaisir unique. ture was established so early as the year 1380, by Galeas The Academy of Ancient Music was established in LonVisconti. About the middle of the last century, an Academy of the Arts was established there, after the exam- don in 1710, by several persons of distinction, and other ple of those at Paris and Rome. The pupils were fur- amateurs, in conjunction with the most eminent masters of nished with originals and models, and prizes were distri- the time, in the view of promoting the study and practice of buted annually. The prize for painting was a gold medal, vocal and instrumental harmony. This institution, which and no prize was bestowed till all the competing pieces had the advantage of a library, consisting of the most cehad been subjected to the examination and criticism of lebrated compositions, both foreign and domestic, in macompetent judges. Before the effects of the French re- nuscript and in print, and which was aided by the pervolution reached Italy, this was one of the best establish- formances of the gentlemen of the chapel royal, and the ments of the kind in that kingdom. In the hall of the choir of St Paul’s, with the boys belonging to each, conacademy were some admirable pieces of Correggio, as tinued to flourish for many years. In 1731, a charge of well as several ancient paintings and statues of great me- plagiarism brought against Bononcini, a member of the rit ; particularly a small bust of Vitellius, and a statue of academy, for claiming a madrigal of Lotti of Venice as Agrippina, of most exquisite beauty, though it wants the his own, threatened tlie existence of the institution. Dr head and arms. The Academy of the Arts, which had Greene, who had introduced the madrigal into the acabeen long established at Florence, but which had fallen demy, took part with Bononcini, and withdrew from the into decay, was restored by the late Grand Duke. In it society, taking with him the boys of St Paul’s. In 1734, there are halls for naked and plaster figures, for the use of Mr Gates, another member of the society, and master of the sculptor and the painter. The hall for plaster figures the children of the royal chapel, also retired in disgust; had models of all the finest statues in Italy, arranged in two so that the institution was thus deprived of the assistance lines; but the treasures of this, as well as all the other which the boys afforded it in singing the soprano parts. institutions for the fine arts, were greatly diminished by From this time the academy became a seminary for the the rapacity of the French. In the saloon of the Aca- instruction of youth in the principles of music and the demy of the Arts at Modena, there are many casts of an- laws of harmony. Dr Pepusch, who was one of its fountique statues; but since it was plundered by the french ders, was active in accomplishing this measure; and by it has dwindled into a petty school for drawings from the expedients of educating boys for their purpose, and living models : it contains the skull of Correggio. There admitting auditor members, the subsistence of the acais also an Academy of the Fine Arts in Mantua, and an- demy was continued. The Royal Academy of Music M as formed by the principal nobility and gentry of the kingother at Venice. In Madrid, an Academy for Painting, Sculpture, and dom, for the performance of operas, composed by Mr Architecture, was founded by Philip V. The minister Handel, and conducted by him at the theatre in the Hayfor foreign affairs is president. Prizes are distributed market. The subscription amounted to LAO,000, and the every three years. In Cadiz, a few students are supplied king, besides subscribing L.1000, allowed the society to by government with the means of drawing and modelling assume the title of Royal Academy. It consisted of a from figures; and such as are not able to purchase the governor, deputy-governor, and tM^enty directors. A contest between Handel and Senesmo, one of the performers, requisite instruments are provided with them.

ACADEMY. 75 idemy. in which the directors took the part of the latter, occa- to assemble at stated periods, for the purpose of pre- Academy, v^Ogioned the dissolution of the academy, after it had subsist- serving and illustrating the historical monuments of Spain. In the year 1738, the rules which they had drawn up ed with reputation for more than nine years. The Academy of Architecture was founded, under were confirmed by a royal cedula of Philip V. This acaLouis XIV., by his celebrated minister Colbert in 1671, demy consists of twenty-four members. The device is a and was composed of the most distinguished architects of river at its source ; the motto, Ln patriampopulumquefluit. the time. It was provided, however, that the professor of It has published editions of Mariana, Sepulveda, Solis, architecture, and the secretary to the academy, should al- and the ancient Chronicles relative to the affairs of Castile, ways be chosen from those Architects intrusted with the several of which were never before printed. All the disuperintendence of royal edifices ; and the title of acade- plomas, charters, &c. belonging to the principal cities in mician was conferred by brevet. The Academy of Archi- Spain, since the earliest period, are in its possession. It tecture held its sittings every Monday at the Louvre, has long been employed in preparing a geographical dicwhere it occupied the apartment called the Queens Sa- tionary of that country. IX. Academies of Antiquities; as that at Cortona in loon ; but at the commencement of the Revolution it was remodelled, like the Academy of Sciences, and transform- Italy, and that at Upsal in Sweden. The first is designed ed into a school for the cultivation and improvement of for the study of Pletrurian antiquities ; the other for illusthe fine arts. This school was divided into two sections, trating the northern languages, and the antiquities of the first of which was devoted to painting and sculpture, Sweden, in which valuable discoveries have been made by and the second to architecture; and these two sections it. The head of the Hetrurian academy is called Lucoreceived, by a royal ordonnance of the 11th August 1819, mon, a name by which the ancient governors of the counthe title of Royal Academy of the Fine Arts. The in- try were distinguished. One of their laws is, to give struction in architecture at this institution consists of audience to poets only one day in the year; and another is, lessons given in special courses of lectures by four dif- to fix their sessions, and impose a tax of a dissertation on ferent professors ; first, on the theory of the art; secondly, each member in his turn. on its history; thirdly, on the mathematical principles of The Academy of Medals and Inscriptions at Paris was construction; and, fourthly, on perspective; which last set on foot by M. Colbert, under the patronage of Louis branch is common to both sections. By the munificence XIV. in 1663, for the study and explanation of ancient moof the government, this institution is amply provided with numents, and for perpetuating great and memorable events, means for supporting the pupils admitted within its walls, especially those of the French monarchy, by coins, relievos, as also for affording them every facility in the prosecution inscriptions, &c. The number of members w’as at first conof their studies ; and with the view of exciting emulation fined to four or five, chosen out of those of the French acadeas well as rewarding excellence, a grand prize is annually my ; and they met in the library of M. Colbert, from whom ‘ given. they received his Majesty’s orders. Though the days of The Academy of Dancing was erected by Louis XIV., their meetings were not determined, they generally asand had particular privileges conferred upon it. sembled on Wednesdays, especially in the winter season; VII. Academies of Law. Under this head we may but, in 1691, the king having given the inspection of this mention the famous academy at Berytus, and that of the academy to M. de Pontchartrain, comptroller-general of Sitientes at Bologna. We are not aware of any other. the finances, he fixed their meetings on Tuesdays and VIII. Academies of History. The first of these to Saturdays. By a new regulation, dated the 16th of July which we shall advert, is the Royal Academy of Portuguese 1701, the academy was composed of ten honorary memHistory at Lisbon. This academy was instituted by King bers ; ten associates, each of whom had two declarative John V. in 1720. It consists of a director, four censors, voices; ten pensioners; and ten eleves, or pupils. They a secretary, and fifty members, to each of whom is assign- then met every Tuesday and Wednesday, in one of the ed some part of the ecclesiastical or civil history of the halls of the Louvre; and had two public meetings yearly, nation, which he is required to treat either in Latin or one the day after Martinmas, and the other the 16th after Portuguese. In the church history of each diocese, the Easter. The class of eleves was suppressed, and united prelates, synods, councils, churches, monasteries, acade- to the associates. The king nominated their president mies, persons illustrious for sanctity or learning, and places and vice-president yearly; but their secretary and treasurfamous for miracles or relics, must be distinctly i*elated in er were perpetual. The rest were chosen by the memtwelve chapters. The civil history comprises the transac- bers themselves, agreeably to the constitutions on that tions of the kingdom, from the government of the Ro- head given to them. One of the first undertakings of this mans down to the present time. The members who re- academy was to compose, by means of medals, a conside in the country are obliged to make collections and nected history of the principal events of Louis XIV.’s extracts out of all the registers, &c. where they live. Their reign. In this design, however, they met with very great meetings take place once every fifteen days. A medal difficulties, and consequently it was interrupted for a was struck by this academy in honour of their prince, on number of years; but at length it was completed down the obverse of which was his effigy, with the inscription to the advancement of the Duke of Anjou to the crow* Johannes V. Lusitanorum Rex, and on the reverse, the of Spain. In this celebrated work, the establishment same prince represented standing, and raising History, of the academy itself was not forgotten. The medal on almost prostrate before him, with the legend, Historia, this subject represents Mercury sitting, and writing with Rxsurges. Underneath are the following words in abbre- an antique stylus on a table of brass ; he leans with viature : REGia ACADemia HISTorim LUSITan®, IN- his left hand upon an urn full of medals, and at his SlITuta VI. Idus Decembris MDCCXX. feet are several others placed upon a card. The leAn Academy of History was some time ago established gend is, Rerum gestarum fides, and on the exergue, Acaby some learned men at Tubingen, for publishing the best demia Regia Inscriptionum et Numismatum, instituta historical writings, the lives of the chief historians, and MDCLXIII.; signifying, that the Royal Academy of Mecompiling new memoirs on any matter of importance con- dals and Inscriptions, founded in 1663, ought to give to nected with either. future ages a faithful testimony of all great actions. Be1 c About the year 1730, a few individuals in Madrid agreed sides this work, we have several volumes of their me-

ACADEMY. 76 Academy, moirs; and their history, written and continued by their marl After some experience, and coming more and more Acade into the taste of these exercises, they resolved to form an^v secretaries. Under this class the Academy of Herculaneum proper- academy of belles lettres, and changed the title of Belli ly ranks. It was established at Naples about 1^55, at Humori for that of Humoristi; choosing for their dewhich period a museum was formed of the antiquities vice a cloud, which, after being formed of exhalations found at Herculaneum, Pompeii, and other places, by the from the salt waters of the ocean, returns in a gentle Marquis Tanucci, who was then minister of state. Its ob- sweet shower; with this motto from Lucretius, Redlt ject was to explain the paintings, &c. which were discover- agmine dulci. In 1690, the Academy of Arcadi was established at ed at those places ; and for this purpose the members met every fortnight, and at each meeting three paintings were Rome, for reviving the study of poetry and of the belles submitted to three academicians, who made their report lettres. Besides most of the politer wits of both sexes on them at their next sitting. The first volume of their in Italy, this academy comprehended many princes, cardilabours appeared in 1775, and they have been continued nals, and other ecclesiastics ; and, to avoid disputes about under the title of Antichitd di Ercolarw. They contain pre-eminence, all appeared masked after the manner of engravings of the principal paintings, statues, bronzes, Arcadian shepherds. Within ten years from its first warble figures, medals, utensils, &c. with explanations. establishment, the number 6f Academicians amounted to In the year 1807, an Academy of History and Antiquities, six hundred. They held assemblies seven times a year on a new plan, was established at Naples, by Joseph Buona- in a meadow or grove, or in the gardens of some nobleparte. The number of members was limited to forty; man of distinction. Six of these meetings were employed twenty of whom were to be appointed by the king, and in the recitation of poems and verses of the Arcadi rethese twenty were to present to him, for his choice, three siding at Rome, who read their own compositions; exnames for each of those wanted to complete the full num- cept ladies and cardinals, who were allowed to employ ber. Eight thousand ducats were to be annually allotted others. The seventh meeting was set apart for the comfor the current expenses, and two thousand for prizes to positions of foreign or absent members. This academy is the authors of four works, which should be deemed by the governed by a custos, who represents the whole society, academy most deserving of such a reward. A grand meet- and is chosen every four years, with a power of electing ing was to be held every year, when the prizes were to be twelve others yearly for his assistance. Under these are distributed, and analyses of the works read. The first two sub-custodes, one vicar or pro-custos, and four depumeeting took place on the 25th of April 1807 ; but the sub- ties or superintendents, annually chosen. The laws of the sequent changes in the political state of Naples have pre- society are immutable, and bear a near resemblance to the vented the full and permanent establishment of this insti- ancient model. There are five modes of electing members. tution. In the same year an academy was established at The first is by acclamation. This is used when sovereign Florence, for the illustration of Tuscan antiquities, which princes, cardinals, and ambassadors of kings desire to be admitted ; and the votes are then given viva voce. The second has published some volumes of memoirs. In consequence of the attention of several literary men is called annumeration. This was introduced in favour of in Paris having been directed to Celtic antiquities, a Celtic ladies and academical colonies, where the votes are taken Academy was established in that city in the year 1807. privately. The third, representation, was established in Its objects were, first, the elucidation of the history, cus- favour of colonies and universities, where the young gentry toms, antiquities, manners, and monuments of the Celts, are bred, who have each a privilege of recommending one or particularly in France ; secondly, the etymology of all the two members privately to be balloted for. The fourth, European languages, by the aid of the Celto-British, surrogation, whereby new members are substituted in the Welsh, and Erse; and, thirdly, researches relating to room of those dead or expelled. The last, destination, Druidism. The attention of the members was also parti- whereby, when there is no vacancy of members, persons cularly called to the history and settlements of the Galatae of poetical merit have the title of Arcadi conferred upon in Asia. Lenoir, the keeper of the museum of French them till such time as a vacancy shall happen. All the monuments, was appointed president. A fasciculus, con- members of this body, at their admission, assume new passisting of 150 or 160 pages, was to be published monthly; toral names, in imitation of the shepherds of Arcadia. and the engravings illustrative of Celtic antiquities were The academy has several colonies of Arcadi in different to be under the inspection of Lenoir. The devices are, cities of Italy, who are all regulated after the same manGloria. Majorum, and Sermonem patriam moresque re- ner. XI. Academies of Languages, called by some, Gramquiret. X. Academies of Belles Lettres are those wherein matical Academies ; as, The Academy della Crusca at Florence, famous for its vocaeloquence and poetry are chiefly cultivated. These are very numerous in Italy, and were not uncommon in bulary of the Italian tongue, which was formed in 1582, but scarce heard of before the year 1584, when it became noted France. The Academy of Umidi at Florence has contributed for a dispute between Tasso and several of its members. greatly to the progress of the sciences by the excellent Many authors confound this with the Florentine academy. Italian translations executed by some of its members, of The discourses which Torricelli, the celebrated disciple of the ancient Greek and Latin historians. But their chief Galileo, delivered in the assemblies, concerning levity, attention was directed to Italian poetry, at the same time the wind, the power of percussion, mathematics, and milithat they applied themselves to the polishing of their lan- tary architecture, are a proof that these academies applied guage, which produced the Academy della Crusca. themselves to things as well as words. The Academy of Humourists, Umoristi, had its origin The Academy of Fructiferi had its rise in 1617, at an at Rome in the marriage of Lorenzo Marcini, a Roman assembly of several princes and nobility of the country, gentleman, at which several persons of rank were guests; who met with a design to refine and perfect the German for it being carnival time, to give the ladies some diver- tongue. It flourished long under the direction of princes sion, they betook themselves to the reciting of verses, of the empire, who were always chosen presidents. In sonnets, speeches, first extempore, and afterwards preme- 1668, the number of members arose to upwards of nine ditately ; which gave them the denomination of Bdli Hu- hundred. It was prior in time to the French academy,

ACADEMY. 77 were to begin with choosing carefully such words and Academy! A idemy. which only appeared in 1629, and was not established ^ into an academy before the year 1635. Its history is phrases as have been used by the best Spanish writers ;V^-vr's*-'' noting the low, barbarous, or obsolete ones ; and cofnposwritten in the German tongue, by George Neumarck. The French Academy had its rise from a meeting of ing a dictionary wherein these might be distinguished from men of letters in the house of M. Conrart, in 1629. In the former. The Royal Swedish Academy was founded in the year 1635, it was erected into an academy by Cardinal Richelieu, for refining and ascertaining the French language and 1786, for the purpose of purifying and perfecting the Swestyle. The number of its members was limited to forty, out dish language. A medal is struck by its direction every of whom a director, chancellor, and secretary were to be year in honour of some illustrious Swede. This academy chosen; the two former of whom were to hold their posts does not publish its transactions. XII. Academies of Politics. Of this description was for two months; the latter was perpetual. The members of this academy enjoyed several privileges and immunities, that at Paris, consisting of six persons, who met at the among which was that of not being obliged to answer be- Louvre, in the chamber where the papers relating to fofore any court but that of the king’s household. They reign affairs were lodged. But this academy proved of met three limes a week in the Louvre. At the breaking little service, as the kings of France were unwilling to trust up of each meeting forty silver medals were distributed any but their ministers with the inspection of foreign afamong the members, having on one side the king of France’s fairs. Academy is a term also applied to those royal colhead, and on the reverse, Protecteur de VAcademic, with laurel, and this motto, A FImmortalite. By this distribution, legiate seminaries in which young men are educated for the attendance of the academicians was secured; for those the navy and army. In our country there are three sewho were present received the surplus intended for the minaries of this description ; the Naval Academy at Portsabsent. To elect or expel a member, the concurrence of mouth, the Royal Military Academy at Woolwich, and at least eighteen was required; nor could any one be chosen the Royal Military College at Farnham and Sandhurst. unless he petitioned for it; by which expedient the affront Of these we shall give some account in their order. of refusals on the part of persons elected was avoided. ReI. The Naval Academy at Portsmouth was founded by ligious persons were not admitted ; nor could any nobleman George I. in 1722; but the official warrant for its estaor person of distinction be elected on any other footing than blishment does not appear to have been issued till the as a man of letters. None could be expelled, except for 21st of February 1729. This warrant bears, that the acabase and dishonest practices ; and there were but two in- demy was instituted for the education of forty young stances of such expulsions, the first of M. Grainer for re- gentlemen, fifteen of whom were to be sons of commisfusing to return a deposit, the other of the Abbe Fure- sioned officers in the navy. The commissioner of the tiere for plagiarism. The design of this academy was to navy at Portsmouth was, ex officio, to be governor; and give not only rules, but examples, of good writing. They there were to be two masters for the instruction of the began with making speeches on subjects taken at pleasure, students in navigation and the sciences introductory or about twenty of which were printed. At their first insti- auxiliary to it; besides a master for writing and drawing. tution they jnet with great opposition from the parliament; The annual expense was about L.1169. it being two years before the patents granted by the king In the year 1773, George III., during a visit he paid could be registered. This institution has been severely to Portsmouth, suggested the extension and improvesatirized, and the style of its compositions has been ri- ment of the Naval Academy; but no steps were taken todiculed as enervating instead of refining the French lan- wards this object till the year 1806, when an order in guage. They were also charged with having surfeited council was issued for a new and enlarged establishment. the world by flattery, and exhausted all the topics of pane- By this order it was henceforward to be called the Royal gyric in praise of their founder; it being a duty incumbent Naval College, at Dock-yard, Portsmouth, and the followon every member, at his admission, to make a speech in ing officers were appointed: first, a Governor, who was to praise of the king, the cardinal, the chancellor Seguier, be the First Lord of the Admiralty for the time being; and the person in whose room he is elected. The most and, second, a Lieutenant-Governor and inspector, who was remarkable work of this academy is a dictionary of the to be a post-captain in the navy. As the course of eduFrench tongue ; which, after fifty years spent in settling cation which the students were to follow necessarily emthe words and phrases to be used in writing, was at last braced the mathematical sciences, the order directed that published in 1694. the University of Cambridge should recommend three of An academy similar to the ab»ve was founded at Peters- its graduates, who were able mathematicians; one of burg under the auspices of the Princess Dashkof; and the whom, the First Lord of the Admiralty, as governor, was plan having been approved by the crown, a fund was esta- to nominate professor. In order to incite him to the reblished for its support. It is attached to the Imperial gular and faithful discharge of his duty, he was to receive Academy of Sciences at St Petersburg. no fixed salary, but to be paid L.8 annually by each stuThe Royal Spanish Academy at Madrid held its first dent attending the academy. The next in rank and aumeeting in July 1713, in the palace of its founder, the thority under the professor is the preceptor, or head master, Duke d’Escalona. It consisted at first of eight acade- who must be a graduate of one of the universities. He has micians, including the duke; to which number fourteen the control of the students at all hours, and is to instruct others were afterwards added, the founder being chosen them in the classics, moral philosophy, geography, history, president or director. In 1714, the king granted them and general literature. the royal confirmation and protection. Their device is a The order in council also appointed a writing-master, crucible in the middle of the fire, with this motto, Limpia, who, besides giving instructions in his own immediate Fixa,' y da Esplendor ; “ It purifies, fixes, and gives bright- line, was to prepare the students for the lectures of the ness. The number of members was limited to twenty- professor, by teaching them arithmetic, fractions, algebra, four ; the Duke d’Escalona was chosen director for life, but and geometry. There are, besides, masters for drawing, his successors were elected yearly, and the secretary for French, dancing, and fencing. The surgeon of the docklife. 1 heir object, as marked out by the royal declaration, yard gives his professional advice and assistance. The was to cultivate and improve the national language. They domestic economy of the establishment is intrusted, by

78 ACADEMY. Academy, the order in council, to a disabled and meritorious half- demy, and one at sea. The salary of the apprentices in-vAcadet creases yearly, from L.60 to L.140; out of which they -^v pay lieutenant. The peculiar advantages of this academy, however, pay L.8 to the professor. The number of these apprenconsist in the practical knowledge which it is intended tices was originally limited to twenty-five; but latterly, and calculated to bestow on those who are admitted. For six more have been added. They spend half the day unthis purpose, the master attendant of the dock-yard gives der the professor; and the other half under the master weekly lessons on the management of ships afloat, in one shipwright, in the mould lofts, learning the management of the cruising sloops; and likewise lessons in rigging of timber, and manual labour in ship-building. Lectures and preparing ships for sea, on board such vessels as are are delivered three times a week, after working hours, preparing to sail from Portsmouth harbour. Forty-seven on the branches of science connected with naval architeclessons are given in each of these branches annually, five ture ; and annual examinations take place before the resident commissioner, the master shipwright, and the proweeks being allowed for holydays. The master shipwright of the dock-yard instructs ‘the fessor. Out of the class of shipwright apprentices thus educatstudents in the principles on which ships of war are built, and in the mode of putting the several parts to ether; ed, are selected the master measurers, foremen of shipmaking masts, and all other branches of naval architec- wrights, master boat-builders, master mast-makers, assistture, by attending them one day in the week, during the ants to master ship-builders, mechanists in office of insix summer months, through the dock-yards. The gunner spector-general of naval works, assistants to surveyors of marine artillery also instructs them in the practical of the navy, master shipwrights, second surveyor of navy, inspector-general of navy works, and first surveyor of knowledge of gunnery, and in the use of the firelock. The number of scholars, by the order in council of navy. II. The Royal Military Academy at Woolwich was esFebruary 1806, was increased from forty to seventy: of these, thirty might be indiscriminately sons of officers, tablished by George II. by warrants dated 30th of April noblemen, or gentlemen ; but forty were invariably to be and 18th November 1741, for the purpose of instructing sons of commissioned officers in the naval service. None “ raw and inexperienced people belonging to the military are admitted under thirteen, nor above sixteen years of branch of the ordnance, in the several parts of the matheage; and those are preferred to fill vacancies who have matics necessary for the service of the artillery, and the been previously at sea, provided they are of the proper age. business of engineers.” We find no further notice reNo student can remain at the academy longer than three specting this institution till the year 1776, when the numyears; and the whole period of his residence is to be ber of scholars, then called cadets, amounted to fortyreckoned as two of the six years which it is necessary for eight. In the year 1786, they were increased to sixty; a midshipman to serve before he can obtain a lieuten- in 1796, to ninety; and in 1798, to one hundred, forty of ant’s commission. Each student, while actually at the whom were educated for the service of the East India academy, that is, during three hundred and thirty days Company. This number continued till the year 1806, in the year, receives four shillings daily; out of which he when the establishment was improved and further expays L.8 annually to the professor. The annual expense tended, the number of masters being increased, and the of the establishment, as fixed by the order in council of cadets being divided into two bodies. This latter regula1806, is about L.6363. tion took place in consequence principally of the unhealthy In order to secure to the country the services of the and confined situation of the old buildings in the royal students in that line for which they have been educated, arsenal; new buildings having been erected on Woolwich the parents of all of them, except such as have been Common, on the side of Shooter’s Hill, in a more open previously at sea, grant a bond of L.200, which is for- and dry situation. As soon as these were finished, one feited in case they do not enter into the naval service. hundred and twenty-eight cadets were lodged in them; The first year they are at sea, they are rated as vo- sixty still continuing in the royal arsenal. At this period, lunteers, on able searnaris pay; the second year, they there were nine masters of mathematics. In 1810, the have the rank and pay of midshipmen. They are direct- cadets for the service of the East India Company were ed to keep journals, to draw head-lands, &c.; and when withdrawn from Woolwich; and the extra cadets, who, the ship comes into port, they are to attend the professor, for want of room, had been sent to Marlow, or to private who is to inspect their journals, and examine them regard- schools, were taken into the college, under the name of ing their advancement in the theoretical and practical supernumeraries. The establishment at present consists knowledge of this profession. of two hundred cadets, one hundred and twenty-eight of This academy, as established by the order in council whom are in the new buildings, and seventy-two, includalready mentioned, was confined entirely to the education ing twelve supernumeraries, reside in the arsenal. The of young cadets for the navy: but in the third report of number of cadets is not fixed by warrant, but is at the the commissioners, appointed to inquire into the civil discretion of the master-general of ordnance, who, with affairs of the navy, laid before Parliament in June 1806, the board of ordnance, have the entire superintendence of a regular system of education for shipwrights was also the institution. The immediate direction, however, is proposed; and the suggestion was accordingly carried vested in the lieutenant-governor and inspector, who are into effect, though not till some years afterwards. The chosen generally from the artillery or engineers by the professor of the naval academy is also the instructor of master-general of the ordnance. It is the duty of these the shipwright apprentices, but his instructions extend officers, aided by the assistant inspector, to control the only to that class who are to serve on board his Majesty’s masters and professors, and to see that the cadets are ships of war. No apprentice can be admitted to the aca- taught the necessary branches of instruction. The prodemy under sixteen years of age; and he must be pre- fessors and masters are appointed on the recommendation viously examined by the professor, before a committee of ot the lieutenant-governor, who, assisted by men of science, the navy board, in arithmetic, the first six books of Eu- previously examines them. One master is appointed for clid, and in French. If the candidate is approved, he every sixteen cadets. At present there are a professor of must be bound to the resident commissioner of the dock- fortification, with two assistants ; a professor of mathemayard for seven years, six of which he spends at the aca- tics, with six masters and assistants ; two French masters;

ACADEMY. 79 tjemv.a drawing-master for ground, and an assistant; a drawing- was principally intended for those who w’ere destined forvAcademy, v ' / master for figures, and another for landscape ; a dancing- the military profession, in order to ground them in the -^ ^*-^ necessary sciences by the time they could hold commismaster ; a fencing-master; two modellers ; and a lecturer on chemistry. Lectures are also given on the different sions ; and also to afford provision for the orphan sons of branches of natural philosophy. The inferior branches of meritorious officers, who had fallen or been disabled in the education are taught at the lower institution in the arse- service of their country, or whose pecuniary circumstances nal, and the higher branches at the buildings on the com- rendered them unable to educate their sons properly for a military life. The warrant of 1808 fixed the number of mon. The young men educated at the Royal Military Aca- students in the Junior Department at four hundred and demy of Woolwich are the sons of noblemen, gentlemen, twelve, divided into four companies of a hundred and or military officers. They are called gentlemen cadets, three cadets each. They are admitted upon three differand cannot be admitted under fourteen, nor above sixteen ent establishments:—1. Orphan sons of officers of the years of age. They are nominated by the master-general army or navy, who have fallen, died, or been disabled in of the ordnance, as governor of the academy; but they the service: these are admitted free of expense, except must be well grounded in English grammar, -arithmetic, that they are to bring the first suit of uniform on their and French ; and they undergo a previous public exami- admission, and to keep up their stock of linen, during nation before the masters of the academy. The cadets their residence at the college. 2. The sons of officers educated at Woolwich are considered as the first company actually serving in the army or navy, who pay a certain of the royal regiment of artillery, of which the master-ge- sum annually, from L.10 to L.60, according to the rank neral of the ordnance is the captain. They are also divided of their fathers. 3. The sons of noblemen and gentlemen, into companies, each company having a captain and two who pay L.100 per annum each. The military branch of the establishment attached to subalterns, as military directors. Each cadet receives 2s. 6d. a day, or L.45. 12s. 6d. a year, which covers all the Junior Department, consists of a commandant, a major, his regular expenses, except keeping up his linen. The three captains, an adjutant, and inferior officers. The studies pursued in this department are, mathemaannual vacations consist of twelve weeks. Monthly returns of the studies of the cadets, showing tics, natural philosophy, history, geography, fortification, the relative progress of each in every branch, with his military drawing, landscape drawing, arithmetic, classics, particular character subjoined, are sent to the master- French, German, fencing, and writing. There are seven general of the ordnance: there are also public examina- masters of mathematics, four of fortification, five of militions before the general officers of the ordnance corps. tary drawing, three of landscape drawing, four of history, Commissions are given to the cadets according to the geography, and classics, six of French, one of German, report of their merits and acquirements ; they have their and three of fencing. The course for this department choice of entering either into the artillery or engineers. lasts from three and a half to four years. Applications for admission must be made to the comThe whole expense to government, of the Royal Military Academy at Woolwich, is at the rate of about L.100 for mander-in-chief, through the governor of the college, and his Majesty’s approbation obtained. Every candidate, each cadet. III. The Royal Military College, which is at present previously to admission into the Junior Department, must established at Farnham, in Surrey, and at Sandhurst, near pass an examination in Latin and English grammar, and Bagshot, was originally settled at High Wycombe and in the first four rules of arithmetic ; and no candidate can Great Marlow. • The establishment at High Wycombe be admitted under thirteen or above fifteen years of age. Examinations are held monthly, which are conducted commenced in January 1799, at which time there was a superintendent, commandant, two or three professors, and by the professors of the Senior Department, for the purthirty-four students. Next year four more professors pose of ascertaining the progress of each cadet, previously were added; and in 1801 it took the name of the Royal to his removal from one class to another. There are also Military College by warrant of George III. A supreme half-yearly examinations, in presence of the collegiate board of commissioners, to superintend and regulate its board, on which occasion one or more members of the concerns, was appointed, consisting of the commander-in- supreme board, not being members of the collegiate chief, secretary of war, and the heads of the great mili- board, attend. These examinations are held previously to tary departments, with others of high rank in the army ; the cadets’ receiving commissions from the college; and three of whom, including the secretary of war, and the if they acquit themselves well, they are furnished by the adjutant or quartermaster-general, were to form a board board of commissioners, in whose presence the examinaof management. By his Majesty’s warrant, dated the 4th tion takes place, with certificates of qualification to serve of June 1802, another department, called the Junior De- in the army as officers. The third class, or gentlemen partment of the Royal Military College, was formed; and cadets, are allowed to purchase commissions at any time the objects of this, as well as of the original, or Senior during their continuance at the college ; but no gentleDepartment, were specifically pointed out. A collegiate man cadet can be recommended for a commission by priboard was also established, for the internal government of vate interest, until he has made a certain progress in his the college, consisting of the governor, lieutenant-go- studies. vernor, and the commandants of the two departments. The Senior Department of the Royal Military College, The last warrant relating to this establishment is dated which was originally established at High Wycombe, is in27th May 1808. It places both the departments, form- tended for the purpose of instructing officers in the sciening one college, under the command of the governor and tific parts of their profession, with a view of enabling lieutenant-governor; it continues the collegiate board; them better to discharge their duty when acting in the and it vests the appointment of professors and masters, command of regiments ; and, at the same time, of qualifyafter public notice of vacancies, and the examination of ing them for being employed in the quartermaster’s and the candidates in the presence of the collegiate board, in adjutant-general’s department. The military branch of the supreme board. the establishment of the Senior Department consists of a By these warrants it was declared, that the Junior commandant and adjutant. The studies pursued are, Department of the Institution, which was then at Marlow, mathematics in all their various branches, fortification,

80 A C A Academy gunnery, castrametation, military drawing and surveying, . ^^ the reconnoitring of ground, the disposition and move/J^^ment of troops under all the various circumstances of defensive and offensive war, rules for estimating the military resources of a country, and the German and French languages. There are six professors in this department; one for mathematics, one for fortification, two for military drawing, one for French, and one for German. The full completnent of the Senior Department consists of thirty students. No officer can be admitted till he has completed the twenty-first year of his age, and actually served with his regiment, as a commissioned officer, three years abroad, or four years at home. Applications for admission must be made to the governor, through the commanding officer of the regiment to which the candidate belongs; and the governor transmits the application to the commander-in-chief, for his Majesty’s approbation. Such examination as may be deemed requisite, is required previously to admission. Each student of this department pays into the funds of the college thirty guineas annually ; and after a certain period he is obliged to keep a horse, for the purpose of receiving such instruction as is given in the field. Therfe are public examinations half-yearly, conducted on the same principle as the half-yearly examinations of the Junior Department. Such officers as

Academy Figure, a drawing of a naked man or woman, taken from the life; which is usually done on paper with red or black chalk, and sometimes with pastils or crayons. AC ADIE, or Ac Any, in Geography, a name formerly given to Nova Scotia, or New Scotland, in America. ACADNA, in antiquity, a Grecian measure of length, being a ten feet rod, used in measuring their lands. AC AM ANTIS, the ancient name of the island of Cyprus, taken from one of its promontories situated to the west, and called Mania?. Teos in Ionia was also called thus from Acamas the founder. _ ACAMAS, son of Theseus, followed the rest of the Grecian princes to the siege of Troy; and was deputed, with Diomedes, to the TrojanS, in order to get Helen restored. Laodice, Priam’s daughtfer, fell in love with, and had a son by him, called Munitus. He was one of the heroes who concealed themselves in the wooden horse. One of the tribes of Athens was called Acamantides from him, by the appointment of the! oracle; and he founded a city in Phrygia Major, called Acamantium. Homer mentions two other heroes of this name: one a Thracian prince, who came to succour Priam; another a son of Antenor. ACANGIS, that is, Ravdc/ers or Adventurers; a name which the Turks give their hussars or light troops, who are generally sent out in detachments to procure intelligence, harass the enemy, or ravage the country. ACANTHA, in Botany, the prickle of any plant: in Zoology, a term for the lupine or prickly fins of fishes. ACANTHABOLUS, in Surgery, an instrument for pulling thorns, or the like, out of the skin. ACANTHINE, any thing resembling or belonging to the herb acanthus. Acglithine garments, among the ancients, are said to be mdde df the down of thistles ; others think they were garments embroidered in imitation of the acanthus. ACANTHROPTERYGIOUS Fishes, a term used by Linnaeus and others for those fishes whose back fins are hard, osseous, and prickly. ACANTHUS, in Architecture, an ornament representing

A C A have gone through the regular course of studies, and have Acadi passed this examination with credit, receive certificates Acai| ] that they are duly qualified for staff-appointments, signed by the board who examined them, and sealed with the'v>^v seal of the college. Officers or students of the first department, non-commissioned officers, and other military persons belonging to the college, as well as the gentlemen cadets of the junior department, are subject to the articles of war; for which reason the latter are placed on the establishment of the army, and receive 2s. 6d. per day. This money contributes towards the expense of their education. The gentlemen cadets wear military uniforms. The general staff of the college consists of the governor, the lieutenant-governor, the inspector-general of instruction, and the chaplain, who, besides performing divine service, teaches the evidences and principles of Christianity. The rest of the staff are exclusively occupied with the finances of the college. In 1801, five hundred acres of land were purchased at Sandhurst, near Bagshot; and on this space large and commodious buildings were erected, into which the Junior Department was removed from Great Marlow; but the Senior Department remained at Farnham, which is at no great distance from Sandhurst.

the leaves of the Acanthus, used in the capitals of the Corinthian and Composite orders. ACAPALA, or Acapula, a town in the province of Chiapa, in New Spain, which is situated on Tabasco river, about five leagues north-west from Chiapa. ACAPAM, a town of Asia, on the Euxine Sea. ACAPULCO, a considerable town and port in Mexico, on a bay of the South Sea, distant from the city of Mexico south-east 210 miles. It has a remarkably fine harbour, from whence a ship annually sails to Manilla in the Philippine islands in Asia; and another returns annually from thence with all the treasures of the East Indies, such as diamonds, rubies, sapphires, and other precious stones; the rich carpets of Persia; the camphire of Borneo ; the benjamin and ivory of Pegu and Cambodia; the silks, muslins, and calicoes, of the Mogul’s country; the gold dust, tea, china ware, silk, and cabinets, of China and Japan ; besides cinnamon, cloves, mace, nutmegs, and pepper; insomuch that this single ship contains more riches than many whole fleets. The goods brought to Acapulco are carried to the city of Mexico by mules and pack-horses. Acapulco is but a small place, containing about 4000 inhabitants, mostly people of colour; who are increased to 9000 by the resort of strangers to the annual fair, held wdien the Manilla galleon arrives. A wretched fort, with 31 pieces of cannon, defends the harbour, which is equally extensive, safe, and commodious. Ihe basin which constitutes this harbour is surrounded by lolty mountains, which are so dry that they are even destitute of water, dhe air here is hot, heavy, and unwholesome ; to which none can habituate themselves except certain negroes that are born under a similar climate, or some mulattoes. Upon the arrival of the galleons, traders flock hither from all the provinces of Mexico. The value of the precious metals exported in the galleon amounts in general to about L.200,000 or L.250,000, the value of the goods to about L.300,000 or L.400,000, according to Humboldt. Long. 99. 46. W. Lat. 16. 50. N. ACARAI, a town of Paraguay in South America, built by the Jesuits in 1624.

ACC ACC 81 Airauaa ACARAUNA, a small American fish, called by our ACCAPITARE, in Law, the act of becoming vassal ofAccapitare I sailors the old wife, a lord, or of yielding him homage and obedience. Hence, II cctilia* a a u a "Mi a ao country of ril* Free TiVoo Greece, qj* ACARNAN1A, _ (rrcece ACCAPlTUM signifies the money paid by a vassal Aeeclcra1 Proper, bounded on the north by the Sinus Ambracius, upon his admission to a feu. tion. and separated from /Etolia by the river Achelous on the Accapitum, in our Ancient Law, was used also to ex-' east, and on the west by the Ionian Sea. This country press the relief or fee payable on the entry of an heir to was famous for an excellent breed of horses; so that Axa^- the chief lord. mcwxo; mro; is a proverbial saying for any thing excellent ACCEDAS ad curiam, in English Law, a writ used in its kind. It now forms the western part of Livadia. where a man has received, or fears, false judgment in an ACARON, or Accaron, a town of Palestine, called inferior court. It lies also for justice delayed, and is a Ekron in Scripture. It was the boundary of the Philis- species of the writ Recordare. tines to the north; stood at some distance from the sea, ACCELERATION, in Natural Philosophy, denotes near Bethshemesh; and was famous for the idol of Baal- generally an increase of motion or velocity, and is chiefly zebub. applied to the motion of such bodies as go on, not with a ACASTUS, in classic history, the son of Pelias, king uniform motion, but one which becomes continually quickof Thessaly, and one of the most famous hunters of the er and quicker as they advance. A body, for example, rolltime, married Hippolita, who falling desperately in love ing down a hill proceeds slowly at first, but gradually inwith Peleus her son-in-law, and he refusing to gratify her creases as it descends, until at last it acquires a velocity wishes, she accused him to her husband of a rape; on and momentum which bears down every thing before it. The which he slew them both. same thing takes place when a body is dropped, and allowed ACATALECTIC, a term in ancient poetry for such to fall freely in the air; although the acceleration is here verses as have all their feet or syllables, in contradistinc- less observable, on account of the great rapidity of the detion to those that have a syllable too few. The first verse scent. The earth, in its annual motion round the sun, is of the two following from Horace is acatalectic or com- subject to a continued acceleration from the apogee to plete, the last catalectic or deficient. the perigee, while from thence again it suffers a similar retardation. Many other examples occur of such acSolvitur acris hiems grata vice veris et Favoni, celeration ; but the most interesting is the Acceleration Trahuntque siccas machinee carinas. of Falling Bodies. That such an acceleration does ACATALEPSY signifies the impossibility of compre- take place, is obvious from many circumstances, particuhending something. The distinguishing tenet of the Pyr- larly the increasing momentum which a body acquires in rhonists was their asserting an absolute acatalepsy in re- proportion to the height of its descent. But it was only gard to every thing. by considering the cause of the descent that the true law ACATERY, or Accatry, anciently an officer of the of the acceleration was determined. This great discovery king’s household, designed for a check betwixt the clerks we owe to the genius of Galileo. Various theories had of the kitchen and the purveyors. been framed by philosophers to account for the acceleACATHARSIA, in Medicine, an impurity of the blood rated descent of falling bodies, but all of them inconor humours. clusive and visionary. Some, for instance, ascribed it to ACATHISTUS, the name of a solemn hymn or vigil, the weight of the pure air above increasing as the body anciently sung in the Greek church on the Saturday of descended. The followers of Gassendi pretended that the fifth week of Lent, in honour of the Virgin, for having there are continually issuing out of the earth certain thrice delivered Constantinople from the invasions of the attractive corpuscles directed in an infinite number of barbarous nations. It was denominated uxudiisros, i. e. rays; those, say they, ascend and then descend in such a without sitting, because, in the celebration of the praises manner, that the nearer a body approaches to the earth’s of the Virgin, the people stood all night singing. centre, the more of these attractive rays press upon it, in ACATlUM, in Ancient Navigation, a kind of boat or consequence of which its motion becomes accelerated. pinnace used for military purposes. The acatium was a The Cartesians again ascribed the effect to the reiterated species of those vessels called naves actuarice, i. e. such impulses of their materia suhtilis acting continually on as were wrought with oars. It was sometimes made use falling bodies, and propelling them downwards. It apof in battle. Strabo describes it as a privateer or pirate pears now incredible how such dreams could have been sloop, and Suidas as a fishing vessel. gravely proposed by men having the reputation of philosoACAULIS, in Botany, a term applied to certain plants, phers. Galileo, however, on considering the subject atthe flowers of which have no pedicle or stalk to support tentively, and applying the powerful aids of geometry and them, but rest immediately on the ground, such as the mathematics, soon discovered that the true cause was carline thistle, &c. simply the continued action of the moving force of graviACCA, Saint, bishop of Hagustaldt, or Hexham, in ty. This force, Galileo reasoned, must operate continuNorthumberland, succeeded Wilfrid in that see in 709. ally on the body, not only at the moment of starting, but He ornamented his cathedral in a most magnificent man- also during every moment of its descent. And as the ner ; furnished it with plate and holy vestments; and body retains and accumulates all these impressions acerected a noble library, consisting chiefly of ecclesiastical cording to the great and original law of moving bodies, learning, and a large collection of the lives of the saints, no wonder that its motion should become continually w ich he was at great pains to procure. He was account- accelerated: for, suppose that gravity were to act only ed a very able divine, and was famous for his skill in at certain small intervals, each second for instance, church music. He wrote several books', particularly Pas- and suppose that at first it communicates such a mosioncs Sanctorum, and Pro illustrandis Scripturis, ad Be- tion to the body as causes it to descend, say ten feet dam. He died in 740, having enjoyed the see of Hexham in the first second; the body could not stop here even years, under Egbert king of the Northumbrians. though gravity were ceasing altogether to act on it: ACC ALIA, in Roman antiquity, solemn festivals held in retaining the original impression, it would still go on nonour of Acca Laurentia, Romulus’s nurse: they were moving uniformly at the rate of ten feet every second of otherwise called Laurent alia. its descent; but at the end of the first second, gravity vol. II.

82 ACC Accelera- again acts on it and communicates a second impression, by tion. virtue of which it would descend ten feet during the second interval, in addition to the ten feet arising from the original impulse ; so that on the whole it descends 20 feet in the second interval. In the same manner, during the third interval it would descend 30 feet, and during the fourth 40, and so on ; the space described in each second thus increasing regularly with the increase of the time. Hence Galileo deduced the fundamental law of acceleration in falling bodies, that the Velocity, which in every case is just the space described in each second or other fixed interval, increases in exact proportion to the whole time of descent; so that whatever be the velocity at the end of the first second, then at the end of any number of seconds the velocity would just be as many times greater,—a law from which he easily deduced all the others regarding the descent of falling bodies, which are of so much importance in mechanical inquiries. The most remarkable is that which regards the Space1 described, or the total amount of the descent in a given time. This Galileo deduced very elegantly from a simple geometrical consideration. In every case of a body moving uniformly without acceleration, the space described in any given time must be proportional to the time, and must be found by multiplying the time by the velocity : it may be represented, therefore, by a simple diagram. Let A B,for instance, deB note by its length the velocity of the body, or the number of feet described by it in a second, and DCD the time or number of seconds during which it is in motion; then, if we construct a rectangle a E, of which one of the sides, a b, is equal to A B, and the other, c d, equal to C D, t this rectangle, that is, the number of square feet in it, will denote the space, that is, the number of lineal feet described during the- whole period. Let us now apply this principle to the case of a body moving with an accelerated velocity, and let AB, CD, EF, &c. denote the velocities at the end of certain equal intervals of time, of which let each be denoted by l m ; and _ suppose also, that during each of these intervals the motion is uniform, and is only accelerated by a sort of start which takes place at the end of each : then, if we construct a rectangle a l b, of ■B which a b is, equal to A B, the velo—D city at the end of the first interval, and -F a l equal to l m the first interval, this -H rectangle will denote the space described during that interval. Continue K now the line a / to m, making lm — a l ■=. I m, and continue also l c to d, so that l d may be equal to D C, the velocity during the second interval, and complete the rectangle dime, this will denote the space del scribed in the second inQ_d e terval ; and, in the same manner, each of the succeeding rectangles in descending will denote 1 the space described in

ACC the succeeding interval, so that the total amount of the Aecelera. descent will be denoted by the sum of all the rectangles together, or by the compound figure which they form.^^^ But what is the nature of this figure ? It is evidently, as appears more clearly by taking out the parallel lines, triangular, only that the longest side presents a serrated outline. What is the cause of this ? It is clearly owing to the supposition we have made of the motion continuing uniform during the intervals, and then increasing by starts; instead of growing continually, as it really does. Suppose then that we shorten the intervals one-half, for instance, and double their number, we shall then be much nearer the truth ; but the inequalities in the hypothenuse of the triangle are now greatly reduced ; and the more we thus diminish the intervals, and increase their number, the more nearly does it approach to a straight line. In the extreme case, therefore, where there are in reality no intervals, but where the velocity goes on continually increasing, neither will there be any inequalities in the outline; the figure will be really a triangle : and while the vertical side A B denotes the time of descent, and the horizontal B C the velocity, the area of the triangle will denote in square measure the space descended in the given time. But the areas of similar triangles are in every case proportional to the squares of their corresponding sides; that is, the area A B C is to A D E as the square of A B or B C is to the square of A D or D E. Hence in general it follows, that the spaces described in any given time or times are always proportional to the squares of these times, and also to the squares of the velocities at the end of such times. Thus, if a body describes 16 feet during the first second of its descent, it will, during the next, descend 4 times as much, or 64; during the third 9 times, or 144 feet; during the fourth 16 times, or 256, and so on. Such, then, is the great law of acceleration in regard to the spaces described. It is easily deducible also from numerical or algebraical considerations. Let the velocity, for example, at the end of any given time, such as a second, be denoted by 1; then in the second, third, and fourth, it will be 2, 3, 4, &c. But the space described at the end of any time is evidently equal to the time multiplied by the mean velocity; that is, the velocity at the half-interval. During the first second, therefore, the space described will the third f, during be -i, during the second -- §, during o ^ n the fourth and so on; adding these successively, the whole space from the1 beginning at the end of each interval will be f, £, &c., being each proportional to the square of the time. Algebraically again, if we suppose gravity to act only at the end of successive intervals, and the motion to continue uniform during these, then the spaces described will form an arithmetical progression, such as a, 2 a, 3 a, 4 a, 5 a, &c. ... n a, and the whole space will be the sum of this series, or a + ?J« X ^ ;= ' hnu v iui* lo 3dr ji oSijfinjsnQtS tofhf ——’——■

1 This phrase, we may remark, probablv from Galileo’s geometrical illustration, has been rather aukwardly introduced in these discussions, and in a way which tends to produce a little obscurity. Space generally includes the idea of extension, in at least two dimensions, both length and breadth; whereas it is here employed to denote merely the lineal extent, the length of the tracK by ite tnaviag bariffninnuung gnome THsaoA 64vI mx Jov bak $18 xm .ussidX .Yi&l o&is Jim* '

ACC

ACC 83 1750, 1777; Mem. de TAcad. Par. 1757, 1763, 1786; AeceleraAiclera- n 4- n y. -• Suppose now tlie intervals diminished Mem. de TAcad. Berlin, 1773, 1782; Connoissances des tion■ ion. 2 _ in extent and increased in number indefinitely, they will Temps, 1779, 1782, 1790; Newton’s Principia, second . H bear no sort of proportion to rf2 : the second term of the edition ; Say’s Astronomy ; Vince’s Astronomy ; Astrono-. Accent‘ above sum therefore may be neglected, and ultimately the mie, par Lalande, &c. (c.) whole space will be proportional to n'2, the square of the Accelera tion of Bodies on inclined Planes. The same time. In every view, then, this great law is established; general law obtains here as in bodies falling perpendicuand when we come to try it experimentally, which is done larly : the effect of the plane is to make the motion by means of Atwood’s machine, it is confirmed by the slower; but the inclination being everywhere equal, the nicest observation; every falling body describing in the retardation arising therefrom will proceed equally in all first second 16-^ feet, and in every other a space propor- parts, at the beginning and the ending of the motion. tional to the time. See Atwoods Machine, Dynamics, ACCENDENTES, alower order of ministers in the RoMechanics, &c. (c.) mish church, whose office is to light and trim the candles. Acceleration, in Astronomy, is applied in various ACCENDONES, in Roman antiquity, a kind of gladiways, and to different objects. Thus, the Acceleration of ators, whose office was to excite and animate the comthe Fixed Stars denotes that apparent increase of motion batants during the engagement. The orthography of the or velocity by which night after night they arrive sooner word is contested: the first edition of Tertullian, by and sooner upon the meridian than before. A star which Rhenanus, has it accedones ; an ancient manuscript, accenpasses the meridian to-night at 10 o’clock, for instance, dones. Aquinas adheres to the former, Pitiscus to the will to-morrow night arrive at it 3' 56" sooner, or at latter. The origin of the word, supposing it accendones, is 56' 4" past nine, and so on each succeeding evening; from accendo, I kindle ; supposing it accedones, from accedo, thus anticipating continually the niQtion of the sun, I accede, am added to. The former places their distinwhich regulates the length of the day. A star which guishing character in enlivening the combat by their expasses the meridian to-day with the sun, will to-morrow hortations and suggestions: the latter supposes them to pass 3' 56" sooner; so that it appears to revolve with a be much the same with what among us are called seconds, quicker or accelerated motion. It is in reality the sun, among the Italians, patroni; excepting that these latter however, moving continually backwards among the stars only stand by to see the laws of the sword duly observed, which causes in them this apparent acceleration. without intermeddling to give advice or instruction. Acceleration of the Planets denotes that accelerated moACCENSI, in the Roman armies, certain supernumertion with which they all, as well as the earth, advance from ary soldiers, designed to supply the place of those who the perigee to the apogee of their orbits. This acceleration should be killed or anywise disabled. They were thus is most readily observed by comparing the successive diur- denominated, quia accensebantur, or ad censum adjiciebannal motions of the planet in its orbit. When the actual tur. Vegetius calls them supernumerarii legionum. Cato diurnal motion exceeds the mean diurnal motion, the planet calls them ferentarii, in regard they furnished those enis accelerated ; and, on the other hand, when it falls short of gaged in battle with weapons, drink, &c. Nonnius sugit, it is retarded, as takes place between the apogee and gests another reason of that appellation, viz. because they perigee. fought with stones, slings, and weapons, quce feruntur, Acceleration of the Moon is a remarkable increase which such as are thrown, not carried in the hand. They were has been discovered in the moon’s motion in her orbit, sometimes also called velites, and velati, because they which has been going on increasing from age to age by a fought clothed, but not in armour ; sometimes adscriptitii, gradation so imperceptible, that it was only discovered and adscriptivi; sometimes rorarii. The accensi, Livy or suspected by Dr Halley, on comparing the ancient observes, were placed in the rear of the army, because eclipses observed at Babylon and others with those of his little was expected from them: they were taken out of own time. The quantity of this acceleration was afterwards the fifth class of citizens. determined by Mr Dunthorne from more accurate data Accensi, in antiquity, denotes ah inferior order of regarding the longitudes of Alexandria and Babylon, and officers, appointed to attend the Roman magistrates, somefrom the most authentic eclipse of which any good ac- what in the manner of ushers, serjeants, or tipstaves among count remains, observed at Babylon in the year 721 be- us. They were thus called from accire, to send for ; one fore Christ. The beginning of this eclipse, as observed part of their office being to call assemblies of the people, at that time, was about an hour and three quarters sooner summon parties to appear and answer before the judges, &c. than he found it would have been by computation; and Accensi was also an appellation given to a kind of adhence he found the mean acceleration, or what has since jutants, appointed by the tribune to assist each centurion been termed the moon’s secular equation, about 10" of a de- and decurion ; in which sense accensus is synonymous with gree each century. According to Laplace, it amounts to optio. In an ancient inscription, given by Torre, we meet 11*135". This remarkable fact had long excited the atten- with Accensus Equitum Romanorum ; an office notion of astronomers; as, along with several others of the where else heard of. That author suspects it for a corsame kind among the heavenly bodies, it seemed to betray ruption ; and instead thereof reads, A Censibus. imperfection; exhibiting inequalities which were continACCENSION, the action of setting a body on fire: ually increasing, instead of correcting themselves or being thus the accension of tinder is effected by striking fire somehow compensated by that admirable design which with flint gnd steel. prevailed in every other part of the system. At last, howACCENT, in reading or speaking, an inflection of the ever, it was discovered, by the application of a refined voice, which gives to each syllable of a word its due pitch analysis, that these inequalities were not perpetual; that in respect of height or lowness. See Reading. The they actually terminate in the lapse of ages, and again word is originally Latin, accentus ; a compound of ad, to, return in the opposite direction, thus preserving entire and cano, to sing. Accentus quasi adcantus, or juxta cantire harmony of the celestial motions. This fine discovery, turn. In this sense, accent is synonymous with the Greek which observation alone could never have disclosed, we rows; the Latin tenor, or tonor; and the Hebrew oim, owe to the genius of Laplace. See Astronomy in this gustus, taste. work; also Phil. Tram. No. 204, 218, and vol. xlvi. 1749, Accent, among grammarians, is a certain mark or 2

ACCENT. 84 Accent, character placed over a syllable to direct the stress of its the same manner by the ancients, but he thinks that differ- Accent, pronunciation. We generally reckon three grammatical ence owing to the different pronunciation which obtained accents in ordinary use, all borrowed from the Greeks, in the different parts of Greece. He also brings several viz. the acute accent ('), which shows when the tone of reasons, a priori, for the use of accents, even in the earliest the voice is to be raised; the grave accent (v), when the days : as, that all writing being then in capital letters equinote or tone of the voice is to be depressed; and the circum- distant from each other, without any distinction either of flex accent (A), which is composed of both the acute and \fords or phrases, it could scarcely have been rendered inthe grave, and points out a kind of undulation of the voice. telligible without accents ; and that accents were necessary The Latins have made the same use as the Greeks of these to distinguish ambiguous words, and to point out their proper meaning, as appears from a dispute in regard to a three accents. The Hebrews have a grammatical, a rhetorical, and a passage of Homer, mentioned by Aristotle in his Poetics, musical accent; though the first and last seem, in effect, chap. v. Accordingly, he observes that the Syrians, to be the same, both being comprised under the general vtdio have tonic, but not distinctive accents, have yet inname of tonic accents, because they give the proper tones vented certain points, placed either below or above the to syllables; as the rhetorical accents are said to be words, to show their mood, tense, person, or sense. Mr Browne of Trinity College, Dublin, has entered euphonic, because they tend to make the pronunciation more sweet and agreeable. There are four euphonic ac- more deeply into this investigation; and as he had an opcents, and twenty-five tonic: of these some are placed above, portunity of conversing with the crew of a Greek ship and others below the syllables; the Hebrew accents serving from Patras, a town situated not far distant from the annot only to regulate the risings and fallings of the voice, cient Corinth, which had been driven by stress of weather but also to distinguish the sections, periods, and members into the port of Dingle in Ireland, the result of his inof periods, in a discourse, and to answer the same pur- quiries wa.s, that the practice of the modern Greeks is difposes with the points in other languages. Their accents ferent from any of the theories that have been delivered in are divided into emperors, kings, dukes, &c. each bearing books. “ It is true,” he observes, “ they have not two proa title answerable to the importance of the distinction it nunciations for prose and for verse, and in both they read makes. Their emperor rules over a whole phrase, and by accent; but they make accent the cause of quantity, terminates the sense completely ; answering to our point. they make it govern and control quantity, they make Their king answers to our colon; and their duke to our the syllable long on which the acute accent falls, and they comma. The king, however, occasionally becomes a duke, allow the acute accent to change the real quantity. They and the duke a king, as the phrases are more or less short. always read poetry as well as prose by accent. Whether It must be noted, by the way, that the management and any inference can hence be drawn as to the pronunciation combination of these accents in Hebrew poetry differ from of the ancients, I must leave, after what I have premised their management and combination in prose. The use of above, to men of more learning; but I think it at least so the tonic or grammatical accents has been much contro- probable as to make it worth while to mention the inverted ; some holding that they distinguish the sense, stances which occurred in proof of this assertion more while others maintain that they are only intended to re- particularly. Of the two first persons whom I met, one, gulate the music or singing, alleging that the Jews sing the steward of the ship, an inhabitant of the island of 1 Cooper, rather than read the Scriptures in their synagogues.1 Be Cephalonia, had had a school education: he read EuriDom. Mo- this, however, as it will, it is certain the ancient Hebrews pides, and translated some easier passages, without much saic. Clav. were not acquainted with these accents. The opinion difficulty. By a stay in this country of near two years, he V' 31* which prevails amongst the learned is, that they were was able to speak English very tolerably, as could also the invented about the sixth century, by the Jewish doctors captain and several of the crew; and almost all of them spoke Italian fluently. The companion, however, of the of the school of Tiberias, called the Massorets. As to the Greek accents, now seen both in manuscripts stewarch could speak only modern Greek, in vrhich I could and printed books, there has been no less dispute about discover that he was giving a description of the distress their antiquity and use than about those of the Hebrews. in which the ship had been ; and though not able to underIsaac Vossius endeavours to prove them of modern inven- stand the context, I could plainly distinguish many words, tion ; asserting, that anciently they had nothing of this such as divdga, i^uXov, and among the rest the sound of kind, but only a few notes in their poetry, which were Av6^umg pronounced short. This awoke my curiosity, which invented by Aristophanes the grammarian, about the time was still more heightened when I observed that he said of Ptolemy Philopater; and that these were of musical Avdgurruv long, with the same attention to the alteration of rather than grammatical use, serving as aids in the sing- the accent with the variety of case, which a boy would be ing of their poems, and being very different from those af- taught to pay at a school in England. W’atching thereterwards introduced. He also shows, from several ancient fore more closely, and asking the other to read some grammarians, that the manner of writing the Greek ancient Greek, I found that they both uniformly proaccents in those days was quite different from that nounced according to accent, without any attention to which appears in our books. The author of La Methode long or short syllables where accent came in the way ; and Grecque, p.546, observes, that the right pronunciat ion of the on their departure, one of them having bid me good day, Greek language being natural to the Greeks, it was need- by saying KuXrifiiga,, to which I answered KaXrigtga, he less for them to mark it by accents in their writings; so with strong marks of reprobation set me right, and repeatthat, according to all appearance, they only began to ed Kahripiga; and with like censure did the captain upon make use of them about the time when the Romans, another occasion observe upon my saying Socrates instead wishing to learn the Greek tongue, sent their children to of Socrates. “ I now had a strong wish to know whether they obstudy at Athens, thinking thereby to fix the pronunciation, and to facilitate it to strangers; which happened, as served the distinction in this respect usually between the same author observes, a little before Cicero’s time. verse and prose ; but from the little scholarship of the two Wetstein, Greek professor at Basil, in a learned disserta- men with whom I had conversed, from the ignorance of a tion, endeavours to prove the Greek accents of an older third whom I afterwards met, (who however read Lucian standing. He owns that they were not always formed in with ease, though he did not seem ever to have heard of

ACCENT. 85 Aent. the book,) and on account of my imperfect mode of con- by all as to verse, is, that such a mode of pronunciation Accent, J versing with them all, I had little hopes of satisfaction on or reading must destroy metre, Or rhythmus. From this' the point-; nor was I clear that they perfectly knew the position, however universal, or however it may have been difference between verse and prose. At length, having taken for granted, I totally dissent.. That it will oppose the met with the commander of the ship, and his clerk Atha- metre or quantity I readily agree ; but that it will destroy nasius Kovo/iof, and finding that the latter had been a the rhythmus, (by which, whatever learned descriptions schoolmaster in the Morea, and had here learnt to speak there may have been of its meaning, I understand nothing English fluently, I put the question to them in the pre- more than the melody or smooth flowing of the verses, or sence of a very learned college friend, and at another time, their harmony, if you please, if harmony be properly apto avoid any error, with the aid of a gentleman who is plied to successive and not synchronal sounds,) I can perfectly master of the Italian language. Both the Greeks by no means admit. On the contrary, nothing can be more repeatedly assured us that verse as well as prose was read disagreeable or unmelodious than the reading verse by by accent, and not by quantity; and exemplified it by quantity, or scanning of it, as it is vulgarly called. Let us reading several lines of Homer, with whose name they try the line so often quoted— seemed perfectly well acquainted. Anna virumque cdno, Trojce qui primus db oris, “ I shall give an instance or two of their mode of instead of reading; S’ kytim vugu S/to -ffoXuipXo/tfSo/o Sa'Xdffffvig, Armd virumque cdno, Trojce qui primus db oris. Tm 5’ ava/AtiQofuvos trgoatpri mdag uxvg ’A^iXXsug, “ No man ever defined rhythmus better than Plato, 'Eg b' egirag Emrqbsg ayz/gofisv, eg b’ haro/iZriv. ordinem quondam qui in motibus cernitur ; the motion or They made the e in axswv, crgoirspjj, and egerctg, long. measure of the verse may be exgct, and yet the order, arBut when they read rangement, and disposition of the letters and syllables such KAvM fieu, ’ Azyjporo?, og Xgucftji/ afx ecl. In 1607, the reigning sultan, having greatly extended his dominions on every side, assumed the title of sovereign. He had some correspondence with King James; and in answering one of his letters, he takes the title of King of Sumatra, and intimates to the king of England his wish that he would send out to him one of- his countrywomen for a wife. The French visited Acheen in 1621 under Commodore Beaulieu. The Dutch were now become the powerful rivals of the Portuguese in the eastern seas. They succeeded in 1640, by the aid of their allies the Achenese, in wresting from them Malacca, which they had so long maintained. They afterwards commenced their encroachments on the Achenese, and reduced the extent of their ancient dominion, which, joined to the weakness of the government, occasioned the decline of the Achenese power. In 1641, the sultan Peducka Siri, who, though of a cruel disposition, was a powerful sovereign, died; and the Achenese monarchy continued in the female line till 1700, when a priest found means to acquire the supreme power. The country was agitated during the whole of the eighteenth century by anarchy, and the most sanguinary revolutions. In 1813, the state of Acheen, formerly so flourishing, was found with hardly any form of civil order existing, every port and village being occupied by petty usurpers, who subsisted by piracy and smuggling. At length the reigning monarch was compelled to abdicate the throne in favour of a shop-keeper’s son in Prince of Wales Island; but he was restored in 1819 to his dignity. In the following year, Mr Sartorius, being deputed to Acheen, found the country in a most miserable state; the king’s authority a mere nullity; and though a commercial treaty had been concluded, there appeared in the distracted state of the country not the least chance of its provisions being carried into effect, without some direct and active interference to uphold the authority of the government. Acheen, the capital of the above state, is situated on a river at the north-western extremity of Sumatra, and about a league from the sea, where a road is formed, in which the shipping may be secure under the shelter of several islands. The town is indifferently built of bamboos and rough timber, and raised some feet from the ground on account of the overflow of the river in the rainy season. Its appearance and the nature of the buildings resemble the generality of the Malay bazars, excepting that the superior wealth of this place has occasioned a great number of public edifices, which do not however possess the smallest? pretensions to magnificence. The sultan’s palace, which is the chief public building, a very rude and uncouth piece of architecture, designed to resist the force of an enemy, and surrounded with a moat and strong walls, but without any regular plan, or any view to the modern system of military attack. Several pieces of ordnance are planted near the gate, some of which are Portuguese; but two were sent from England by James L, on which the founder’s name and the date are still legible. The river on which the town is situated is not large ; and the stream being divided into several channels, is rendered shallow at the bar. In the dry monsoon it will not admit boats of any burden, much less large vessels, which lie without in the road formed by the islands off the point. The commerce has fallen off. The chief exports are, brimstone, betel-nut, ratans, benzoin, camphor, gold dust, pepper, and horses ;'the imports, opium, salt, piece-goods, muslin, &c. The town fcofitains-about 8000 houses. Long. 95. 45. E. Lat. 5.35. N. Marsden’s Sumatra, Forrest’s Voyage, Hamilton’s Ehst India Gazetteer*

A c n sis ACHELOUS, in fabulous history, wrestled with Her- Achelous cules, for no less a prize than Dejanira, daughter of King Ac 11er CEneus ; but as Achelous had the power of assuming all fi ishapes, the contest was long dubious. At last, as he took that of a bull, Hercules tore off one of his horns, so that he was forced to submit, and to redeem it by giving the conqueror the horn of Amalthea, the same with the cornucopia, or horn of plenty; which Hercules, having filled with a variety of fruits, consecrated to Jupiter. Some explain this fable, by saying, that Achelous is a winding river of Greece, whose stream was so rapid, that it roared like a bull, and overflowed its banks; but Hercules, by bringing it into two channels, broke off one of the horns, and so restored plenty to the country. See the next article. Achelous, a river of Acarnania, which rises in Mount Pindus, and dividing iEtolia from Acarnania, falls into the Ionian Sea. It was formerly called Thoas, from its impetuosity, and king of rivers. (Homer.) The epithet Acheloius is used for Aqueus (Virgil), the ancients calling all water Achelous, especially in oaths, vows, and sacrifices, according to Ephorus : now called Aspro Potamo. Rivers are by the ancient poets called Tauriformes, either from the bellowing of their waters, or from their ploughing the earth in their course. Hercules, restraining by dykes and mounds the inundations of the Achelous, is said to have broken off one of his horns, and to have brought back plenty to the country. See the preceding article. ACHENWALL, Gottfried, a German writer, who obtained considerable celebrity from having first reduced statistics to a regular branch of study, and excited much of the attention of others to the subject. He was born at Elbing, in East Prussia, in October 1719. He studied, according to the custom of Germany, in several universities; and was at Jena, Halle, and Leipsic, before he took a degree at the last of those cities. He removed to Marburg in 1746, where he continued during two years to read lectures on history, and on the law of nature and of nations, and commenced those inquiries in statistics by which his name became known. In 1748 he removed to Gottingen, where he resided till his death in 1772. He made several journeys to Switzerland, France, Holland, and England, and published numerous small but accurate works on their history, population, products, laws, revenues, and administration. His chief merit lay in the lectures he delivered at the university, where he was a professor, in which he brought forward, in a fixed and steady form, and in a new and luminous point of view, those active powers of states which conduce to their physical and moral prosperity. He was married in 1752 to a lady named Walther, who obtained some celebrity by a volume of poems published in 1750. Both Achenwall and his, wife were great contributors to the periodical publications of Gottingen, by which they gained a degree of reputation which, from their labours not having been published in a separate form, has been since nearly forgotten, and owing to which we are unable to place before our readers a correct list of their writings. ’ > • (g.) ACHER, a river in the grand dually of Baden, rising in the Mummel lake, and failing into the Rhine between Lechtenau and Greffern. ~ *’ ACHERI, Luke d’, a learned Benedictine of the congregation of St Maur, was born at St Quintin, in Picardy, in 1609, and made himself famous by printing several works, which till then were only in manuscript: t particularly, the Epistle attributed to St Barnabds ; the Works of Lanfranc, archbishop of Canterbury ; a collection of scarce and curious pieces, under the title of Spicilegiunl, i. e. Gleanings, in 13 volumes quarto. The prefaces and notes which he annexed to many of these pieces, show

96 . A C H A C II Achern him to have been a man of genius and abilities. There versal, nor is it a part of his character as drawn by Ho- At e, II was an edition of this valuable work published in 1725, in mer; for in the Iliad (B. xxi. 161.) he is actually woundt ree ^ volumes folio ; but the editor appears to have taken ed in the right arm by the lance of Asteropaeus, in the ^ t. some unwarrantable liberties with the learned prefaces of battle near the river Scamander. Thetis afterwards in-V^ '■ . his author. Acheri had some share in the pieces insert- trusted him to the care of the centaur Chiron, who, to ed in the first volumes of the Acts of the Saints of the give him the strength necessary for martial toil, fed him order of St Benedict; the title whereof acquaints us that with honey and the marrow of lions and wild boars. To they were collected and published by him and Father prevent his going to the siege of Troy, she disguised him Mabillon. After a very retired life, till the age of in female apparel, and hid him among the maidens at the 76, he died at Paris the 29th of April 1685, in the ab- court of King Lycomedes; but Ulysses discovering him, bey of St Germain in the Fields, where he had been persuaded him to follow the Greeks. Achilles distinguishlibrarian. ed himself by a number of heroic actions at the siege. ACHERN, a city, chief of the bailiwick of the same Being disgusted, however, with Agamemnon for the loss name. It is situated on the Acher, and on the mountain of Briseis, he retired from the camp; but returning to road; has 300 houses, and 1368 inhabitants, several of avenge the death of his friend Patroclus, he slew HecVvhom are employed in woollen and in iron manufactures, tor, fastened his corpse to his chariot, and dragged it ACHERNER, or Acharner, a star of the first mag- round the walls of Troy. At last Paris, the brother of nitude in the southern extremity of the constellation Eri- Hector, wounded him in the heel with an arrow, while he danus, but invisible in our latitude. was in the temple treating about his marriage with PhiloxACHERON, feigned by the poets to have been the ena, daughter of King Priam. Of this wound he died, son of Ceres, whom she hid in hell for fear of the Titans, and was interred on the promontory of Sigaeum ; and after and turned into a river, over which souls departed were Troy was taken, the Greeks sacrificed Philoxena on his ierried in their way to Elysium. tomb, in obedience to his desire, that he might enjoy her Acheron, in Ancient Geography, a river of Thesprotia, company in the Elysian fields. It is said that Alexanin Epirus ; which, after forming the lake Acherusia, at der, seeing this tomb, honoured it by placing a crown no great distance from the promontory of-Chimerium, falls upon it; at the same time crying out, that “ Achilles into the sea opposite to the isle of Paxo. was happy in having, during his life, such a friend as PaAcheron, or Acheros, a river of the Bruttii in Italy, troclus, and, after his death, a poet like Homer.” Achilrunning from east to west, where Alexander, king of les is supposed to have died 1183 years before the ChrisEpirus, was slain by the Lucani, being deceived by the tian era. oracle of Dodona, which bade him beware of Acheron. Achilles Tatius. See Tatius. ACHERSET, an ancient measure of corn, conjectured Tendo-Achillis, va Anatomy, is a strong tendinous cord to be the same with our quarter, or eight bushels. formed by the tendons of several muscles, and inserted ACHERUSIA PALUS, a lake between Cumae and the into the os calcis. It has its name from the fatal wound promontory Misenum, now II Logo della Collucia. (Clu- Achilles is said to have received in that part from Paris, verius.) Some confound it with the Lacus Lucrinus, and the son of Priam. others with the Lacus Averni ; but Strabo and Pliny disACHILLINI, Alexander, was born at Bologna in tinguish them.—A.lso a lake of Epirus, through which the 1463. He was celebrated as a lecturer both in mediAcheron runs.—There is also a cave of the same name, cine and philosophy, and was styled the Great Philosothrough which Hercules is fabled to have descended to pher. Achillini died in 1512. His philosophical works hell to drag forth Cerberus. were printed in one volume folio, at Venice, in 1508, and ACHIAR is a Malayan word, which signifies all sorts reprinted with considerable additions in 1545, 1551, and ; of fruits and roots pickled with vinegar and spice.' The 1568. His principal medical works are; 1. Annotationes Dutch import from Batavia all sorts of achiar, but par- Anatomicae, Bonon. 1520, 4to, and Venice, 1521, 8vo. ticularly that of Bamboo, a kind of cane, extremely thick, 2. De Humani Corporis Anatomia, Venice, 1521, 4to. 3. In which grows in the East Indies. It is preserved there, Mundini Anatomiam Annotationes, printed with Katham’s whilst it is still green, with very strong vinegar and spice; Fasciculus Medicinae, Venice, 1522, fol. 4. De Subjecto and is called bamboo achiar. The name changes accord- Medicinae, cum annotationibus Pamphili Montii, Venice, ing to the fruit with which the achiar is made. 1568. 5. De Chiromantiae Principiis et Physiognomiae, ACHICOLUM is used to express the fornix, tholus, fol. without place or year. 6. De Universalibus, Bonon. or sudatorium of the ancient baths ; which was a hot room 1501, fol. 7. De Subjecto Chiromantiae et Physiognomiae, where they used to sweat. It is also called architholus. Bonon. 1503, fol. and Pavia, 1515, fol. ACHILLEA, Yarrow, Milfoil, Nosebleed, or ACHIOTTE, or Achiote, a foreign drug, used in dyeing Sneezewort. and in the preparation of chocolate. It is the same with ACHILLEID, Achilleis, a celebrated poem of Sta- the substance more u'sually known by the name of Artius, in which that author proposed to deliver the whole notto. life and exploits of Achilles; but being prevented by ACHIROPOETOS, a name given by ancient writers death, he has only treated of the infancy and education to certain miraculous pictures of Christ and the Virgin, of his hero. See Statius. . supposed to have been made without hands. The most ACHILLES, one of the greatest heroes of ancient celebrated of these is the picture of Christ preserved in Greece, was the son of Peleus and Ihetis. He was a na- the church of St John Lateran at Rome ; said to have been tive of 1 hthia, in Thessaly. His mother, it is said, in begun by St Luke, but finished by the ministry of angels, order to consume every mortal part of his body, used to ACHMET, son of Seerim, an Arabian author, has left lay him every night under live coals, anointing him with a book concerning the interpretation of dreams, accordambrosia, which pi eserved every part fiom burning but ing to the doctrine of the Indians, Persians, and Egypone of his lips, owing to his having licked it. She dipped tians, which was translated into Greek and Latin. The him also in the waters of the river Styx; by which his original is now lost. He lived about the fourth cem whole body became invulnerable, except that part of his tury. heel by which she held him. But this opinion is not uniAchmet I. emperor of the Turks, the third son and

A C H A C H 97 :hmet. successor of Mahomet III. ascended the throne before away his life; shining virtue being always an unpardon- Achmetschet ^-v^he reached the age of 15. During the period of his able crime in the eyes of a tyrant. ACHMETSCHET, a town of the peninsula of the Ach roma U reign, the Turkish empire enjoyed at one time great pros. * perity, and at another was depressed with adversity. The Crimea, the residence of the Sultan Galga, who is eldest Glasses Asiatic rebels, who took refuge in Persia, involved the son of the Khan of Tartary. ACHMIM, Akmim, or Echmim, a considerable city of two empires in a war, during which the Turks lost Bagdad, to recover which every effort proved unsuccessful. Upper Egypt, situated in a district very fertile in grain, In his reign, Transylvania and Hungary were the scenes cotton, and sugar. The streets are broader and more reof war between the Turks and Germans. In addition to gular than is usual in Egypt, though, being built only of the calamities and distresses of war abroad, and internal unburnt brick, they have a dull gloomy appearance. The tumults and broils, a pretender to his throne disturbed Greeks have a church, which they hold in great venerahis repose, and made attempts on his life. He was much tion, and which is adorned with granite pillars from the devoted to amusements, and spent his time chiefly in the ruins of Chemnis or Panopolis, a celebrated city, of which harem and in the sports of the field. His seraglio con- few other vestiges now remain. ACHONRY, a small town of Ireland, in the province sisted of 3000 women; and his hunting establishment was composed of 40,000 falconers, and an equal number of of Connaught and county of Sligo, seated on the river huntsmen, in different parts of his dominions. He ex- Shannon. ACHOR, a valley of Jericho, lying along the river pended great sums of money in building, and particularly on a magnificent mosque which he erected in the Hippo- Jordan, not far from Gilgal; so called from Achan, the drome. Achmet was less cruel than some of his prede- troubler of Israel, being there stoned to death. Achor, in Medicine, a species of Herpes. cessors, but he was haughty and ambitious. He died in Achor, in Mythology, the god of flies; to whom, ac1617, at the age of 29. His three sons successively cording to Pliny, the inhabitants of Cyrene sacrificed, in ascended the throne after him. Achmet II. emperor of the Turks, son of Sultan Ibra- order to obtain deliverance from the insects, and the dishim, succeeded his brother Solyman in 1691. The ad- orders occasioned by them. ministration of affairs during his reign was feeble and unACHROMATIC, an epithet expressing want of cosettled. The Ottoman territory was overrun by the im- lour. The word is Greek, being compounded of a privaperialists; the Venetians seized the Morea, took the isle tive, and yguga, colour. of Chios, and several places in Dalmatia; and the Arabs Achromatic Telescopes are telescopes contrived to attacked and plundered a caravan of pilgrims, and even remedy the aberrations in colours. The invention of the Invention laid siege to Mecca. Though he never discovered the telescope, by which the powers of vision are extendedSC0 °f t*e16 lelevigour and sagacity that are essentially requisite in the to the utmost boundaries of space, forms an epoch in P* character of a sovereign, in private life he wras mild, de- the history of science. The human intellect had at vout, and inoffensive. He was fond of poetry and music ; last emerged from the long night of error, and begun to and to those about his person, he was cheerful and ami- shine with unclouded lustre. The age of erudition, which able. He died in 1695, at the age of 50. arose on the revival of letters, had been succeeded by Achmet III. emperor of the Turks, son of Mahomet the age of science and philosophy. The study of the IV. succeeded his brother Mustapha II. who was deposed ancient classics had infused some portion of taste and in 1703. After he had settled the discontents of the em- vigour. But men did not long remain passive admirers; pire, his great object was to amass wealth. With this they began to feel their native strength, and hastened to view he debased the coin, and imposed new taxes. He exert it. A new impulsion was given to the whole frame received Charles XII. of Sweden, who took refuge in his of society; the bolder spirits, bursting from the trammels dominions after the battle of Pultowa in 1709, with great of authority, ventured to question inveterate opinions, hospitality; and, influenced by the sultana mother, he de- and to explore, with a fearless yet discerning eye, the clared war against the Czar Peter, Charles’s formidable wide fields of human knowledge. Copernicus had partly rival. Achmet recovered the Morea from the Venetians; restored the true system of the world; Stevinus had exbut his expedition into Hungary was less fortunate, for tended the principles of mechanics; the fine genius of his army was defeated by Prince Eugene at the battle of Galileo had detected and applied the laws of motion ; the Peterwaradin, in 1716. As the public measures of Ach- bold excursive imagination of Kepler had, by the aid of met were influenced by ministers and favourites, the em- immense labour, nearly completed his discovery of the pire during his reign was frequently distracted by politi- great laws which control the revolutions of the heavenly cal struggles and revolutions. The discontent and sedi- bodies; and our countryman Napier had just rendered tion of his soldiers at last drove him from the throne. himself immortal by the sublime discovery of logarithms. He was deposed in 1730, and succeeded by his nephew At this eventful period, amidst the fermentation of talents, Mahomet V. He wras confined in the same apartment the refracting telescope was produced by an obscure glasswhich had been occupied by his successor previously to grinder in Holland,—a country then fresh from the struggle his elevation to the throne, and died of apoplexy in 1736, against foreign oppression, and become the busy seat of at the age of 74. The intentions of this prince, it is said, commerce and of the useful arts. Yet the very name of were upright; but his talents were moderate, never dis- that meritorious person, and the details connected with covering that vigour of mind and steadiness of action his invention, are involved in much obscurity. On a which are so necessary in the character of a sovereign. question of such peculiar interest we shall afterwards enExcessive confidence in his vizier diminished the splen- deavour to throw some light, by comparing together such dour of his reign, and probably tended to shorten the incidental notices as have been transmitted by contempoperiod of it. rary writers. In the mean time, we may rest assured that Achmet Geduc, a famous general under Mahomet II. the construction of the telescope was not, as certain authors and Bajazet II. in the fifteenth century. When Mahomet would insinuate, the mere offspring of chance, but was, II. died, Bajazet and Zezan both claimed the throne, like other scientific discoveries, the fruit of close and Achmet sided with the former, and by his bravery and patient observation of facts, directed with skill, and incited conduct fixed the crown on his head. But Bajazet took by an ardent curiosity. A new and perhaps incidental VOL. II. N

98 ACHROMATIC GLASSES. Achroma- appearance, which would pass unheeded by the ordinary scaffold, on the 14th of May 1619, while his persecutor, Achr., ^ spectator, arrests the glance of genius, and sets all the ashamed to approach the spectacle of his sufferings, beheld ti powers ot fancy to work. But the inventor of the tele- at a distance, with the coolness of a tyrant, from the win- ^*as . scope, we are informed, was acquainted besides with the dows of his palace, and by help of a telescope, the gesture'^’'7 •' elements of geometry, which enabled him to prosecute his and aspect of the venerable patriot, and all the melancholy views, and to combine the results with unerring success. circumstances attending the decollation.3 No sooner was this fine discovery—admirable for the very The skill and ingenuity of artists and mathematicians Imprc , simplicity of its principle—whispered abroad, than it fixed were now exerted in attempts to improve the construction of the t, the attention of the chief mathematicians over Europe. of an instrument so fortunately contrived. The perfec-SC0Pe' j Kepler, with his usual fertility of mind, produced a trea- tion of the telescope would require the union, as far as they tise on Dioptrics, in which he investigated at large the are capableof being conjoined, of three different qualities,— distinct effects of the combinations of different lenses.1 distinctness of vision, depth of magnifying power, and exGalileo, from some very obscure hints, not only divined tent of field. Of these requisites, the first two are evidently the composition of the telescope, but actually constructed the most important, and to attain them was an object of one, with a concave eye-glass, which still bears his name. persevering research. For the condition of amplitude and This telescope is shorter, but gives less light than another clearness, it was necessary that the principal image, or one proposed by Kepler, and called the astronomical tele- the one formed by the eye-glass, should be large, bright, scope, which inverts the objects, and consists likewise and well defined. On the supposition then genei'ally reof only two lenses, that next the eye being convex. ceived, that, in the passage of light through the same With such an imperfect instrument—the same, indeed, media, the angle of incidence bears a constant, ratio to the though of rather higher magnifying power, with our mo- angle of refraction, which is very nearly true in the case dern opera-glass—did the Tuscan artist, as our great poet of small angles, it followed, as a geometrical consequence, quaintly styles the philosopher, venture to explore the that the spherical figure would accurately collect all the heavens.2 He noticed the solar spots, surveyed the rays into a focus. To obtain the desired improvement of cavernous and rocky surface of the moon, observed the the telescope, therefore, nothing seemed to be wanting but successive phases of the planet Venus, and discovered to enlarge sufficiently its aperture, or to employ for the the more conspicuous of Jupiter’s satellites. The truths eye-glass a more considerable segment of the sphere. On thus revealed shook the inveterate prejudices of the learn- trial, however, the results appeared to be at variance with ed, and furnished the most triumphant evidence to the the hasty deductions of theory, and every sensible entrue theory of the universe. largement of aperture was found to occasion a correspondIt is painful to remark, that the application of the first ing glare and indistinctness of vision. But a discovery telescope in the country which had given it birth was made soon afterwards in optics led to more accurate condirected to a very different purpose. The maker, after clusions. Willebrord Snell, a very ingenious Dutch ma- Snell, having finished one, judging it of singular use in the mili- thematician, who was snatched away at an early age, tary profession, was naturally induced, by the hope of traced out by experiment, about the year 1629, the true patronage, to present it to the younger Prince Maurice, law that connects the angles of incidence and of refraction; whose bravery and conduct had so beneficially contribut- which the famous Descartes, who had about this time ed to the independence of the United Provinces. But at chosen Holland for his place of residence, published, in this moment a bloody tragedy was acting in Holland. 1637, in his Dioptrics, under its simplest form, establishThe chief of the republic, not content with that high ing, that the sines of those angles, and not the angles station which the gratitude of his fellow-citizens had con- themselves, bore a constant ratio in the transit of light ferred upon him, sought to aggrandize his power by crush- between the same diaphanous media. It hence followed, ing all opposition. In the prosecution of his ambitious that the lateral rays of the light which enter a denser designs, he artfully gained the favour of the undiscerning medium, bounded by a spherical surface, in the direction populace, and joining his intrigues fio the violence of the of the axis, will not meet this axis precisely in the same Calvinistic clergy, he succeeded in preferring the charge point, but will cross it somewhat nearer the surface. In of a plot against the more strenuous supporters of the com- short, the constant ratio or index of refraction will be that monwealth, which involved them in ruin. Not only was the of the distances of the actual focus from the centre of the celebrated Grotius condemned to the gloom of perpetual sphere, and from the point of external impact. Since an imprisonment, but the aged senator Barneveldt, whose arc differs from its sine by a quantity nearly proportioned wise and upright counsels had guided the state amidst all to its cube, the deviation of the extreme rays from the the troubles of a long revolutionary conflict, was led to the correct focus, or what is called the spherical aberration, 1 Kepler explained the construction of the astronomical telescope with two convex lenses; he likewise proposed a third glass to restore the inverted image. But Schemer first employed the astronomical telescope, and described his observations with it in 1630. Father Kheita placed the third lens of Kepler near the primary focus, and thus enlarged the field of view. Such is the arrangement in the common spy-glass,2 which he gave in 1665. „ like the moon, whose orb Through optic glass the Tuscan artist views At evening from the top of Fesole', Or in Yaldarno, to descry new lands, Rivers, or mountains, on her spotty globe. {Paradise Lost, hook i. 286-290 ) * The discovery of the telescope, from the mystery at first practised, is involved in considerablAincertainty. The most probable statement, however, ascribes the invention so early as 1590 to Zachary Jansen, an intelligent spectacle-maker at Middleburg. This intelligent person, led by accident to exercise his ingenuity on the subject, appears to have in private matured the execution of that wonderful though simple instrument. In a short time, however, the secret had transpired; and Laprey or Lippersheim, a townsman of the same profession, produced telescopes for sale between the years 1600 and 1610. But, in 1608, Jansen likewise constructed the compound microscope; and both instruments, by the activity of trade, were now spread quickly over Europe. The telescope was copied, and perhaps improved, by Adrian Metms, son of the celebrated mathematician. It was publicly sold at Frankfort in 1608, and m the following year the instruments were brought by Drebbel for sale to London.

ACHROMATIC GLASSES. 99 Airoma- must likewise proceed in that ratio, and consequently will shade ; and the conclusion seemed hence irresistible, that Achromatic increase with extreme rapidity, as the aperture of the the white pencil, or solar beam, is really a collection of tic (asses. teiesc0pe is enlarged. It was now attempted to modify distinct rays, essentially coloured and differently refract- Glasses, V v ^ the figure of the object-glass, and to give it those curved ed; that the ray, for instance, which gives us the sensa- ^ ^^ surfaces which an intricate geometrical investigation marks tion of the violet, is always more bent aside from its course out as fitted to procure a perfect concentration of all the by refraction than the ray which we term green,—and that refracted rays. Various contrivances were accordingly this green ray again is more refracted than the red. When proposed for assisting the artist in working the lenses into the spectrum was divided, by interposing partially a small a parabolic or spheroidal shape, and thus obtaining the screen, and each separate parcel of rays made to pass exact surfaces generated by the revolution of the different through a second prism, they, still retained their peculiar conic sections. All those expedients and directions, how- colour and refractive property, but now emerged in parallel, ever, were found utterly to fail in practice, and nature and not in diverging lines as at first. The sun’s light is seemed, in this instance, to oppose insurmountable barriers thus decomposed by the action of the prism into a set of to human curiosity and research. Philosophers began to primary coloured rays; and these rays, if they be afterdespair of effecting any capital improvement in dioptrical wards recombined in the same proportions, will always instruments, and turned their views to the construction of form a white pencil. It was hence easy to discern the those depending on the principles of catoptrics, or formed real cause of the imperfection of dioptrical instruments, by certain combinations qf reflecting specula. In 1663, which is comparatively little influenced by the figure of (.'gory, the famous James Gregory, who in many respects may be the object-glass or spherical aberration, but proceeds regarded as the precursor, and in some things even the mainly from the unequal refraction of light itself. The rival of Newton, published his Optica Promota ; a work focal distance of the red ray being, in the most favourable distinguished by its originality, and containing much in- case, about one fortieth part shorter than that of the genious research and fine speculation. In this treatise, a violet ray, the principal image is necessarily affected with complete description is given of the reflecting telescope mistiness, and its margin always encircled by a coloured now almost universally adopted, consisting of a large per- ring; for each point of the remote object from which the forated concave reflector combined with another very light arrives is not represented by a corresponding point small and deep speculum placed before the principal focus. in the image, but by a small circle composed of graduatBut such was still the low state of the mechanical arts in ing colours, the centre being violet and the circumference England, that no person was found capable of casting and red. This radical defect seemed at that time to be altopolishing the metallic specula with any tolerable delicacy, gether irremediable. Newton had recourse, therefore, to and the great inventor never enjoyed the satisfaction and the aid of catoptrics, and contrived his very simple though transport of witnessing the magic of his admirable contriv- rather incommodious reflecting telescope, consisting of a ance. It was after the lapse of more than half a century, concave speculum, with a small plane one placed obliqueNlley- that Hadley—to whom we likewise owe another instrument ly before it, to throw the image towards the side of the tube. scarcely less valuable, the quadrant, or sextant, known by This instrument he actually constructed; and with all its his name—at last succeeded in executing the reflecting rudeness, it promised essential advantages to astronomy. telescope. In the first attempt, silvered mirrors had been The Newtonian reflector, after having been long neglected, substituted for the specula; nor did the reflectors come was lately revived by Dr Herschel; and from its great to obtain much estimation, till, about the year 1733, the simplicity and moderate dissipation of light, it is perhaps ingenious Mr Short distinguished himself by constructing on the whole not ill calculated for celestial observations. them in a style of very superior excellence. These unexpected and very important discoveries, But though thus late in guiding the efforts of artists, wfliich entirely changed the face of optics, were soon comthe optical treatise of Gregory proved the harbinger of municated to the Royal Society, and published in the that bright day which soon arose to illumine the recesses Philosophical Transactions for 1672. They were not reM ton. of physical science. The capacious mind of Newton, nursed ceived however by the learned with that admiration to in the calm of retirement and seclusion, was then teem- which they were justly entitled, but gave occasion to so ing with philosophical projects. In 1665, when the tre- much ignorant opposition and obstinate controversy, that mendous visitation of the plague raged in London, and the illustrious author, thoroughly disgusted at such unthreatened Cambridge and other places communicating merited reception, henceforth, pursuing his experimental with the capital, this sublime genius withdrew from the researches in silence, made no disclosure of them to the routine of the university to his rural farm near Grantham, world till more than thirty .years afterwards, when his and devoted himself to most profound meditation. Amidst fame being mature, and his authority commanding respect, i his speculations in abstruse mathematics and theoretical he suffered his Treatise on Optics to appear abroad. This astronomy, Newton was induced to examine the opinions celebrated production has long been regarded as a model entertained by the learned on the subject of light and co- of pure inductive science. The experiments which it relours. With this view he had recently procured from the lates appear ingeniously devised; the conclusions from Continent some prisms of glass, to exhibit the phenomena them are drawn with acuteness, and pursued with exquiof refraction. Having placed the axis of the prism or site skill; and the whole discourse proceeds in a style of glass wedge at right angles to a pencil of light from the measured and elegant simplicity. Though the researches sun, admitted through a small hole of the window-shutter were conducted by a process of strict analysis, the comm a darkened room, he contemplated the glowing image position of the work itself is cast into the synthetical or or spectrum now formed on the opposite wall or screen. didactic form, after the manner followed in the elemenThis illuminated space was not round, however, as the tary treatises of the ancient mathematicians. But with young philosopher had been taught to expect, but appear- all its beauty and undisputed excellence, it must be coned very much elongated, stretching out five times more fessed that the treatise of optics is not exempt from faults, than its breadth, and marked by a series of pure and bril- and even material errors. We should betray the interests liant colours. It was therefore obvious that the colours of science, if we ever yielded implicit confidence even to were not confined to the margin of the spectrum, nor the highest master. It is the glory of Newton to have led could proceed from any varied intermixture of light and the way in sublime discovery, and to have impressed

100 ACHROMATIC GLASSES. Achroma- whatever he touched with the stamp of profound and ori- them had evidently been performed with no sufficient Achi:!. tic ginal genius. The philosopher paid the debt of human In spite of his habitual circumspection, he t Glasses. , infirmity, by imbibing some tincture of the mystical spirit attention. could not always restrain the propensity so natural to ^a: of the age, and taking a slight bias from the character of genius, that of hastening to the result, and of trusting to^'"^ his studies. The difficult art of experimenting was still general principles more than to any particular details. in its infancy, and inquirers had not attained that delicacy But the same indulgent apology will not be conceded to and circumspection which, in practice, are indispensable some later authors. It is truly astonishing that systematic for obtaining accurate results. Most of the speculations wi'iters on optics, in obvious contradiction to the most unin the second and third books of Newton’s Optics, as we doubted discoveries related by themselves, should yet reshall afterwards have occasion to observe, are built on peat with complacency the fanciful idea of the harmonical mistaken or imperfect views of some facts, which the ad- composition of light. mixture of extraneous circumstances had accidentally Admitting the general conclusion which NewTon condisguised. The very ingenious, but hasty, and often un- ceived himself entitled to draw from analogy and concurtenable hypotheses, which are subjoined, under the mo- ring experiment, that “ the sine of incidence of every ray dest and seemingly hesitating title of Queries, have, on considered apart, is to the sine of refraction in a given the whole, been productive of real harm to the cause of ratioit was strictly demonstrable, that no contrary refracscience, by the splendid example thus held forth to tempt tions whatever, unless they absolutely restored the pencil the rashness of loose experimenters, and of superficial to its first direction, could collect again the extreme reasoners. Even in the first book of Optics, some of the rays, and produce, by their union, a white light. Thus, capital propositions are affected by hasty and imperfect let the ratios of the sines of the angles of incidence and statements. The term ref Tangibility, applied to the rays refraction of the violet rays in their transit from air to of light, is at least unguarded; it conveys an indistinct other two denser mediums, be expressed by 1 : ilf and conception, and leads to inaccurate conclusions. The dif- \ : m; and the like ratios of the red rays under the same ferent refractions which the primary rays undergo are not circumstances, by 1 : iV and 1 : w; where M m and N n absolute properties inherent in these rays themselves, but respectively denote the refracting indices of those exdepend on the mutual relation subsisting between them treme rays. It is manifest that the refracting indices, and the particular diaphanous medium. When the me- corresponding to the passage of the violet and red rays dium is changed, the refraction of one set of rays cannot from the first to the second medium, will be represented be safely inferred from that of another. Nay, in the pas- by M-N, and m-n. But by hypothesis, M: m \ : N: n, sage among certain media, those rays which are designat- and consequently M: m : : M-N: ni-n\ so that the exed as the most refrangible will sometimes be the least re- treme rays would not be still separated and dispersed in fracted. To ascertain correctly, therefore, the index of re- proportion to the mean extent of the final refraction. The fraction, it becomes necessary, in each distinct case, to great philosopher appears to have contemplated with reexamine the bearing or disposition of the particular species gret the result of his optical principle; and he had the of rays ; since the principle, that the refraction of the ex- penetration to remark, that if a different law had obtreme rays is always proportioned to that of the mean rays, tained, the proper combination of distinct refracting media involves a very false conclusion. would have corrected the spherical aberration. When Newton attempted to reckon up the rays of light With this view, he would propose for the objectdecomposed by the prism, and ventured to assign the glass of a telescope, a compound lens, consisting famous number seven, he was apparently influenced by of two exterior meniscuses of glass, their out- J|p^|p some lurking disposition towards mysticism. If any un- sides being equally convex, and their insides of jpl ^=^ip prejudiced person will fairly repeat the experiment, he similar but greater concavity, and having the in- M M must soon be convinced, that the various coloured spaces terior space filled with pure water, as in the which paint the spectrum slide into each other by indefi- figure annexed. He gives a rule, though without nite shadings; he may name four or five principal colours, demonstration, and evidently disfigured or imbut the subordinate divisions are evidently so multiplied perfect, for determining the curvature of the two suras to be incapable of enumeration. The same illustrious faces : “ And by this means,” he subjoins, “ might telemathematician, we can hardly doubt,' was betrayed by a scopes be brought to sufficient perfection, were it not for passion for analogy, when he imagined, that the primary the different refrangibility of several sorts of rays. But, colours are distributed over the spectrum after the pro- by reason of this different refrangibility, I do not see any portions of the diatonic scale of music, since those inter- other means of improving telescopes by refractions alone, mediate spaces have really no precise and defined limits. than that of increasing their lengths.” Had prisms of a different kind of glass been used, the disThese remarks appeared to preclude all attempts to tribution of the coloured spaces would have been mate- improve the construction of the refracting telescope. rially changed. The fact is, that all New'ton’s prisms Brightness and range of sight were sacrificed to distinctbeing manufactured abroad, consisted of plate or crown ness. Instead of enlarging the aperture, recourse was glass, formed by the combination of soda, or the mineral had to the expedient of increasing the length of the alkali, with silicious sand. The refined art of glass-mak- focus. For nice astronomical observations, telescopes were ing had only been lately introduced into England, and sought of the highest magnifying powers, and their tubes that beautiful variety called crystal, or flint-glass, which had by degrees been extended to a most enormous and has so long distinguished this country, being produced inconvenient size. But the famous Dutch mathemati-Huv: by the union of a silicious material with the oxyde of lead, cian Huygens contrived to supersede the use of these was then scarcely known. The original experimenter had in certain cases, by a method which required, however, not the advantage, therefore, of witnessing the varied ef- some address. Many years afterwards the reflecting, fects occasioned by different prisms, which demonstrate, or rather catadioptric telescope, of the Gregorian conthat the power of refraction is not less a property of the struction, was executed with tolerable perfection. But a peculiar medium than of the species of light itself. He long period of languor succeeded the brilliant age of dismentions, indeed, prisms formed with water confined by covery. Not a single advance was made in the science plates of glass; but the few trials which he made with of light and colours, till thirty years after the death of

ACHROMATIC GLASSES. 201 Airoma- Newton. His immortal Principia had not yet provoked aberration; and in concluding, he remarked, with high .4chromatic tic discussion, and philosophers seemed inclined to regard satisfaction, the general conformity of his results with the (asses. t]ie conclusions in the Treatise of Optics with silent and wonderful structure of the eye. Glasses. But this paper met with opposition in a quarter where incurious acquiescence. This memorable fact not only Dolevinces the danger of yielding, in matters of science, im- it could have been least expected. John Dolland, who John ancl plicit confidence even to the highest authority, but shows, had afterwards the honour of completing one of the finest l amidst all the apparent bustle of research, how very few and most valuable discoveries in the science of optics, was original experiments are made, and how seldom these are born in 1706, in Spitalfields, of French parents, whom the revocation of the edict of Nantes had compelled to repeated with the due care and attention. The impossibility of correcting the colours in object- take refuge in England, from the cruel persecution of a glasses of telescopes was therefore a principle generally bigoted and tyrannical court. Following his father’s ocadopted ; though some vague hopes, grounded chiefly on cupation, that of a silk-weaver, he married at an early the consideration of final causes, were still at times en- age ; and being fond of reading, he dedicated his leisure tertained of removing that defect. As the eye consists moments to the acquisition of knowledge. By dint of soof two distinct humours, with a horny lens or cornea in- litary application, he made some progress in the learned terposed, it was naturally imagined that such a perfect languages ; but he devoted his main attention to the study structure should be imitated in the composition of glasses. of geometry and algebra, and the more attractive parts of This inviting idea is concisely mentioned by David Gre- mixed or practical mathematics. He gave instructions in gory, the nephew of James, in his little tract on Dioptrics. these branches to his son Petex-, who, though bred to the It has also been stated that a country gentleman, Mr Hall hereditary profession, soon quitted that employment, and of Chesterhall, in Worcestershire, discovered, about the commenced the business of optician, in which he was year 1729, the proper composition of lenses by the united afterwards joined by his father. About this time the segments of crown and flint-glass, and caused a London volume of the Berlin Memoirs, containing Euler’s paper, artist, in 1733, to make a telescope under his directions, fell into the hands of the elder Dolland, who examined it which was found on trial to answer extremely well. But with care, and repeated the calculations. His report was whatever might be the fact, no notice was taken of it at communicated by Mr Short to the Royal Society in the time, nor indeed till very long after, when circum- 1752, and published in their Transactions for that year. Dolland, as might well be expected, could detect no misstances had occurred to call forth public attention. The Newtonian principle was first openly rejected, and take in the investigation itself, but strenuously contested a discussion excited, which eventually led to a most valu- the principle on which it was built, as differing from the able discovery in optics, by a foreign mathematician of one laid down by Newton, which he held to be irrefraggreat celebrity and transcendent talents. Leonard Euler able. “ It is, therefore,” says he, rather uncourteously, was one of those rare mortals who arise, at distant inter- and certainly with little of the prophetic spirit, “ it is, vals, to shed unfading lustre on our species. Endowed therefore, somewhat strange that any body now-a-days with a penetrating genius and profound capacity, he was should attempt to do that which so long ago has been capable of pursuing his abstruse investigations with unre- demonstrated impossible.” The great Euler replied with mitting ardour and unwearied perseverance. To him the becoming temper, but persisted in maintaining that his modern analysis stands chiefly indebted for its prodigious optical principle was a true and necessary law of nature, extension; and he continued to enrich it in all its depart- though he frankly confessed that he had not been able to ments with innumerable improvements and fine discove- reduce it yet to practice. The dispute now began to prories, during the whole course of a most active, laborious, voke attention on the Continent. In 1754, Klingenstierand protracted life. Unfortunately the philosophical cha- na, an eminent Swedish geometer, demonstrated that the racter of Euler did not correspond to his superlative emi- Newtonian principle is in some extreme cases incompatinence as a geometer. Bred in the school of Leibnitz, he ble with the phenomena, and therefore ought not to be had imbibed the specious but delusive metaphysics of the received as an undoubted law of nature. Thus pressed sufficient reason, and of the necessary and absolute con- on all sides, Dolland at length had recourse to that apstitution of the laws of nature. He was hence disposed peal which should have been made from the beginning,— in all cases to prefer the mode of investigating a priori, to the test of actual experiment. He constructed a holand never appeared to hold in due estimation the humbler low wedge with two plates of glass, ground parallel, in yet only safe road to physical science, by the method of which he laid inverted a common glass prism, and filled experiment and induction. Euler expressed the indices up the space with clear water, as in the annexed figure. of refraction by the powers of a certain invariable root, and fancied that the exponents of those powers are proportional for the several rays in different media. Instead of making, in short, the numbers themselves proportional, as Newton had done, he assigned this property to their logarithms. In the Berlin Memoirs for 1747, he inserted a short paper, in which he deducted from his optical principle, by a clear analytical process, conducted with his usual skill, the composition of a lens formed after certain proportions with glass and water, which should remove He now continued to enlarge the angle of the wedge, till entirely all extraneous colours, whether occasioned by the the refi’action produced by the water came to counterbaunequal refraction of the several rays, or by spherical lance exactly the opposite refraction of the glass, which 1

1 The fine discovery of the apparent aberration of the fixed stars, made by our countryman Dr Bradley in 1729, cannot be justly deemed an exception to this remark. It belongs more to astronomy than to optics, and is indeed merely the result, however important, of the progressive motion of light, detected near sixty years before by the Danish philosopher Itoemer, combined with the revolution of the earth in her oroit.

102

ACHROMATIC GLASSES. Achroma- must obtain whenever an object is seen through the com- wedges of crown and flint-glass to such angles as might Acli tic pound prism, without change of direction, in its true place. destroy all irregularity of colour A _ .; Glasses. contrary to what he so firmly expected, the external by their opposite dispersions. objects appeared glaringly bordered with coloured fringes; When this condition was obas much, indeed, as if they had been viewed through a tained, the refractive powers of glass prism with an angle of thirty degrees. It was those wedges of crown and therefore quite decisive that Newton had not performed flint-glass were nearly in the his experiment with scrupulous accuracy, and had trust- ratio of three to two, and coned rather too hastily to mere analogical inference. But sequently the sines of half their to remove every shadow of doubt from angles, or the angles themselves, the subject, Mr Dolland, finding that if small, were as 33 to 19, or nearly as 7 to 4. The rays large angles were inconvenient for obwhich enter parallel now escape likewise parallel, but all servation, ground a prism to the very of them deflected equally from their course. acute angle of nine degrees, and adjustThe appearance was rendered still more con■ ed, by careful trials, a wedge of water spicuous by repeating the combination of the to the same precise measure of refracglass wedges, as in the figure here adjoined. It tion. Combining the opposite refracwill be perceived that the pencils of rays which tions as before, he beheld, on looking enter at equal distances on both sides of the through the apparatus (as here reprecommon junction, must nearly meet in the same sented), their various objects real posipoint of the axis ; for in small arcs the chords tion, but distinctly marked with the are almost proportional to the arcs themselves. prismatic colours. . In these experiThis arrangement, indeed, with the projecting ments, although the mean ray pursues wedge of crown-glass in front, represents acthe same undeviating course, the extually the composition of an object-glass formed treme rays which enter parallel with it emerge from the of two distinct and opposing lenses, which would compound prism, spreading out on both sides. produce a similar effect. It was only required The capital point being completely ascertained, Dol- to apply a semi-convex lens of crown-glass beland next tried so to adapt the opposite refractions as to fore a semi-concave one of flint-glass, such that destroy all extraneous colour. This effect he found to the curvature of the former be to that of the lattake place when the angle of the wedge had been further ter nearly as 7 to 4; but with some modifications increased, till the refracting power of the water was to in this ratio, according to the peculiar qualities of the that of the glass in the ratio of five to four. His conclu- glass. [The figure annexed represents this sive experiments were made in 1757, and he lost no time combination.] But the depth of the lenses in applying their results to the improvement of the object- might be diminished, by giving them curvature glasses of telescopes. Following the proportion just as- on both sides. Thus, if a double convex of certained, he conjoined a very deep convex lens of water crown-glass were substituted, of the same power, with a concave one of glass. In this way he succeeded in and consequently with only half the curvaremoving the colours occasioned by the unequal refraction ture on each side; the lens of flint-glass adaptof light; but the images formed in the foci of the tele- ed to it having, therefore, their common surface scopes so constructed, still wanted the distinctness which of an equal concavity, would need, in order to might have been expected. The defect now proceeded, produce the former quantity of refraction, and 'WM_ it was evident, merely from spherical aberration; for the consequently to maintain the balance of oppoexcess of refraction in the compound lens being very small, site dispersions, a concavity eight times less than before the surfaces were necessarily formed to a deep curvature. on the other surface. Or if a double concave But this partial success only stimulated the ingenious of flint-glass with half its first depth were SiwMff artist to make further trials. Having proved that the sepa- used, the front convexity of the lens of crown- HHl® ration of the extreme rays, or what has been since termed glass would be five-sevenths of the former curthe dispersive power, is not proportioned to the mean re- vature, as here represented. The surface fraction in the case of glass and water, he might fairly where the two lenses are united may hence presume that like discrepancies must exist among other have its curvature changed at pleasure; but diaphanous substances, and even among the different every alteration of this must occasion correkinds of glass itself. The charm of uniformity being sponding changes in the exterior surfaces. once dispelled, he was encouraged to proceed, with the In all these cases, the refraction of the conconfident hope of ultimately achieving his purpose. His vex pieces being reduced to one-third by the new researches, however, were postponed for some time contrary refraction of the concave piece, the focal distance by the pressure of business. But on resuming the inqui- of the compound glass must be triple of that which it would ry, he found the English crown-glass and the foreign yel- have had singly. But a most important advantage results low or straw-coloured, commonly called the "Venice glass, from the facility of varying the adaptation of the lenses; for, to disperse the extreme rays almost alike, while the crys- by rightly proportioning the conspiring and counteracting tal, or white flint-glass, gave a much greater measure of curvatures, it was possible to remove almost entirely the dispersion. On this quarter, therefore, he centred his en ors arising from spherical aberration. This delicate proattention. A wedge of crown and another of flint-glass blem Mr Dolland was the better prepared to encounter, as were ground till they refracted equally, which took he had already, in 1753, improved the telescope materially, place when their angles were respectively 29 and 25 de- by introducing no fewer than six eye-glasses, disposed at grees, or the indices of refraction were nearly as 22 to pi oper distances, to divide the refraction. The research it19; but on being joined in an inverted position, they pro- sell, and the execution of the compound lens, presented peduced, without changing the general direction of the culiar difficulties; but the ingenuity and toilsome exertions pencil, a very different divergence of the compound rays of the artist were at length, in 1758, rewarded with comof light. He now reversed the experiment, and formed plete success. “ Isotwithstanding,” says he, in concluding

ACHROMATIC GLASSES. 103 IA roma- his paper, “ so many difficulties as I have enumerated, I one having an angle of 40° 54'; wherefore this refraction Achromatic I tic have, after numerous trials, and a resolute perseverance, will be diminished, by the opposite influence of the wedge Glasses I ( isses. ’Dr0Ught the matter at last to such an issue, that I can of flint glass, in the ratio of 49 to 16, or reduced to nearly construct refracting telescopes, with such apertures and one-third.. Thus was achieved, and fully carried into practical opemagnifying powers, under limited lengths, as, in the opinion of the best and undeniable judges, who have experi- ration, the finest and most important detection made in enced them, far exceed any thing that has been produced, optics since the great discovery of the unequal refraction as representing objects with great distinctness, and in of the several rays of light. It was drawn forth by a long series of trials, directed with judgment and ingenuity, but their true colours.” The Royal Society voted to Mr Dolland, for his valu- certainly very little aided by the powers of calculation. able discovery, the honour of the Copley medal. To this Such a slow tentative procedure was perhaps the best new construction of the telescope Dr Bevis gave the suited, however, to the habits of an artist, and it had at name of Achromatic (from a privative, and colour), least the advantage of leaving no doubt or hesitation bewhich was soon universally adopted, and is still retained. hind it. On this occasion, we cannot help being struck The inventor took out a patent, but did not live to reap with a remark, that most of those who have ever distinthe fruits of his ingenious labours. He died in the year guished themselves in the philosophical arts by their ori1761, leaving the prosecution of the business to his son ginal improvements, were seldom regularly bred to the Pe • Dol- and associate Peter Dolland, who realized a very large profession. Both the Dollands, we have seen, began life fortune by the exclusive manufacture, for many years, with plying at the loom; Short had a liberal education, of achromatic glasses, less secured to him by the invi- being designed for the Scotish church, but, indulging a dious and disputed provisions of legal monopoly, than by taste for practical optics, he afterwards followed it as a superior skill, experience, and sedulous attention. In trade, in which he rose to pre-eminence; Ramsden, whose 1765, the younger Dolland made another and final im- ingenuity and exquisite skill were quite unrivalled, was provement, to which his father had before adbred a clothier in Yorkshire; Tassie, who revived or cree vanced some steps. To correct more effectually ated among us the nice art of casting gems, was originally the spherical aberration, he formed the objectglBi a stone-mason at Glasgow; and Watt, who, by his very glass of three instead of two lenses, by dividing §|||g happy applications of mechanics, and his vast improvethe convex piece; or he inclosed a concave lens 811f|| ments on the steam-engine, has, more than any other inof flint-glass between two convex lenses of ff|Bjl dividual perhaps, contributed to the great national adcrown-glass, as exactly represented in the figure R ill vancement, was early an ivory-turner in that same city,, here annexed. He showed a telescope of this and still found pleasure, in his declining years, with the improved construction, having a focal length of amusement of the lathe. We might easily enlarge this three feet and a half, with an aperture of three catalogue ; but enough has been said to prove the justness inches and three quarters, to the celebrated Mr of the observation, and it suggests reflections which are Short, who tried it with a magnifying power of fill not favourable to fixed and systematic plans of education. one hundred and fifty times, and who, superior gjnf The theory of achromatic telescopes, embraced in all Subseto the jealousy of rivalship, and disposed to paits extent, opened a field of abstruse and difficult investi-quent tronise rising merit, most warmly recommended it, and gation. But the English mathematicians at that period, lmPr°vedeclared that he found “ the image distinct, bright, and though they might appear to be especially invited to thements‘ free from colours.” discussion, very generally neglected so fine an opportunity What were the curvatures of those distinct component for the exercise of their genius. They coldly suffered lenses, Dolland has not mentioned, and perhaps he rather the artists to grope their devious way, without offering to wished to conceal them. The Duke de Chaulnes was guide their efforts by the lights of science. On the Conenabled, however, by means of a sort of micrometer, to tinent the geometers of the first order were all eager to ascertain the radii of the several surfaces, in the case of attempt the solution of problems at once so curious and one object-glass of the best composition. He found these important. For several years subsequent to 1758, the radii, beginning with the front lens, to be respectively Transactions of the foreign academies were filled with 311^, 392; 214, 294; 294 and 322^, in French lines, memoirs on the combination of achromatic lenses, diswhich corresponded, in- English inches, to 32'4, 408; playing the resources and refinements of the modern ana22’2, 306; 30*6 and 33 5. If these measures were cor- lysis, by Euler, Clairaut, and D’Alembert,—by Boscovich, rect, however, it would follow, that the middle lens of Klingenstierna, Kasstner, and Hennert. On this, as on flint-glass was not perfectly adapted to the curvature of other occasions, however, we have to regret the want of the lens of crown-glass placed immediateclose union between artists and men of science. Those ly before it. Similar admeasurements have profound investigations are generally too speculative for been repeated by others, but the results any real use; they often involve imperfect or inaccurate differ considerably, and no general concludata; and the results appear wrapped in such comprehension can be safely drawn. There is no sive and intricate formulae, as to deter the artist from endoubt that the artist varied his practice, deavouring to reduce them into practice. We should have according to the nature of the glass which thought it preferable, on the whole, not to load the soluhe was obliged to use. The more ordinary tion of the main problem with minute conditions, but to proportions for the curvatures of the comaim at a few general rules, which could afterwards be ponent lenses would be represented by a modified in their application according to circumstances. truncated prism, formed with a double All this might have been accomplished, without scarcely cluster of wedges, the outer ones having travelling beyond the limits of elementary geometry. angles of 25° 53', and 14° 27', and consistEuler and his adherents at Berlin were still not dis-Euler, ing of crown-glass, and the inner one posed to abandon his favourite optical hypothesis. It was ma( k °f flint-glass, with an inverted angle even pretended that Dolland must have owed his success of 2i° 3'. Ihese two wedges of crown-glass would pro- to a nice correction of spherical aberration, and not to duce the same refraction, it might be shown, as a single any really superior dispersive power belonging to the

104

ACHROMATIC GLASSES. Achroma- flint-glass. But that candid philosopher afterwards yield- a choice combination of three or more varieties of glass, Acf ^ tic ed to the force of reason and testimony; and, collecting since both the primary and the secondary deviations of Glasses, ^his various optical papers, he published, in the successive colour would be corrected. Without pretending to any^j^ years 1769, 1770, and 1771, a complete treatise on Diop- theoretical perfection, every thing really wanted in practrics, occupying three quarto volumes, which contain a tice would be thus attained. A series of nice experiments store of ingenious and elegant disquisitions. on the optical relations of glass could not fail, by their The last memoir which Clairaut ever wrote related to results, to reward the assiduity of the ingenious artist. Clairaut D’Alem- achromatic glasses. D’Alembert prosecuted the subject He would trace and determine the separate influence bert. with diligence and ardour; and the volumes of his Ma- exerted on the refractive and dispersive powers by soda thematical Opuscules, published between the years 1761 in the crown-glass, and by minium and manganese in and 1767, contain some elaborate dioptrical investigations. the flint-glass. It is highly probable, that with perseveAmong other conclusions which he deduced from his mul- rance he might discover a vitreous composition better tiplied researches, he proposed a new composition for the adapted than any yet known for achromatic purposes. It object-glass of a telescope, to consist of three lenses, the is very generally believed, that the achromatic telescopes outmost one being a meniscus of crown-glass, or having a now manufactured in London are not of the same excelconvex and a concave surface, then a meniscus of flint- lence with those first made by Peter Dolland. This deglass in the middle, and adapted to this, on the inside, a clension of such a beautiful art has frequently been imdouble convex of crown-glass. Of all the continental puted to the baneful operation of a severe and oppressive works, however, which treat of achromatic combinations, system of excise. Whether the new mode of charging TJoscovidi. the tracts of Boscovich, who possessed a very fine taste the duty on glass at the annealing arch has produced any for geometry, may be held as the simplest and clearest. beneficial effects, we are still to learn. We cannot help noticing, by the way, a curious theorem An extensive and ingenious set of experiments on the 1 of his concerning the form and arrangement of eye-glasses, dispersive powers of different liquids, was undertaken, which would be free from irregular colours. It is, that about the year 1787, and successfully prosecuted for some the correction will be produced by means of two lenses time afterwards, by Dr Robert Blair, for whom there had of the same kind of glass, if separated from each other by been recently created,* under royal patronage, the chair of an interval equal to half the sum of their focal distances. practical astronomy in the University of Edinburgh; one This principle furnishes a very simple construction for the of the very few professorships in that distinguished secommon astronomical telescope, through which the objects minary which have been suffered to remain inefficient and are seen inverted. In the annexed figure, the object- merely nominal. Of these experiments, a judicious account was, in 1790, communicated by their author to the Royal Society of Edinburgh, in a paper drawn up with evident ability, but rather too diffuse, and unnecessarily digressive. Dr Blair had a very small brass prism perforated with a hole, which he filled with a few drops of the liquid to be examined, and confined each end by a glass, as usual, is achromatic, being composed of two con- plate of glass with parallel surfaces. He then applied, invex lenses of crown-glass, with a concave one of flint- verted to the prism in succession, a number of glass glass fitted between them; but the eye-glass consists of wedges which he had provided of different angles, and two distinct lenses of crown-glass, both of them convex, observed, when the bars of the window, seen through this and exactly similar, the first having every dimension triple compound prism, appeared colourless, the angle of the that of the other, and their mutual distance double the wedge now expressed the relative dispersive power of the focal length of the smaller. liquid. This way of experimenting was sufficiently simSupposing, however, that the errors occasioned by sphe- ple, but a more accurate and expeditious method might rical aberration were completely removed, the principle have easily been devised. For instance, if the prism, furof achromatic combination is yet far from being so perfect nished with a graduated arch, had remained fixed, and a as it has often been represented. Although the opposite single glass wedge made to turn upon it, and present sucdispersions of the flint and of the crown-glass should cessive, inclinations to the observer, the refracting angle bring together the extreme rays, we are not, from this at which the irregular colours were united could be decoincidence, warranted to infer that the several interme- duced by an easy calculation. Dr Blair found, by his diate rays would likewise be accurately blended. In fact, trials, that muriatic acid, in all its combinations, but para wedge of flint-glass not only separates all the rays much ticularly with antimony and mercury, shows a very great more than a similar one of crown-glass, but divides the dispersive power. The essential oils stood the next with | coloured spaces after different proportions. While the regard to that property, though differing considerably combined lenses formed of those two kinds of glass give among themselves. In Dr Blair’s first attempts to iman image entirely free from the red and violet borders, prove the achromatic telescope, he conjoined two comthey may still introduce secondary shades of green or pound lenses; the one formed with a double concave of yellow, sufficient to cause a certain degree of indistinct- crown-glass and a semi-convex of essential oil, and the ness. The mode of correcting this defect would be, to other composed of a double convex filled with essential produce a counterbalance of colours, by conjoining seve- oil, of great dispersive power, and of a semi-concave, likeral media endued with different refractive and dispersive wise containing essential oil, but less apt for dispersion. powers. In these qualities, crown-glass itself admits of This very complex arrangement seemed, however, to prosome variation, owing to the measure of saline ingredient; duce the desired effect, not only discharging from the but flint-glass differs widely with regard to its optical pro- image the extreme fringes of red and violet, but experties, owing chiefly to the diversified proportion of mi- cluding also the intermediate shades of green or yellow. nium or oxyde»oflead which enters into its composition, A simpler combination was afterwards used, requiring and partly to the variable admixture of manganese em- merely one liquid, composed of muriatic acid joined ployed to discharge the yellow tint occasioned by the with antimony, or the triple salt of that acid united in lead. Manifest advantages, therefore, would result from certain proportions to ammonia and mercury. This liquid,

A

C

I

hroma- being accurately prepared, was inclosed between two tic thin glass shells, to form a double convex lens : asses on the front was applied a semi-convex of crownglass, and a meniscus of the same material beidalius. hind, the whole being secured by a glass ring. ' An object-glass so constructed seemed to perform its office with great perfection, effectually correcting both the primary and the secondary admixture of colours. This kind of eye-glass Dr Blair proposed to denominate aplanatic (from a privative, and vXamu, to err or wander), and he obtained a patent for his invention. The late George Adams, optician in Fleet Street, was intrusted with the fabrication and sale of the telescopes thus constructed. Some of them were said to answer extremely well; but, whether from want of activity on the part of the tradesman, or from defect of temper in the patentee, these instruments never acquired much circulation. It was alleged that the liquid by degrees lost its transparency. Indeed we suspect that there is no combination in which liquids are concerned, which can be judged suffi-

ACHTELING, a measure for liquids, used in Germany. Thirty-two achtelings make a heemer ; four sciltims or sciltins make an achleling. ACHTYRKA, a city of Russia, the capital of the circle of the same name. It contains eight churches, one of which attracts many pilgrims, from an image of the Virgin on it; 1138 houses; and 12,788 inhabitants, who are employed in making woollen cloth, and some other articles. It is situated in Long. 34. 50. E. Lat. 50. 23. N. ACHYR, a strong town and castle of the Ukraine, subject to the Russians since 1667. It stands on the river Uorsklo, near the frontiers of Russia, 127 miles west of Kiow. Long. 36. 0. E. Lat. 49. 32. N. ACI, three remarkable towns, very populous, on the seacoast, in the province of Catania, in the island of Sicily. Their names are Aci St Lucia, Aci Catena, and Aci St Filipo. They are defended by the town of St Anna. The inhabitants are occupied in the fishery, or in making wine, and amount to 9200 persons. ACIC ANTHER A, in Botany, the trivial name of a species of Riiexia. ACICULfE, the small pikes or prickles of the hedgehog, echinus marinus, &c. ACIDALIUS, Valens, would, in all probability, have been one of the greatest critics of modern times, had he lived longer to perfect those talents which nature had given him. He was born at Witstock, in Brandenburg; and having visited several academies in Germany, Italy, and other countries, where he was greatly esteemed, he afterwards took up his residence at Breslaw, the metropolis of Silesia. Here he remained a considerable time, in expectation of some employment; but nothing offering, he turned Roman Catholic, and was chosen rector of a school at Niessa. It is related, that about four months after, as he was following a procession of the host, he was seized with a sudden phrenzy; and being carried home, expired in a very short time. But Thuanus tells us, that his excessive application to study was the occasion of his untimely death ; and that his sitting up in the night composing his Conjectures on Plautus, brought upon him a distemper which carried him off in three days, on the 25th of May 1595, having just completed his 28th year. He wrote a Commentary on Quintus Curtins ; also, Notes on Tacitus, on the twelve Panegyrics,-besides speeches, letters, and VOL. II.

A c i 10.' ciently permanent for optical purposes. It seems hardly Achromapossible to preclude absolutely the impression of the ex- G asses tic ternal air; the liquid must, therefore, have a tendency l both to evaporate and to crystallize; and, in the course A • f of time, it will probably, by its activity, corrode the surfaces of the glass. The manufacture of achromatic telescopes in England furnished, for a long period, a very profitable article of exportation. Even after the introduction of those instruments was prohibited by several foreign governments, the object-glasses themselves, in a more compendious form, were smuggled abroad to a large amount. In fact, no flint-glass of a good quality was then made on the Continent. A very material alteration, however, in that re- French spect, has taken place, at least in France, where the sti-achromamulus impressed by the revolution has worked so many tic telechanges, and where ingenuity and science, in most of the scopesmechanical arts, have so visibly supplied the scantiness of capital. The French now construct achromatic telescopes, equal, if not superior, to any that are made in England. (b.)

poems. His poetical pieces are inserted in the Delicice of the German poets, and consist of epic verses, odes, and epigrams. A little work, printed in 1595, under the title of Mulieres non esse homines, i. e. “ That women are not thinking and reasonable beings,” was falsel3r ascribed to him. M. Baillet has given him a place among his Enfant Celebres ; and says, that he wrote a comment upon Plautus when he was but 17 or 18 years old, and that he composed several Latin poems at the same age. ACID ALUS, a fountain in Orchomenus, a city of Bceotia, in which the Graces, who are sacred to Venus, bathed. Hence the epithet Acidalia, given to Venus. ACIDITY, that quality which renders bodies acid. ACIDOTON, in Botany, the trivial name of a species of Adelia. ACIDS, in Chemistry, a class of substances which are distinguished by the following properties:— 1. When applied to the tongue, they excite that sensation which is called sour or acid. 2. They change the blue colours of vegetables to a red. The vegetable blues employed for this purpose are generally tincture of litmus and syrup of violets or of radishes, which have obtained the name of re-agents or tests. If these colours have been previously converted to a green by alkalies, the acids restore them. 3. They unite with water in almost any proportion. 4. They combine with all the alkalies, and most of the metallic oxides and earths, and form with them those compounds which are called salts. It must be remarked, however, that every acid does not possess all these properties ; but all of them possess a sufficient number of them to distinguish them from other substances. And this is the only purpose which artificial definition is meant to answer. See Chemistry. ACIDULfE. Mineral waters that are brisk and sparkling, without the action of heat, are thus named; but if they are hot also, they are called Thermo. ACIDULATED, a name given to medicines that have an acid in their composition. ACIDULOUS denotes a thing that is slightly acid: it is synonymous with the word sub-acid. ACIDUM Aereum, the same with fixed air; or, in modern chemistry, carbonic acid. ' Agidvm pingue, an imaginary acid, which some Gero

106 A C O A C K Acilius man chemists supposed to be contained in fire, and by knowledged, not without reason, of betraying occasionally Glabrio combining with alkalies, lime, &c. to give them their caus- a predilection for antiquated hypotheses. Besides various tic properties; an effect which is found certainly to de- translations of English, French, and Italian medical aupend on the loss of their carbonic acid. thors, which were published, for the most part, previously ACILIUS GLABRIO, Marcus, consul in the year to his removal to Altorf, the following works have appearof Rome 562, and 211 years before the Christian era, ed under his name :—De Trismo Commentatio Medics. distinguished himself by his bravery and conduct in gain- 1775, 8vo. 2. De Dysenteriae Antiquitatibus liber biparing a complete victory over Antiochus the Great, king of titus. 1777, 8vo. 3. Ueber die Krankheiten der Gelehrtea. Syria, at the Straits of Thermopylae in Thessaly, and on 1777, 8vo. 4*. The Life of John Conrad Dippel, in German. several other occasions. He built the temple of Piety at 1781, 8vo. 5. Parabilium Medicamentorum Scriptores Rome, in consequence of a vow which he made before this Antiqui: Sexti Placiti Papyriensis de Medicamentis ex battle. He is mentioned by Pliny, Valerius Maximus, Animalibus Liber; Lucii Apuleii de Medicaminibus Herbarum Liber, cum Notis. 1788, 8vo. 6. H. D. Gaubii Inand others. ACINODENDRUM, in Botany, the trivial name of a stitutiones Pathologiae Medicas, cum Additamentis J. C. species of Melastoma. G. A. 1787, 8vo. 7. Regimen Sanitatis Salerni, Studii ACINOS, in Botany, the trivial name of a species of Medici Salernitani Historia Praemissa. 1790, 8vo. 8. InThymus. stitutiones Historise Medicinae. 1792, 8vo. 9. Institutiones ACINUS, or Acini, the small protuberances of mul- Therapiae Generalis. 1793-5, 2 tom. 8vo. 10. Handbuch berries, strawberries, &c., and by some applied to grapes. der Kriegsarzneykunde. 1794-5, 2 tom. 8vo. 11. Opuscula Generally it is used for those small grains growing in ad Historiam Medicinae pertinentia. 1797, 8vo. 12. Bemerkungen fiber die Kentniss und Kur einiger Krankheiten. bunches, after the manner of grapes, as ligustrum, &c. ACIS, in Mythology, the son of Faunus and the nymph 1794-1800, 8vo. 13. Pathologische-praktische AbhandSimaethis, was a beautiful shepherd of Sicily, who being lung fiber die Blahungen, ffir Aertze und Kranke besbeloved by Galatea, Polyphemus the giant was so enraged, timmt. 1800, 8vo. that he dashed out his brains against a rock ; after which ACKNOWLEDGEMENT, in a general sense, is a Galatea turned him into a river, which was called by his person’s owning or confessing a thing ; but more particuname.—The Sicilian authors say, that Acis was a king of larly, is the expression of gratitude for a favour. this part of the island, who was slain by Polyphemus, one AcKisiowLEDGEMENT-Money, a certain sum paid by tenof the giants of iEtna, in a fit of jealousy. ants, in several parts of England, on the death of their Acis, a river of Sicily, celebrated by the poets, run- landlords, as an acknowledgement of their new lords. ning from a very cold spring, in the woody and shady ACLIDES, in Roman antiquity, a kind of missile weafoot of Mount .dEtna, for the space of a mile eastward pon, with a thong affixed to it, by which it was drawn into the sea, along green and pleasant banks, with the back. Most authors describe it as a sort of dart or javespeed of an arrow, from which it takes its name. Its lin ; but Scaliger makes it roundish or globular, and full waters are now impregnated with sulphureous vapours, of spikes, with a slender wooden stem to poise it by. though formerly they were celebrated for their sweetness Each warrior was furnished with two. and salubrity, and were held sacred by the Sicilian shepACLOWA, in Botany, a barbarous name of a species herds. of Colutea. It is used by the natives of Guinea to cure the itch: they rub it on the body as we do unguents. Quique per vEtnaeos Acis petit aequora fines, Et dulci gratam Nere'ida perluit unda. Sil. Ital. ACME, the top or height of any thing. It is usually It is now called II Flume Freddo, Aci, laci, or Chiaci, ac- applied to the maturity of an animal just before it begins cording to the different Sicilian dialects: Antonine calls to decline ; and physicians have used it to express the it Acius. It is also the name of a hamlet at the mouth utmost violence or crisis of a disease. ACMELIA, in Botany, the trivial name of a species of of the Acis. ACKERMANN, John Christian Gottlieb, a very Spilanthus. learned physician and professor of medicine, was born ACNIDA, Virginian Hemp. ACNUA,in Roman antiquity, signified a certain measure at Zeulenrode in Upper Saxony, in the year 1756. Having acquired the rudiments of his medical education of land, about an English rood, or fourth part of an acre. under the tuition of his father, who was also a physician, ACO, a town of Peru, in South America. It is also the he proceeded to Jena and to Gottingen, and studied un- name of a river in Africa, which rises in the Abyssinian der Bal dinger and Heyne. On quitting the latter uni- mountains, runs in a south-east course, and discharges versity, he established himself in practice at Stendal, the itself into the Indian Ocean. numerous manufactories of which place enabled him to ACOEMETAE, or Acoemeti, men who lived without contribute many important observations to the translation sleep; a set of monks who chanted the divine service of Rammazzini’s Treatise of the Diseases of Artificers, night and day in their places of worship. They divided which he published in 1780-83. After practising here themselves into three bodies, who alternately succeeded several years, he was appointed public professor in ordi- one another, so that the service in their churches was nary of medicine in the university of Altorf in Franconia, never interrupted. This practice they founded upon the which office he continued to fill with great repute to the precept, Pray without ceasing. They flourished in the time of his death, which took place in 1801. All Dr East about the middle of the fifth century. There are a Ackermann’s works display great erudition. To the his- kind of acoemeti still subsisting in the Romish church, tory of medicine he contributed many valuable articles ; viz. the religious of the holy sacrament, who keep up a the disquisitions, in particular, on the lives and writings perpetual adoration, some one or other of them praying of Hippocrates, Galen, Theophrastus, Dioscorides, Are- before the holy sacrament day and night. ACOLUTHI, or Acoluthists, in antiquity, was an taeus, and Rufus Ephesius, which he furnished to Harles’s edition of Fabricius’s Bibliotheca Grceca, are justly esteem- appellation given to those persons who were steady and ed as masterpieces of critical research. As a practitioner immovable in their resolutions; and hence the Stoics, he appears to have possessed no mean talents for obser- because they would not forsake their principles nor alter vation ; though he has been accused, and, it must be ac- their resolutions, acquired the title of acoluthi. The

Acke laai . I Acok

AGO i olutiii word is Greek, and compounded of a privative, and xcktvdoi, II way ; as never turning from the original course. Amtius. Acoluthi, among the ancient Christians, implied a jv-^^''pecUiiar order of the inferior clergy in the Latin church, for they were unknown to the Greeks for above 400 years. They were next to the subdeacon; and we learn from the fourth council of Carthage, that the archdeacon, at their ordination, put into their hands a candlestick with a taper, giving them thereby to understand that they were appointed to light the candles of the church ; as also an empty pitcher, to imply that they were to furnish wine for the eucharist. Some think they had another office, that of attending the bishop wherever he went. The word is Greek, and compounded of a privative, and xwXuco, to hinder or disturb. ACOLYTHIA, in the Greek church, denotes the office or order of divine service ; or the prayers, ceremonies, hymns, &c. whereof the Greek service is composed. ACOMINATUS, Nicetas, was secretary to Alexius Comnenus and to Isaacus Angelus successively. He wrote a history from the death of Alexius Comnenus in 1118, where Zonaras ended his, to the year 1203, which has gone through many editions, and has been much applauded by the best critics. ACONCROBA, in Botany, the indigenous name of a plant which grows wild in Guinea, and is in great esteem among the natives for its virtues in the small-pox. They give an infusion of it in wine. The leaves of this plant are opaque, and as stiff as those of the philyrea; they grow in pairs, and stand on short foot-stalks; they are small at each end, and broad in the middle; and the largest of them are about three inches in length, and an inch and a quarter in breadth in the middle. Like those of our bay, they are of a dusky colour on the upper side, and of a pale green underneath. ACONITI, in antiquity, an appellation given to some of the Athlet^e, but differently interpreted. Mercurialis understands it of those who only anointed their bodies with oil, but did not smear themselves over with dust, as was the usual practice. ACONITUM, Aconite, Wolfsbane, or Monks-hood. ACONTIAS, in Zoology, an obsolete name of the anguis jaculus, or dart-snake, belonging to the order of amphibia serpentes. ACONTIUM, axe mo v, in Grecian antiquity, a kind of

loon was to commence. In eleven minutes another dis- from his officious operations. As they now descended too charge announced that it was completely inflated; and on fast, however, M. d’Arlandes' was not less anxious and the third discharge of the mortar, the cords were cut, and diligent in throwing fresh straw upon the fire, in order to the balloon instantly liberated. After balancing at first in gain such an elevation as would clear the different oba moment of anxious expectation to the spectators, it rose stacles. The navigators dexterously avoided the lofty majestically, in an oblique direction, under the impulse of buildings of Paris, by supplying fuel as occasion required; the wind, till it reached the height of 1500 feet, where it and, after a journey of 20 or 25 minutes, they safely appeared for a while suspended; but in the space of eight alighted beyond the Boulevards, having described a track minutes it dropped to the ground, at the distance of two of six miles.

AERONAUTICS. Such was the prosperous issue of the first aerial navition ever achieved by mortals. It was a conquest of ence which all the world could understand; and it flattered extremely the vanity of that ingenious people, ho hailed its splendid progress, and enjoyed the homir of their triumph. The Montgolfiers had the anmial nrize of six hundred livres adjudged to them by the \rademv of Sciences; the elder brother was invited to court decorated with the badge of St Michael, and received a patent of nobility; and on Joseph a pension was bestowed, with the further sum of forty thousand livres to enable him to prosecute his experiments with balloons The facility and success, however, of the smoke or fire balloons appeared to throw into the shade the attempts made by the application of hydrogen gas. M. Charles, the promoter of this plan, was keenly reproached by M. Faujas de St Fond, for departing from the method practised by the original inventor ; and he was, moreover, with his associates the Roberts, held up to public derision in New il- the smaller theatres of Paris. To silence the cavils and insinuations of his antagonists, he resolved, therefore, on making some new efforts. A subscription was opened to defray the expense of a globe twenty-eight feet in diameter, and formed of tiffany, with elastic varnish. After repeated accidents and delays, this balloon was planted, on the 1st of December 1783, at the entrance of the great alley of the Tuilleries ; and the diffuse fluid was this time introduced into it from a sort of gasometer. The dilute sulphuric acid and the iron-filings being put into wooden casks, disposed round a large cistern, the gas was conveyed in long leaden pipes, and made to pass through the water under a glass bell plunged in it. The whole apparatus cost about L.400 sterling, one-half of which was expended on the production of the gas alone. An immense concourse of spectators had collected from all parts. The discharge of a cannon at intervals announced the progress in filling the balloon. To amuse the populace, and quiet their impatience, 1VL Montgolfier was desired to let off a small fire-balloon, as a mark of his precedence. At last, the globe being sufficiently inflated, and a quantity of ballast, consisting of small sand bags, lodged in the car, leaving only 22^ pounds for the measure of the buoyant force, MM. Charles and Robert placed themselves in the appended boat or car, and the machine was immediately disengaged from its stays. It mounted with a slow and solemn motion. According to the formula given, the terminal velocity of ascension must have been only about 400 feet each minute, or at the rate of somewhat less than five miles in the hour. “ The car, ascending amidst profound silence and admiration,” to borrow the warm and exaggerated language of the reporter, “ allowed, in its soft and measured ascent, the bystanders to follow with their eyes and their hearts two interesting men, who like demigods soared to the abode of the immortals, to receive the reward of intellectual progress, and carry the imperishable name of Montgolfier. After the globe had reached the height of 2000 feet, it was no longer possible to distinguish the aerial navigators; but the coloured pennants which they waved in the air testified their safety and their tranquil feelings. All fears were now dissipated; enthusiasm sueceeded to astonishment; and every demonstration was given of joy and applause.” The balloon, describing a tortuous course, and rising or sinking according to the fancy of its conductors, was, after a flight of an hour and three quarters, made to alight on the meadow of Nesle, about twenty-five miles from Paris. For the space of an hour, the buoyancy of the machine had been sensibly augmented by the sun’s rays striking against the surface Aeri au-

187

of the bag, and heating up the contained gas to the tem- Aeronauperature of 55 degrees by Fahrenheit’s scale. After this prosperous descent, the globe, though be-^^^^ come rather flaccid and loose by its expenditure, yet still retained a great buoyant force when relieved from the weight of the travellers. The sun had just set, and the night was beginning to close ; but M. Charles formed the Ascent of resolution of making alone another aerial excursion. HisaCharles courage was rewarded by the spectacle of one of the most one’ novel and enchanting appearances in nature. He shot upwards with such celerity as to reach the height of near two miles in ten minutes. The sun rose again to him in full orb; and, from his lofty station in the heavens, he contemplated the fading luminary, and watched its parting beams, till it once more sunk below the remote horizon. The vapours rising from the ground collected into clouds, and covered the earth from his sight. The moon began to shine, and her pale rays scattered gleams of various hues over the fantastic and changing forms of those accumulated masses. This scene had all the impressive solemnity of the true sublime. No wonder that the first mortal eye that ever contemplated such awful grandeur could not refrain from shedding tears of joy and admiration. The region in which M. Charles hovered was now excessively cold; and as he opened the valve occasionally during his ascent, to prevent the violent distension of the balloon, the hydrogen gas, not having time to acquire the temperature of the exterior air, rushed out like misty vapour, with a whistling noise. But prudence forbade the voyager to remain long at such an elevation, while darkness was gathering below. He therefore descended slowly to the earth, and, after the lapse of 35 minutes, alighted near the wood of Tour du Lay, having, in that short interval, travelled about nine miles. 1 his balloon, with its passengers and ballast, weighed at first 680 pounds ; but, notwithstanding the caie taken in filling it, the hydrogen gas must have been mixed W1th a large proportion of common air, since it was_ only 5^ times lighter than this fluid. The barometer, which stood at 29’24) English- inches at the surface of the ground, subsided to 20 05 at the greatest elevation, to which M. Charles had reached. This gives by calculation an altitude of 9770 feet. The thermometer, which was at 41 by Fahrenheit s scale at tne first ascent, fell to 21 at the highest flight; giving a difference of one degiee for every FSBg feet of ascent. _ The next voyage through the air was perioimed m the Ascent of largest balloon ever yet constructed. The elder Mont-Montgogolfier had been persuaded to open a subscription at Lyons for the sum of L.180 sterling, to construct an aeionautic machine capable of upholding a great weight, and of carrying a horse or other quadruped. It had an elongated shape, 109 feet wide and 134 feet high, and was formed of two folds of linen, having three layers of paper laid between them, and quilted over with ribands. It showed at first enormous buoyant power. A tiuss of straw, moistened with spirit of wine, was found, when set on fire, to yield humid smoke sufficient to inflate the balloon, and the burning of five pounds weight of alder faggots kept it in full action. Though loaded with a ballast of eighteen tons, it yet lifted up six persons from the ground. Unfortunately, it was very much damaged one night, in consequence of being exposed to ram, frost, and snow. However, on the 19th of January 1784, the balloon was charged in seventeen minutes, by the combustion of 550 pounds of alder. Joseph Montgolfier, accompamec by the ardent Pilatre de Rozier, and four other persons of note, with the proper ballast, took their seats in a wic er gallery, and were launched into the atmosphere. Ihey

188 AERONAUTICS. Aeronau- manoeuvred over the city of Lyons, and near the course at Rhodes on the 6th of August, by the Abbe Carnus 4 tics. 0f tile Rhine, for the space of forty minutes ; but a large and his companion, with a fire-balloon, of a globular shape, 1,1,11 rent having been observed in the upper part of the bal- and 57 feet in diameter.—The longest aerial journey yetM loon, they were compelled to descend abruptly, though made was accomplished at Paris, on the 19th of Septemwithout any further accident. ber. The duke de Chartres, afterwards Orleans, and the d noted Egalite, employed Robert to construct for him a0 The difficulties and dangers of aerial navigation being silk balloon, which should be filled with hydrogen gas. It at length surmounted, the ascents of balloons were now had 56 feet in height and 36 feet diameter, being composmultiplied in all quarters. It will therefore be sufficient ed of a cylinder terminated by two hemispheres ; a conhenceforth to notice very succinctly some of the more dis- struction which was rightly supposed to give much adtinguished attempts of that kind. ditional solidity to the machine. A small bag, on MeusAndreani. The Chevalier Paul Andreani of Milan had a spherical nier’s plan, had been introduced within it, and the boat balloon, of 70 feet in diameter, formed after Montgolfier’s besides, furnished with a helm and four oars. This plan, at his own charge, in which, accompanied by two balloon, bearing the duke himself, the two artists, and ancompanions, he ascended from that capital on the 25th of other companion, and having 500 pounds of ballast, was February 1784. The machine rose to the height of 1300 allowed to rise very slowly, with a buoyancy of only 27 feet; but after having described, in twenty minutes, a pounds. At the height of 1400 feet, the voyagers perceivvery circuitous track, it settled upon a large tree, from ed, not without uneasiness, thick dark clouds gathering which however the voyagers, by applying fresh fuel, ex- along the horizon, and threatening the approach of a thuntricated themselves, and alighted on clear ground, without der-storm. They heard the distant claps, and experienced receiving any hurt. something like the agitation of a whirlwind, although they Blanchard. On the 2d of March Blanchard, who had been for had not felt the slightest concussion in the air from the dissome years before occupied with the chimerical project charge of cannon. The thermometer suddenly dropped of flying in the air, and who fancied that the same prin- from 77° Fahrenheit to 61° ; and the influence of this cold ciples and contrivances might be applied to direct the mo- caused the balloon to descend within 200 feet of the tops of tion of balloons, mounted alone, and with great intrepidity, the trees near Beauvais. To extricate themselves, theynow at Paris, in a silk balloon 40 feet in diameter, constructed threw out more thanforty pounds of ballast, and rose to an by subscription, and filled with hydrogen gas. He darted elevation of 6000 feet, where it was found that the confined rapidly to the height of above a mile, and after being gas had so obstinately retained its heat, as to be no less driven about by cross winds for an hour and three quarters, than 42° warmer than the external air. The duke became he descended in the plain of Billancourt. alarmed, and betrayed such impatience to return again to On the 28th of June in the same year, an ascent was the earth, that he is said to have pierced the lower part of made at Lyons before the King of Sweden, who then tra- the silk bag in holes with his sword. After narrowly velled under the name of Count Haga, with a fire-balloon, escaping the dangers from wind and thunder, the balloon having somewhat of a pear shape, and 75 feet in height. at last descended in safety near Bethune, having performT-'leurant Two passengers, M. Fleurant and a young lady, Madame ed a course of 135 miles in the space of five hours. andThible. Thible, the first female that ever adventured on such a On the 25th of April in the same year, the celebrated Gt daring voyage, entered the car, and ascended with great chemist Guyton-Morveau, with the Abbe Bertrand, as-Mli velocity. In four minutes the noise of the multitude was cended from Dijon in a balloon, nearly of a globular shape, no longer audible, and in two more the eye could not dis- 29 feet in diameter, composed of the finest varnishtinguish them. It was inferred, from a trigonometrical cal- ed tiffany, and filled with hydrogen gas. They did not culation, that they had reached the altitude of 13,500 feet. start till five o clock in the evening, the barometer being Their flag, with its staff of 14 pounds weight, being thrown at 29*3 inches, and the thermometer at 57° on Fahrendown, took seven minutes to fall to the ground. The heit’s scale ; and, after surmounting some accidents, they thermometer had dropt to 43° on Fahrenheit’s scale ; and rose ,to an altitude of 10,465 feet, or very nearly two Engto the sensation of cold which they felt was joined that of lish miles, where the barometer had sunk to 19-8 inches, a ringing in the ears. Different currents were found to and the thermometer to 25°. They felt no inconvenience, occupy distinct strata of the atmosphere ; and in passing however, except from the pinching of their ears with cold. from one stratum to another, the balloon was affected by They saw an ocean of clouds below them, and in this sia sensible undulation. The travellers continued to feed tuation they witnessed, as the day declined, the beautiful their fire with the loppings of vines, till this provision phenomenon of a parhelion, or mock sun. The real lumibeing nearly spent, they safely alighted in a corn-field, nary was only ten degrees above the horizon, when, all at having traversed about six miles in three quarters of an once, another sun appeared to plant itself within six dehour. grees of the former. It consisted of numerous prismatic Rozierand About a fortnight afterwards, the same prince was gra- rings, delicately tinted, on a ground of dazzling whiteness. Proust. tified by a more splendid ascent, commanded for his en- At half-past six o’clock, after a voyage of an hour and a tertainment by the French monarch. A large fire-balloon, half, they safely alighted near Magny, about fifteen miles carrying the naturalists Rozier and Proust, was launched distant from Dijon. from the outer court of Versailles. It soared to the height With the same balloon, M. Guyton-Morveau made ajiis of 12,520 feet, and might appear to float in a vast con- second ascent on the 12th of June, accompanied by theascf gregation of extended and towering white clouds. The I resident De \ irly. It was launched at seven o’clock in thermometer stood at 21° of Fahrenheit, and the flakes of the morning, the barometer being then at 29*5 inches, the snow fell copiously on the voyagers, while it only rained thermometer at 66°, and Saussure’s hygrometer at 81^°. below. ' Descending again from that chaotic abyss, they It swelled very fast, however, owing to the effect of the were charmed with the lively aspect of a rich and populous sun s increasing heat; and the upper valve being at interdistrict. They alighted at the entrance of the forest of vals opened, to give vent to excess of the gas, this escaped Chantilly, about thirty-six miles from Versailles, after a with a noise like the rushing of water. As the voyagers flight of an hour and five minutes. did not mount to any very great elevation, they enjoyed We omit the relation of a prosperous ascent performed an agreeable temperature, and could easily, by observing

AERONAUTICS. 189 Ah- au- the situation of the different villages scattered below them, in the thickest mass of thunder-clouds. The lightnings Aeronautics tj. trace out their tortuous route on the surface of the map. flashed on all sides, and the loud claps were incessant. The thermometer, seen by the help of a phosphoric light By nine o’clock they had reached the height of 6030 feet, the barometer now standing at 24*7 inches, the thermome- which he struck, pointed at 21°, and snow and sleet fell ter at 70°, and the hygrometer at 65£. Three quarters of copiously around him. In this most tremendous situation an hour afterwards they descended at the village of Ete- the intrepid adventurer remained the space of three hours, vaux, only twelve miles from Dijon, having described at the time during which the storm lasted. The balloon was least double this distance in the air. The heat had in- affected by a sort of undulating motion upwards and downcreased so much since the morning, that, notwithstanding wards, owing, he thought, to the electrical action of the the loss of elastic fluid, the balloon seemed yet nearly in- clouds. The lightning appeared excessively vivid, but the thunder was sharp and loud, preceded by a sort of crackflated on touching the ground. Ren ka- An aerial voyage, most remarkable for its duration and ling noise. A calm at last succeeding, he had the pleaLjevi'age its adventures, was performed on the 18th of June 1786, sure to see the stars, and embraced this opportunity to jt'T u. from Paris, by M. Testu, with a balloon 29 feet in diameter, take some necessary refreshment. At half-past two o’clock constructed by himself, of glazed tiffany, furnished with the day broke in; but his ballast being nearly gone, and auxiliary wings, and filled, as usual, with hydrogen gas. the balloon again dry and much elevated, he resolved to It had been much injured by wind and rain during the descend to the earth, and ascertain to what point he had night before its ascension; but having undergone a slight been carried. At a quarter before four o’clock, having repair, it was finally launched, with its conductor, at four already seen the sun rise, he safely alighted near the vilo’clock in the afternoon. The barometer then stood at lage of Campremi, about 63 miles from Paris. 29-68 inches, and the thermometer as high as 84°, though At this period, ascents with balloons had been multi-Balloons in the day was cloudy and threatened rain. The balloon had at first been filled only five-sixths, but it gradually plied, not only through France, but all over Europe. They England, swelled as it became drier and warmer, and acquired its were very seldom, however, directed to any other object utmost distension at the height of 2800 feet. But, to avoid than amusement, and had soon degenerated into mere the waste of gas or the rupture of the silk, the navigator exhibitions for gain. The first balloon seen in England endeavoured to descend by the re-action of his wings. was constructed by an ingenious Italian, the Count Zam-ZambecThough this force had little efficacy, yet at half-past five beccari. It consisted of oiled silk, in a globular shape, cari. o’clock he softly alighted on a corn-field in the plain of about ten feet in diameter, and weighed only eleven Montmorency. Without leaving the car, he began to collect pounds. It was entirely gilt, which riot only gave it a a few stones for ballast; when he was surrounded by the pro- beautiful appearance, but rendered it less permeable to prietor of the field and a troop of peasants, who insisted on the gas. On the 25th of November 1783 it was filled being indemnified for the damage occasioned by his idle about three-fourths, and launched at one o’clock from the and curious visitors. Anxious now to disengage himself, he artillery ground, and in the presence of a vast concourse of persuaded them that, his wings being broken, he was wholly spectators. At half-past three in the afternoon it was taken at their mercy. They seized the stay of the balloon, which up at Petworth, in Sussex, about the distance of 48 miles. floated at some height, and dragged their prisoner through It was not till the following year, on the 21st of September, the air in a sort of triumph towards the village. But that a countryman of his, named Lunardi, first mounted I.unardf. M. Testu, finding that the loss of his wings, his cloak, and in a balloon at London. He afterwards repeated the exsome other articles, had considerably lightened the ma- periment in different parts of England, and during the chine, suddenly cut the cord, and took an abrupt leave of following year in Scotland. This active person took an the clamorous and mortified peasants. He rose to the re- expeditious but careless method of filling his balloon with gion of the clouds, where he observed small frozen parti- gas. He had two large casks, sunk into the ground for cles floating in the atmosphere. He heard thunder roll- their better security, in which he deposited 2000 pounds ing beneath his feet, and, as the coolness of the evening of the borings of cannon, divided by layers of straw, to advanced, the buoyant force diminished, and, at three present a larger surface. An equal weight of sulphuric quarters after six o’clock, he approached the ground near acid, or common oil of vitriol, diluted with six times as the abbey of lloyaumont. There he threw out some bal- much water, was poured upon the iron, and the hydrogen last, and in the space of twelve minutes rose to a height gas now formed, without being cooled or washed, was imof 2400 feet, where the thermometer was only 66 degrees. mediately introduced into the balloon. To Lunardi sucHe now heard the blast of a horn, and descried huntsmen ceeded Blanchard, who possessed just as little science,Blanchard, below in full chace. Curious to witness the sport, he but had greater pretensions, and some share of dexterit}' pulled the valve, and descended, at eight o’clock, between and skill. This adventurer is said to have performed not Etouen and Varville, when, rejecting his oars, he set him- fewer than thirty-six voyages through the air, and to have self to gather some ballast. While he was thus occupied, acquired a large sum of money by those bold and attractive the hunters galloped up to him. He mounted a third time, exhibitions. His most remarkable journey was across the and passed through a dense body of clouds, in which thun- British Channel, in company with Dr Jeffries, an Amerider followed lightning in quick succession. can physician. On the 7th of January 1785, in a clear frosty day, the balloon was launched from the cliff of With fresh alacrity am! force renew’d, Springs upward, like a pyramid of fire, Dover, and, after a perilous course of two hours and three Into the wild expanse, and through the shock quarters, it alighted in safety on the edge of the forest of Of fighting elements, on all sides round Guiennes, not far beyond Calais. By the magistrates of Environ’d wins his way. this town were the two aerial travellers treated with the Ihe thermometer fell to 2-10, but afterwards regained its utmost kindness and hospitality; and their wondrous aroimer point of 66°, when the balloon had reached the al- rival was welcomed as a happy omen, alas! how fallacititude of 3000 feet. In this region the voyager sailed till ous, of the lasting harmony to subsist between rival na>a t-past nine o’clock, at which time he observed from his tions, now cemented by the conclusion of the famous watch-tower in the sky” the final setting of the sun. Commercial Treaty. ie was now quickly involved in darkness, and enveloped The original smoke balloon of Montgolfier appears to *

190 AERONAUTICS. Aeronau- have gradually fallen into disrepute, and the more elegant quently into the river. Not many years since, the um- i ties. an{j expensive, but far more powerful construction, which brella was, at least on one occasion, employed in Europe employs varnished silk to contain hydrogen gas, came to be with similar views, but directed to a very different purpose.^) A generally preferred. With due precaution and management, In the early part of the campaign of 1793, the French the sailing through the atmosphere is perhaps scarcely more general Bournonville, having been sent by the National dangerous now than the navigating of the ocean. Of some Convention, with four more commissioners, to treat with hundred ascents made at different times with balloons, not the Prince of Saxe-Cobourg, was, contrary to the faith or above two or three cases are recorded to have had a fatal courtesy heretofore preserved in the fiercest wars that termination. The first was rendered memorable by the have raged among civilized nations, detained a prisoner shocking death of the accomplished and interesting Rozier, with his companions, and sent to the fortress of Olmutz, who perished a martyr to his ardent zeal for the promotion of where he suffered a rigorous confinement. In this cruel science. Being anxious to return the visit which Blanchard situation he made a desperate attempt to regain his liberand Jeffries had paid to the French coast, by crossing the ty. Flaving provided himself with an umbrella, he jump, channel again and descending in England, he transported ed from a window at the height of forty feet; but being his balloon, which was of a globular shape, and forty feet a very large heavy man, this screen proved insufficient to in diameter, to Boulogne; and after various delays, oc- check his precipitate descent. He struck against the oppocasioned chiefly by adverse winds, he mounted on the 15th site wall, fell into the ditch, and broke his leg, and was June 1785, with his companion M. Romain. From some carried in this condition back again to his dungeon. vague idea of being better able to regulate the ascent of Blanchard was the first who constructed parachutes, Fi i«i the balloon, he had most incautiously suspended below it a and annexed them to balloons, for the object of effecting small smoke one of ten feet diameter; a combination to his escape in case of accident. During the excursion Shocking which may be imputed the disastrous issue. Scarcely a which he undertook from Lisle, about the end of August late of quarter of an hour had elapsed, when the whole apparatus, 1785, when this adventurous aeronaut traversed, without a distance not less than 300 miles, he let down a ltomaP onmm.nd at ^eleon £re. °f j jtg sca three t;tered thousand fragments, feet,with wasthe observed unfor- halting, to k an(above dog from a vast height in the basket of a parachute, and tunate voyagers, were precipitated to the ground. They the poor animal, falling gently through the air, reached fell near the sea-shore, about four miles from Boulogne, the ground unhurt. Since that period the practice and and were instantly killed by the tremendous crash, their management of the parachute have been carried much bodies being found most dreadfully mangled. The next farther by other aerial travellers, and particularly by fatal accident with balloons happened in Italy, several M. Garnerin, who has dared repeatedly to descend from years later, when a Venetian nobleman and his lady, after the region of the clouds with that very slender machinev having performed successfully various ascents, fell from a This ingenious and spirited Frenchman visited London Girii'i vast height, and perished on the spot. during the short peace of 1802, and made two fine ascentsdef; with his balloon, in the second of which he threw himself The Para. Balloonists have no doubt been often exposed, in their from an amazing elevation with a parachute. This conclmte. aerial excursions, to the most imminent hazard of their sisted of thirty-two gores of white canvass formed into a lives. The chief danger consists in the difficulty of pre- hemispherical case of twenty-three feet diameter, at the venting sometimes a rapid and premature descent. To top of which was a truck or round piece of wood ten inches guard, in some degree, against the risks arising from the broad, and having a hole in its centre, admitting short occurrence of such accidents, the Parachute was after- pieces of tape to fasten it to the several gores of the canwards introduced ; being intended to enable the voyager, vass. About four feet and a half below the top, a wooden in case of alarm, to desert his balloon in mid-air, and drop, hoop of eight feet in diameter was attached by a string without sustaining injury, to the ground. The French from each seam ; so that when the balloon rose, the palanguage, though not very copious, has yet supplied this rachute hung like a curtain from this hoop. Below it convenient term, signifying a guard for falling, as it has was suspended a cylindrical basket covered with canvass, likewise furnished the words of analogous composition, about four feet high, and two and a quarter wide. In this parapluie, paravent, and parasol, to denote an umbrella, a basket the aeronaut, dressed in a close jacket and a pair door-screen, and a shade for the sun. The parachute very of trousers, placed himself, and rose majestically from an much resembles the ordinary umbrella, but has a far inclosure near North Audley Street at six o’clock in the greater extent. The umbrella itself, requiring such evening of the 2d of September. After hovering seven or strength to bear it up against a moderate wind, might na- eight minutes in the upper region of the atmosphere, he turally have suggested the application of the same prin- meditated a descent in his parachute. Well might he be ciple to break the force of a fall. Nothing was required supposed to linger there in dread suspense, and to but to present a surface having dimensions sufficient to look a while experience from the air a resistance equal to the weight Pondering his voyage; for no narrow frith of descent, in moving through the fluid with a velocity not He had to cross exceeding that of the shock which a person can sustain He views the breadth, and, without longer pause, without any danger. Accordingly, in the East, where the Downright into the world’s first region throws His flight precipitant, and winds with ease, umbrella, or rather the parasol, has been from the remotThrough the pure marble air, his oblique way. est ages in familiar use, this implement appears to be occasionally employed by vaulters, for enabling them to He cut the cord by which his parachute was attached jump safely from great heights. Father Loubere, in his to the net of the balloon; it instantly expanded, and for curious account of Siam, relates that a person, famous in some seconds it descended with an accelerating velocity that remote country for his dexterity, was accustomed to till it became tossed extremely, and took such wide oscil- j divert exceedingly the king and the royal court by the lations that the basket or car was at times thrown almost prodigious leaps which he took, having two umbrellas into a horizontal position. Borne along likewise by the with long slender handles fastened to his girdle. Fie influence of the wind, the parachute passed over Mary-legeneral!}7 alighted on the ground, but was sometimes car- bone and Somers-town, and almost grazed the houses of ried by the wind against trees or houses, and not unfre- St Pancras. At last it fortunately struck the ground in a

191 AERONAUTICS. W-neighbouring field; but so violent was the shock as to Hutton's valuable experiments for the basis of the calcula- Aeronau% thr„w poor Garnerm on his face, by winch accident he tion, the terminal velocity of descent may be expressed in s m£ ut rK e e round numbers, by ^ in feet each second, and conrv'^rec ived « ^l f:;^ i/;/ iTKu!r! r^ to be much agitated, and trembled exceedingly at the moment he was released from the car. One of the stays sequently the length of fall which would occasion the same of the parachute had chanced to give way; which un- shock, is ©•/ or very nearly Thus, if the toward circumstance deranged the apparatus, disturbed its 1proper balance, and threatened the adventurer, during parachute had thirty feet in diameter, and weighed, to26 the whole of his descent, with immediate destruction. getherwith its appended load, 225 pounds; then^^225 The feeling of such extreme peril was too much for human nature to bear. 26 * 15 = — X 15 ri 13 feet, or the velocity with i f prom the principles before explained, we may easily “ 30 X 15 e j'a determine the descent of a parachute. When, with its lUtf. attached load, it is abandoned in the air, it must, from which it would strike the ground; and (rl^T 225 = \120/ the continued action of gravity, proceed at first with an accelerated motion, till its increasing velocity comes to feet, being the height from which a person dropping freely oppose a resistance equal to the force of attraction, or to would receive the same shock. Since the resistance which air opposes to the passage of Celerity in the combined weight of the whole apparatus. After this the higher counterpoise has taken place, there existing no longer any a body is diminished by rarefaction, it is evident, that the re lons cause of acceleration, the parachute should descend uni- parachute disengaged from a balloon, in the more elevated S formly with its acquired rapidity. This perfect equili- regions of the atmosphere, will at first acquire a greater brium will not, however, be attained at once. The accu- velocity than it can afterwards maintain as it approaches mulation of swiftness produced by the unceasing operation the ground. Resuming the notation employed before, of gravity, is not immediately restrained by the corre- the ratio of the density of the air at the surface, and sponding increased resistance of the atmosphere. The at any given height, being expressed by n : m‘ then motion of a parachute must hence, for some short time, be the velocity of counterpoise at that elevation would be subject to a sort of interior oscillation, alternately acceleI m .f,ov it would be equal to what is accumulated rating and retarding. It first shoots beyond the terminal — a ktj n, J velocity, and then, suffering greater resistance, it relaxes, 1 0 -I- ^2 /T* # and contracts within the just limits. This unequal and in falling freely a height of —2- • — -J feet. It is the undulating progress which a parachute exhibits subse-. quently to the commencement of its fall, is calculated to final velocity, however, that must be chiefly considered in parachutes, being what determines the shock sustained in excite disproportionate alarms of insecurity and danger, efts The terminal velocity of a parachute, or the uniform alighting. The violence of the rushing through the air velocity to which its motion tends, would, according to will seldom be attended with any serious inconvenience. theory, be equal, if its surface were flat, to the velocity If we suppose the mean velocity with which a parachute that a heavy body must acquire in falling through the al- descends to be twelve feet each second, this will corretitude of a column of air incumbent on that surface, and spond to the rate of a mile in 7^ minutes ; not more than having, under the usual circumstances, the same weight that of a very gentle trot. We are not told from what as the whole apparatus. But we have already seen, that height Garnerin dropped; but if he took four minutes in a cylinder of air, one foot in diameter and height, weighs his descent, it was probably about half a mile. only, in ordinary cases, the seventeenth part of a pound The practice of aeronautics has not realized those exavoirdupois. Wherefore, if the square of the diameter of a parachute be divided by 17, the quotient will give the pectations of benefit to mankind which sanguine projectors number of pounds equivalent to the weight of an atmo- were at first disposed to entertain. It was soon found, spheric column of one foot; and the weight of the appara- that a balloon, launched into the atmosphere, is abandoned, tus being again divided by this quotient, the result will ex- without guidance or command, to the mercy of the winds. press the entire altitude of an equiponderant column. Of To undertake to direct or impel the floating machine by this altitude, the square root multiplied by 8 will denote any exertion of human strength, was evidently a chimerithe final velocity, or that with which the parachute must cal attempt. All the influence which the aeronaut really strike the ground. Suppose, for example, that the dia- possesses consists in a very limited power of raising or meter of the parachute were 25 feet; then 25 x 25 = depressing it, according to circumstances. He cannot 625; and this, divided by 17, gives 36j-|. Consequently, hope to shape his course, unless by skilfully adapting his if the parachute with its load weighed only 36j-^ pounds, elevation to catch the prevailing currents. Almost the only purpose to which balloons have hither-Balloons the shock received at the surface of the earth would be precisely the same as that which is felt in dropping from to been applied with success, had for its object that of used in an elevation of one foot. Had the weight of the appara- military reconnaissance. In the early part of the French war. tus, therefore, been four times greater, or 14)7^ pounds, revolutionary war, when ingenuity and science were so the shock sustained would be the same as that from a fall eagerly called into active service, a balloon, prepared under of four feet; which is near the limit, perhaps, of what a the direction of the Aerostatic Institute in the Polytechnic person can bear without suffering injury from the violence School, and intrusted to the command of two or three exof concussion. The velocity of descent, on this latter perienced officers, was distributed to each of the republisupposition, would be 8 ^/4, or sixteen feet each second. can armies. The decisive victory which General Jpurdan or.v But the actual resistance of the air is rather greater gained, in June 1794, over the Austrian forces in the 'rmu than what theory would give; and it is besides augmented plains of Fleurus, has been ascribed principally to the acby the concavity of the opposing surface, which occasions curate information of the enemy’s movements before and an accumulation of the fluid. Let a denote the diameter during the battle, communicated by telegraphical signals of a parachute, and f the total weight of the apparatus from a balloon which was sent up to a moderate height in abandoned to its gravity in the atmosphere ; if we take Dr the air. The aeronauts, at the head of whom was the cele-

192 AERONAUTICS. Aeronau- brated Guyton-Morveau, mounted twice in the course of carefully magnetized, and suspended by a very delicate ^^^j^that day, and continued, about four hours each time, silk thread, for ascertaining by its vibrations the force of hovering in the rear of the army at an altitude of 1300 feet. magnetic attraction. To examine the electricity of the1' In the second ascent, the enterprise being discovered by different strata of the atmosphere, they carried several the enemy, a battery was opened against them ; but they metallic wires, from sixty to three hundred feet in length soon gained an elevation above the reach of the cannon. and a small electrophorus feebly charged. For galvanic Another balloon, constructed by the same skilful artist, experiments they had procured a few discs of zinc and M. Conte, was attached to the army sent on the memorable copper, with some frogs; to which they added insects and expedition to Egypt. What service it rendered the dar- birds. It was also intended to bring down a portion of ing invader in the wide plains and sandy deserts of Africa, air from the higher regions, to be subjected to a chemical we are not informed ; but, after the capitulation of Cairo, analysis; and for this purpose a flask, carefully exhaustit was brought back, with the remains of the army, to ed, and fitted with a stop-cock, had been prepared. France, and employed in the sequel, as we shall find, more The balloon was placed in the garden of the Conservainnocently in philosophical research. These balloons, being toire des Arts, or Repository of Models, formerly the Concalculated for duration, were of a more solid and perfect vent of St Martin ; and no pains were spared by Conte in Method of construction than usual. Originally they were filled with providing whatever might contribute to the greater safety and convenience of the voyagers. Every thing being now them* hydrogen from the decomposition of water on a large gas, scale.obtained For this purpose, six iron cylinders had ready for their ascent, these adventurous philosophers, in been fixed by masonry in a simple kind of furnace, each the presence of a few friends, embarked in the car at ten of their ends projecting, and covered with an iron lid. Two o’clock in the morning of the 23d of August 1804. The sets of metal tubes were also inserted, the one for convey- barometer was then at 30T3 inches, the thermometer at ing hot water, and the other for carrying off the gas which 61-7° on Fahrenheit’s scale, and Saussure’s hygrometer was formed. The cylinders being charged with iron-turn- pointed at 80-8o, or very near the limit of absolute huings, and brought to a red heat, the humidity was instantly midity. They rose with a slow and imposing motion. converted into steam, and decomposed, the oxygen uniting Their feelings were at first absorbed in the novelty and with the iron, while the hydrogen gas was discharged, and magnificence of the spectacle which opened before them; made to deposit any carbonic gas that might adhere to it, and their ears were saluted with the buzz of distant graby passing through a reservoir filled with caustic lye be- tulations, sent up from the admiring spectators. In a few fore it entered the balloon. By this method there was minutes they entered the region of the clouds, which procured, at a very moderate expense, and in the space of seemed like a thin fog, and gave them a slight sensation about four hours, a quantity of hydrogen gas sufficient to of humidity. The balloon had become quite inflated, and inflate a balloon of thirty feet in diameter. they were obliged to let part of the gas escape, by opening the upper valve; at the same time, they threw out some The ascents with balloons should appear to furnish the ballast, to gain a greater elevation. They now shot readiest means of ascertaining important facts in meteo- through the range of clouds, and reached an altitude of rology and atmospheric electricity, departments of science about 6500 English feet. These clouds, viewed from which are still unfortunately in their infancy. Some above, had the ordinary whitish appearance ; they all ocaeronauts have asserted that the magnetic needle ceased cupied the same height, only their upper surface seemed to traverse at very great elevations in the atmosphere; a marked with gentle swells and undulations, exactly restatement which received some countenance from the ob- sembling the aspect of a wide plain covered with snow. servations made by Saussure on the lofty summit of the MM. Biot and Gay-Lussac now began their experimen-T Col du Geant, where that celebrated naturalist thought tal operations. The magnetic needle was attracted, asPe he had found the magnetic virtue to be diminished one usual, by iron; but they found it impossible at this time0"' fifth part. It has been pretended by others, that the air to determine with accuracy its rate of oscillation, owing of the higher regions is not of the same composition as at to a slow rotatory motion with which the balloon was the surface of the earth, and is, independently altogether affected. In the meanwhile, therefore, they made other of its rarity, less fitted for the purpose of respiration. To observations. A Voltaic pile, consisting of twenty pairs determine these, and other relative points, was, therefore, of plates, exhibited all its ordinary effects,—gave the an object interesting to the progress of physical science. pungent taste, excited the nervous commotion, and occaScientific A few years since, two young and ardent French philoso- sioned the decomposition of water. By rejecting some BioT11°/ P^ers, MM. Biot and Gay-Lussac, proposed to undertake more ballast, they had attained the altitude of 8940 feet, Gay Lus aerial ascent, in order to examine the magnetic force but afterwards settled to that of 8600 feet. At this great sac.’ ' great elevations, and to explore the constitution of the elevation, the animals which they carried with them aphigher atmosphere and its electrical properties. For such peared to suffer from the rarity of the air. They let off a philosophical enterprise they were eminently qualified, a violet bee, which flew away very swiftly, making a humhaving been educated together at the Polytechnic School, ming noise. The thermometer had fallen to 56-4° by and both of them deeply versed in mathematics; the for- Fahrenheit, yet they felt no cold, and were, on the conmer indulging in a wide range of study, and the latter con- trary, scorched by the sun’s rays, and obliged to lay aside centrating his efforts more on chemistry and its applica- their gloves. Both of them had their pulses much accetion to the arts. Their offer to government was seconded lerated : that of Biot, which generally beat seventy-nine by Berthollet and Laplace, and the celebrated chemist times in a minute, was raised to one hundred and eleven; Chaptal, then minister of the interior, gave it his patronage while the pulse of his friend Gay-Lussac, a man of a less and warm support. The balloon which had once visited robust frame, was heightened from sixty to eighty beats in Egypt was delivered to the custody of Biot and Gay- the minute. Notwithstanding their quickened pulsation, Lussac ; and the same artist who constructed it was, at the however, they experienced no sort of uneasiness, nor any public expense, ordered to refit and prepare it under their difficulty in breathing. direction. Besides the usual provision of barometers, therWhat perplexed them the most was the difficulty ofM mometers, hygrometers, and electrometers, they had two observing the oscillations of a delicately suspended mag'0,*1 compasses, and a dipping-needle, with another fine needle, netic needle. But they soon remarked, on looking atten-1*0

AERONAUTICS. 193 vanced regularly towards dryness, in proportion to the AeronauAen iulively down upon the surface of the conglomerated clouds, tics r ti'vw that the balloon slowly revolved, first in one direction, and altitude which they attained. At the elevation of 13,000 jr‘ * then returned the contrary way. Between these opposite feet it had changed from 80-8° to 30°. But still the conmotions there intervened short pauses of rest, which it was elusion, that the air of the higher strata is drier than that necessary for them to seize. Watching, therefore, the of the lower, we are inclined to consider as fallacious. In moments of quiescence, they set the needle to vibrate, but fact, the indications of the hygroscope depend on the rewere unable to count more than five, or very rarely ten lative attraction for humidity possessed by the substance oscillations. A number of trials, made between the alti- employed, and the medium in which it is immersed. But tudes of 9500 and 13,000 feet, gave 1" for the mean air has its disposition to retain moisture always augmented length of an oscillation, while at the surface of the earth by rarefaction, and consequently such alteration alone it required 1 to perform each oscillation. A difference must materially affect the hygroscope. The only accuso very minute as the hundred and fortieth part could be rate instrument for ascertaining the condition of air with imputed only to the imperfection of the experiment; and respect to dryness is founded on a property of evaporait was hence fairly concluded, that the force of magnetic tion. But we shall afterwards have occasion to discuss attraction had in no degree diminished at the greatest ele- this subject at due length. vation which they could reach. The direction of this The ballast now being almost quite expended, it was Their force, too, seemed, from concurring circumstances, to have resolved to descend. The aeronauts therefore pulled the descent, continued the same; though they could not depend on upper valve, and allowed part of the hydrogen gas to observations made in their vacillating car with so delicate escape. They dropped gradually, and when they came an instrument as the dipping needle. to the height of 4000 feet, they met the stratum of irds nC' At the altitude of 11,000 feet they liberated a green clouds, extending horizontally, but with a surface heaved ited : linnet, which flew away directly; but, soon feeling itself into gentle swells. When they reached the ground, no ist abandoned in the midst of an unknown ocean, it returned people were near them to stop the balloon, which dragged fight} and settled on the stays of the balloon. Then mustering the car to some distance along the fields. From this fresh courage, it took a second flight, and dashed down- awkward and even dangerous situation they could not wards to the earth, describing a tortuous yet almost perpen- extricate themselves without discharging the whole of dicular track. A pigeon which they let off under similar their gas, and therefore giving up the plan of sending circumstances afforded a more curious spectacle. Placed M. Gay-Lussac alone to explore the highest regions. It on the edge of the car, it rested a while, measuring as it has been reported that his companion M. Biot, though a were the breadth of that unexplored sea which it designed man of activity and not deficient in personal courage, was to traverse: now launching into the abyss, it fluttered ir- so much overpowered by the alarms of their descent, as to regularly, and seemed at first to try its wings in the thin lose for the time the entire possession of himself. The element; till, after a few strokes, it gained more confi- place where they alighted, at half-past one o’clock, after dence, and, whirling in large circles or spirals, like the three hours and a half spent in the midst of the atmobirds of prey, it precipitated itself towards the mass of ex- sphere, was near the village of Meriville, in the departtended clouds, where it was lost from sight. ment of the Loiret, and about fifty miles from Paris. It was difficult, in those lofty and rather humid regions, It was the desire of several philosophers at Paris, that to make electrical observations ; and the attention of the M. Gay-Lussac should mount a second time, and repeat scientific navigators was besides occupied chiefly by their the different observations at the greatest elevation he rnagnetical experiments. However, they let down from could attain. Experience had instructed him to reduce the car an insulated metallic wire of about 250 feet in his apparatus, and to adapt it better to the actual circumlength, and ascertained, by means of the electrophorus, stances. As he could only count the vibrations of the that the upper end indicated resinous or negative electri- magnetic needle during the very short intervals which occity. This experiment was several times repeated; and curred between the contrary rotations of the balloon, he it seemed to corroborate fully the previous observations of preferred one of not more than six inches in length, which Saussure and Volta relative to the increase of electricity therefore oscillated quicker. The dipping needle was met with in ascending the atmosphere. magnetized and adjusted by the ingenious M. Coulomb. mini diminution of temperature in the higher regions To protect the thermometer from the direct action of the not wasThe to be less than what is generally experienced sun, it was inclosed within two concentric cylinders of nper at thefound same altitude on mountains. Thus, at the eleva- pasteboard covered with gilt paper. The hygrometers, re. tion of 12,800 feet, the thermometer was at 51° by Fah- constructed on Richer’s mode, with four hairs, were shelrenheit, while it stood as low as 63^° at the observatory; tered nearly in the same way. The two glass flasks inbeing only a decrement of one degree for each 1000 feet tended to bring down air from the highest regions of the of ascent. This fact corresponds with the observations atmosphere had been exhausted till the mercurial gage made by former aeronauts, and must have been produced, stood at the 25th part of an inch, and their stop-cocks ve conceive, by the operation of two distinct causes, were so perfectly fitted, that, after the lapse of eight days, first, the rays from the sun, not being enfeebled by pass- they still preserved the vacuum. These articles, with two ing through the denser portion of the atmosphere, would barometers, were the principal instruments which M. Gayact with greater energy on the balloon and its car, and Lussac took with him. The skill and intelligence of the consequently affect the thermometer placed in their vici- artist had been exerted in further precautions for the fy. Next, the warm current of air, which during the safety of the balloon. nay rises constantly from the heated surface of the At forty minutes after nine o’clock on the morning ofGay-Lusground, must augment the temperature of any body which the 15th of September, the scientific voyager ascended, as sac ,ascends is exposed to its influence. During the night, on the con- before, from the garden of the Repository of Models. The a«ain one the upper strata of the atmosphere would be found ‘ co der, we presume, than the general standard, owing to barometer then stood at 30-66 English inches, the thermometer at 82° by Fahrenheit, and the hygrometer at ie copious descent of chill portions of air from the high571°. The sky was unclouded, but misty. Scarcely had & gror est regions. , obst the observer reached the height of 3000 feet, when he Mms. The hygrometer, or rather hygroscope, of Saussure, ad- observed spread below him, over the whole extent of the VOL. II 2B

AERONAUTICS. 194 Aeronau- atmosphere, a thin vapour, which rendered the distant ob- 22,912, a range of 4276 feet, the decrease of heat ought Ai tics. jects very indistinct. Having gained an altitude of 9950 to be 15^°, and it was actually 18° ; owing most probably feet, he set his needle to vibrate, and found it to perform to the same cause, or the feebler influence which warmH twenty oscillations in 83", though it had taken 84'33" to currents of air from the surface exert at those vast elevamake the same number at the surface, of the earth. At tions. Taking the entire range of the ascent, or 22,912 His obser- the height of 12,680 feet he discovered the variation of feet, the diminution of temperature according to the same vations in compass to be precisely the same as below ; but with formula would be for the gradation of temperature in asmagne macmethe pains he could take, he was unable to determine cending the atmosphere 85-4°. The decrease actually tism. with sufficient certainty the dip of the needle. M. Gay- observed would be 67-1°, which might be raised to 80°, Lussac continued to prosecute his other experiments with if we admit the very probable supposition, that the surthe same diligence, and with greater success. At the al- face of the earth had become heated from 82° to 94-9° titude of 14,480 feet he found that a key, held in the during the interval between ten o’clock in the morning magnetic direction, repelled with its lower end, and at- and near three in the afternoon, when the balloon floated tracted with its upper end, the north pole of the needle of at its greatest elevation. After making the fair allowances, therefore, on account a small compass. This observation was repeated, and with equal success, at the vast height of 20,150 feet ; a clear of the operation of deranging causes, the results obtained proof that the magnetism of the earth exerts its influence by M. Gay-Lussac, for the gradation of temperature in the at remote distances. He made not fewer than fifteen atmosphere, appear, on the whole, to agree very nearly trials at different altitudes, with the oscillations of his with those derived from the formula which theory, guided finely suspended needle. It was generally allowed to vi- by delicate experiments, had before assigned. This grabrate twenty or thirty times. I he mean result gives dation is evidently not uniform, as some philosophers have 4*22" for each oscillation, while it was 4-216" at the sur- assumed; but proceeds with augmented rapidity in the face of the earth ; an apparent difference so extremely more elevated regions. The same conclusion results from a careful inspection of the facts which have been stated small, as to be fairly neglected. Successive During the whole of his gradual ascent, he noticed, at by other observers. The hygrometers, during the ascent of the balloon, held In (iecreg-f^ intervals, the state of the barometer, the thermomenients of an(j the hygrometer. Of these observations, amount- a progress not quite so regular, but tending obviously to-tin tempera.n all to twenty.one, he has given a tabular view. wards dryness. At the height of 9950 feet they had11" ture. We regret, however, that he has neglected to mark the changed from 57-5° to 62°; from which point they con-^' times at which they were made, since the results appear tinued afterwards to decline, till they came to mark 27-5°, to have been very considerably modified by the progress at the altitude of 15,190 feet. From this inferior limit of the day. It would likewise have been desirable to the hygrometers advanced again, yet with some fluctuahave compared them with a register noted every half tions, to 35-1°, which they indicated at the height of hour at the Observatory. From the surface of the earth 18,460 feet. Above this altitude the variation was slight, to the height of 12,125 feet, the temperature of the at- though rather inclining to humidity. There can exist no mosphere decreased regularly from 82° to 47-3° by Fah- doubt, however, that, allowing for the influence of the renheit’s scale. But afterwards it increased again, and prevailing cold, the higher strata of the atmosphere reached to 53-6°, at the altitude of 14,000 feet; evidently must be generally drier than the lower, or capable of owing to the influence of the warm currents of air which, retaining, at the same temperature, a larger share of as the day advanced, rose continually from the heated moisture. At the altitude of 21,460 feet M. Gay-Lussac openedb ground. From that point the temperature diminished, with only slight deviations from a perfect regularity. At one of his exhausted flasks ; and, at that of 21,790 feet, ^ the height of 18,636 feet the thermometer subsided to the other. The air rushed into them through the narrow“ 32-9°, on the verge of congelation; but it sunk to 14'9° aperture, with a whistling noise. He still rose a little at the enormous altitude of 22,912 feet above Paris, or higher, but, at eleven minutes past three o’clock, he had 23,040 feet above the level of the sea, the utmost limit of attained the utmost limit of his ascent, and was then ,22,912 feet above Paris, or 23,040 feet, being more than the balloon’s ascent. CompariFrom these observations no conclusive inference, we four miles and a quarter, above the level of the sea. The son tlie of se think, can be drawn respecting the mean gradation of cold air was now more than twice as thin as ordinary, the barometer having sunk to 12-95 inches. From that stupen: t ons'Va" which is maintained in the higher regions of the atmo- dous altitude, sixteen hundred feet above the summit of sphere ; for, as we have already remarked, the several strata are during the day kept considerably above their per- the Andes, more elevated than the loftiest pinnacle of our manent temperature by the hot currents raised from the globe, and far above the heights to which any mortal had surface through the action of the sun’s rays. If we adopt ever soared, the aerial navigator might have indulged the the formula given by Professor Leslie at the end of his feelings of triumphant enthusiasm. But the philosopher, Elements of Geometry, which was the result of some ac- in perfect security, was more intent on calmly pursuing curate and combined researches, the diminution of tem- his observations. During his former ascent, he saw the perature corresponding to the first part of the ascent, or fleecy clouds spread out below him, while the canopy of 12,125 feet, ought to be forty degrees of Fahrenheit. It heaven seemed of the deepest azure, more intense than was actually 34-7°, and would no doubt have approached Prussian blue. This time, however, he perceived no clouds to 40°, if the progressive heating of the surface, during gathered near the surface, but remarked a range of them the interval of time, were taken into the account. In the stretching, at a very considerable height, over his head: next portion of the voyage, from the altitude of 14,000 to the atmosphere, too, wanted transparency, and had a dull, that of 18,636 feet, or the breadth of 4636 feet, the de- misty appearance. The different aspect of the sky was crement of temperature according to the formula should probably owing to the direction of the wind, which blew only have been 16^°, instead of 20*7°, which was really from the north-north-west in his first voyage, but in his marked; a proof that the diurnal heat from below had not second from the south-east. While occupied with experiments at this enormous ele-o yet produced its full effect at such a great height. In the last portion of the balloon’s ascent, from 18,636 feet to vation, he began, though warmly clad, to suffer from ex-

AERONAUTICS. 195 J 1 • 7 , , O v ” ploy their power of ascepsion as a mechanical force. This Aeronauiron - cessive cold, and his #hands, by continual exposure,7 grew tics benumbed. He felt likewise a difficulty in breathing, and might be rendered sufficient, it was believed, to raise wa- w tics, v / pvVhis pulse and respiration were much quickened. His ter from mines, or to transport obelisks, and place them' ^ ^- ' throat became so parched from inhaling the dry attenu- on great elevations. We can easily imagine situations ated air, that he could hardly swallow a morsel of bread; where a balloon could be used with advantage ; such as to but he experienced no other direct inconvenience from raise, without any scaffolding, a cross or a vane to the top his situation. He had indeed been affected, through the of a high spire. But the power would then be purchased whole of the day, with a slight headache, brought on by the at a very disproportionate expense. It would require preceding fatigues and want of sleep; but though it conti- pounds of iron, or 6 of zinc, with equal quantities of sulnued without abatement, it was not increased by his ascent, phuric acid, to yield hydrogen gas sufficient to raise up ides The balloon was now completely distended, and not the weight of one pound. Jt- more than 33 pounds of ballast remained: it began to drop, The proposal of employing balloons in the defence and and M. Gay-Lussac, therefore, only sought to regulate its attack of fortified places appears truly chimerical. They descent. It subsided very gently, at the rate of about a have rendered important service, however, in reconnoitring mile in eight minutes; and after the lapse of thirty-four the face of a country, and communicating military sigminutes, or at three quarters after three o’clock, the an- nals ; and it is rather surprising that a system, which chor touched the ground, and instantly secured the car. promised such obvious benefits, has not been carried The voyager alighted with great ease near the hamlet of much farther. St Gourgon, about sixteen miles north-west from Rouen. But to a skilful and judicious application of balloons, we Their apThe inhabitants flocked around him, offering him assist- may yet look for a most essential improvement of the in-plication ance, and eager to gratify their curiosity. fant science of meteorology. Confined to the surface ofproposed [ana As soon as he feached Paris, he hastened to the labo- this globe, we have no direct intimation of what passes infor tIie ilnfa r ratory of the Polytechnic School, with his flasks, contain- the lofty regions of the atmosphere. All the changes 0fP™vement ' ing air of the higher regions, and proceeded to analyze it weather, which appear so capricious and perplexing, pro-pol^e°" in the presence of Thenard and Cresset. Opened under ceed, no doubt, from the combination of a very few simple ’ water, the liquid rushed into them, and apparently half causes. Were the philosopher to penetrate beyond the filled their capacity. The transported air was found, by a seat of the clouds, examine the circumstances of their very delicate analysis, to contain exactly the same propor- formation, and mark the prevailing currents, he would tions as that collected near the surface of the earth, every probably remove in part the veil that conceals those 1000 parts holding 215 of oxygen. From concurring ob- mighty operations. It would be quite practicable, we servations, therefore, we may conclude that the atmo- conceive, to reach an elevation of seven miles, where the sphere is essentially the same in all situations, air would be four times more attenuated than ordinary. jad The ascents performed by MM. Biot and Gay-Lussac A silk balloon, of forty feet diameter, if properly conare memorable, for being the first ever undertaken solely structed, might be sufficient for that enormous ascent, r' for objects of science. It is impossible not to admire the since its weight would only be 80 pounds, while its buoyintrepid coolness with which they conducted those expe- ant force, though not more than a quarter filled with hyriments, operating, while they floated in the highest re- drogen gas, would amount to 533^ leaving 453^ pounds gions of the atmosphere, with the same composure and for the passenger and the ballast. The balloon could be precision as if they had been quietly seated in their cabi- safely charged, indeed, to the third part of its capacity, on nets at Paris. Their observations on the force of terres- account of the contraction which the gas would afterwards trial magnetism show most satisfactorily its deep source suffer from the intense cold of the upper regions ; and this and wide extension. The identity of the constitution of gives it an additional buoyancy of 177| pounds. The the atmosphere to a vast altitude was likewise ascer- voyager would not, we presume, suffer any serious incontained. The facts noted by Gay-Lussac, relative to the venience from breathing the very thin air. The animal state of the thermometer at different heights, appear ge- frame adapts itself with wonderful facility to external cirnerally to confirm the law which theory assigns for the cumstances. Perhaps the quickened pulse and short regradation of temperature in the atmosphere : but many spiration, which some travellers have experienced on the interesting points were left untouched by this philosopher. summits of lofty mountains, should be attributed chiefly We are sorry that he had not carried with him the cycmo- to the suddenness of their transition, and the severity of mter, which enabled Saussure to determine the colour of the cold. The people of Quito live comfortably 9560 feet the sky on the summits of the Swiss mountains. Still above the level of the sea ; and the shepherds of the hammore we regret that he was not provided with an hygro- let of Antisana, the highest inhabited spot in the known meter and a photometer, of Leslie’s construction. These world, who breathe, at an elevation of 13,500 feet, air that delicate instruments could not have failed, in his hands, to has only three-fifths of the usual density, are nowise defurnish important data for discovering the relative dry- ficient in health or vigour. But the intenseness of the ness and transparency of the different strata of air. It cold is probably what the resolute observer would have would have been extremely interesting, at such a tremen- most to dread, at the height of seven miles. This decrease dous height, to have measured with accuracy the feeble of temperature, perhaps equal to 148 degrees, might exhght reflected from the azure canopy of heaven, and the tend below the point at which mercury freezes. Yet seintense force of the sun’s direct rays, and hence to have veral circumstances tend to mitigate such extreme cold, determined what portion of them is absorbed in their pas- and proper clothing might enable an experimenter for a sage through the lower and denser atmosphere. short time to resist its effects. Since that time numerous ascents have been perMuch could be done, however, without risk or material tormed in different countries, generally by adventurers expense. Balloons from fifteen to thirty feet in diameter, guided by no philosophical views, nor leading to any and carrying register thermometers and barometers, might •ic vae uahle results. It would therefore be superfluous to be capable of ascending alone to altitudes between eight ;s F count such repeated attempts. and twelve miles. Dispatched from the centres of the Balloons have at different times been thought capable great continents, they would not only determine the ex0 useful application. It has been even proposed to em- treme gradation of cold, but indicate by their flight the

1

196 iE S C Aerschot direction of the regular and periodic winds which doubtless II. obtain in the highest regions of the atmosphere. But we /^"^^’will not enlarge. In some happier times, such experiments may be performed with the zealous concurrence of different governments ;—when nations shall at last become satisfied with cultivating the arts of peace, instead of wasting their energies in sanguinary, destructive, and fruitless wars, (b.)

A3

S

C

for forming the cloth into a globular shape. AE, the length of the gore, is equal to the half of the circumference of the globe ; BC, the breadth, is the same proportional part ^ 'Jim of the circumference as the number of gores which it re-^ quires to form the sphere. The figures between CB and A denote the breadths of the half-gore, at equal distances from the centre ; the breadth BD at the centre being taken equal to 1, and the others in decimals. In this manner it is In Plate II. there is a view of the principal balloons. easy to construct an exact pattern of the gores, all which, The figure in the centre represents the shape of the gores being united, will form a true sphere.

AERSCHOT, a fortified city in the Netherlands, on the river Dander, 7 miles from Louvain, and 20 from Antwerp, containing 2750 inhabitants. TERUGINOUS, an epithet given to such things as resemble or partake of the nature of the rust of copper. iERUGO, in Natural History, properly signifies the rust of copper, whether natural or artificial. The former is found about copper mines, and the latter, called verdigris, made by corroding copper plates with acids. iERUSCATORES, in Antiquity, a kind of strolling beggars, not unlike gypsies, who drew money from the credulous by fortune-telling, &c. It was also a denomination given to griping exactors, or collectors of the revenue. The Galli, or priests of Cybele, were called ceruscatores tnagnce matris ; and yr~?aywrai, from their begging in the streets ; to which end they had little bells to draw people’s attention, similar to some orders of mendicants abroad. AERZEELE, a town of 2809 inhabitants, in the arrondissement of Kortryk, and province of West Flanders. AERZEN, a bailiwick in the province of Kalenberg, in the kingdom of Hanover, with 1 market town, 19 villages, 852 houses, and 4895 inhabitants. The extent is about 28,400 acres. The chief town of the bailiwick has the same name. It contains 159 houses, and 901 inhabitants. iES uxorium, in Antiquity, a sum paid by bachelors, as a penalty for living single to old age. This tax for not marrying seems to have been first imposed in the year of Rome 350, under the censorship of M. Furius Camillus and M. Posthumus. At the census, or review of the people, each person was asked, Et tu ex animi sententia uxorem habes liberorum qucerendorum causa ? He who had no wife was hereupon fined after a certain rate, called ces uxorium. AEs per et libram was a formula in the Roman law, whereby purchases and sales were ratified. Originally the phrase seems to have been only used in speaking of things sold by weight, or by the scales; but it afterwards was used on other occasions. Hence even in adoptions, as there was a kind of imaginary purchase, the formula thereof expressed, that the person adopted was bought per ces et libram. AESCHINES, an Athenian, a Socratic philosopher, the son of Charinus, a sausage-maker. He was continually with Socrates; which occasioned this philosopher to say, that the sausage-maker’s son was the only person who knew how to pay a due regard to him. It is said that poverty obliged him to go to Sicily to Dionysius the tyrant; and that he met with great contempt from Plato, but was extremely well received by Aristippus, to whom he showed some of his dialogues, and received from him a handsome reward. He would not venture to profess philosophy at Athens, Plato and Aristippus being in such high esteem; but he opened a school, in which he taught philosophy, to maintain himself. He afterwards wrote orations for the forum. Phrynicus, in Photius, ranks him amongst the

best orators, and mentions his orations as the standard of the pure Attic style. Hermogenes has also spoken very highly of him. He wrote, besides, several Dialogues, of which there are only three extant: 1. Concerning virtue, whether it can be taught. 2 Eryxias, or Erasistratus; concerning riches, whether they are good. 3. Axiochus; concerning death, whether it is to be feared. M. le Clerc has given a Latin translation of them, with notes and several dissertations, entitled Silvce Philologicce. JEschines, a celebrated Grecian orator, was born at Athens 327 years before the Christian era. According to his own account, he was of distinguished birth ; according to that of Demosthenes, he was the son of a courtesan, and a humble performer in a company of comedians. But whatever was the true history of his birth and early life, his talents, which were considerable, procured him great applause, and enabled him to be a formidable rival to Demosthenes himself. The two orators, inspired probably with mutual jealousy and animosity, became at last the strenuous leaders of opposing parties. iEschines was accused by Demosthenes of having received money as a bribe, when he was employed on an embassy to Philip of Macedon. He indirectly retaliated the charge by bringing an accusation against Ctesiphon, the friend of Demosthenes, for having moved a decree, contrary to the laws, to confer on Demosthenes a golden crown, as a mark of public approbation. A numerous assembly of judges and citizens met to hear and decide the question. Each orator employed all his powers of eloquence; but Demosthenes, with superior talents, and with justice on his side, was victorious; and iEschines was sent into exile. The resentment of Demosthenes was now softened into generous kindness; for when ZEschines was going into banishment, he requested him to accept of a sum of money; which made him exclaim, “ How do I regret leaving a country where I have found an enemy so generous, that I must despair of ever meeting with a friend who shall be like him !” ZEschines opened a school of eloquence at Rhodes, which was the place of his exile ; and he commenced his lectures by reading to his audience the two orations which had been the cause of his banishment. His own oration received great praise, but that of Demosthenes was heard with boundless applause. In so trying a moment, when vanity must be supposed to have been deeply wounded, with a noble generosity of sentiment, he said, “ What would you have thought if you had heard him thunder out the words himself.”—iEschines afterwards removed to Samos, where ; he died in the 75th year of his age. Three of his orations only are extant. His eloquence is not without energy, but it is diffuse and ornamented, and more calculated to please than to move the passions. ZESCHYLUS, the tragic poet, was born at Athens. The time of his birth is not exactly ascertained. Some suppose that it was in the 65th, others in the 70th Olympiad ; but according to Stanley, who follows the Arunde-

.ESC ?lus lian marbles, he was born in the 68d Olympiad. He was the son of Euphorion, and brother to Cynsegirus and Amy^cjla- njas, who distinguished themselves in the battle of Mara1 I'f thon and the sea-fight of Salamis, at which engagements ^gchylus was likewise present. In this last action, according to Diodorus Siculus, Amynias, the youngest of the three brothers, commanded a squadron of ships, and fought with so much conduct and bravery, that he sunk the admiral of the Persian fleet, and signalized himself above all the Athenians. To this brother our poet was, upon a particular occasion, obliged for saving his life, ^lian relates, that Aeschylus, being charged by the Athenians with certain blasphemous expressions in some of his pieces, was accused of impiety, and condemned to be stoned to death: they were just going to put the sentence in execution, when Amynias, with a happy presence of mind, throwing aside his cloak, showed his arm without a hand, which he had lost at the battle of Salamis in defence of his country. This sight made such an impression on the judges, that, touched with the remembrance of his valour, and with the friendship he showed for his brother, they pardoned iEschylus. Our poet, however, resented the indignity of this prosecution, and resolved to leave a place where his life had been in danger. He became more determined in this resolution when he found his pieces less pleasing to the Athenians than those of Sophocles, though a much younger writer. Some affirm, that iEschylus never sat down to compose but when he had drunk liberally. He wrote a great number of tragedies, of which there are but seven remaining ; and notwithstanding the sharp censures of some critics, he must be allowed to have been the father of the tragic art. In the time of Thespis there was no public stage to act upon, the strollers driving about from place to place in a cart. iEschylus ; furnished his actors with masks, and dressed them suitably to their characters. He likewise introduced the buskin, to make them appear more like heroes. The ancients gave Aischylus also the praise of having been the first who removed murders and shocking sights from the eyes of the spectators. He is said likewise to have lessened the number of the chorus. M. Le Fevre has observed, that AEschylus never represented women in love in his tragedies, which, he says, was not suited to his genius; but in representing a woman transported with fury he was incomparable. Longinus says, that AEschylus has a noble boldness of expression, and that his imagination is lofty and heroic. It must be owned, however, that he affected pompous words, and that his sense is too often obscured by figures. This gave Salmasius occasion to say that he was more difficult to be understood than the Scripture itself. But notwithstanding these imperfections, this poet was held in great veneration by the Athenians, who made a public decree that his tragedies should be played after his death. He was killed in the 69th year of his age, by an eagle letting fall a tortoise upon his head as he was walking in the fields. He had the honour of a pompous funeral from the Sicilians, who buried him near the river Gela; and the tragedians of the country performed plays and theatrical exercises at his tomb. The best editions of AEschylus are those of Stanley, folio, Lond. 1663, with an excellent Latin translation and commentary ; and of Schiitz, in 3 vols. 8vo, Halle, 1782. AESCULAPIUS, in the Heathen Mythology, the god of physic, was the son of Apollo and the nymph Coronis. He was educated by the centaur Chiron, who taught him physic, by which means AEsculapius cured the most desperate diseases. But Jupiter, enraged at his restoring to life Hippolytus, who had been torn in pieces by his own horses, killed him with a thunderbolt. According to Cicero, 5

S O 197 there were three deities of this name: the first, the son .Esculaof Apollo, worshipped in Arcadia, who invented the probe pius and bandages for wounds; the second, the brother of /Eso !l Mercury, killed by lightning; and the third, the son of PArsippus and Arsinoe, who first taught the art of toothdrawing and purging. At Epidaurus, AEsculapius’s statue was of gold and ivory, with a long beard, his head surrounded with rays, holding in one hand a knotty stick, and the other entwined with a serpent: he was seated on a throne of the same materials as his statue, and had a dog lying at his feet. The Romans crowned him with laurel, to represent his descent from Apollo; and the Phliasians represented him as beardless. The cock, the raven, and the goat, were sacred to this deity. His chief temples were at Pergamus, Smyrna, Trica, a city in Ionia, and the isle of Coos; in all which votive tablets were hung up, showing the diseases cured by his assistance. But his most famous shrine was at Epidaurus, where, every five years, games were instituted to him, nine days after the Isthmian games at Corinth. AESOP, the Phrygian, lived in the time of Solon, about the 50th Olympiad, under the reign of Crcesus, the last king of Lydia. As to genius and abilities, he was greatly indebted to nature; but in other respects not so fortunate, being born a slave and extremely deformed. St Jerome, speaking of him, says he was unfortunate in his birth, condition in life, and death; hinting thereby at his deformity, servile state, and tragical end. His great genius, however, enabled him to support his misfortunes; and in order to alleviate the hardships of servitude, he composed those entertaining and instructive fables which have acquired him so much reputation. He is generally supposed to have been the inventor of that kind of writing; but this is contested by several, particularly Quintilian, who seems to think that Hesiod was the first author of fables. AEsop, however, certainly improved this art to a very great degree; and hence it is that he has been accounted the author of this sort of productions; JEsopus auctor quam materiam reperit, Hanc egopolivi versibus senariis. Pii.-t.d. Mine is the task, in easy verse, The tales of iEsop to rehearse. The first master whom AEsop served was one Carasius Demarchus, an inhabitant of Athens; and there, in all probability, he acquired his purity in the Greek tongue. After him he had several masters, and at length came under a philosopher named Idmon or ladmon, who enfranchised him. After he had recovered his liberty, he soon acquired a great reputation amongst the Greeks; so that, according to Meziriac, the report of his wisdom having reached Crcesus, he sent to inquire after him, and engaged him in his service. He travelled through Greece, according to the same author, whether for his own pleasure or upon the affairs of Crcesus is uncertain; and passing by Athens soon after Pisistratus had usurped the sovereign power, and finding that the Athenians bore the yoke very impatiently, he told them the fable of the frogs who petitioned Jupiter for a king. The images made use of by AEsop are certainly very happy inventions to instruct mankind: they possess all that is necessary to perfect a precept, having a mixture of the useful with the agreeable. “ AEsop the fabulist,” says Aulus Gellius, “ was deservedly esteemed wise, since he did not, after the manner of the philosophers, rigidly and imperiously dictate such things as were proper to be advised and persuaded; but framing entertaining and agreeable apologues, he thereby charms and captivates the human mind.” AEsop was put to death at Delphi. Plutarch tells us, that he came thither with a

198 iEsop

iE T H A E T great quantity of gold and silver, being ordered by Croesus Netherlands, and province of Hainault, situated on the halia to offer a sacrifice to Apollo, and to give a considerable river Dender, about 20 miles south-west of Brussels. Aeth. , sum to each inhabitant; but a quarrel arising betwixt him iETHALIA, or Ilua, in Ancient Geography, now Elba, pier. | and the Delphians, he sent back the money to Croesus; an island on the coast of Etruria, in compass a hundred^ v\j for he thought those for whom the prince designed it had miles, abounding in iron. It was so called from atiuXrj, rendered themselves unworthy of it. The inhabitants of smoke, which issued from the shops of V ulcan. iETHELSTAN, see Athelstan. Delphi brought an accusation of sacrilege against him; iETHER is usually understood of a thin, subtile matand pretending they had convicted him, threw him headlong from a rock. For this cruelty and injustice, we are ter or medium, much finer and rarer than air, which, told, they were visited with famine and pestilence; and con- commencing from the limits of our atmosphere, possesses sulting the oracle, they received for answer, that the god the whole heavenly space. The word is Greek, ai^o, sup. designed this as a punishment for their treatment of posed to be formed from the verb aifciv, to burn, to flame; iEsop. They endeavoured to make an atonement, by rais some of the ancients, particularly Anaxagoras, supposing it to be of the nature of fire. ing a pyramid to his honour. The philosophers cannot conceive that the largest part iEsop, Clodius, a celebrated actor, who flourished about the 670th year of Rome. He and Roscius were contem- of the creation should be perfectly void; and therefore poraries, and the best performers who ever appeared upon they fill it with a species of matter under the denominathe Roman stage; the former excelling in tragedy, the tion of cether. But they vary extremely as to the nature latter in comedy. Cicero put himself under their direc- and character of this aether. Some conceive it as a body tion, to perfect his action. TEsop lived in a most expen- sui generis, appointed only to fill up the vacuities between sive manner, and at one entertainment is said to have had the heavenly bodies, and therefore confined to the regions a dish which cost above L.800. This dish, we are told, above our atmosphere. Others suppose it of so subtile was filled with singing and speaking birds, some of which and penetrating a nature as to pervade the air and other cost near L.50. The delight which iEsop took in this bodies, and to possess the pores and intervals thereof. sort of birds proceeded, as M. Bayle observes, from the 'Others deny the existence of any such specific matter, expense. He did not make a dish of them because they and think the air itself, by that immense tenuity and excould speak, according to the refinement of Pliny upon pansion it is found capable of, may diffuse itself through the this circumstance, this motive being only by accident, interstellar spaces, and be the only matter found therein, but because of their extraordinary price. If there had In effect, aether being no object of our sense, but the been any birds that could not speak, and yet more scarce mere work of imagination, brought only upon the stage for and dear than these, he would have procured such for his the sake of hypothesis, or to solve some phenomenon real table. TEsop’s son was no less luxurious than his father, or imaginary, authors take the liberty of modifying it as for he dissolved pearls for his guests to swallow. Some they please. Some suppose it of an elementary nature, speak of this as a common practice of his; but others like other bodies, and only distinguished by its tenuity, mention his falling into this excess only on a particular and the other affections consequent thereon; which is the Sat. iii. day, when he was treating his friends. Horace1 speaks philosophical aether. Others will have it of another spehb. ii. 239. on}y 0f one pearl of great value, which he dissolved in cies, and not elementary, but rather a sort of fifth elevinegar and drank. When he was upon the stage, he ment, of a purer, more refined, and spiritous nature, than entered into his part to such a degree as sometimes to the substances about our earth, and void of the common be seized with a perfect ecstasy. Plutarch mentions it as affections thereof, as gravity, &c. The heavenly spaces reported of him, that whilst he was representing Atreus being the supposed region or residence of a more exalted deliberating how he should revenge himself on Thyestes, class of beings, the medium must be more exalted in probe was so transported beyond himself in the heat of ac- portion. Such is the ancient and popular idea of aether, tion, that with his truncheon he smote one of the servants or aethereal* matter. crossing the stage, and laid him dead on the spot. The term (ether being thus embarrassed with a variety iESHMATIO Capitis, a term met with in old law- of ideas, and arbitrarily applied to so many different things, books for a fine anciently ordained to be paid for offences the later and severer philosophers choose to set it aside, committed against persons of quality, according to their and in lieu thereof substitute other more determinate several degrees. ones. Thus, the Cartesians use the term materia subtilis, FESTIVAL, in a general sense, denotes something which is their aether: and Sir Isaac Newton, sometimes a connected with, or belonging to summer. Hence aesti- subtile spirit, as in the close of his Principia; and someval sign, aestival solstice, &c. times a subtile or (ethereal medium, as in his Optics. iESTUARIA, in Geography, denotes an arm of the sea, Heat, Sir Isaac Newton observes, is communicated which runs a good way within land. Such is the Bristol through a vacuum almost as readily as through air; but channel, and many of the friths of Scotland. such communication cannot be without some interjacent iESTUARIES, in ancient baths, were secret passages body, to act as a medium. And such body maybe subtile from the hypocaustum into the chambers. enough to penetrate the pores of glass, and may permeate iESTUARY, among physicians, a vapour bath, or any those of all other bodies, and consequently be diffused other instrument for conveying heat to the body. through all the parts of space. JESYMNIUM, in Antiquity, a monument erected to The existence of such an aethereal medium being setthe memory of the heroes by Aisymnus the Megarean. tied, that author proceeds to its properties ; inferring it to He, consulting the oracle in what manner the Megareans be not only rarer and more fluid than air, but exceedingly might be most happily governed, was answered, If they more elastic and active; in virtue of which properties he held consultation with the more numerous; whom he taking shows, that a great part of the phenomena of nature may for the dead, built the said monument, and a senate-house be produced by it. To the weight, e. g. of this medium, that took within its compass the monument, imagining he attributes gravitation, or the weight of all other bothat thus the dead would assist at their consultations, dies; and to its elasticity, the elastic force of the air and (Pausanias.) of nervous fibres, and the emission, refraction, reflection, AETH, or Ath, a strong little town in the Austrian and other phenomena of light; as also sensation, muscular

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^ er motion, &c. In fine, this same matter seems the primum mobile, the first source or spring of physical action in the R cs- modern system. The Cartesian aether is supposed not only to pervade, but adequately to fill, all the vacuities of bodies ; and thus to make an absolute plenum in the universe. But Sir Isaac Newton shows that the celestial spaces are void of all sensible resistance; and hence it follows, that the matter contained therein must be immensely rare, in regard the resistance of bodies is chiefly as their density: so that if the heavens were thus adequately filled with a medium or matter, how subtile soever, they would resist the motion of the planets and comets much more than quicksilver or gold. But it has been supposed that what Newton has said of aether is to be considered only as a conjecture, and especially as no new proofs of its existence have been adduced since his time. The late discoveries in electricity have thrown great light upon this subject, and rendered it extremely probable that the aether so often talked of is no other than the electric fluid, or solar light, which diffuses itself throughout the whole system of nature. ^ETHEREAL, AUthereus, something that belongs to, or partakes of, the nature of jEther. Thus we say, the (Ethereal space, aethereal regions, &c. Some of the ancients divided the universe, with respect to the matter contained therein, into elementary and aethereal. Under the aethereal world was included all that space above the uppermost element, viz. fire. This they supposed to be perfectly homogeneous, incorruptible, unchangeable, &c. The Chaldees placed an aethereal world between the empyreum and the region of the fixed stars. Besides which, they sometimes also speak of a second aethereal world, meaning by it the starry orb; and a third aethereal world, by which is meant the planetary region. ETHIOPIA. See Abyssinia, and Ethiopia. AETIANS, in Church History, a branch of Arians, who maintained that the Son and Holy Ghost are in all things dissimilar to the Father. See Aetius. ETIOLOGY is that part of pathology which is employed in exploring the causes of diseases. AETION, a celebrated painter, who left an excellent picture of Roxana and Alexander, which he exhibited at the Olympic games. It represents a magnificent chamber, where Roxana is sitting on a bed of a most splendid appearance, which is rendered still more brilliant by her beauty. She looks downwards in a kind of confusion, being struck with the presence of Alexander standing before her. A number of little Cupids flutter about, some holding up the curtain, as if to show Roxana to the prince, whilst others are busied in undressing the lady; some pull Alexander by the cloak, who appears like a young bashful bridegroom, and present him to his mistress. He lays his crown at her feet, being accompanied by Hephaestion, who holds a torch in his hand, and leans upon a youth, who represents Hymen. Several other little Cupids are represented playing with his arms: some carry his lance, stooping under so heavy a weight; others bear along his buckler, upon which one of them is seated, whom the rest carry in triumph; another lies in ambush in his armour, waiting to frighten the rest as they pass by. fhis picture gained Aetion so much reputation, that the president of the games gave him his daughter in marriage. ETIfES, or Eagle-stone, in Natural History, a flinty or crustated stone, hollow within, and containing a nuckus, which, on •shaking, rattles within. It was formerly in repute for several extraordinary magical as well as medical powers; such as preventing abortion, discovering thieves, and other ridiculous properties. The word is

T N 199 formed from afro;, eagle, the popular tradition being, that Aetius it is found in the eagle’s nest, whither it is supposed to II tna be carried while the female sits, to prevent her eggs fromV -®V * being rotten. It is found in several parts. Near Trevoux, ^^ ^^ in France, one can scarcely dig a few feet without finding considerable strata or beds of the coarser or ferruginous kind. They are originally soft, and of the colour of yellow ochre. But the finest and most valued of all the eagle-stones are accidental states of one or other of our common pebbles. AETIUS, one of the most zealous defenders of Arianism, was born in Syria, and flourished about the year 336. After being servant to a grammarian, of whom he learned grammar and logic, he was ordained deacon, and at length bishop, by Eudoxus, patriarch of Constantinople. Aetius was banished into Phrygia on account of his religious opinions; but was recalled from exile on the accession of Julian, and was much esteemed by that emperor. He died, it is supposed, at Constantinople, about the year 366. St Epiphanius has preserved 47 of his propositions against the Trinity. His followers were called Aetians. Aetius, a famous physician, born at Amida in Mesopotamia, and the author of a work entitled Tetrabiblos, which is a collection from the writings of those physicians who went before him. He lived, according to Dr Freind, in the end of the 1 fifth or the beginning of the sixth century. Aetius, governor of Gallia Narbonensis in the reign of Valentinian III., forced the Franks who were passing into Gaul to repass the Rhine. He defeated the Goths, and routed Attila, king of the Huns, who invaded Gaul with an army of 700,000 men. But the emperor, jealous of the merit of this great man, killed him in 454, with his own hand, under the pretence that he had permitted the invasion of the Huns, after Attila’s defeat. ETNA, (in the Itineraries JEthana, supposed from aiQ'ji, to burn; according to Bochart, from athuna, a furnace, or cetuna, darkness), now Monte Gibello ; a volcano or burning mountain of Sicily, situated in Long. 15. E. Lat. 38. N. This mountain, famous from the remotest antiquity, both for its bulk and terrible eruptions, stands in the eastern part of the island, in a very extensive plain, called Val di Demona, from the notion of its being inhabited by devils, wTio torment the spirits of the damned in the bowels of this volcano. The base of Etna is well defined by the sea, and byMagnithe rivers Giaretta and Alcantara; and is about eighty- tude and seven miles in circumference, with its greatest diameter height °t extending from east to west. The following measure-^11101111' ments, taken by Captain Smyth, we have adopted as the most accurate hitherto published: The Summit 10874 feet. Foot of the Cone ....9760 . The English House 9592 Philosopher’s Tower .9467 Bishop’s Snow Stoves 7410 Highest part of the Woody Region 6279 The Goats’ Cavern 5362 Angelo the Herdsman’s Cottage 4205 Nicolosi Convent 2449 Lingua-Grossa 1725 Caltabiano Station 371 Catania Station 47 The products and general appearance of this volcano General have been described by many travellers. The journeyance appearfrom Catania to its summit has been described by M. D’Orville, Mr Brydone, Sir William Hamilton, M. Houel, the abbe Spallanzani, Smyth, &c. They all agree that

200 iEtna.

JS T this single mountain affords an epitome of the different climates throughout the whole world. Towards the foot it is extremely hot; farther up, more temperate; and grows gradually more and more cold the higher we ascend. At the very top it is perpetually covered with snow : from thence the whole island is supplied with that article, so necessary in a hot climate, and without which, the natives say, Sicily could not be inhabited. So great is the demand for this commodity, that the bishop’s revenues, which are considerable, arise from the sale of Mount ^Etna’s snow ; and he is said to draw L.1000 a year from one small portion lying on the north side of the mountain. Great quantities of snow and ice are likewise exported to Malta and Italy, making a considerable branch of commerce. The snow of iEtna, says Captain Smyth, is not only consumed in vast quantities all over the island, but forms an extensive article of commerce with Malta and Italy, to which places it is sent in such profusion as to be sold from a penny to threepence the pound, a rate which renders it accessible to the lower orders. Crater de- In the middle of the snowy region stands the great scribed. crater, or mouth of iEtna. Sir William Hamilton describes the crater as a little mountain, about a quarter of a mile perpendicular, and very steep, situated in the middle of a gently inclining plain, of about nine miles in circumference. It is entirely formed of stones and ashes; and, as he was informed by several people of Catania, had been thrown up about 25 or 30 years before the time (1769) he visited Mount ./Etna. Before this mountain was thrown up, there was only a prodigiously large chasm or gulf in the middle of the above-mentioned plain ; and it has been remarked, that about once in 100 years the top of iEtna falls in ; which undoubtedly must be the case at certain periods, otherwise the mountain would continually increase in height. As this little mountain, though emitting smoke from every pore, appeared solid and firm, Sir William Hamilton and his companions went up to the very top. In the middle is a hollow, about two miles and a half in circumference, according to Sir William Hamilton ; three miles and a half, according to Mr Brydone ; and three or four, according to M. D’Orville. The inside is crusted over with salts and sulphur of different colours. It goes shelving down from the top, like an inverted cone; the depth, in Sir William Hamilton’s opinion, nearly corresponding to the height of the little mountain. From many places of this space issue volumes of sulphurous smoke, which being much heavier than the circumambient air, instead of ascending in it, roll down the side of the mountain, till, coming to a more dense atmosphere, it shoots off horizontally, and forms a large track in the air, according to the direction of the wind; which, happily for our travellers^ carried it exactly to the side opposite to that on which they stood. In the middle of this funnel is the tremendous and unfathomable gulf, so much celebrated in all ages, both as the terror of this life and the place of punishment in the next. From this gulf continually issue terrible and confused noises, which in eruptions are increased to such a degree as to be heard at a prodigious distance. Its diameter is probably very different at different times; for Sir William Hamilton observed, by the wind clearing away the smoke from time to time, that the inverted hollow cone was contracted almost to a point; while M. D’Orville and Mr Brydone found the opening very large. Both Mr Brydone and Sir William Hamilton found the crater too hot to descend into it; but M. D’Orville was bolder; and accordingly, he and his fellow-traveller, fastened to ropes which two or three men held at a distance tor fear of accidents, descended as near as possible to the brink of the gulf; but the small flames and

N A. smoke which issued from it on every side, and a greenish sulphur, and pumice stones, quite black, which covered M the margin, would not permit them to come so near as to have a full view. They only saw distinctly, in the middle 5 a mass of matter which rose in the shape of a cone, to the height of above 60 feet, and which towards the base, as far as their sight could reach, might be 600 or 800 feet. While they were observing this substance, some motion was perceived on the north side, opposite to that whereon they stood; and immediately the mountain began to send forth smoke and ashes. This eruption was preceded by a sensible increase of its internal roarings; which, however did not continue, but, after a moment’s dilatation, as if to give it vent, the volcano resumed its former tranquillity; but as it was bj no means proper to make a long stay in such a place, our travellers immediately returned to their attendants. The top of ./Etna being above the common region oD’i^J vapours, the heavens appear with exceeding great splen-11’1 ial dour. Mr Brydone and his company observed, as they " 1 ascended in the night, that the number of stars seemed to be indefinitely increased, and the light of each of them appeared brighter than usual; the whiteness of the milky way was like a pure flame which shot across the heavens; and with the naked eye they could observe clusters of stars that were invisible from below. Had Jupiter been visible, he is of opinion that some of his satellites might have been discovered with the naked eye, or at least with a very small pocket-glass. He likewise took notice of several of those meteors called falling stars, which appeared as much elevated as when viewed from the plain; a proof, according to Mr Brydone, that “ these bodies move in regions much beyond the bounds that some philosophers have assigned to our atmosphere.” To have a full and clear prospect from the summit of Mount iEtna, it is necessary to be there before sunrise, as the vapours raised by the sun in the daytime will obscure every object. Accordingly, our travellers took care to arrive there early enough; and all agree, that the beauty of the prospect from thence cannot be described. Here Mr Brydone and Sir William Hamilton had a view of Calabria in Italy, with the sea beyond it; the Lipari islands, and Stromboli, a volcano at about 70 miles distance, appeared just under their feet: the whole island of Sicily, with its rivers, towns, harbours, &c. appeared distinct, as if seen on a map. Massa, a Sicilian author, affirms, that the African coast, as well as that of Naples, with many of its islands, has been discovered from the top of ./Etna. The visible horizon here is no less than 800 or 900 miles in diameter. The pyramidal shadow of the mountain reaches across the whole island, and far into the sea on the other side, forming a visible track in the air, which, as the sun rises above the horizon, is shortened, and at last confined to the neighbourhood of ./Etna. The most beautiful part of the scene, however, in Mr Brydone’s opinion, is the mountain itself, the island of Sicily, and the numerous islands lying round it. These last seem to be close to the skirts of ./Etna, the distances appearing reduced to nothing. M. Houel gives the following description of the view he enjoyed from the summit of the mountain. Here, being sheltered from the wind, and the day advancing, they began to enjoy the glorious prospect, which every moment became more extensive. At the rising of the sun, the horizon was serene, without a single cloud. “ The coast of Calabria,” says our author, “‘was as yet undistinguishable from the adjoining sea ; but in a short time a fiery radiance began to appear from behind the Italian hills which bounded the eastern part of the prospect.

iE T N A. 201 cording to the ravages of the lava, and the senseless dejEtna. The fleecy clouds, which generally appear early in the kvK morning, were tinged with purple ; the atmosphere became struction of them by the natives. The neighbourhood of r str0ngly illuminated, and, reflecting the rays of the rising Maletto is richly clothed with fine oaks, pines, and poplars ; sun, appeared filled with a bright effulgence of flame. The above Nicolosi and Milo are produced stunted oaks, with immense elevation of the summit of ./Etna made it catch fir, beech, cork, hawthorn, and bramble; and in the disthe first rays of the sun’s light, whose vast splendour, while tricts of Mascali and Piraino there are groves of cork, and it dazzled the eyes, diffused a most cherishing and enliven- luxuriant chesnut trees. The vicinity of Bronte abounds ing heat, reviving the spirits, and diffusing a pleasant sen- with pines of great magnitude; but the Carpinetto boasts sation throughout the soul. But though the heavens were that father of the forest, the venerable Castagno di cento thus enlightened, the sea still retained its dark azure, and cavalli, or chesnut of the hundred horses, supposed to be the fields and forests did not yet reflect the rays of the one of the oldest known trees, and, as far as is known, the sun. The gradual rising of this luminary, however, soon largest tree in Europe. Some travellers describe it as a diffused his light over the hills which lie below the peak single tree ; others, and with more plausibility, as produced of iEtna. This last stood like an island in the midst of by the inosculation of several young chesnut trees. It apthe ocean, with luminous points every moment multiplying pears to consist of five large and two smaller trees. The around, and spreading over a wider extent with the greatest largest trunk Captain Smyth found to measure 38 feet in rapidity. It was as if the universe had been observed circumference, and the circuit of the whole five, measured suddenly springing from the night of non-existence. The just above the ground, is 163 feet. It still bears rich fotall forests, the lofty hills, and extensive plains of iEtna, liage, and much small fruit, though the heart of the trunk now presented themselves to view. Its base, the vast is decayed, and a public road leads through them. Betracts of level ground which lie adjacent, the cities of Si- sides this, there is abundance of other trees in the neighcily, its parched shores, with the dashing waves and vast bourhood, very remarkable for their size. One is menexpanse of the ocean, gradually presented themselves; tioned as being upwards of 70 feet in circumference. while some fleeting vapours, which moved swiftly before Many parts of this region are remarkably picturesque, the wind, sometimes veiled part of this vast and magnifi- and even romantic; and its cool temperature is extremecent prospect.” In a short time every thing was display- ly grateful when contrasted with the heat of the lower ed so distinctly that they could plainly recognise all those region. “ These majestic forests of jEtna,” says Houel, “ afford a places with which they were before acquainted. On the south were seen the hills of Camerata and Trapani; on the singular spectacle, and bear no resemblance to those of north, the mounts Pelegrino and Thermini, with the cele- other countries. Their verdure is more lively, and the brated Enna once crowned with the temples of Ceres and trees of which they consist are of a greater height. These Proserpine. Among these mountains were seen a great advantages they owe to the soil whereon they grow ; for many rivers running down, and appearing like as many the soil produced by volcanoes is particularly favourable lines of glittering silver winding through a variety of rich to vegetation, and every species of plants grows here with and fertile fields, washing the walls of 28 cities, while their great luxuriance. In several places, where we can view banks were otherwise filled with villages, hamlets, &c. ris- their interior parts, the most enchanting prospects are dising among the ruins of the most illustrious republics of played. The hawthorn trees are of an immense size. Our antiquity. On the south and north were observed the author saw several of them of a regular form, and which rivers which bound by their course the vast base of Mount he was almost tempted to take for large orange trees cut iEtna, and afford a delightful prospect to the eye ; while artificially into the figures they represented. The beeches at a much greater distance were seen the isles of Lipari, appear like as many ramified pillars, and the tufted branches of the oak like close bushes impenetrable to the rays of Alicudi, Felicocide, Parinacia, and Stromboli. pgir- .vL' fbr which reason they entered into an alliance with Rome ainst him, and proved of great service to the Romans ehael his son, who maintained it against Michael Palaeo- Affiance, in their war with him; but growing insolent on account logus, the first emperor of the Greeks, after the expulsion of their services, they made war upon the Romans them- of the Latins. Charles, the last prince of this family, dyselves. By that warlike nation they were overcome, and ing in 1430 without lawful issue, bequeathed fEtolia to his granted a peace on the following severe terms :—1. The brother’s son, named also Charles ; and Acarnania to his majesty of the Roman people shall be revered in all natural sons Memnon, Turnus, and Hercules. But great jEtolia. 2. -ditolia shall not suffer the armies of such as are disputes arising about this division, Amurath II., after the at war with Rome to pass through her territories, and the reduction of Thessalonica, laid hold of so favourable an openemies of Rome shall be likewise the enemies of iEtolia. portunity, and drove them all out in 1432. The Maho3. She shall, in the space of 100 days, put into the hands of metans were afterwards dispossessed of this country by the magistrates of Corcyra all the prisoners and deserters the famous prince of Epirus, George Castriot, commonly she has, whether of the Romans or their allies, except such called Scanderbeg, who with a small army opposed the as have been taken twice, or during her alliance with whole power of the Ottoman empire, and defeated these Rome. 4. The iEtolians shall pay down in ready money, barbarians in 22 pitched battles. That hero at his death to the Roman general in iEtolia, 200 Euboic talents, of left great part of fEtolia to the Venetians ; but they not the same value as the Athenian talents, and engage to being able to make head against such a mighty power, the pay 50 talents more within the six years following. whole country was soon reduced by Mohammed II. wRose 5. They shall put into the hands of the consul 40 such successors hold it to this day. AFER, Domitius, a famous orator, born at Nismes, hostages as he shall choose, none of whom shall be under 12, or above 40 years of age : the pretor, the general of flourished under Tiberius, and the three succeeding emthe horse, and such as have been already hostages at perors. Quintilian makes frequent mention of him, and Rome, are excepted out of this number. 6. iEtolia shall commends his pleadings. But he disgraced his talents, renounce all pretensions to the cities and territories which by turning informer against some of the most distinguishthe Romans have conquered, though these cities and terri- ed personages in Rome. Quintilian, in his youth, cultitories had formerly belonged to the iEtolians. 7. The city vated the friendship of Domitius very assiduously. He ofOenis and its district shall be subject to the Acarnanians. tells us that his pleadings abounded with pleasant stories, After the conquest of Macedon by iEmilius Paulus, and that there were public collections of his witty saythey were reduced to a much worse condition; for not ings, some of which he quotes. He also mentions two only those among them who had openly declared for Per- books of his On Witnesses. Domitius was once in great seus, but such as were only suspected to have favoured danger from an inscription he put upon a statue erecthim in their hearts, were sent to Rome, in order to clear ed by him in honour of Caligula, wherein he declared themselves before the senate. There they were detained, that this prince was a second time consul at the age and never afterwards suffered to return into their native of 27. This he intended as an encomium, but Caligula country. Five hundred and fifty of the chief men of the taking it as a sarcasm upon his youth and his infringenation were barbarously assassinated by the partisans of ment of the laws, raised a process against him, and Rome, for no other crime than that of being suspected to pleaded himself in person. Domitius, instead of making wish well to Perseus. The iEtolians appeared before a defence, repeated part of the emperor’s speech with Emilius Paulus in mourning habits, and made loud com- the highest marks of admiration; after which he fell plaints of such inhuman treatment, but could obtain no upon his knees, and begging pardon, declared that he redress; nay, ten commissioners, who had been sent by dreaded more the eloquence of Caligula than his imperial the senate to settle the affairs of Greece, enacted a de- power. This piece of flattery succeeded so well, that the cree, declaring that those who were killed had suffered emperor not only pardoned, b*t also raised him to the justly, since it appeared to them that they had favoured consulship. Afer died in the reign of Nero, a. d. 59. the Macedonian party. From this time those only were AFFA, a weight used on the Gold Coast of Guinea, equal raised to the chief honours and employments in the iEto- to an ounce : the half of it is called eggeba. Most of the lian republic who were known to prefer the interest of blacks on the Gold Coast give these names to these weights. Rome to that of their country ; and as these alone were AFFECTION, in a general sense, implies an attribute countenanced at Rome, all the magistrates of iEtolia were inseparable from its subject. Thus magnitude, figure, the creatures and mere tools of the Roman senate. In weight, &c. are affections of all bodies; and love, fear, this state of servile subjection they continued till the de- hatred, &c. are affections of the mind. struction of Corinth and the dissolution of the Achaean Affection is a term used by various writers on Moral league, when iEtolia, with the other free states of Greece, Philosophy to denote all those active principles whose diwas reduced to a Roman province, commonly called the rect and ultimate object is the communication either of province of Achaia. Nevertheless, each state and city was enjoyment or of suffering to any one of our fellow-creatures. governed by its own laws, under the superintendency of (Stewards Philosophy of the Active Powers, vol. i. p. 75.) the pretor whom Rome sent annually into Achaia. The Affection, among physicians, is the same as disease. whole nation paid a certain tribute, and the rich were for- Thus, hysteric affection is the same as hysteric disease. bidden to possess lands anywhere but in their own country. AFFERERS, or Afferors, in Law, persons appointed ' In this state, with little alteration, TEtolia continued in courts-leet, courts-baron, &c. to settle, upon oath, the under the emperors till the reign of Constantine the fines to be imposed upon those who have been guilty of Great, who, in his new partition of the provinces of the faults arbitrarily punishable. empire, divided the western parts of Greece from the rest, AFFETTUOSO, or Con Affetto, in the Italian music, calling them Neiv Epirus, and subjecting the whole coun- intimates that the part to which it is added ought to be try to the prcefectus preetorii for Illyricum. Under the played in a tender, moving way, and consequently rather successors of Constantine Greece was parcelled out into slow than fast. several principalities, especially after the taking of ConAFFIANCE, in Law, denotes the mutual plighting of stantinople by the western princes. At that time The- troth between a man and woman to marry each other. 2D , VOL. II.

1 210 A F G Affidavit AFFIDAVIT signifies an oath in writing, sworn before li . some person who is authorized to take the same. tan1113" AFFINITY, among civilians, implies a relation contracted by marriage, in contradistinction to consanguinity, or relation by blood. Affinity does not found any real kinship ; it is no more than a kind of fiction, introduced on account of the close relation between husband and wife. It is even said to cease when the cause of it ceases: hence a woman who is not capable of being a witness for her husband’s brother during his lifetime, is allowed for a witness when a widow, by reason the affinity is dissolved. Yet with regard to the contracting of marriage, affinity is not dissolved by death, though it be in every thing else.— There are several degrees of affinity, wherein marriage was prohibited by the law of Moses : thus, the son could not marry his mother, or his father’s wife (Lev. xviii. 7. et seq.) ; the brother could not marry his sister, whether she were so by the father only or by the mother only, and much less if she was his sister both by the same father and mother; the grandfather could not marry his grand-daughter, either by his son or daughter. No one could marry the daughter of his father’s wife; nor the sister of his father or mother; nor the uncle his niece ; nor the aunt her nephew; nor the nephew the wife of his uncle by the father’s side. The father-in-law could not marry his daughter-in-law; nor the brother the wife of his brother while living, nor even after the death of his brother if he left children. If he left no children, the surviving brother was to raise up children to his deceased brother, by marrying his widow. It was forbidden to marry the mother and the daughter at one time, or the daughter of the mother’s son, or the daughter of her daughter, or two sisters together. Affinity is also used to denote conformity or agreement. Thus we say, the affinity of languages, the affinity of words, the affinity of sounds, &c. Affinity, in Chemistry, a term employed to express that peculiar propensity which the particles of matter have to unite and combine with each other exclusively, or in preference to any other connection.—The attractions between bodies at insensible distances, and which of course are confined to the particles of matter, have been distinguished by the name of affinity; while the term attraction has been more commonly confined to cases of sensible distance. AFFIRMATION, in Logic, the asserting of the truth of any proposition. Affirmation, in Law, denotes an indulgence allowed to the people called Quakers, who, in cases wdiere an oath is required from others, may make a solemn affirmation that what they say is true; and if they make a false affirmation, they are subject to the penalties of perjury. But this relates only to oaths taken to the government, and on civil occasions; for Quakers are not permitted to give their testimony in any criminal case, &c. Affirmation is also used for the ratifying or confirming of the sentence or decree of some inferior court. Thus we say, the house of lords affirmed the decree of the chancellor, or the decree of the lords of session.

A F G AFFIRMATIVE, in Grammar. Authors distinguish 'Ua. affirmative particles, such as yes. The term affirmative e is sometimes also used substantively. Thus we say, the affirmative is the more probable side of the question: there ^ ^ were so many votes, or voices, for the affirmative. , n. AFFIX, in Grammar, a particle added at the close of a ■v word, either to diversify its form or alter its signification. We meet with affixes in the Saxon, the German, and other northern languages, but more especially in the Hebrew, and other oriental tongues. The Hebrew affixes are single syllables, frequently single letters, subjoined to nouns and verbs, and contribute not a little to the brevity of that language. The oriental languages are much the same as to the radicals, and differ chiefly from each other as to affixes and prefixes. AFFLATUS literally denotes a blast of wind, breath, or vapour, striking with force against another body. The word is Latin, formed from ad, to, and flare, to blow. Naturalists sometimes speak of the afflatus of serpents. Tully uses the word figuratively, for a divine inspiration; in which sense he ascribes all great and eminent accomplishments to a divine afflatus. The Pythian priestess being placed on a tripod or perforated stool, over a holy cave, received the divine afflatus, as a late author expresses it, in her belly; and being thus inspired, fell into agitations, like a phrenetic; during which she pronounced, in hollow groans and broken sentences, the will of the Deity. This afflatus is supposed by some to have been a subterraneous fume or exhalation, wherewith the priestess was literally inspired. Accordingly, it had the effects of a real physical disease, the paroxysm of which was so vehement, that, Plutarch observes, it sometimes proved mortal. Van Dale supposes the pretended enthusiasm of the Pythia to have arisen from the fumes of aromatics. AFFORESTING, Afforestatio, the turning of ground into forest. The Conqueror and his successors continued afforesting the lands of the subject for many reigns, till the grievance became so notorious, that the people of all degrees and denominations were brought to sue for relief; which was at length obtained, and commissions were granted to survey and perambulate the forest, and separate all the new-afforested lands, and reconvert them to the uses of their proprietors, under the name and quality oHpurlieu or pouralle land. AFFRAY, or Affrayment, in Law, formerly signified the crime of affrighting other persons, by appearing in unusual armour, brandishing a weapon, &c.; but at present aff ray denotes a skirmish or fight between two or more. AFFRONTEE, in Heraldry, an appellation given to animals facing one another on an escutcheon ; a kind of bearing which is otherwise called confrontee, and stands opposed to adossee. AFFUSION, the act of pouring some fluid substance on another body. Dr Grew gives several experiments of the luctation arising from the affusion of divers menstruums on all sorts of bodies. Divines and church historians speak of baptism by affusion, which amounts to much the same with what we now call sprinkling.

AFGHANISTAN, A N extensive and powerful kingdom of Asia, which YjL formed at one time a considerable portion of the Mogul empire. On the decline of that power, it rose to the rank of an independent state ; and from its population and extent, and still more from the character of the people, who are brave, hardy, and enterprising, as well as

from its commanding position in the heart of Asia, it soon acquired political importance, and has since acted a principal part in all the revolutions which have occurred either in Hindostan or in Persia. It is only of late years that Europeans have obtained any authentic account of this interesting country. In

AFGHANISTAN. 211 niS• 1793 Mr Foster, in the course of an overland journey from tains terminate, this plain extends westward, and has new AfghanisAfy ‘ jn(ya’ jn which he was exposed to the greatest danger boundaries. On the north it has hills which stretch east tan. the predatory habits and religious prejudices of the and west at right angles to the Soliman range; and those people, succeeded in penetrating into those mountainous hills form the southern boundary of Afghanistan, separegions. He visited the cities of Cashmere, Cabul, and rating it from the low and hot plain of Cutch Gundawa Candahar, respecting which his information is equally or Seweestan on the south. The southern frontier of curious and instructive. But the most complete and sa- the Afghan country is extremely irregular. Before reachtisfactory account of Afghanistan is derived from the ing the table-land of Kelat, in long. 66° E., it recedes work of Mr Elphinstone, by whom it was visited in 1808. towards the north, and extends west as far as the desert, It was supposed that about this time the French were me- which separates it on the north-west from Persia. The ditating an invasion of British India ; and Afghanistan be- Afghans have no general name for their country but that inf in a manner one of the outworks of Hindostan through of Afghanistan, which, Mr Elphinstone thinks, was prowhich an invading army must make its approaches on the bably first employed in Persia. It is frequently used in north, it was judged necessary to apprize the sovereign books, and is not unknown to the inhabitants. It is someof his danger, in order to secure his co-operation against times known under the appellation of the kingdom of the common enemy. With this view a mission was sent Cabul. Afghanistan to the west of the Soliman Mountains, Aspect of to him by the British government, at the head of which the counwas Mr Elphinstone, who, along with the other members which form an eastern barrier, may be described generallytr mounof the embassy, determined, with a laudable and enlighten- as a table-land, lying higher than most of the neighbour- 75 f1”8’ anc* ed zeal, to profit by so favourable an opportunity for col- ing countries. The Hindoo Coosh Mountains, its northern'■nvers ‘ lecting information respecting the geography and pro- bulwark, overlook the low country of Balk, the ancient ductions of the country, the manners of the people, and Bactria, formerly a province of Persia, and inhabited by their condition, character, and habits ; on all which sub- the Usbeck Tartars. On the east it is equally elevated jects they have accordingly furnished the most satisfac- above the lower plains of the Indus. On the south it tory and ample details. From the valuable materials fur- overlooks Seweestan; and on the south-west a deep valnished by those travellers, the following account has been ley runs between it and Belochistan. It slopes gradually to the west, and loses the appearance of elevation chiefly composed. Bouia. It is extremely difficult to fix the boundaries of this as it approaches the Paropamisan Mountains. The ries. country, which frequently extend into wild mountainous mountainous chain of Hindoo Coosh is a continuation tracts, or into deserts, where no definite line of demarca- of the great Himalaya ridge, which it rivals in grandeur tion is to be found, either political or natural. Its boun- and elevation. From the elevated plains of Afghanistan daries are also apt to fluctuate, from the constant warfare these mountains are seen on the north in four distinct of the frontier tribes, who own but a very imperfect alle- ranges. The first and lowest had no snow in February, giance to their monarch, whoever he may be, and who when it was observed by Mr Elphinstone from the plain by their lawless inroads continually encroach on his do- of Peshawer; but the tops of the second still had their minions. Afghanistan, in the era of its greatest prospe- winter covering, and the third had snow half-way down. rity, extended to 16 degrees of longitude from Sirhind, The fourth and highest range is covered with snow at all about 150 miles from Delhi to Meshed, and about the same seasons. It is of great elevation, some of its peaks rising, distance from the Caspian Sea. In breadth it extended according to measurement, to the height of 20,493 feet, from the Oxus to the Persian Gulf, a space of 910 miles. and is conspicuous from Bactria, from the borders of InBut its territories have been greatly reduced by war ; and dia, and from places in Tartary at the amazing distance the authority of the sovereign, even in many of those of 250 miles. “ The stupendous heights of these mouncountries which are included within his dominions, is but tains,” says Elphinstone, “ the magnificence and variety of feebly acknowledged. In defining the irregular limits of their lofty summits, the various nations by whom they this diminished kingdom, we may premise, that from the are seen, and who seem to be brought together by this east of Bengal, in long. 90°, to Herat, in long. 62°, a vast common object, and the awful and undisturbed solitude chain of mountains, which tower above the level of per- which reigns amid their eternal snows, fill the mind with petual snow, extends under the names of the Himalaya, an admiration and astonishment which no language can Hindoo Coosh, and Paropamisus. The country of the express.” The inferior ranges of the Hindoo Coosh Afghans is bounded on the north by this great moun- Mountains decrease in height according to their distance tain wall, which from Cashmere, the eastern limit of from the principal chain. The title of table-land, which Afghanistan, takes a south-west direction as far as the has been applied to Afghanistan, if it is understood to snowy peak of Hindoo Coosh, nearly north of Cabul, imply any thing more than that it is raised above the level from which the whole range derives its name. From this of the surrounding regions, will convey a very inaccurate peak the same chain, with a lower declination, extends idea of the nature of the country, which, so far from bewestward, under the name of the Paropamisan Mountains, ing a plain, is of the most diversified surface, being inter350 miles to Herat, and thus completes the northern sected everywhere with chains of mountains, which diboundary of Afghanistan. On the east the Indus is the verge in various directions from the main ridge of Hindoo boundary so long as the river continues near the hills, Coosh. We will not enter into any detailed description which is as far as lat. 32. 20. The plain on the western of this complicated mass of mountains, which, however bank of the river to the south of this is inhabited, not by accurate, would fail to present any very clear view of the the Afghans, but by the Beloches, an independent tribe, topography of the country. It may be generally stated, and intervenes between die Afghan territory and the that the ridges branch off southward, not exactly at right river. The Soliman Mountains, therefore, which are a angles from the main ridge, but in irregular lines, to the branch from the Hindoo Coosh, running south-south-east distance of 60 or 70 miles, when they decline to a lower along the course of the Indus, with their subordinate level; and that those ridges are separated by intervening ranges, and the plain immediately at their base, are includ- valleys, each of which is watered by a river flowing down ed in the country of the Afghans, and form here its eastern the southern declivity of the Hindoo Coosh Mountains ; boundary. In lat. 29° north, where the Soliman Moun- into the Cabul, which, after an easterly course along

212 AFGHANISTAN. Afghanis- the base of the mountains of about 350 miles, joins the are sometimes all drained away for the irrigation of the A tan. great Indus. These valleys or glens all open from the fields. The Indus, the eastern boundary of the country, south into the great valley of Cabul; and the country is from its volume of water, and the length of its course 1 described as being fertile, and of a pleasing appearance. which has Been traced 1350 miles from its mouth, and On the lower hills by which the valleys are closed in, which has its source much higher, may be reckoned one the snow generally lies for four months in the year; there of the greatest rivers in the world. Of the rivers of Afare few trees on the tops, but their sides are covered ghanistan it alone is navigable, though little use is made of with forests of pine, oak, and wild olive. Lower down, it for this purpose. All the rivers of this country which take the country improves, and is interspersed with many their rise in the Hindoo Coosh Mountains are tributary to little valleys, watered by clear and beautiful streams, and this great stream. The Cabul is the drain of all the waters enjoying a delicious climate, under which European fruits which fall on the southern declivity of the Hindoo Coosh and flowers grow wild in the utmost variety and perfec- Mountains. The most important river which it receives tion ; and even the rocks add to the beauty of the scene- is the Kaushkhaur, which has its rise beyond the Hindoo ry, from the rich verdure of mosses with which they are Coosh range, in the same snowy peak which contains the covered. The narrow and alluvial plain at the bottom, sources of the Oxus. It rushes with surprising violence through which the river runs, is in general highly pro- into the valley of the Cabul river, which it joins about ductive. The valley of the river Swaut, which may be 100 miles west of the Indus. Lower down, the Indus is taken as a sample of all the others, yields two harvests, joined by the Koorum from the west. The only river and produces most sorts of grain; and on the plains are south of this which runs into the Indus is the Gomul, numerous mulberry trees and planes, besides other fruit- which, however, unless when it is swollen by the rains, never reaches its destination, being generally consumed trees improved by culture. Westward from the Indus about 150 miles, an immense in the irrigation of the country. The greatest of the curve or angle projects southward from the mountain rivers which run through the rest of Afghanistan is the barrier of the country into the interior to the distance of Helmund or Etymander. This river is the drain of that 70 miles, when the snowy mountain abruptly descends extensive slope which lies between the Soliman and the into the low and hot plain of Jellalabad. The range Paropamisan Mountains. It has its rise in the latter, and then resumes its westerly course, when lower hills assume running a south-west course of 400 miles, terminates in their former appearance and character, and form the Co- the Lake Seestan. The Urghundaub rises 88 miles histan or high lands of Cabul, a country watered by the north-east of Candahar, and after passing within a few river of this name and its tributary streams, and described as miles of that city, joins the Helmund. It is never more fruitful and of a delightful aspect. The Paropamisan chain than 150 yards broad. The Kashrood, which is a larger bounds this country on the west, and forms a maze of river, joins the Helmund after a course of 150 miles. mountains, of which the most intimate knowledge would The Furrahrood is a still larger stream; it has a course scarcely be able to trace the plan. They afford a habi- of 200 miles, and it is uncertain whether it reaches the tation to some wandering and predatory tribes. This ge- Lake of Seestan, or is lost in the sands. The Turnuk neral description applies to that portion of the country is a tributary of the Urghundaub, which it joins about 75 from east to west which extends southward about 100 or miles west of Candahar. It is a rapid torrent, and re150 miles from the Hindoo Coosh Mountains. Beyond ceives the Urghessaun and other smaller rivers. Notthis the aspect of the country is varied by the range of withstanding these additions, its stream rather decreases, the Soliman Mountains, which, commencing with Suffaid being consumed in the irrigation of the country, or in the Coh, or the White Mountain, so called from the snow parched and barren sands through which it passes. The with which it is covered at all seasons, extend south- Lera, which rises in the south of Afghanistan, has a westsouth-west almost parallel to the course of the Indus. ern course from the Soliman Mountains of 200 miles, These mountains decline towards the west by lower where it disappears before it reaches the Helmund. ridges, which run nearly in the same direction as the The climate of Afghanistan is extremely various, owing ( ate.; main ridge ; while other ridges branch off eastward toward to the height and inequality of its surface. According to ! the Indus. The height of these mountains is greatly in- its latitude, which is between the 29th and 35th degrees, ferior to that of the Plindoo Coosh; but it is still great, it should have a decidedly hot temperature; but the geas they are covered with snow to the end of spring, neral law of climate is here modified by the elevation of i which, in the latitude of 31 degrees, gives a considerable the ground, and great diversities of heat and cold are acaltitude. Beyond the Soliman ridges on the west, the cordingly experienced within a very limited space. The country consists for the most part of high and bleak mountainous nature of the country also occasions peculidowns, interspersed with moderate hills; in some places arities in its climate, and distinguishes it in some degree desert and ill cultivated, bare and open, better fitted for from that of the adjacent regions. In almost all the pasturage than for the plough, and inhabited by migratory countries of Asia within the same latitude as Afghanistan, tribes of shepherds. There are exceptions, however, to one important circumstance in their climate is the season this general description. In the country which is watered and quantity of the periodical rains. Throughout the by the Helmund and its tributary streams are found greater part of India the rainy season is ushered in by the many fertile and delightful spots, which afford pleasant south-west monsoon, which drives the rolling clouds from retreats to the shepherds, and pasturage to their flocks. the ocean on the land, where they descend in rains. The The country round Candahar is fertile and highly culti- monsoon is earlier in the south of India, and in the vicinivated ; but to the south, and especially as it recedes west ty of the ocean, than in the north, and the rains are from the Helmund, it is a complete desert. heavier. In many cases the opposition of mountains in the Livers. Afghanistan has few large rivers for a country of such interior either arrests entirely the progress of the clouds,. extent, and so interspersed with mountains. With the or it varies their direction; and hence large tracts of exception of the Indus, there is not one which is not country are exempted from, or only partially experience, fordable throughout its course for the greater part of the the influence of the monsoons. Before they make their year. They partake generally of the character of moun- way from the Indian Ocean to Afghanistan, these perioditain torrents, swelling rapidly, and running off; or they cal tempests are greatly moderated, having to traverse

AFGHANISTAN. 213 snow, while the taole-land of Cabul, immediately to the Afghanisif i us- the whole extent of Bengal in their progress to the Hima- west, enjoys the coolness and. verdure of a temperate tan. i lava Mountains, when they are forced by this impassable ^ ^ barrier out of their original course towards the south- summer. Among the Soliman Mountains, the higher east and afterwards towards the east by the range of countries are exposed to severe cold; but there are some Hindoo Coosh; and it is from that quarter that such parts of the lower valleys where the heat is even greater than at of Afghanistan as are exposed to the monsoon receive the Peshawer. The low plains of Damaun, which run along periodical rains. But the clouds are exhausted as they the shores of the Indus, are oppressed during summer by pass on westward to this country, the rains gradually be- scorching heats both night and day. On the western come less heavy, and are at last merely sufficient to water plains heat predominates, and they are accordingly dethe mountains, without much affecting the plains below. serted in the summer by the wandering shepherds, for the In the north-eastern districts of Afghanistan, near the cool retreat and grassy valleys of the mountains. At Indus, the countries under the range of Hindoo Coosh Candahar the heat of summer is excessive, and is ochave their share of the rains; but 50 miles west, in the casionally aggravated by the simoom winds. In proceedvalley of Swaut, the season of the monsoon is merely a ing north-east, however, along the course of the Helmund month of clouds, with occasional rains; and in the plain and its tributary streams, we reach elevated ground, where ci Peshawer, which is other 50 or 60 miles farther west, the cold is excessive, and where winter is experienced and in some of the valleys to the south, it appears only in in all its severity. If we ascend the course of the Turnuk some clouds and showers : it is still less felt in the valley to Ghuzni, we find the snow lying deep for some time of the Cabul river. But the passing clouds being opposed after the equinox, and so thick a covering of ice on the by the southern projection of the Hindoo Coosh Mountains rivers as to afford a passage for camels. At Cabul the and the Soliman range, collect over some of the plains winter is more steady and severe than in England, while below, which are accordingly plentifully deluged with the the summer heat is greater. The great difference between periodical rains. In the country of Damaun, eastward of the seasons, and the quickness with which they change, are the Soliman Mountains, along the Indus, the monsoon marked by the changes which take place in the dress of the prevails; as also generally in the southern parts of the inhabitants. In winter they wear woollen garments, and country. But it varies greatly in different countries, being in some places clothes of felt, and over these a large greatmerely in some parts a month of clouds with showers. Its coat of well-tanned sheep-skin with the long shaggy wool influence is less felt towards the north. Besides the par- inside. With the vernal equinox the snow disappears, the tial influence of the south-west monsoons to which the country is covered with young grass, the buds burst forth, eastern and southern provinces of Afghanistan are expos- and are soon followed by a profusion of flowers; and the ined, it has the winter and the spring rains, which are of habitants change their winter dress for a thin one of chintz great consequence to agriculture in all those countries or cotton, and frequently sleep at night under trees in the between the Indus and the Hellespont which are not open air. The prevailing winds throughout Afghanistan are from the west, and they are generally cold ; while the subjected to the full effect of the south-west monsoon. The temperature of Afghanistan varies of course with easterly wind is hot, and brings clouds. On the whole, the difference of level, and also from local causes. It is the climate of this extensive country seems little subject affected by the direction of the prevailing winds, some to rains, clouds, or fogs; and judging from the size and blowing over snowy mountains, others being heated in sum- strength of the inhabitants, it must be considered salubrimer and rendered cold in winter by their passage over ous. Some fatal diseases are, however, common; such as deserts and arid tracts of great extent. The heat of fevers and agues, which prevail in autumn and in spring; summer is refreshed in some places by the breezes from also colds, which are sometimes dangerous in winter ; and moister countries, and others are so environed with hills the small-pox, which still carries off many persons, though as to be sheltered from all winds. Thus, throughout this the practice of inoculation has long been introduced in extensive country, great diversity of temperature takes all parts; and lastly, the ophthalmia. place often within very short distances. In the Hindoo Afghanistan abounds in wild animals, which find ample Animals, Coosh Mountains perpetual winter reigns, and among the range in the extensive forests and large tracts of unfrelower ranges snow frequently lies for four months in the quented deserts which it contains. The lion, however, year. In the plain of Peshawer, which is within view of though so common in Persia, and though it has been lately these snowy summits, the thermometer in summer rises as found in such numbers in Guzerat, and in the Hurriana, high as in the hottest parts of India. It is mentioned by north-west of Delhi, is rare. In the hilly country around Mr Elphinstone, that in a tent artificially cooled, the ther- Cabul there is a small animal which bears the name withmometer stood for several days of summer at 112° and 118° out any of the qualities of the lion. In the districts east of in the shade. But the heat is not so uniform, nor does it last the Soliman range tigers and leopards are common, and so long, as that of an Indian summer. At intervals in June they are to be found in most of the woody tracts of the and July cold north-west winds set in, which refresh the country. Wolves, hyenas, jackals, foxes, hares, porcupines, air, and render it pleasant. The last half of September and hedgehogs, are to be seen everywhere. The wolves is so cold as to be counted among the winter months, and are formidable during the winter in the cold parts, where the cold continues to increase till February. But the win- they assemble in troops, destroying cattle, and frequently ter is not severe ; and though there is frost in the night, attacking men. The hyenas sometimes attack a bullock it is always dispelled during the day by the influence singly, and, as well as the wolves, they make great havock of the sun. The temperature of the different valleys de- among the sheep. Bears of two kinds, the one the black pending in this manner on their respective levels, they bear of India, and the other of a dirty white, are quite frequently exhibit the most remarkable contrasts of heat common in all the woody mountains; but they rarely and cold. The plain of Jellalabad during summer is in- leave their haunts, except when they are tempted by the tolerably hot, while to the south, and immediately above sugar-cane. There are also mangooses, ferrets, and wild ’h ’be mountain of Suffaid Coh lifts its snowy summit to dogs. Monkies are common in the north-eastern parts. the clouds. To the north the nearest hills are cold; and The wild boars of Persia and India are seldom seen ; and in the distance the Hindoo Coosh Mountains are seen the wild ass is confined to the south-western districts, on skirting the horizon with a bright outline of perpetual the lower Helmund, and to the sandy country round Can-

214 AFGHANISTAN. Afghanis- dahar. The mountains abound with many kinds of deer, sown in spring and reaped in autumn, is wheat, barley a tan. including the elk ; but the antelopes are rare, and confin- peas, beans, and other grains; that of tfie second, sown in anil. ed to the plains. A species of deer is seen, which is re- the end of spring and reaped in autumn, is rice, IndianS{% markable for the size of its horns, and the strong but not corn, and various kinds of pulse. Cotton is confined to theC|ill disagreeable smell of its body. The king.is in possession hot climates, and sugar is cultivated in some of the rich P: lets, of a few elephants ; but neither that animal nor the rhi- plains. Tobacco is produced in most parts. There is another distinct harvest, which is counted of great importnoceros is to be found in any part of the country. Among the domestic animals is the horse, a consider- ance, of musk-melons, water-melons, the scented melon able number of which is bred in the Afghan dominions ; and various sorts of cucumbers, pumpkins, and gourds' and those bred near Herat are very fine, uniting the which are grown in the open fields. All common gardenfigure of the Arab horse with superior size. In general, stuff’s are abundant, “such as carrots, turnips, beetroot however, the breed of Afghan horses is not good. There lettuce, onions, garlic, spinnage, greens of all kinds, cal> is a very strong and useful breed of ponies. On the other bages, cauliflowers, and many of the Indian vegetables. hand, the mules and asses are the most wretched that can The castor oil plant is found everywhere. Madder abounds be conceived. The camel is the animal most employed in over all the western provinces, and the assafeetida plant carrying burdens. The dromedary, the tall long-legged in the hills. In the west, lucerne and a sort of trefoil animal common in India, is found all over the plains. The are among the most important products of husbandry. Bactrian camel, with two distinct humps, which is lower Of the fruits and trees which abound in tropical countries, than the other by one-third, but stout, and covered with few are to be found east of the Soliman range, and none shaggy black hair, is much more rare, and is brought to the west; but almost all the European trees and from the country beyond the Jaxartes. Buffaloes are to fruits are indigenous in the congenial climate of those be found in many parts; and oxen are universally em- elevated regions. They are frequently found growing ployed in the plough, and sometimes camels. They are wild in different parts of the country, and are still more not reared in the country, but are imported from the Raj- common in gardens and orchards. The most common poot States, where they are the best in India. The sheep trees in the mountains are pines, oaks, cedars, a sort of forms the principal stock of the pastoral tribes: it is re- gigantic cypress, the walnut and the wild olive tree, the markable for a tail about a foot in breadth, and consisting birch, the holley, and the hazel. In Hindoo Coosh the almost entirely of fat; in other respects it resembles the pistachio tree grows wild; and on the plains are the mulEnglish sheep. The goat abounds in all the mountains, berry, the tamarisk, and the willow; also the plane and and is not scarce in the plains. Some of the breeds have the poplar. English flowers, such as roses, jessamines, remarkably long and curiously twisted horns. The pas- poppies, narcissuses, and hyacinths, are found in the gartoral tribes in the country, who are extremely fond of dens, and often in a wild state. hunting, breed great numbers of excellent greyhounds, Of the minerals produced in the country little is known.M all and even pointers, resembling those in England both in Gold is said to be washed down the streams that flow shape and quality. There is a breed of long-haired cats in from the Hindoo Coosh Mountains. Small quantities of great esteem, and of which great numbers are exported. silver are found in Caffristan; also lead, iron, and antiOf the birds, there are three sorts of eagles, and many mony, in different parts ; sulphur and rock-salt in the salt kinds of hawks; namely, the gentle falcon, a large grey range of mountains, and saltpetre everywhere. short-winged bird; the gos-hawk; the shauheen, which The political institutions of the Afghans present theGi soars over the falconer’s head, and strikes the quarry as rude and disjointed materials of a free constitution. Them< it rises; and the chirk, which is trained to strike the an- form of the government is patriarchal. The nation is telope, and, by fastening on its head, to retard its flight supposed to derive its origin from four tribes, which are till the greyhounds come up. The other birds are, he- divided and subdivided into inferior clans, until the last rons, cranes, storks, wild ducks, geese, swans, partridges, subdivision does not include more than a few families. quails, and a bird known in Europe under the name of the The chief of a tribe is called Khan, and is elected in Greek partridge. There is another smaller bird resem- general by the king; while the head of one of the inferior bling it, which is found nowhere except in Afghanistan. divisions owes his choice to the people. To the khan, Pigeons, doves, crows, and sparrows, are common in all among the aristocratic tribes, is committed the collection countries. Cuckoos, which are rare, and magpies, which are of the royal revenue and the raising of the militia; and unknown in India, abound in the colder climate of those from the exercise of these duties, and the emoluments northern mountains ; while peacocks, so commonly found of his office, he derives extensive power and influence, wild in India, are here seen only in their domesticated more especially where he presides over a numerous tribe. state. Parrots make their appearance in the eastern pro- Each inferior division of the tribe has its respective head; and in cases of emergency these all meet together and vinces near the Indus. The country is not infested with venomous reptiles. form a general assembly, called a Jeerga, which, with the The snakes are mostly harmless; and though in Pesh- khan presiding over it, deliberates and decides in all awer the scorpions are noted for their size and venom, matters of public importance. The heads of the inferior their bite is scarcely ever fatal. There are no crocodiles, branches of the tribe hold similar assemblies, which debut there are turtles, as well as tortoises. In Khorassan, cide on minor matters, and are guided by the same rules great flights of locusts have sometimes occasioned famine as the greater convention. When wars arise among the by their devastations, though this rarely occurs. Mus- different tribes, it is the business of the assemblies to proquittoes are less troublesome than in India, except in the vide the means of carrying them on, to concert the plan southern district of Seestan, where they sting as severely of operations, or to settle the terms of peace. They have the power, along with the khan, to call out all the fighting as in Bengal. In most parts of Afghanistan there are two harvests, men of the tribe, or they may levy taxes for any purpose one in spring and the other in autumn. In the countries of public utility. There is scarcely a petty community west of the Soliman range the former is the most import- throughout the nation which does not make its own arant; but in the eastern parts the autumn harvest is the rangements for the support of moollahs, an order of Mamost considerable. The produce of the first, which is hometan priests, and for the maintenance and reception

AFGHANISTAN. 215 if„hiis* of strangers into the tribe, whom it is always reckoned a cracy, and the rude independence of its people, presents a Afghanishvely picture of the state of society in Europe under thev J°hn, a Saxon divine, born at Eisleben in 14J2. He went as chaplain to Count Mansfeld, when that nobleman attended the elector of Saxony to the diet at Spire in 1526, and that of Augsburg in 1530. He was of a restless, ambitious temper, rivalled and wrote against Melanchthon, and gave Count Mansfeld occasion to reproach him severely. He obtained a professorship at Wittemberg, where he taught particular doctrines, and became founder of the sect of Antinomians; which occasioned warm disputes between him and Luther, who had before been his very good friend. But though he was never able to recover the favour either of the elector of Saxony or of Luther, he received some consolation from the fame he acquired at Berlin, where he became preacher at court; and was chosen, in 1548, in conjunction with Julius Phlug and .Michael Heldingus, to compose the famous Interim, which made so much noise in the world. He died at Berlin in 1566.

AGRICULTURE. TT is our principal object in this article to lay before our *- readers a view of the present state of British agriculture, particularly as the art is practised in our best cultivated counties. Much of what we shall state is derived from our own experience and observation; but we shall nevertheless be careful, on all matters of importance, to refer to the most approved authorities. It is sufficiently evident that the culture of the soil must have somewhat preceded, and always kept pace with, the increase of population. When we read of the large armies brought into the field in the early ages, and the great number of inhabitants which some of the ancient cities are said to have contained, we must necessarily conclude that the labours of agriculture were conducted with skill, and that its produce was abundant. A considerable population may, no doubt, subsist upon a rich soil, even in a very rude state of the art, drawing from it only the supply of their own wants; but if much of the cultivator s time be required in the service of the public, and still more, if he has to provide for the subsistence and t ic luxury of large cities, he can obtain the necessary surplus produce only by successive improvements in his art. Not only his gross produce, but his net disposable produce, must be proportionally increased. But of the rural economy even of the most civilized nations of antiquity, we are almost wholly ignorant. From t ie age of Moses, almost down to the commencement of ie Christian era, though something may be gleaned from incidental notices in the Scriptures, and in the writings of a ew ancient authors, we are quite unacquainted with ie means by which food was obtained from the soil to support the rapid increase of mankind; especially when " l nd it accumulated on spots which seem to have been a ways naturally unproductive. We ought, perhaps, to except the W orks and Days of Hesiod, who lived in the

tenth century before our era, and who has described at some length the labours and the products of the agriculture of Greece at that early period. His work contains almost all the information we possess respecting the rural economy of that celebrated people. Among the Romans this art seems to have obtained a Am-iculhigh degree of improvement. It was practised by the ture of "the rich and the great, and described by their poets and his-Romans, torians, several of whose works have reached our own times. These must be familiar to the classical scholar, and have been rendered accessible to all by Dickson, in his Husbandry of the Ancients, and other writers. We need therefore only mention the names 6f Cato, Varro, Virgil, Columella, Pliny, and Palladius, in the order in which they wrote. The treatises De Re Rustica of Varro and Columella are the most complete; but none of the Roman writers enables us to trace the rise and progress of agriculture, either in Italy or in any other country under their dominion. The most useful lesson they convey to the present age, perhaps, is the importance of attending to minute details, which their greatest names did not consider beneath their notice in the best period of their history. From the fall of the Roman empire till the revival ofAgricuIlearning in the fifteenth century, little is known of theture °f the state of agriculture in any part of Europe. The historianstlmes %U(lal of the period were too much occupied in recording mili* tary achievements, and with the rude policy and intestine broils of their respective countries, to give much attention to the peaceful, and at that time degraded, labours of the husbandman. The policy of the feudal system, the distribution of society which it occasioned, and the perpetual dissensions and petty hostilities which it engendered, furnish the best evidence of the low state of an art which can flourish only under the protection of law, and be carried on wdth success only by the energy of free

AGRICU 252 Agricul- men. But, during this long interval, the population of ture. Europe was divided into two great classes, of which by —far the larger one was composed of bondmen, without property, or the power of acquiring it, and small tenants, very little superior to bondmen; and the other class, consisting chiefly of the great barons and their retainers, was more frequently employed in laying waste the fields of their rivals, than in improving their own. The superstition of the times, which destined a large portion of the country to the support of the church, and which, in some measure, secured it from predatory incursions, was the principal source of what little skill and industry were then displayed in the cultivation of the soil. “ If we considei the ancient state of Europe,” says Mr Hume,1 “ we shall find, that the far greater part of society were everywhere bereaved of their personal liberty, and lived entirely at the will of their masters. Every one that was not noble was a slave ; the peasants were not in a better condition; even the gentry themselves were subjected to a long train of subordination under the greater barons, or chief vassals of the crown, who, though seemingly placed in a high state of splendour, yet, having but a slender protection from law, were exposed to every tempest of the state, and, by the precarious condition on which they lived, paid dearly for the power of oppressing and tyrannizing over their inferiors.”—“ The villains were entirely occupied in the cultivation of their master s land, and paid their rents either in corn or cattle, and other produce of the farm, or in servile offices, which they performed about the baron’s family, and upon farms which he retained in his own possession. In proportion as agriculture improved and money increased, it was found that these services, though extremely burdensome to the villain, were of little advantage to the master; and that the produce of a large estate could be much more conveniently disposed of by the peasants themselves, who raised it, than by the landlord or his bailiff, who were formerly accustomed to receive it. A commutation was therefore made of rents for services, and of money-rents for those in kind; and as men in a subsequent age discovered that farms were better cultivated where the farmer enjoyed security in his possession, the practice of granting leases to the peasant began to prevail, which entirely broke the bonds of servitude, already much relaxed from the former practices. The latest laws which we find in England for enforcing or regulating this species of servitude were enacted in the reign of Henry VII. And though the ancient statutes on this subject remain still unrepealed by Parliament, it appears, that before the end of Elizabeth, the distinction between villain and freeman was totally, though insensibly, abolished; and that no person remained in the state to whom the former laws could be applied.” Leases du- But, long before the fifteenth century, it is certain that ring the there was a class of tenants holding on leases for lives, or middle for a term of years, and paying a rent in land produce, in ages. services, or in money. Whether they gradually sprung up from the class of bondmen, according to Lord Kames,2 or existed from the earliest period of the feudal constitution, according to other writers,3 their number cannot be supposed to have been considerable during the middle ages. The stock which these tenants employed in cultivation commonly belonged to the proprietor, who received a proportion of the produce as rent; a system which still exists in France and in other parts of the Continent, where such tenants are called metayers, and some vestiges of 1 3

History of England, chap, xxiii. Bell’s Treatise on Leases. * Chalmers’s Caledonia, book iv. c. 6.

L T U R E. which may yet be traced in the steel-bow of the law of U Scotland. Leases of the thirteenth century still remain n ’ and both the laws and chartularies3 clearly prove the^ j existence in Scotland of a class of cultivators distinct from the serfs or bondmen. Yet the condition of these tenants seems to have been very different from that of the tenants of the present day; and the lease approached nearer in its form to a feu charter than to the mutual agreement now in use. It was of the nature of a beneficiary grant by the proprietor, under certain conditions, and for a limited period: the consent of the tenant seems never to have been doubted. In the common expression, “ granting a lease,” we have retained an idea of the original character of the deed, even to the present time. The corn crops cultivated during this period seem to Crop have been of the same species, though all of them pro-hvat bably much inferior in quality to what they are in the present day. Wheat, the most valuable grain, must have borne a small proportion, at least in Britain, to that of other crops ; the remarkable fluctuation of price, its extreme scarcity, indicated by the extravagant rate at which it was sometimes sold, as well as the preparatory cultivation required, may convince us that its consumption was confined to the higher orders, and that its growth was by no means extensive. Rye and oats furnished the bread and drink of the great body of the people of Europe. Cultivated herbage and roots were then unknown in the agriculture of Britain. It was not till the end of the reign of Henry VIII. that any sallads, carrots, or other edible roots were produced in England. The little of these vegetables that was used, was formerly imported from Holland and Flanders. Queen Catharine, when she wanted a sallad, was obliged to dispatch a messenger thither on purpose.6 The ignorance and insecurity of those ages, which necessarily confined the cultivation of corn to a comparatively small portion of country, left all the rest of it in a state of nature, to be depastured by the inferior animals, then only occasionally subjected to the care and control of man. Cultivators were crowded together in miserable hamlets ; the ground contiguous was kept continually under tillage ; and beyond this, wastes and woodlands of a much greater extent were appropriated to the maintenance of their flocks and herds, which pastured indiscriminately, with little attention from their owners. The low price of butcher-meat, though it was then the food of the common people, when compared with the price of corn, has been justly noticed by several writers as a decisive proof of the small progress of civilisation and industry. According to the reports of a writer who has had ac-«P| f cess to the best sources of information, in addition to his^ , own observations, the present state of the agriculture of the^j P, greater part of the Continent of Europe is not very different from what it was in Britain during the prevalence of the feudal system. “ The greater part of France, he says, “ a still much greater portion of Germany, and nearly the whole of Prussia, Austria, Poland, and Russia, present a wretched uniformity of system. It is called the threecourse husbandry, consisting of, 1st, one year’s clean fallow ; 2d, winter corn, chiefly rye, with a proportion ot wheat commensurate to the manure that can be applied , 3d, summer corn, or barley and oats. There are occasiona and small deviations from this system. In some few cases potatoes, in others peas, are grown, in the fallow year, 2 4 6

Karnes’s Law Tracts. . Sir John Cullum’s History and Antiquities of Hatestcd {Suffolk.) Hume’s History of England, chap, xxiii.

AGRICULTURE. 253 ^gy are only minute exceptions to the generally from the agriculture of other countries ; at least very little Agriculuin" established system. It is not surprising that under such that can be beneficially introduced into our climate, which ture. ^/^a system the produce should not be much more than forbids any attempt at cultivating the fruits of the south four times the quantity of seed, at which rate it is calcu- of Europe. Even on a similar soil, and in the same latilated, as appears to be rightly, by Baron Alexander Hum- tude, the labours of the husbandman must be to a considerable extent directed and controlled by the local cirk°« The fields are almost universally uninclosed, and ex- cumstances in which he is placed. This, perhaps, is the posed to the most injurious effects of a changeable and an principal reason why the old system of successive crops intemperate climate. The ancient feudal system of te- of corn still prevails so generally throughout the Continent. nure is still continued, modified indeed, and softened in The demand for butcher-meat, for instance, may not be gome few parts, but not to a degree or an extent that de- such as to afford a suitable return for the extended culserves to be taken into account in the view now under ture of turnips and other ameliorating crops, which are consideration of the countries as a whole. The peasants, found so beneficial in this country. We should except from this remark much of the Nefor the most part, are adstricti glebce. ; and where, by recent laws, their condition has been changed, the practical therlands, and probably a part of Italy. Flanders has long effect has yet hardly had time to exhibit any observable been celebrated for its agriculture; and the care and sucimprovement in their state. Labour, whether of men or cess with which its labours are conducted seem not unof cattle, is usually exchanged for the occupancy of land; worthy the attention of our best cultivators. The culture and hence the labour is performed in the most negligent of the Vale of Arno, in Italy, also presents an interesting and imperfect manner, that the vigilance of an overseer, object, and has been warmly eulogized by Chateauvieux and other travellers. But instead of going into details who cannot be everywhere present, will allow. u The lords of the soil, besides their demesnes, have the here, we shall notice, under the heads to which they bemht of pasturage on the fields of their tenants from har- long, the practices that appear to us of most importance in vest to the next seed-time: hence none of those interven- the agriculture of other countries, when we come to deing crops which tend to enrich the soil can be cultivated scribe our own. Before entering upon this our main object, it may not be without infringing on their rights. “ Among the cultivators of the land little or no accu- without its interest to present a concise view of the progress mulation of capital has been formed; from the lord to the of our agriculture to its present state, from the rude condilowest grade of the peasantry, all are alike destitute of tion in which, in common with that of the rest of Europe, disposable funds. The lords are only rich in land, and it was found at the time when we first have authorities to sufficiently at their ease, if that land be unencumbered refer to on the subject. Such a view must necessarily inwith mortgages or annuities. The peasants, whether own- clude notices of the principal laws affecting it, as well as ers of the live stock and of the implements, or having the of our early writers, whose works are very little known; use of them with the land from its owners, are content to and it may serve to convey some idea of the successive live on, from year to year, eating their own produce, changes that have occurred in the condition of the great growing their own wool and flax, and converting them body of our people. The subject of this article will thus be considered under into garments. They are quite satisfied if they can dispose of as much surplus produce as will pay the small two divisions. In the first, we shall treat of the history of share of money rent which becomes due to their lord.” British agriculture ; and in the second, of its present state ; {Tracts relating to the Corn Trade and Corn Laws, by describing under the latter the crops, culture, and general management adapted to different soils, agreeably to the William Jacob, Esq. 1828.) It is certain, howrever, that an improved system has been practice of our best cultivators. introduced, and is extending itself, though slowly, in many Part I. parts of the countries which this writer has mentioned. Public establishments have been formed, which afford exHistory of British Agriculture. amples of correct management; and by these means knowledge is diffused among the principal land-owners in the Of the early agriculture of England, and of the condi- Agriculfirst instance, and must ere long descend to the cultivator. tion of its cultivators, we may form some conception by ture in Since the peace, many of the former class have visited adverting to a few of the enactments, from the Conquest J other countries, and particularly Great Britain, with a down to the beginning of the reign of Henry VII. in 1485, tlie view to the improvement of their estates. Some of them when the feudal system, which had been gradually falling century. have held out encouragement to settlers from this coun- into decay, was almost dissolved in that country. try ; others carried back our best implements, with farmOne of the earliest and greatest grievances was the bailiffs capable of instructing their people in the use of levying of Purveyance. This originally comprehended them, and of introducing our system of management ge- the necessary provisions, carriages, &c. which the nearest nerally ; and not a few individuals of rank and influence farmers were obliged to furnish to the king s armies at the in most parts of the Continent of Europe are now well ac- current prices, and to his houses and castles in time of quainted with our agriculture, by their own personal ob- war. It was called the great purveyance, and the officers servation. Prompted by interest, their active minds, no who collected those necessaries were called purveyors. longer occupied in war, seem to enter eagerly upon this The smaller purveyance included the necessary provisions new field of employment. It is evident, indeed, from and carriages for the king’s household, when living at the great increase which has taken place of late in the home, or travelling through the kingdom, which the tenpopulation of these countries, as well as of our own, that ants on the king’s demesne lands were obliged to furnish a corresponding increase of produce must now be drawn gratis ; and the practice came to be adopted by the bafrom the soil. In all old peopled countries, the extension rons and great men, in every tour which they thought of tillage to fresh lands, without any improvement in proper to make in the country. These exactions were so the management, presents only a temporary and very grievous, and levied in so licentious a manner, that the limited resource. farmers, when they heard of the court s approach, often At present, however, we have certainly little to learn deserted their houses, as if the country had been invaded

254 AGRICULTURE. Agricul- by an enemy. “ Purveyance,” says Dirom,1 “ was per- a purchaser of the land; and in 1469 he was protected A ture. haps for many centuries the chief obstruction to the ag- from having his property carried off for the landlord’s * e. riculture and improvement of Great Britain. Many laws debts, beyond the amount of rent actually due; an en- 'v were made for the reformation and regulation of purvey- actment which proves his miserable condition before that ance, but without effect; and the practice continued down time. Soon after the beginning of the 16th century, agri-tv to so late a period as the reign of James the First.” The home trade in corn was restrained by acts against culture partook of the general improvement which fol-on forestallers in 1360, and at several subsequent periods. lowed the invention of printing, the revival of learning tur For many years after the Conquest, the greater part of and the more settled authority of government; and in' the trade of England was carried on in markets and fairs; stead of the occasional notices of historians, we can now and a very considerable part of the revenue of the crown refer to regular treatises, written by men who engaged arose from the duties payable to the king, upon the goods eagerly in this neglected and hitherto degraded occupabrought to them for sale. The barons had also tolls at the tion. We shall therefore give a short account of the prinfairs within their respective jurisdictions. When farmers cipal works, as w^ell as of the laws and general policy of and merchants were bringing their corn and other neces- Britain, in regard to agriculture, from the early part of v saries to be sold there, they were sometimes met on the the sixteenth century to the Revolution in 1688, when a way by persons who purchased their commodities, in order new era commenced in the legislation of corn, and soon to retail them at a higher price. Thus the king and the after in the practice of the cultivator. lords of the manor lost the several duties payable to them; The first and by far the best of our early works is the Fit and the price, it was thought, was at the same time raised Book of Husbandry, printed in 1534, commonly ascribed ber to the inhabitants. Such were the original forestallers, to Fitzherbert, a judge of the common pleas in the reign who were subjected by several statutes to severe penalties. of Henry VIIL This was followed, in 1539, by the Book This crime of forestalling, and the kindred ones of regrat- of Surveying and Improvements, by the same author. In ing and engrossing, were carefully defined, and the dif- the former treatise we have a clear and minute descripferent degrees of punishment specified, in a new statute tion of the rural practices of that period, and from the in 1552, to be afterwards noticed. An early law of 1266, latter may be learned a good deal of the economy of the for regulating the assize of bread and ale, furnishes a feudal system in its decline. The Book of Husbandry clear proof of the little intercourse that must have subsist- has scarcely been excelled by any later production, in as ed at that time between town and country. “ Brewers far as concerns the subjects of which it treats; for at that in cities,” says the statute, “ may well afford to sell two time cultivated herbage and edible roots were still ungallons of beer or ale for a penny, and out of cities three known in England. The author writes from his own exor four gallons for a penny.” perience of more than forty years ; and, with the excepSeveral laws were made in the fourteenth and fifteenth tion of passages denoting his belief in the superstition of centuries, permitting the exportation of grain when the the Roman wu-iters, there is very little of this valuable price of wheat did not exceed six shillings and eightpence work that should be omitted, and not a great deal that a quarter; and in 1463 importation was prohibited when need be added, in so. far as regards the culture of corn, in the price was lower. The last statute, however, was little a manual of husbandry adapted even to the present time. attended to, and foreign grain was admitted as before; Fitzherbert touches on almost every department of the while the state of the country, and the restrictions on in- art, and in about a hundred octavo pages has contrived ternal commerce, scarcely permitted any advantage to be to condense more practical information than will be found derived from the acts allowing exportation. scattered through as many volumes of later times; and HusbanIn Mr Chalmers’s Caledonia, a great many valuable yet he is, minute even to the extreme on points of real dry of notices are collected regarding the husbandry of Scotland utility. There is no reason to say, with Mr Harte, that Scotland, during these ages. It is evident from his elaborate re- he had revived the husbandry of the Romans ; he merely searches, that the progress of cultivation in the 13th cen- describes the practices of the age in which he lived; tury had been greater than we should have expected from and from his commentary on the old statute extenta mathe turbulence of the times, and the comparatively rude nerii, in his Book of Surveying, in w hich he does not aland uncivilized state of society. Purveyance, and other lude to any recent improvements, it is probable that the obstructions to improvement, were nearly the same in management which he details had been long established. Scotland as in England; the laws regarding the corn But it may surprise some of the agriculturists of the pretrade appear, in some instances, to have been copied from sent day to be told, that, after the lapse of almost three those of England ; and in the northern, as in the southern centuries, Fitzherbert’s practice, in some rrfaterial branches, part of the island, the clergy were by far the most skilful has not been improved upon ; and that in several districts and industrious husbandmen. abuses still exist, which were as clearly pointed out by Yet it is difficult to reconcile the idea of any consider- him at that early period as by any writer of the present able improvement, particularly in so far as regards the age. extensive cultivation of wheat (which Mr Chalmers infers The Book of Husbandry begins with the plough and from the authorities he quotes), with an act passed in other instruments, which are concisely and yet minutely 1426, which ordained every husbandman tilling with a described; and then about a third part of it is occupied plough of eight oxen to sow at least a firlot (little more with the several operations as they succeed one another than a Winchester bushel) of wheat, and half a firlot of throughout the year. Among other things in this part of peas, with a proportion of beans ; or with the state of the the work, the following deserve notice:—“ Somme (ploughs) districts only a few years ago, where wheat is said to have wyll tourn the sheld bredith at every landsende, and been extensively grown at that early period. plowe all one way;” the same kind of plough that is now By statute 1449, the tenant was for the first time se- found so useful on hilly grounds. Of wheel-ploughs he cured in possession, during the term of his lease, against observes, that “ they be good on even grounde that lyeth 1

Inquiry into the Corn Laws, &c. p. 9.

AGRICULTURE. 255 V ml- lyghte;” ^ ^ ^ ^ they still most commonly ewes, and wyll cause them that they wyll not take the A^ricul ’ t e. employed. Cart-wheels were sometimes bound with iron, ramme a the tyme of the yere fo/ pouertye, but goo ^ ^of which he greatly approves. On the much agitated barreyne. “ In June is tyme to shere shepe ; and ere^v^ question about the employment of horses or oxen in lat ,ey muSt be ver e we y ll inwashen, 1 bour, the most important arguments are distinctly stated. which shall be to the owner greate profyte the salethe of “ In somme places,” he says, “ a horse plough is better,” his wool, and also to the clothe-maker.” It appears that and in others an oxen plough, to which, upon the whole, he hand washing was then a common practice;’ and vet in gives the preference; and to this, considering the practices the west and north of Scotland, at this day, sheep are of that period, they were probably entitled. Beans and never washed at all. His remarks on horses, cattle &c peas seem to have been common crops. He mentions are not less interesting; and there is a very good account the different kinds of wheat, barley, and oats ; and after of the diseases of each species, and some just observations describing the method of harrowing “all maner of cornnes,” on the advantage of mixing different kinds on the same we find the roller employed. “ They use to role their pasture. Swine and bees conclude this branch of the work. barley grounde after a showr of rayne, to make the grounde . I he author then points out the great advantages of even to mowe.” Under the article “ To falowe,” he ob- inclosures ; recommends “ quycksettynge, dychynge, and serves, “ the greater clottes (clods) the better wheate, hedgeyng;” and gives particular directions about the settes, for the clotfes kepe the wheat warme all wynter; and at and the method of training a hedge, as well as concerning March they will melte and breake and fal in manye small the planting and management of trees. We have then a peces, the whiche is a newe dongynge and refreshynge of short information “ for a yonge gentylman that intendeth the corne.” This is agreeable to the present practice, to thryue, and “ a prolouge for the wiues occupation,” founded on the very same reasons. “ In May, the shepe in some instances rather too homely for the present time. folde is to be set out;” but Fitzherbert does not much Among other things, she is to “ make her husband and* approve of folding, and points out its disadvantages in a herself somme clothes;” and “ she maye haue the lockes very judicious manner. “ In thfe later end of May and of the ^shepe eyther to make blankettes and courlettes, or the begynnynge of June, is tyme to wede the corne ;” and bothe.” This is not so much amiss ; but what follows will then we have an accurate description of the different bring our learned judge into disrepute even with our most weeds, and the instruments and mode of weeding. Next industrious housewives. “ It is a wyues occupation,” he comes a second ploughing of the fallow ; and afterwards, says, “ to wynowe all maner of cornes, to make malte, to in the latter end of June, the mowing of the meadows washe and wrynge, to make heye, shere corne, and, in begins. Of this operation, and of the forks and rakes, time of nede, to lielpe her husbande to fyll the mucke and the haymaking, there is a very good account. The wayne or dounge carte, dryue the ploughe, to loode heye, corn harvest naturally follows : rye and wheat were usu- corne, and suche other; and to go or ride to the market ally shorn, and barley and oats cut with the scythe. This to sel butter, chese, mylke, egges, chekyns, capons, hennes, intelligent writer does not approve of the practice, which pygges, gese, and all maner of cornes.” The rest of the still prevails in some places, of cutting wheat high, and book contains some useful advices about diligence and then mowing the stubbles. “ In Somersetshire,” he says, economy; and concludes, after the manner of the age, “ they do shere theyr wheat very lowe ; and the wheate with many pious exhortations. strawe that they purpose to make thacke of, they do not Such is Fitzherbert’s Book of Husbandry, and such was threshe it, but cut off the ears, and bynd it in sheves, and the state of agriculture in England in the early part of call it rede, and therewith they thacke theyr houses.” He the sixteenth century, and probably for a long time berecommends the practice of setting up corn in shocks, fore; for he nowhere speaks of the practices which he with two sheaves to cover eight, instead of ten sheaves, describes or recommends as of recent introduction. as at present; probably owing to the straw being then The Book of Surveying adds considerably to our knowshorter. The corn was commonly housed ; but if there be ledge of the rural economy of that age. “ Four maner of a want of room, he advises that the ricks be built on a commens” are described; several kinds of mills for corn scaffold, and not upon the ground. Corn-stacks are now and other purposes, and also “ quernes that goo with beginning to be built on pillars and frames. The fallow hand;” different orders of tenants, down to the “ boundreceived a third ploughing in September, and was sown men,” who “ in some places contynue as yet;” “ and many about Michaelmas. “ Wheat is moost commonlye sowne tymes, by colour thereof, there be many freemen taken under the forowe, that is to say, cast it uppon the falowe, as boundmen, and their lands and goods is taken from and then plowe it under;” and this branch of his subject them.” Lime and marl are mentioned as common mais concluded with directions about threshing, winnowing, nures ; and the former was sometimes spread on the surand other kinds of barn-work. face to destroy heath. Both draining and irrigation are Fitzherbert next proceeds to live stock. “ An hous- noticed, though the latter but slightly. And the work bande, he says, “ can not well thryue by his corne with- concludes with an inquiry “ how to make a township that out he have other cattell, nor by his cattell without corne. is worth XX. marke a yere, worth XX. li. a year;” from And bycause that shepe, in myne opynyon, is the mooste which we shall give a specimen of the author’s manner, profytablest cattell that any man can haue, therefore I as well as of the economy of the age. pourpose to speake fyrst of shepe.” His remarks on this “ It is undoubted, that to every townshyppe that standsubject are so accurate, that one might imagine they came eth in tyllage in the playne countrey, there be errable hom a storemaster of the present day; and the minutiae landes to plowe and sowe, and leyse to tye or tedder theyr w hich he details are exactly what the writer of this ar- horses and mares upon, and common pasture to kepe and , c e has seen practised in the hilly parts of this country, pasture their catell, beestes, and shepe upon; and also u some places, at present, “ they neuer seuer their they have medowe grounde to get theyr hey upon. Than ambes from their dammes ;” “ and the poore of the peeke to let it be known how many acres of errable lande euery ( ugh) countreye, and such other places, where, as they man hath in tyllage, and of the same acres in euery felde 'so to milke theyr ewes, they vse to wayne theyr lambes to chaunge with his neyghbours, and to leye them toguya es ther, and to make hym one seuerall close in euery felde . T've,, but olde, to mylke “their ewes hurte fiue ortosyxe 'veekes; that, and he observes, is greate the for his errable lands ; and his leyse in euery felde to leye an

on suc

an( s

are

256 A G R I C U Agricul- them togyther in one felde, and to make one seuerall close ture. for them all. And also another seuerall close for his portion of his common pasture, and also his porcion of his medowe in a seuerall close by itselfe, and al kept in seueral both in wynter and somer; and euery cottage shall haue his portion assigned hym accordynge to his rent, and than shall 'nat the ryche man ouerpresse the poore man with his cattell; and euery man may eate his oun close at his pleasure. And vndoubted, that hay and strawe that will find one beest in the house wyll finde two beestes in the close, and better they shall lyke. For those beestis in the house have short heare and thynne, and towards March they will pylle and be bare; and therefore they may nat abyde in the fylde before the heerdmen in winter tyme for colde. And those that lye in a close under a hedge haue longe heare and thyck, and they will neuer pylle nor be bare; and by this reason the husbande maye kepe twyse so many catell as he did before. “ This is the cause of this approwment. Nowe euery husbande hath sixe seuerall closes, whereof iii. be for corne, the fourthe for his leyse, the fyfte for his commen pastures, and the sixte for his haye; and in wynter time there is but one occupied with corne, and than hath the husbande other fyue to occupy tyll lente come, and that he hath his falowe felde, his ley felde, and his pasture felde al sommer. And when he hath mowen his medowe, than he hath his medowe grounde, soo that if he hath any weyke catell that wold be amended, or dyvers maner of catell, he may put them in any close he wyll, the which is a great advantage; and if all shulde lye commen, than wolde the edyche of the corne feldes and the aftermath of all the medowes be eaten in X. or XII. dayes. And the rych men that hath moche catell wold have the advantage,' and the poore man can have no helpe nor relefe in wynter when he hath moste nede; and if an acre of lande be worthe sixe pens, or it be enclosed, it will be worth VIII. pens whan it is enclosed, by reason of the compostying and dongyng of the catell that shall go and lye upon it both day and nighte ; and if any of his thre closes that he hath for his corne be worne or ware bare, than he may breke and plowe up his close that he hadde for his layse, or the close that he hadde for his commen pasture, or bothe, and sowe them with corne, and let the other lye for a time, and so shall he have aiway reist grounde, the which will bear moche corne with lytel donge; and also he shall have a great profyte of the wod in the hedges whan it is growen ; and not only these profytes and advantages beforesaid, but he shall save moche more than al these, for by reason of these closes he shall save meate, drinke, and wages of a shepeherde, the wages of the heerdman, and the wages of the swine herde, the which may fortune to be as chargeable as all his holle rent; and also his corne shall be better saved from eatinge or destroyeng with catel. For dout ye nat but heerdemen with their catell, shepeherdes with their shepe, and tieng of horses and mares, destroyeth moch corne, the which the hedges wold save. Paraduenture some men would say, that this shuld be against the common weale, bicause the shepeherdes, heerdmen, and swyneherdes, shuld than be put out of wages. To that it may be answered, though these occupations be not used, there be as many newe occupations that were not used before; as getting of quickesettes, diching, hedging, and plashing, the which the same men may use and occupye.” Tusser. The next author who writes professedly on agriculture is Tusser, whose Five Hundred Points of Husbandry, 1

L T U R E. published in 1562, was formerly in such high repute as to A :ul. be recommended by Lord Molesworth to be taught in e. schools.1 The edition of 1604 is the one we make use of^i V here, in which the book of husbandry consists of 118 pages ; and then follows the Points of Housewifrie, occupying 42 pages more. It is written in verse. Amidst a vast heap of rubbish, there are some useful notices concerning the state of agriculture at the time in different parts of England. Hops, which had been introduced in the early part of the sixteenth century, and on the culture of which a treatise was published in 1574 by Reynolde Scott, are mentioned as a well-known crop. Buckwheat was sown after barley. It seems to have been the practice then, in some places, to “ geld fillies’ as well as colts. Hemp and flax are mentioned as common crops. Inclosures must have been numerous in several counties; and there is a very good comparison between “ champion (open fields) country, and several,” which Blythe afterwards transcribed into his Improver Improved. Carrots, cabbages, turnips, and rape, are mentioned among the herbs and roots for the kitchen. There is nothing to be found in Tusser about serfs or bondmen, as in Fitzherberfs works. This author’s division of the crop is rather curious, though probably quite inaccurate, if he means that the whole rent might be paid by a tenth of the corn. “ One part cast forth for rent due out of hand. “ One other part for seed to sow thy land. “ Another part leave parson for his tith. “ Another part for harvest, sickle and sith. “ One part for ploughwrite, cartwrite, knacker, and smith. “ One part to uphold thy teemes that draw therewith. “ Another part for servant and workman’s wages laie. “ One part likewise for filbellie daie by daie. “ One part thy wife for needful things doth crave. “ Thyself and thy child the last part would have.” The next writer is Barnaby Googe, whose Whole ArtGi of Husbandry was printed in 1578, and again by Markham in 1614. The first edition is merely a translation of a German work; and very little is said of English husbandry in the second, though Markham made some trifling interpolations, in order, as it is alleged, to adapt the German husbandry to the English climate. It is for the most part made up of gleanings from the ancient writers ot Greece and Rome, whose errors are faithfully retained, with here and there some description of the practices of the age, in which there is little of novelty or importance. Googe mentions a number of English writers who lived about the time of Fitzherbert, whose works have not been preserved. For more than fifty years after this, or till near the middle of the seventeenth century, there are no systematic works on husbandry, though several treatises on particular departments of it. From these it is evident, that all the different operations of the farmer were performed with more care and correctness than formerly; that the fallows were better worked, the fields kept freer of weeds, and much more attention paid to manures of every kind. A few of the writers of this period deserve to be shortly noticed. Sir Hugh Plat, in his Jewel House of Art and Nature, Y\ printed in 1594 (which Weston in his catalogue erroneously gives to Gabriel Plattes), makes some useful observations on manures, but chiefly collected from other writers. His censure of the practice of leaving farm dung lying scattered about is among the most valuable.

Some Considerations for the promoting of Agriculture and employing the Poor. Dublin, 1723.

AGRICULTURE. 257 w Am ail* Sir John Norden’s Surveyor's Dialogue, printed in 1607, treated of at srmiP ™i ' 8 are rc L - and reprinted with additions in 1618, is a work of con- as an excellent cattle cron the^df f?“™ended Agriculcu ture f t^ ^siderable merit. The first three books of it relate to the be extended from the kSl,^ ' “ '^'ch should, tore. t0 the field Korc.i- rights of the lord of the manor, and the various tenures Richard Weston must Wp . * Slr^rv^, ger the 1 ^V Hartlib s Legacy is a very heterogeneous performance, Hartlib containing, among some very judicious directions, a great deal of rash speculation. Several of the deficiencies which the writer complains of in English agriculture must be placed to the account of our climate, and never dation^arequTe uLZR theTtale of ^“oumrv and display more of general knowledge and good inteir’ tion, than of either the theory or practice of SricuTturP Among the subjects deserving notice may be mentioned

the racti P ce of steeping and liming seed corn as a preventiv e of smut; changing every yea/the species of grain and brin

ging seed corn from a distance ; ploughing down green crops as manure ; and feeding hors^with broken oatfand chaff. This writer seems to differ a good deal from Blythe ab °Ut the advantage of interchanging tillage and pas fur e. were no losse to all, thisif island/’ hewetould says, “ ifcertainly that we so be that s“h0uld not plough at have com corn at reasonable rate, rate, and and likewise likewise vent vent for for all all our our at aa reasonapie manufactur es of wooland one reason for this is, that pasture employeth more hands hands than than tillage, tillage, instead instead of of dedepasture employeth more populating the country, as was commonly imagined. The grout, which he mentions “ as coming over to us in Holland ships,” about which he desires information, was probably the same with our present shelled barley ; and mills for manufacturing it were introduced into Scotland from Holland towards the beginning of the last century. To the third edition, published in 1655, are subjoined Dr Beatie’s neaues Annotations, annotations, with witn the tne writer writer of ot the the Legacy’s Legacy s answers, both of them ingenious, and sometimes instructive. But this cannot be said of Gabriel Plattes’s Mercurius Lcetijicans, also added to this edition, which is a most extravagant production. There are also several communications from Hartlib’s different correspondents, of which the most interesting are those on the early cultivation and great value of clover. Hartlib himself does not appear much in this collection; but he seems to have been a 2k

AGRICULTURE. 258 Agnail very useful person in editing tlie works of others, and as norance of the age in regard to the proper subject of le- A ture. a collector of miscellaneous information on rural subjects. S1S Bythe statute 1552 it is declared, that any person thatMxj It is strange that neither Blythe nor Hartlib, nor any of Hartlib’s correspondents, seem ever to have heard of shall buy merchandise, victual, &c. coming to market,^* or make any bargain for buying the same before they shall £ Fitzherbert’s works. _ in the market ready to be sold, or shall make any Ray and Among the other writers previous to the Revolution, we be Evelyn. shall only mention Ray the botanist and Evelyn, both men motion for enhancing the price, or dissuade any person from coming to market, or forbear to bring any of the of great talents and research, whose works are still in things to market, &c. shall be deemed a forestaller. Any high estimation. A new edition of Evelyn’s Silva and person who buys and sells again in the same market, or Terra was published in 1777 by Dr Hunter, with large within four miles thereof, shall be reputed a regrater. Any notes and elegant engravings, and reprinted m 1812. person buying growing in the fields, or any other The preceding review commences with a period ot corn, with intentcorn to sell again, shall be reputed an unlawfeudal anarchy and despotism, and comes down to the ful It was also declared, that no person shall time when the exertions of individual interest were pro- sell ingrosser. cattle within five weeks after he had bought them. tected and encouraged by the firm administration of equal Licences, indeed, were to be granted in certain cases, and laws ; when the prosperity of Great Britain was no longer particularly when the price of wheat was at or under 6s. retarded by internal commotions, nor endangered by hos8d. a quarter, and other kinds of grain in that proportion. tile invasion. The laws regarding the exportation and importation ofamLrte. The laws of this period, in so far as they relate to agriLaws during this period could have had little effect in en-gu culture and rural economy, display a similar progiess in corn couraging agriculture, though towards the latter part of™ improvement. t they gradually approached that system which was finally against From the beginning of the reign of Henry VII. to the it laying ara- en^ of Elizabeth’s, a number of statutes were made for established at and soon after the Revolution. From the hie land to the encouragement of tillage, though probably to little time of the above-mentioned statute against forestallers, pasture, pUrp0se. The great grievance of those days was the which effectually prevented exportation, as well as the practice of laying arable land to pasture, and suffering the freedom of the home trade, when corn was above the farm-houses to fall to ruin. “ Where in some towns,” says price therein specified, down to 1688, there are at least statutes on this subject; and some of them are so the statute 4th Henry VII. (1488), “ two hundred persons twelve nearly the same, that it is probable they were not very were occupied and lived of their lawful labours, now there carefully observed. The price at which wheat was allowed are occupied two or three herdsmen, and the residue fall to be exported was raised 6s. 8d. a quarter, the price into idleness therefore it is ordained, that houses which fixed by the 1st and 2d of from Philip and Mary (1553), to 10s. within three years have been let for farms, with twenty in 1562 ; to 20s. in 1593 ; to 26s. 8d. in 1604 ; to 32s. in acres of land lying in tillage or husbandry, shall be upheld, under the penalty of half the profits, to be forfeited to the 1623; to 40s. in 1660; to 48s. in 1663; and at last, in king or the lord of the fee. Almost half a centuiy afto- 1670, exportation was virtually permitted without limitawards, the practice had become still more alarming; and tion. Certain duties, however, were payable, which in in 1534 a new act was tried, apparently with as little suc- some cases seem to have amounted to a prohibition; and cess. “ Some have 24,000 sheep, some 20,000 sheep, until 1660 importation was not restrained even in years some 10,000, some 6000, some 4000, and some more and of plenty and cheapness. In permitting exportation, the object appears to have been revenue rather than the ensome lessand yet it is alleged the price of wool had couragement of production. nearly doubled, “ sheep being come to a few persons’ The first statute for levying tolls at turnpikes, to make hands.” A penalty was therefore imposed on all who kept above 2000 sheep; and no person was to take in or repair roads in England, passed in 1662. Of the state of agriculture in Scotland in the 16th andAi farm more than two tenements of husbandry. By the the greater part of the 17th century, very little is known > ;^u nil 39th Elizabeth (1597), arable land made pasture since the no professed treatise on the subject appeared till after the^ 1st Elizabeth shall be again converted into tillage, and Revolution. The south-eastern counties were the earliestaD what is arable shall not be converted into pasture. ^ Many laws were enacted during this period against va- improved, and yet in 1660 their condition seems to havece gabonds, as they were called ; and persons who could not been very wretched. Ray, who made a tour along t ic eastern coast in that year, says, “ we observed little ox no find employment seem to have been sometimes confound- fallow grounds in Scotland; some ley ground we saw, which ed with those who really preferred idleness and plunder. they manured with sea wreck. The men seemed to be The dissolution of the feudal system, and the suppression of the monasteries, deprived a great part of the rural po- very lazy, and may be frequently observed to plough m pulation of the means of support. They could not be em- their cloaks. It is the fashion of them to wear cloaks ployed in cultivating the soil, for there was no middle when they go abroad, but especially on Sundays, they class of farmers possessed of capital to be vested in im- have neither good bread, cheese, nor drink. They cannot provements ; and what little disposable capital was in the make them, nor will they learn. Their butter is very inhands of great proprietors could not, in those rude times, different, and one would wonder how they could contrive be so advantageously embarked in the expensive and pre- to make it so bad. They use much pottage made of coalcarious labours of growing corn, as in pasturage, which wort, which they call kail, sometimes broth of decorticate required much less skill and superintendence. Besides, barley. The ordinary country-houses are pitiful cots, bui there was a constant demand for wool on the Continent; of stone and covered with turfs, having in them but one while the corn-market was not only confined by laws room, many of them no chimneys, the windows very sma against exportation, but fettered by restrictions on the in- holes, and not glazed. The ground. in the valleys an bar ey ternal trade. The laws regarding the wages of labour plains bears very good corn, but especially bears 1 and the price of provisions are a further proof of the ig- bigge, and oats, but rarely wheat and rye.” Select Remains of John Ray. Lond. 1760.

AGRICULTURE. 259 It‘s probable that no great change ban taken place in land, some was planted there, where it thrived very well A-ricul t e. Scotland from the end of the 15th century, except that g00d ur se ; for their oIHIip P P°the ground was succeeding tenants gradually became possessed of a little stock of all the corn above destroyed, thiswarsfwhen supported ture. their own, instead of having their farm stocked by the them; for the soldiers, unless they had dug up all the landlord. “ The minority of James V., the reign of Mary ground where they grew, and almost sifted it, could not Stuart, the infancy of her son, and the civil wars of her extn pate them ; from whence they were brought to Langrandson Charles L, were all periods of lasting waste. cashire, where they are very numerous, and now they be" The very laws which were made during successive reigns, gm to spread all the kingdom over. They are a pleasant for protecting the tillers of the soil from spoil, are the food boiled or roasted, and eaten with butter and sugar, best proofs of the deplorable state of (die husbandman.”1 ihere is a sort brought from Spain, that are of a longer Yet in the 17th century were those laws made which xoi m? and are more luscious than ours ; they are much set paved the way for the present improved system of agri- by, and sold for sixpence or eightpence the pound.”5 culture in Scotland; By statute 1633, landholders were enThe next writer is Mortimer, whose Whole Art of Mortimer abled to have their tithes valued, and to buy them either Husbandry was published in 1706, and has since run at nine or six years’ purchase, according to the nature of through several editions. It is a regular, systematic work, the property. The statute 1685j conferring on landlords of considerable merit; and it does not appear that much a power to entail their estates, was indeed of a very dif- improvement has been made since in the practices he deferent tendency in regard to its effects on agriculture. scribes, in many parts of Britain. From the third edition But the two acts in 1695, for the division of commons, of Hartlib’s Legacy, we learn that clover was cut green, and separation of intermixed properties, have facilitated and given to cattle; and it appears that this practice of in an eminent degree the progress of improvement. soiling, as it is now called, had become very common j>:og 5s of From the Revolution to the accession of George III. the about the beginning of last century, wherever clover was ipriqtureprogress of agriculture was by no means so considerable as cultivated. Ryegrass was now sown along with it. Turfromj)88 we fog }ec[ t0 imagine from the great exportation of nips were hand-hoed, and extensively employed in feed101 f corn. It is the opinion of well-informed writers,2 that ing sheep and cattle, in the same manner as at present. very little improvement had taken place, either in the The first considerable improvement in the practice ofTull. cultivation of the soil or in the management of live that period was introduced by Jethro Tull, a gentleman stock, from the Restoration down to the middle of last of Berkshire, who began to drill wheat and other crops century. Even clover and turnips, the great support of about the year 1701, and whose Horse-hoeing Husbandry the present improved system of agriculture, were confined was published in 1731. In giving a short account of the to a few districts, and at the latter period were scarcely innovations of this eccentric writer, it is not meant to encultivated at all by common farmers in the northern part ter into any discussion of their merits. It will not detract of the island. Of the writers of this period, therefore, we much from his reputation to admit that, like most other shall notice only such as describe some improvement in men who leave the beaten path, he was sometimes misled the modes of culture, or some extension of the practices by inexperience, and sometimes deceived by a too santhat were formerly little known. guine imagination. Had Tull confined his recommendaIn Houghton’s Collections on Husbandry and Trade, a tion of the drill husbandry to leguminous and bulbousperiodical work begun in 1681, we have the first notice rooted plants generally, and to the cereal gramina only in of turnips being eaten by sheep. “ Some in Essex have particular circumstances; and had he, without puzzling their fallow after turnips, which feed their sheep in winter, himself about the food of plants, been contented with by which means the turnips are scooped, and so made pointing out the great advantage of pulverizing the soil capable to hold dews and rain water, which, by corrupting, in most cases, and extirpating weeds in every case, he imbibes the nitre of the air, and when the shell breaks it would certainly have deserved a high rank among the runs about and fertilizes. By feeding the sheep, the land benefactors of his country. A knowledge of his doctrines is dunged as if it had been folded; and those turnips, and practice, however, will serve as a necessary introducthough few or none be carried off for human use, are a tion to the present approved modes of culture. very excellent improvement, nay, some reckon it so3 though Tull’s theory is promulgated with great confidence; they only plough the turnips in without feeding.” This and in the controversy which he thought proper to mainwas written in February 1694; but ten years before, Wor- tain in support of it, he scrupled not to employ ridicule hdge, one of his correspondents, observes, “ sheep fatten as well as reasoning. Besides the Roman writers De lie very well on turnips, which prove an excellent nourish- Bustica, Virgil in particular, whom he treats with high ment for them in hard winters, when fodder is scarce ; for disdain, he is almost equally severe on Woodward, Bradthey will not only eat the greens, but feed on the roots in ley, and other writers of his own time. the ground, and scoop them hollow even to the very skin, As the distance between his rows appeared much len acres (he adds) sown with clover, turnips, &c. will greater than was necessary for the range of the roots of eed as many sheep as one hundred acres thereof would the plants, Tull begins by showing that these roots exbefore have done.”4 tend much farther than is commonly believed, and then S otatoes wer proceeds inquire into the nature of their food. After « Tk et^'potato, » Psays e beginning to attract notice. Houghton, “ is a bacciferous herb, examiningtoseveral hypotheses, he decides this to be fine ww esculent roots, bearing winged leaves and a bell particles of earth. The chief, and almost the only use of dung, he thinks, is to divide the earth, to dissolve “ this “ This, I have been informed, was brought first out of terrestrial matter, which affords nutriment to the mouths irgima by Sir Walter Raleigh ; and he stopping at Ire- of vegetable rootsand this can be done more complete1 1 3 4

Chalmers’s Caledonia, vol. ii. p. 732. Annals of Agriculture, No. 270. Harte’s Essays. Comber on National Subsistence, p. 1G1. Houghton’s Collections on Husbandry and Trade, vol. i. p. 213. edit. 1728. Ibid. vol. iv. p. 142-144. , s jud. vol. ii. p. 4G8.

AGRICULTURE. 260 Agricul- ly by tillage. It is therefore necessary not only to pul- of the intervals. Notwithstanding this, there was no Agi. ture. verize the soil by repeated ploughings before it be seed- manner of difference in the goodness of the rows; and ti but, as it becomes gradually more and more com- the whole field was in every part of it equal, and the bcst^M pressed afterwards, recourse must be had to tillage while I believe that ever grew on it. It is now the thirteenth the plants are growing, and this is hoeing, which also de- crop, likely 2to be good, though the land was not ploughed stroys the weeds that would deprive the plants of their crossways.” It follows from this singular management, that Tull nourishment. The leading features of Tull’s husbandry are his prac- thought a succession of crops of different species altotice of laying the land into narrow ridges of five or six gether unnecessary ; and he labours hard to prove against feet, and upon the middle of these drilling one, two, or Ur Woodward, that the advantages of such a change unthree rows, distant from one another about seven inches der his plan of tillage were quite chimerical; though he when there were three, and ten inches when only two. seems to admit the benefit of a change of the seed itself. The distance of the plants on one ridge from those on the But the best method of determining the question would contiguous one he called an interval; the distance be- have been to have stated the amount of his crops per tween the rows on the same ridge, a space or partition: acre, and the quality of the grain, instead of resting the the former was stirred repeatedly by the horse-hoe, the superiority of his management on the alleged saving of expense, when compared with the common broad-cast latter by the hand-hoe. The extraordinary attention this ingenious person gave husbandry. On the culture of turnip, both his principles and his to his mode of culture is perhaps without a parallel:—“ I formerly was at much pains,” he says, “ and at some practice are much more correct. The ridges were of the charge in improving my drills for planting the rows at same breadth as for wheat, but only one row was drilled very near distances, and had brought them to such per- on each. His management while the crop was growing fection, that one horse would draw a drill with eleven differs very little from the present practice. When drilled shares, making the rows at three inches and a half dis- on the level, it is impossible, he observes, to hoe-plough tance from one another; and at the same time sow in them so well as when they are planted upon ridges. them three very different sorts of seeds, which did not But the seed was deposited at different depths, the half mix; and these, too, at different depths. As the barley- about four inches deep, and the other half exactly over rows were seven inches asunder, the barley lay four inches that, at the depth of half an inch. “ Thus planted, let deep. A little more than three inches above that, in the the weather be never so dry, the deepest seed will come same channels, was clover; betwixt every two of these up; but if it raineth immediately after planting, the shallow will come up first. We also make it come up at four rows was a row of St Foin, covered half an inch deep. “ I had a good crop of barley the first year; the next times, by mixing our seed half new and half old, the new year two crops of broad clover, where that was sown; coming up a day quicker than the old. These four and where hop-clover was sown, a mixed crop of that and comings up give it so many chances for escaping the fly; St Foin ; but I am since, by experience, so fully convinced it being often seen that the seed sown over night will be of the folly of these, or any other mixed crops, and more destroyed by the fly, when that sown the next morning especially of narrow spaces, that I have demolished these will escape, and vice versa : or you may hoe-plough them instruments in their full perfection as a vain curiosity, when the fly is like to devour them; this will bury the the drift and use of them being contrary to the true prin- greatest part of these enemies: or else you may drill in another toav without new-ploughing the land.” ciples and practice of horse-hoeing.1” Drilling and horse and hand-hoeing seem to have been In the culture of wheat, he began with ridges six feet broad, or eleven on a breadth of 66 feet; but on this he in use before the publication of Tull’s book. “ Hoeing,” afterwards had fourteen ridges. After trying different he says, “ may be divided into deep, which is our horsenumbers of rows on a ridge, he at last preferred two, with hoeing; and shallow, which is the English hand-hoeing; an intervening space of about ten inches. He allowed and also the shallow horse-hoeing used in some places only three pecks of seed for an acre. The first hoeing betwixt rows, where the intervals are very narrow, as 16 was performed by turning a furrow from the row, as soon or 18 inches. This is but an imitation of the hand-hoe, as the plant had put forth four or five leaves; so that it or a succedaneum to it, and can neither supply the use of was done before or at the beginning of winter. The next dung nor fallow, and may be properly called scratchhoeing was in spring, by which the earth was returned to hoeing.” But in his mode of forming ridges his practice the plants. The subsequent operations depended upon seems to have been original; his implements display much the circumstances and condition of the land and the state ingenuity; and his claim to the title of father of the preof the weather. The next year’s crop of wheat was sown sent horse-hoeing husbandry'’ of Great Britain seems inupon the intervals which had been unoccupied the former disputable. A translation of Tull’s book was undertaken year; but this he does not seem to think was a matter of at one and the same time in France, by three different much consequence. “ My field,” he observes, “ whereon persons of consideration, without the privity of each other. is now the thirteenth crop of wheat, has shown that the Two of them afterwards put their papers into the hands rows may successfully stand upon any part of the ground. of the third, M. Du Hamel du Monceau of the Royal The ridges of this field were, for the twelfth crop, Academy of Sciences at Paris, who published a treatise changed from six feet to four feet six inches. In order on husbandry, on the principles of Mr Tull, a few years for this alteration the ridges were ploughed down, and after. But Tull seems to have had very few followers in then the next ridges were laid out the same way as the England for more than 30 years. The present method of former, but one foot six inches narrower, and the double drilling and horse-hoeing turnips was not introduced into rows drilled on their tops; whereby, of consequence, Northumberland till about the year 1780 ;3 and it was there must be some rows standing on every part of the then borrowed from Scotland, the farmers of which had ground, both on the former partitions, and on every part the merit of first adopting Tull’s management in the cul1

Horse-hoeing Husbandry, p. 62. Lond. 1762.

8

Ibid. p. 424.

Northumberland Survey, p. 100.

AGRICULTURE. 261 Ac :ul- ture of this root about 1760, and from whom it has since above two heffers brought up each year. As to what Agricult'e. madeitsway, butslowly, into thesouthern partof theisland. profit may be made by bringing up young horses, I shall ture. Among the English writers of this period may be men- say nothing, supposing he keeps his stock good by those tioned Bradley, Lawrence, Hales, Miller, Ellis, Smith, of his own upbringing. The whole product, then, of his Hill, Hitt, Lisle, and Home. Most of their works went cattle cannot be reykoned above fifty merks (L.2. 15s. 6d ) through several editions in a few years; at once a proof For, in respect his beasts are in a manner half-starved of the estimation in which they were held, and of the di- they are generally small; so that scarce may a heffer be rection of the public mind towards investigating the prin- sold at above twelve pounds (L.l sterling). The whole ciples and practice of agriculture. product of this farm-room, therefore, exceeds not the value Wri rson Of the progress of the art in Scotland, till towards the of L.733 (L.61. Is. 8d. sterling), or thereabout.” The laScot i end of the 17th century, we are almost entirely ignorant. bourers employed on this farm were two men and one woman, Busbjdiy. ijpjjg first work, written by Donaldson, was printed in besides a herd in summer, and other servants in harvest.’ D°n son,i697, under the title of Husbandry Anatomized; or, Donaldson then proceeds to point out a different mode an Inquiry into the Present Manner of Teiling and Ma- of management, which he calculates to be more profitnuring the Ground in Scotland. It appears from this able ; but no notice is taken of either clover or turnips treatise, that the state of the art was not more advanced as crops to be raised in his new course, though they are at that time in North Britain than it had been in Eng- incidentally noticed in other parts of the work. land in the time of Fitzherbert. Farms were divided into “ I also recommend potatoes as a very profitable root infield and outfield; corn crops followed one another for husbandmen and others that have numerous families. without the intervention of fallow, cultivated herbage, or And because there is a peculiar way of planting this root, turnips, though something is said about fallowing the not commonly known in this country, I shall here show outfield; inclosures were very rare; the tenantry had not what way it is ordinarily planted or set. The ground begun to emerge from a state of great poverty and de- must be dry; and so much the better it is if it have a pression; and the wages of labour, compared with the good soard of grass. The beds or riggs are made about price of corn, were much lower than at present; though eight foot broad, good store of dung being laid upon your that price, at least in ordinary years, must appear ex- ground; horse or sheep dung is the proper manure for tremely moderate in our times. Leases for a term of them. Throw each potatoe or sett (for they were someyears, however, were not uncommon; but the want of times cut into setts) into a knot of dung, and afterwards capital rendered it impossible for the tenantry to attempt dig earth out of the furrows, and cover them all over, any spirited improvements. about some three or four inches deep; the furrows left Donaldson first points out the common management of between your riggs must be about two foot broad, and that period, which he shows to have been very unproduc- little less will they be in depth before your potatoes be tive ; and afterwards recommends what he thinks would covered. You need not plant this root in your garden; be a more profitable course. “ Of the dale ground,” he they are commonly set in the fields, and wildest of ground, says, “ that is, such lands as are partly hills and partly for enriching of it.” As to their consumption, they were valleys, of which sorts may be comprehended the greatest sometimes “ boiled and broken, and stirred with butter part of arable ground in this kingdom, I shall suppose a and new milk; also roasted, and eaten with butter; yea, farmer to have a lease or tack of three score acres, at some make bread of them, by mixing them with oat or three hundred merks of rent per annum (L.16. 13s. 4d. barley meal; others parboil them, and bake them with sterling). Perhaps some who are not acquainted with apples, after the manner of tarts.” rural affairs may think this cheap; but those who are the There is a good deal in this little treatise about sheep, possessors thereof think otherwise, and find difficulty and other branches of husbandry; and, if the writer was enough to get the same paid, according to their present well informed, as in most instances he appears to have way of manuring thereof. But that I may proceed to the been, his account of prices, of wages, and generally of the comparison, I shall show how commonly this farm-room practices of that period, is very interesting. is managed. It is commonly divided into two parts, viz. The next work on the husbandry of Scotland is, ThejMX& Bei. one-third croft, and two-thirds outfield, as it is termed. Countrymans Rudiments, or an advice to the Farmers haven. The croft is usually divided into three parts; to wit, one- in East Lothian, how to labour and improve their grounds ; tliird barley, which is always dunged that year barley is said to have been written by Lord Belhaven about the sown thereon ; another third oats ; and the last third peas. time of the Union, and reprinted in 1723. In this we The outside field is divided into two parts, to wit, the one have a deplorable picture of the state of agriculture in half oats, and the other half grass, two years successively. what is now the most highly improved county in ScotHie product which may be supposed to be on each acre land. His lordship begins with a very high encomium of croft, four bolls (three Winchester quarters), and that of on his own performance. “ I dare be bold to say, the outfield, three (2^- quarters) ; the quota is seven score there was never such a good easy method of husbandry bolls, which we shall also reckon at five pounds (8s. 4d.) as this, so succinct, extensive, and methodical in all per boll, cheap year and dear year one with another. This, its parts, published before.” And he bespeaks the fain all, is worth L.700 (L.58. 6s. 8d. sterling). vour of those to whom he addresses himself, by adding, “ Then let us see what profit he can make of his cattle. “ neither shall I affright you with hedging, ditchAccording to the division of his lands, there is 20 acres ing, marling, chalking, paring and burning, draining, of grass, which cannot be expected to be very good, be- watering, and Such like, which are all very good improvecause it gets not leave to lie above two years, and there- ments indeed, and very agreeable with the soil and situfore cannot be well swarded. However, usually, besides ation of East Lothian ; but I know ye cannot bear as yet tour horses, which are kept for ploughing the said land, a crowd of improvements, this being only intended to initen or twelve nolt are also kept upon a farm-room of the tiate you in the true method and principles of husbandry.” above-mentioned bounds; but, in respect of the badness The farm-rooms in East Lothian, as in other districts, of the grass, as said is, little profit is had of them. Per- were divided into infield and outfield. “ The infield haps two or three stone of butter is the most that can be (where wheat is sown) is generally divided by the tenant made of the milk of his kine the whole summer, and not into four divisions, or breaks, as they call them, viz. one

AGRICULTURE. 262 Agricul- of wheat, one of barley, one of pease, and one of oats; so places, they appointed two of their number to inspect it; a ture. that the wheat is sowed after the pease, the barley after and in their report they say, that one man would be '!.Ul. ',-0!^v>,^/the wheat, and the oats after the barley. The outfield sufficient to manage a machine which would do the work^ \ land is ordinarily made use of promiscuously for feeding of six. One of the machines was “ moved by a great waterof their cows, horse, sheep, and oxen; ’tis also dunged wheel and triddles,” and another “ by a little wheel of by their sheep, who lay in earthen folds ; and sometimes, three feet diameter, moved by a small quantity of water.” when they have much of it, they fauch or fallow a part This machine the society recommended to all gentlemen of it yearly.” Under this management the produce seems and farmers. The next work is by the same Mr Maxwell, printed in to have been three times the seed; and yet, says his lordship, “ if in East Lothian they did not leave a higher 1757, and entitled the Practical Husbandman; being a stubble than in other places of the kingdom, their grounds collection of miscellaneous papers on Husbandry, &c. In would be in a much worse condition than at present they this book the greater part of the Select Transactions is reare, though bad enough.”—“ A good crop of corn makes published, with a number of new papers, among which, an a good stubble, and a good stubble is the equalest Essay on the Husbandry of Scotland, with a proposal for mucking that is.” Among the advantages of inclosures, the improvement of it, is the most valuable. In this he he observes, “ you will gain much more labour from your lays it down as a rule, that it is bad husbandry to take servants, a great part of whose time was taken up in ga- two crops of grain successively, which marks a considerthering thistles and other garbage for their horses to feed able progress in the knowledge of modern husbandry; upon in their stables; and thereby the great trampling though he adds, that in Scotland the best husbandmeti and pulling up, and other destruction of the corns, while after a fallow take a crop of wheat; after the wheat, peas; they are yet tender, will be prevented.” Potatoes and then barley, and then oats; and after that they fallow turnips are recommended to be sown in the yard (kitchen- again. The want of inclosures was still a matter of comgarden). Clover does not seem to have been in use. plaint. The ground continued to be cropped so long as it Rents were paid in corn ; and, for the largest farm, which produced twm seeds; the best farmers were contented he thinks should employ no more than two ploughs, the with four seeds, which was more than the general produce. The first act of parliament for collecting tolls on the rent wns about six chalders of victual “ when the ground is very good, and four in that which is not so good. But highway in Scotland was passed in ITbO, for repairing I am most fully convinced they should take long leases the road from Dunglass bridge to Haddington. In ten or tacks, that they may not be straitened with time in the years after, several acts followed for the counties of Edinimprovement of their rooms; and this is profitable both burgh and Lanark, and for making the roads between Edinburgh and Glasgow. The benefit which agriculture for master and tenant.” Society of Such was the state of the husbandry of Scotland in the has derived from good roads, it would not be easy to estiImprovers, early part of last century. The first attempts at improve- mate. The want of them was one great cause of the slow ment cannot be traced farther back than 1723, when a progress of the art in former times. number of landholders formed themselves into a society, The Revolution in 1688 was the epoch of that system of under the title of the Society of Improvers in the Know- corn laws to which very great influence has been ascribed, ledge of Agriculture in Scotland. The earl of Stair, one both on the practice of agriculture and the general proof their most active members, is said to have been the sperity of the country. But for an account of these and first who cultivated turnips in that country. The Select later statutes on the subject, we must refer to the article Transactions of this society were collected and published Cohn Laws. Maxwell, in 1743 by Mr Maxwnll, who took a large part in its The exportation of wTool was prohibited in 1647, in proceedings. It is evident from this book that the society 1660, and in 1688 ; and the prohibition strictly enforced had exerted itself in a very laudable manner, and appa- by subsequent statutes. The effect of this on its price, rently with considerable success, in introducing culti- and the state of the wool trade,’ from the earliest period vated herbage and turnips, as well as in improving the to the middle of last century, are distinctly exhibited by former methods of culture. But there is reason to believe the learned and laborious author of Memoirs on Wool, that the influence of the example of its numerous mem- printed in 1747. bers did not extend to the common tenantry, who are alThe gradual advance in the price of land produce Prog ways unwilling to adopt the practices of those who are soon after the year 1760, occasioned by the increase ofdncc a placed in a higher rank, and supposed to cultivate land population, and of wealth derived from manufactures and for pleasure rather than profit. Though this society, the commerce, has given a more powerful stimulus to rural earliest probably in the United Kingdom, soon counted industry, augmented agricultural capital in a greater deupwards of 300 members, it existed little more than 20 gree, and called forth a more skilful and enterprising race years. Maxwell delivered lectures on agriculture for one of cultivators, than all the laws for regulating the corn or two sessions at Edinburgh, which, from the specimen trade could ever have effected. Most of the invenhe has left, ought to have been encouraged. tions for increasing produce and economizing labour have In the introductory paper in Maxwell’s collection, we either been introduced, or improved and greatly extended, are told, that “ the practice of draining, inclosing, summer since that time ; and by means of both, the free surplus fallowing, sowing flax, hemp, rape, turnip and grass seeds, has been vastly increased for the supply of the general planting cabbages after, and potatoes with, the plough, in consumption. The passing of more than 3000 bills of fields of great extent, is introduced ; and that, according inclosure, in the late reign, before which the whole numto the general opinion, more corn grows now yearly where ber was only 244, is a proof how much more rapidly the it was never known to grow before, these twenty years last cultivation of new land has proceeded than formerly; and past, than perhaps a sixth of all that the kingdom was in the garden-like appearance of the country, as well as use to produce at any time before.” the striking improvement in the condition of all classes of Invention In this work we find the first notice of a threshing-ma- the rural population, display, in the most decided manner, of a _ chine ; it was invented by Mr Michael Menzies, advocate, the skill and the success with which this great branch of threshing- w]10 obtained a patent for it. Upon a representation made national industry is now followed throughout the greater mac me. t0 society that it was to be seen working in several part of Britain.

AGRICULTURE. 263 In a view of the progress of husbandry, any consider- consume, as well as for the small proportion which the AgriculU of the offal bears to that of the four quarters, are ture. " able improvements in the species of crops cultivated, and weight altogether unequalled either in this or any other country, s^^the order in which they succeed one another, in agricultural machinery, and in the kinds and varieties of live The Dishley or new Leicester sheep, and their crosses, are stock, are entitled to hold a very prominent place. Our now spread oyer the principal corn districts of Britain; limits do not permit us to do more than just to notice a and, from their quiet domesticated habits, are probably few of the most important here; but we shall have occasion still the most profitable of all the varieties of sheep, on to describe them more fully in the second part of this ar- farms where the rearing and fattening of live stock are ticle, when treating on the practice and present state of combined with the best courses of tillage crops. < The practice of Mr Bakewell and his followers furour agriculture. . jUte ite The great line of distinction between the present and nishes an instance of the benefits of the division of labour, huskdry. former courses of cropping, consists in the alternation in a department of business where it was little to be exof what are called exhausting and ameliorating crops. pected. Their males were let out every year to breeders The best cultivators rarely take two corn crops in suc- from all parts of England; and thus, by judiciously cross•cession; but corn is almost universally succeeded by a ing the old races, all the valuable properties of the Dishleguminous crop, or one of herbage, cut or pastured, or ley variety descended, after three or four generations, to turnips, cabbages, rape, &c.; or, when the soil is not suited their posterity. By no other means could this new breed to turnips, by a summer fallow, recurring at as distant an have spread so rapidly, or been made to accommodate itinterval as its condition will permit. In common lan- self so easily to a change of climate and pasture. Another guage, a green or a pulse crop, or a plain fallow, is recommendation of this plan was, that the ram-hirer had a interposed between every two white corn crops. These choice among a number of males of somewhat different green crops not only preserve the fertility of the soil, properties, and in a more or less advanced stage of imbut when sown in rows, as most of them usually are, provement, from which it was his business to select such they afford an opportunity of extirpating weeds, by the as suited his particular object. These were reared by exuse of the horse and hand hoe ; and even when sown perienced men, who gave their principal attention to this broad-cast, by their taking complete possession of the branch alone; and having the best females as well as ground, if it is properly prepared, the growth of weeds is males, they were able to furnish the necessary supply of effectually checked. In other respects, these interme- young males in the greatest variety, to those farmers diate crops are of the utmost importance in every good whose time was occupied with other pursuits. The prices course of management. Whether they be eaten on the at which Mr Bakewell’s rams were hired appear enorground or carried to the farm houses and straw yards, mous. In 1789 he received twelve hundred guineas for much valuable manure is obtained from their consump- the hire of three brought at one birth; two thousand for tion ; and on sandy or gravelly soils, when only a part of a seven; and for his whole letting, at least three thousand turnip crop is eaten by sheep on the ground, the greatest guineas. Merino sheep were first brought into England in 1788, Merinos, defect of such land is removed by their treading, and in many cases it is rendered capable of producing as valuable when his late Majesty procured a small flock by way of a crop of wheat as soils of a closer texture. It is for Portugal. In 1791 another flock was imported from these reasons that, by the cultivation of clover, and Spain. In 1804, when the annual sales commenced, this turnips in particular, in regular alternation with corn, the race began to attract much notice. Dr Parry of Bath soil is so much enriched as to yield as much corn on the crossed the Ryeland or Herefordshire sheep with the half of any given extent of land as the whole did under Merinos, and brought the wool of the fourth generation the old course of successive crops of corn; and, unless to a degree of fineness not excelled, it is said, by that of upon strong clays, an unproductive fallow is wholly dis- the pure Merino itself; while the carcass, in which the great defect of the Merinos consists, has been much impensed with. But these crops are not less valuable in another point proved. Lord Somerville and many other gentlemen of view. Before the introduction of clover and turnips, have bestowed much attention on this valuable race, which, there was nothing for the maintenance of live stock but however, has not spread itself over the country; and the natural herbage in summer, with the addition of hay and wool is understood to have deteriorated. straw in winter; and in the northern parts of the island One of the most valuable plants introduced into culti-Swedish in particular, where the winters are long and severe, it vation since 1760 is the ruta baga or Swedish turnip, turnip, was seldom possible to do more, for about half the year, which in a great degree supplies the great desideratum of than preserve cattle and sheep from starving. Even in late spring food for live stock, after the common turnip is the most favourable situations, very little butcher-meat generally much damaged, and sometimes almost wholly could be brought to market from December to June, un- destroyed, by the severity and changes of the weather. less at an expense wdiich the great body of consumers The Scotish yellow turnip is for the same reason a most were quite unable to reimburse. The more early matu- useful variety, coming in between the white turnips and rity of cattle and sheep, and the regular supply of the the Swedish, in some situations supplying the place of the market throughout the year, are therefore chiefly owing latter, and yielding generally a larger produce. A new to turnips and clover, as well as the vast increase in the variety of oats, called the potato oat, was accidentally number of the live stock kept on arable land, and the great discovered in 1788. It comes early, and gives, a large prodegree of perfection to which some breeds have been duce both in grain and in meal, on good soils; and was brought by the skilful experiments of several eminent soon cultivated over all the north of England and south of agriculturists. Scotland. But it has already begun to degenerate. A Among these, the first place is unquestionably due to good many varieties of summer wheat have been introe '" Ilobert Bakewell of Dishley, in Leicestershire. By duced of late, but they are only partially cultivated. his skilful selection at first, and constant care afterwards, Under the head of agricultural machinery, we need only Threshing to breed from the best animals, he at last obtained a va- notice the improvement of the swing-plough by Small, machine, riety of sheep, which, for early maturity, and the property and of the threshing-machine by Meikle ; though the latof returning a great produce of mutton for the food they ter may rather claim the entire merit of the invention.

264 AGRICULTURE. Agricul- We shall have Occasion to notice in its proper place the stratum of the most incohesive materials: elsewhere th ture. progress that has been made towards perfecting a ma- solid and dense surface soil passes, though commonly h* ' chine for reaping corn, still an important desideratum. slower gradations, into a substratum of an opposite de^ The agriculture of Scotland has been benefited by an scription; and in many parts the rock itself, from which Sj act in 1770, which relaxed the rigour of strict entails, the soil is supposed to have been formed, rises so near the and extended the powers of proprietors, in so far as re- surface as to stop all further progress. gards the improvement of their estates and the granting In addition to these obvious distinctions, it is soon obof leases; but there is still much room for improvement served that some soils are slow to admit moisture, and do in this branch of our legal polity. not speedily part with it, but when dried become so inAgricultu- There is nothing that shows more clearly the rapid pro- durated as to be reduced to a pulverulent state with great ral Socle- gress of agriculture in Britain, than the great number of difficulty; while others are so porous as to allow water to societies that have been lately formed, one or more in al- pass through them freely, and so open to the influence of most every county, for the diffusion of knowledge, and the atmosphere, that if it meets with any obstruction from the encouragement of correct operations and beneficial the subsoil, it is very soon carried off by evaporation. discoveries. We have already noticed the Society of In the classification of soils with a view to practical utiImprovers established in Scodand in 1723. Besides lity, therefore, they may be all reduced under two general those respectable associations which have for their object divisions, according to their texture. The terms stiff the encouragement of arts, manufactures, and commerce heavy, strong, cohesive, and others of the same import, all generally, several large institutions have been formed, denote soils of which the basis or principal ingredient is whose chief purpose is the improvement of agriculture. clay ; as, on the other hand, those in which sand predoAmong these the Bath and West of England Society, es- minates are called loose, light, porous, friable. Under tablished in 1777, and the Highland Society of Scotland, each of these divisions, however, there are several variein 1784, hold a conspicuous rank; nor ought we to pass ties, such as gravel, loam, chalk, calcareous, alluvial, over in silence the labours of the National Board of Agri- peaty, &c.; to which are added the common epithets of culture, formed in 1793, but since abolished, which by rich and poor, cold and hot, thin or shallow, and deep, means of the county-surveys has made us acquainted with and various others. the rural affairs of every part of the kingdom. Of the crops best suited to these several kinds of soil, Crop A great many excellent works on agriculture, and rela- it is only necessary to observe here, that wheat, beans,diffa tive subjects, have been published since 1760; and among clovers, and fibrous-rooted plants generally, are most pro-soils. these several periodical miscellanies have been favourably ductive on clays; while barley, turnips, and all bulbous received and widely circulated. But as they are com- and deep-rooted plants, thrive best in sandy soils. Loam, paratively recent, and the best of them well known, it is which may partake of either character, is an artificial soil, unnecessary to give any particular account either of their produced by cultivation and manure, and, when sufficientmerits or defects. ly deep, adapted to crops of every kind. Gravelly soils, which are usually considered as forming a distinct class, Part II. take their character from that of the rocky materials in which they abound. When very loose and porous, they The Practice of British Agriculture. are sometimes called hungry, the manure applied to them We come now to our leading object, the present state of being as it were devoured and lost, from the want of mateBritish agriculture, especially as it is found in our best rials in a state to be acted upon; but those of a better cultivated counties. It is not our purpose to exhibit quality are not only productive both in corn and pasture, general views of a statistical nature,—such as the extent but their crops ripen very early. Calcareous matter, such and produce of our territory, considered under the seve- as lime, chalk, and marl, is a necessary ingredient in all ral divisions of corn-land, pastures, and wastes or tracts fertile soils, without which, indeed, it has been found imstill in a state of nature. The proportion which each of practicable to bring most crops to perfection. The soils these bears to the whole cannot perhaps be fixed with formed by matters deposited by the tides and by rivers, tolerable accuracy at any time, and is continually varying; called alluvial, usually consist of a variety of ingredients, and with regard to the aggregate produce, we have seen and are for the most part very fertile. What is called a nothing but conjectural estimates, which, as might be ex- mossy or peaty soil is distinguished by its dark colour pected, differ greatly from one another. and spongy texture, and abounds in the roots of plants in a Soils. . The first thing which naturally calls for our attention state of decay, from which, indeed, it seems to have been in a treatise on the practice of agriculture is the Soil, wholly formed. It is found in a great variety of situations, which may be termed the raw material on which the cul- on the summits of mountains as well as in plains and tivator has to operate, and according to the nature of hollows ; in some cases so saturated with water as not to which his general management as well as his labour in bear the weight of cattle, in others in so solid a form as detail must in a great measure be regulated. to be cut for fuel; sometimes of the depth of many feet, In penetrating the superficial stratum, the first circum- and elsewhere of only a few inches; but in all situations stance which presents itself is the different degree of re- its produce of stunted heath, occasionally intermixed with sistance required to be overcome in different situations. herbage, is of little or no value. This description Its component parts are found to be more or less cohesive ; coarse of soil, if it deserves the name, is of comparatively recent in some places nearly all of the same consistency, and in formation, been found in several instances superothers mixed with decayed roots and small stones. The incumbent having upon cultivated soils which themselves appear colour is also different, without any perceptible difference to be alluvial, and consequently not of the earliest class. in other respects. These are the obvious varieties which The terms moor and moorish are applied generally to inoccur immediately beneath the surface, or in what is pro- ferior soils in a state of nature, whatever may be their perly called the soilj but upon going a little deeper, the character in other respects. texture and. colour undergo further changes, even in the distinctive The quality of soils may sometimes be judged of with same situation. A compact, impervious mass, often im- tolerable accuracy, by attending to the species of plants bedded with stones, sometimes succeeds to a superficial which they naturally produce, and observing whether they

AGRICULTURE. 265 grow close and vigorous, so as to cover the soil complete- articles, to be afterwards introduced under their respec- A~ri™l t > fy, or rise feeble and scattered, with unoccupied spaces ftve heads. Such are the subjects of the Da.kv? of tar™ ^ ^between. The clovers, for instance, grow freely on calca- Drainage, of Embankment, of Irrigation, and ofv reous soils, and the common ragwort (senecio Jacobcea) Woods and Plantations. and the corn-thistle (serratula Arvensis) usually indicate a fertile soil, whatever be its texture. Science has supCHAP. I. plied other tests, for which we may refer to Sir Humphry Davy’s Agricultural Chemistry. One of the simplest ARABLE LAND. methods of ascertaining the presence of calcareous matter in the soli, is to pour upon it any strong acid, with which, We shall endeavour to arrange all the most important if this ingredient abounds, it will effervesce freely. The detads connected with this division of our subject unpower of retaining moisture, and, when dry, of absorbing der the following sections1. Of implements and mait from the atmosphere, as well as the greater increase of chinery : 2. Of farm-buildings; 3. Of fences: 4. Of temperature, which under the same circumstances takes tillage : 5. Of fallowing: 6. Of the cultivation of the difplace in some soils,—these and various other criteria may ferent crops: 7. Of the order of their succession: 8. Of the be employed to determine their comparative fertility. various substances used as manure, and the modes of apply1 J And, what is not unworthy of remark, it is known from ing them. experience that the productiveness of the soil, under similar circumstances in other respects, depends in some Sect. I. Implements and Machinery. measure on the dryness or humidity of the climate. In the west of Scotland, for instance, where much more rain The numerous implements of tillage husbandry may be falls than in the east, light sandy soils do not suffer so arranged under these six heads;—such as are employed, much under a severe course of cropping as they are found 1. in preparing land for semination; 2. in depositing the to do in the latter situation. seed; 3. during the growth of the plants ; 4. in reaping and securing the crop ; 5. in preparing it for market; and, Lat,;. In describing the practice of agriculture, it may be 6. in the general purposes of a farm. But as the same nent thought that the process by which lands in a state of implement is sometimes used for more than one purpose, nature are first brought into cultivation would be entitled it would be of little consequence to adhere strictly to this to our earliest consideration, and that we should then pro- or any other arrangement. The implements required for ceed to describe the successive operations by which our rendering land fit for tillage do not belong to this part of fields have arrived at their present condition. But a the article, and several others that have not yet been moment's reflection may convince us that such an arrange- brought into general use, or are employed only for partiment would be inexpedient, if not impracticable, on the cular purposes, shall be noticed under the sections to present occasion. The original state of much of our cul- which they respectively belong. tivated land, which has long since passed away, must have 1. Ploughs. been very different in different situations, and would require a corresponding variety of operations to prepare it Of ploughs there are a great many different sorts; and, Ploughs, for growing corn ; and a number of implements, however besides the variety of construction occasioned by the difrude, must have been constructed, even before these ference of soils, and the different purposes for which they operations could be commenced. It is only in an ad- are employed even on the same soil, there is a considerable vanced stage of the art, and as a branch of general ma- diversity in the form, in districts where both the soil and nagement, that the culture of wastes can demand our at- the mode of culture are nearly alike. The most obvious tention; for it is then only that capital and science may en- general distinction among ploughs is, their being conable us to cultivate them with advantage. structed with or without wheels : and each of these kinds But without pretending to scientific arrangement, we may be again distinguished by other circumstances ;—such shall content ourselves with bringing together those parts as the form of the mould-board and share; their operation of our subject that have a mutual relation and dependence in making one or more furrows at a time; their size; and on one another in practice, and endeavour to present its the depth at which they are calculated to work, as in more important details under the four following chapters. trench-ploughing. It would neither be of much utility, In first, we shall treat of what regards the cultiva- nor at all consistent with our limits, to describe all the tion and products of arable land ; in the second, of the numerous varieties of form. The nature of the operation management of grass lands, and the improvement of to be performed, and the rules for constructing ploughs wastes ; in the third, of agricultural live stock ; and in that shall be adapted to the different purposes of the culfourth, which will be of a more general kind, we shall tivator, have been fully described in a variety of works, endeavour to point out those circumstances which have particularly in those noted below and all that is necesmore particularly contributed to the improvement of agri- sary here is to mention those ploughs that are in most geculture in this country, and those also which seem still to neral use in the best cultivated districts. obstruct its further advancement. The Swing-plough, with a feathered sock or share, and Swing, ihere are, besides the subjects which fall to be treated a curved mould-board, is almost the only one used in Scot-plough, under these divisions, some others, which certainly form land, and throughout a considerable part of England. The component parts of agricultural science, and to which it old Scotish plough with a spear sock has been laid aside, will be necessary to advert in this work; but as these sub- except in a few of the least improved counties, where it jects are not of equal interest to husbandmen generally, is still found useful when the soil is encumbered by roots and as they are capable of being treated with advantage or stones. The swing-plough is drawn with less power than m a separate form, we shall reserve them for distinct wheel-ploughs, the friction not being so great; and it pro.

ui.

Small s Treatise on Ploughs and Wheel-Carriages, 178-1: Lord Karnes’s Gentleman Farmer; and Bailey on the Construction of the Plough on Mathematical Principles. y OL. II. 2L

266

Rotherham plough.

Small’s plough.

"Wheelploughs.

AGRICULTURE. bably admits of greater variations in regard to the breadth by the experienced ploughman, though they may be more ^ and depth of the furrow slice. It is usually drawn by two convenient and more manageable for those who are not ti' ^ 'horses abreast in common tillage; but for ploughing be- perfectly informed in that important and useful art. The Plertfordshire and Kentish turn-wrest wheel-plough, tween the rows of the drill culture, a smaller one, drawn by one horse, is commonly employed. A plough of this as well as the swing-plough, are described by Blythe; and kind, having a mould-board on each side, is also used, both they do not seem to have received much improvement in forming narrow ridges for turnips and potatoes, and in since his time. The former is thought most suitable for laying up the earth to the roots of the plants, after the general purposes on stiff tenacious soils, and the latter intervals have been cleaned and pulverized by the hoise where very deep ploughing is required. On light, loamy, and friable soils, where deep ploughing and hand hoe. This plough is sometimes made in such a manner that the mould-board may be shifted from one is not necessary, the Norfolk wheel-plough will be found side to the other when working on hilly grounds; by which convenient and useful: it is compact and light in its form, means the furrows are all laid in the same direction ; a doing its work with neatness, and requiring only a small mode of construction as old as the days of Fitzherbert, power of draught. To the improved common wheel-plough an iron earth-Skink who wrote before the middle of the sixteenth century. board, firmly screwed to the coulter, has been lately added, ter. This is called a turn-wrest plough. Swing-ploughs, similar to the present, have been long It is made use of when ploughing turf, which it takes off known in England. In Blythe’s Improver Improved (edit. by itself, and turns into the furrow, immediately covering 1652), we have engravings of several ploughs; and what it with earth. It is observed that, by this management, he calls the “ plain plough” does not seem to differ much turf at one ploughing has the appearance of a fallow, and in its principal parts from the one now in use. Amos, in harrows nearly as well; but more strength is required in an Essay on Agricultural Machines, says that a person the team. A similar sort of skim coulter may be added named Lummis (whom he is mistaken in calling a Scotch- to any other plough, and may be useful in turning down man, see Maxwell’s Practical Husbandman, y. 191.) “first green crops and long dung, as well as in trench-ploughattempted its construction upon mathematical principles, ing. But in most instances it is thought a preferable plan, which he learned in Holland; but having obtained a patent where the soil has to be stirred to an unusual depth, to for the making and vending of this plough, he withheld make two common swing-ploughs follow each other in the the knowledge of these principles from the public. How- same track ; the one before taking a shallow furrow, and ever, one Pashley, plough-wright to Sir Charles Turner of the other going deeper, and throwing up a new furrow Kirkleatham, having a knowledge of those principles, con- upon the former. Two-furrow ploughs are used in a few places, but are Tm structed upon them a vast number of ploughs. Afterwards his son established a manufactory for the making not likely ever to become general. They are constructed row lou of them at Rotherham. Hence they obtained the name either with or without wheels. A plough of this kind wasP of the Rotherham plough ; but in Scotland they were strongly recommended by Lord Somerville, and used by called the Dutch or patent plough.”—“ At length the his lordship and others, apparently with some advantages. Americans, having obtained a knowledge of those prin- In Blythe’s Improver Improved, there is an engraving of ciples, either from Britain or Holland, claimed the priority this plough also. But with all the improvements made of the invention; in consequence of which, Mr Jefferson, by Lord Somerville, it can never come into competition president of the United States, presented the principles for general purposeswith the present single furrow ploughs; for the construction of a mould-board, first to the Institute and he admits that it would be no object to invade the of France, and next to the Board of Agriculture in Eng- system already established in well-cultivated counties; land, as a wonderful discovery in mathematics.” (CW- though, where large teams are employed, with a driver besides the ploughman, it would certainly be a matter of munications to the Board of Agriculture, vol. vi. p. 437.) According to another writer, the Rotherham plough was importance to use this plough, at least on light friable soils. first constructed in Yorkshire in 1720, about ten years “ Their horses,” he says, “ will not feel the difference before Lummis’s improvements. (Survey of the West Rid- between their own single furrow working one acre, or the well-constructed two-furrow plough with two acres per ing of Yorkshire.') But the present improved swing-plough was little known day; here is no system deranged, and double work done.’ in Scotland till about the year 1764, when Small’s method (Communications to the Board of Agriculture, vol. ii. p* of constructing it began to excite attention. This ingeni- 4J8.) Amos, already mentioned, has gone much beyond this. Tw Mil ous mechanic formed the mould-board upon distinct and intelligible principles, and afterwards made it of cast-iron. In his Essay in the Board’s Communications formerly re-^ Flis appendage of a chain has been since laid aside. It ferred to, he gives a description, with an engraving, of has been disputed whether he took the Rotherham or the machine which combines “ two, three, or four ploughs^, old Scotish plough for the basis of his improvements. The together, for ploughing furrows nine by five inches square. swing-plough has been since varied a little from Small’s On soils of a tenacity next to clay, “ six horses will draw form, for the purpose of adapting it more completely to four ploughs, four horses three ploughs, and three horses particular situations and circumstances. Of late it has two ploughs, and every plough to plough an acre a day. been made entirely of iron. See Plate V. It is scarcely necessary to add, that such machines are Wheel-ploughs, used in many parts of England, are altogether unfit for agricultural operations; the nature also constructed in a great variety of forms. Their chief and condition of the soil and surface, varied in ways innurecommendation is, that they require less skill in the merable, will never permit the general use of them; and ploughman; but it is admitted, that the friction caused even in the few situations where they may be employed, by the wheels adds to the resistance, and that they are there is reason to believe that ploughing cannot be done more expensive, and more liable to be put out of order, cheaper, and certainly not so well as by the two-horse as well as to be disturbed in their progress by clods, single furrow plough. stones, and other inequalities, than those of the swing Various other implements under the name of ploughs ^ kind. Wheel-ploughs, says Dr Dickson (Practical Agri- have been constructed for stirring the soil;—such as the culture, vol. i. p. 7.), should be seldom had recourse to Miner, for following in the furrow of a common plough,

AGRICULTURE.

267 W- and loosening the ground to a greater depth, without shape, each containing twenty tines, five or six inches Aericul u bringing up the subsoil; the Paring Plough, and the long beneath the hulls or bars in which they are inserted tore ^'^Mole and other sorts of ploughs for draining, some of It is still common for every harrow to work senaratelvwhich shall be afterwards noticed under their proper heads, and though always two, and sometimes three harrows are Self -an- A plough has been recently constructed by Mr John placed together, each of them is drawn by its own horee fog? igh. Finlayson, farmer at Muirkirk, which is found well adapt- The great objection to this method is, that it is scarcely ed to coarse old swards. It is called the rid or self-clean- possible, especially upon rough ground, to prevent the ing plough, from _ its clearing itself from obstructions harrows from starting out of their place, and riding on without often requiring the aid of the ploughman ; and it one another. To obviate this inconvenience, the exterior turns over the furrow in a complete and workman-like bulls of each are usually surmounted by a frame of wood manner in situations where it falls back after the common raised so high as to protect it from the irregular motions plough, notwithstanding the utmost exertions of the of its neighbour; but in many instances they are conploughman. R has been tried in various situations both nected by chains, or hinges, or cross bars, which is a prein England and Scotland, and given much satisfaction to ferable plan. Another objection which has been made very competent judges ; but it does not seem to possess to the common harrows is, that the ruts made by the tines any advantages over the common plough upon land under are sometimes too near and sometimes too distant from a regular course of cultivation. See Plate VI. one another; but this is probably not a great fault when Dyna'O- Several inventions are in use for ascertaining and com- the soil requires to be pulverized as well as the seed coaete paring the power required to work the plough in different vered, especially when they are permitted to move irresituations. These are known by the name of dynamome- gularly in a lateral direction. Where the soil is already ters, or draught machines; and they all agree in this, that fine, as it ought always to be before grass seeds are sown, the power is determined by a movable index pointing to lighter harrows are used, which are so constructed, that figures denoting hundredweights on a dial-plate. The all the ruts are equidistant. See Plate V. difference in the power necessary even upon the same soil, The brake, as commonly constructed, is nothing more Brake, according to the construction of the plough, is greater than a heavier harrow, sometimes in one, and sometimes than might be expected, varying upon cultivated land in two pieces joined together; the tines being in number free from obstructions from three to five hundredweights and length, and in the distance from one another at which and upwards. See Plate IX. (Prize Essays and Trans- they are placed, suited to the nature of the soil on which actions of the Highland Society of Scotland, vol. iv.) it is employed. Within these few years, two harrows have been brought Itevolving 2. Cultivator and Grubber. into use, which seem to be most efficient implements, harrow, hiltinar. The plough, as is well known, covers the old and exposes especially where the soil abounds in weed-roots. The a new surface ; but as that is not always necessary, other first of them is the invention of Mr Samuel Morton, agriimplements are in use for stirring and pulverizing the soil cultural implement maker, Edinburgh, and is called the without turning it over. Some of them are used in pre- Revolving Brake Harrow. When the soil has been suffiparing it for the seed, and others, as horse-hoes, between ciently reduced, this is perhaps the best implement of any drilled crops. It were to no purpose to enumerate and for bringing the roots to the surface; and to a certain exdescribe all these ; we shall here notice only such as we tent it also acts in pulverizing the land when under falknow to be of practical utility. One of them, called a low, so as to save one or two ploughings. See Plate VI. IrubJ grubber, from its efficiency in bringing weed-roots to the (Farmer s Magazine, vol. xviii. &c.) surface, consists of two strong rectangular frames, the one The other has been constructed by Mr Finlayson, the Finlay, including the other, and nine bars mortised into the inner inventor of the self-cleaning plough already mentioned; son’s harone, with eleven qpulters or tines with triangular sharp- and is also a very powerful implement. See Plate VI. row* edged dipping feet, four cast-iron wheels, two handles, 4. Brill-Machines. &c. See Plate V. All the coulters are fixed in these bars except two, which are placed in the side beams of The purpose of these ingenious but often too compli-Drills. the outer frame, and may be set to go more or less deep cated machines is, to deposit the seed in equidistant rows by means of pins and wedges. It is useful in stirring land on a flat surface; on the top of a narrow ridge ; in the inon which potatoes or turnips have grown, or that has been terval between two ridges ; or in the bottom of a common ploughed^ in autumn or during winter, so that a crop may furrow. Corn when drilled is usually sown in the first of be sown in spring without further use of the plough. It these ways, turnips in the second, and peas and beans works as deep as the plough has gone, and, by the reclin- in the third or fourth. One of the best for sowing all ed position of the coulters, brings to the surface all the kinds of corn was invented by Mr Bailey of Chillingham,* M eed-roots that lurk in the soil. Beans and peas have who has paid great attention to the construction of agribeen sown in spring on the winter furrow, after being stir- cultural implements, and applied to their improvement red by the grubber; and barley also, after turnip, without his knowledge both as a mathematician and agriculturist, any ploughing at all. In working fallow it is used with The practice of drilling corn does not, however, seem to good effect in saving one, two, or more ploughings. This be gaining ground; and even where it is found of advanimplement is made of different sizes, and may be worked tage to have the plants rise in parallel rows, as must aleither by four or by two horses.1 ways be the case where hand-hoeing is required, this is ottarrows. sometimes by afterwards means of what is called a pro: cess which done will be described, as ribbing, more convehrrci.

The harrows most generally used are of an oblong nient in many cases than sowing with a drill-machine. | In a work recently published by General Beatson, a small kind of hoe has been much recommended, which produces the re^e«ect by successive operations, going at first shallow, and then deeper and deeper, as may be found necessary, or as the soil See Lstay on the Construction of a Plough, deduced from Mathematical Principles ; and Northumberland Report, p. 48. edit. 1800.

AGRICULTURE. 208 AgriculIn Scotland, turnips are universally sown with a drill- the seed falls, with small ridges between, the seed is bet- Api ture. machine, on ridges 27 or 30 inches broad, usually formed ter covered than by harrowing alone. But rollers are tu ' by one bout of a common plough. When turnips are ex- chiefly used for the purpose of smoothing and compressing tensively grown, the machine is made to sow two of these the soil and breaking down clods; and their weight is varidges at once, and two rollers are attached to it, one for ried accordingly. See Plate VII. smoothing the tops of the ridges before the seed is depo7. Horse-Rakes. sited, and the other for compressing the soil and covering In those districts where corn is cut with the scythe,Hors the seed. The front roller is now made concave, which the horse-rake is found to be a useful implement forrakea leaves the ridges in a better form for the seed. It is drawn by one horse walking between the ridges, and re- saving manual labour; it is also used for hay. The teeth ouiring no other driver than the person who guides the are of iron, 14 or 15 inches in length, and set five or six machine, which is simple in its construction, and most inches distant. Its construction is very simple. A man and horse are said to be capable of clearing from 20 to 30 expeditious in its operation. See Plate VII. Beans and peas, when sown in rows, are either depo- acres in a moderate day’s work, disposing the grain in sited in the space between two ridgelets, which are after- lines across the field, by lifting up the rake and dropping wards reversed to cover them, or in the bottom of a fur- it from the teeth, without stopping the horse. One of row made by a common plough,—in Scotland, usually in these has been lately used in the neighbourhood of Edinthat of every third furrow. The implement in most com- burgh for raking hay, and has given much satisfaction. mon use for this purpose is extremely simple, and is either See Plate VI. wheeled forward by a man, or attached to the common 8. Threshing-Machines. plough itself. Threshing-machines are now common in every part ofThre 5. Horse-Hoes. Scotland, on farms where the extent of tillage land re-math two or more ploughs; and they are every year HorseThe interval between the rows of drilled turnips, pota- quires hoes. toes, and beans and peas, being commonly from 2 to 2^ spreading more and more in England and Ireland. They feet, admits the employment of a horse-hoe or hoeing- are worked by horses, water, wind, and of late by steam; plough. Of this kind of machine there are a great many and their powers and dimensions are adapted to the varivarieties. A very good one is described in the Isorthum- ous sizes of farms. Water is by far the best power; but berland Report, p. 43; the body is of a triangular form, as a supply cannot be obtained in many situations, and and contains three coulters and three hoes, or six hoes, as wind and steam require too much expense for most according to the state of the soil. A hoe of the same farms, horses are still employed more generally than any kind is sometimes attached to a small roller, and employed other power. Where wind-mills are erected, it is found between rows of wheat and barley, from 9 to 12 inches necessary to add such machinery as may allow them to be distant; it is also used in place of a cultivator, in pre- worked by horses occasionally, in very calm weather; paring bean stubbles for wheat in autumn, and in pulve- and the use of steam must be confined • for the most part to the coal districts. rizing lands for barley in spring. All the essential parts of this machine will be noticed Small Another implement, which serves both as a double in describing the engraving (Plate IX.), though several plough and mould-board plough and a horse-hoe, is much approved slight alterations are occasionally introduced. One of horse-hoe of in the culture of drilled crops; and with some slight in one. alterations it may be also employed as a small plough for the most useful of these, perhaps, is the method of delitaking the earth from the sides of the ridgelets. When vering the straw, after it has been separated from the it is used as a horse-hoe, the mould-hoards are taken off, corn by the circular rake, to wdiat is called a travelling-ln and two curved cutters or coulters expand from the beam shaker, which carries it to the straw-barn. This shaker,s!ia on each side, to a less or greater distance, according to which revolves like the endless web formerly used for ‘ the width of the interval between the plants, and approach conveying the corn to the beaters, is composed of small each other in the bottom of the furrow, where the share rods, placed so near as to prevent the straw from falling supplies their place. This machine is well adapted for through, while any threshed corn that may not have been light soils, and can be set to work very near the rows of formerly separated drops from it in its progress, instead plants; it is particularly useful in cutting up annual of falling along with it, where it would be trodden down weeds preparatory to hand-hoeing, which it greatly faci- and lost. It is well known that the work of horses at threshinglitates. When it is to be employed as a single or double Universal mould-board plough, the cutters are withdrawn. A very mills is unusually severe, if continued for any length ot complete implement, answering these different purposes, time; that they sometimes draw unequally; that they, drillplough and is known under the name of Morton’s Universal Drill as well as the machine itself, are much injured by sudden harrow. Plough and Harrow, which is found very convenient in jerks and strains, which are almost unavoidable ; and that, the hands of skilful ploughmen, and seems well suited for from this irregularity in the impelling power, it requires the use of small farms, or situations where a variety of much care in the man who presents the corn to the rolimplements is not often required; so many of these being lers, to prevent bad threshing. It is therefore highly decombined in one, and admitting of being easily separated sirable that the labour should be equalized among the horses, and the movements of the machine rendered as and used each by itself. See Plate VII. steady as possible. A method of yoking the horses in G. Rollers. such a manner as compels each of them to take his proper Rollers. These are constructed of wood, stone, or cast-iron, and share of the labour has accordingly been lately introduced, of different dimensions, according to the purposes for and the necessary apparatus, which is neither complicated which they are used. The spike-roller is employed in nor expensive, can be added to any machine worked by some places when the soil rises in large masses, difficult animal power. {Farmer s Magazine, vol. xiii. p. 279.) to be reduced. The Norfolk drill-roller, on which rings See Plate IX. All well-constructed threshing-mills have one winnowof iron are fixed at small distances, is considered a useful implement, as, by forming parallel ruts into which ing-machine, which separates the chaff1 from the corn be-

AGRICULTURE. 269 fore it reaches the ground; and a second sometimes re- now admitted to be much less convenient for the general Agricul‘ cejves it from the first, and gives it out ready for market, purposes of a farm, and particularly on occasions which ture. v x y ✓Wor nearly so; the work done varying with the power and require great dispatch, as in harvesting the crop. Ac-'^~ '“ “ cording to Marshall, the waggons used in Gloucestershire the kind of grain from three to six or eight quarters in the hour. If the height of the building does not admit are the best in England. (Rural Economy of Gloucesterof this last addition, a separate winnowing-machine, when shire.') In some places the improved Irish car is employthe mill is of great power, is driven by a belt from it. In ed for light loads, while the waggon continues to be used either of these ways there is a considerable saving of for other purposes. Carts, drawn by one or two horses, are, however, the Carts, manual labour. And with a powerful water-mill, it cannot be doubted that corn is threshed and dressed at no only farm-carriages of some of the best cultivated counmore expense than must be incurred for dressing alone ties, and no other are ever used in Scotland. Their load when threshed with the flail. Besides, the corn is more depends upon the strength of the horses and nature of completely detached from the straw; and, by being the roads; but in every case, it is asserted that a given threshed expeditiously, a good deal of it may be preserved number of horses will draw a great deal more, according in a bad season which would have spoiled in a stack. The to some one-third more, in single-horse carts than in waggreat advantage of transferring forty or fifty quarters of gons. Two-horse carts are still the most common among grain in a few hours, and under the eye of the owner, farmers in Scotland; but those drawn by one horse, two from the yard to the granary or market, is of itself suf- of which are always driven by one man, are unquestionably ficient to recommend this invaluable machine, even though preferable for most purposes. The carriers of the west of Scotland usually load from a ton to a ton and a half on a there were no saving of expense. I A machine of this kind, which is worked by one or two single-horse cart, and nowhere does it carry less than 12 hrcs! g- men, may probably be found useful on small farms. It cwts. if the roads are tolerable. For corn in the straw, and hay, the farmers of the south Corn and nill. is made for L.8 or L.10, and is said to thresh ten or twelve bushels in an hour. (Id. p. 409.) In some parts of Scotland and north of England use a sparred frame, hay cart, of England portable machines are in use, and carried from which is made to fit the same wheels from which the close body of the cart is removed. In other places the close one farm to another, like any common implement. body is retained, and movable rails attached to it for 9. Winnowing-Machine. these loads. See Plate VI. Carts are varied in their construction to suit different Coup-cart, rt"nr>. This is said to be of Chinese invention, and to have np-m; been brought to Europe by the Dutch, from whom it purposes. A very convenient carriage for home work, bine, reached Scotland in the early part of the last century. called a coup-cart, discharges its load with great ease and They were first made by a person of the name of Rodgers, expedition ; the fore part of the close body being made to near Hawick, in Roxburghshire, who happened to see one rise up from the shafts on drawing out an iron pin, while in a granary at Leith in the year 1733, though it would the other end sinks, and allows the load to fall to the appear that one had been brought from Holland to East ground. Broad wheels, with conical or convex rims, are common Broad Lothian, along with a barley-mill, twenty-two years before. Yet it does not seem to have been then known to in England ; in Scotland the wheels are generally narrow, wheels, farmers, nor did it come into general use till long after though broader ones are beginning to be introduced. 1733; and in some parts of England and of the north of Those used for the common or two-horse carts are usuScotland it is not employed even at this day. Two men ally about 41 feet high, and mounted on iron axles. The and three women will dress and measure up into sacks, in advantages of broad cylindrical wheels have been illusabout ten hours, from twenty to twenty-five quarters of trated with much force and ingenuity in several late publications. ( Communications to the Board of Agriculture, corn, by means of this machine. vol. ii. and vol. vii. Part i.) 10. Chaff-Cutter, and similar Implements. 12. Reaping-Machines. Chaffj ,t. Chaff-cutters may be either wrought separately by maAn implement capable of performing the process ofReaping:er. nual labour, or by being attached to some other machine. This implement, like the operation it performs, is sufficient- reaping corn is yet a desideratum in agricultural machi-machines, ly simple, though its construction is various. MacdougaTs nery, but which will probably be supplied, at least for fapatent chaff-cutter is understood to be one of the most vourable situations, at no distant period. In all field opeuseful of the kind, and may be easily repaired, when ne- rations, dispatch, in such a climate as this, is a matter of Fiim cessary, by any common mechanic. Another tool of a great importance; but in reaping corn at the precise pe‘her similar description is partially used for cutting turnips, riod of its maturity, the advantages of dispatch are incab which is often an advantageous practice, especially in culable, especially in those districts where the difficulty of feeding sheep of a year old in spring, after they have cast procuring hands, even at enormous wages, aggravates the Mitclifcs their first teeth. Various contrivances are also adopted danger from the instability of the season. It cannot, for ci ingby some farmers for cutting or bruising corn for horses, therefore, fail to be interesting, and we hope it may be ^r1’l l!1f’which ought to become a more general practice, particu- also useful, to record some of the more remarkable atlarly for old horses, and such as swallow their coni with- tempts that have been made towards an invention so emiStean) g out mastication. Akin to these inventions is the steaming nently calculated to forward this most important operation. '1'iwr is. apparatus, which should be considered a necessary apThe first attempt of this kind, so far as we have learn-Mr Boyce’s, pendage to every arable and dairy farm of a moderate ed, was made by a Mr Boyce, who obtained a patent size. The advantages of preparing food for live stock by for a reaping-machine about 30 years ago. This mameans of steam begin now to be generally and justly ap- chine was placed in a two-wheeled carriage, somewhat resembling a common cart, but the wheels were fixed preciated. upon the axle, so that it revolved along with them. A 11. Wheel- Carriages. co’-wheel within the carriage turned a smaller one at the Waggons, though they may possess some advantages upper end of an inclined axis, and at the lower end of over carts in long journeys, and when fully loaded, are this was a larger wheel, which gave a rapid motion to a

AGRICULTURE. 270 Agricul- pinion fixed upon a vertical axis in the fore part of the the cutter requires to be four times sharpened with a com- A* ture. carriage, and rather on one side, so that it went before mon scythe-stone. The expense is estimated at from t one of the wheels of the carriage. The vertical spindle L.30 to L.35. If properly managed, it may last for many^ sj descended to within a few inches of the surface of the years, only requiring a new cutter every two or three ground, and had there a number of scythes fixed upon it years; a repair which cannot cost much. But we are sorry to learn that, after some not unsatisfactory trials, horizontally. This machine, when wheeled along, would, by the rapid Mr Smith has not found it convenient to prosecute his revolution of its scythes, cut down a portion of the corn invention. A more recent attempt has been lately made by Bel ea growing upon the grdund over which it passed; but havP ing no provision for gathering up the corn in parcels and Mr Patrick Bell, A. M. His machine was tried at^ cllil Gowrie, in the county of Forfar, in the month of Seplaying it in proper heaps, it was wholly unfit for the purtember 1829, in cutting down oats, barley, and wheat, pose. Mr Pluck- An agr icultural implement maker of London, Mr Pluck- on ground of uneven surface and considerable declivity. net’s. net, attempted some years afterwards to improve this ma- It is about five feet broad, and consequently cuts down chine. The principal alteration he made was in substitut- this breadth of corn as it moves onward. The stubble ing for the scythes a circular steel plate, made very sharp left was from three to four inches high ; and the cut corn at the edge, and notched on the upper side like a sickle. was deposited as the machine advanced, in a very regular This plate acted in the same manner as a very fine-toothed manner. It was worked by one horse, and may cost saw, and was found to cut the corn much better than the about L.30, the work done being at about the rate of an imperial acre in the hour. In the opinion of the farmers scythes of the original machine. Mr Glad, A description and drawing of a machine, invented by and others present at this trial, this machine will come stones’s. Mr Gladstones of Castle Douglas, in the stewartry of Kirk- immediately into general use, and confer a signal benefit cudbright, are given in the Farmer s Magazine, vol. vii. on agriculture. {Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, &c. p. 273. It operated upon nearly the same principles with No. III. p. 331.) The Flemish or Hainault scythe has been tried at dif-Ha ft Mr Plucknet’s; but Mr Gladstones made it work much better by introducing a circular table, with strong wooden ferent times, and recommended as a better implement forscj teeth notched below all around, which was fixed imme- reaping corn than the sickle or scythe in common use; diately over the cutter, and parallel to it. The use of and it was lately brought fully before the public, under these teeth was to collect the corn and retain it till it was the patronage of the Highland Society of Scotland. At operated on by the circular cutter. The corn when cut the request of this society, M. Masclet, late French conwas received upon this table, and, when a sufficient quan- sul at Edinburgh, brought over two young men from Flantity was collected, taken away by a rake or sweeper, and ders to show the use of this implement, and to instruct laid upon the ground beneath the machine, in separate our own labourers. The trials were made, after public parcels. To this machine was added a small circular notice, in several parts of Scotland, with the different vawheel of wood covered with emery, which, being always rieties of grain, and under different circumstances as to in contact with the great cutter at the back part, or op- the state of the crop at the time ; and the results seem to posite side to that where the cutting was performed, kept be very much in its favour. The straw was cut nearly as it constantly ground to a sharp edge. close as with the common scythe, taken up clean except Mr SalThe next attempt was made by Mr Robert Salmon of where the crop was very thin, and laid down regularly in mon’s. Woburn, Bedfordshire, whose invention, it is said, pro- a proper state for binding and threshing. A man will cut mised better than those we have mentioned. It was con- with this implement two roods or half an acre a day; and structed upon a totally different principle, as it cut the the saving has been calculated as equal to about one-third corn by means of shears ; and it was provided with a very of what would be required to cut the same crop by the complete apparatus for laying it down in parcels as it was sickle now in use. See Plate VI. cut. Still, however, the most common implement for reapingSic Mr Smith's, One of the most promising machines of this kind of is either the teethed hook or the smooth sickle, sometimesha which we have received any account, was constructed by called the scythe-hook. It has been disputed which of Mr Smith, of the Deanston Cotton Works, Perthshire. He these is preferable. The sickle cuts the straw like a made the first trial of it upon a small scale, during the har- scythe, and where the crops are strong, there can be no vest of 1811. It was then wrought by two men. In 1812 he doubt that the work is performed with much less labour, constructed one upon a larger scale, to be wrought by a and the crop taken up equally clean as by the teethed horse; but though he cut down several acres of oats and hook. But where the crop is thin and straggling, some barley with considerable ease, it was found that, when met of the stalks drop to the ground as they are cut, instead by an acclivity, the horse could not move the machine of being gathered and taken up, as they would have been with proper effect. In 1813 he made a more successful by the teethed hook. attempt with an improved machine, worked by one man We have thus noticed all the most important impleand two horses; and in 1814) it was still further improved ments in general use, and shall have occasion, under the by an additional apparatus, tending to regulate the appli- proper heads, to advert to some others that are only emcation of the cutter when working on an uneven surface. ployed occasionally. Our limits require us to pass over The cutter of this machine is circular, and operates ho- those of a more simple kind, which are well known, and rizontally ; it is appended to a drum connected with the may be found fully described in a variety of publications. fore part of the machine, its blade projecting some inches (See Communications to the Board of Agriculture, the beyond the periphery of the lower end of the drum (See County Reports, and the General Report of Scotland.) Plate VIII.); and the machine is so constructed as to communicate, in moving forward, a rapid rotatory motion to Sect. II. Farm-Houses. this drum and cutter, by which the stalks are cut, and, falling upon the drum, are carried round and thrown off Suitable farm-buildings are scarcely less necessary toft in regular rows. This ingenious piece of machinery will the husbandman than implements and machinery, and ho cut about an English acre per hour, during which time might, without much impropriety, be classed along with

AGRICULTURE. 271 machine works ; and that the com should be raised to it Agricul• . them, and considered as one great stationary machine, ftur'" operating more or less on every branch of labour and pro- from the ground-floor either by the threshing-mill itself, tore, v >f tVyduce. There is nothing which marks more decidedly the or a common windlass, easily worked by one man. When'^' ^ state of agriculture in any district than the plan and exe- it is to be taken out and carried to market, it may be lowered down upon carts, v/ith the utmost facility and cution of these buildings. In erecting farm-houses, the first thing that deserves dispatch. There is evidently no greater expense incurnotice is their situation, both in regard to the other parts red by this arrangement, for the same floor and height of of the farm, and the convenience which they ought them- side-walls that must be added to the barn are required in selves to possess. In general, it must be of importance on whatever situation the granary may be, and it possesses arable farms, that the buildings should be set down at several advantages. Owing to its being higher than the nearly an equal distance from the extremities; or so si- adjacent buildings, there is a freer circulation of air, and tuate that the access from all the different fields should less danger of pilfering, or of destruction by vermin ; the be easy, and the distance from those most remote no corn can be deposited in it as it is dressed, without being greater than the size of the farm renders unavoidable. exposed to the weather; while the saving of labour is in lately reThe advantages of such a position in saving labour are most cases considerable. This plan has been 1 too obvious to require illustration ; and yet this matter is commended by several agricultural writers, and has been not nearly so much attended to as its importance deserves. found exceedingly convenient in practice. Stables are now constructed in such a manner that all Stables, In some cases, however, it is advisable to depart from this general rule, of which one of the most obvious is, when a the horses stand in a line with their heads towards the command of water for a threshing-mill and other pur- same side-wall, instead of standing in two lines, fronting poses can be better secured in another quarter of the farm. opposite walls, as formerly. Those lately erected are The form most generally approved for a set of offices is at least sixteen feet wide within walls, and sometimes that of a square, or rather a rectangular parallelogram, the eighteen, and the width of each stall upon the length of houses being arranged on the north, east, and west sides, the stable is commonly five feet. To save a little room, and the south side fenced by a stone wall, to which low stalls of nine feet are sometimes made to hold two horses ; buildings for calves, pigs, &c. are sometimes attached. and in that case the manger and the width of the stall The space thus inclosed is usually allotted to young cattle : are divided into equal parts by what is called a half-trethese have access to the sheds on one or two sides, and vice, or a partition about half the depth of that which seare kept separate, according to their size or age, by one or parates one stall from another. By this contrivance, each more partition-wqlls. The farmer’s dwelling-house stands horse indeed eats his food by himself; but the expense of at a short distance from the offices, and frequently com- single stalls is more than compensated by the greater mands a view of the inside of the square ; and cottages ease, security, and comfort of the horses. The trevices, for servants and labourers are placed on some convenient or partitions which divide the stalls, are of deals two inches thick, and about five feet high; but at the heads of the spot, not far from the other buildings. The number and arrangement, as well as the size of horses the partition rises to the height of seven feet, and the different houses, must depend in some degree on the the length of the stall is usually from seven to eight feet. The manger is generally continued the whole length of extent of the farm and the general management. It is therefore only necessary to notice particularly those which the stable. It is about nine inches deep, twelve inches are indispensable in every case on an arable farm, and the wide at the top, and nine at the bottom, all inside measure, and is placed about two feet four inches from the degree of accommodation they should afford, m. The barn is always set down so as to be as convenient ground. Staples or rings are fixed in the breast of the as possible for the stack-yard, wherever corn is put up in manger, to which the horses are tied. stacks instead of being immediately carried from the field The rack for holding their hay or straw is also comto the barn itself. Relatively to the other buildings, its monly continued the whole length of the stable. It is situation may be varied according to circumstances ; but formed of upright spars, connected by cross rails at each two things should be-attended to ; first, its contiguity to end, and from two to two and a half feet in height. The the granary ; and, second, its facility of access for furnish- rack is placed on the wall, about one foot and a half above ing straw to the cattle-houses. In the plan delineated in the manger, the bottom almost close to the wall, and the Plate VL, it is placed in the middle of the north range, top projecting outwards so as to form an angle with it of with one end projecting into the stack-yard, and the twenty or twenty-five degrees. The spars are sometimes other, where the straw is lodged, on a line with stables on made round, and sunk into the cross rails, and sometimes one side, and cattle-houses on the other, and having a square. In a few stables lately built, the round spars turn door opening towards the straw-yards. As it is to be un- on a pivot, which facilitates the horse’s access to the hay* derstood throughout this description that a threshing-mill without requiring the interstices to be so wide as to peris employed, a width of from 20 to 30 feet within walls, on mit him to draw it out in too large quantities. die length of this side of the square, will generally be suffiImmediately above the racks is an opening in the haycient for the straw-house. The height of the barn must loft, through which the racks are filled. When it is be such as to allow at least one winnowing-machine to be thought necessary, this may be closed by boards moving attached to the mill, and its length is determined by the on hinges. size of the farm. Behind the horses, and about nine feet from the front renat A granary is an indispensable accommodation on all to- wall, is a gutter, having a gentle declivity to the strawlerably large farms, and is commonly, though in many yard or urine-pit. Allowing about a foot for this, there cases improperly, placed above the cart-sheds, to be after- will remain a width of eight feet to the back wall, if the wards noticed. From experience and observation, we stable be eighteen feet wide; a part of which, close to would recommend that the granary should be under the the wall, may be occupied with corn-chests and places roof of the barn, immediately above the floor on which the for harness. 1

Dickson’s Practical Agriculture, voL i. p. 43 ; and General Report of the Agricultural State of Scotland, vol. i. p. 141.

AGRICULTURE. 272 AgriculIn some of the best stables the racks occupy one of the cart-sheds outwards to the road. On one of these sides ture. angles between the wall and trevices, and form the qua- there should be a close apartment for small tools, and an- ^ drant of a circle. The spars are perpendicular, and wider other for preparing corn and roots by steam, which maySA placed than in the hanging racks. The ha}r-seed falls also serve for other purposes. In some convenient place * into a box below, instead of being dropped on the ground, near the stables and cattle-houses, or immediately over them, there should be sleeping-rooms for the servants or incommoding the eyes and ears of the horses. With a view to save both the hay and the seed, it is an who have the charge of them, that they may be at hand advantage to have the hay-stack so near the stable as to in case of accidents during the night. Along the wall which completes the inclosure, such low j admit of the hay being thrown at once upon the loft. In some stables there is no loft, and the hay is stored in a buildings may be set down, particularly hog-styes andai % separate apartment. The floor is, for the most part, poultry-houses, as may be thought desirable. These styesl! paved with undressed stones ; but, in some instances, the should open behind into the straw-yards, to which the ^ space from the gutter to the back wall is laid with flags hogs should have access for picking up corn left on the straw, and such turnips, clover, &c. as are refused by the of freestone. According to the plan we are describing, cattle-houses cattle. When they are kept in great numbers, it may be Cattlehouses. are placed on the other side of the straw-house, and, with necessary to allot them a range of styes, with yards in a root-house, complete the north side of the square. The front, in another place, as is commonly done by gentleextent of these, it is evident, depends not only on the size men farmers; but it is absurd fastidiousness in a rentof the farm, but on the general management, and must paying farmer to exclude these profitable animals from vary according as rearing, fattening, or daily cattle, form the a place where a few of them will make themselves fat principal object. To avoid prolixity, let it be understood without a shilling of expense, and without any real inthat this part of the range is allotted to fattening cattle. jury to the cattle among which they feed. It will be seen from the engraving (Plate XL), that a There are three ways in which the cattle are placed ; first, in a row towards one of the side walls; second, in two road, which should be always kept in good order, goes rows, either fronting each other, with a passage between, along three sides of this square, from which there is access or with their heads towards both side walls; and, third, to the houses, instead of entering through the^traw-yards across, or upon the width of the house, in successive rows, from the inclosed area. All the houses in which live with intervening passages for feeding and removing the stock are kept have an opening behind towards the strawdung. In the first plan it is usual to have openings in yards, for carrying out their dung. This plan, which, with slight variations, required by the walls, through which they are supplied with turnips, otherwise they must necessarily be served from behind, circumstances, is common in the north of England and with much inconvenience both to the cattle-feeder and the south of Scotland, is meant to combine convenience with cattle themselves. The plan that is most approved of, economy, and is well adapted to most arable farms in the and which is now becoming general when new buildings are occupancy of tenants. Proprietors who farm, sometimes erected, is to fix the stakes to which the cattle are tied about choose to add several other buildings, and at the same two and a half or three feet from the wall; which allows the time to vary a little their distribution. Thus, it is comcattleman, without going among them, to fill their troughs mon to separate the straw-yards from the sides of the successively from his wheelbarrow or basket with much square by a cart-way, towards which all the doors open, ease and expedition. It is also a considerable improve- and the hog-styes with yards are usually placed behind ment to keep the cattle separate by partitions between one of the sides where they are least exposed to obserevery two. This will in a great measure prevent acci- vation. dents, and secure the quiet animals from being injured by In every case, it is absolutely necessary that there the vicious ; for, in these double stalls, each may be tied should be water in or near the area. In the plan deline-tr up to a stake placed near the partition, so as to be at ated in Plate XI. a pump is placed at the end of the some distance from his neighbour; and it is easy to lodge wall which divides the area, and along this wall are fixed together such as are alike in size and in temper. The troughs, to which the cattle on each side have access at width of such stalls should not be less than 71 feet, and all times. the depth must be regulated by the size of the cattle. When a great number of cattle are fed at the stake, itU ■pit RootWherever a number of cattle are fed, an apartment is is necessary to have a reservoir near the square to receive house. required for containing turnips, potatoes, Arc. when brought their urine. The urine is either applied to the land in from the field, until they are dealt out into the troughs. its liquid state, or earth, peat-moss, &c. is thrown into This apartment is placed either on the line of the cattle- the pit in such quantities as may be necessary to absorb houses, or begins another side of the square, at the angle it. Sometimes the reservoir is sunk below the area, and of the junction of the two sides. The outer door ought the urine raised by a pump, and spread over the strawto be so large as to admit a loaded cart; and there is an yard. But on those arable farms where no more cattle inner door that opens into the feeder’s walk along the are reared or fattened, and no more turnips consumed at heads of the cattle. At the other end of this, a door the homestead, than what are needed for converting the opens into the straw-house; so that their food and litter straw into manure, a reservoir for urine is not required, the are not exposed to the weather, and the labour of the whole of it being absorbed by the straw as it is dropped. feeder is greatly diminished. The practice of feeding cattle in small sheds and straw-fi iwl: Cattle The east and westr sides of the square consist chiefly of yards, or what are called hammels in Berwickshire, deand cart- sheds for the straw -yard cattle, and cart-sheds. But serves to be noticed with approbation, when saving of exsheds. stables for young horses, riding-horses, and for separating pense is not a paramount object. Two cattle are usually the sick from the others, may be placed upon that side kept together, and go loose, in which way they are thought which connects with the common stable already described; by some to thrive better than when tied to a stake, and, and, in like manner, a part of the opposite side, connect- at the same time, feed more at their ease than when a ing with the cattle-houses, may be allotted to cows ; or, number are kept together, as in the common straw-yards. ifi necessary, the feeding-houses may be continued. The All that is necessary is, to run partition-walls across the cattle-sheds are open towards the straw-yards, and the sheds and yards already described; or if these are allotted

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AGRICULTURE.

273 Arr ul- to rearing stock, one side of the square, separated by a cart- profitable management of arable land. They are not only A^rV, 1 way from the straw-yards, is appropriated to these hammels. necessary to protect the crops from the live stock of the ture On large farms, a smith’s and a wright’s shop are found farm, but often contribute, in no small degree by the'^v^s. (mitiandexceedingly convenient, even though used only one or shelter they afford, to augment and improve the’produce rrig.’S two days a week. Much time is lost in going to a distance itself. On all arable farms on which cattle and sheep are bo ,: l to the residence of these necessary mechanics; and it is pastured, the ease, security, and comfort, which good now not uncommon to have houses furnished with the fences give, both to the owner and the animals themnecessary accommodations on farms of this description, selves, are too evident to require particular notice. And where the smith attends at stated intervals, and the as there are few tracts so rich as to admit of crops being wright when wanted. It is better to set down these carried off the land for a succession of years, without the houses at a little distance, than to place them on the intervention of green crops consumed where they grow', square, whence, among other inconveniences, the danger fences of some description or other can very rarely be from fire is a sufficient reason for excluding them. dispensed with, even in the most fertile and highly imjotus. The cottages for farm-servants, which are usually set proved districts. down in a line, at not an inconvenient distance from the There is no branch of husbandry so generally mismaoffices, ought to contain each of them at least two apart- naged as this. No district of any considerable extent, ments with fire-places, though in some of the best culti- perhaps, can be named, in which one does not see the vated counties there is only one chimney, and no other greater part of what are called fences, not only comparadivision than what is made by the furniture. _ But better tively useless, but wasteful to the possessor of the lands accommodation for this useful and meritorious class is which they occupy, and injurious both to himself and his now generally allowed in erecting new buildings. Every neighbours, by the weeds which they shelter. This is cottage has a small kitchen-garden adjoining; and as particularly the case with thorn hedges, which are too farm-servants in the southern counties of Scotland have often planted in soils Avhere they can never, by any maeach of them a cow, kept all the year on the farm as part nagement, become a sufficient fence; and which, even of their wages, it is common to attach a byre for them to when planted on suitable soils, are in many cases so much the range of cottages, and sometimes also hog-styes and neglected when young, as ever afterwards to be a nuiapartments for fuel. _ sance, instead of an ornamental, permanent, and impeneiwebg- It is unnecessary to say any thing of a farmer’s dwell- trable barrier, which, with proper training, they might cush ing-house, as the size and accommodations are very little have formed in a few years. different from those of other dwelling-houses possessed Until of late, inclosures have too often been made with-General by people of the same property or income. It is only on out much regard to the size of the farm, the exposure, rules, dairy farms that particular apartments are necessarily ap- the form of the fields, and the equability of the soil, propriated to the business of a farm; and these shall be This is the more to be regretted in the case of live fences, described under a separate article. See Dairy. which ought to endure for a long course of years, and Most of the farm-buildings recently erected in the best which cannot be eradicated without considerable expense, cultivated counties are covered with slate. A thatched It is impossible, indeed, to lay down any rules on this roof is still common for cottages, though for these also subject that would be generally applicable; but upon a slate is beginning to be preferred. One cause of the com- little reflection, it must be evident that the size of the paratiye sterility of land in former times, was the great field should be suited not only to the extent of the farm, quantity of straw that was withdrawn from the food or but also to the nature of the soil, which ought to prescribe litter of cattle, and used as thatch, instead of being con- the course of management, whether in alternate white or verted into manure. green crops, or with the intervention of several years’ pase a P Tenants holding on leases for a term of years are usually turage; that the exposure of the land should be considtaken bound to keep all the houses on a farm in sufficient ered, in order that the fences may give the shelter that repair during their occupancy, and to leave them so at is most required; that the form of the field should be their removal, having received them in such a state at such as to render it most accessible from the farm-buildtheir entry. It is common to have them inspected by ings, and that it may be cultivated at the least expense, tradesmen, both at the beginning and expiration of a the lands or ridges not being too short, nor running out lease, for the purpose of determining their condition, and into angles at the points where the fence takes a different awarding such repairs as may be necessary. In some dis- direction; and that the soil of the inclosure should be as tricts it is the practice to ascertain their value at the nearly alike throughout as possible, that the whole field commencement of a lease, the tenant being bound at his may be always under the same kind of crop. It must, removal, when a second valuation takes place, to pay or in general, be a matter of consequence to have water to accept the difference. But the objections to this me- in every inclosure ; but this is too obvious to escape attentbod are obvious. If no change has taken place during tion. the currency of the lease in the price of materials and Notwithstanding the garden-like appearance which trees wages of labour, the tenant suffers by being called upon to growing in hedges give to the landscape, it seems to be make good the decay occasioned by the lapse of time, which agreed by the most intelligent agriculturists that they ought to be considered as covered by his rent. If, on the are extremely hurtful to the fence, and, for some distance, other hand, both materials and labour have advanced in to the crops on each side ; and it is evident that, in many price, as was the case of late years, the proprietor may be instances, the highways, on the sides of which they often obliged to make a large payment to the removing tenant, stand, suffer greatly from their shade. It has therefore even though the houses are rendered of less real value, been doubted whether such trees be profitable to the prooot only by time, but by carelessness or dilapidations. prietor, or beneficial to the public ;—to the farmer they are almost in every case injurious to a degree beyond Sect. III. Fences. what is commonly imagined. In the subdivisions of an arable farm, whatever may be ;ncc > Aext to implements and machinery and suitable build- the kind of fence which it is thought advisable to adopt, mgs, fences are in most situations indispensable to the we would recommend that particular attention be paid to r vol. ii. 2m

AGRICULTURE. 174 Agrieul- the course of crops which the quality of the soil points are stone walls and white thorn hedges. Stone walls have a' tion on such land is, that the soil is not so apt to be wash- of the present day have entered the lists, and exhausted ed down from the higher ground, as if the ridges were laid perhaps all the legitimate arguments on both sides, the at right angles. Wherever circumstances will permit, how- practice does not appear to give way, but rather to extend, ever, the best direction is due north and south, by which on wet, tenacious clays; and it is only on such that any the grain on both sides of the ridge derives nearly equal one contends for the advantages of fallowing. The expeadvantages from the influence of the sun. diency or inexpediency of pulverizing and cleaning the soil The land being thus formed into ridges, is afterwards by a bare fallow, is a question that can be determined cultivated without marking out the ridges anew, until the only by experience, and not by argument. No reasons, inter-furrows have been obliterated by a fallow or fallow however ingenious, for the omission of this practice, can crop. This is done by one or other of the following modes bring conviction to the mind of a farmer who, in spite of ^rewind of ploughing:—1. If the soil be dry and the land has been all his exertions, finds, at the end of six or eight years, that his land is full of weeds, sour, and comparatively unprolu01 , P^^hed the the ridges are of split such aoccupied way, that the space flat, which crown theoutoldin ridge is ductive. Drilled and horse-hoed green crops, though culnow allotted to the open furrow between the new ones, tivated with advantage on almost every soil, are probably lids is technically called crown-and-farrow ploughing. in general unprofitable as a substitide for fallow, and after iasti:. 2. When the soil is naturally rather wet, or if the ridges a time altogether inefficient. It is not because turnips, have been raised a little by former ploughings, the form cabbages, &c. will not grow in such soils, that a fallow is of the old ridges, and the situation of the inter-furrows, resorted to, but because, taking a course of years, the are preserved by what is called casting ; that is, the1 fur- value of the successive crops is found to be so much rows of each ridge are all laid in one direction, while greater, even though an unproductive year is interposed, those of the next adjoining ridge are turned the contrary as to induce a preference to fallowing. Horse-hoed crops 1 I' ng-way; two ridges being always ploughed together. 3. It of beans, in particular, postpone the recurrence of fallow, is commonly necessary to raise the ridges on soils very but in few situations can they ever exclude it altogether. tenacious of moisture, by what is called gathering, which On the other hand, the instances that have been adis done by the plough going round the ridge, beginning duced of a profitable succession of crops on soils of this at crown and raising all the furrow-slices inwards, description, without the intervention of a fallow, are so well Cleav v, ■k Ithe his last operation, when it is wished to give the land a authenticated, that it would be extremely rash to assert level surface, as in fallowing, is reversed by turning all the that it can in no case be dispensed with on clay soils.. furrow-slices outwards, beginning at the inter-furrows, Instances of this kind are to be found in different parts of and leaving an open furrow on the crown of each ridge. Mr Young’s Annals of Agriculture ; and a very notable In order to bring the land into as level a state as possible, one, on Mr Greg’s farm of Coles, in Hertfordshire, is acthe same mode of ploughing, or cleaving, as it is called, curately detailed in the sixth volume of the Communicamay be repeated as often as necessary. tions to the Board of Agriculture.

AGRICULTURE. 278 AgriculThe principal causes of this extraordinary difference that it may be of use to describe the several operations A ture. (among men of great experience may probably be found in according to the justly esteemed practice of East Lothian :ul. ^ the quality of the soil, or in the nature of the climate, or, and Berwickshire. “ Invariably after harvest, the land intended for being f in both. Nothing is more vague than the names by which soils are known in different districts. Mr Greg’s farm in summer-fallowed in the ensuing year gets an end-lontrde! particular, though the soil is denominated “ heavy arable ploughing, which ought to be as deep as the soil will a£ land,” and “ very heavy land,” is found so suitable to tur- mit, even though a little of the till or subsoil is brought nips, that a sixth part of it is always under that crop, and up. This both tends to deepen the cultivated or manured these are consumed on the ground by sheep—a system of soil, as the fresh accession of hitherto uncultivated earth management which every farmer must know to be alto- becomes afterward incorporated with the former manured gether impracticable on the wet, tenacious clays of other soil, and greatly facilitates the separation of the roots of districts. It may indeed be laid down as a criterion for weeds during the ensuing fallow process, by detachinodetermining the question, that wherever this management them completely from any connection with the fast subcan be profitably adopted, fallow, as a regular branch of soil. This autumnal ploughing, usually called the winthe course, must be not less absurd than it is injurious ter furrow, promotes the rotting of stubble and weeds • both to the cultivator and to the public. It is probable, and if not accomplished towards the end of harvest, must therefore, that in debating this point, the opposite parties be given in the winter months, or as early in the sprint are not agreed about the quality of the soil, and in parti- as possible. In giving this first ploughing, the old ridges cular about its property of absorbing and retaining mois- should be gathered up, if practicable, as in that state they ture, so different in soils that in common language have are kept dry during the winter months; but it is not uncommon to split them out or divide them, especially if the same denomination. Another cause of difference must be found in the cli- the land had been previously highly gathered, so that mate. It is well known that a great deal more rain falls each original ridge of land is divided into two half-ridges. on the west than on the east coast of Britain, and that Sometimes, when the land is easily laid dry, the furrows between the southern and northern counties there is at of the old ridges are made the crowns of the new ones, least a month or six weeks’ difference in the maturation of or the land is ploughed in the way technically called the crops. Though the soil therefore be as nearly as pos- crown-and-fur. In other instances, two ridges are ploughed sible similar in quality and surface, the period in which it together by what is called casting, which has been already is accessible to agricultural operations must vary accord- described. After the field is ploughed, all the interingly. Thus, in the south-eastern counties of the island, furrows, and those of the headlands, are carefully opened where the crops may be all cut down, and almost all car- up by the plough, and are afterwards gone over effectualried home by the end of August, much may be done in ly by a labourer with a spade, to remove all obstructions, cleansing and pulverizing the soil during the months of and to open up the water furrows into the fence ditches, September and October, while the farmers of the north wherever that seems necessary, that all moisture may are exclusively employed in harvest work, which is fre- have a ready exit. In every place where water is exquently not finished by the beginning of November. In pected to lodge, such as dishes or hollow places in the some districts in the south of England wheat is rarely field, cross or oblique furrows are drawn by the plough, sown before December; whereas in the north, and still and their intersections carefully opened into each other more in Scotland, if it cannot be got completed by the end by the spade. Wherever it appears necessary, cross cuts of October, it must commonly be delayed till spring, or are also made through the head ridges into the ditches with oats or barley be taken in place of wheat. a spade, and every possible attention is exerted that no It does not then seem of any utility to enter farther water may stagnate in any part of the field. into this controversy, which every skilful cultivator must “ As soon as the spring seed-time is over, the fallow determine for himself. All the crops, and all the modes land is again ploughed end-long. If formerly split, it is of management which have been proposed as a substitute now ridged up; if formerly laid up in gathered ridges, it for fallow, are well known to such men, and would un- is split or cloven down. It is then cross-ploughed; and questionably have been generally adopted long ago, if, after lying till sufficiently dry to admit the harrows, it is upon a careful consideration of the advantages and dis- harrowed and rolled repeatedly, and every particle of the advantages on both sides, a bare fallow was found to be vivacious roots of weeds brought up to view, carefully unprofitable in a course of years. The reader who wishes gathered by hand into heaps, and either burnt on the field to examine the question fully 1may consult, among many or carted off to the compost midden. The fallow is then others, the works noted below. ridged up, which places it in a safe condition in the event However necessary the periodical recurrence of fallow of bad weather, and exposes a new surface to the harrows may be on retentive clays, its warmest advocates do not and roller; after which the weeds are again gathered by recommend it on turnip soils, or on any friable loams in- hand, but a previous harrowing is necessary. It is aftercumbent on a porous subsoil; nor is it in any case neces- wards ploughed, harrowed, rolled, and gathered as often sary every third year, according to the practice of some as may be necessary to reduce it into fine tilth, and comdistricts. On the best cultivated lands it seldom returns pletely to eradicate all root-weeds. Between these sucoftener than once in six or eight years, and in favourable cessive operations, repeated crops of seedling weeds are situations for obtaining an extra-supply of manure, it brought into vegetation and destroyed. The larvae likemay be advantageously dispensed with for a still longer wise of various insects, together with an infinite variety period. of the seeds of weeds, are exposed to be devoured by Fallows are in many instances so grossly mismanaged, birds, which are then the farmer’s best friends, though particularly where they recur so often as to make it an often proscribed as his bitterest enemies. object to derive some profit from them by means of sheep, Some writers on husbandry have condemned the use vlZTAfXuUnfal X A?r;CultnBrown’s Z' an? ^ritings generally; Georgical Essays; Dickson’s Davy s Agricultural Chemistry; Treatise on Rural Affairs;Hunter’s The County Reports; and The GeneralPractical Report ofAgriculture; Scotland. Sir H-

agriculture. 279 am.!, of the harrow and roller in the fallow process, alleging peas, beans, tares, &c. but also to the different ,• , . »- root-weeds, by the baking or drying of the clods in the of herbage, as well as turnips, po" es and ™her Sre' 0 1 S 1, «**riplning «wo divisions gun and wind; but experience has ascertained, that fre- is, that corn or other culmiferous plants their quently turning over the ground, though absolutely ne- seeds are held to be scourging crops, whereas those that cessary while the fallow process is going on, can never fall under the denomination of green crops are considered eradicate couchgrass or other root-weeds. In all clay to be of an ameliorating description, or at least as not soils the ground turns up in lumps or clods* which the impairing the productive powers of the soil in the same severest drought will not penetrate so sufficiently as to degree. As it is our object to treat only of matters of practikill the included roots. When the land is again ploughed, ca utility, we shall not attempt any scientific arrangement these lumps are simply turned over and no more, and the but content ourselves with describing the principal crops’ action of the plough serves in no degree to reduce them, with their mode of culture, produce, and application, in or at least very imperceptibly. It may be added, that popular language, confining our remarks at present chiefly these lumps likewise inclose innumerable seeds of weeds, to such as are cultivated from year to year, as distinwhich cannot vegetate unless brought under the influence guished from those which, like the pasture grasses, are of the sun and air near the surface. The diligent use, intended to occupy the soil permanently or for an indetherefore, of the harrow and roller, followed by careful finite period. Of these by far the most important is, hand-picking, is indispensably necessary to the perfection 1. Wheat. of the fallow process.” (General Report of Scotland, vol. i. p. 419.) The soil best adapted to this grain is a clay or strong Wheat, When effectually reduced to fine tilth, and thoroughly loam, though its growth is by no means confined to such cleansed from roots and weeds, the fallow is ploughed soils. Before the introduction of turnips and clover, all end-long into gathered ridges or lands, usually 15 or 18 soils but little cohesive were thought quite unfit for wheat; feet broad, which are set out in the manner already de- but, even on sandy soils, it is now grown extensively and scribed in treating of the striking of furrows, or feiring. with much advantage after either of these crops. The If the seed is to be drilled, the ridges are made of such greater part of the wheat crop throughout Britain, howwidths as may suit the construction of the particular drill- ever, is probably still sown upon fallowed land. When it machine that is to be employed. After the land has been succeeds turnips consumed on the ground, or clover cut once gathered by a deep furrow, proportioned to the for hay or soiling, it is commonly sown after one ploughdepth of the cultivated soil, the manure is laid on, and ing ; but, upon heavier soils, or after grass of two or more evenly spread over the surface, whether muck, lime, marl, years, the land is ploughed twice or three times, or reor compost. A second gathering is now given by the ceives what is called a rag-falloiv. plough; and this being generally the furrow upon which The varieties of this grain are so numerous as not to Varieties, the seed is sown, great care is used to plough as equally admit of being enumerated here; but the most general as possible. After the seed is sown and the land tho- classification is according to colour, all the varieties being roughly harrowed, all the inter-furrows, furrows of the divided into white and red, though with several shades headlands, and oblique or furrows, are carefully opened between; or according to the time which the grain reup with the plough, and cleared out writh the spade, as quires to remain in the ground, being either sown before already mentioned respecting the first or winter ploughing. winter, or in the spring months ; and hence the distinction The expense of fallowing must appear, from what has between winter and spring or summer wheat. But this been said, to be very considerable, when land has been last variety must not be confounded with the winter wheats, allowed to become stocked with weeds; but if it be kept which are sometimes sown in spring. Several other difunder regular management, corn alternating with drilled ferences in wheat are sufficiently obvious: thus, the true pulse or green crops, the subsequent returns of fallow will summer wheat is usually bearded, and some of the winter not require nearly so much labour. In common cases, varieties are distinguished by being woolly-eared, or by from four to six ploughings are generally given, with har- the thickness of the chaff; all which and other peculiarities rowing and rolling between, as may be found necessary; give rise to different names, which are sufficiently underand, as we have already noticed, the cultivator may be stood in particular districts, though not in general use. employed to diminish this heavy expense. But it must The fine white wheats are considered more delicate he considered, that upon the manner in which the fallow than the red; but the latter, though seldom sown on rich operations are conducted depends not only the ensuing warm soils, are found most profitable, from their hardiness wheat crop, but in a great measure all the crops of the and early ripening, on inferior land, in an unfavourable rotation. climate. A great many different sorts of summer wheat, transmitted some years ago to the president of the Board Sect. VI. Of THE DIFFERENT KINDS OF CROPS. of Agriculture by the Agricultural Society of Paris, were divided, for the purpose of experiment, among several e C1 ^ . ’°ps cultivated in Britain present every variety distinguished agriculturists ( Communications to the Board of which the soil and climate will admit; and in an agri- of Agriculture, vol. vii. page 11); but their comparative cu tural point of view may be considered under several merits, or adaptation to the climate of Britain, do not 1 'visions, according to their nature, or the purposes for seem to have been satisfactorily ascertained. Summer, ",Hc 1 tllcy are intended. The most popular arrangement or, as it is often called, spring wheat, has, however, been p aces all sorts of farm crops under the two general heads long and extensively cultivated in some parts of England, o corn and green crops ; the former applicable to the use particularly in Lincolnshire, and may probably be found 0 man an > d fhe latter to that of cattle, sheep, and other a valuable crop in the southern counties; but the trials 'aneties of live stock. The former include the different that have been made of it in the north do not entitle it to eerealia, of which the most important are wheat, barley, preference over winter wheat sown in spring, or even to r }c, and oats. The latter, or green crops, comprise a still aoats or barley, in that climate. It is sometimes usefully eater variety, the words being, in common language, employed in filling up any blanks that appear in spring a PP led not only to pulse or leguminous plants, such as among the winter-sown wheats

280 Agriculture.

AGRICULTURE. Winter wheat is sown on early turnip soils, after clover machine ; and the ribbs are afterwards levelled by bar. or turnips, at almost every period from the beginning of rowing across them. This plan has nearly all the advanSeptember till the middle of March; but the far greater tages of drilling, in so far as regards exposure to the rays1' A! part is sown in September and October. For summer of the sun, and the circulation of air among the plants- ' * wheat, in the southern districts, May is sufficiently early; but, as some plants must always rise between the rows it but in the north, the last fortnight of April is thought a is not quite so proper when hand-hoeing is required. more eligible seed-time. In the cultivation of springThe dibbling of wheat is practised to some extent inp sown winter wheat, it is of importance to use the produce the county of NoiTolk, and occasionally in other quarters of spring-sown grain as seed, as the crop of such grain though it is perhaps too laborious and tedious a process in ripens about a fortnight earlier than when the produce of our unsteady climate ever to come into general use. An the same wheat winter-sown is employed as spring seed. expert dibbler, with the assistance of three children to Prepara, Wheat, before being sown, is usually prepared with drop the grains, goes over about half an acre a day; and tion of pickles or steeps and quicklime, as a preventive of smut. the seed, which is usually from one bushel to six pecks per seed. We shall only add a short account of a method of prepa- acre, is covered by means of a bush-harrow. The prinration which has been followed with success in the south cipal, if not the only advantage that attends this method of Scotland, and of the efficacy of which we can speak is the saving of seed. An attempt was made to employ a from our own experience. Take four vessels, two of them machine for the purpose, but it has never come into use. smaller than the other two, the former with wire bottoms, We have seen a field of which a part was sown broad-cast and of a size to contain about a bushel, the latter large and a part dibbled, for the purpose of comparison; and the enough to hold the smaller within them. Fill one of the latter certainly appeared at the time more equal and luxularge tubs with water, and, putting the wheat in a small riant than the former, but it had no superiority in point one, immerse it in the water, and stir and skim off the of produce, except perhaps that it contained a less proporgrains that float above; and renew the water as often as tion of small grains, or presented altogether a more equal is necessary, till it comes off almost quite clean. Then sample. raise the small vessel in which the wheat is contained, The quantity of seed necessary depends both on theQ and repeat the process with it in the other large tub, time of sowing and the state of the land; land sown early of [' which is to be filled with stale urine; and in the mean requiring less than the same land when sown in winterer time wash more wheat in the water tub. When abun- spring, and poor land being at all times allowed more seed dance of water is at hand, this operation is by no means than the rich. The quantity accordingly varies from two tedious ; and the wheat is much more effectually cleansed bushels or less to three, and sometimes even to four bushels from all impurities, and freed more completely from weak per imperial acre. Winter wheat, when sown in spring, and unhealthy grains and the seeds of weeds, than can be ought always to have a liberal allowance, as the plants done by the winnowing-machine. When thoroughly washed have not time to tiller much without unduly retarding their and skimmed, let it drain a little, then empty it on a clean maturation. floor, or in the cart that is to take it to the field, and riddle When wheat is sown broad-cast, the subsequent culture Ai nil. quicklime upon it, turning it over, and mixing it with a must generally be confined to harrowing, rolling, andtu shovel, till it be sufficiently dry for sowing. hand-hoeing. As grass-seeds are frequently sown in Broad-cast Wheat is most commonly sown broad-cast, in a manner spring on winter-sown wheat, the harrows and roller are and drill too well known to need any description. Drilling is, how- employed to loosen the soil and cover the seeds. But sowing. ever, extensively practised in some districts, and is becom- these operations, to a certain extent, and at the proing more general on lands infested with the seeds of annual per season, are found beneficial to the wheat crop itself, weeds, especially when sown in spring. A machine which especially on strong clays, and are sometimes performed sows at three different intervals, according to the judg- even when grass-seeds are not to be sowm. One or two ment of the farmer, of 12, 101, 0r 9 inches, is much ap- courses of han'owing penetrate the crust which is formed proved of in Scotland. It deposits six, seven, or eight on tenacious soils, and operate like hand-hoeing in raising rows at once, according as it is adjusted to one or other of a fresh mould to the stems of the young plants. Rolling these intervals, and the work is done with ease and accuracy in spring ought never to be omitted on dry, porous soils, when the ridges are previously laid out of such a breadth, which are frequently left in so loose a state by the winter 12^- feet, as to be sown by one bout; the machine going frosts, that the roots quit the soil and perish ; and if the along one side of such a ridge, and returning on the other, land be rough and cloddy, the roller has a still more beneand its direction being guided by one of its wheels, which ficial effect than the harrows in pulverizing the inert thus always runs in the open furrow between the ridges. masses, and extending the pasture of the plants. HandIf the 101 incb interval be adopted, and it is the most weeding, so far as to cut down thistles and other long common one in that country, the machine sows seven rows weeds, is never neglected by careful farmers; but the at once, or 14 rows on a ridge of 121 feet. But the space previous culture ought to leave as little as possible of this between the rows varies in some parts still more than this work to be done when the crop is growing. Annual weeds, machine admits of; it ought not, however, to be so narrow which are the most troublesome, can only be effectually as to prevent hand-hoeing, even after the crop has made destroyed by hand-hoeing ; and to admit of this, the crop considerable progress in growth ; and it cannot advantage- should be made to rise in rows, by being sown either by a ously be so wide as to admit the use of any effective drill-machine, or on ribbs. Where grass-seeds are to be horse-hoe. sown on drilled wheat, the hand-hoeing assists in covering Sowing on A third mode of sowing is common in some places, by them. < ribbs. which a drill-machine is dispensed with, though the same Wheat, which is almost universally reaped with theKi ?■ purpose is nearly answered. This is by what is called sickle, ought not to stand till it be what is called dead ribbing, which we have already adverted to in the section ripe, when the loss is considerable, both upon the field and on tillage. The seed is scattered with the hand in the in the stack-yard. When cut, it is usually tied up m usual broad-cast manner, but as it necessarily falls for the sheaves, which it is better to make so small as to be done most part in the furrows between the ribbs, the crop rises by bands the length of the straw, than so thick as to rein straight parallel rows, as if it had been sown by a drill- quire two lengths to be joined for bands. The sheaves

AGRICULTURE. 281 i _ri J. are set up in shocks or stocks, each containing in all twelve, of a boy. The value of the work of eight horses for a Agricultui or, if the straw be long, fourteen sheaves. In the latter day may be stated at 30 shillings, and the wages of the yv^nase, two rows of six sheaves—are — made ~ to stand in such a chivei may be called two shdhngs and sixpence. Hence ture. hock manner as to be in contact at the top, though, in order to the total expense of threshing 250 bushels may amount admit the circulation of air, at some distance below; and to about twopence per bushel, when the wages of the along this line two sheaves more are placed as a covering, attendants are added; still leaving a considerable differthe corn end of both being towards the extremities of the ence in favour of threshing by the machine in preference [ousi. line. In a few days of good weather the crop is ready for to the nail. W ere it even ascertained that the expense id sU ■ the barn or stack-yard. In the stack-yard, which is com- of threshing by horses and by the flail is nearly the monly contiguous to the farm-offices, having the barn on same, horse-mills are to be recommended on other acone of its sides, it is built either in oblong or circular c®UI?,t® ;.sucl1 as better threshing, expedition, little risk stacks, sometimes on frames supported with pillars, to pre- ot pilfering, &c. vent the access of vermin, and to secure the bottom from 1 he produce of this crop, like that of most others, ne-Produce dampness; and as soon afterwards as possible the stacks cessaruy depends mainly upon the nature of the soil and are neatly thatched. When the harvest weather is so wet season. In a rich clayey loam it has been known to yield as to render it difficult to prevent the stacks from heating, so much as eight quarters the imperial acre, weighing when coocu about 60 lbs. the bushel; but the dressed :it has been. the 1practice . , to , make funnels :: r through o . them, ''‘“J “a 111 ms. me nusnei; common return large one m a central and perpendicular direction, and has been estimated at less than half this quantfly, and the small lateral ones to communicate with it. A particular nnrt en nr nvomn-o i safely , y miy,throughana me average cannot perhaps be stated 4higher method of constructing pillars, frames, and bosses, as the out any one county than from 3 to 31 quarters, the weight funnels are called, is described in a recent publication. varying from 54 to 62 or 64 lbs. per bushel. The weight (Husbandry of Scotland, vol. i. p. 373.) In the best cul- of the straw, which may run from a ton to a ton and half tivated counties, the use of large barns for holding the crop per acre, is used for thatch, packing, and, in the country, is disapproved of, not only on account of the expense, but chiefly for litter to the live stock. because corn keeps better, or is less exposed to damage The season best adapted for wheat is universally underof any kind, in a well-built stack. stood to be a summer in which there is much sunshine and ireeh*'. By means of the threshing-mill all sorts of corn are ex- little rain. Both in regard to quantity and quality, the crop peditiously separated from the straw and dressed for mar- is always best in a season rather too dry and hot for some ket. One man feeds the grain in the straw into the other crops, the produce being then usually much greater machine, and is assisted by two half-grown lads, or young than the bulk of the straw would lead one to expect. women, one of whom pitches or carries the sheaves from heat is liable to a variety of diseases, particularly in Diseases the bay close to the threshing-stage, while the other opens the more advanced stages of its growth. Of these the the bands of every sheaf, and lays the sheaves successive- most destructive are smut and mildew. The former appears Smut, ly on a small table close by the feeder, who spreads them in the shape of a black or smut ball (lycoperdon globosuni), evenly on the feeding-stage, that they may be drawn in which partially occupies the ear of the stalk, to the exclusuccessively by the fluted rollers, to undergo the ope- sion of the grain, and so far lessens the quantity of proration of threshing. In the opposite end of the barn or duce. But its worst effect is, that when the ball crumbles straw-house into which the rakes or shakers deliver the into powder in the threshing and dressing, this powder clean threshed straw, one man forks up the straw from the contaminates more or less all the sound grain, and thus floor to the straw-mow, and two lads, or young women, reatl build md tread trppd Itit down. _ In a threshing-machine ~ ‘^'7^ ""‘“T’ S y into injures the whole, whethertoit be conu kt it and work- verted flourthe or quality used asofseed. If it prevails a great ex ense of hand labour Tn the^th^h- lg ^ ^t th/^hole ratlon P and1 as a PovverfuTmnVl! I 11 ^ T ’ to 7 hundred hush, knf g in ^

aad

rendered quite unfit for being sown, ought never to be used in that way, to whatever pro! cess it may be previously subjected. We have already noticed a useful method of preparing the seed, which answers the double purpose of clearing the grain from any sli ht taint of smut and S ’ gating lighfgrains as well as noxious y be obtained seeds, by butvarious we areother awaremeans. that the The same object effect in ma all cases is to destroy the infection to which the grain is liable from the powder of the smut ball, as it is a general opinion among all intelligent agriculturists, that smut in the seed will produce a smutted crop if sown without preparation. But the safest course is to select such grain for seed as exhibits no appearance of smut at all. Mildew is a disease of a very different nature from smut, Mildew, and its ravages in the most aggravated cases are far more destructive. It is generally thought to be produced by a peculiar state of the atmosphere; and when it comes on between the periods of flowering and ripening, it has been known to destroy whole fields within a few days. In such cases nothing can be done either by way of prevention or remedy. It has been found, however, that in all seasons mildew prevails more or less in particular situations; and there is reason to believe that the vicinity of the barberry bush, and probably several other shrubs, contributes to produce it, the same parasitical fungi being found on the straw of mildewed wheat which are known to abound on the barberry and some other plants. The prevalence of 2N

AGRICULTURE. heavy fogs or mist, drizzling rains, and sudden changes in seeds be sown, which are covered by this last harrowing. the temperature, have been assigned as the causes of mil- Barley is sometimes sown on the first ploughing, and co- ^ dew ; and as it has been found that open airy exposures vered by a second shallow ploughing. As it is found oN V are much less affected than low sheltered lands, in years great importance, with a view to speedy and equal vegewhen mildew prevails most generally, the disorder may tation, that the ground should be fresh and moist, barley perhaps be somewhat diminished by drilling, which admits is generally sown upon what is termed hot-fur; that is, as a freer circulation of air. Spring or summer wheat is soon as possible after it is turned up by the plough. From the beginning of April to the middle of MayisSsL less liable to mildew than the winter species, though it does not always escape. (Sir Joseph Banks on Mildew, considered the best season for sowing barley, though in«> and Communications to the Board of Agriculture, vol. vii.) early situations it may be sown a fortnight later. Bear, or bigg, is an earlier, as well as a hardier kind, than the 2. Rye. two-rowed barley, and may be sown later. Winter-sown Eye. The cultivation of this species of grain is more limited barley, which may be eaten in spring and afterwards stand than it was in former times, when rye, either by itself or for a crop, is found to answer well in particular districts. mixed with wheat, furnished the bread of the labouring On land infested with annual weeds, the drilling of this classes; and in most parts of Britain there is no steady grain is an advantageous practice; but throughout the coundemand for it. It is nevertheless a profitable crop in try at large, this, and all other culmiferous crops, are more particular districts, and especially on sandy soils, that will generally sown broad-cast If the land be rich, a small scarcely carry any other kind of grain. There are two quantity of seed is sufficient; often so little as two bushels general varieties, the one sown before winter, and the per acre, and seldom more than three or three and aCL other in spring; and it is further distinguished by its black half; and its produce varies from three to five quartersd or white colour. The winter sort, which is the most the acre, and may average four quarters. The chief conplump and hardy grain, is sometimes cultivated as a green sumption is in the distilleries and breweries; but in the crop, to be eaten in spring, where turnips are not raised, north of England, and in Scotland, it is partially used for or after they are consumed. There is nothing in its ha- bread, either by itself, or mixed up with a small proportion bits or mode of culture that requires particular notice. of beans or peas, though much less so now than formerly. It is sometimes sown on the margins of fields, near farm- Part of it is made into what are called pot barley and houses, as a protection to other crops against the depre- pearl barley, in which the husk is taken off at the mill; dations of poultry, which do not feed on it, and seldom and, in the latter case, so much of the kernel as to give it penetrate through it; and its straw is more valuable for a round form. It is also occasionally ground into flour by thatch, though useless as fodder, than that of any other taking out the bran, and in this state made into cakes, which are much esteemed in some parts of Scotland. species of corn. Barley, like wheat, is most productive in a dry, warm 3. Barley. season. For this reason, what is grown in the south of Barley. This is a much less hardy grain than either of the for- England is almost always superior to the produce of the mer, and succeeds best on a finely pulverized soil, not so northern parts of the island. It is not, like wheat, liable little cohesive as that which will carry rye, but much farther to any peculiar disease ; and is, of all the corn-crops, removed, on the other hand, from the clays best adapted the best nurse for clover, which, under good management, to the growth of wheat. It is cultivated largely as a ro- is usually sown along with it. The straw of this grain, tation crop in most parts of Britain, and generally sown which may' weigh upon an average about a ton per acre, is after turnips, though sometimes after beans or peas; and used chiefly as litter for live stock. Barley is cut down in some places with the sickle, and! even after a bare fallow, if the land be not thought fit for wheat, or if the weather has prevented it from being sown in others with the scythe; in England, very commonly at the proper season. Spring-sown wheat, either of the with the latter, and in Scotland, almost always with the winter or summer species, and early oats, particularly the former. It is the most difficult of all the species of corn potato variety, now occupy a portion of the land that was to save in a precarious harvest, and usually requires more labour in threshing and dressing, particularly in separatformerly allotted to barley. Varieties. The most intelligible distinction among the different ing the awns from the grain, for which an apparatus kinds of barley is founded on the number of the rows on called a hummellmg-vnuchine is sometimes added to the the ear. Thus we have Hordeum distichon, two-rowed threshing-mill. barley, which is the kind most extensively cultivated, and 4. Oats. comprises several varieties; Hordeum tetrastichon, fourThis hardy grain is sown, with little preparation, on alrowed barley, often called bear or bigg, the culture of which is, for the most part, confined to inferior soils, or to most every kind of soil, and too often follows culmiferous situations where the climate is unfavourable to the former crops, as well as pulse, herbage, and bulbous-rooted plants. species; and Hordeum hexastichon, or six-rowed barley, Where a correct course of alternate white and green crops which is but little known in Britain, though it is the pre- prevails, oats usually succeed clover; and it is almost alvailing kind in the north of Europe, and said to be the ways the first crop on land that has been several years in grass. As it prospers best on a soil not too finely pulvehardiest of all. , Ctifi' PreparaTo whatever crop barley succeeds, the harrow and rol- rized, it is commonly sown on one earth. There are numerous varieties of this species, which are tion. ler, when the plough alone is insufficient, should be employed in reducing the soil to a considerable degree of distinguished by colour, form, and the period of ripening, fineness. In most cases more than one earth is given ; and by the names of the countries, such as the Polan though, after a winter furrow, the cultivator may be used and the Dutch, from whence they are understood to have in spring instead of the plough. After turnips, eaten on been brought, or of the places where they were origma ) the ground by sheep, the land, being consolidated by their cultivated. The chief of these are the common white vatreading, sometimes receives two ploughings; but if only riety, so well known as to need no description; the re , one, it should be well harrowed and rolled; and it is often and what is called the potato-oat. For land in good cu finished by harrowing after the roller, especially if grass- tivation, the two latter are probably the best,—the re

AGRICULTURE. 283 A?r il- for uplands exposed to high winds,—and the potato vaBeans, though still sown broad-cast in several places, Agricultu riety in lower situations. Both of these are early, and and sometimes dibbled, are for the most part drilled by ture. V-z-v^yield more abundantly, in grain as well as meal, than most judicious cultivators, or deposited after the plough invModes -^“\^^ others. The potato-oat is said to have been discovered every furrow, or only in every second or third furrow. In of sowin S* by accident in Cumberland in 1788. {Farmers Maga- the latter method, the crop rises in rows, at regular in terzine, vol. xiv. p. 167.) But it is now very extensively vals of 9, 18, or 27 inches, and the hand-hoe ought invaraised, on suitable soils, in the north of England, and riably to be employed; but it is only where the widest throughout the lowlands of Scotland. It usually brings a inteival is adopted that the horse-hoe can be used with higher price at Marklane than any other variety. The much effect in their subsequent culture. red oat is so called from the colour of its husk : it has a In the preparation of the land, much depends on the thinner and more flexible stem, and the grain is more nature of the soil and the state of the weather; for as firmly attached to it, than in any of the early varieties ; beans must be sown early in the spring, it is sometimes so that upon good soils, in high situations, as it is in less impossible to give it all the labour which a careful farmer danger of suffering from wind, and is at the same time would wish to bestow. It must also be regulated in some so much earlier than the common kinds, it is entitled to a measure by the manner of sowing. But as we are dedecided preference, particularly in a late climate. It is cidedly of opinion that beans ought in general to be plantunderstood to have originated in the county of Peebles, ed with such a distance between the rows as to admit of and is sometimes called the Magbiehill-oat, from the name horse-hoeing, we shall confine ourselves to this mode of of the estate where it was first cultivated. culture, which we think should be generally known, Seasoi f Oats are sown, usually broad-cast, in the months of making use of the latest publication on the subject, which suwini'i March and April, seldom earlier or later ; and from four contains an accurate account of the different operations. to six bushels are allowed to an acre. The produce, {General Report of Scotland, vol. i. p. 515.) which varies greatly, from this grain being sown on land In preparing ground for beans, it ought to be ploughed Prepara, of every quality, may be stated generally at about five with a deep furrow after harvest or early in winter; andtory culquarters per acre. They are often carried to the barn as two ploughings in spring are highly advantageous, theture for like hay, without being tied up in sheaves; but in the winter furrow may be given in the direction of the formerbeans' north they are either managed in the way already de- ridges, in which way the land is sooner dry in spring scribed for wheat, or set up in single sheaves or gaits as than if it had been ploughed across. The second ploughthey are cut, and tied more tightly when ready to be car- ing is to be given across the ridges, as early in spring as ried, and then built in the stack-yard. Wherever a the ground is sufficiently dry ; and the third furrow either threshing-mill is employed, as it is necessary, in order to forms the drills or receives the seed, as shall be mentionhave the work done well, that corn should be presented ed immediately. to the rollers in a regular, uniform manner, the practice Dung is often applied to the bean crop, especially if it of mowing, and carrying it in a loose state, is highly im- succeeds wheat. By some, dung is spread on the stubble proper; and, independently of this objection, the season previous to the winter ploughing ; but this cannot always often occasions much damage to corn managed in this be done in a satisfactory manner, at least in the northern slovenly manner, which it would have escaped in sheaves parts of the island, unless during frost, when it may lie and covered shocks. long exposed to the weather before it can be turned down le straw oats s more va UG as by the plough. The most desirable mode therefore is, to stm ^ * ^ fodder than that an ot ler corn cro fodder ^ * P> and it is advantageously used as lay the manure into drills immediately before the beans a substitute for hay diming the winter months in some are sown. ot the best cultivated districts, both for farm-horses and There are, as already hinted, two several modes of Sowing in cattle. drilling beans. In one of these, the lands or ridges are rowsdivided by the plough into ridgelets or one-bout stitches, 5. Peas and Beans. at intervals of about 27 inches. If dung is to be applied, Peas a the introduction of clover and turnips, the culture the seed ought first to be deposited, as it is found inconDeans. of Since peas, which are almost everywhere a most precarious venient to run the drill-machine afterwards. The dung ciop, has been greatly diminished. Their straw or haulm may then be drawn out from the carts in small heaps, one is sometimes more valuable than the grain produce, which, row of heaps serving for three or five ridgelets ; and it is m a wet or late season, is frequently little more than the evenly spread, and equally divided among them, in a way *eed; and when the straw is not luxuriant, so much of that will be more minutely described when treating of die land is left exposed to the growth of weeds, that it is the culture of turnips. The ridgelets are next split out rendered unfit for carrying corn crops till cleansed by a or reversed, either by means of the common plough or allow or fallow crop. Drilling is but an ineffectual reme- one with two mould-boards, which covers both the seed /. r foose inconveniences, the stems falling over and co- and the manure in the most perfect manner. U'rmg the ground in so irregular a manner as in a great When beans are sown by the other method, in the measure to prevent either horse or hand-hoeing at the bottom of a common furrow, the dung must be previously ime when it would be most beneficial. Yet a luxuriant spread over the surface of the winter or spring ploughing. crop of peas, by^completely covering the surface, keeping Three ploughs then start in succession, one immediately e soa ln a moist and mellow state, and preventing the behind another, and a drill-barrow either follows the third plough, or is attached to it, by which the beans are orbarhWee^S’ a S00c^ PreParation for either wheat sown in every third furrow, or at from 24 to 27 inches ihe culture of beans is almost confined to clays and asunder, according to the breadth of the furrow-slice. le e st mana e Another approved way of sowing beans, when dung is iJln,0nS k0am8 ^ b . £ d districts, turnip soils y no means suited to this crop. Beans usually applied at seed-time, is to spread the dung, and to plough tu0e'^ 88, " le‘V' or oa^» b'A sometimes also clover or pas- it down with a strong furrow; after which shallow furSj? common horse-bean is the kind most rows are drawn, into which the seed is deposited by the Cra cu ^ hivated; but large and small ticks are prefer drill-machine. Whichever of these modes of sowing is in some of the English counties. followed, the whole field must be carefully laid dry by

1

AGRICULTURE. 284 The most approved mode of reaping beans is with the % j. Agricul- means of channels formed by the plough, and when neture. cessary by the shovel; for neither then nor at any former sickle, but they are sometimes mown, and in a few in- rti period should water be allowed to stagnate on the land. stances even pulled up by the roots. They should be cut^ The time of sowing beans is as early as possible alter as near the ground as possible, for the sake of the straw, Time of sowing. the severity of winter is over; in the south sometimes in which is of considerable value as fodder, and because the January, but never later than the end of March, as the best pods are often placed on the stems near the roots. ripening of the crop and its safe harvesting would other- They are then left for a few days to wither, and afterwards bound and set up in the shock to dry, but without wise be very precarious in this climate. Quantity The quantity of seed allowed is very different in the any head-sheaves. Beans are built in circular or oblong stacks, often in the of seed. southern and northern parts of Britain; in the former, even when the rows are narrow, only two bushels or two latter form ; and it is always proper, if the stack be large, bushels and a half; but in Scotland seldom less than four to construct one or more funnels, to allow a free circulabushels to the English statute acre, even when sown in tion of air. They may be threshed by the mill, and dressridgelets 27 inches distant, and a bushel more when sown ed by the winnowing-machine, like any other grain. The produce of beans, like that of other pulse crops, is Pro, ^ broad-cast. Beans and Both in the broad-cast and drill husbandry it is com- exceedingly precarious, and probably does not exceedsand . peas mix- mon to mix a small quantity of peas along with beans. upon an average three quarters per acre. That of peas, ™t>n. ed. This mixture improves both the quantity and quality of as we have observed, is still more uncertain. But the the straw for fodder; and the peas-straw is useful for haulm of both is valuable in the feeding of live stock; and the bean crop comes in on clay soils as a preparative binding up the sheaves in harvest. After-cul- . The bean crop is generally harrowed to destroy annual for wheat, thus postponing the recurrence of a naked falture. weeds; sometimes just before the plants make their ap- low. The consumption of peas and beans is chiefly in pearance, and sometimes after the beans have got their the feeding of horses and hogs; but the proportion in first green leaves, and are fairly above ground, \\hen which the former is grown in the best courses of husbandso^n in rows in either of the modes already mentioned, ry is comparatively inconsiderable. In the neighbourhood of London and some other large the harrows are employed about ten or twelve days after ; and, being driven across the ridgelets, the land is laid towns, varieties of the pea are cultivated for supplying green peas at an early period of the season, which at completely level for the subsequent operations. ; After the beans have made some growth, sooner or that time bring a very high price; but this belongs to later, according as the soil may happen to be encumbered gardening rather than to agriculture. with or free from weeds, the horse-hoe is employed in the 6. Tares. interval between the rows, and followed by the hand-hoe The tare, though cultivated for its stems and leaves Ta for the purpose Of cutting down such weeds as the horsehoe cannot reach : all the weeds that grow among the rather than for its fruit or seeds, is so similar to the pea beans beyond the reach of either hoe should be pulled up in its habits and mode of culture, that it seems proper to with the hand. The same operations are repeated as mention it in this place. The common tare is distinguished into two sorts, theta often as the condition of the land in regard to cleanness winter and spring tare. It is the opinion of an eminent may require. < Before the introduction of the horse-hoe, which merely botanist that they are the same plant (Walkers Hebrides, stirs the soil, and .cuts up the weeds, a common small vol. i. p. 228); but though this may have been true of plough, drawn by one horse, was used in working between the tare in its natural state, there is reason to believe the tows, and is still necessary where root-weeds abound. that a material difference now exists, superinduced perThis plough goes one bout, or up and down in each in- haps by cultivation. (Annals oj Agriculture, vol. ii.) terval, turning the earth from the beans, and forming a The winter tare, by the experiments detailed in the work ridgelet in the middle: then hand-hoes are immediately just referred to, escaped injury from frosts which destroyemployed ; and after some time a second hand-hoeing ed the spring variety. The difference in the colour and succeeds, to destroy any fresh growth of weeds. The size of the seeds is, however, so inconsiderable as to be same plough, with an additional mould-board, finally splits scarcely distinguished; but “ the winter tare vegetates open the intermediate ridgelet, and lays up the earth to with a seed leaf of a fresh green colour, whereas the the roots of the beans on each side. The benefit of lay- spring tare comes up with a grassy spear of a brown dusky ing up the earth in this manner, however, is alleged to be hue.” (Dickson’s Practical Agriculture, vol. ii. p. 889.) The winter variety is sown in September and October, S is 4d. per rood of 20 lineal feet; and I am at the ex- of Europe; not because all the land is required for propense of carrying the turf from the place where it is cut, ducing grain, but, on the contrary, because the demand aymg it down close to the drains in a regular line, so the population for grain is so limited, compared with the a tie person employed by the contractor in putting it of extent of the country, as to leave the far greater part in can easily reach it without coming out of the drain. the possession of the inferior animals, which in this case

AGRICULTURE. 308 Agricul- can be brought to market at a much lower price than valuable are, the sweet-smelling vernal-grass (Anthoxm. a ml. ture. would replace the charges of feeding them on crops rais- ihum odoratum); perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne) ■ v. foxtail (Alopecurus pratensis); common meadow-grass^ ed by means of aration. Other causes than the scantiness of population have (Poa trivialis and Poa pratensis) ; and soft meadow-grass Greater part of produced a similar effect, though in a much smaller de- (Holcus lanatus). The poas compose the greater part of Britain gree, in Great Britain; and by far the larger part of our the celebrated Orcheston meadows near Salisbury, and of still allotthe no less productive meadows near Edinburgh. ted to live territory also is still appropriated to the maintenance of The period at which stock is excluded from meadows, Ti of live stock. A great portion of it, indeed, is incapable of stock. being cultivated with any advantage ; but meadows, pas- in order that the grasses may rise for a hay crop, is dif-sh u tures, and wastes, are spread over extensive tracts, that ferent, according to the nature of the soil in regard todmP ahumidity, and the kind of stock with which the land is would yield cultivated crops in abundance, both for man and the inferior animals. Before concluding this article, we depastured. In some instances the cattle are removed in shall have occasion to notice what seem to be the causes November, while the sheep are continued on the ground of this state of things; but it is unquestionable that, in till February. {Middlesex Report, p. 224.) In other places the present circumstances of the country, a great deal of the meadows are open to all kinds of stock from August the most fertile land is employed more profitably for its to April {Id. p. 219), and to sheep even till May. {Linowners and occupiers, under perennial herbage, than it colnshire Report, p. 196.) In the judicious management of meadow lands, atten-M could be under our most approved courses of tillage. In what respect the interest of the nation is concerned in tion must be paid to prevent the stagnation of water andm< the growth of aquatic plants, and to extirpate fern, docks, this arrangement, this is not the place to inquire. To give a concise view of the agricultural state of the thistles, and other weeds. Moss, in particular, often esland in Britain not subjected to aration, we shall offer tablishes itself on such lands, to the great injury of the some observations on Meadows, on Natural Pastures, and valuable grasses, and can with difficulty be removed, even by the application of calcareous manures. Ant and moleon Wastes, in separate sections. hills also abound in meadows, and are too often so much neglected as to render a large portion of the surface nearSect. I. Meadows. ly unproductive. And in these, as in all other hay grounds, Meadows. By meadows, we understand all such land as is kept the preparatory operations for the scythe should always under grass chiefly for the sake of a hay crop, though oc- conclude with the use of a heavy roller. The most important particulars in the management of casionally, and at particular seasons of the year, it may be depastured by the domesticated animals ; and we usually meadow lands are, their improvement by irrigation, and include under this term the notion of a greater degree of by the application of manure. Of Irrigation we shall moisture in the soil, than would be thought desirable treat in a separate article. With regard to the time at which manure should be either for permanent pasture or lands in tillage. Where hay is in great demand, as near large towns, and espe- applied, a great difference of opinion prevails among the cially if a good system of cropping be but little under- farmers in England. In the county of Middlesex, where stood, a great deal of arable land, indeed, may be seen almost all the grass-lands are preserved for hay, the maappropriated to hay crops ; but the most valuable meadows nure is invariably laid on in October {Middlesex Report, are such as are either naturally rather moist, or rendered p. 224), while the land is sufficiently dry to bear the driving of loaded carts w ithout injury, and when the heat of so by means of irrigation. Very little As the alternate and convertible systems of husbandry, the day is so moderated as not to exhale the volatile parts meadow in before explained, prevail throughout all the lowlands of of the dung. Others prefer applying it immediately after Scotland. Scotland, there is little land that deserves the name the hay-time, from about the middle of July to the end of of meadow; though it is sometimes applied to marshy August, which is said to be the “ good old time1 and spots, not worth improving for tillage, which yield a if that season be inconvenient, any time from the beginquantity of coarse herbage to be made into hay, and are ning of February to the beginning of April.2 It is, howcalled bog meadows. The only natural hay grounds of ever, too common a practice to carry out the manure much value in Scotland are to be found in the sheep-walks during frosty weather, when, though the ground is not of the southern counties, where one or two small inclo- cut up by the carts, the fertilizing parts of the dung are sures near the farmer’s or shepherd’s dwelling-house are dissipated and washed away by the snow and rains before commonly reserved for producing hay to feed the flocks they can penetrate the soil. during a deep snow ; and as there is seldom much land in “ There is scarcely any sort of manure that will not be tillage in such places, the manure made from a few horses useful when laid on the surface of grass-lands; but in geand cows is sometimes spread on the surface of these neral those of the more rich dung kinds will be the most fields, though by no means according to any regular plan. suitable for the older sorts of sward-land, and dung in To a very small extent, watered meadows have been tried composition with fresh vegetable earthy substances the in Scotland; but, from a general conviction of the superior more useful in the new lays or grass-lands.”—“ In this advantages of cultivating herbage and roots on all soils district it is the practice of the best farmers to prefer the that can be made to produce them, and probably also richest dung they can procure, and seldom to mix it with owing to the less fertilizing qualities of the waters, even any sort of earthy material, as they find it to answer the meadows of this kind are not likely ever to become of ge- best in regard to the quantity of produce, which is the neral importance there. The remarks which we mean to principal object in view ; the cultivators depending chiefoffer on this subject must therefore be understood as ap- ly on the sale of their hay in the London markets.”—“ h plicable to the practice of England only. is the practice to turn over the dung that is brought from Plants. The indigenous plants of which meadow-grass consists London in a tolerable state of rottenness, once chopping necessarily vary with the qualities of the soil. The most it well down in the operation, so as to be in a middling 1

Com. to Board of Agriculture, vol. iv. p. 138.

2

Dickson’s Practical Agriculture, vol. ii. p. 915*

AGRICULTURE. t of fineness when put upon the land. It is necessary, hay-makers (of which number twelve may be women) to Amicul sta e t e. however, that it should be in a more rotten and reduced four mowers : the latter are sometimes taken half a day ture. state when applied in the spring, than when the autumn to assist the former. But in hot, windy, or very drying is chosen for that purpose.” (Dickson’s Practical Agricul- weather, a greater proportion of hay-makers will be required than when the weather is cloudy and cool. ture, vol. ii. p* 915.) KxfiSome very interesting experiments have been made “ If ^ particularly necessary to guard against spreading men wjth different kinds of •’manure, for the purpose of ascer- more hay than the number of hands can get into cock taining their effects, both in regard to the quantity and qua- the same day, or before rain. In showery and uncertain lity of the produce on different kinds of land. Fourteen lots, weather the grass may sometimes be suffered to lie three, of half an acre of eight yards to the rod each, were thus four, or even five days in swath. But before it has lain manured, and the grass was made into hay, all as nearly long enough for the under side of the swath to become alike as possible. The greatest weight of hay was taken yellow (which if suffered to lie long would be the case), from the lot manured with horse, cow, and butchers’ particular care should be taken to turn the swaths with dung, all mixed together, of each about an equal quantity. the heads of the rakes. In this state it will cure so much It lay in that state about two months, and was then turn- in about two days as only to require being tedded a few ed over and allowed to lie eight or ten days more, after hours, when the weather is fine, previous to its being put which it was put on the land before it had done ferment- together and carried. In this manner hay may be made ing, and spread immediately. And to ascertain the qua- and stacked at a small expense and of a good colour, lity of the produce of the different lots, a small handful but the tops and bottoms of the grass are insufficiently from each was laid down on a dry, clean place, where separated by it. there was little or no grass, and six horses were turned “ There are no hay-stacks more neatly formed, or out to them, one after another. In selecting the lots, better secured, than those of Middlesex. At every vathere seems to have been little difference of taste among cant time, while the stack is carrying up, the men are the horses; and all of them agreed in rejecting two lots, employed in pulling it with their hands into a proper one of which had been manured with blubber mixed with shape; and about a week after it is finished, the whole of soil, and the other with soot,—in both instances laid on it is properly thatched, and then secured from receiving in the month of April preceding. {Lancashire Report, any damage from the wind, by means of a straw-rope exp. 130, et seq.) tended along the eaves, up the ends, and near the ridge. “ The proportion of manure that is necessary must in The ends of the thatch are afterwards cut evenly below a great measure depend upon the circumstances of the the eves of the stack, just of sufficient length for the rainland, and the facility of procuring it. In this district water to drip quite clear of the hay. When the stack (near London), where the manure is of a very good and happens to be placed in a situation which may be suspectenriching quality, from its being produced in stables and ed of being too damp in the wunter, a trench of about six other places where animals are highly fed, the quantity or eight inches deep is dug round, and nearly close to it, is usually from four or five to six or seven loads on the which serves to convey all the water from the spot, and acre, such as are drawn by three or four horses in their renders it perfectly dry and secure.” {Middlesex Report, return from town on taking up the hay.” (Dickson’s p. 238-241.) Practical Agriculture, vol. ii. p. 916.) When the grass has risen again after the hay crop, it is AfterManure is laid on at intervals of time, more or less dis- usually depastured, as has been already mentioned when grass, tant, according to the same circumstances that determine treating of clovers: to mow a second time is considered the quantity of it. Though there are some instances of a bad practice among the best hay farmers. {Middlesex hay-grounds bearing fair crops every year during a length Report, p. 249.) But it is the usage of some to leave the of years without any manure, or any advantage from1 pas- after-grass on the ground without being eaten till spring, turage, except what the after-grass has afforded, yet when it is said to be preferable, for ewes and lambs, to in general manure must either be allowed every third or turnips, cabbages, or any other species whatever of what fourth year, or the land depastured one year and mown is termed spring-feed. This mode of management, which die other; “ or, what is better, depastured two years and is strongly recommended by Mr Young, and in some mown the third.” {Noi'thumberland Report, p. 111.) A cases by Mr Marshall also, is unknown in the north, where, succession of hay crops, without manure or pasturage, on though it is in many cases found beneficial, with a view to meadows not irrigated, is justly condemned by all judi- an early spring growth, not to eat the pastures too close cious farmers, as a sure means of impoverishing the soil. before winter, it would be attended with a much greater mode of converting this herbage into hay, being loss of herbage than any advantage in spring could comsomewhat different from that which has been described pensate, to leave the after-growth of mown grounds unin regard to clovers and ryegrass, requires to be mention- touched till that season. There has never been found any ed here. The farmers of Middlesex, who supply the me- deficiency of milk with ewes that are tolerably well suptropolis with hay, are understood to manage this depart- plied with turnips a little before and after they drop their ment of rural economy in a very perfect manner; and a lambs. particular account of their practice is given in the Report The weight of the hay produced on meadows well maoy Middleton, to which we refer. naged, being on an average about one ton and a half per “ In the course of hay-making,” says this writer, “ the acre, holds out little encouragement to retain good arable "•ass should, as much as possible, be protected both day land in this condition ; and, unless near London and a few and night against rain and dew, by cocking. Care should other large towns, pasturage would probably give a much a so be taken to proportion the number of hay-makers to more valuable return. In Lincolnshire, where there are mt of the mowers, so that there may not be more grass some of the richest grazing lands in England, it is obd le fitlescr any ^me ^ian oan be managed according to served that all lands that will feed cattle should be mown ibed process. This proportion is about twenty as little as possible ; and nothing pays worse there than the 1_

1

Marshall’s Review of Reports to the Board of Agriculture, p. 183, Western Department.

AGRICULTURE. 310 Aericul- scythe: “ it costs as much labour as a crop of corn, and respecting the management of this kind of land, on which icul. ture. more than in many counties, and is not of half the value, some difference of opinion does not prevail. Hie time of re. v ' (Lincolnshire Report, lp. 195.)y stocking,—the the animals, and whether theyS oil number nr ntofnitrnmnt tho ovfov^ « the inclosures,—and the propriety of eating the herbage Sect. II. Pastures. close, or leaving it always in a rather abundant state,-—are FermaWe have already mentioned, in the preceding chapter, all of them questions which it is- scarcely possible to denent pas- that pasturage for one, two, or more years, is frequently cide in a satisfactory manner by the application of genetures. interposed in the course of cropping arable land, to pre- ral rules. They can only be resolved, with any pretenvent that exhaustion of the soil which is commonly the sions to utility, "by a reference to the particular circumconsequence of incessant tillage crops. The pasture lands stances of each case; for the practice of one district, in to be treated of here are, therefore, such as are retained regard to these and other points, will be found quite inpermanently, or at least for an indefinite period, in this applicable to others, where the soil and climate, and the state, merely for the sake of the herbage they yield, and purposes to which the pastures are applied, are materially without any particular view to the amelioration of the different. It has been recommended to apply manure to grasslands for bearing crops of grain. In this general application of the word, permanent pastures include not only lands, even where, not being used as hay grounds, they such land as might be cultivated by the plough, but also afford no means of supply. (Dickson’s Practical Agriall those uplands to which tillage operations could not be culture, vol. ii. p. 953.) But, excepting the dung dropped extended with any prospect of remuneration, such as the by the pasturing animals, which should always be regufar greater part of the hilly and mountainous sheep grounds larly spread from time to time, it may be laid down as a throughout this kingdom. The nature of these pastures rule of pretty extensive application, that if grass-lands do is, however, so different, and the expediency of retaining not preserve their fertility under pasturage, it would be arable land in permanent pasture has been so keenly dis- much better to bring them under tillage for a time, than cussed, that it will be proper to notice the two descrip- to enrich them at the expense of land-carrying crops of tions separately, under the general though not quite acAnother practice, which is scarcely less objectionable, Tti curate appellations of feeding and hilly pastures. Under the former we may comprehend all old rich pastures that is that of stacking on the field, or carrying to be consumed are capable of fattening cattle; and under the second, there during winter the provender that ought to have such as are adapted to rearing them only, or are more furnished disposable manure for the use of the farm at large. It is to no purpose that such a wasteful practice advantageously depastured by sheep. is defended, on dry light soils, which are alleged to be 1. Feeding-Pastures. thus benefited by the treading of the cattle. (Marshall’s FeedingOf these thei*e is a great extent in most of the counties of Rural Economy of Yorkshire, vol. ii. p. 131.) During the pastures. England, but very few in Scotland, except near the houses frequent and heavy falls of rain and snow in winter, there of great proprietors; and much useless controversy has is scarcely any land so dry as not to be injured by the been carried on between the farmers of the two countries, treading of heavy cattle ; and were there any thing gained about the comparative advantages of preserving such pas- in this respect by this management, it would be much tures, or of bringing them under a regular system of alter- more than counterbalanced by the loss of a great part of nate or convertible husbandry. That much of this land the manure from the same cause. The able writer to in the south would be more productive, both to the pro- whom we have just referred very properly disapproves prietor and occupier, under a good course of cropping of carting on manure in winter; and for the same reathan under pasture, it is impossible to deny; but it is no son,—namely, the loss of it which must necessarily be less certain, that there are large tracts of rich grazing the consequence,—he ought to have objected to fodderland, which, in the present state of the demand for the ing on the land, or teathing, at that season. The practice, produce of grass-lands, and of the law of England with however, is but too common in those districts, both in regard to tithes, cannot be employed more profitably for South and North Britain, where the knowledge of correct the parties concerned than in pasture. The interest which husbandry has made but little progress. It is equally obthe Board of Agriculture has taken in this question, with jectionable, whether the fodder be consumed on meadows a view to an abundant supply of corn for the wants of where it grew, or on other grass-lands. The fodder should a rapidly increasing population, seems, therefore, not to in almost every instance be eaten in houses or fold-yards, have been well directed. Instead of devoting a large por- instead of the dung being dropped irregularly over the tion of their volumes to the instruction of farmers re- surface, or, as must be almost always the case, accumulatgarding the best method of bringing grass-lands into til- ed in some spots sheltered by trees and hedges, to which lage, and restoring them again to meadow or pasture the animals necessarily resort during the storms of winter. without deterioration, the first thing required was to atThe time of opening pastures in spring must evidently c tempt removing the almost insuperable obstruction of be earlier or later, according to the climate, and in thep ires m tithes, by proposing to the legislature an equitable plan same climate according to the season; and the state ofs] of commutation. If some beneficial arrangement were growth which it is desirable that the grass should attain adopted on this head, there is no reason to doubt that in- before being stocked, must in some degree be determined dividual interest would soon operate thewished-for change; by the condition and description of the animals to be emand that all grass-lands capable of yielding more rent and ployed in consuming it,—whether they are only in a growprofit under tillage than under pasture would be subject- ing state, or approaching to fatness,—whether milch cows ed to the plough as fast as the demands of the population or sheep, or a mixture of animals of different species. R might require. conveys no very precise idea respecting these points, Different Except in regard to those necessary operations that though the remark itself is just, to say that the herbage opinions as have been already noticed under the former section,— should not be allowed to rise so high as to permit the r at on coarser plants to run to seed, and that it is bad manageinera na”e"suc ^ as away ^le ex P *mole-hills, °f weeds and noxious clearing antl’and &c.—there are fewshrubs, points ment to suffer store stock to be turned upon a full bhe.

AGRICULTURE.

3n

ipJ- (MarsWl's Yorbhire, yol. ii. p. 129.) The great objects It is obviously impossible to estimate the number of Aericol. tu to be aimed at are, that the stock, of whatever animals it animals that may be depastured on any o-iven extent of ture ✓Wmay consist, should be carried forward, faster or slower, ground, without reference to the particular spot in ernes according to the purposes of their owner; and that no tion; and the same difference exists, with regard to1 then , part of the herbage should be allowed to run to waste, or propriety of feeding close or leaving the pastures rough rough*111 be unprofitably consumed. But nothing but careful in- that prevails in most other parts of this subject. Though feeding, spection of the land and of the stock, from time to time, there be loss in stocking too sparingly, the more common can enable any grazier to judge with certainty what are and dangerous error is in overstocking, by which the sumthe best measures for attaining these objects. mer’s grass is not unfrequently entirely lost. There seems “ Fatting cattle;’ says Mr Marshall, “ which are forward to us, however, to be a season, some time durino- the year in flesh, and are intended to be finished with grass, may when grass-lands, particularly old turf, should be eaten require a full bite at first turning out. But for coivs, very close, not merely for the sake of preventing waste working oxen, and Tearing cattle, and lean cattle intended but also for the purpose of keeping down the coarser kinds to be fatted on grass, a full bite at the first turning out is of plants, and giving to the pastures as equal and fine a not requisite. Old Ladyday to the middle of April, ac- sward as possible. The most proper period must partly cording to the progress of spring, appears to me at pre- depend upon the convenience of the grazier; but it can sent as the best time for shutting up mowing grounds and hardly be either immediately before the drought of sumopening pastures.” (Marshall’s Yorkshire, vol. ii.p. 152-3.) mer or the frost of winter. Some time in autumn, when In regard to the state of the growth of pastures when the ardent heat of the season is over, and when there is Itatej rowtl first stocked, some distinction should be made between still time for a new growth before winter, may be most hen ; new leys and old close swards. To prevent the destrucockes tion of the young plants, whether of clovers or other herb- suitable for the land itself, and generally also for the grazier, his fat stock being then mostly disposed of, or age, on the former description of pasture, which would carried to the after-grass of mown grounds. The sweeping be the consequence of stocking them too early, especially of pastures with the scythe may be employed as a subwith ”’:+k sheep, they should be allowed ^ to rise higher than stitute for this close feeding; the waste and labour of would be necessary in the case of old turf; and to secure which, however, though they be but trifling, it does not their roots from the further injury of a hot summer, it is seem necessary to incur on rich grazing lands under coradvisable not to feed them close in the early part of the rect management. season, and probably not at any time throughout the whole The size of inclosures is a matter of considerable im- Size of of the first or second season, if the land is to be continued portance on grass-lands, both for the stock itself, and the inclosures, in pasture. The roots of old and firm sward, on the other mode of consuming the produce. In general, pastures hand, are not in so much danger, either from close feed- best adapted to sheep should be in large fields. The aniing or from the heats of summer; and they are in much mals are not only impatient of heat, and liable to be much less danger from the frosts and thaws of winter. injured by flies, in small pastures often surrounded by lock.i Another circumstance almost equally indeterminate trees and high hedges, but they are naturally, with the with the time of opening „ .pastures, is the stock which exception perhaps of the Leicester variety, much more should be employed, and whether they should be all of restless and easily disturbed than the other species of live one or of different kinds. stock. “ Sheep,” says a well-known writer, “ love a wider W ith regard to the former, all soils rather moist, and of range, and ought to have it, because they delight in short such a quality, as is the case with rich clays, as to pro- grass: give them eighty or ninety acres, and any fence duce herbage suited to the fattening of cattle, will in will keep them in; confine them to a field of seven or general be more advantageously stocked with them than eight acres, and it must be a very strong fence that keeps' with sheep ; but there can be no other rule for the total them in.” (Karnes’s Gentleman Farmer, p. 203.) Though exclusion of sheep than the danger of the rot, nor any fields so large as 80 or 90 acres can be advisable only in other general rule for preferring one kind of stock to hilly districts, yet the general rule is nevertheless conunother than their comparative profits. sistent with experience in regard to all our least domesW ith regard to a mixed stock, the sentiments and prac- ticated varieties, tice of the best graziers seem to be in its favour. “ It is The size of fields deserves attention on another account; generally understood that horses and cattle intermixed for there are strong reasons for preferring pasture land w i eat grass cleaner than either species will alone, not so in two or more inclosures, to the same extent in one large nmch from their separately affecting different grasses, as field. Besides the advantages of shelter, both to the iom the circumstance of both species disliking to feed animals and the herbage, such subdivisions enable the near their own dung.” (Marshall’s Yorkshire, vol. ii. p. 154.) grazier either to separate his stock into small parcels, by oome few graziers follow the old custom of keeping which means they feed more at their ease, or to give the y one kind of stock upon the same ground, whilst best pastures to that portion of them which he wishes to 0 1 ers we . ’ think with more propriety, intermix with oxen come earliest to market. The advantages of moderatean cows a few sheep and two or three colts in each pas- sized inclosures are well known in the best grazing counure, which both turn to good account and do little injury ties; but the subdivisions are in some instances much ne grazing cattle. In some cases sheep are a real more minute than is consistent with the value of the enetit, by eating down and destroying the ragwort (Se- ground occupied with fences, or necessary to the improvewhich disgraces some of the best pastures ment of the stock. nty W ere oxen on raze / r/T;!> ’ ty are d-” {Northum“ Incows all cases,” Marshall, fatting cattle or Succession am Ueport, ^p. 126.) And in gLincolnshire, where dairy make says a part of the “where stock, and where situa-°f stocks. ^ azing iS followed to a great extent, and with uncommon tion, soil, and water will permit, every suite of grazing ’ cessto’ as well as in most other districts, the practice grounds ought, in my idea, to consist of three compartments ; ^ ems be, almost invariably, to keep a mixed stock of one for head stock (as cows or fatting cattle), one for aa d cattle on the same pasture {Lincolnshire Re- followers (as rearing or other lean stock), and the third 7 s •, ’ P‘ ‘*)» in proportions varying with the nature of the to be shut up to freshen, for the leading stock.” (Maraud the quality of the herbage. shall’s Yorkshire, vol. ii. p. 158.)

AGRICULTURE. 312 Agricul- It is sufficiently obvious that every inclosure of pas- their continuance to neglect or mismanagement, and that hi. ture. ture land should be provided with abundance of water at any exertions of human industry can ever render the re. / ■^'all times, though this is in some districts a matter of greater part of them, including all the mountainous tracts'-- A, considerable difficulty. Mr Marshall has given a full ac- of Great Britain, more valuable than they are at present, count of the method of forming drinking pools in York- without a much greater expenditure of capital than, under shire, but our limits oblige us to refer the reader to his almost any circumstances, they could possibly return. Yet as this vague general term has been established by work. _ _ . TransA practice has been introduced into Norfolk within use, we shall bring together, in the following section, a planting these few years, the object of which is to obtain a rich few observations on the present condition of that part of *urk turf, with all the valuable qualities of old pasture, much our territory which is still almost in a state of nature, and sooner than from seeds alone. This is called trans- the improvements of which it is susceptible. planting turf, or inoculating land with grass. A field of Sect. III. Wastes. good old grass-land is stripped of part of its turf, which is cut into pieces of about three inches square, and placed That part of Britain which is still in a state of waste p ^ in its new situation, about six inches apart, on land previously prepared to receive it. In this way one acre of turf might be treated of under a number of heads, correspond-tV L will plant nine acres; but it is only a part of the old pas- ing to the various causes of its infertility. Land is comture that is taken off, and this is done in such a manner paratively unproductive, owing, Is#, to the surface being as not materially to injure it. After being thus planted, covered with stones, or occupied with worthless shrubs the roots are pressed down by means of heavy rollers, and other plants; 2dly, to the superabundance of wawhich cause them to spread along the ground instead of ter, as in the case of mosses and marshes; Mly, to an rising up in tufts ; and in a summer or two, during which original defect in the soil, as in loose sands, moors, and this transplanted pasture should be very lightly if at all compact sterile clays, sometimes called till; Uhly, to the fed upon, the grasses shed their seeds and fill up the in- elevation and ruggedness of the surface, and the ungenial terstices, the whole being then formed into a compact and character of the climate, as in our mountainous districts; uniform turf. (Blaikie on the Conversion of Arable Land bthly, to the previous exhaustion of the vegetable matter into Pasture.) Later writers, particularly Sinclair, the au- of the soil by injudicious cropping; and, bthly, to the mode thor of Hortus Gramineus Woburnensis, think this practice of tenure and occupancy, as in commons. It is matter of regret that the subject of wastes has note idem. has excited notice only by its novelty, and that it never as ti yet been treated in that distinct and scientific mannerh can become of extensive utility. which its importance deserves. It would be advisable to11 im. 2. Hilly Pastures. have it ascertained what portion of these divisions, or of111" Hill pasThese include such low hills as produce fine short herb- others under which our wastes may be arranged, is catures. age, and are with much advantage kept constantly in pas- pable of improvement, and how far such improvement is ture, though they are not altogether inaccesible to the eligible, on a fair estimate of the cost, and the probable plough; as well as such tracts as, from their acclivity and increase of produce. It should also be considered, as far elevation, must necessarily be exclusively appropriated to as precision is attainable on such points, how much farther live stock. The former description of grass-lands, though a proprietor might advantageously proceed in the expendifferent from the feeding pastures, of which we have just diture of capital, than one who is merely a temporary octreated, in respect of their being less convenient for til- cupier. For it is evident that an improvement will be lage management, are nevertheless in other circumstances sufficiently profitable to the former if he draws for his so nearly similar as not to require any separate discus- outlay 4 or 5 per cent, yearly; whereas a tenant, holding sion. These low hills are for the most part occupied with on a lease of 20 years, must have an annuity for that pesheep, a very few cattle being sometimes depastured to- riod of at least three times the amount, in order that his wards their bases ; and they frequently comprise herbage capital may be returned, with the ordinary profits of trade, sufficiently rich for fattening sheep, together with coarser before its expiration. The delusive prospects of profit from the improvement pastures for breeding and rearing them. In many instances, a small part of such tracts is cultivated chiefly for pro- of wastes, held out by speculative men, have an unhappy viding green crops for the sheep in winter; but corn is tendency to produce disappointment in rash and sanguine quite a subordinate object, and extensive aration is seldom adventurers, and ultimately to discourage such attempts attempted, except for the purpose of laying down the land as, with judicious attention to economy, would in all probability be attended with great success. Those who are to grass in an improved condition. Improper- The more elevated pastures, from which the plough is conversant with the publications that have lately appeared Iv called altogether excluded, have been commonly classed among on this subject, must be aware with what caution the alwastes. waste lands,—even such of them as bear herbage by no leged results of most of these writers ought to be exameans of inconsiderable value,—as well as heaths and mined, and how different has been the experience or moors, with patches of which the green pastures are often those who have ventured to put their schemes in practice, chequered. The general term ivastes is therefore a very from what they had been led to anticipate. There are few soils, however, so unfertile, and few indefinite expression, and indeed is not unfrequently made to comprehend all that extensive division of our tracts of any extent so destitute of soil, as not to be susterritory that neither produces corn nor rich herbage. ceptible of profitable improvement, if the climate be not Yet it is on such tracts that by far the greater part of altogether hostile to vegetation, or the surface so steep our butcher-meat and wool is grown, and not a little of or so rugged as not to admit of any other operations than tire former fully prepared for the market. Foreigners and such as must be executed by manual labour. With this superficial readers at home must accordingly be greatly exception, and the exception probably of what is callec mistaken if they imagine that what are called wastes by flow moss,—that innabilis unda, on which there is reason the Board of Agriculture, and other' writers on rural to fear much capital has been employed to little purpose,— economy, are really altogether unproductive; and it would wastes are certainly capable of considerable improvemen ■ be a still grosser error to believe that these wastes owe by surface or underdraining; by top-dressing with calca-

AGRICULTURE. 313 and spaae husbandry, was thus introduced by necessity, Agriculr, ,1- reous manures; by paring and burning as a preparation and has been attended with the happiest effects.” (Aber- tureu . for tillage; by trenching, irrigation, and embankment. deenshire Report.) We shall offer a few remarks on this subject, in the or2. In the case of mosses and marshes, the first thing igMossesand der first above mentioned. Lanro- 1. When the surface of ground is much covered with to get rid of the superabundance of water, by opening vcrevithstones, it is material to consider not only the expense main drain, into which such smaller ones as may be neitem which will attend the clearing of it, but whether the soil cessary will discharge themselves. On the subject of and climate be such as to remunerate the cultivator after improving moss land a great deal has been written within it has been brought into a state of tillage, and to what these few years, and many experiments made with very purpose the stones themselves may be applied. When different results. In favourable circumstances, if the opethe stones that project from the surface are a part of the ration is carefully and economically conducted, there can rock continued beneath the soil, it may be doubted whe- be no doubt that land of this description may be improved ther, instead of incurring the expense of working away with ultimate benefit to the undertaker. But the great the rock to such a depth as would allow the plough to object ought to be, not (at least for some years at first) pass over it, it may not be advisable to let the land remain to convert the land into tillage, but merely to render it productive in the state of meadow or pasture. With this in pasture, and improve it by top-dressings. Very large blocks of stone are cleared away by means view, the first operation after draining should be to get of gunpowder; but if this is not necessary, they are raised rid of the heath and coarse herbage on the surface, by by levers, and rolled upon a sledge, or by the use of a burning, levelling it where necessary at the same time, block and tackle attached to a triangle. In the latter and then to top-dress with calcareous matter, either by case, a hole is bored into the stone, and an iron bolt with itself or mixed up in compost with earth and other suban eye driven into it; and this, though apparently inca- stances, as a preparation for grass-seeds. If it be necespable of bearing any great weight, serves to raise the stone sary to turn over the whole surface, this in many cases in a perpendicular direction, until it can be deposited may be done as cheaply by the spade as by the plough, upon a cart or sledge placed below it, to be carried off and to much better purpose. Timothy (jpbileum pratense) the field. will be found one of the most valuable grasses on such a As soon as the stones are removed, the holes must of soil; but if the surface be sufficiently saturated with calcourse be filled up, and the surface rendered tolerably level. careous matter, and not too wet, clovers, particularly white Trer ing.The best method of doing this is by trenching, which an- clover, and the grasses usually sown upon arable land, swers the further purpose of deepening the soil, and remov- may be used with advantage. The after-management ing any remaining obstacle within the reach of the plough. must of course depend upon circumstances. Frequent “ The greater part of the land in the vicinity of Aber- rolling must always be of use in compressing a soil which deen,” says the author of the Report of that county, “ has, is naturally spongy; thus preventing the roots of the plants from the most barren and unproductive state, been tho- from being thrown out of the ground: and we should roughly improved by trenching. Not less than 3000 acres think that in general it must be better to retain such land have been trenched within three miles of Aberdeen; and for some years in the state of meadow, top-dressing it ocin all places of the county considerable additions have casionally, than even in pasturage. been made to the arable, by trenching the barren lands.” Among the various attempts that have been made upon “ It is practised in barren land, which abounds in stones a large scale to reclaim moss land, we shall mention two of different dimensions, sometimes, where the soil is dry, that seem worthy of particular notice. and in other cases, where it is wet, united with draining: The first cannot be considered as an improvement ofFloating it is practised when the object is to deepen the soil, or to the mossy soil itself. On the contrary, the improvement0^ nK)SSmix a portion of the subsoil along with it: it is practised consists in getting rid of it altogether. The practice may when the subsoil is tilly or very tenacious, as well as when be shortly described as follows:— that next the surface is unproductive, moory, or exhaust“ A stream of water is carried first upon the spongy ed by overcropping: and, lastly, it is practised when the upper stratum of moss, which is by this means conveyed land is foul, and when stronger or cleaner soil can be away to the neighbouring frith or arm of the sea, the light brought up to the surface. moss being thrown into a ditch, made as the temporary “ The expense indeed could not have been borne in bed of this artificial rivulet. The upper part, or spongy many cases, if the first crop (for so it may be called, as it moss, is thus carried off by successive ditches, to the excovered the whole soil) that was raised by the spade and tent of 30 or 40 yards broad; then a second deeper ditch mattock had not produced from L.30 to L.50 per acre. is cut into the clay or bottom of the flat stratum of the Ibis was a crop of granite stones, which was sold for heavy moss, and a number of parallel ditches are made paving the streets of London. But, after all, the ground for admitting the rivulet, into which the remaining moss that was thus gained to the community would not have is thrown, till nearly the whole is carried off, excepting a been able to recompense the cultivator, if a mixture of thin stratum, consisting partly of black peat-earth, and the spade and plough husbandry had not been introduced, partly of decayed wood found in the moss, which is burnt the rent of the land in the immediate vicinity of Aber- for manure to the carse soil about to be cultivated. Much deen is extremely^ high, being now, on a lease for years, ingenuity has been shown in constructing machinery to >om L.5 to L.10 per acre, and in a few cases not less supply water for removing the moss, previous to the imthan L.18; nay, when let for a single crop, sometimes as provement of the carse or rich soil below. For some mgh as L.20. Yet all this is necessary to remunerate the years after being thus cleared both of peat-moss and the improver, who trenched, dunged, limed, and cultivated remains of wood, successive crops of oats were formerly us thin soil, which must be frequently manured. It would too often repeated; but this was found to be injurious, 'a\ e yielded too little produce, if tilled only by the plough ; and a more regular mode of cropping is now introduced. and would have been cultivated at too great an expense, “ In 1766, the late Lord Kames became proprietor of Kincardine u the soil had been constantly digged by the spade. A the estate of Blair-Drummond, in the county of Perth,mossmedium between these two, viz. either the alternate use where he resolved to carry on with spirit this mode of 1 1 ie plough and spade, or at least a mixture of plough improvement on the moss of Kincardine. After trying VOL. II.

AGRICULTURE. 314 Agricul- several experiments, he at last adopted the plan of giving considering it of little use but to destroy the tough sods 'Kill. ture. profitable leases to small occupiers of land, to induce them of the Eriophora, Nardus stricla, and other plants, whose irv. to remove the moss; and before his death in 1782, no matted roots are almost imperishable. The moss being^ VA. less a number than 336 acres were cleared of moss, and thus brought to a tolerably dry and level surface, I then brought into cultivation. His son and successor pursuing plough it in a regular furrow six inches deep; and as soon the same plan, got 440 acres more let in three years, to as possible after it is thus turned up, I set upon it the newhich additions were made periodically. In 1792 the cessary quantity of marl, not less than 200 cubic yards to population had increased to 764 souls, who cultivated 444 the acre. As the marl begins to crumble and fall with} acres. By a survey in 1805, 577 acres were cleared, in- the sun or frost, it is spread over the land with considercluding 12 acres occupied by roads. In 1814 considerably able exactness; after which I put in a crop as early as above 800 acres were cleared, and the population amount- possible, sometimes by the plough, and at others with the horse-scuffle or scarifier, according to the nature of the ed to upwards of 900 souls. “ Thus an extensive tract of country, where formerly only crop; adding, for the first crop, a quantity of manure, a few snipes and muirfowl could find subsistence, has been which I bring down the navigable river Irwell to the borconverted, as if by magic, into a rich and fertile carse of ders of the moss, setting on about 20 tons to the acre. Moss land thus treated may not only be advantageously alluvial soil, worth from L.3 to L.5 per acre. ’ Mr liosThe other instance is that of the improvement of Chat cropped the first year with green crops, as potatoes, turcoe’s im- moss in the county of Lancaster, by Mr Roscoe of Liver- nips, &c. but with any kind of grain; and as wheat has provep00i. The length of this moss is about six miles, its of late paid better to the farmer than any other, I have meritsmoss on greatest breadth about three miles, and its depth may be hitherto chiefly relied upon it, as my first crop, for reimChat -estimated at from 10 to upwards of 30 feet. It is entirely bursing the expense.” The expense of the several ploughings, with the burn-Ii111 ■;nse composed of the substance well known by the name of peat, being an aggregate of vegetable matter, disorganized ing, sowing, and harrowing, and of the marl and manure,1 ire. and inert, but preserved by certain causes from putrefac- but exclusive of the seed, and also of the previous drain- * tion. On the surface it is light and fibrous, but becomes age and general charges, amounts to L.18. 5s. per acre; more dense below. On cutting to a considerable depth, and in 1812, on one piece of land thus improved, Mr it is found to be black, compact, and heavy, and in many Roscoe had 20 bushels of wheat, then worth a guinea per respects resembling coal. There is not throughout the bushel, and on another piece 18 bushels; but these were whole moss the least intermixture of sand, gravel, or other the best crops upon the moss. “ Both lime and marl are generally to be found within material, the entire substance being a pure vegetable. It is now upwards of 20 years since Mr Iloscoe, in a reasonable distance ; and the preference given to either company with Mr Wakefield, began to improve Trafford of them will much depend upon the facility of obtaining moss, a tract of 300 acres, lying two miles east of Chat it. The quantity of lime necessary for the purpose is so moss; and his operations on it seem to have been so suc- small in proportion to that of marl, that, where the discessful as to encourage him to proceed with Chat moss. tance is great, and the carriage high, it is more advisable But in the improvement of the latter, he found it unne- to make use of it; but where marl is upon the spot, or cessary to incur so heavy an expense for drainage. From can be obtained in sufficient quantity at a reasonable exobserving that, where the moss had been dug for peat, the pense, it appears to be preferable.” Mr Roscoe is thowater had drawn towards it from a distance of 50 to 100 roughly convinced, after a great many different trials, that yards, he conceived that if each drain had to draw the all temporizing expedients are fallacious ; and that “ the water only 25 yards, they would, within a reasonable time, best method of improving moss land is by the application undoubtedly answer the purpose. The whole of the moss of a calcareous substance, in a sufficient quantity to convert was therefore laid out on the following plan. the moss into a soil, and by the occasional use of animal or Drainage. “ I first carried a main road,” says Mr Roscoe, in a re- other extraneous manures, such as the course of cultivation cent communication to the Board of Agriculture, “ nearly and the nature of the crops may be found to require.” from east to west, through the whole extent of my porThere seems to be little more that is peculiar to himself tion of the moss. This road is about three miles long and in Mr Roscoe’s operations and course of cropping, except 36 feet wide. It is bounded on each side by a main drain, his contrivance for setting on the marl. It would not be seven feet wide and six feet deep, from which the water practicable, he observes, to effect the marling at so cheap is conveyed, by a considerable fall, to the river. From a rate (L.10 per acre), were it not for the assistance of an these two main drains other drains diverge, at 50 yards iron road or railway laid upon boards or sleepers, and] way. distance from each other, and extend from each side of movable at pleasure. Along this road the marl is conthe road to the utmost limits of the moss. Thus each veyed in waggons with small iron wheels, each drawn by field contains 50 yards in front to the road, and is of an one man. These waggons, by taking out a pin, turn their indefinite length, according as the boundary of the moss lading out on either side : they carry about 15 cwts. each, varies. These field-drains are four feet wide at the top, one being as much as could heretofore be conveyed over the foot at the bottom, and four feet and a half deep. They moss by a cart with a driver and two horses. are kept carefully open, and, as far as my experience hiIn the month of November 1805, Mr Roscoe began the ] tssi therto goes, I believe they will sufficiently drain the moss, drainage by cutting out the main drains on each side oL Rosinlwithout having recourse to underdraining, which I have the road, throwing out the moss from the drains into the1; enever made use of at Chat moss, except in a very few in- middle of the road. In 1807 the smaller drains, at 50^ ts. stances, where, from the lowness of the surface, the water yards distance from each other, were begun, and about could not readily be gotten oft’ without open channels, 1000 acres laid out in the manner already mentioned, hi which might obstruct the plough.” 1808 part of the moss was sufficiently consolidated to be CultivaThe cultivation of the moss then proceeds in the fol- worked with horses in pattens: this year a farm-house, tion. lowing manner. “ After setting fire to the heath and with out-buildings, cottages, &c. was erected, and man herbage on the moss, and burning it down as far as prac- was set upon the land prepared for that purpose. About ticable, I plough a thin sod or furrow with a very sharp 20 acres were cropped with turnips and potatoes m horse-plough, which I burn in small heaps, and dissipate; 1809; and in the year following, upwards of 80 acres, o

AGRICULTURE. 315 than any other grass, and is seldom covered with snow. AgriculA?;" - which 20 were wheat. In 1811 Mr Roscoe had 100 acres Neither wind, rain, nor frost will destroy it; but the old turetn- in crop, chiefly in wheat; and in 1812 marl and street vX ^manure were applied in the quantities specified above. grass naturally decays towards the latter end of spring The crops were wheat and beans, which much surpassed and the beginning of summer, as the new crop grows. “ White and red clover will grow spontaneously among those of any preceding year. “ In the course of the present year (1813) I shall have brought into cultivation this grass in the course of a few years, provided it is well about 160 acres, which will be cropped with wheat, oats, secured. It will produce seed in some instances within potatoes, and beans. A tract of 30 acres of clover ap- twelve months after planting; but the seed does not, on high exposed situations, come to the maturity that seed pears to be very promising.” Imp:^ The depreciation of agricultural produce in 1815, and requires for sowing. On this account, to propagate this the difficulty of combining a regular course of cropping grass from the root is considered preferable to sowing. [nto lea- w|th the bringing in of additional waste land, induced Mr “ The Arundo arenaria or bent-grass operations should dow.. Roscoe to lay down the whole of the improved part of not commence in any season earlier than about the 20th Chat moss into meadow land. So long as land of this October, and should be given up about the beginning of description continues productive in the state of meadow March, as this planting thrives much better in the wet or pasture, it does not appear advisable to attempt any season.” The other descriptions of soil, which owing to their tex- Coarse course of cropping whatever; and to lay it down for either of these purposes ought perhaps to form the chief induce- ture are of little value in their natural state, are close, c^yscompact clays, imbedded with small stones, and incumbent ment to its improvement. Soils'a 3. A third cause of sterility is found in the natural tex- upon subsoils which do not allow the water to escape. hardx- ture of the soil, as in loose sands and coarse impermeable Such land is in general covered with stunted heath and ture: other coarse plants, and to the other causes of its inferBlov’g clays. Moving or blowing sands occur on the sea-coast tility is often added a bad climate. The object in this sand; of many parts of Scotland, and are not only worthless themselves, but frequently inflict serious injury on the case, as in the former, should generally be to obtain better lands within their reach, over which the sand spreads it- herbage, rather than to convert it into arable land. One of the most common and effectual practices in im-Paring and self. This is a matter to which the Highland Society of Scotland have very properly turned their attention ; and proving this description of land is paring and burning; a burning, we shall extract from their communications some account practice which, in the case of old swards matted with the of an attempt that has been recently made to fix these roots of coarse herbage and heath, is acknowledged, both sands, and to render them in some measure productive. by scientific and practical writers, to be highly advantageExp-. The experiment to which we allude was made in 1819 ous as the next step to be taken after drainage. “ The ) and 1820, on a farm in the parish of Harris, and county of process of burning,” says Sir Humphry Davy, “ renders ' “ k Invprnps's. Alpvnnrlpr XT IVTnplpprl the soil less compact, less tenacious and retentive of Inverness, h\r by thp the nrnnriptnr. proprietor, Alexander N. Macleod, then Esq., “ who has completely succeeded in reclaiming and moisture; and, properly applied, may convert a matter bringing into useful permanent pasture above 100 Scotch that was stiff, damp, and in consequence cold, into one acres of useless blowing sand, by planting in it sea-bent powdery, dry, and warm, and much more proper as a bed (Arundo arenaria), known in the Hebrides by the name for vegetable life. of bent-grass, and sowing rape-seed on it in a small pro“ The great objection made by speculative chemists to portion. The rape-seed requiring to be covered with paring and burning is, that it destroys vegetable and anisea-weed or some other manure immediately after sowing, mal matter, or the manure in the soil; but in cases in is not considered so beneficial as the grass, as this requires which the texture of its earthy ingredients is permanently no manure, or any other cultivation or top-dressing what- improved, there is more than a compensation for this temever, after being properly planted. porary disadvantage. And in some soils, where there is “ The operations commenced upon the above farm in an excess of inert vegetable matter, the destruction of it the month of September 1819, by cutting the Arundo must be beneficial; and the carbonaceous matter remainarenaria or bent-grass about two inches below the surface, ing in the ashes may be more useful to the crop than the with a small thin-edged spade with a short handle, which vegetable fibre from which it was produced. a man can use in his right hand, at the same time taking “ Many obscure causes have been referred to for the hold of the grass in his left; other persons carrying it to purpose of explaining the effects of paring and burning; tlie blowing sand, to be planted in a hole, or rather a cut but I believe they may be referred entirely to the dimimade in the sand, about eight or nine inches deep (and nution of the coherence and tenacity of clays, and to the deeper where the sand is very open and much exposed), destruction of inert and useless vegetable matter, and its by a large narrow-pointed spade. A handful of Arundo conversion into a manure. arenaria or bent-grass was put into each of these cuts, “ All soils that contain too much dead vegetable fibre, For what which wrere about twelve inches distant, more or less ac- and which consequently lose from one-third to one-halflands procording to the exposure of the situation. When properly of their weight by incineration, and all such as contain fixed in the blowing sand, the roots begin to grow, and their earthy constituents in an impalpable state of divispread under the surface, in the course of a month after sion, i. e. the stiff clays and marls, are improved by burnplanting. ing ; but in coarse sands, or rich soils containing a just “ When Mr Macleod commenced the operations in re- mixture of the earths, and in all cases in which the texture claiming the tract of ground alluded to, it was altogether is already sufficiently loose, or the organizable matter sufficovered with blowing sand in winter and spring, and nearly ciently soluble, the process of torrefaction cannot be useful. so m summer. A great part of it consisted of high banks “ All poor silicious sands must be injured by it; and ot sand, which did not produce grass or verdure of anv practice is found to accord with theory. Mr Young, in kind whatever. his Essay on manures, states, ‘ that he found burning in" The Arundo arenaria or bent-grass is relished by jure sand and the operation is never performed by good cattle in summer, but it is of greater value by preserv- agriculturists upon silicious sandy soils, after they have ing it on the ground for wintering cattle. It would be in- once been brought into cultivation.” {Agricultural Chejudicious to cut it, because it will stand the winter better mistry, p. 346.) 1

AGRICULTURE. 316 AgriculSome eminent cultivators, however, prefer using the in this state, the law affording a ready means of dividing A nil. We. plough at the very first. They begin with a wide, shallow it, with a few exceptions, among the proprietors or oc- ■e. furrow, laying over the surface as flat as possible ; and in cupants, according to their respective rights and interests> that state it remainsu toe(rot for fifteen or eighteen months. It is otherwise, however, in England, where a special act It is then cross-pl° W ^’ usually about midsummer, and of parliament seems to be necessary in almost every in. well harrowed; dressed with lime, ridged up, and sown with stance ; and though much has been done there in the way rye or oats the following spring. As soon as the crop is of allocating and improving such land under the authority removed, it is ploughed for turnips, to which dung is ap- of inclosure acts, much still remains to be done. But plied ; and the turnips being eaten on the ground by sheep, the improvement of such land is not so much an agriculit is laid to grass the year after, the seeds being sown tural as a political question. When once it is brought into the state of private property, the methods to be adopted along with oats or barley. This mode of management, however, can only be adopt- for rendering it more productive will necessarily depend ed on lands of rather a loose texture, suited to turnip. On upon the nature of the soil and other circumstances. more compact soils, we should think paring and burning, followed by top-dressings of lime and compost, a preferCHAP. III. able practice. But if it be thought expedient to turn over LIVE STOCK. the turf or sod with the plough, a great number of ploughings and harrowings must be required to destroy the roots In the observations which we have to offer on this grand and pulverize the soil sufficiently; and two summers at least will be necessary to complete the operation. When department of husbandry, which in some quarters of the it is thus brought into a state to be sown with grass-seeds, island enjoys a decided preference over tillage, we shall lime should be freely applied after the last ploughing, and treat, 1. Of Horses; 2. Of Cattle ; 3. Of Sheep; 4. Of well harrowed in ; and then the grass-seeds sown with or Swine ; and, 5. Of Miscellaneous Stock. without a corn crop. Wherever the object is pasture, a Sect. I. Horses. comparatively small quantity of lime will produce the desired effect, if it be kept on the surface instead of being The form of a horse peculiarly adapted to the labours ofll turned down by the plough. It is unnecessary to mention, that on soils of this description, tenacious of moisture, open agriculture, has been well described by a writer of great extrenches will be necessary, to prevent any water from perience, in the following words:—• “ His head should be as small as the proportion of theF stagnating, the furrows also being made so deep as to draw off and discharge any excess of moisture in the soil animal will admit; his nostrils expanded, and muzzle fine; itself. This kind of land is evidently better suited to his eyes cheerful and prominent; his ears small, upright, pasturage than to meadow, and the pasture may be kept and placed near together ; his neck, rising out from between his shoulders with an easy tapering curve, must from deterioration by repeated top-dressings. Mountain- 4. Much of our mountainous districts is necessarily join gracefully to the head; his shoulders, being well ous tracts, left in a comparatively unproductive state, from the ele- thrown back, must also go into his neck (at what is called vation and ruggedness of the surface, and ungenial cha- the points) unperceived, which, perhaps, facilitates the racter of the climate ; but such tracts present so great a going much more than the narrow shoulder ; the arm or variety in their circumstances, that it would be idle to at- fore thigh should be muscular, and, tapering from the tempt laying down any rules of general application. The shoulder, meet with a fine, straight, sinewy, bony leg; leading improvement, we conceive, must be in carrying off the hoof circular, and wide at the heel; his chest deep, the surface-water in open drains, and providing shelter by and full at the girth ; his loin or fillets broad and straight, and body round ; his hips or hooks by no means wide, means of plantations. Land ren- 5. A soil not naturally unproductive has in many cases but quarters long, and tail set on so as to be nearly in the dered bar- been rendered sterile, at least for a time, by injudicious same right line as his back; his thighs strong and musren by management. When lime and other calcareous manures cular ; his legs clean and fine-boned; his leg-bones not cromdno- were first applied to fresh soils, the corn crops produced round, but what is called lathy or flat.” (Gulley on Live ” were often so valuable as to lead to their repetition year Stock, p. 21.) after year, without the intervention of ameliorating crops 1. Breeds. or the application of manures. We have known three 1. The black cart-horse, bred in the midland counties! ks. successive crops of wheat taken from the same land, and of corn altogether not less than ten crops in as many of England (see Plate XII.), is better suited for drays and years. Under this management the soil could not fail waggons than for the common operations of a farm. The to be reduced to a state of barrenness and waste, of which present system of farming requires horses of more mettle there are still too many instances in many parts of Scot- and activity, better adapted for travelling, and more capland. The appropriate remedy here is the use of enrich- able of enduring fatigue, than those heavy, sluggish aniing manures, and after a time lime or other calcareous mals. This variety is understood to have been formed, matters may be added. Such land has not only been or at least brought to its present state, by means oi robbed of its nutritive powers, but the very texture of the stallions and mares imported from the Low Countries; soil itself has experienced an unfavourable change. A few though there appears to be some difference in the accounts years’ pasturage must always be useful on land that has that have been preserved, in regard to the places whence undergone so severe a course of tillage. they were brought, and the persons who introduced them. Commons 6. Much of the commons and common lands through- “ The breed of grey rats,” says Mr Marshall, “ with which and com- out the country may be considered as retained in a state this island has of late years been overrun, is not a greater mon fields. 0f comparative waste, by reason of their tenure and mode pest in it than the breed of black fen horses; at least of occupancy. In Scotland there is now very little land while cattle remain scarce, as they are at present, anu 1

See Gulley on Live Stock, p. 32 ; and Marshall’s Economy of the Midland Counties, vol. i. p. 30(>.

AGRICULTURE. Jflu|. while the flesh of horses continues to be rejected as an MP- article of human food.” (Marshall’s Yorkshire, vol. ii. 'p. 164.) The present improved subvariety of this breed is said to have taken its rise in six Zealand mares, sent over from the Hague by Lord Chesterfield, during his embassy at that court. Clevmd 2. The Cleveland bays, which owe some of their most bays valuable properties to crosses with the race-horse, have, been long celebrated as one of the best breeds in the island; but they are said to have degenerated of late. They are reared to a great extent in Yorkshire, the farmers of which county are remarkable for their knowledge in everything that relates to this species of live stock, In activity and hardiness these horses have perhaps no superior. Some capital hunters have been produced by putting full-bred stallions to mares of this sort; but the chief object latterly has been to breed coach-horses, and such as have sufficient strength for a two-horse plough, Three of these horses carry a ton and a half of coals, traveiling sixty miles in twenty-four hours, without any other rest than two or three baits upon the road ; and they frequently perform this labour four times a week. 3. A third variety is the Suffolk Punch, a very useful Suffi? I'uiii. animal for rural labour. Their merit seems to consist more in constitutional hardiness than true shape. See Plate XII. “ Their colour is mostly yellowish or sorrel, with a white ratch or blaze on their faces ; the head large, ears wide, muzzle coarse, fore-end low, back long, but very straight, sides flat, shoulders too far forward, hind quarters middling, but rather high about the hips, legs round and short in the pasterns, deep-bellied, and full in ffie flank; here, perhaps, lies much of the merit of these horses; for we know, from observation and experience, that all deep-bellied horses carry their food long, and consequently are enabled to stand longer and harder days’ works. However, certain it is that these horses do perform surprising days’ works. It is well known that the Suffolk and Norfolk farmers plough more land in a day than any other people in the island; and these are the kindof horses everywhere used in those districts.” (Culley m Live Stock, p. 27.) 4. The Clydesdale horse has been long in high repute m Scotland and the north of England, and, for the purposes of the farmer, is probably equal to any other breed in Britain. Of the origin of this race various accounts have been given, but none of them so clear or so well authenticated as to merit any notice. They have got this name, not because they are bred only in Clydesdale or Lanarkshire,—for the same description of horses are reared m the other western counties of Scotland, and over all that tract which lies between the Clyde and the Forth,— hut because the principal markets at which they are sold, Lanark, Carnwath, Rutherglen, and Glasgow, are situated in that district, where they are also preserved in a state of greater purity than in most other parts. They are he s is wmml!^glonger; r than their Su ?,lk ?isu“ . ’ brown, “ld 1116 orneek somewhat colour black, grey, and a white spot on the face is esteemed a mark of beauty. Ihe breast is broad; shoulder thick, the blades nearly as high as the chine, and not so much thrown backwards as in road-horses ; the hoof round, usually of a black colour, “Hid the heels wide ; the back straight and broad, but not too long; the bucks visible, but not prominent, and the s pace between them and the ribs short; the tail heavy, and well haired, the thighs meeting each other so near as to leave only a small groove for the tail to rest on. One most Vill a of this 1breed is, that _ a. they aL. are revaluable, property markably true pullers, a restive horse being rarely found among them. See Plate XIII.

J

317 5. The Welsh horse bears a near resemblance, in point Agricul of size and hardiness, to the best of the native breed of ture. ’ the Highlands of Scotland, and other hilly countries in the1Welsh ^^^ north of Europe. It is too small for the present two-horse * ploughs, but few horses are equal to them for enduring fatigue on the road. “ I well remember one,” says Mr Culley, “ that I rode for many years, which, to the last, would have gone upon a pavement by choice, in preference to a softer road.” (Observations on Live Stock, p. 35.) 6. A little horse, of much the same size with the for-Galloways. mer, or rather larger, called a Galloway, from its being found chiefly in that province of Scotland, has now become very rare; the breed having been neglected, from its unfitness for the present labours of agriculture. The true Galloways are said to resemble the Spanish horses ; and there is a tradition, that some of the latter, that had escaped from one of the vessels of the Armada, wrecked on the coast of Galloway, were allowed to intermix with the native race. Such of this breed as have been preserved in any degree of purity are of a light bay or brown colour, with black legs, and are easily distinguished by the smallness of their head and neck, and the cleanness of their bone. 7. The still smaller horses of the Highlands and Isles Highland of Scotland are distinguished from larger breeds by the ponies, several appellations of Ponies, Skelties, and, in Gaelic, of Garrons or Gearrons. They are reared in great numbers in the Hebrides, or Western Isles, where they are found in the greatest purity. Different varieties of the same race are spread over all the Highland district and the Northern Isles. This ancient breed is supposed to have been introduced into Scotland from Scandinavia, when the Norwegians and Danes first obtained a footing in these parts. “ It is precisely the same breed that subsists at present in Norway, the Feroe Isles, and Iceland, and is totally distinct from every thing of horse kind on the continent of Europe south of the Baltic. In confirmation of this, there is one peculiar variety of the horse in the Highlands that deserves to be noticed. It is there called the eel-backed horse. (See Plate XIII.) He is of different colours, light bay, dun, and sometimes creamcoloured ; but has always a blackish list that runs along the ridge of the back, from the shoulder to the rump, which has a resemblance to an eel stretched out. This very singular character subsists also in many of the horses of Norway, and is nowhere else known.” (Walker’s Hebrides, vol. ii. p. 158.) “ The Highland horse is sometimes only nine, and seldom twelve hands high, excepting in some of the southern of the Hebrides, where the size has been raised to thirteen or fourteen hands by selection and better feeding. The best of this breed are handsomely shaped, have small legs, large manes, little neat heads, and are extremely active and hardy. The common colours are grey, bay, and black; the last is the favourite one.” (General Report of Scotland, vol. iii. p. 176.)

J 2. Breeding and Bearing. The same attention to select the best males and females for breeding, which has been productive of the most advantageous results in the case of cattle and sheep, does not prevail very generally in the breeding of farm-horses: on the contrary, though every one exercises some degree of judgment in regard to the stallion, there are few breeders, comparatively, who hesitate to employ very ill-formed and worthless mares,—and often solely because they are unfit for any thing else than bringing a foal. All the best • writers ! a. —~on^ Agriculture A v*^' »r'vv»/-vV\ o this i o absurd oV%oni»/l and onrl unprofitf— reprobate able practice. “ In the midland counties of England the breeding of cart-horses is attended to with the same as-

AGRICULTURE. 318 Agricul- siduity as that which has of late years been bestowed on tenance, they should be turned out to some grass field j eul. ture. cattle and sheep, while the breeding of saddle-horses, hun- near the homestead, and receive such additional supply s. ters, and coach-horses, is almost entirely neglected ; is left of food as may be necessary, under sheds adjoining. It is^< -v Inatten- almost wholly to chance, even in Yorkshire,—I mean as to both inconvenient and dangerous to confine a mare about tion to the to foal in a common stable, and still more so to leave her female in females. A breeder here would not give five guineas for loose in a close stable among other horses ; and confinethe best brood-mare in the kingdom, unless she could breeding. draw or carry him occasionally to market, nor a guinea ment is not much less objectionable after dropping her extraordinary for one which could do both. He would foal. Such sheds are also exceedingly convenient even sooner breed from a rip which he happens to have upon after grass has become abundant, as the weather is often his premises, though not worth a month s keep. But how cold and rigorous during the month of May. When the absurd ! The price of the leap, the keep of the mare, and foal is a few weeks old, the mare is again put to light the care and keep of her progeny, from the time they drop work ; and she is separated from the foal altogether, after having nursed it for about six months. to the time of sale, are the same, whether they be Breeding mares are evidently unable to endure the fafrom ten to fifteen, or from forty to fifty pounds each. tigue of constant labour for some months before and after (Marshall’s Economy of Yorkshire, vol. ii. p. 166.) In those districts where the breeding of horses is car- parturition. This has led a few farmers to rear foals upon Stallions. ried on upon a large scale, and upon a regular plan, the cow-milk; but the practice is neither common, nor likely rearing of stallions forms in some degree a separate branch, ever to become so. The greater number of horses, thereand is confined, as in the case of bulls and rams, to a few fore, are bred in situations where a small portion of arable eminent breeders. These stallions, which are shown at land is attached to farms chiefly occupied with cattle or the different towns in the vicinity,—sometimes sent to sheep, or where the farms are so small as not to afford be exhibited at a considerable distance,—are let out for full and constant employment to the number of horses the whole season, or sold to stallion-men, or kept by the that must nevertheless be kept for the labour of particubreeder himself, for covering such mares as may be offer- lar seasons. “ During the first winter, foals are fed on hay, with aFi ed, at a certain price per head ; and this varies according to the estimation in which the horse is held, and some- little corn, but should not be constantly confined to the times according as the mare has more or less of what is stable; for even when there is nothing to be got on the called blood. For farm-mares, the charge for covering by fields, it is much in their favour to be allowed exercise a stallion of the same kind is commonly about a guinea, out of doors. A considerable proportion of succulent with half-a-crown to the groom ; and it is a common prac- food, such as potatoes, carrots, and Swedish turnips (oiltice in the north to agree for a lower rate if the mare cake has been recommended), should be given them does not prove with foal; sometimes nothing more is paid through the first winter; and bean and peas meal has been advantageously substituted for oats, which, if allowed in that case than the allowance to the groom. The age at which the animals should be allowed to in a considerable quantity, are injurious to the thriving of Age of breeding. copulate is not determined by uniform practice, and is the young animal, from their heating and astringent namade to depend in some measure on the degree of ma- ture. Their pasture, during the following summer, deturity, which, in animals of the same species, is more or pends upon the circumstances of the farms on which they less early, according to breed and feeding. Yet it would are reared. In the second winter they are fed in much seem in general to be an improper practice to allow ani- the same manner as in the first, except that straw may be mals to propagate while they are themselves in a raw, un- given for some months instead of hay ; and in the third formed state, and require all the nutriment which their winter they have a greater allowance of corn, as they are food affords, for raising them to the ordinary size of the frequently worked at the harrows in the ensuing spring, variety to which they belong. It may, therefore, be sel- when about three years old.” (General Report of Scotdom advisable to employ the stallion till he is about three land, vol. iii. p. 183.) The rearing of horses is carried on in some places in so S; m years old, or the mare till she is a year older. But the greater number of mares kept for breeding are much systematical a manner, as to combine the profit arisingre older than this, and are, in many cases, not allowed to from the advance in the age of the animals, with that of bring foals till they are in the decline of life, or otherwise a moderate degree of labour before they are fit for the purposes to which they are ultimately destined. In the unable to bear their full share in rural labour. In the breeding of horses, as in all other kinds of live ordinary practice of the midland counties, the breeders Season. stock, it is of importance that, at the season of parturi- sell them while yearlings, or perhaps when foals, namely, tion, there should be a suitable supply of food for the at six or eighteen months old, but most generally the latyoung. The time of covering mares ought, therefore, to ter. They are mostly bought up by the graziers of Leibe partly regulated by a due regard to this circumstance, cestershire, and the other grazing parts of that district, and may be earlier in the south than in the north, where where they are grown among the grazing stock until the grass, the most desirable food both for the dam and foal, autumn following. At two years and a half old they are does not come so early by a month or six weeks. In bought up by the arable farmers, or dealers of BuckingScotland it is not advantageous to have mares to drop hamshire, Berkshire, Wiltshire, and other western countheir foals sooner than the middle of April; and, as the ties, where they are broken into harness, and worked till period of gestation is about eleven months, they ai'e usu- they are five, or more generally six years old. At this ally covered in May, or early in June. But if mares are age the dealers buy them up again to be sent to Lonintended to bring a foal every year, they should be co- don, where they are finally purchased for drays, carts, vered from the ninth to the eleventh day after foaling, waggons, coaches, the army, or any other purpose kr whatever may be the time; and the horse should be which they are found fit. (Marshall’s Economy of the brought to them again nine or eighteen days afterwards. Midland Counties, vol. i. p. 311.) , Mares The mares are worked in summer as usual, and more A similar mode of transferring young horses from ban worked. moderately in the ensuing winter, till near the time of to hand is common in the west of Scotland. The farmers foaling, when, if the season be somewhat advanced, even of Ayrshire and the counties adjacent, who generally crop though the pasture be not fully sufficient for their main- not more than one-fourth, or at most one-third, of their

AGRICULTURE. 319 ble land, and occupy the remainder with a dairy-stock, been already hinted that the heavy, black cart-horses, so Agriculara purchase young horses at the fairs of Lanark and Carn- much valued in London and a few other great towns, are ture. ^ ^ath before mentioned,—work them at the harrows in but ill adapted to the operations of modern husbandry the following spring when below two years old,—put them and the nature of the soil and surface, and the situation to the plough next winter at the age of two years and a of a farm in regard to markets, manure, and fuel, require half, and continue to work them gently till they are five some difference in the strength, activity, and hardiness of years old, when they are sold again at the Rutherglen this instrument of labour. Accordingly, in the northern and Glasgow markets, at a great advance of price, to counties of Britain, where economy in this department is dealers and farmers from the south-eastern counties. A more attended to than in the south, we find horses of conconsiderable number of horses, however, are now bred in siderable strength, and a moderate share of activity, emthe Lothians, Berwickshire, and Roxburghshire, the very ployed on firm, cohesive soils ; and on light, friable soils, high prices of late having rendered it profitable to breed such as are possessed of more activity, not apt from their them, even upon good arable land. But many farmers of weight to be soon fatigued by working on an unequal surthese counties, instead of breeding, still prefer purchasing face, and able to endure travelling, with a moderate load, two and a half or three and a half year old colts, at the for a considerable distance, without injury. markets in the west country, or at Newcastle fair in the Whatever may be the description of horses employed, Kept in 00 0011 month of October. They buy in a certain number yearly, it is always a rule with good managers never to allowgtion ^ *!^ and sell an equal number of their work-horses before they them to fall off in condition so much as to be incapable of are so old as to lose much of their value; so that their going through their work without frequent applications stock is kept up without any other loss than such as arises of the lash. There is nothing which more clearly marks from accidents; and the greater price received for the the unprosperous condition of a tenant, than the leanness horses they sell is often sufficient to cover any such loss. of his working cattle, and their reluctant movements un[General Report of Scotland, vol. iii. p. 182.) der this severe stimulus. There are particular operations, Cast: ion. Castration is performed on the males commonly when indeed, such as turnip-sowing, seeding fallows, harvestthey are about a year old ; but a late writer strongly dis- work, &c. which require to be executed with so great disapproves of delaying this operation so long, and recom- patch in our variable climate, that unusual exertions are mends twitching the colts (a practice well known to ram- often indispensable. At these times it is hardly possible, breeders) any time after they are a week old, or as soon by the richest food and the most careful treatment, to after as the testicles are come down ; and this method, he prevent the animals from losing flesh, sometimes even says, he has followed himself with great success. (Par- when their spirit and vigour are not perceptibly impaired. kinson on Live Stock, vol. ii. p. 74.) Another writer sug- Such labours, however, do not continue long, and should gests, for experiment, the sparging of mares, thinking they always be followed by a corresponding period of indulwould work better and have more wind than geldings. gence. It is particularly dangerous and unprofitable to (Marshall’s Yorkshire, vol. ii. p. 169.) But he does not begin the spring labour with horses worn down by bad appear to have been aware that this is by no means a new treatment during winter. experiment; for Tusser, who wrote in 1562, speaks of Much has been said about the great expense of feeding Feeding, gelding fillies as a common practice at that period. The horses on corn and hay, and various roots have been remain objection to this operation is not that brood-mares commended as advantageous substitutes. That these aniwould become scarce, as he supposes, but that, by inca- mals can ever be made to perform their labour, according pacitating them from breeding, in case of accidents and to the present courses of husbandry, on carrots, turnips, in old age, the loss on this expensive species of live stock potatoes, or other roots alone, or as their chief food, our would be greatly enhanced. An old or lame mare would own experience and observation lead us to consider as then be as worthless as an old or lame gelding is at present. very improbable. They will work and thrive on such food; but they will work as much more, and thrive as 3. Feeding and Working. better, with oats or beans in addition, as fully to reAged The age at which horses are put to full work, in the much world labours of a farm, is usually when four or five years old, pay the difference in expense. One of the three meals a day which farm-horses usually receive may consist of according to the nature of the soil and the numbers of roots, and a few of them every twenty-four hours are the team; but they are always understood to be able to highly conducive to the health of the animals; but we pay for their maintenance after they are three years old, have never had occasion to see any horse work regularly by occasional work in ploughing and harrowing. throughout the year, in the way they are usually worked it is not so common a practice as it should be to sub- in the best cultivated districts, without an allowance of ject young horses of this kind to any regular course of at least an English peck of oats, or mixed oats and beans, training; but they are made familiar with their keeper daily, less or more at particular periods, but rather more as S00 1 as . I they are weaned, led about in a halter, rubbed than this quantity for at least nine months in the year. down m the stable, and treated with gentleness ; and beIt has been already observed, that machines are in some () re being put to work, it is usual to place them under the places used for cutting hay and straw into chaff, for bruislarge of a steady, careful servant, who very soon learns ing or breaking down corn, and for preparing roots and iem to drag a harrow alongside of an older horse, and other articles by means of steam. The advantages of ' Inwards to take their share of the labour at the plough, these practices, both in regard to the economy of food an ’. y degrees, in all the other work of the farm. and the health of the animals, are too evident to require n ’th regard to the mode of feeding and working them, illustration. But the custom, which has been adopted by t leir treatment in general, the practice is so various, a few individuals, and injudiciously recommended by ccordmg t° the state of agriculture in different districts, others, of cutting down oats with their straw into the ( he circumstances of their owners, that all that can state of chaff, without being previously threshed, is wasteSelect one 'Goij .e *s to mention some leading points of ma- ful and slovenly in the extreme. The proportion, as to torses. r gement, in which all good farmers are agreed, quantity or quality, which the oats bear to the bulk of the Kffere,' Se ct on wpot is p vu entI , ' horses adapted to particular situations straw, being various in every season, and almost in every y a matter of primary consideration. It has field, the proper allowance of oats can be served out only ul.

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AGRICULTURE. 320 Agricul- by first separating them from the straw, and then mixing method being by far the most economical and advantage- A ture. them with the cut straw or chaff, in suitable proportions, ous. For other eight months they are kept on the straw of oats, beans, and peas, and on clover and ryegrass hay.^Jv; before being laid into the manger. Work per- The work performed is evidently a question of circum- As soon as the grass fails towards the end of autumn, formed stances, which does not admit of any precise solution. It they have hay for a few weeks ; and when the days behas been observed in the section on tillage, that a two- come so short as to allow of no more than from six to horse plough may, on an average, work about an English eight hours’ work, they are very generally fed with differkinds of straw, according to the circumstances of the acre a day throughout the year; and, in general, accoid- ent ing to the nature of the soil, and the labour that has been farm. In the month of March they are again put to hay, previously bestowed on it, a pair of horses, in ploughing, till the grass is ready for being cut. Throughout all the they are allowed more or less com when constantly may travel daily from ten to fifteen miles, overcoming a year worked ; and during the time they are on dry fodder, degree of resistance equal to from four to ten hundredweights. On a well-made road, the same horses will draw particularly when on straw, they have potatoes, yams, or about a ton in a two-wheeled cart for twenty or twenty- Swedish turnips, once a day, sometimes boiled barley, five miles every day; and one of the better sort, in the and, in a few instances, carrots. A portion of some of slow movement of the carrier or waggoner, commonly these roots is of great importance to the health of horses, draws this weight by himself on the best turnpike roads.. when succulent herbage is first exchanged for hay at the In some places horses are in the yoke, when the length of end of autumn; and it is no less so towards the latter the day permits, nine hours, and in others ten hours a end of spring, when hay has become sapless, and the laday ; but, for three or four months in winter, only from five bour is usually severe. At these two periods, therefore, to eight hours. In the former season they are allowed to it is the practice of all careful managers to give an ample feed and rest two hours from mid-day; and, in the latter, allowance of some of these roots, even though they should they have a little corn on the field when working as long be withheld for a few weeks during the intermediate as there is day-light, but none if they work only five or period. “ The quantity of these different articles of food must six hours. In the section on farm-buildings, we have described depend on the size of the horses, and the labour they perwith some minuteness the construction and interior ar- form ; and the value, upon the prices of different seasons, rangement of modern stables ; and it is only necessary to and in every season, on the situation of the farm with readd here, that the stable-management of horses has been spect to markets, particularly for hay and roots, which greatly improved of late years. It is not long since there bring a very different price near large towns, and at a were instances, even in the Border counties, of horses few miles distance. It is for these reasons that the yearbeing turned loose into a stable, without racks or mangers, ly expense of a horse’s maintenance has been estimated and without any other litter than the straw intended for at almost every sum from L.15 to L.40. But it is only their food, which they tossed about in all directions. necessary to attend to the expense of feeding horses that Even those farmers who found it necessary to confine are capable of performing the labour required of them them to separate stances, did not see the advantage of se- under the most correct and spirited management. Such parating them by partitions, but left them standing, as is horses are fed with oats, sometimes with beans, three too generally the case at present with cattle, at liberty to times a day, for about eight months ; and twice a day for inflict, and exposed to endure, serious injuries and priva- the other four, when at grass; and, at the rate of eight tions. When at last they were confined in stalls, it was feeds per bushel, each horse will eat fifteen quarters of common to place two in each, by way of saving room and oats, or twenty bolls Linlithgow measure, in the year. the expense of partitions; and with the same view they When on hay, he will require about one stone of twentywere made to stand in double rows, one row on each gable two pounds avoirdupois daily, and five pounds more if he or side-wall, the hind legs of each row so near those of does not get roots. One English acre of clover and ryethe opposite one as to leave little room for carrying away grass, and tares, may be necessary for four months soiltheir dung without danger, and to afford little security ing ; and a quarter of an acre of potatoes, yams, or against the attacks from behind of vicious horses placed Swedish turnips, during the eight months he is fed with on the opposite sides of the stable. That all these incon- hay or straw. The use of these roots may admit ot a veniences are avoided in the present stables, must be evi- small diminution of the quantity of corn in the winter dent from the description already given, and the engraving months, or a part of it may be, as it almost always is, of an inferior quality.” there referred to. Stable-ma- It is now well understood that the liberal use of the The expense of a horse-plough must be different ac- • nagement brush and the currycomb twice a day,—frequent but mo- cording to the situation, but is in every case considerable.® ^ derate meals, consisting of a due proportion of succulent The feeding of the horses, with the interest of capital, dejoined to more solid food,—abundance of fresh litter, and cline in value, and loss by accidents or disease, and the great attention to method and cleanliness, are as indis- charges for harness, shoeing, and farriery, were calculated, pensable in the stable of a farmer (as far as is consistent towards the latter end of the last war, when the prices with a just regard to economy) as they have always been were high, at from L.90 to L.100 per annum, which, wit held to be in the treatment of horses kept for pleasure. the wages of the ploughman, would be equal to 40s. lor Good dressing, with all well-informed and attentive men, every acre of the land which they cultivated; but with preis considered to be no less necessary to the thriving of sent prices an abatement may be made of 20 or 25 per cent., the horses than good feeding: according to a common ex- reducing the whole charges upon a plough, wages include!, pression, it is equal to half their food. We shall conclude to about L.100 per annum, and the expense per acre to this section with an extract from a recent publication, 30s. or 32s. It is no doubt true that the expense is in many for the purpose of explaining the minutiae of management places considerably less than this; but we speak hereo in the most improved counties of Scotland. horses fully employed throughout the year, and in J e General adopted “ For about four months in summer, horses are fed on improved system of husbandry. Farmers who keep their management in pastures, or on clover and ryegrass, and tares cut green accounts in a proper manner charge for every days worn Scotland. and brought home to the stable or fold-yard; the latter of a man and a pair of horses from 7s. 6d. to 10s.; a

AGRICULTURE. 321. T iey might reflect too upon the necessity there is for the Acn-Icub -jlwhen land is in an ordinary state of cultivation, it is A 1 tit • sometimes let out to plough at the rate of 6s. to 8s. per empJoyment of horses in dray^s and waggons in our public ture. streets and in long journeys. To provide for the neces-^-^*^.. L^^aCre. Wieer It has been long alleged that oxen might be beneficial- sary supply, these horses must be reared as a part of the oxen (ay ]y substituted for horses, in the common operations of farmer s live stock; and as he begins to work them so early bellste:u; 01 agriculture; and a great many calculations have been sub- as at three years old, they return to him much more than [ mitted to the public on both sides of the question. Start- the price of their food, before they come to the age of five 1 ling as it may seem, however, these calculations prove or six years, which is as soon as they are fit for the wagnothing. The first point is to show, that the two animals goner or the drayman. With all these considerations in are equally adapted to every sort of farm labour. There view, the arguments drawn from the husbandry of the are other elements which enter into this question than the Greeks and Romans, and the modern practice of other actual expenditure on either side; and with reference to countries, wifi have no more weight with the enlightened the present state of agriculture in this country, we hold farmers of Britain than if it were attempted to prove the it as a fact ascertained by general experience, that oxen superiority of manual and animal labour over machinery cannot be employed with advantage, except in particular in threshing and other operations. Such men will always sorts of labour which do not go on all the year round, but continue to apply each species of animal to its proper use, are only performed occasionally or at certain seasons. and seek for labour from the horse, and beef from the ox; The constant employment of oxen, to the entire exclusion improving the breeds of both with a view to these distinct of horses, is, we venture to assert, impracticable in this objects, instead of vainly attempting to obtain meat and country, and, if it were practicable, would not be profit- labour from the latter animal. By this management, as able. It is readily admitted, that oxen are well adapted we shall see immediately, our cattle are now prepared for to the ploughing of coarse tough swards, .and other lands the butcher at a much earlier period than formerly, and so much occupied with stones or roots as to require a afford an adequate return in their carcass alone. slow and steady power. They have also been found useful for threshing-machines worked by animal power, for Sect. II. Cattle. the same reason. But in almost all the other kinds of labour necessary upon an extensive farm, oxen, such at The purposes for which cattle are kept being more Variety of least as are bred in this country, are troublesome, ineffi- various, and cattle being also for the most part not so breeds of cient, slow, and unprofitable labourers. They are not completely domesticated as horses, this species includescattlesuited to the cart or waggon, even on our fields, and far a much greater number of breeds and varieties. The difless for travelling upon our public roads. They cannot ferent races have been distinguished generally by the perform their work with the dispatch necessary in our length of their horns, or by their having no horns at all; variable climate at seedtime and harvest; and in the pre- and again subdivided, and more particularly described paring, manuring, and seeding of large fields of turnip, a under the names of the counties or districts where they process which calls for so much exertion and dispatch in are supposed to have originated, where they most abound, Norfolk and other turnip counties, the employment of or where they exist in the greatest purity. oxen is entirely inadmissible. Within certain limits a In Britain, as in most other countries, horses are useful horse will work according as he is fed; but if an ox is only for the labour they perform, though it is probable pushed beyond his natural step, he is soon rendered that nothing but prejudice prevents them from enlarging, useless. at least occasionally, the supply of human food; and to On a practical question of this nature it is experience render them fit for labour, they must sooner or later in alone that can decide ; and there is none as to which gene- their lives be entirely subjected to the care and control ral experience is more conclusive. In the rude state of of man. Cattle, on the other hand, except the few kept agriculture which prevailed in this country before the in- for labour and for their milk, have not, till of late (and troduction of clover and turnips, oxen were, as they still even now only in particular countries), been the objects continue to be in some parts of the Continent, more gene* of that discipline and those experiments which seek to rally employed in the home work of a farm than horses; restrain habits acquired in a state of nature—to improve but in the progress of improvement, oxen have been gra- forms and proportions, perpetuated and somewhat varied dually laid aside, till horses are now, with comparatively by climate, surface, and herbage—and to cultivate and few exceptions, universally employed in their stead. So bring to perfection, with the greatest possible economy, ; much is this the case, that one might almost estimate be- all those valuable properties with which nature has enj forehand the state of agriculture in any district where dowed the inferior animals for the subsistence and the (,xen are in general use. But the change from oxen to comfort of man. In most parts of the world cattle are worses, in the labours of agriculture, is not confined to this still merely the creatures of soil and climate; and it is a ( uuntry. A similar change has been long going on on the striking evidence of the greater progress of social imontinent, particularly in France, where, according to provement in Britain, that we possess races of cattle and l r best agricultural writers, the horse is preferred for sheep, formed in a great measure by skill and industry, , same reasons as in this country. The advocates for which excel beyond all comparison those of every other le use pf oxen, in fact, are in general persons of little or country. 110 P'j^lkal knowledge, who look only to the original cost The three great products of cattle—meat, milk, and la-Different t le .1 1 t ecomparative expense of maintaining the animals, hour—have each of them engaged the attention of British products, j! !/ e; " accidents and diseases to which the horse is agriculturists; but experience has not hitherto justified but they do not take into view what that cost and the expectation that has been entertained of combining all 1 -t expense of maintenance would be if oxen were to these desirable properties, in an eminent degree, in the ne ^! ‘jdo general use, and how far this change would same race. That form which indicates the property of ect the supply of our butcher market; nor do they con- yielding the most milk, differs materially from that which er t le ss . l° upon the ploughman's wages, when he goes we know from experience to be combined with early ma() a Cre a a or more n!an i y than half withasthe one with species ani- turity and the most valuable carcass; and the breeds a s, and not ^more much the ofother. which are understood to give the greatest weight of meat VOL. II. 2s

AGRICULTURE. 322 Affricul- for the food they consume, and to contain the least pro- vious improvement. The improved breed of Leicester- Ajp. ture. portion of offal, are not those which possess, in the high- shire is said to have been formed by Mr Webster of Can- HB. 'est degree, the strength and activity required in beasts of 'ey.-ar Cove^ )r«j brought from the banks of the Trent about 90 years labour. which were crossed with bulls from Westmoreland andU rte As we propose to treat of the produce and manufacture of milk in a separate article (see Dairy), we shall there Lancashire. Mr Bakewell of Dishley, in Leicesterhave occasion to notice those breeds of which the females shire, afterwards got the lead as a breeder, by selecting are most valuable for the dairy ; only referring at present from the Canley stock; and the stocks of several other to Plate XIII. for an engraving of the Ayrshire cow, an ex- eminent breeders have been traced to the same source. cellent race, spread over that and the counties adjacent. (Marshall’s Midland Counties, vol. i. p. 318.) See Plate And as cattle are seldom or never reared exclusively, or XIV. 2. The Short-horned, sometimes called the Dutch breed, even chiefly, for the purpose of labour, which is now in most parts of Britain performed entirely by horses, it will is known by a variety of names, taken from the districtsh>k be sufficient to apply our remarks in an especial manner where they form the principal cattle-stock, or where most to the races themselves, and the modes of treatment which attention has been paid to their improvement. Thus, different families of this race are distinguished by the names are best adapted to the production of beef. “ Whatever be the breed,” says Mr Culley, 001fi q0 7qrjrr? n*W3| _n are more obvious, and may be more certainly depended The Diskley or New Leicester breed is distinguishedNe ^ on, in some Imeeds than in others. These properties are from other long-woolled breeds by their clean heads,ce‘ not only valuable i'or the sake of the fences by which the straight, broad, flat backs, round, barrel-like bodies, very sheep are confined, but as a proof of the aptitude of the fine small bones, thin pelts, and inclination to make fat animals to acquire flesh in proportion to the food they at an early age. This last property is most probably consume. owing to the before-specified qualities, and which, from 1 he long-wroolled large breeds (the varieties usually pre- long experience and observation, there is reason to believe, ferred on good grass-lands) differ much in form and size, extends through every species of domestic animals. Tim and in their fatting quality, as well as in the weight cf Dishley breed is not only peculiar for its mutton being

AGRICULTURE. 329 The South Down sheep are without horns ; they have Agricul1- fat, but also for the fineness of the grain and superior t flavour, above all other large long-woolled sheep, so as to grey faces and legs, fine bones, long small necks ; are low ture. ^ ^ fetch nearly as good a price, in many markets, as the before, high on the shoulder, and light in the fore quarter; uth mutton of the small Highland and short-woolled breeds. the sides are good, and the loin tolerably broad, back- ?” jL>owns ’ The weight of ewes three or four years old is from 18 to bone too high, the thigh full, and twist good. The fleece 261b. a quarter, and of wethers two years old from 20 is very short and fine, weighing from 21 to 3 lb. The to 30 lb. The wool, on an average, is from 6 to 8 lb. a average weight of two-year old wethers is’about 18 lb. per quarter, the mutton fine in the grain, and of an excellent fleece. See Plate XVI. Devo )ire A fourth hornless variety of long-woolled sheep is the flavour. These sheep have been brought to a high state S’ots.) Devonshire Nots, having white faces and legs, thick necks, of improvement by Mr Elman of Glynd, and other intellinarrow backs, and back-bone high; the sides good, legs gent breeders. They prevail in Sussex, on very dry short, and the bones large; weight much the same as the chalky downs producing short fine herbage. See Plate XVI. In the Norfolk sheep the face is black, horns large and Leicesters, wool heavier, but coarser. In the same county there is a small breed of long-woolled sheep, known by spiral; the carcass is very small, long, thin, and weak, with Exm«. the name of the Exmoor sheep, from the place where they narrow chines, weighing from 16 to 20 lb. per quarter ; and are chiefly bred. They are horned, with white faces and they have very long dark or grey legs, and large bones. legs, and peculiarly delicate in bone, neck, and head; but The wool is short and fine, from If to 2 lb. per fleece. This race have a voracious appetite, and a restless and Norfolks. the form of the carcass is not good, being narrow and flat-sided; the weight of the quarters and of the fleece unquiet disposition, which makes it difficult to keep them in any other than the largest sheep-walks or commons. about two-thirds that of the former variety. The shorter-woolled kinds, and such as, from their They prevail most in Norfolk and Suffolk, and seem to size and form, seem well suited to hilly and inferior pas- have been retained solely for the purpose of folding; as it tures, are also numerous. Generally speaking, they are does not appear they have any other good property to retoo restless for inclosed arable land on the one hand, and commend them besides being good travellers, for which not sufficiently hardy for heathy, mountainous districts on they seem well adapted, from their very long legs and the other. To this class belong the breeds of Dorset, light lean carcasses. Hereford, Sussex, Norfolk, and Cheviot. The Cheviot breed are without horns, the head bare and Cheviots, The Dorsetshire sheep are mostly horned, white-faced, clean, with jaws of a good length, faces and legs white. )orse stand upon high, small, white legs, and are long and thin in See Plate XIV. The body is long, but the fore quarters the carcass. The wethers, three years and a half old, weigh generally want depth in the breast, and breadth both there from 16 to 20 lb. a quarter. ^The wool is fine and short, and on the chine, though in these respects great improvefrom 3 to 4 lb. a fleece. The mutton is fine-grained and ment has been made of late. They have fine, clean, smallwell flavoured. boned legs, well covered with wool to the hough. The This breed has the peculiar property of producing lambs weight of their carcass, when fat, is from 12 to 18 lb. per at almost any period of the year, even so early as Septem- quarter; their fleece, which is of a medium length and ber and October. They are particularly valued for sup- fineness, weighs about 3 lb. on an average. plying London and other great towns with house-lamb, Though these are the general characters of the pure which is brought to market by Christmas, or sooner if Cheviot breed, many have grey or dun spots on their faces wanted; and after that a constant and regular supply is and legs, especially on the borders of their native district, kept up all the winter. where they have intermixed with their black-faced neighiVilta, According to Mr Culley, the Wiltshire sheep are a bours. On the lower hills, at the extremity of the Cheviot variety of this breed, which, by attention to size, have got range, they have been frequently crossed with the Leicesconsiderably more weight, viz. from 20 to 28 lb. a quarter. ters, of which several flocks, originally Cheviot, have now These, in general, have no wool upon their bellies, which a good deal both of the form and fleece. gives them a very uncouth appearance. The best kind of these sheep are certainly a very good “ The variations of this breed are spread through many mountain stock, where the pasture is mostly green sward, of the southern counties, as well as many in the west, or contains a large portion of that kind of herbage, which viz. Gloucestershire, Worcestershire, Herefordshire, &c. is the case with all the hills around Cheviot where those 1 hough some of them are very different from the Dorset- sheep are bred. Large flocks of them have been sent to shire, yet they are, I apprehend, only variations of this the Highlands of Scotland, where they have succeeded so breed, by crossing with different tups; and which varia- well as to encourage the establishment of new colonies ; tions continue northward until they are lost amongst those yet they are by no means so hardy as the heath or blackof the Lincolnshire breed.” till' S. The Herefordshire sheep are known by their want of faced kind, which they have in many instances supplanted. horns, and their having white legs and faces, the wool Of those races of sheep that range over the mountainous Heath growing close to their eyes. The carcass is tolerably well districts of Britain, the most numerous, and the one pro- breed, formed, weighing from 10 to 18 lb. a quarter, and bearing bably best adapted to such situations, is the Heath breed, very fine short wool, from H- to 2^ lb. a fleece : the mut- distinguished by its large spiral horns, black faces and ton is excellent. legs, fierce, wild-looking eyes, and short, firm carcasses ottin;, fhe store or keeping sheep of this breed are put into covered with long, open, coarse wool. Their xveight is cots at night, winter and summer, and in winter foddered from 10 to 16 lb. a quarter, and they carry from 3 to 41b. m rac ks with peas-straw, barley-straw, &c. and in very bad of wool each. They are seldom fed until they are three, weather with hay. These cots are low buildings, quite co- four, or five years old, when they fatten well, and give 'ered over, and made to contain from 100 to 500 sheep, excellent mutton and highly flavoured gravy. Different according to the size of the farm or flock kept. The true varieties of these sheep are to be found in all the western Herefordshire breed are frequently called Ryeland sheep, counties of England and Scotland, from Yorkshire northrom the land formerly being thought capable of producing wards ; and they want nothing but a finer fleece to render no better grain than rye, but which now yields every kind them the most valuable upland sheep in Britain. See gram. See Plate XVI. Plate XV. VOL. II 2T

AGRICULTURE. 330 AgriculThe Herdwick sheep are peculiar to that rocky, moun- spring up, and keep root, until the proper season for ture " tainous district, at the head of the Duddon and Esk rivers, pulling it arrives, when it is plucked off along with the t in the county of Cumberland. They are without horns, wool, and separated from it at dressing the fleece, by an^L Herdhave speckled faces and legs, wool short, weighing from operation called forsing. The scuMa remains upon the wicks. 2 to 2^- lb. per sheep, which, though coarser than that of skin of the animal, as if it were a thick coat; a fence any of the other short-woolled breeds, is yet much finer against the inclemency of the seasons, which provident than the wool of the heath sheep. The mountains upon nature has furnished for supplying the want of the fleece. “ The wool is of various colours. The silver grey is which the Herdwicks are bred, and also the stock itself, have, time immemorial, been farmed out to herds, and thought to be the finest; but the black, the white, the mourat or brown, is very little inferior ; though the pure from this circumstance their name is derived. Dun-faced. The Dun-faced breed, said to have been imported into white is certainly the most valuable for all 1the finer purScotland from Denmark or Norway at a very early period, poses in which combing wool can be used.” In the northern part of Kincardineshire, as well as in Mai 4 still exists in most of the counties to the north of the Frith of Forth, though only in very small flocks. Of this most other of the northern counties, there is still a remancient race there are now several varieties, produced by nant of this ancient race, distinguished by the yellow copeculiarities of situation and dilferent modes of manage- lour of the face and legs, and by the dishevelled texture ment, and by occasional intermixture with other breeds. of the fleece, which consists in part of coarse, and in part We may therefore distinguish the sheep of the mainland of remarkably fine wool. Their average weight in that of Scotland from those of the Hebrides and of the north- county is from 7 to 9 lb. a quarter, and the mutton is remarkably delicate and highly flavoured. {Kincardineshm ern islands of Orkney and Zetland. . -A : Hebrides. “ The Hebridean sheep is the smallest animal of its kind. Deport, p. 385.) The last variety we shall mention is the Spanish orMeijs, It is of a thin, lank shape, and has usually straight, short horns. The face and legs are white, the tail very short, Merino breed, bearing the finest wool of the sheep speand the wool of various colours, sometimes of a bluish cies. The males usually have horns of a middle size, but grey, brown, or deep russet, and sometimes all these co- the females are frequently without horns; the faces and lours meet in the fleece of one animal. Where the pas- legs are white, the legs rather long, but the bones fine. ture and management are favourable, the wool is very The average weight per quarter of a tolerably fat ram is fine, resembling in softness that of Shetland; but in other about 17 lb., and that of ewes about 11 lb. The shape of parts of the same islands the wool is stunted and coarse, this race is far from being perfect, according to the ideas the animal sickly and puny, and frequently carries four, of English breeders, with whom symmetry of proportion constitutes a principal criterion of excellence. The or even six horns.” “ The average weight of this poor breed, even when throatiness, or pendulous skin beneath the throat, which fat, is only 5 or 5^ lb. per quarter, or nearly about 20 lb. is usually accompanied with a sinking or hollow in the per sheep. It is often much less, only amounting to 15 neck, presents a most oflensive appearance, though it is or 16 lb.; and the price of the animal’s carcass, skin and much esteemed in Spain, as denoting both a tendency to all, is from 10s. to 14s. We have seen fat wedders sold fine wool and a heavy fleece. Yet the Spanish sheep are in the Long Island at 7s. a head, and ewes at 5s. or 6s. level on the back and behind the shoulders; and Lord The quantity of wool which the fleece yields is equally Somerville has proved, that there is no reason to conclude contemptible with the weight of the carcass. It rarely that deformity in shape is in any degree necessary to the exceeds 1 lb. weight, and is often short of even half that production of fine wool. quantity. The quality of the wool is dilferent on different The fleece of the Merino sheep weighs upon an ave-Fk parts of the body; and inattention to separating the fine rage from 3 to 5 lb. In colour it is unlike that of any from the coarse renders the cloth made in the Hebrides English breed. There is on the surface of the best very unequal and precarious in its texture. The average Spanish fleeces a dark brown tinge, approaching almost value of a fleece of this aboriginal Hebridean breed is to a black, which is formed by dust adhering to the from 8d. to Is. sterling. From this account it is plain greasy properties of its pile; and the contrast between that the breed in question has every chance of being this tinge and the rich white colour below, as well as that speedily extirpated.” (Macdonald’s Deport of the He- rosy hue of the skin which denotes high proof, at first brides, p. 447.) sight excites much surprise. The harder the fleece is, Zetland. In the Zetland Isles it would appear that there are two the more it resists any external pressure of the hand, the varieties; one of which is considered to be the native more close and fine will be the wool. Here and there race, and carries very fine wool; but the number of these indeed a fine pile may be found in an open fleece, though is much diminished, and in some places they have been this occurs but rarely. Nothing, however, has tended to entirely supplanted by foreign breeds. The other variety render the Merino sheep more unsightly to the English carries coarse wool above, and soft, fine wool below. eye than the large tuft of wool which covers the head: “ They have three different successions of wool yearly, it is of a very inferior quality, and classes with what is two of which resemble long hair more than wool, and are produced on the hind legs; on which account it does not termed by the common people fors and scudda. When sort with any of the three qualities, viz. Dejinos or prime, the wool begins to loosen in the roots, which generally Finos or second best, and Terceros, the inferior sort, and happens about the month of February, the hairs or scudda consequently is never exported from Spain. spring up; and when the wool is carefully plucked off, The Spanish flocks which yield fine wool are sometimes Tra ^ the tough hairs continue fast, until the new wool grows distinguished by the appellation of Trashurmnte, on ac-tk up about a quarter of an inch in length, when they gra- count of their travelling from one end of the kingdom to dually wear off; and when the new fleece has acquired the other, though there are flocks that never travel, with about two months’ growth, the rough hairs, termed fors, wool equally fine. They are wintered in Estremadura 1 Sir John Sinclair o« the Different Breeds of Sheep, &c—Appendix, No. 4. (Account of the Shetland Sheep, by Thomas Johnston, p. 79.)

AGRICULTURE. 331 J. and other warm provinces in the south; and during the This reasoning is opposed by others, who, however, Agriculsummer months they graze on the northern mountains rather deny the premises than dispute the conclusion, ture. of Castile, Leon, and Asturias. it has been contended that there never “did exist atV Merinos were first brought into England in 1788, but animal without some defect m constitution, in form or in did not excite much interest before his Majesty’s sales, some other essential qualitythat “ this defect, however which began in 1804 The desirable object of spreading small it may be at first, will increase in every succeedimr them widely over the country, and subjecting them to generation, and at last predominate to such a degree as the experiments of the most eminent professional breeders, to render the breed of little value.”—“ Mr Bakewell very was greatly promoted by the institution of the Merino properly considered a propensity to get fat as the first Society in 1811; which soon comprehended some of the quality in an animal destined to be the food of man. His greatest landholders and the most eminent breeders in successors have carried his principle too far; their stock the kingdom. See Plate XVII. are become small in size, and tender, produce little wool, It seems to be generally admitted, however, that the and are bad breeders.” (Sebright on improving the Breeds wool is somewhat deteriorated since the sheep were of Domestic Animals, p. 11, 14) brought to this country, whatever improvement may have It is admitted, however, that breeding in-and-in will been made on the carcass. Valuable as the fleece is, our have the same effect in strengthening the good as the bad breeders still find that the carcass is the principal object; properties, and may be beneficial if not carried too far, and their management must therefore be conducted ra- particularly in fixing any variety that may be thought ther with a view to the supply of the butcher than the valuable. And again, the same writer observes, “ There clothier. There may be something in our climate unfa- may be families so nearly perfect as to go through several vourable to the growth of fine wool; but the principal generations without sustaining much injury from having cause will probably be found in the mode of feeding, been bred in-and-in; but a good judge would upon exwhich is in every respect so superior to what they expe- amination point out by what they must ultimately fail, as rience in Spain and other parts of the Continent. As a a mechanic could discover the weakest part of a machine means of improving the wool of our own breeds, it may before it gave way.” (Sebright on improving the Breeds often be beneficial to cross with the Merinos; but as a of Domestic Animals, p. 12.) separate and distinct race, it is hardly to be expected “ But one of the most conclusive arguments that crossthat they will ever establish themselves upon an exten- ing with a different stock is not necessary to secure size, sive scale in this country. hardiness, &c., is the breed of wild cattle in Chillingham park, in the county of Northumberland. It is well known 2. Breeding and Rearing. these cattle have been confined in this park for several A greater degree of perfection has been attained in the hundred years, without any intermixture, and are perhaps breeding of sheep than in any other species of live stock; Aid purest breed of cattle of any in the kingdom. From and in this branch, in particular, the breeders of England their situation and uncontrolled state, they must indisputstand higher than those of any other country. ably have bred from the nearest affinities in every possiWe have therefore purposely deferred the observations ble degree; yet we find these cattle exceedingly hardy, which it seems necessary to offer on the different systems healthy, and well formed, and their size, as well as colour, of breeding, to this part of our article; though they may and many other particulars and peculiarities, the same as a Pply generally to other species of animals as well as to they were five hundred years since.” (Gulley on Live sheep. Stock, p. 10.) The males and females possessed of the properties the Notwithstanding all this, it must be admitted that Crossing breeder wishes to acquire, may be, 1. of the same family; there is a great diversity of opinion among intelligent men families of •3. of the same race, but of different families; or, 3. of respecting the expediency of this mode of breeding, andthe sarae different races. in most instances, perhaps, a pretty strong prejudicerace‘ The first method is called breeding in-and-in. This re- against it. The most common practice therefore is, to quires that animals of the nearest relationship should be breed from different families of the same race. When put together, and is supposed by many to produce a ten- these have been for some time established in a variety of der, diminutive, and unhealthy progeny. But if a male situations, and have had some slight shades of difference and female, got by the same sire, were never to be put to- impressed upon them by the influence of different soils k°wever excellent they might be, a stock that and treatment, it is found advantageous to interchange should by any means have become better than others the males, for the purpose of strengthening the excellencould not be long preserved from deterioration by strangers, cies or remedying the defects of each family. Of this nor could it be still further improved by selection. By advantage Mr Bakewell could not avail himself; but it hreedmg in the same family for a great many years, Mr has been very generally attended to by his successors. nakewell succeeded in raising his sheep to a degree of Mr Gulley for many years continued to hire his rams from perfection which no other fattening animal ever attained Mr Bakewell, at the very time that other breeders were in any age or country. paying a liberal price for the use of his own; and the very It is certainly,” says Mr Gulley, one of the most emi- same practice is followed by the most skilful breeders at nent of hiS disciples, “ from the best males and females that present. In large concerns, two or more streams of blood Uie best breeds can be obtained or preserved.”—“ When may be kept distinct for several generations, and occasion} ou can no longer find better males than your own, then by ally intermixed with the happiest effects, by a judicious mea s Hi n breed from them, whether horses, neat-cattle, ^ icep, &c.; for the same rule holds good through every breeder, without having recourse to other flocks. The only other method is, by crossing two distinct Crossing -pccms of domestic animals; but upon no account attempt breeds or races, one of which possesses the properties different 0r cr /Pj oss from worse than your own; for that which it is wished to acquire, or is free from the defects ^ree^senp1 e act'ng in contradiction to common sense, experi- which it is desirable to remove. This measure can only heartl*' 0r ™at ^^-established rule, ‘ That best only can be recommended when neither of the former methods nl rrule • ’ which is a particular case of a more gene- will answer the purpose. The very distinction of breeds ral > ‘ That like begets like.' ” implies a considerable difference among animals in seve-

AGRICULTURE. 332 Agricul- ral respects; and although the desirable property be ob- or mountainous districts, chiefly collected from the skil- Ag i ture. tained, it may be accompanied by such others as are by ful management of the breeders of the Cheviot sheep ti no means advantageous to a race destined to occupy a on the borders of South and North Britain. 1. In November the rams are put to the ewes a little Cop situation which had excluded that property from one of its parents. To cross any mountain breed with Leicester earlier or later, according to the prospect of spring f'ood,ticii rams, for example, with a view to obtain a propensity to but seldom before the 8th or 10th of that month. The fatten at an early age, would be attended with an enlarge- number of rams required is greater or less, according to ment of size, which the mountain pasture could not sup- the extent of the pasture, and their own age and condition. port ; and the progeny would be a mongrel race, not suit- If the ewes are not spread over an extensive tract, one ed to the pastures of either of the parent breeds. If the ram to sixty ewes is generally sufficient. It is usually object be to obtain an enlargement of size, as well as a thought advisable to separate the gimmers (sheep once propensity to fatten, as is the case when Cheviot ewes shorn) from the older ewes, and to send the rams to the are crossed with Leicester rams, the progeny will not latter eight or ten days before they are admitted to the prosper on the hilly pastures of their dams, and will be former. Notwithstanding this precaution, which retards equally unprofitable on the better pastures of their sires. their lambing season till the spring is farther advanced, But the offspring of this cross succeeds well on those in- ewes which bring their first lamb when two years old, the termediate situations on the skirts of the Cheviot hills, common period on the best hill farms,, are often very bad where, though the summer pasture is not rich, there is a nurses, and in a late spring lose a great many of their lambs, unless they are put into good condition with turnip portion of low land for producing clover and turnips. In every case where the enlargement of the carcass is before lambing, and get early grass afterwards. This seGeneral rules. the object, the cross breed must be better fed than its paration, and difference in the time of admitting the rams smaller parent. The size of the parents should also be to the ewes and gimmers, should therefore be always atbut little disproportioned at first; and when some increase tended to. 2. When a farm under this description of stock hastheSelt has been produced, one or more crosses afterwards may of r raise the breed to the required size. With these precau- convenience of a few good inclosures, still more minutean( tions, there is little reason to fear disappointment, provid- attention is paid by skilful managers. It is not sufficientmiU' ed both parents are well formed. {General Report of that the rams are carefully selected from perhaps double the number; the ewes also are drawn out and assorted, Scotland, vol. iii. p. 14—18.) Breeding The breeding of males, still more in this species than and such a ram appropriated to each lot as possesses the of males. in cattle, has long been a separate pursuit; and there are properties in form or fleece in which the ewes are defifew flocks skilfully managed in which it is not still the cient. In other cases, the best ram and the best lot of practice to have recourse occasionally to rams hired at a ewes are put together. When neither of these arrangehigh price from those men whose chief attention is de- ments can be adopted, owing to the want of inclosures, it Letting. voted to this branch of business. These rams are shown is the practice to send the best rams to the ewes for a few for hire, at certain times and places during the summer, days at first, and those of an inferior description afterwhere every one may select such as promise to maintain wards. In every case, when the farmer employs rams of or improve the particular state of his flock, and at such his own flock, he is careful to have a few of his best ewes prices as his means and experience may justify. Iwo or covered by a well-formed and fine-woolled ram, for the more individuals frequently join together in the hire of one purpose of obtaining a number of good ram-lambs, for ram, to which they put the best of their ewes, for the pur- preserving or improving the character of his stock. 3. The stock through winter, in a mere breeding farm, Sq pose of obtaining superior males for the future service of the rest of their flocks; and in particular cases, when consists of ewes and gimmers which should have lambs buff 1-1 the owner of the ram does not choose to part with him, spring, ewe-lambs or hogs, and a few young and old even for a season, ewes are sent to him to be covered at a rams. All these are sometimes allowed to pasture procertain price per head, superior animals of this class being miscuously, but on the farms around Cheviot the ewes very seldom sold altogether. Much as this mode of doing and ewe-hogs are kept separate, and the latter are business has been reprobated as a monopoly, and much as either put on rough pastures which have been lightly there may sometimes be of deception in making up rams stocked in the latter end of summer, or get a few turnips for these shows, all intelligent practical men must agree once a day, in addition to the femains of their summer that there can be no better method of remunerating emi- pasture. The most effectual preventive of the desolating nent breeders, and of spreading their improvements most distempers to which sheep of this age are liable is widely, in the shortest period, and at the least possible ex- turnips; and though they should never taste them afterpense. A single ram thus communicates its valuable pro- wards, a small quantity is frequently given them during perties to a number of flocks, often in distant parts of the their first winter. After the rams have been separated country, without distracting the attention of ordinary from the ewes, they are usually indulged with the same breeders from their other pursuits. It is a striking in- feeding as the hogs. 4. The ewes, during winter, are seldom allowed any stance of the division of labour, which in this, as in other branches, has been productive of the most beneficial re- other food than what their summer pasture affords, except that a small part of it may sometimes be but lightly eaten, sults to all concerned, and to the community at large. Season of Bams and ewes are allowed to copulate earlier or later, and reserved as a resource against severe storms. When breeding. according to the prospect of food for their young at the these occur, however, as they often do in the Cheviot disperiod of parturition,—usually in October and the early trict, there is little dependence on any other food than part of November; and as the time of gestation with sheep hay. When the snow is so deep as completely to cover is twenty-one weeks, the lambs are accordingly dropped in the herbage, about two stones avoirdupois of hay are allowManage- March or April. The management of the Leicester ed to a score of sheep daily, and it is laid down morning ment of breed, equally applicable to all the varieties kept on low and evening in small parcels on any sheltered spot neai hill sheep arable land, having been detailed at some length in the the houses, or under the shelter of stelh or clumps o i works already referred to, we shall here give a condensed trees, on different parts of the farm. 5. In March, the ewes, at least the gimmers or young view of the best practices in regard to the stocks of hilly

AGRICULTURE. 333 Agiml- ewes, are commonly allowed a few turnips once a day, on into a fold, and all the male lambs are castrated excent Agriculture v ;• farms on which there is any extent of arable land, which few of the best, reserved for rams. The ewe-lambs are never new - lambs are \jr ^ are either carted to their pastures, or eaten on the ground spayed,, it is advisable to perform this severe but necessary by bringing the sheep to the turnip-field through the operation when the lambs are but a few days old, if the night. A part of the field, in the latter case, is cut off by weather will permit, instead of delaying till the end of the nets or by hurdles, which inclose the sheep in the same lambing season, as is still the case in some instances. 10. lowards the end of the lambing season the ewesLdBfe way as if they were intended for fattening. When they are ready to drop their lambs, they are no longer kept on that have not yet dropped lambs are separated from the Iambs, the turnip-field, but get what turnips may be left, on their flock and kept by themselves, that they may be more unpastures. It is seldom, however, that the turnips last so der the eye of the shepherd, than if scattered over all the long, though it is desirable to have a few remaining, to be pasture. It is desirable to allow them finer grass for a few given to the weakest ewes, or to such as have twins, in a weeks after lambing, that their lambs may come to be separate inclosure. nearly equal to the rest of the flock when weaned; or, if 6. A few days before the time of lambing, the ewes are they are too late for this, that they may get ready for the Udd* lockii- collected for the purpose of being udder-locked. The sheep butcher by the month of August, beyond which period the are raised upon their buttocks, their backs next to the ewes must be much injured by suckling them. operator, who then bends forward and plucks off the locks 11. When the wool has risen sufficiently (and the pro- Washing, of wool growing on or near the udders, for the purpose of per time is easily known by the appearance of a new giving free access to the expected lambs. At the same growth), the barren sheep are brought to the washingtime he ascertains the condition of the ewes, and marks pool. Sometimes they are hand-washed by men, who such as do not appear to be in lamb, which may then stand in the pool and have the sheep forced towards them be separated from the others. This operation is not with- singly; but more commonly the Cheviot sheep, especially out danger, and several premature births are usually the if the flock be numerous, are compelled to leap into the consequence. It is therefore not so general a practice as pool in a body for three or four times successively; and it it was formerly, though still a common one on many, if is desirable that they should have room to swim a little, not on most farms. and come out on a green low bank on the opposite side. 7. On those farms where the hogs have been allowed After being washed, the sheep are preserved as far as to pasture promiscuously with the ewes, which is seldom possible from rubbing against earthen dikes or banks, permitted on the Cheviot hills, a separation should always and from lying down on any dirty spot which might soil take place at the commencement of the lambing season ; their wool. There are two methods of shearing; in the Shearing, and the lowest and finest part of the pasture ought to be one, the operator sits on the floor or on the ground, lays exclusively appropriated to the nursing ewes. the sheep on its back between his knees, begins with the Laratig. 8. The ewes begin to drop their lambs in the first or belly, and afterwards, having tied the animal’s legs, prosecond week of April, according to the time at which the ceeds very expeditiously, at the rate of four or five sheep rams were admitted; and such as have twins generally in the hour, or from forty to fifty a day. This is the comlamb among the first of the flock. At this season the mon method of shearing Cheviot sheep. In the other, most constant attention is indispensable on the part of the which is a much more perfect method, the shearer raises shepherds, both to the ewes in labour and to the newly the animal on its buttocks, and, beginning at the neck, dropped lambs. Though the Cheviot ewes are not so clips in a circular direction from the belly to the backliable to losses in parturition as some larger breeds which bone, for some time with one hand, and then on the opposite are in higher condition, and though they make good nurses, side with the other. The fleeces are neatly lapped up, unless they are very lean, and their food scanty, yet after any filthy spots have been cut off, the shorn side outamong a large flock there are always a number that need wards, beginning at the breech-wool, and using that of the assistance in lambing, and in a late spring not a few that neck and shoulders as a bandage. Before the shorn sheep have not milk sufficient for their lambs, particularly among are turned out to pasture, they are marked, commonly the gimmers or young ewes. A careful shepherd at this with the owner’s initials, by a stamp, or boost in provincial time always carries a bottle of milk along with him, which language, dipped in tar heated to a thin fluid state ; and it he drops from his own mouth into that of the lamb that is not unusual to place this mark on different parts of the may need it,—brings the ewes that have little milk to a body, according to the sheep’s age. better pasture, or to turnips,—and confines such as have 12. The principal markets for Cheviot lambs in the Weaning forsaken their lambs in a small pen, or barrack as it is south of Scotland are held in the month of July, the first lambs, called, temporarily erected in some part of the farm-stead- on the fifth of July; so that the lambs may commonly be mg. The same confinement is necessary when it is wish- weaned when about three months old, and sometimes ed to make a ewe that has lost her own lamb nurse that sooner. When the ewes are gathered to be washed or of another ewe that has had twins, or that has perished in shorn, the ewe-lambs to be kept for supplying the place ambing, or is from any other cause incapable of rearing of the old ewes, annually sold, are stamped in the same her lamb. The ewe, after being shut up for a few hours way as the ewes. The store-lambs are sent to some clean ... "lt'1 stranger lamb, usually admits it to the teat, and grassy pasture for a few weeks ; and where the farm does e\er af ter treats it as her own; though sometimes a little not afford this accommodation, they must be summered, deception is necessary, such as covering the stranger with as it is called, at a distance. Several farms near Cheviot, t ie skin of her own lamb. At this important season, an and on the Lammermuir hills in Berwickshire, are appropriated to this purpose, the owner of the lambs paying inclosure early grass, nearhethe shepherd’s cottage, is of vast advantage. Thither carries the ewes and so much a head for six or eight weeks. In the mean time tw ins, such as have little milk,—those that have been the ewe-hogs, or gimmers, as they are denominated after induced to adopt another’s offspring,—and, generally, all shearing, have joined the ewe stock; and the lambs, when iat need to be frequently inspected, and are in want of brought home, go to the pasture which they had occupied, etter treatment than the rest of the flock. Wherever they may be kept in winter, it is always desirktr:'). soon • as the weather is favourable, after a consid- able to allow them a few turnips, along with a full bite of erable number of the ewes have lambed, they are collected coarse herbage.

AGRICULTURE. 334 Agricul13. When the lambs had been separated from the ewes, applicable, with slight modifications, to all the numerous A ture. it was formerly the practice to milk the ewes for six or breeds of sheep, there are practices more or less exten- i eight weeks or more; and this most objectionable manage- sively followed in particular districts, or with particular^ v Milking ment is still continued by several farmers. The most breeds, the most important of which are cotting and foldewes. skilful store-masters, however, have either laid aside milk- ing. In describing the Herefordshire sheep, the practice ing, unless for a few days, or have shortened the period of keeping them in cots through the night has been already to two or three weeks. The value of the milk for eight noticed ; and a similar one is followed in some parts of the weeks will not exceed from one shilling to one shilling Highlands of Scotland with the small dun-faced flocks of and sixpence a head, and the sheep are injured to at least that district. Folding is adopted as a regular part of the system off'ol three times that amount, independent of accidents at the milking fold. The cream is separated from the ewe-milk, management in several counties of England, for the purand made into butter for smearing, and the milk itself pose of turning the dung of the animals to the best account in promoting the fertility of their arable land. The same mixed with cow-milk, and converted into cheese. Drafting 14. The next object of attention is the drafting of the thing has been done to a small extent in Scotland, but it out old old ewes to be sold in September or October. Their age, forms no part of general management there, and is conon the lower hills, is usually four years and a half, or they fined to those situations where, from the want of inclosures, are disposed of after having reared lambs for three years. it is necessary to the protection of the crops, and to small In some situations they are kept on till a year older ; but patches of what is still in the ancient state of outfield, as when they are purchased, as they usually are, to be kept a preparation for corn. The sheep best adapted to the fold are those of theFol another year on lower grounds, it is commonly for the interest of the store-farmer to sell them when still in their more active short-woolled varieties, such as the Norfolk, bra full vigour. Skilful managers do not content themselves Wiltshire, and South Down breeds ; the heavy long-woolwith drafting them merely according to age ; and as there led kinds being less hardy, and some of them, as the Leiis no disadvantage in keeping a few of the best another cesters, much too valuable for a mode of treatment that year, they take this opportunity of getting rid of such of converts them into dung carriers. The following calcuthe flock of other ages as are not of good shapes, or are lation will show, that though in open lands the practice otherwise objectionable. As soon as the ewes to be dis- may be in some cases tolerated on the ground of conposed of are drawn from the flock, they are kept by them- veniency or expediency, it can possess no recommendaselves on better pasture, if the circumstances of the farm tion as a profitable mode of management in other circumwill admit of it. Sometimes they are carried on till they stances; and the best farmers, indeed, from Bakewell, are fattened, and turnips are often purchased for them at who used to say that it was robbing Peter to pay Paul, a distance. When this is the case, it is not thought ad- down to the present time, agree in reprobating sheep-foldvisable to keep them longer than till between Christmas ing as a branch of general management. “ This morning (September 22d, 1780) measured a and Candlemas, as an old ewe does not improve like a sheep-fold set out for 600 sheep, consisting of ewes, wedwether in the spring months. 15. The last operation of the season is salving or tiers, and grown lambs. It measures 8 by 5^ rods, which is Salving. smearing, which is usually performed towards the end of somewhat more than 7 rods to 100, or 2 yards to a sheep.” “ August 29, 1781. Last autumn made an accurate October or beginning of November, before the rams are sent to the ewes. The most common materials are butter experiment, on a large scale, with different manures for and tar, mixed in different proportions ; a greater propor- wheat, on a sandy loam, summer-fallowed. “ Part of an 18 acre piece was manured with 15 or 16 tion of tar being employed for the hogs or young sheep than for the older ones. The butter is slowly melted and loads of tolerably good farm-yard dung an acre, part with poured upon the tar, and the mixture is constantly stirred three chaldrons of lime an acre; the rest folded upon with till it becomes cool enough for use. The wool is accurately sheep twice; the first time at the rate of 600 sheep to a parted into rows from the head to the tail of the animal, quarter of an acre (as in first Minute), the second time and the salve is carefully spread upon the skin with the thinner. “ In winter and spring the dung kept the lead; and now, point of the finger, at the bottom of each row. The object of this operation is to destroy vermin, to prevent cu- at harvest, it has produced the greatest burden of straw. “ The sheep-fold kept a steady pace from seedtime to taneous diseases, and to promote the warmth and comfort of the animal during the storms of the ensuing winter. harvest, and is now evidently the best corned and the It is not necessary with sheep kept on low grounds, and well cleanest crop. “ The lime, in winter and spring, made a poor appearfed during winter ; and it may be occasionally omitted for one season, particularly with old sheep, without material ance ; but after some showers in summer, it flourished injury; but notwithstanding the ridicule that speculative much, and is now a tolerable crop, not less, I apprehend, writers have attempted to throw upon the practice, it is than three quarters an acre. “ From these data, the value of a sheep-fold, in this case, almost universally considered necessary and beneficial, on high exposed situations, by the store-farmers of the border may be calculated. “ It appears from the first Minute that 100 sheep mahills. ( General Report of Scotland, vol. iii.) Inconsequence of the great depression of late in the price of tarred wool, nured seven square rods daily. But the second folding however, various attempts have been made to use in its was thinner,—suppose nine rods; this is, on a par of the stead other mixtures, which are laid on the sheep either two foldings, eight rods a day each folding. in a liquid form, such as tobacco liquor and turpentine, or “ The dung could not be worth less than half-a-crown of the consistency of a salve, which is composed of oil and a load, and the carriage and spreading ten shillings an butter or tallow, with a mixture of turpentine. There has acre ; together, fifty shillings an acre ; which quantity of not been sufficient experience to ascertain whether tar land the hundred sheep teathed twice over in forty days. can be altogether dispensed with in the case of the moun“ Supposing them to be folded the year round, they Va! tain flocks; but in general it is now used much more spar- would at this rate fold nine acres annually; which, atma1 50s. an acre, is L.22. 10s. a hundred, or 4s. 6d. a head. ingly than formerly. “ In some parts of the island the same quantity of Besides those general rules of management which are

AGRICULTURE. 335 jl. dung would be worth L.5 an acre, which would raise the eC r Ja n Feb r ’ 100 , nTT’ ™ make y> March, and April, with Agricl. tu value of the teathe to nine shillings a head ; which, at two- nW plenty, Trf. ofhtter, sheep will a dunghill of at least lore. v v > ✓'mw'pence a ^ead a week, is more than the whole year’s keep 60 loads of excellent stuff, which will amply manure two ^ '^of the sheep. acres of land ; whereas 100 sheep folded (supposing the “ It does not follow, however, that all lands would have grass dry enough) will not in that time equally manure received equal benefit with the piece in consideration, an acre.” which perhaps had not been folded upon for many years, That such a method may be advantageous in particular perhaps never before; and sheep-fold, like other manures, cases, it would be rash to deny; but, generally, it is not may become less efficacious the longer it is used on a given advisable, either on account of the sheep, or any alleged piece of land.” (Marshall’s Rural Economy of Norfolk, advantage from the manure they make. As to the sheep, vol. ii. p. 29.) this driving and confinement, especially in summer, would It must readily occur, that to fold on land in tillage all be just as hurtful as folding them in the common way; the year is nearly impracticable ; and that where it could anti it has been found that their wool was much injured he done, the manure would be greatly diminished in value by the broken litter mixing with the fleece, in a manner from rain and snow, to say nothing of the injury to the not to be easily separated; besides, now that it is the sheep themselves; so that the estimate of four shillings great object of every skilful breeder to accelerate the maand sixpence, or nine shillings a head, is evidently in the turity of his sheep, as well as other live stock,—among extreme. other means, by leaving them to feed at their ease, and, j ns According to the experience of Mr Arthur Young if circumstances permit, in small parcels,—such a practice folik- (Farmers Kalendar), the same land will maintain one- as this can never be admissible in their management. fourth more stock when the animals are allowed to de- And with regard to manure, there can be no difficulty in pasture at liberty, than when confined during the night converting into it any quantity of straw, stubble, and fern, in folds. The injury to the stock themselves, though it is by cattle fed in fold-yards, on green herbage in summer, not easy to mention its precise amount with any degree of and turnips or other succulent food in winter; while the accuracy, cannot well be doubted, at least in thecase of the soil, especially if it be of a light, porous quality, is greatlarger and less active breeds, when it is considered that ly benefited, both by the dung and treading of sheep althey are driven twice a day, sometimes for a distance of lowed to consume the remainder of both sorts of food on two or even three miles, and that their hours of feeding the ground. It is true that the dung of sheep has been and rest are in a great measure controlled by the shep- generally supposed to be more valuable than that of herd and his boy. “ When they are kept in numerous cattle; but accurate experiments have not been made to parcels, it is not only driving to and from the fold that determine the difference in this respect among these and affects them, but they are in fact driving about in a sort other polygastric animals. The greater improvement of of march all day long, when the strongest have too great pastures by sheep is probably owing as much to their mode an advantage, and the flock divides into the head and tail of feeding as to the richer quality of their dung. of it, by which means one part of them must trample the On the subject of breeding and rearing sheep, it would Dr Parry’s food to be eaten by another. All this proves the very re- be improper to omit noticing the judicious and successful experiverse of their remaining perfectly quiet in small parcels.” experiments of Dr Parry and others, in crossing our native ments' Another writer observes, that “ were the pasture sheep of breeds with the Merino race, having for their object to Lincolnshire to be got into a fold once a week, and only improve the carcass without deteriorating the quality of caught one by one and put out again immediately, it the wool. would prevent their becoming fat.” (Parkinson on Live The land on which Dr Parry began his experiments Stock, vol. i. p. 367.) The only sort of folding ever adopt- was high, of a thin staple, dry, unsheltered, and conseed to any extent by the best breeders is on turnips, clovers, quently unproductive; and as his other avocations did tares, and other rich food, where the sheep feed at their not permit him constantly to superintend its management, ease, and manure the land at the same time, he became impressed with the belief that its most profitjpAnother mode of management somewhat akin to this able application would be to a breed of sheep, the return S rac ' P tice, and which is similar to one that has been warm- of which should chiefly depend on the fleece; and such a ly recommended in a recent publication (Sir J. Sinclair’s breed he proposed to obtain by means of crossing with the usbandry of Scotland), as if it had been formerly un- Merinos, some of which had then (1792) been recently known, is described and commented on by Mr Young as imported by the king. Accordingly he fixed, as the basis (mows:—“ This practice is, to confine them at night in a of his experiments, on the Ryeland breed, which has long sheep-yard, well and regularly littered with straw, stubble, been reputed as affording some of the finest wool in the and fern ; by which means you keep your flock warm and island. Healthy in bad seasons, and at the same time raise a surDr Parry objects to washing the wool on the sheep’s Lavatories, pibmg quantity of dung,—so great a quantity, if you have back before shearing. The fleece is so thick, that when p enty of litter, that the profit will be better than folding thoroughly soaked with water it is very long in drying; on the land. A great improvement in this method would o, giving the sheep all their food (except their pasture) and if the weather prove wet and cold, the sheep are evidently much incommoded. He thei’efore recommends ■n such yard, viz. hay and turnips, for which purpose they public lavatories, as in Spain, for cleansing the wool after nay be brought up not only at night, but also at noon, to being shorn. His sheep are shorn about the second week e baited ; but if their pasture be at a distance, they should of June ; and if the weather be then unfavourable, he thinks len, instead of baiting at noon, come to the yard earlier would be fit to house them for two or three nights or Housing, ie evening, and go out later in the morning. This is it days after the operation. The lambs have been always Shearing piactice that cannot be too much recommended; for so shorn unwashed at the end of July or beginning of Au-lambs, wilW 611a ,lod S,ng is a g^at matter to young lambs, and gust, without appearing to have suffered any injury. The mu c ale k ] . ^ forward their growth : the sheep will fleece of such lambs as are rather coarse, he thinks, should som 6 £.ood health ; and, what is a point of con- be always shorn, as he has shown that the wool of many tnCe t0 a fa ms vervy great. If ^- this F method ’ ^le quality of through dung raised will be of this race is comparatively coarse, even in those indiviis pursued the months duals in which the fleeces afterwards acquire the finest A

AGRICULTURE. 336 Agricul- quality. The finer-fleeced lambs may be left unshorn, as are now established in Ireland and Scotland; and the An ture. it has been proved that no loss is sustained by delaying late Mr Malcolm Laing was very successful with a numer- t' ' ous one, so far north as the Orkney Isles. ^ shearing them till the usual period. We shall conclude our account of this valuable race andMei The effects of successive crosses, both on the form and the fleece of the progeny, are ably illustrated by this ac- its cross-breeds with an extract from a letter sent by Mr and curate experimentalist. With regard to the former, Dr Birkbeck, a professional farmer of the highest class, to Drbov Parry candidly declares that his only object, the improve- Parry, and quoted by the doctor in the essay above rement of the fleece, did not allow him to give attention to ferred to. “ The fleeces of the first cross (between Methe best forms in selecting his breeders; but, notwith- rinos and South Downs), washed, are to the parent South standing this, “ my sheep,” he observes, “ are in general Downs as six to five in weight, and as three to two in shorter in the legs and necks, have smaller bones, a value per pound. Thus, 100 South Down fleeces, 2-| lb. each at 2s. L.25. rounder barrel, a wider loin, and consequently a better 100 First cross 3 lb 3s. LAS. hind quarter, than any pure Merinos I have happened to « So much for wool; and were it not for the air of exsee, except one particular ram belonging to Lord Somerville.” This change he attributes to the female or Rye- travagance it might give my statement, I should add, land blood, which, in forming the progeny, acts most on that there is an evident improvement, as to usefulness of the carcass, while that of the male or Merino chiefly af- form and disposition to fatten, in a large proportion of individuals. I had the courage to exhibit at Lord Somerfects the skin and fleece. According to the general opinion of cultivators on the ville’s show, in March last, five ewe-hogs from your rams, Continent, any breed of ewes, however coarse and long in and the honour to bear away the prize from all competithe fleece, will, on the fourth cross of the Merino ram, tors, by the merit of carcass and fleece jointly. On the give progeny with short wool equal to the Spanish. Of whole, I believe that the improvement of the w ool may go the truth of this proposition, however, Dr Parry justly ex- on, without detriment to the carcass, until we shall attain presses some doubts, derived from his own experience a breed of sheep with Spanish fleeces and English constiand that of others. But it is certain, he adds, that one tutions ; but I am also convinced that this must be the recross more will, in most cases, effect the desired purpose. sult of careful and judicious selection.” Successive “ If we suppose the result of the admixture of the 3. Fatting. crosses. blood of the Merino ram to be always in an exact arithAfter what has been said in the chapter on arable landAg metical proportion, and state the native blood in the ewe as 64, then the first cross would give ff of the Merino ; (see Turnips, page 286), and in the second chapter (seetin the second, ; the third, ; the fourth, ; the fifth, ; Pastures, page 310), little remains to be added on this the sixth, ||; and so on. In other words, the first cross point. The age at which sheep are fatted depends upon would leave 32 parts in 64, or half of the English qua- the breed, some breeds, such as the Leicester, maturing lity ; the second 16 parts, or one fourth ; the third 8 parts, at an earlier age than others under the same circumor one eighth ; the fourth 4 parts, or one sixteenth ; the stances ; and also on the abundance and quality of the fifth 2 parts, or one thirty-second; the sixth 1 part, or food on which they are reared, a disposition to early obesity, as well as a gradual tendency towards that form one sixty-fourth ; and so on. “ Now, if the filament of the Wiltshire or any other which indicates a propensity to fatten, being materially coarse wool be in diameter double that of the Ryeland, promoted by rich food, while the young animals are yet it is obvious that, according to the above statement, it in a growing state. On good land, the Leicester wethers would require exactly one cross more to bring the hybrid are very generally brought to a profitable state of fatness wool of the former to the same fineness as that of the before they are eighteen months old, and are seldom kept latter. This, I believe, very exactly corresponds with the on for fatting beyond the age of two years. The Highfact. The difference between one eighth and one six- land breeds, on the other hand, though prepared, by teenth is very considerable, and must certainly be easily means of turnips, a year at least sooner than they could perceived, both by a good microscope, and in the cloth be in former times, usually go to the shambles when from which is manufactured from such wool. In the latter three to four years old. The ewes of the first description method it certainly has been perceived; but I have hi- are commonly fatted after having brought lambs for three therto had no opportunity of trying the difference by the seasons, that is, after they have completed their fourth former. The fifth cross, as I have before observed, brings year ; and those of the small breeds at from five to seven the Merino-Wilts wool to the same standard as the fourth years of age, according to circumstances. Besides the numerous flocks fatted on pastures for they of the Merino-Ryeland.” (Communications to the Board supply of the market during summer, a very large proporof Agriculture, vol. v. p. 438.) Several other distinguished individuals have taken a tion, especially of the sheep kept on arable land, is fatted lead in improving the fleeces of our native short-woolled chiefly on turnips, the winter and spring consumption o breeds, by crossing them with the Merinos, and, while butcher-meat being now abundantly provided for by means their patriotic exertions deserve well of their country, of this root, in all those districts where the best courses have considerably increased their own profits. At the of husbandry prevail. We have already mentioned the head of these, perhaps, we ought to place Lord Somer- weight of the different breeds in the description of them ville, who undertook a voyage to Portugal for the sole —the mode of feeding, under the heads of Pastures an purpose of selecting from the best Spanish flocks such Turnips—and shall now only add, that it is an invanab e ( sheep as united in the greatest degree the merit of a good rule with all good managers, never to allow this, or anyr carcass to a superior fleece. Notwithstanding the difficul- other animal reared solely for the shambles, ever to lose ties he had to encounter, augmented by the war between flesh, from its earliest age till it is sent to the butcher,— Great Britain and Spain, he brought home, in 1801, a that it is found of much advantage, with a view to spec ) flock of the first quality, selected from the Trashumante fattening, as well as to the economy of food, to separa e or travelling breeds of Merinos, which was the admiration a flock into divisions corresponding with its different ages in of the Spanish shepherds through whose flocks they pass- and the purpose of the owner as to the time of carry 0r ed in their journey to England. Small flocks of Merinos them to market;—and that the change from the foo

AGRICULTURE. 337 1 store to fattening stock—from that which is barely ca- the mothers of the lambs are driven from the pasture into Agricul* pable of supporting the condition which they have already the lamb-house for an hour, in the course of which time ture. attained, to that which is adapted to their speedy im- each lamb is suckled by its mother. At four o’clock all provement in fatting—ought to be gradual and progres- the ewes that have not lambs of their own are again sive. Thus, very lean sheep are never, in good manage- brought to the lamb-house, and held for the lambs to ment, put to full turnips in winter, nor to rich pastures in suck ; and at eight the mothers of the lambs are brought summer; they are prepared for turnips on good grass- to them for the night. ed often on the aftergrass of mown grounds ; and kept “ This method of suckling is continued all the year. on second year’s leys, and afterwards a moderate allow- The breeders select such of the lambs as become fat ance of turnips, if they are to be fatted on pastures. It enough, and of proper age (about eight weeks old), for is a common practice, in the instance of the Leicesters, slaughter, and send them to market during December to keep all that are not meant for breeding always in a and three or four succeeding months, at prices which state of fatness ; and, after full feeding on turnips through vary from one guinea to four, and the rest of the year at winter and spring, to finish them on the first year’s clovers about two guineas each. This is severe work for the early in summer, when the prices of meat are usually the ewes, and some of them die under excess of exhaustion. However, care is taken that they have plenty of food; highest. The luxury of the age has called forth the ingenuity of for when green food (viz. turnips, cole, rye, tares, clover, Hour' lamb: man to accelerate the course of nature, at an expense &c.) begins to fail, brewers’ grains are given them in which, in this species in particular, is in no degree com- troughs, and second-crop hay in racks, as well to support pensated by the intrinsic value of the young animal as the ewes as to supply the lambs with plenty of milk; human food. House-lambs are fed in such numbers as the for if that should not be abundant, the lambs would bedemand may require, in the vicinity of London and other come stunted, in which case no food could fatten them. “ A lamb-house, to suckle from one hundred and sixty large towns, where they are sold in the early part of the season, commonly at much higher prices than fat sheep of to one hundred and eighty lambs at a time, should be sefull growth. The Dorsetshire breed, as we formerly ob- venty feet long and eighteen feet broad, with three coops served, can be made to yean at almost any season of the of different sizes at each end, so constructed as to divide year, and they are therefore the only kind kept near Lon- the lambs according to their ages.” (Middlesex Report, don. But in the neighbourhood of those towns where p. 355.) the rich are willing to dispense with lamb during the early Sect. IV. Swine. part of winter, other breeds are made to furnish the supply at a more advanced period of the season. The following account of the London practice may be Though there are manypnstances of this species of live Swine a useful to those farmers who find it their interest to give stock being kept in such numbers as to be a source ofsuborditheir attention to this branch of management:— very considerable emolument to their owners, yet, gene- n.ate sPe" “ The sucklers, salesmen, and butchers of London are rally speaking, swine are viewed by farmers merely as a aware that such lambs as have sharp barbs on the inside subordinate concern ; and perhaps, in most cases, their 1 of their lips are certainly of a deep colour after being chief value is held to consist in their being maintained on butchered; and all those whose barbs are naturally blunt what would othemise be entirely lost. With millers, do as certainly produce fair meat. brewers, distillers, and dairymen, they are an object of “ This knowledge has been the occasion of many lambs more importance, and return, for the offals they consume, of the latter kind being kept for rams, and sent into Dorset- a greater weight of meat (according to some, double the shire, expressly for the purpose of improving the colour of weight) than could be obtained from cattle. In those the flesh of house-lambs. parts where potatoes are raised as a fallow crop, much be“ The issue of such rams can generally be warranted yond the demand for them as human food, as is the case fair, and such meat always sells at a higher price ; hence in particular in Ireland and the west of Scotland, the reararose the mistaken notion, that Middlesex rams were ne- ing and feeding of swine, most of which are sent to a discessary to procure house-lambs. tance in the state of bacon and pickled pork, is a branch “ The sheep, which begin to lamb about Michaelmas, of management on which great dependence is placed for are kept in the close during the day, and in the house dur- the payment of their rents and other charges. ing the night, until they have produced twenty or thirty It has been made a question, whether swine will pay lambs. These lambs are then put into a lamb-house, which for being wholly fed on crops raised for this purpose; is kept constantly well littered with clean wheat-straw; and various calculations have been offered, to show how and chalk, both in lump and in powder, is provided for much they will return for a given quantity of corn and them to lick, in order to prevent looseness, and thereby roots; but the results are so discordant, that much more preserve the lambs in health. As a prevention against accurate experiments must be made before any thing gnawing the boards, or eating each other’s wool, a litttle certain can be stated on this point. Perhaps the prinwheat-straw is placed, with the ears downwards, in a rack cipal consideration which affects the question is, the within their reach, with which they amuse themselves, extremely prolific nature of the animal, which renders and of which they eat a small quantity. In this house it easy, in a very short time, to supply them in too they are kept with great care and attention until fit for great numbers for the demand. It is this circumstance, the butcher. probably, that has, more than any other, prevented the “ ihe mothers of the lambs are turned, every night at farmers of arable land from employing any large portion etght o’clock, into the lamb-house to their offspring. At of their crops in feeding swine, the flesh of which varies ®lx 0 ^ofk in the morning these mothers are separated in price more than that of other butcher-meat, and rom their lambs and turned into the pastures; and, at often at very short intervals. Yet if their food be herbei ght o clock, such ewes as have lost their own lambs, and age and roots, with a small allowance of corn or pulse in t lose ewes whose lambs are sold, are brought in and held the last stage of fatting, and if the breeds are judiciousn the head till the lambs by turns suck them clean : they ly chosen and well managed, there seems no reason to are then turned into the pasture; and at twelve o’clock, doubt that, in many situations, swine will yield as much, , VOL. II.

AGRICULTURE, 338 Agricul- perhaps, on an average of years, a greater profit, for the remarkably long in the body, very narrow in proportion to A,: ture. food they consume, than any other species of live stock. their size, with large bones, long legs, and much loose skin. l The Shropshire pig is also a large, coarse animal, with ^ \ It is only in particular districts that so much attention has been paid to this animal as to give rise to any accu- much bone and hair, and many bristles; their colour rate distinction of breeds; and nowhere has it received mostly white, with black patches, some rather sandy. any considerable portion of that care in breeding which They are said to be much liked by the distillers. The largest breed of the island is supposed to be kept has been so advantageously employed on the other animals of which we have treated. Yet among none of the about Rudgewick, on the borders of Sussex and Surrey. varieties of those is there so great a difference as among They feed to an extraordinary size, and weigh, at two years the breeds of this species, in regard to the meat they re- old, nearly double or triple the weight of most other sorts turn for the consumption of a given quantity of food. at that age. {Middlesex Report.) The Chinese breed is of different colours, white, black, Some races can with difficulty be made fat, even at an advanced age, though fed from the trough with abundance black and white in irregular patches, and of a sandy hue; of such food as would fatten any other animal; while and their size is no less varied, though all of them smaller others contrive to raise a valuable carcass out of materials than the breeds already mentioned. The larger sort, such as weigh 10 or 12 stones when about a year old, or rather on which no other creature could subsist. Breeds. Mr Culley mentions only three breeds, viz. the Berk- perhaps a cross with some native breed, may be recomshire, the Chinese, and the Highland or Irish; but other mended as the most suitable kind for arable farms, when writers have found a distinct breed in most of the coun- their maintenance is to be got chiefly in the fold-yards. The ties of England, which they have thought proper to de- form of the Chinese pig is generally good, and their flesh scribe separately. The Chinese race has been subdivided excellent; but it is ehsily made too fat for delicate stomachs. The most numerous in the lowland counties of Scotinto seven varieties or more; and it would be easy to point out twice the number of as prominent distinctions among land were, and in many places still are, very unprofitable the sorts in the third class. But such an affectation of animals. They are of a white colour; have light, narrow accuracy is as useless as it would be tedious. One gene- carcasses, with bristles standing up from nose to tail; ral form, approaching to that of other animals kept for long legs; and are very slow feeders, even at an adtheir carcass, ought certainly to be preferred; and the vanced age. In the Highlands and Hebrides the breed, size, which is the other distinguishing characteristic, must supposed by Dr Walker to be the aboriginal, is of “ the be chosen with a view to the food provided for their main- smallest size, neither white nor yellow, hut of a uniform tenance, and not because it is possible to raise the indi- grey colour, and shaggy, with long hair and bristles. They viduals to a great and probably unprofitable weight. The graze on the hills like sheep; their sole food is herbage fineness of bone, and the broad though also deep form of and roots, and on these they live the whole year round, the chest, denote in this, as in the other species, a dispo- without shelter, and without receiving any other sustesition to make fat with a moderate consumption of food ; nance. In autumn, when they are in the best order, and, while it may be advisable to prefer the larger breeds their meat is excellent, and without any artificial feeding; in those places where bacon and flitches are in most de- but when driven to the low country, they fatten readily, mand, the smaller breeds are most esteemed for pickling, and rise to a considerable bulk.” (Walker’s Hebrides, and are, beyond all doubt, most profitable to those far- vol. ii. p. 17.) In the Orkney Islands they are commonly mers who allow them little else than the range of the of a dark red, or nearly black colour, and have long bristles, with a sort of coarse wool beneath them. farm-yard and the offals of the kitchen. The mode of breeding, the food, and the general ma-M; The Berkshire pigs, now spread through almost every nie part of England and several places of Scotland, are in nagement of swine, are all of them so much dependent on general of a reddish colour, with black spots, large ears local circumstances, and are so much varied in consehanging over their eyes, short-legged, small-boned, and quence, that it is neither possible, nor would it be of any inclined to make fat. The surprising weight that some utility, to describe the practice of different counties, or of these hogs have been fed to would be altogether in- rather of almost every different individual. The period of gestation with swine is 16 weeks. The credible, were not the facts w^ell attested. “ On Monday the 24th of January 1774, a pig (fed by Mr Joseph Law- pigs are commonly weaned when six weeks old; soon ton of Cheshire) was killed, which measured, from the after which the sow is again in season, so that two litters nose to the end of the tail, three yards eight inches, and are usually farrowed within the year ; sometimes, though in height four feet five inches and a half. When alive*' very rarely, five litters in two years. There are two it weighed 12 cwt. 2 qrs. 10 lb.; when killed and dressed, things of particular importance to be attended to in the it weighed 10 cwt. 3 qrs. 11 lb. or 86 stones 11 lb. avoir- breeding of swine. They should not be allowed to farrow in winter, as young pigs are exceedingly tender, and can dupois.” (Culley on Live Stock, p. 173.) The Hampshire breed of hogs is also very large, being with difficulty be preserved in very cold weather; nor at longer in the body and neck, but not of so compact a form, a time when food is scarce, as is generally the case upon as the Berkshire: they are mostly white, and well dis- corn-farms in summer, if the stock of them is large. The months of February and August have been recommended posed to fatten. The Sussex pig is distinguished by being black and as the best periods for parturition. (Henderson on Swine, white, but not spotted, frequently black at both ends, and p. 27.) Twenty swine are estimated to bring at an avewhite in the middle. Their general size, when full-grown, rage seven pigs and a half each for their first litter (Ibid. p. 17); but the number varies much, and many young is about 18 or 20 stone. The Suffolk white pig stands high, is narrow on the pigs are lost soon after their birth by the unkindness of back, with a broad forehead ; the hair is short, with many their dam, and by casualties, to which they are more exposed than most other young animals. bristles; weight 16 to 19 stone. A sow in pigs should be separated from the herd some The Cheshire breed is distinguished by their gigantic size: in colour they are black and white, blue and white time before she is expected to farrow, carefully watched, (not spotted, but in large patches of black or blue), and and littered with a small quantity of dry short straw. Too some all white. Their heads are large, with very long ears, much straw is improper, both at the time of farrowing

AGRICULTURE. 339 the animal, when about two or three months old. The Agriculul and for a week or two afterwards, as the pigs are apt to A n ■. * nestle beneath it unperceived by the sow, and are thus common practice of restraining them by rings fixed in the ture. ^/- ^in danger of being smothered when she lies down. A snout is painful and troublesome: they must be replaced breeding sow should be well fed, particularly when nurs- as often as they give way; and that happens so frequently, ing ; and it is advantageous early to accustom the pigs to that rings afford but little security against this nuisance. Styes or swine-houses are set down in different situa-Styes, feed from a low trough, on milk or other liquid food mixed with meal or bran. Such of the pigs of both sexes as are tions, according to the numbers kept, and the manner of not to be kept for breeding are usually castrated or spayed feeding them. The cottager erects a little hut contiguwhen about a month old, and the whole may be weaned ous to his dwelling, and many small farmers also choose to at the end of six or seven weeks. They should then be lodge them near the kitchen. If swine are kept chiefly in fed regularly three times a day, with meal and water a the straw-yard, their houses are so situated as to give ready little warmed, until they are able to shift for themselves access by a door which opens into it. See Plate XI. The gentleman-farmer erects a range of low buildings on among the rest of the stock. The food allowed, whether to growing or fattening that side of his farm-offices which is least exposed to view, swine, depends on the circumstances of their owners. and incloses and subdivides a small yard for their use. The cottager’s pig must be contented with the scanty Where this branch of husbandry is carried on in all its offals of his kitchen and of his dairy, the produce gene- parts, there must be separate houses for sows heavy with rally of a single cow. Towards the end of autumn a few young, for such as are nursing, for pigs newly weaned, potatoes are added, for the purpose of preparing it for and for rearing and for fattening stock. (General Reslaughter, and perhaps a little meal is mixed with boiled port of Scotland, vol. iii. p. 217.) In the pickling and kitting of pork, a branch of business potatoes for a week or two before. Such pigs, however, often thrive amazingly, make themselves moderately fat, which is carried on to a considerable extent at many of and form a most valuable addition to the winter stores of our seaports, the carcass is cut in pieces, and packed in their owners. In the south-eastern counties of Scotland, kits made for the purpose, containing from one to two cwt. the hinds or married ploughmen are commonly allowed to Salt is dissolved in water till the mixturb be strong enough keep a pig each, which they feed in this manner, and from to swim an egg; it is then boiled, and, when cold, poured which their families derive much benefit at very little ex- upon the pork. When the end of the kit is fixed in, the pense. On many corn-farms, the chief, and not unfre- article is ready for being sent to market. A late writer has given particular directions for the quently the only dependence of swine, is on the strawyards. The sweepings of the barn-floor, corn left upon curing of bacon, founded upon a long course of experience, the straw, and oats found among the dung of horses, with which therefore deserve to be more generally known. We a share of the turnips given to the cattle in winter, and shall give them in his own words. “ After the carcass has hung all night, lay it upon a Directions of the clover in summer, afford ample subsistence to swine, r curing in the proportion, perhaps, of one to every five or six acres strong table or bench, upon its back, cut off the head f°acon under corn, clover, and turnips. The kitchen and dairy close by the ears, and cut the hinder feet so far below the^ ’ give some assistance to pigs newly weaned, and also to hough as will not disfigure the hams, and have plenty of such as are soon to be slaughtered. A great many are room to hang them by. Then take a cleaving knife, and, killed when about a year old that have never been fed at if necessary, a hand-mallet, and divide the carcass up the any expense that can be estimated. A fbw pigs, if of middle of the back-bone, laying it in two equal halves. a good breed, will always be moderately fat at that age Then cut the ham from the side by the second joint of with the run of the straw-yards, and their flesh is of an the back-bone, which will appear on dividing the carcass ; then dress the ham, by paring a little off the flank or excellent quality. lee ig When farmers find it profitable to keep large swine that skinny part, so as to shape it with a half-round point, clear1 r un - cannot be fattened for bacon, as is the practice in some ing off any top fat that may appear. The curer will next of the western counties, without a regular supply of food take off the sharp edge along the back-bone with his knife being served up to them, the method is, to rear them and mallet, and slice off the first rib next the shoulder, chiefly on raw potatoes and Swedish turnips, and to fatten where he will perceive a bloody vein, which he must take them on these roots boiled or prepared by steam, with a out, for if it is left in, that part is apt to spoil. The cormixture of oat, barley, or bean and peas meal. Their ners must be squared off where the ham was cut out. “ In killing a number of swine, what sides you may have troughs should be often replenished with a small quantity of food at a time, and kept always clean ; and their food dressed the first day lay upon some flags or boards, piling changed occasionally, and seasoned with salt. “ If proper them across each other, and giving each flitch a powdercare be taken,” says a late writer, “ a feeding pig should ing of saltpetre, and then covering it with salt. Proceed not consume more than six Winchester bushels of oats in the same manner with the hams by themselves, and do made into meal. It ought to be shelled before it is ground, not omit giving them a little saltpetre, as it opens the pores the same as for family use, but need not be sifted.” of the flesh to receive the salt, and besides gives the ham (Henderson’s Treatise on Swine, p. 26.) a pleasant flavour, and makes it more juicy. Swine, it is well known, are very apt to get into for“ Let them lie in this state about a week, then turn those bidden ground: upon tillage farms they are seldom, for on the top undermost, giving them a fresh salting. After this reason, permitted to go at large, unless sometimes for lying two or three weeks longer, they may be hung up to a few weeks on the stubbles, or where the number is dry in some chimney or smoke-house. Or, if the curer so large as to afford the expense of constant herding. In chooses, he may turn them over again, without giving many cases they are almost always confined to the cattle- them any more salt; in which state they may lie for a Moi of yard, or a fold-yard beside their styes. Another bad pro- month or two without catching any harm, until he has J’^j j‘ngPerty in this animal is, the habit of digging into the convenience for drying them. I practised for many years gin] S0'^ ’ ^or which the most effectual preventive is, to cut the the custom of carting my flitches and hams through the two strong tendons of their snout, by a slight incision country to farm-houses, and used to hang them in their ^ ith a sharp knife, about an inch and a half from the nose, chimneys and other parts of the house to dry, some seathis may be done with little pain, and no prejudice to sons to the amount of five hundred carcasses. This plan I

340 AGRICULTURE. Agricul- soon found was attended w5th a number of inconveniences, be maintained. Trials have been made to improve our t\ ture. yet it is still common in Dumfries-shire. present breeds, by crosses with males introduced from “ About twenty years ago I contrived a small smoke- foreign parts, without having had the effect, however, oT' house. " h°use> of a very simple construction. It is about twelve bringing them into use, either for the plough or the cartfeet square, and the walls about seven feet high. One of and wherever the services of a small animal are required* these huts requires six joists across, one close to each wall, we have horses of all sizes, from nine to eighteen hands the other four laid asunder at proper distances. To re- high, which seem better adapted to every purpose than ceive five rows of flitches, they must be laid on the top of asses or mules. Goats are to be found only in small Go the wall. A piece of wood, strong enough to bear the numbers, except in some parts of the Highlands, and are weight of one flitch of bacon, must be fixed across the kept chiefly for the medicinal quality of their milk. Pi. Pi^ belly end of the flitch by two strings, as the neck end must geons are justly considered as a nuisance by every respecthang downwards. The piece of wood must be longer than able writer on rural economy, and certainly by every farthe flitch is wide, so that each end may rest upon a beam. mer who is within the reach of their depredations. They may be put so near to each other as not to touch. Rabbits axe a kind of stock about which some difference Ka The width of it will hold 24 flitches in a row, and there of opinion still exists among intelligent men, though there will be five rows, which will contain 120 flitches. As are perhaps very few situations in which they can be conmany hams may be hung at the same time above the sidered as more profitable than any other mode of occuflitches, contrived in the best manner one can. The lower pancy. It is not merely that they in general return less end of the flitches will be within 2^ or 3 feet of the floor, for their food than other stock, but that they are also very which must be covered five or six inches thick with saw- difficult to confine, and most destructive to the crops and dust, which must be kindled at two different sides. It will fences in their vicinity. Their number, though still conburn, but not cause any flame to injure the bacon. The siderable, has accordingly decreased, and continues to dedoor must be kept close, and the hut must have a small crease, with the progress of improvement; and unless hole in the roof, so that part of the smoke may ascend. their skins shall become of much greater value than at preThat lot of bacon and hams will be ready to pack up in a sent, they can be an object of consideration only on such hogshead to send off in eight or ten days, or a little longer, tracts as must otherwise be left to the animals that are if required, with very little loss of weight. After the bacon still in a state of nature. In the present state of our agriis salted, it may lie in the salt-house as described, until culture, however, if it be found advantageous to retain this an order is received, then immediately hang it up to dry. species, it is proper that the best breeds and the best mode “ I found the smoke-house to be a great saving, not of management, as well as their value, should be known. only in the expense and trouble of employing men to cart A deep, sandy, poor soil is the most suitable for rabbits, and hang it through the country, but it did not lose nearly though, under good management, as turnips must be proso much weight by this process. vided for winter, there should be parts of it capable of “ It may be remarked, that whatever is shipped for the bearing that and other crops; and the situation may be London market, or any other, both bacon and hams, must either on the sides of hills or on a flat surface. Artificial be knocked hard, and packed into a sugar hogshead, or burrows are made with an auger, to reconcile them to the something similar, to hold about ten hundredweights. ground, and to preserve them from vermin, until they have Bacon can only be cured from the middle of September time to make their own burrows; and on level warrens, until the middle of April.” (Henderson’s Treatise on Swine, this implement may be usefully employed from time to p. 39.) time afterwards. Warrens are commonly fenced with a Brawn. The treatment of boars for brawn, and the after-pre- sod wall, capped with furze or black thorn, in all about six paration of the article, is carried on in Kent and some other feet high, and should always be kept in complete repair. parts of England ; but it is the object of those concerned Besides the rabbits, a number of sheep are usually kept in in this business to keep the process secret. According to these grounds during the summer. answers returned to queries transmitted by the Board of The silver-haired rabbit is now more esteemed than the Agriculture in 1804, the boars are put up for feeding at all grey, though the latter is so much hardier, that if a warages, and in an entire state; but they are preferred when ren be stocked with both, there will in a few years be only two years old. They were usually kept apart, each nothing but greys. {Lincolnshire Report, p. 382.) The of them in a case so small as not to be able to turn round, skin of the grey rabbit is cut, that is, the “ wool” is pared but sometimes eight together in larger pens. Their food off the pelt, as a material of hats; whereas that of the is beans, with sulphur given in their water. A large ani- silver-haired, which sells much higher, is dressed as fur, mal is preferred, producing a collar of about 30 lb. weight, and goes, it is said, principally to the East Indies. (Marwhich then brought 2s. per lb.; the lean parts being made shall’s Yorkshire, vol. ii. p. 265.) into sausage meat, and sold at 6d. per lb. {Farmer s MaOne buck will serve one hundred does; the doe takes gazine, vol. vi. p. 431.) the buck the day she brings forth, and goes thirty-one days with young, which she suckles for about twenty-two Sect. V. Miscellaneous Live Stock. days, for the first half of which they are blind. But when confined in warrens, rabbits seldom breed more than twice Under this title we would comprise Asses, Mules, a year, and some of them only once : in particularly wet, Goats, Rabbits, Pigeons, Poultry, and Bees. cold seasons, few or none bring more than one litter. The value of these animals, as agricultural live stock, is (Parkinson on Live Stock, vol. ii. p. 299.) The skins are comparatively inconsiderable in Britain, notwithstanding in their best state from the middle of November till their importance in some other countries; and, in an eco- Christmas, during which period all that are not to be nomical view, some of them are undoubtedly wasteful and kept for breeding are slaughtered. Silver skins have been Asses and pernicious. Asses and mules are seldom or never employ- sold of late at from 15s. to 21s. a dozen. n.ules. ed in field labour, though it was the opinion of Mr Bake“ The best manner of taking rabbits is by folds, by well, and a few other eminent agriculturists, that there means of nets and cords. The day before the rabbits are would be some advantage in propagating the ass on ac- intended to be taken, the warrener, with his assistants, incount of its hardiness, and the coarse food on which it may closes many acres of ground, the bank generally making

AGRICULTURE. ul. one end, and sometimes part of a side : the fore part of the , " f0ld is left entirely open. Rabbits form their colonies in ^some part all together, at a distance from their feeding m ound, and nearly all leave their home or burrows at the time of feeding, when the warrener fixes his nets, by two men beginning at each end, who meet in the middle. Thus, in fine dry weather they can nearly take all that is wanted at once; but it is a general practice to fold at two separate times from each colony. Within the fold are formed what are termed angles, in that part nearest to the burrows; as the rabbits, when they return, and find themselves checked in getting home, will beat about by the nets. These angles are therefore so contrived as to afford them an opportunity of secreting themselves, and are made thus:—an irregular groove or channel is cut, about twelve or fourteen inches deep, and about twelve inches wide, the sods being set up one against another over the groove, so as to form a ridge like the roof of a house. These channels are made of equal lengths, both ends being left open, so that when the rabbits meet they are head to head. When the rabbits find themselves prevented from returning to their former homes, and the day-light appears, hearing the warrener and his dogs enter the fold, they quickly run into the angles, when the warrener puts a sod against the open ends, to prevent their return. The few straggling rabbits remaining in the fold are hunted by boys with dogs; but the warreners have recourse to that method as little as possible, the dogs being apt to tear the skin, and injure the carcass.” (Parkinson on Live Stock, vol. ii. p. 299.) “ Turnips, clover, and sainfoin are the most proper kinds of winter food for rabbits, as also threshed oats or barley, when corn is tolerably cheap, may be given them with great propriety. The two latter need only be allowed when die ground is covered with snow, and when it does not blow about so as to cover the corn when laid down; but in severe storms, turnips are the most proper food, as they can find them by their scent, and will scratch the snow off when covered. Three large cart-loads of turnips a day' will fodder one thousand or one thousand one hundred couples of rabbits, which are about a proper quantity to be left as breeding stock on 500 acres of inclosed warren land. In heavy snows, a great deal of money must be expended in clearing the snow from the warren walls, in order to keep as much as possible the rabbits within their bounds.” {Lincolnshire Report, p. 389.) )e Among several calculations to show the expense and '* produce, Mr Arthur Young seems to consider the following as the most accurate; and as he is a decided enemy to this stock, there is no reason to suspect exaggeration. “ Mr Holdgate states the expense of 1700 acres under rabbits, the silver sort, thus :— Labour, three regular warreners, with extra-assistance at killing L.85 0 0 Fences 42 10 0 Winter food 42 10 0 Nets, traps, &c. &c 14 3 4 Delivery 21 5 0 Lent is said to be 7s. an acre 595 0 0 L.800 8 4 The capital employed is that sum, with the addition of stock paid for; suppose this three couples an acre, at 2s. 4d 595 0 0 oterest of that sum one year, 5 per cent

L.1395 8 4 69 5 0 L.1464 13 4

Annual Account. Expenses as above Interest

.L.800 8 4 ... 69 5 0

341 Agriculture.

L.869 13 4 Produce. 10,000 couples at 2s. 4d Expenses

L.1166 13 4 869 13 4

Profit L.297 0 0 or L.24 per cent, (the five per cent, included) on capital employed. This is very great, reckoned on the capital, but small reckoned by rent, as it amounts to only half a rent. But suppose the gross produce L. 1500, which I take to be nearer the fact, then the account would stand thus:— Produce ..L.1500 0 0 Expenses 869 0 O Profit L.631 0 0 or L.47 per cent, on the capital. “ Take it how you will, it explains the reason for so many of these nuisances remaining. The investment of a small capital yields an interest that nothing else will; and thus the occupier will be sure never to convert them to better uses.” {Ibid. p. 391.) Of Poultry, the most difficult to rear, and the most vo- Poultry, racious and unprofitable, is the turkey. Geese, which live, and even fatten on grass, are considered by some persons as the most valuable, and in many parts of England the number is considerable. Ducks are not only comparatively harmless, but, from their feeding chiefly on pernicious insects, are probably deserving of more attention than has hitherto been paid to them. But common fowls are by far the most numerous, and everywhere add something not inconsiderable to the income of the inhabitants of the country, and to the stock of food for the consumption of the people at large. The trade in eggs alone, be- Eggs, tween the country and the towns, is a matter of some importance, as affording profitable employment to those wrho collect them, and to others who afterwards send them in large quantities to the principal towns. According to the statistical account of Scotland, the people of Hawick, a small town in the county of Roxburgh, more than twenty years ago received L.50 weekly through the year, for eggs collected in the neighbourhood, and sent to Berwick for the London market; and in 1796 it was calculated that the peasantry of Mid-Lothian drew L.8000 a year for poultry and eggs. But in the way these fowls are commonly managed by farmers, there is reason to doubt whether they pay for the food they consume, and the waste they are too often allowed to commit. The number kept by any individual is commonly so small as to obtain little of that attention that is given to other do- * mesticated animals, and their ravages are accordingly greater, and the returns smaller, than they would otherwise be.* Yet in the warm cottages of country labourers, the common farm-yard hen makes a valuable return for the food she requires, which is frequently potatoes, boiled and mashed, with a little oat-meal porridge, a portion of the daily meal of its owner. A comfortable degree of warmth is so essential, that some gentlemen have had stoves placed under their roosts. ^ The results of an experiment made with six hens and f^fpro? a cock in 1807 and 1808 were, that they ate half a peck duceI of ’ of barley weekly, with very little other food, and laid 764COmmon eggs in 52 weeks, the greatest number in the months offowls.

342 AGRICULTURE. Agricul- May and August, and the smallest in November and De- capital, nor of those inventions by which the charges of & tiirc. cember. The eggs were sold in the London market at cultivation are diminished, and its products augmented. oil. re. l^d. each, and the net profit, besides 11 chickens, was Such small landed properties return little more than the''-' L.2. 12s. 2d. They were confined in a small yard, well wages of the manual labour by which they must necessa-an >a sheltered and heated by the fires of the houses with which rily be cultivated. Their small surplus produce, which™’ it was surrounded, and prevented from sitting by means every bad season annihilates, cannot afford subsistence to [Is of 1 of a feather thrust through the nostrils for a few days, those other classes whose labours are necessary to na-pn rtr, the pain of which is supposed to have induced the hen to tional prosperity and individual comfort; and a part of move about till the inclination to sit had passed away. the families of the cultivators themselves, having neither (Parkinson on Live Stock, vol. ii.) food nor employment at home, must either emigrate or perish. To a certain extent these consequences have been already experienced, both in Ireland and the HighCHAP. IV. lands of Scotland; for it would be idle to maintain that a GENERAL OBSERVATIONS ON THE AGRICUL- minute division of land in tenancy does not produce all the unhappy effects which must result from the minute TURE OF BRITAIN. division of land in absolute property. Of two counties, in one of which estates are in general Ef sof SuperioThe husbandry of a great part of Britain, both in rerity of spect to the cultivation of the soil and the breeding and too large for the personal superintendence of the pro-to' n British management of live stock, is confessedly superior to that prietors, and, in the other, the land is parcelled out into801 re. 8 the an ler shares little more than sufficient for the subsistence ofSai !” lure: * value yof°^ country in Europe; and the quantity and its products, considering the character of the cli- their owners, the condition of the great body of the mate, as well as the industry, wealth, and respectability of people must be very much alike. In neither can there its husbandmen, are without any parallel either in ancient exist that middle class from which all valuable improveor modern times. We find from Columella, that, under ments proceed, nor any of those inventions which multi• the Romans, the produce of the greater part of Italy was ply and augment the productive powers of human indusless than four times the seed (lib. iii. cap. 3); and this try. Both of these states of property must appear denotwithstanding an unproductive fallow every second cidedly unfavourable to national prosperity, when measured year, and apparently a much greater attention to minutiae by this unerring test—the quantity of the products of the than would be compatible with the more extensive con- soil which remains after defraying the charges of obtaincerns of the British farmer. The average crops of Bri- ing them; for upon this net surplus depend all the entain have been stated so high as nine times the seed, joyments of mankind beyond the mere necessaries of life, and certainly, wherever the management is tolerably cor- as well as the means of repelling foreign aggression, and rect, cannot be less than double the proportion assigned preserving internal tranquillity. by Columella to the richer soil and more genial climate The distribution of the landed property of Britain is of Italy. Of the agriculture of France before the Revo- equally distant from both these extremes. Though it is lution a very full and accurate account has been furnished necessary, perhaps, to the political constitution of the by Mr Arthur Young, from which it is sufficiently evi- country, that there should be a number of large estates, dent how much the general produce of that country, the yet their extent is seldom so great as to produce any of best cultivated perhaps next to Britain, was inferior to the bad effects just mentioned, even within the bounds of that of even our middling lands; and the progress it has a single county. Over the rural economy of the nation made since has not, according to the latest and apparent- these large properties exert scarcely any influence at all, ly exaggerated accounts, been marked by any very great excepting such of them as are held by entail, which is cerimprovement either in live stock or machinery, the two tainly a mode of tenure greatly at variance with the full most distinguishing parts of British husbandry. improvement of the soil. Many instances might be pointIt is natural to ask, to what causes this superiority is ed out, of very extensive estates, fully as well cultivated, owing; and why it is confined to a part of our territory, and yielding as large a surplus for the general consumpinstead of being extended, as our great demand of late tion, as our agriculture, in its present state, obtains from for foreign corn would have led us to expect, to all soils any equal extent of similar land. It is true, that to inthat are capable of profitable improvement. On these crease the political influence of great proprietors, too two points we now propose to offer a few very general re- many of these estates are possessed by tenants at will; marks ; and we shall submit them to the reader without but this grievance is not peculiar to such estates, the affecting that precision of arrangement which more ample largest estates of Scotland being occupied on leases. details would have required. This most serious obstacle to spirited cultivation must therefore be ascribed to political causes, and not to the Division 1. The territory of Britain is not engrossed by a few engrossing of landed property. oflandad individuals, like the northern countries of Europe, nor 2. Another arrangement, which may serve to account Bi oiteil property, divided into such minute portions as that of some of the for the superiority of British agriculture, is somewhat™ liessmall states of the Continent. The vast tracts of country akin to that division of labour by which all the arts have ^ men held by a Russian or Polish nobleman, and the diminutive been carried to so great a degree of perfection in this possessions of the Swiss, and more lately of the French country. Few great proprietors, comparatively, cultivate peasantry, are almost equally inconsistent with the more their own lands beyond the demands of pleasure and Objections productive systems of rural economy. The former are convenience. The far greater part of Britain is cultito very too large for the superintendence of one individual with vated by professional men, with their own capital, and for large a view to profitable cultivation; and the existence of such their own profit. The price which they must pay for estates; extensive properties implies the degradation and poverty their temporary rights in the soil, in the shape of rent, of the great body of the people, and the absence of a instead of checking their exertions, has a powerful tenmiddle class, possessed of disposable capital, or at least of dency to promote every profitable improvement, to disopportunities for its investment in the soil. The latter, courage dangerous speculation, and to restrain wastelm on the other hand, afford no room for the employment of expenditure. And as it is clearly the interest of such

AGRICULTURE. 343 i. men, still more than of proprietors themselves, to obtain true that, under the security of the honour of an English A u Agricultip. the largest produce at the least possible expense, the in- andlord, tenants at will have been continued in posses- ture. ^termediate portion of the produce—that which is dis- sion from generation to generation, and acquired wealth posable for the general consumption—is consequently as which he has never, like the landholders of some other large as industry and economy, in the present state of countries, attempted to wrest from them. But there are our agriculture, can make it. It is true almost to a pro- few individuals in any rank of life who continue for a verb, that farming upon an extensive scale is never profit- length of time to sacrifice their just claims on the altar of able to a great landholder; and, with a view to the inte- pure generosity. Something is almost always expected in rest of the nation, it ought to be discouraged, as both return. A portion of revenue in this case is exchanged wasteful and unproductive. In some countries this mode for power, and that power is displayed not only in the of farming is a matter of necessity, as in the north of habitual degradation of the tenantry, but in the control Europe, where a class of free tenants does not exist; in over them, which the landlord never fails to exert at the others the business of cultivation must be carried on as a election of members of Parliament, and on all other polisort of partnership, or joint concern between the pro- tical emergencies. No prudent man will ever invest his prietor and tenant, as on the mctairies of France. For- fortune in the improvement of another person’s property, tunately, the general distribution of wealth has long since unless, from the length of his lease, he has a reasonable removed the necessity for either of these methods in Bri- prospect of being reimbursed with profit; and the servii! tain. lity which holding at will necessarily exacts is altogether To give full effect to the professional system, it is ne- incompatible with that spirit of enterprise which belongs L'onn ■ tion 6- cessary that the rights of the landlord and tenant, re- to an enlightened and independent mind. ;weei> spectively, should be clearly defined and well secured by The people at large are evidently most deeply affected andl I indti;int. law and the private contract of the parties. The general by every measure which has a tendency to fetter the proprinciple which should regulate the terms of this connec- ductive powers of the soil, and, at the same time, to detion seems to be, that while the farm ought to be restored press one of their largest and most valuable classes. It is to the owner at the expiration of the tenant’s interest, at clearly' their interest that corn and other provisions should least without deterioration, the tenant should be encou- be supplied in abundance; and the people of England raged to render it as productive as possible during his may justly complain of the want of leases as one of the possession. In both of these views a lease for a term of principal causes which check the improvement of their years is scarcely less necessary for the interest of the own territory'. landlord than of the tenant; and so much is the public What ought to be the term of a lease, can only be de-Duration interested in this measure, that it has been proposed by termined by a reference to the circumstances of each par-of leases, intelligent men to impose a penal tax on the rent of lands ticular case. Lands naturally rich, or such as have alheld by tenants at will. ready been brought to a high degree of fertility, requiring Wva I hat the value of the property is enhanced by the se- no great investment of capital, and returning all or nearly curity which such a lease confers on the tenant, will be all the necessary outlay within the year, may be advanput beyond all doubt, if the rents of two estates for half tageously held upon short leases—such perhaps as give a century back are compared; the one occupied by ten- time for two or at most three of the rotations or courses ants at will, and the other by tenants on leases for a mo- of crops to which the quality of the soil is best adapted. del ate term, and where the soil and situation are near- The practice of England in this respect is extremely varily alike in every respect. If the comparison be made 0U Sj—almost every term, irom from twenty years aownwartls, downwards, ^ ^ 1. . “ ~ “iauc uuo >—annus, l eveiy 1 b ei found in diifere t I’ the , "« ". is nineteen .of i'- I» Scotland, by far value, the advantages of leases will be still more strikmost common period years, to which it ing. While that which is held by tenants at will re- was formerly the practice, in some places, to add the life mains nearly stationary, the other is gradually yet ef- of the tenant. In that country, even when it is thought fectually improved, under the security of leases, by the expedient to agree for a much longer term, this is still extenant s capital; and, in no long period, the latter takes pressed in periods of nineteen years,—a sort of mysterious tne lead of the former, both in the amount of the reve- cycle, which seems to be no less a favourite with the courts nue which it yields to the proprietor, and in the quan- of law than with landholders and farmers. Yet this term ny of produce which it furnishes for the general con- is somewhat inconvenient, as it can never correspond with sumption. The higher rents and greater produce of some any number of the recognised rotations of arable land. r 1 s o Scotland, than of many of the English counties, has been maintained by several writers, that a lease w mre the soil, climate, and markets are much more forIttwenty years is not sufficient to reimburse a tenant for ayourable, must be ascribed to the almost universal prac- any considerable improvements; and landholders have often 1Ce 0 homing on leases in the former country, in a much grea er egree than to any of the causes which have been been urged to agree to a much longer term, which, it is alrequcntly assigned. Less than a century ago, what are leged, would be not less for their own interest than for that of the tenant. This is a question which our limits do not faar ibehmdj the ^ cugreater ltivatedpart districts of Scotland were very of England, and indeed had permit us to discuss; but after viewing it in different lights, assisted by the experience of long leases in differve, 7 little progress from the time of the feudal ent parts of Scotland, we cannot help expressing some worp1^' 118 n°- ^ year.s since tlle farmers of Scotland doubts of their utility, even as regards the parties themnp.- . !n le Practice of going to learn from their southern selves ; and we are decidedly of opinion, that a greatwas in tl 0UrS an art then very imperfectly known er produce will be brought to market, from any given C Untry But in thereTlasT ° several parts of England extent of land held on successive leases of twenty years, been .Httle or no improvement since, while the for half a century, than if held on one lease of that gnnt, C0Unt es and a^rnPreSC ‘ °f Scotland have uniformly advanced, duration, whether the term be specified or indefinite, as to f,:, condition ;nt exhib it> very generally, a happy contrast in the case of a lease for life. As a general mode of teat the middle of last century, nure, leases for lives seem to us particularly objectionable. The great advantages of a lease are so well known in sarvj (r0Spoint !)e.ct t0outtarthe Riers themselves, it cannotItbemay necesadvantages of leases. be Scotland, that one of her best agricultural writers, himself

AGRICULTURE. 3-14 Agricul- a landed proprietor, has suggested a method of conferring time when all other classes were suffering from scarcity A; tti ture. on it the character of perpetuity, to such an extent as, he and consequent dearth; while, in times of plenty and U thinks, would give ample security to the tenant for every cheapness, he might find it difficult to make his expenses^ V profitable improvement, without preventing the landlord correspond with the great diminution of his receipts. It from resuming possession upon equitable terms, at the ex- is of much importance to both parties that the amount of piration of every specified period. But the author of this the rent should vary as little as possible from any unforeplan (Lord Karnes), in his ardent wishes for the advance- seen causes, though tenants in general would be perhaps ment of agriculture, at that time in a very backward state the most injured by such fluctuations. To obviate these and other objections to a corn-rent,Pla in his native country, seems to have overlooked the diffitinj culties that stood in the way of its adoption; and the and to do equal justice at all times to both landlord andcon aC( great advance in the price of produce, and consequently tenant, a plan has been suggested for converting the cornint -rent in the rate of rents, since his Lordship wrote, has long into money, adopting for its price, not the price of the mu since put an end to the discussion which his proposal ex- year for which the rent is payable, but the average price cited. For a form of a lease on his plan, the reader may of a certain number of years. The rent, according to this consult Bell’s Treatise on Leases; and the objections to plan, may be calculated every year, by omitting the first the plan itself are shortly stated in the supplement to the year of the series, and adding a new one ; or, it may consixth edition of Karnes’s Gentleman Farmer, published in tinue the same for a certain number of years, and then be fixed according to a new average. Let us suppose the 1815. Long leases have been sometimes granted upon con- lease to be for twenty-one years, the average agreed on dition of receiving an advance of rent at the end of a being seven years, and the first year’s rent, that is, the certain number of years ; but covenants of this kind, meant price of so many quarters of corn, will be calculated from to apply to the circumstances of a distant period, cannot the average price of the crop of that year, and of the six possibly be framed in such a manner as to do equal justice years preceding. If it be meant to take a new average for to both parties; and it ought not to be concealed, that, in the second and every succeeding year’s rent, all that is every case of a very long lease, the chances are rather necessary is, to strike off the first of these seven years, more unfavourable to the landholder than to the farmer. adding the year for which the rent is payable, and so on If the price of produce rise as it' has done for the last fifty during all the years of the lease. But this labour, slight years, no improvements which a tenant can be expected as it "is, may be dispensed with, by continuing the rent to execute will compensate the landlord’s loss; and if, on without variation for the first seven years of the lease, acthe other hand, prices shall decline, the capital of most cording to the average price of the seven years immetenants must be exhausted in a few years, and the lands diately preceding its commencement, and, at the end of will necessarily revert to the proprietor, as has often been this period, fixing a new rent, according to the average the case of late. Hence a landholder, in agreeing to a price of the seven years just expired, to continue for the long lease, can hardly ever assure himself that the obliga- next seven years. Thus, in the course of twenty-one tions on the part of the tenant will be fully discharged years, the rent would be calculated only three times; and throughout its whole term, while the obligations he incurs for whatever quantity of corn the parties had agreed, the himself may always be easily enforced. He runs the risk money payments would be equal to the average price of of great loss from a depreciation of money, but can look fourteen years of the lease itself, and of the seven years forward to very little benefit from a depreciation of pro- preceding it; and the price of the last seven years of the duce, except for a few years at most. Of this advantage old lease would determine the rent during the first seven a generous man would seldom avail himself; and, indeed, years of the new one. The landlord and tenant, it has been thought, could in most instances, the advantage must be only imaginary, for it would be overbalanced by the deterioration of his not suffer either from bad seasons or any change in the value of the currency, should such a lease as this be exproperty. Objections Where the circumstances of a landholder, the state of tended to several periods of twenty-one years. The quanto corn- his property, and the wealth and enterprising character of tity of corn to be taken as rent is the only point that rents. the tenantry, are such as to render long leases, or leases would require to be settled at the commencement of each for an indefinite period, expedient, the most equitable of these periods; and though this would no doubt be at the mode, in regard to rent, would be to make it rise and fall greater or less, according to the state of the lands r with the price of corn or other produce. A rent paid in time, yet it may be expected that, in the twent3 -one years corn is, indeed, liable to serious objections, and can sel- preceding, all the tenant’s judicious expenditure had been dom be advisable in a commercial country. It necessarily fully replaced. Instead of the twofold difficulty in fixing bears hardest on a tenant when he is least able to dis- a rent for a long lease, arising from uncertainty as to the charge it. In very bad seasons his crop may be so scanty quantity of produce, which must depend on the state of as scarcely to return seed and the expenses of cultivation; improvement, and still more perhaps from the variations and the share which he ought to receive himself, as the in the price of that produce, the latter objection is entirely land is a ■ profits of his'capital, as well as the quantity allotted to the removed by this plan ; and in all cases where 1 landlord, may not exist at all. Though, in this case, if he ready brought to a high degree of fertility, the question pays a money rent, his loss may be considerable, it may be about the quantity of produce may likewise be dispense . tore twice or thrqe times greater if the rent is to be paid in with. Upon this plan we shall take leave to observe, that it r ^ Corn, or according to the high price of such seasons.. In less fatourable years, which often occur in the variable be applied to leases of nineteen or twenty-one years, tie climate of Britain, a corn-rent would, in numerous in- inconvenience resulting from uncertainty as to the amoun ^ necessan \ stances, absorb nearly the whole free or disposable pro- of rent, as well as other difficulties which must a( vanta e: 0 r j 'jL duce, as it is by no means uncommon to find the gross attend it, would be as great perhaps as any | produce of even good land reduced from twenty to fifty which it holds out to either of the parties. If it be san o per cent, below an average, in particular seasons. And it that a rent determined by a seven years’ average eon ought to be considered, in regard to the landlord himself, not suddenly nor materially alter, this is at once to a nu that his income would thus be doubled or trebled, at a the inutility of the contrivance. The first thing w ie

AGRICULTURE. 345 , must strike every practical man is, that corn is not the mg the currency of the lease, or his interest towards its Agriculture A * ft! * only produce of a farm, and, in most parts of Britain, per- expiration, may lead him to exhaust the soil, instead of rendering it more productive. When a lease therefore is' ca ^haps not the principal source from which rent is paid; and there is no authentic record of the prices of butcher- either redundant or deficient in this respect—when it meat, wool, cheese, butter, and other articles in every either permits the lands to be deteriorated or prevents county to refer to, a-s there is of corn. This is not the their improvement—the connection between landlord and place to inquire whether the price of corn regulates the tenant is formed upon other views, and regulated by some price of all the other products of land, in a country whose other principle, than the general one on which we think statute-books are full of duties, bounties, drawbacks, &c. it should be founded. Notwithstanding the high authority of Adam Smithto say nothing of its internal regulations ; but it is sufficiently evident, that, if corn does possess this power, its restrictive covenants are always necessary to the security price operates too slowly on that of other products, to of the landlord, and in some cases beneficial also to the serve as a just criterion for determining rent on a lease of tenant. Their expediency cannot well be questioned in this duration. Besides, in the progress of agriculture, those parts of the country where an improved system of new species or varieties of the cerealia themselves are esta- agriculture has made little progress. A landholder, asblished even in so short a period as twenty-one years, the sisted by the advice of experienced men in framing these price of which may be very different from that of the corn covenants, cannot adopt any easier or less offensive plan specified in the lease. What security for a full rent, for for the improvement of his property, and the ultimate adinstance, would it give to a landlord, to make the rent vantages of his tenantry. Even in the best cultivated dispayable according to the price of barley, when the tenant tricts, while farms continue to be let to the highest remight find it more for his interest to cultivate some of the sponsible offerers, a few restrictive covenants cannot be varieties of summer wheat ? or according to the price of dispensed with. The supposed interest of the tenant is a particular variety of oats, when, within a few years, we too feeble a security for correct management, even during have seen all the old varieties superseded, throughout the eailier part of a lease; and in the latter part of it, it is extensive districts, by the introduction of a new one, the thought to be his interest, in most cases, to exhaust the potato-oat, which may not be more permanent than those soil as much as possible, not only for the sake of immediate that preceded it ? There may be no impropriety in profit, but frequently in order to deter competitors, and adopting this plan for ascertaining the rent of land kept thus to obtain a renewal of his lease at a rent somewhat always in tillage, but it would be idle to expect any im- less than the lands would otherwise bring. portant benefits from it during such a lease as we have With tenants at will, and such as hold on short leases, mentioned. In some instances it is the practice to agree restrictive covenants are more necessary than with tenants for a certain rent in money, which does not vary; and on leases of 19 or 20 years; but in many instances they another portion is determined from time to time by the are too numerous and complicated, and sometimes even price of corn, the quantity and kinds of the corn only inconsistent with the best courses of modern husbandry. being previously fixed by the lease. This, we think, is a The great error lies in prescribing rules by which a tenbetter plan than to make the whole rent vary with the ant is positively required to act; not in prohibiting such price of corn. practices, and such crops, as experience has not sanctionWith regard to much longer leases, this plan will no ed. I he improved knowledge and the liberality of the doubt diminish the evils which we think are inseparable age have now expunged the most objectionable of these from them, but it cannot possibly reach some of the most covenants; and throughout whole counties, almost the considerable. Its utmost effect is to secure to the land- only restriction in reference to the course of crops is, that holder a rent, which shall in all time to come be an ade- the tenant shall not take two culmiferous crops, ripening quate rent, according to the state of the lands and the their seeds, in close succession. This single stipulation, mode of cultivation known at the date of the lease. But combined with the obligation to consume the straw upon it can make no provision that will apply to the enlarge- the farm, and to apply to it all the manure made from its ment of the gross produce from the future improvement produce, is sufficient not only to protect the land from of the lands themselves, or of the disposable produce from exhaustion, but to insure, in a great measure, its regular the invention of machinery and other plans for economiz- cultivation; for half the farm at least must in this case ing labour. Old corn-rents, therefore, though much higher be always under either fallow or green crops. The only at present than old money-rents, are seldom or never so other necessary covenant, when the soil is naturally too high as the rents that could now be paid on a lease of weak for carrying annual crops without intermission, is, twenty-one years. But, independently of these consider- that a certain portion of the land shall be always in grass, ations, which more immediately bear upon the interests of not to be cut for hay, but depastured. According to the the parties themselves, one insuperable objection to all extent of this will be the interval between the succession such leases is, that they partake too much of the nature of corn crops on the same fields: if it is agreed that half of entails, and depart too far from that commercial cha- the farm, for instance, shall always be under grass, there racter which is most favourable to the investment of ca- can be only two crops of corn from the same field in six pital, and consequently to the greatest increase of land years. In this case, not more than two-sixths being in produce. corn, one-sixth in green crops or fallow, and three-sixths .nts A lease for a term of years is not, however, in all cases in clovers or grasses, it becomes almost impossible to exa sufficient encouragement to spirited cultivation: its haust any soil at all fitted for tillage. There are few incovenants in respect to the management of the lands may deed that do not gradually become more fertile under t>e injudicious; the tenant may be so strictly confined to this course of cropping. It is sufficiently evident that a particular mode of culture, or a particular course of crops, other covenants are necessary in particular circumstances, as not to be able to avail himself of the beneficial dis- such as permission to dispose of straw, hay, and other coveries which a progressive state of agriculture never crops from which manure is made, when a quantity of ai s to introduce. Or, on the other hand, though this is manure equal to what they would have furnished is got oiuch more rare, the tenant may be left so entirely at from other places, and a prohibition against converting 1 erty, that either the necessity of his circumstances dur- rich old grazing lands or meadows into corn-lands. In VOL. II. 2x

346 AGRICULTURE. Agricul- this place we speak only of general rules, such as are apIt is further to be remarked, that, throughout the whole An ture. plicable to perhaps nine-tenths of all the arable land of of the arable districts of Scotland, the number of people t Britain, and such as are actually observed in our best cul- is proportionally greater on large than on small farms.^ tivated counties. The number of hands required on the former is too great For the last four years of a lease the same covenants to be lodged in the farmer’s own house ; and therefore, on are generally sufficient, only they require to be applied all such farms, cottages are built for their residence. These Main with more precision. Instead of taking it for granted that cottages are generally inhabited by married men, whose hro the proportion of the farm that cannot be under corn will families find employment in hoeing green crops, and othervanl be properly cultivated, from the tenant’s regard to his own easy work, from a very early age. In the less-improved interest, it becomes necessary to take him bound to this counties, on the other hand, where small farms still preeffect in express tex'ms ; the object generally being to en- vail, unmarried servants are preferred, as, on such farms, able the tenant, upon a new lease, to carry on the culti- there is little or no employment for the families of marvation of the lands, as if the former lease had not termi- ried servants. Our limits do not permit us to inquire how nated. What these additional stipulations should be, must far the poor-laws of England operate against the employdepend in part on the season of the year at which the ment of married servants, living in cottages on every farm; new lease commences, and in part on the course of crops but the happy effects of this arrangement are manifest in best adapted to the soil and the particular circumstances the south-eastern counties of Scotland, as we shall notice immediately. of every farm. Enlarge3. The enlargement of farms to such a size as admits of The possession of land is held by some writers to be soCott ment of arrangements and machinery for saving labour, is the na- important, with a view to the comforts of the labouring hnr tarms. tural consequence of the progress of agriculture, and the classes, as well as to the increase of the rural population, acquisition of capital by cultivators, and becomes, in its that they have not been contented with objecting to large turn, the cause of further improvements. We have not farms, but have proceeded to recommend what are called room to examine here the various objections to large cottage-farms, for country labourers generally. Of this farms which were urged by Dr Price, Lord Kames, and plan we might say at once, that it must be limited everymost of the economical writers of the last century. Much where by the demand for labour; and that, wherever stronger reasons, certainly, than any that have been hither- such small allotments are required by the state of agrito advanced must be required to justify the interference culture, they will gradually be formed from motives of of the legislature with the rights of the agricultural interest, without the necessity of any higher control classes,—with that of a landholder to draw the greatest They are at this time common in many parts of Britain; revenue from his property, and with that of a farmer to and a different system has been established in other parts, extend his concerns as far as his capital and abilities will for no other reason than because of its superior advanpermit. Even though it should be conceded to Dr Price, tages to all concerned. Yet as cottage-farms bear a very that a given extent of land yields a greater produce in the plausible appearance in the eye of speculative men, it hands of several small farmers than of one great farmer, seems necessary to offer some further remarks on a quesit still remains to inquire, what part of that produce can tion which has been so often agitated. If every labourer had a comfortable cottage and four be spared for the general consumption,—and whether the labour of these people might not be employed with acres of land at a low rent, as recommended by some of more advantage than on such minute portions of land as the correspondents of the Board of Agriculture, there is yield, even in the best seasons, little more than food for reason to believe that his condition might be much imtheir own subsistence. In Britain, of which the families proved for a few years, supposing the demand for labour employed in agriculture are to those of the whole popula- to continue the same as at present. Even the colonies tion only as 1 to 3, and in which the proportion of lands which this class would every year send forth in quest of cultivated, or that may be cultivated, is not four acres to new cottages might be supplied for a time; and though every individual, the great object ought certainly to be, to the wuges of labour would sink very fast, still this premium increase the disposable produce of the country for the sup- might enable the labourers to multiply with little interply of the general population. ruption for several generations. At last, however, the The grand objection to large farms, that they depopu- multiplication of cottage-farms must necessarily stop, and late the country, is not supported by facts. The popula- a great proportion of the people, without land and without tion of the country has not only greatly increased since the means of employment, would either sink into helpless the enlargement of farms, but this increase appears to have misery, or be driven by despair to the commission of been little less than that of the town population. The every species of enormity. Such was the state of England fact is, the increase of the rural population has been in at the breaking up of the feudal system, the policy of a greater ratio than that of the towns, in those counties, which also was to increase the number of the people, such as Northumberland, where very large farms abound, without regard to the means of their employment; and and where, indeed, as is usually the case, this state of such, though in a much less degree, is the present state things is combined with a spirited and productive system of those parts of the united kingdom in which cottageof agriculture. Even in Lancashire, the ratio of increase farms are the most prevalent. The whole question, we think, is capable of being most in the 10 years from 1801 to 1811 was only two per cent, in favour of the towns; but no one will ascribe this to satisfactorily decided byr an appeal to the plain mercantile the enlargement of farms. The truth seems to be, that criterion of rent. If a hundred labourers, each of them wherever agriculture has made the greatest progress, possessing four acres, can pay a higher rent than one farwhatever may be the size of farms, the increase of em- mer can pay for the whole four hundred, buildings, fences, ployment has been attended with a corresponding increase and repairs being estimated, we can see no reason why of population ; and that the ratio of increase has been kept they should not be preferred; but if this be not the case, down below that of towns by no other causes than the we are greatly at a loss to conceive with what justice stationary condition or slow progress of agriculture in some landholders can be called upon to submit to sacrifices parts, and the, superior allurements of manufactures and which no other class of the community is ever expected to make. We might, with just as much reason and juscommerce in others.

AGRICULTURE. 347 y. tice, require a manufacturer to employ a certain number 1822, soon after made a contract with government to main- Agriculj:., 0f hands in proportion to the amount of his capital, how- tain 1000 mendicants for sixteen years, at the rate of 35 ture. V>',“O'ever unprofitable to him might be their labour. guilders, or L.2. 18s. 4d., for each per annum; and more In all our best agricultural counties there are two sorts recently an individual possessing a portion of heath land (1^ of of cottages, occupied by two distinct classes of labourers, near Bruges agreed to take another thousand on the same cutu;rs. Of the first sort are the small agricultural villages, where terms. But for a particular account of these colonies we those mechanics and other labourers reside, who could must refer to Jacob’s Tracts on the Corn-Trade and Cornnot find full employment on any one farm. To such Laws, 1828. But with regard to the size of farms in the agriculture men small farms are advantageous, or otherwise, according to the nature and the constancy of their employment. of this country, we may add, that of all the witnesses exThe other class of cottagers, to which we have already amined before the committees of Parliament on the cornalluded, are ploughmen and other servants employed laws, there was only one whose sentiments were opposed throughout the year on a particular farm. To these men to the general feeling of all well-informed men, regarding small possessions of land are almost as unsuitable as they the advantages that have resulted from the enlargement would be to a country gentleman’s domestics. But a small of farms. We shall therefore content ourselves with garden is usually attached to each cottage ; and they are noticing what appears to be the natural progress in the often allowed to keep a cow as part of their wages, not size of farms,—the circumstances which prevent any posupon any particular spot of their own, but along with their sible enlargement of them from ever becoming injurious master’s cows. Their fuel is carried home by their mas- to the public,—and the influence which perfect liberty in ter’s teams; and a part of his own field, ready dressed, is this respect has exerted in the improvement of our agriassigned them for raising potatoes, flax, or other crops, for culture. During the feudal system, that part of an estate which Progress their families. Thus, with little risk from the seasons or the size markets, and without any other demand on their time was not cultivated under the direction of the proprietor in farms * than a few leisure hours will satisfy, these people enjoy himself, was let out in small allotments to his vassals, from all the advantages which the occupancy of land can con- whom he received military or other services, or a portion fer on a labourer. And there is not a more useful, we of the produce, in return. In those times of turbulence may also add, a more comfortable, body of men among and insecurity, the power of the chief mainly depended on the number of his tenants ; and it was therefore his policy the industrious classes of society. To give this class of labourers four acres of land along to increase them as much as possible, by dividing his land with every cottage, would be to render them bad servants into very small possessions. That they might assist one and worse farmers, and either a nuisance to the person on another in their rural labours, and in repelling the incurwhose farm they reside, or his abject dependents for em- sions to which they were incessantly exposed, these tenants ployment. The only proper residence for men who do were collected in a village near the castle of their lord. not choose to engage, or are not wanted as constant la- A certain extent of arable land was appropriated to it, on bourers, is in such central agricultural villages as we have which they raised corn, and a much larger tract of waste just mentioned, and not on separate farms, where they are or wood land, where their live stock pastured in common. Spirited cultivation could never be introduced into this excluded from the general market for labour. Poonlo. But it has been lately suggested, that our poor soils system of occupancy; nothing more than the means of i might be cultivated by another description of cottagers, subsistence was sought by the tenantry; and power, not ' • with benefit to the public generally, by the improvement revenue, was the great object of the landholder. of such lands and the diminution of the poor-rates, as well For a long time after the fall of the feudal system, this as with profit to those who advance the necessary capital. arrangement continued to prevail with little alteration; As far as there has yet been time to judge, some well-di- its vestiges are still to be traced in every part of Britain; gested and economically executed plans of this kind have and it exists in several counties, though in a modified been very successful in Holland. The leading points de- form, even at the present time. The common fields and serving notice in these poor colonies are, the amount of commons of England, and the in/ield and outfield divicapital sufficient to purchase the land, and to defray the sions of Scotland, did not originate in any regard for the necessary expense of buildings and stock ; its division into welfare of the lower classes, to whom the tenancy of land farms of seven acres ; the vigilant superintendence exer- is now thought to be so necessary, but in the anarchy cised over the colonists, whose operations are almost all and oppression of those dark ages in which all the landperformed by manual labour, and much of whose time is ed property of the island was engrossed by a few great employed in collecting manure; their moral and religious barons. instruction; and the surplus produce obtained to replace When these petty sovereigns were at last overthrown, the original outlay, and afford a permanent clear income and when commerce and the arts held up to them new or rent in all time coming. The most considerable of objects of desire, and to their depressed tenantry new these colonies was established at Frederick’s Oord in 1818, modes of employment and subsistence, the bond which at an expense of L.22. 6s. 7d. for every individual; and had hitherto connected the landholder and cultivator beafter a few years’ experience, the annual excess of produce came more and more feeble, and it was soon found necesover subsistence for each family was found to be L.8. 2s. 4d. sary to establish it upon other foundations than those oi after allowing for a rent of 12s. per acre. The whole out- feudal protection and dependence. The connection belay, it was calculated, would be replaced in sixteen years. tween landlord and tenant came gradually and generally Ihe crops raised are barley, clover, potatoes, rye; and to assume that commercial form, which is at once most about one acre out of the seven is kept permanently in grass. conducive to their own interests and to the general welIhe only sorts of live stock seem to be cows and pigs. fare. About the end of 1825 the number of colonists composOne great obstacle to this change was the want of caing this settlement was 6778, and the population of all the pital ready to be embarked in agricultural pursuits. Unother colonies of this description in Holland was then es- der the feudal system there could be little or no accumutiirmted at more than 20,000. lation. Property in land was the only means of obtaining The founders of one of these, formed near Antwerp in the command of labour, and a share of the produce its

348

AGRICULTURE. Agricul- only recompense. Accordingly, upon the breaking up of pensable in agricultural concerns, cannot long be compen- At ture. the feudal system, large tracts were taken into the im- sated by any advantages which a great farmer may pos- t mediate possession of landholders themselves, because no sess. His operations cannot be brought together to one^ suitable tenants could be found. The constant super- spot, like those of the manufacturer; the materials on intendence required in cultivating corn-lands, as well as which he works are seldom in the same state for a few the absurd restrictions of those times upon the corn- days; and his instruments, animated and mechanical, are trade, and the constant demand for British wool on the exposed to a great many accidents, which his judgment Continent, occasioned these tracts to be laid to grass and and experience must be called forth instantly to repair. pastured with sheep. Hence the grievous complaints, It has been said, indeed, that a great farmer may pay during two centuries, of the decay of husbandry and a higher rent, because he saves the family expenses of a number of small tenants. But from what fund do these farm-houses. But this resource of land proprietors was effectual only tenants maintain their families ? It ought to be either from on soils of an inferior description: on good arable land, the profits of their capital, or the wages of their labour, or the only method by which a part of the produce could from both combined, and certainly not from the landlord’s reach them in the shape of rent was to enlarge their just share, in the shape of an abatement of rent. If they canfarms. The old occupiers were too numerous to spare any not pay so high a rent, it must be because their capital considerable part of the produce, and generally too indo- and labour are less productive to the public tlran those of lent and unskilful to make any great exertions to augment the large farmer. Such men might, in most cases, be emit. In these circumstances the landholder must either ployed with more advantage, even to themselves, in some have virtually abandoned his property, or reduced the other profession. number of its inhabitants, who were no longer permitted The various other reasons assigned for the great enby law to make him that return which had been the ori- largement of farms are equally nugatory. There is geneginal condition of their tenures. But the population of rally no saving to the landlord in buildings and fences; the towns was now gradually increasing, and it was neces- and a very small difference of rent will pay for the trouble sary, for the supply of their wants, as much as for the of keeping accounts, and settling with twenty tenants inbenefit of the landholders, that a large disposable produce stead of one. The fact certainly is, that the orincipal, if should be obtained from the soil. The measure of enlarg- not the only reason, why farms have been enlarged, is, the ing farms was, therefore, in every view, indispensable. higher rent paid by their occupiers. To pay this rent, Even such of the tenants themselves as it was necessary they must bring to market more produce ; and this they to displace might have felt but a slight and temporary are enabled to do, by the distribution of their crops and inconvenience had the change been gradual. Some of live stock to suitable soils and pastures; by an economical them would have found employment in towns, and others arrangement and regular succession of labour throughout as hired labourers and artisans in the country. The dis- the year; by the use of machinery; and, still more than mission of the small tenants seems, however, to have been all, perhaps, by the investment of capital in those permathe occasion of much misery; for, in the sixteenth cen- nent improvements which augment both the quantity and tury, manufactures and commerce had made comparatively value of their products. Rent, in fact, is an almost unlittle progress in Britain. In the present times, any length erring measure of the amount of the free produce; and to which the private interest of landholders could operate there is no better criterion for determining whether a in this manner would, in a national point of view, be too tract of country be laid out in farms of a proper size, than inconsiderable to deserve notice. the amount of the rent paid to its proprietors. Their inIt is in this way that farms have been enlarged. The terest is, in this instance, completely identified with that most skilful and industrious of these small tenants were of the great body of the people. naturally preferred, and their possessions afterwards exIf we examine the various sizes of farms in those dis-Siz tended as their capital increased. The consequence every- tricts where the most perfect freedom exists and the ^ari where has been, a better system of cultivation, affording best management prevails, we shall find them determined,^ a higher rent to the land proprietor, and a greater supply with few exceptions, by the degree of superintendence^ of land produce for the general consumption. which they require. Hence pastoral farms are the largest;0ft] But it is only for a time, and to a very limited extent, next, such as are composed both of grazing and tillage that the enlargement of farms can proceed. The interest lands ; then, such rich soils as carry cultivated crops every of the landlord, which gave the first impulse, is ever year; and, finally, the farms near large towns, where the vigilant to check its progress, when it is attempted to grower of corn gradually gives way to the market-garcarry the measure beyond due bounds. It is in this that dener, cultivating his little spot by manual labour. The the security of the public consists, if it were ever possible hills of the south of Scotland are distributed into farms that the public interest should be endangered by the en- of the first class ; the counties of Berwick and Roxburgh largement of farms. Accordingly, in most of our counties, a into those of the second; and the smaller farms of the few tenants, of superior knowledge and capital, have been Lothians and of the Carse of Gowrie, where there seems seen to hold considerable tracts of land, which after a few to be no want of capital for the management of large years were divided into a number of separate farms. The farms, are a sufficient proof of the general principle which practice of these men is a lesson to their neighbours; and determines the size of farms. their success never fails to bring forward, at the expiration It must readily appear from these remarks, in what of their leases, a number of competitors. Whenever skill manner the enlargement of farms, or rather the absence and capital come to be generally diffused, there can be of all restraint upon the transactions of the landholder and few instances of very large farms, if a fair competition be farmer, has promoted the improvement of our agriculture. permitted. No individual, whatever may be his fortune To confine the practice of this important art to the manand abilities, can then pay so high a rent for several farms, ual labour of men in a state of poverty and dependence, each of them of such a size as to give full room for the use would be no less injudicious, and much more ruinous in a of machinery and other economical arrangements, as can national point of view, than to destroy all the extraorbe got from separate tenants. The impossibility of ex- dinary inventions for saving labour in our manufactures. ercising that vigilant superintendence which is so indis- The effects of capital and machinery are the same in both

AGRICULTURE. 349 capital in agriculture. The circumstances which seem Agriculto have the most weight in determining men of capital ture. to engage in any particular profession, are, the security and productiveness of that capital, the power of transferring it, and the degree of estimation in which the profession is held by the public. To the absence of these essential requisites we must ascribe the backward state of this art, notwithstanding all the other motives, both of a public and private nature, which have long existed for its advancement. To the class of drawbacks upon agriculture, and impediments to its improvement, belong tithes, poor-rates, payments in the shape of fines, and services exacted by the lords of manors; entails ; tenancy at will, or on veryshort leases; unfair restrictions on the tenant as to the disposal of his lease, and as to the management of the lands during its currency ; the game-laws ; and the complicated regulations under which commons and common fields are cultivated, and the great expense required to place them in a state of severalty. It appears that nearly three-fourths of the lands of England and Wales are exposed to claims which wrest from the husbandman one-tenth of the gross produce of his labour and capital, and this whether the remainder of the produce be or be not sufficient for his remuneration. Though no rent were paid for poor soils, this burden alone would effectually prohibit their correct cultivation; and even in the case of rich soils, tithes diminish the rent so considerably as to make it the interest of landholders, in many parts of England, to restrain their tenants from converting grass-lands into tillage ; that is, from placing them under the most productive management for the community, both in regard to the supply of food and of employment. To the enlightened inquirer it must appear abundantly Nothing clear, that all plans for the extension and improvement ofbut required British agriculture must prove ineffectual so long as these tbe re* 11 0 1 0 capital obstacles are left untouched; and that their re- ? s^ac! ^ ^ » vi Jre nerall y -allowed to have been more rapid in Scotland than moval is all that need be done, and all that ought to be° n in Sc cuous * England; the effects, at least, have been more conspi- done by a wise government, for securing an abundant land. - Not only the rents paid in Scotland, but the ac- supply of the first necessaries of life. Let all land be tual produce per acre, and still more the disposable held and occupied in severalty; let it be exempted from produce, seem to be greater than in England, wherever all indefinite exactions, particularly such as diminish or the comparison is made with land of a similar quality, altogether absorb the just returns of capital and indusand with an allowance for the difference in climate and try; let the connection between the land proprietor and the markets. The remark naturally leads us to advert to farmer be everywhere formed upon equitable principles, some circumstances which seem materially to impede the to the exclusion of all remnants of feudal ideas, all notions agricultural improvement of the country, particularly the of favour and dependence, and all obligations that do not southern part of it; and with one or two observations on appear in the lease itself, or are not imposed by the genetins head we shall conclude this article. ral principles of law; let the rights of a tenant be so The low state of agriculture in many parts of Britain, far enlarged as that he may be enabled to withdraw with the advance in the price of corn, on the one hand, his capital by a transference of his lease, and to reguand the abundance of capital displayed in the manufac- late the succession to it after his death; then there tures and commerce of the country, on the other, are cir- can be little doubt that a large part of the disposable cumstances sufficient to convince every reflecting mind capital of the nation, now embarked in much less proiat there is no want either of means or of induce- fitable pursuits, would of its own accord turn towards ments to the improvement of our territory. It is im- the improvement of our lands, and thus furnish empossible, indeed, to travel through the country in any ployment and subsistence for our population, secure from section, without feeling a strong conviction that there the caprice of fashion and the rivalry and jealousy of must be some serious obstacles to the investment of other countries. (d.) Atf ul- departments. But no man of education, and in circumu . stances much above the condition of a common labourer, would ever engage in farming, if his concerns could be no farther extended than to fifty or one hundred acres held at rack-rent; and on such farms there is no room for the most economical machinery,—for convertible husbandry, by which land is preserved in its highest fertility,—or, indeed* for any of those arrangements which approach in their effects to the division of labour in other arts. Besides those general causes of the improvement of the agriculturexof Britain, arising from the division of landed property,—the existence of a distinct class of professional farmers, whose rights are secured by leases, and whose exertions are stimulated by a rent settled by competition,—and the opportunities held out for the investment of capital as far as it promises to be profitable,—there are several others of a more limited or temporary nature, but which it is only necessary barely to mention. The most important of these is the extent of the British market, which for many years has required more corn than was grown in the country. The gradual rise of price, which was the necessary consequence of this, and still more the enormous prices during the late war, in which foreign supplies were obtained with difficulty or altogether withheld, have contributed in no small degree to the improvement of our own ample resources. This has been further promoted by the facility and expedition with which commodities of every kind are transported by means of canals, roads, and railways. We may add, that the liberal accommodations afforded by the banking establishments during the suspension of cash payments enabled British farmers to operate upon extensive wastes, of which the improvement must be advantageous in a national point of view, though, in consequence of the change that has taken place since the peace, it may not in many cases have been profitable to individuals. Hapn.ro. The progress of a correct system of agriculture is ge-

EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES. wind loUffl j

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Plate V. fV and ron 2 are different views of the Swing-plough, v i j fig" the body in one entire piece which is attached to a wooden beam with w-bolts. lug. 4, a plan of the Grubber, the inner frame ur

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made to rise upon hinges, so as to keep the tines or coulters from the ground when it is removed from one field to another, and supported by iron stays. Fig. 5, section of the same, the fore wheel dragged in going down hill, Fig. 6, three different views of the coulters. Fig. 7 and 8,

AGRICULTURE. 350 Agnciil- a DriU-harrmv, to work between the rows of plants, and The blade from E to F is 21 inches long, and 2fths broad, A ture. made to contract or expand according to the width of the and the back |th of an inch thick. Fig. 7, the crotchet interval. Fig. 9, 10, Common Harrows, each drawn by its or hook which the workman uses with his left hand to^ own horse, though two and often three work together. gather the quantity of corn he intends to cut, to support Fig. 11 and 12, Improved Harrows, in general use for co- it while he is cutting, and lay it afterwards behind him; vering grass-seeds, by which all the ruts or tracks are made the handle, from G to H, is 3 feet 5 inches long, and the iron hook, from H to L, near 11 inches. Improved equidistant, harrows, Fig. 8, a close-bodied two-horse cart, with frames forCa •ill Plate VI. carrying hay and corn in the straw. The frames at other fra Finlayson s Self-cleaning Plough.—Fig. 1, a, the beam, times are withdrawn. Finlayson’s self- and h, the coulter, curved to form in their junction a segPlate VIL cleaning ment of a circle of about 18 inches diameter ; c, a share patent Fig. 3. ABC, a Double Mould-hoard Plough, with its Do c plough. of a new form for moss or meadow land; the feather or mould-boards taken off, and expanding arms applied withbos mo [ cutting edge 26 to 30 inches Jong, and standing at an angle of about 20 degrees with the land-side. A little fin, circular coulters, for paring the edges of the drills; DD, 1 |5 as represented at c, is screwed into the end of this share: the expanding arms, which are remo'vedwhen the mould- ^' its use is to cut the first two furrow-slices of each ridge boards are put on ; E E, the circular coulters ; P, a back clean out; for if any part be left uncut in land of this de- view of a coulter; F, a scuffle, two of which are applied scription, the furrow, from its elasticity, will fall back to its at pleasure, in place of E E, the circular coulters. Fig. original position. Fig. 2, a view of the plough reversed: a, 1 and 2, G G, the mould-boards taken off. Fig. 4, a onethe coulter by itself, to show a piece of plate-iron welded horse Paring Plough, to which the beam and handles, A C Pa0 on it above the cutting surface, which slips up in front of (fig. 3), are applied when taken from the body B, and se-P* the beam, and prevents a niche being formed between cured by three screwed bolts at 1, 2, 3; I, the coulter for them when the coulter is let down, wherein root-weeds or the paring plough. Fig. 5, a Drill-harrow, to which also Dr other substances would lodge as they are forced upwards: the beam and handles, A C (fig. 3), are applied in there" same manner ; K K K, scuffles or hoes, which maybe aph, a view of a share. The A me- Fig. 3. The American Hay-Fake.—A, the head or beam; plied to the harrow in place of tines. Fig. 6, part of a rican hay- B, the teeth inserted in the beam ; C, the frame to which common plough, with a wheel-brake attached ; A, the axle rake. the horse is attached; D, catches to be loosened by the screwed to the plough ; B B, the screws ; C, the wheel. person who guides the rake, so as to raise it when the Fig. 7, a Poller to be worked by two horses abreast, teeth are full, and allow the head and teeth to revolve, made of cast-iron. passing the rest, F, freely ; after which the catches are reFig. 8. The Improved Turnip Sowing-Machine.—A, theTu placed, and the work proceeds without stopping the seed box; B, manure boxes, for crushed bones or other1s°v horse; G, the connection road, which gives great lever matters ; C, two large concave diverging rollers, which acpower in raising the rest, and regulates the height at commodate themselves to different widths of the drills or which the machine must revolve. ridgelets, carrying along with them the seed and manure Fig. 4. Finlayson s Self-cleaning Harrow.—~a, the teeth boxes, which distribute their contents in regular succesFinlayson’s self- or tines, coming up by a circular sweep to h, and then sion on the tops of the drills; D, two small rollers, also concleaning continued upwards, and afterwards turned down and in- cave, for regulating the depth at which the seed and maharrow. serted horizontally into the frame-work; the part at h, nure are deposited in the ground; E, a coulter, for rewhere all weeds or other matters fall off, being about 9 or ceiving and discharging the manure conductor, and F, a 10 inches from any part of the frame-work: c, a lever, bent similar one for the seed. back and jointed at e; d, the fore wheel, attached to the Plate YIII. lever by a swivel joint, whereby it plays round when the harrow is turning. When the lever, c, is put down in the laFig. 1 represents a profile of Mr Smith's Reaping-Machine, Sm teral spring,^ this fore wheel is depressed, and the first row complete and in operation. It will be seen by this figurerea of tines thrown out of the ground ; it is therefore used at and fig. 2 (which is a bird’s-eye view of the machine), thatma‘ turning, being then put down to the lowest opening at i, the horses are yoked one on each side of a pole, which runs and it is also used to regulate the depth of the fore tines back from the frame of the carriage. The person who when working, by being placed in any of the openings drives the horses and directs the machine walks behind, above/*; g, the hind wheels, brought up or down by a male- having command of the horses by a set of common ploughscrew, h, passing through the axle, and thereby regulating reins, and directing the machine by a hold of the end of the depth of the hind tines. The tines can be readily the pole. The horses draw from a cross bar at the end of taken out when repairs are necessary. the pole by common plough chains, the back-weight of the Fig. 5. Mortons Fevolving Harrow.—-X, one of the carriage resting on their common cart-saddles hy means Morton’s revolving wheels (W) brought forward and placed upon the axle at of an apparatus such as is used in curricles. On the fore harrow. C, when the harrow is to be removed from one field to part of the carriage is hung a horizontal circular cutter, another ; Y, a castor or truck-wheel placed at the back of surmounted by a drum, the blade of the cutter projecting the harrow at B, to facilitate its removal from one field to inches beyond the periphery of the lower end of the another. In putting this implement together, 1, 2, 3, 4, drum. When the carriage is moving forward, a rapid rodenote the bolts of the iron frame, and 5 that of the tatory motion is communicated to the cutter and drum, beam; the sword, R, connects the axle and beam, and at from the motion of the carriage-wheels, by means of a D the frame is locked upon the axle. The rake behind series of wheels, pinions, and shafts. The diameter of the is attached to the frame by two iron rods, and secured by cutter projects beyond the carriage-wheels on each side, a forelock. so as to cut a breadth sufficient to. allow the carriage and The Ilain. The HainauU Scythe.—Fig. 6, the scythe ABE, the horses to pass along without risk of treading down the unault scythe, handle about 26| inches long, of which the curved partis cut corn. The corn being cut by the rapid motion of the 5i inches, and the broad part at A 4 inches ; at a there is cutter, the lower ends rest upon the blade of the cutter, a leathern loop through which the fore finger is passed. and the upper parts coming in contact with the drum, the

AGRICULTURE. 351 - .1. whole is carried round, and thrown off in a regular row at movable on a stool at T, and kept to its place when set, Agriculwri the side of the machine. The lower ends taking the by notches in an iron stand at U. Both of the wheels are ture. ./v-'Vround first, the heads fall outwards, the stalks lying pa- constantly in gear of a pinion of 14 teeth, V (fig. 2) rallel to each other, and at nearly a right angle to the line and/ (fig. 3). By thus reversing the gearing, the cutter of motion of the machine. The corn lying thus in regular and drum can be made to revolve to the rio-ht or left rows, is easily gathered into sheaves by the hand, or by a and consequently will throw the cut corn to°either side’ rake, fork, or other convenient instrument, and is bound in of the machine at pleasure. On the opposite end of the shaft, W (fig. 2), on which the pinion V is fixed, is a the usual way. bevelled wheel X of 28 teeth, in gear of a pinion of Minute Description of the Plate. 14 teeth on the upright axle, (fig. 7 and 8). The Fig. 2. A, the frame of the carriage, made of oak or velocity is so raised by these wheels and pinions, that other strong wood, and put firmly together by bed-bolts the. cutter makes 128 revolutions per minute when the screwed into the cross bars B. C, the pole, made fast to machine moves at the rate of 2f miles per hour, the the cross bars. D, a cross bar, at the extremity of the edge of the cutter passing through 32 feet per second. pole, from which the horses pull; this bar is of iron, in The upright spindle, shown in fig. 1 and 8, has three order to give sufficient weight on the horses’ backs. E, bearings, one in a brass bush fixed in an iron stay-frame, the carriage-wheels, 5 feet in diameter, and 6 inches broad b ; a second bearing in a wooden bush with a cap on the in the tread. F, the cutter, 5 feet 4 inches in diameter, front of the cross bar at c; and a third in a socket restcomposed of six segments bolted to an iron ring, inch ing on the small wheels, d. These wheels serve to keep broad and £ inch thick, which ring is connected to the the cutter always at an equal height from the ground. foot of the upright spindle by the cross arms, G.—-Fig. 6 The particular construction of these wheels, with "that of shows one of these segments on a larger scale: a is of the frame and socket, will be better understood by referhard wood, 3^ inches broad and 1 inch thick ; bb axe of ence. to fig. 7 and 8. Fig. 8, a perpendicular section of German steel, and of a scythe temper, 3|- inches broad, the foot of the upright spindle and socket; a, the spindle; and inch thick at the back; they overlap the wood, to b, the socket; c, a groove in the spindle, into which the which they are rivetted, inch, their upper side being points of two screw pins, d, passing through the sides of flush with the wood; d, holes through which the ring-bolts the socket, are fitted. These are necessary to keep the pass. _ Fig. 5 is a transverse section of fig. 6 II,' fig, 2, spindle in its place, and to bear up the wheels when the a conical drum of slight tin-plate or basket-work, whose spindle is raised. Fig. 7 is a bird’s-eye view of the wheels lower periphery is 5 inches within the edge of the cutter, and carriage, with a transverse section of the socket and but whose upper periphery extends as far as that of the spindle; a, the wheels, 14inches in diameter, and 3 inches cutter. This drum is two feet deep, connected to the broad; b, the axle, to which is fastened an iron frame, c, same ring with the cutter below, and to the spindle above movable on a pivot on the point of the iron bar, f and in by another ring, with four arms. The drum is covered a socket at e; the bar/is one inch square, having a long on the outside with canvass, on which perpendicular strips ruff at p, which is turned and fitted to the eye, e, of the of soft rope are sewed, being one inch thick, and three or socket, fig. 8. The bar is bent so as to pass close under four inches apart: these give sufficient friction to carry the cutter, and runs up to the pole. This bar is necessarv round the cut corn, whilst, from their softness, they have to relieve the point of the upright spindle of the resistance no tendency to shake or thresh it. The horses are yoked opposed to the wheels in moving along. The cutter can to the cross bar, D, by common plough-chains. The be placed higher or lower on the spindle, so as to cut the breeching-chains are linked to the draught-chains, and a straw to any height, by means of a series of holes through breast-chain, which passes through a ring made fast to the the spindle; pins passing through holes in the sockets of names, is drawn up to an eye at N. Fig. 4 is an inside view the arms, and the most suitable of the series. The cutter of the naves of the carriage-wheels; a, a tranverse section of can also be screwed to any height from the ground, from t ie axle; b, a ratch-wheel, made fast on the square of the two to eighteen inches, by means of an iron lever, on the axle; c, catches, movable on pivots, made fast to the nave ; point of which is a brass socket, in which the upright «) slight springs to keep the catches in gear. By this spindle runs, and on which it rests. The lever is hung by means the wheels carry the axle in revolution with them an iron chain passing over a pulley at / and joining two " ien the carriage is moved forward, but move round iron rods at ft, which connect it with a screw box, I, which upon it when the carriage is drawn in a contrary direc- is moved backwards and forwards, by turning round the tum. lids construction is necessary to facilitate the screw, m. To the end of this screw is connected an iron turning of the machine. The axle moves in two cast-iron rod, which runs along the upper side of the pole to a bearseats with caps, on which the frame of the carriage rests. ing at h. At the end of this rod is a winch, o, of 9 A wheel, o (fig. 2), 0f 24 teeth of inch pitch, works radius, by which the person who guides the machine m o an intermediate wheel of the same dimensions. This inches can turn round the screw, and so raise or lower the cut" ieei is m gear of a pinion of 12 teeth, fast on the end ter at pleasure. This is principally of use to raise the cross ! ,ve7 Ife shaft Q. At the centre of this shaft, two cutter when passing over a deep furrow, or in going from '|f wheels, 11, with long sockets, are fitted loose. one field to another. P is a hollow piece of wood put upon lose wheels have each 28 teeth of 1A inch pitch : in the the end of the rod, by which the man holds with one hand .ir °i . ese a double reversing catch, which will be when guiding the machine. In most cases the cutters explained by reference to fig. 3, which is a longitudinal will cut ^ of an acre without requiring to be sharpened, ecion °t cross shaft with the wheels and catch; which can be done in two minutes by a common scythekL 9e f . ; pinion; c, the bevelled wheels, 11, of stone, two of which are conveniently carried in two Jm'.w aVIni8 spekets fitted loose on the shaft; d, a leather pockets, q, fig. 2. When it is necessary to go with Jut i’G cat?h> which is movable longitudinally on the shaft, the machine to a distance, the upright spindle, with the thPr * carriectIn revolution with it, by means of the fea- drum and cutter, are taken from their place, and placed n n th e> U^ , shaft, fitted into a corresponding groove on the top of the carriage; and the small wheels are ca drawn close up to the cross bar. The draught bar, D, is if tho Cwneels KtC V at pleasure, tch by canmeans be put intolever, gear of either of the s^fig. 2), taken from the end of the pole and placed near the frame

AGRICULTURE. 352 Agricul- of the carriage. The horses are turned to draw from it, ward, and by this means push them to exertion. Thus, j ture. an(i can in this way travel any distance, and over any the horses being all connected by the draught-chains andv shifting-blocks, their exertions are all united completely roads. round the circle, so as to form one power applied to the Plate IX. machine, instead of as many independent powers as there Threshing-Machine. are horses employed when yoked in the common way. Threshing. Fig. 1. Plan of a Threshing-Machine, to be driven by It may sometimes be convenient to employ fewer horses admits. machine water, or by four horses occasionally when there is not a than the whole number of which the machine worked by constant supply of water, with the new-invented appara- This is easily accomplished; for example, wrere the horse at 12 to be left out, then the two chains must be fastened wafer3 °r tUS f°r horSCS. A, the perpendicular axle (see A, fig. 2), in which are or tied to the ears c d, and thus the horse at 12 is left out of fixed the arms or levers D, that carry the great wheel the circle, whilst the horses at 11, 13, and 14, are neverB ; and upon these arms are fixed the limbers, by which theless still united, so as to make one combined power the cattle pull the machine when threshing. No. 1 and act on the machine. This apparatus is the invention of 2 represent two frames fixed in the axle A, and support- Walter Samuel, an ingenious blacksmith at Niddry, in ed by the arms D ; upon these frames are placed the two the county of Linlithgow. C C C C C C represent the pilshifting-blocks, as 3 4 and 5 6, which have liberty to move lars which support the large cross-beams V Y V V, and roof or slide, either inwards to the axle or outwards from it. of the course in which the horses walk when working this In each of these shifting-blocks are placed two running machine. B B represent the great wheel, fastened on the sheeves or whorles. F F, an endless chain or rope, which arms D D D D, that turns the pinion 16, which is fixed on passes over the two sheeves that are placed in the shift- one end of the horizontal axle E E, its other end having ing-blocks at the ends 4 and 5. By this chain the two on it a toothed wheel near 21, that drives the pinion 18, blocks are so connected, that if the one is pulled outwards placed upon the axle Q, on which axle is also fixed the from the axle A, the other is pulled inwards alternately. wheel 19, to turn the pinion 20, which is fixed upon the 15 and 15 are two sheeves, by which the chain F F is kept gudgeon or pivot of the threshing-drum: by this means clear of the axle A when turning round. Y Y are two motion is conveyed from the great wheel to the drum. ropes that pass over the sheeves which are placed in the 21 represents a wheel fixed on the axle E, to drive the shifting-blocks at their ends 3 and 6: upon each end of wheel 22, placed on the iron spindle S, on which spindle these ropes is fastened a small block, in which are placed is fastened the wheel 23, to turn the wheel 24, placed the running sheeves 7, 8, 9, 10, and over these sheeves upon the axle of the straw-shaker P; and on the pivot of pass the double ropes, by which the horses pull when the straw-shaker O is fixed the wheel 25, turned by the working this machine, a, h, c, d, e,f and g, h, represent wheel 22; in this way, both straw-shakers are driven the limbers or ears, fixed by screw-bolts on the arms round when the machine is at work. 30 represents a D D D D (see D D D in fig. 2), and in each of these small wheel fixed on the gudgeons of the axle Q, to drive ears are placed two running sheeves, by which the ropes the wheel 31, that turns the wheel 32, which wheel is are conveyed to the line of draught (see 1 and 2 in fig. 2); fixed on the iron spindle R, having on its end at L a each horse is yoked to the ends of the chains or ropes, socket, that takes in a square on the gudgeon in one of as at 11, 12, 13, and 14, these ropes passing over the the feeding-rollers, by which means they are turned sheeves 7, 8, 9, 10, which turn on their axis. By this round. These rollers are generally made of cast-metal, means the draught will always press the collars equally the circumference of the one being smooth, and of the upon the horses’ shoulders; and though they are walk- other fluted, or having small teeth its whole length, in ing in a circle, yet the strains of the draught must press order to keep hold of the unthreshed corn; and as they fairly or equally on their shoulders, without twisting their revolve on their pivots, they feed the grain regularly forbody to either side. This advantage cannot be obtain- ward, to receive the strokes from the threshers, by which ed in the common way of yoking horses in a threshing- the corn is detached from the straw. T T represent the machine, unless the draught-chains on each side of the axle on which is fixed the water-wheel 27; and upon horse be made in exact proportion in length to the dia- the circumference of this wheel are placed the segments meter of the circle in which he walks, or the chain next 28, to drive the wheel 29, which is fastened on the axle to the centre of the walk made a little shorter than the E E; by this means motion is conveyed from the waterone farthest from it, which is often neglected ; but in this wheel to the threshing part of the machine. M, the way of yoking the horses the strain of the draught will board or platform on which the unthreshed corn is spread, naturally press equally on his shoulders when pulling, and introduced between the feeding-roller L L, which which of course must be less severe on the animal when conveys it to the threshers. N, the threshing-drum; O, P, the two straw-shakers; and G G, H H, the frame walking in a circle. Thus, the draught-chains, or ropes, being all connected that supports the feeding-rollers, threshing-drum, and by means of the endless chain F F, and the shifting blocks, straw-shakers. K K represent part of the barn walls or with their sheeves, having liberty to move either inwards to mill-house; U U, the joists of the floor on which them the axle A, or recede from it, it is apparent, that if one of the threshing part of the machine is placed. (See Q Q horses relax, the other horse will immediately press the col- Fig. 2.) X X are windows in the side wall to light the lar hard to his shoulders, and excite him to exertion. For house. Fig. 2. Elevation of the same Machine.—A A represent instance, if the horse hooked to the draught-chains at 12 were to relax, then the one yoked at 14 would instantly take the perpendicular axle or shaft, in which are fixed the up his chain, and pull the collar close to his shoulders ; so arms or levers D D D, that carry the great wheel, and b) that the horse at 12 must either exert himself or be pulled which the cattle draw when working in this machine. backward. And, supposing the horses at 12 and 14 were Upon these arms are also fixed the ears or hanging both to relax, then the exertions of the horses at 11 and pieces, in each of which are placed two running sheeves, 13 would immediately pull the shifting block from 5 to- as 3, 4, 6, 9, 10; and over these sheeves pass the ropes wards 3, and of course press the collars hard on the or chains, having on their ends the eyes c c c c c, horses at 12 and 14, which would tend to drag them back- which the collar chains of the cattle are hooked, l

Aer;,,.

AGRICULTURE. 333 represent two frames, fixed’on the axle A, and arms D D ; 3 a re er or !ess upon these frames are placed the two shifting blocks F F. wfrfw/Sf* the Agriculbeaters of the /* drum.S Ky represents Stance a coverfrom of thin ture. (See 3, 4, 5, 6, in fig. 1.) B B represent the great wheel, boards, which inclose the threshing-drum above and be-' fastened upon the arms D D D (see B B, in fig. 1) ; this low; L M are the covers that inclose the straw-shakers wheel turns the wheel 11, which is fixed upon the horizond h the shakers are n 1tTr ^°mthe placed the through searces tal axle H; and on this axle is likewise fixed a wheel, O 1 grain and chaff to R, ^ thatf allow pass down to turn the wheel 13, placed on the axle K; on which the hopper O R, into the dinners U V, by which they are axle is also fastened the wheel 14, to drive the pinion 15, separated ; the clean corn running out at the openino- X which is fixed at P on the pivot of the threshing-drum. and the chaff blown off at U, whilst the straw is thrown 16 represents a wheel fastened on the gudgeon of the axle out at R by the shaker G. ST represent the frames, in K, to turn the intermediate wheel 17, that drives the wheel which are placed cods or bushes of brass; and on these 18, which is fixed upon the iron spindle INI, connected cods the pivots of the threshing-drum and straw-shakers with the pivot in one of the feeding rollers, by which revoive. T represents the course of the water, which, means the rollers are driven round. R, the threshing- falling into the wheel a little before the centre, turns it drum ;S, the straw-shakers ; U, the Scarce, through which round and falls off nearZ, where the float-boards begin to the grain and chaff pass down the hopper V, into the fan- ascend. Thus, the wheel is turned round by the weight ners, by which the one is separated from the other, the of the water in the buckets, on nearly one-half of its circlean grain running down T, and the lighter sort at X, cumference ; the ascending buckets, on the other half of while the chaffis blown backward. Wrepresents the fans thb wh3( behfl; " G "VT 0th?r half of which are inclosed in a box of thin boards. (See V, in fig. 3.) its motion °^ ^ glV6 ' ^ ltfc 6 resistance to There is a sheeve or whorle fastened on the gudgeon P View of a Threshing-Machine worked by horses or wind. Threshing of the threshing-drum R; from this sheeve passes the rig. 4. Elevation of the tower, and machinery of the machine belt or band 14, over the sheeve 24, which is fixed upon wind power for turning a threshing-machine; with worked by a the iron spindle Y, attached to the axle of the fans W: profile nrnfilp nf -n , of tl-io the machinery, with ibarn or mill-house and. hhorses °rsf or by this means the fans are driven with such velocity as to horse-course or shed, adjoining. A A represent the"'1™' blow all the chaff and light refuse away from the grain. pei pendicular axle that supports the arms or levers 19 represents the water-wheel, placed on the axle G G: B B B B, to which the cattle are attached when workupon the circumference of this wheel are fixed the toothed ing the machine. F)F) d d are ears, or hanging pieces segments 20, that turn the wheel 21, which is fastened of wood, fixed upon the arms B with screw-bolts. E on the axle H; so that motion is by this means carried represents a frame fixed upon these arms. On this from the water-wheel to the threshing-drum; and when frame are placed the shifting blocks Fand I, each of them there is not a sufficient quantity of water, then the horses can be applied to drive the machine. In this case the containing two running sheeves, over which passes the dmpt r iiXdo^

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Ew ttcMi’heelS tf™ ^ t0 ^ in ^ block ^ L^placjl S^ftlrTdd. LlkSSsITn fhe^hifV F Iaced a sl eve and ov water the machinery then^he whee^nm^f ^ ’ ^ it goes the chain - for — turning y, tneii me wneei ii must r^rope whlch 1 ^ P asses on the be i, i is • easily a done V Vby ° means all Pthe chains by sheeves MM andpull N N. no raised un up clear of the wWl wheel R B, which hv this which the cattle are By diturning round the screw-bolts 25, and raising the bearer rected to the line of draught. P P P P represent props f„a ‘'ttle upwards, until the teeth of the wheel 11 be or supports, to prevent the arms B, and the great wheel (illy clear of the wheel B, so as it may revolve freely being pressed downwards by the strains to y C C, from when the wheel 21 is tumor “i0111 Deing Passed downwards by the strains se me ts %] h 20 nctinir unm its teeth Tims' th|t jtl,res ,l S " "' Vcl> t'lcy ar“7 be Q ,s a bolster or block of wood,and into it is fixed a cod HmcsVmrmi,1 „ >ntcrrupt,0n, either with water or of brass, in which the lower or foot gudgeon of the axle A W er Ii ? turns. R R R are pillars that support the large bea^T ^ 1 7^ ancl r0°f S ,S ** horse-eours^ C C reprfsent *e hc bt ine baS-Lii. p ,-v l -i o ” “ «- ° O, part of the great wheel, fixed upon the arms B B B B; and on this sa 0 ts me end ’of’the ax^'tohS" c mes P? '' ‘he frame, and wheel are fastened cast-metal segments, having teeth to 7 7 Ly v ">e Mle. tunica “ *I>e tuc water-wheel, waier-wneei. drive the wheel No. 8, which is fixed on the horizontS t ^present the pillars that support the great earns arid roof of the circle in which the horses walk axle T T; and upon this axle is also fastened the wheel No. 3, to turn the pinion No. 4, which is placed on the when working the machine. Fig. 8. Section of the same Machine.—A A represent pivot of the threshing-drum: 5 and 6 are wheels that turn the feeding-rollers. U represents the threshing-drum, the water-wheel; and B, cast-metal segments fixed on its W the straw-shaker, and X the hopper that conveys the bavin teeth ? turn the wheel No. 2 (see corn into the fanners No. 7, by which it is separated from 2 ;and u n the sa w^1’X TOe axle is fixed the the refuse, the clean grain running out at Y, the light 8 that> cb ives P° .ch is.°-fastened ’ ' wheel the wheel 4, turns on thea axle of or small at Z, whilst the chaff is blown backwards. No. the No. 5,No. that pinion 9, a sheeve. fixed upon the axle of the threshing-drum; U -fethea^ pf the threshing-drum. (See 14 and and over this sheeve goes a band or rope, that extends to iindn. eshed7*'cdrn .18ropresents the board upon which the the sheeve No. 10, which is fixed on the axle of the fanspread, and introduced between the ners ; and by this means the fans are turned round with };,f, iin ers nvgir° CrS’ t0 teceivfe the strokes from the thresh- such velocity as to separate the chaff from the grain. No. throsbh >Ca< vrerS’ "dG 'icb are fixed uPon the arms of the 12 represents a wheel fastened on the threshing-drum ( S0(, O n " i™' r rePresents the two straw-shakers. axle, to turn the wheel No. 13, by which the straw-shakHH are t-o screw-bolts, that, ers are driven. 17 and 18 represent the side-walls of the fuedino- • 0u 10unc t the slider in which the pivots of the barn, and 19 the roof. A A represent the arms of the vans, and X X the tlirpsblL .} rcvolve’ are moved either inward to the vol ii 1UlT1 °r ^t^'ard from it, and of course can frames in which the pivots of the cylinders turn when the 2 y

AGRICULTURE. 354 Agricul- sails are either spread out or rolled up; B the shaft or by which the corn is separated from the chaff, the clean Agi ture. axle on which the arms of the vans are fixed; and upon grain running out at the opening V, and the chaff or any t 'this axle is also fastened the wheel No. 1, to turn the fio-ht refuse blown out at R by the rapid motion of the^^wheel No. 2, which is fixed on the perpendicular axle C ; fans, which are driven by a band or rope, T U, from a placed upon the axle of the threshing-drum, and and upon this axle is likewise placed the wheel No. 3, to sheeve passing over the sheeve 7, fixed upon the pivot of the turn the wheel No. 4, which is fixed on the uxle D D, having upon its gudgeon at E a coupling or shitting-box, fans. (See 9 and 10 in fig. 4.) X X is part of the sidebarn or mill-house; Y Y, the loft or floor that connects it with the pivot of the threshing-drum wall of the the frame is placed; and m this frame aie fixed when the machine is driven by the wind; and by the box whereon having liberty to shift, the one axle can easily be detached cods or bushes of brass, in which the pivots of the threshino--drum and straw-shaker revolve; 8 and 8 are doors from the other when the horse-power is to be applied. in^the side-wall of the barn ; 9 and 9 are windows in the No. 5 represents a sheeve or whorle, placed on the axle side-wall, to light the house. C; and over this sheeve goes the rope or band Y, that Figs. 6 and 7. The Odometer. passes over the sheeve No* 6, which is fixed upon the The wheel A is made of light iron, and measures two iron spindle Z: by this means the balls in the frame yards circumference, being divided by six spokes into are driven round. This frame, having movable joints at feet. in One spoke must be painted white. FEE, has liberty to yield; so that when the wind is very The handle B is divided at C like a fork, and embraces strong, the vans of course must move with too great ve- each end of the axis by its elasticity. Through the axis locity, and be apt to break some part of the machine. is a hole, into which the end H of the way-wiser fits, and But by this quick motion the balls are thrown out_ ^ i. • i. , wards from the spindle Z, by which the teethed rod (x is held fast by a nut D. way-wiser consists of a frame F G, r being holis pulled downwards, and turns the wheel No. 8, upon the lowThe to receive a perpetual screw H, a part of which is axle of which is fixed a pinion, that drives the wheel No. 9; visible near the index M. At the other end of the screw and upon its axle is fixed the pinion No. 10. This pinion acts on the teeth of an iron rod, that goes through a hole is a nut I, which keeps it in its place. The screw tuins in the centre of the axle B, to N; this rod having teeth two brass concentric cogged wheels K and L; K conceals also at M, which act on the teeth of the segments PPM, the scale of L, except where a piece is cut out, leaving an that have liberty to move on their pivots at K, so that index at the beginning of the scale of K, and which, in when the rod M is pushed by the pinion either outward the drawung, points to 78 of L. The scale of K is numbered towards the left, and that or inward, the segments PPM are likewise moved forwards or backwards; and as one end of the iron rods P P of L to the right. The wheel K has 100 cogs or teeth, and L 101; conis hooked to these segments, and their other ends attachsequently, as the same endless screw turns both wheels, ed to the frames X X, by this means the frames are moved either inward to the axle B or outwards from it; and as it is evident that when K has made a complete revolution the pivots of the cylinders on which the sails are rolled of 100 teeth, L will also have made a revolution of 100 turn in these frames, of course they are either rolled on or teeth ; and the index of K will point to 1 of L, because L off, according to the strength of the wind or velocity of has 101 teeth. After a second revolution, it will point to the vans. H H represent a small van, which turns the 2, and so on ; the number it points to marking the numlarge ones to face the wind. No. 11 is a pinion, fixed on ber of revolutions, each revolution showing 100 turns o rr inn the axle of the small vans, to drive the wheel No. 12, the iron wheel A. Accordingly, A measures six feet, or 1 turn; is. 1W which is placed upon one end of an iron spindle, having on its other end the pinion No. 13, to turn the wheel No. 14, times 6 feet, or 600 feet, or 1 revolution; and L 101 times fixed on an axle, upon which is also placed a pinion at 15, 600 feet, or 60,600 feet, equal to nearly 11^ English miles, that acts on the teeth of the segments, which are fixed on the range of the instrument. 880 turns of this wheel make a mile. the dead frame 16 and 16, which is placed on the top of It is advisable always to commence with the way-wisere the tower. Q Q, the moving frame that carries the vans and wheels; R represents friction-rollers, on which the set at 0 or zero. To do this, take out the screw' * neck of the wind-shaft revolves; S S, walls of the tower; centre, when the brass wheels K and L can both be set T, a door; U U U U, windows to light the tower; V, the at zero, and the screw replaced. Set the wheel A upon upper floor; W, the middle floor, and bearer, in which the the ground, with the white spoke undermost, and fax tfae lower gudgeon of the axle C turns when the machine is way-wiser into the wheel by means of the nut D, alwajs observing to put it on the left side, as shown in the p ate at work. Fig. 5. Section of the threshing part of the Machine.— At any period of measuring, you can tell exactly how A represents the board upon which the unthreshed far you have gone, and proceed without again setting e grain is spread, and introduced between the feedingvr o t the rollers B; C C represent one end of the drum, with way-wiser at 0. Suppose, as in the drawing, the spoke No. 4 at the threshers or beaters D D D D fixed upon the extremity of its arms; E E E E the shaker that receives ground, the index M pointing at 26 of K, and the in the straw from the threshing-drum, and conveys it to the of K pointing at 78 of L; then the distance measureu shaker F F F F, by which it is thrown down the sloping is 7826 turns of A and two feet; and as A measures scarce Z, either on the low floor or upon a sparred rack, yards, 7826 X 2 = 15652 yards, to which add the tw which moves on rollers turned by the machine, and by In reading off, particular care should be taken ahvaysto this means is conveyed into the straw-shed, or else into rSt the barn-yard. The scarce L is placed below the thresh- read the large figures (viz. those on the wheel L) h > , afterwards to add the small figures (viz. those on t ie w ^ ing-drum, while its circular motion throws out the straw at an opening G, into the straw-shaker E, which conveys K) ; and if the figures on K amount to less than > two isg it to the shaker F; at the same time the chaff and grain must be prefixed, so that K shall always showsum , /,g pass down through a scarce or sparred rack, P, into for instance, L being at 46, and K at 4, the the hopper Q, which conveys it into the fanners R S, The easiest way to guard against error, is to read

AGRICULTURE. if the different wheels are fixed upon their axles in such a AgrieulAgi^* add the word hundred; thus, forty-six hundred and four, position that the teeth will not cori'espond, or form lines tureand not four thousand six hundred and four. tf/ p,V g, Veitch’s Dynamometer. A B represent the two parallel to the axes, and then no piece of bone can escape The ;na •ends of the spring to which the plough and horses are without being broken by some of the teeth. The bones uioni yoked, C is a small bar with one of its ends turning tight which have passed through the rollers slide down the inon a round axis D, and the other end E pushes round the clined board, R, and collect at the bottom in a large heap. index F, which points out the number of stones (of 14 When all the stock of bones is thus coarsely broken, a labourer takes them up in a shovel, and throws them again lbs.) on the index plate G. to the hopper, to be ground a second time. ~ Plate X. Fig. 3. A Machine for grinding Potato-flour.—A, a Machine or nn Hum jill- Fig- 1 and 2 are two elevations of a Bone-mill, the cylinder covered with tin-plates, pierced with holes, so asf S dfirst being taken in front, to show the water-wheel and the to leave a rough surface, in the same manner as the gra-^^P^f* length of the rollers, and fig. 2 at the end, to show the ters used for nutmegs, &c. but the holes in this are larger. bones passing through the rollers. The water-wheel, A A, This cylinder is situate beneath a hopper, B, into which is represented as being of the over-shot kind; it is in- the potatoes are thrown, and thence admitted into a kind cluded between the two walls, B B, upon the top of which, of trough, C, where they are forced against the cylinder, the pivots or gudgeons of its axis are supported in brass which, as it revolves, grinds the potatoes to a pulp. Mobearings. A square formed on the end of one of the gud- tion is given to the machine by a handle fixed upon the geons is received into a square socket at the end of the end of the axis of the grating cylinder, A; and on the oppoconnecting axis, D, which communicates the motion to the site extremity of this axis is a fly-wheel, D, to regulate lowest, F, of the two rollers, the latter having a similar and equalize the movement. The potatoes, when put into square on the end of its axis, to be received into the the hopper, press by their weight upon the top of the cysocket at the end of the connecting axis, D. The rollers linder ; and, as it revolves, they are in part grated away. are supported by a wooden frame, G G. Two iron frames, On one side of the lower part of the hopper is an opening, HH, are bolted down upon it, having grooves or open- closed or opened, more or less at pleasure, by a slider, d; ings in them, of nearly the whole length, to receive the and the degree of opening which this has regulates the brasses for the pivots of the rollers, as shown in fig. 2. passage of the potatoes from the hopper into the trough, At the upper ends of these grooves are screws, h h, by C. This is as wide as the length of the cylinder, and has which the rollers can be made to act at a greater or less a concave board, R, fitted into it, which slides backwards distance from each other, as the size of the bones which are and forwards by the action of levers, a, fixed to an axis exto pass through them may require. Two pinions, k l, are tended across the frame of the machine; and a lever, N, is placed upon the ends of the axles of the two rollers, and fixed upon this axis, and carries a weight which acts upon by their teeth acting together, they compel the two rol- the board, R, by means of the levers, to force or press forlers to accompany each other. The surfaces of the rol- wards the potatoes contained in the trough C against the lers are filled with indentations and strong teeth, which cylinder, and complete the grating of them into a pulp. penetrate and break the bones to pieces. This is accom- The tin-plate covering the cylinder is of course pierced plished by employing separate cast-iron wheels, placed from the inside outwards, and the bur or rough edge left side by side upon an axis, to compose the rollers; the round each hole forms an excellent rasping surface. Fig. 4. A Potato-Scoop.—A, the end of the handle, SC00 Patatowheels have coarse teeth, similar to those of a saw or ratchet-wheel; each wheel of the lower roller, F, is an having a round stem, which passes through a piece of me- Pinch thick, and they are placed at distances of an inch tal, D, and has then a semicircular knife or cutter, E, fixed and a half asunder, having circles of hard wood or iron to it. This is sharp on both edges, and turns upon a piplaced between them, which are two inches less in diame- vot, fitted in a similar piece of brass to D, which, as well ter. Thus they leave grooves between the toothed wheels, as the latter, is formed out of a piece of plate, B C. which have the effect of rendering the teeth upon the sur- This forms a shield to hold the instrument firm upon the face of the roller insulated. The wheels of the opposite potato, by placing the thumb of the left hand upon the roller, E, are inch wide, and the spaces between them shield, B C, and pressing the points of D into the root, only 1 inch; and the two are so situated with respect to which is grasped in the hand; then, by turning the handle each other, that the teeth upon one are opposite to the half round with the right hand, the semicircular knife spaces between the teeth of the other, as is clearly ex- makes a sweep, and cuts out a piece or set, which is a plained by the figure. A hopper, 11, is fixed above the segment of a small sphere. Fig. 5 is an end view of the machine, over the rollers, and into this the bones are filled, shield, B C, and the knife, E, also the piece of brass, D, so that they rest upon the two rollers, and are drawn in placed upon the surface of a potato, F, in which the dotted bv their motion, the teeth penetrating and breaking every line F G shows the piece the knife will cut out by its mopiece, however large or solid it may be. The bones should tion. The only attention necessary in the use of this tool be supplied rather gradually to the machine at first, to is, that it be placed upon the potato, with the eye or avoid choking it, and the rollers should then be adjusted part from whence the shoot springs in the centre of the to a considerable distance asunder ; but when the bones semicircle of the knife, when it is laid flat upon the root. have once passed through in this way, the rollers are The advantage of this scoop, besides that it is very quick screwed closer by the screws, h h, and the fragments in its operation, is, that the pieces, being all of one exact ground a second time. This will generally be found suffi- size, which is about one inch diameter, they can be planted, cient, as it is not advisable to reduce the bones to a state by a bean-barrow or drill-machine, with much less laof extreme division. The pinions,must have deep cogs, bour and more accuracy than by the hand. to enable them to take deep hold of each other, when the Fig. 6. AMachinefor levelling Land.—D, a pole to which Machine rollers are set at only half an inch distance to grind fine, the horses or oxen are harnessed, jointed to the axle-tree, mid without the cogs being liable to slip when the centres E, of a pair of low wheels, A A. Into this axle-tree are ^ me separated, so far as to leave a space of 1 inch, or 1^ mortised two long side-pieces, G G, terminating in handles, inch, between the rollers, for the passage of the large B B. Somewhat inclined to these long or upper sidebones the first time. The rollers will act most effectually pieces, shorter lower ones, H H, are jointed by cross pieces,

356 A G R Agricul- and connected by strong side-boards. The machine has ture no bottom ; its back part, F, is strongly attached to an axle Agrigen- C ; to the bottom of this back-board, the back or scraper tum. part, d, of a strong iron frame, a, a, is firmly screwed, as shown in fig. 7, and the front ends of the slide-iron, b b, turning up, pass easily through mortises in the upper sidepieces, G, where, by means of pins, the inclination of the slide-irons and of the back-board can be adjusted within narrow limits, according to the nature of the soil to be levelled, and the mass of earth previously loosened by ploughing, which the back-board is intended to collect

AGRIGAN, or Island of St Francis Xavier, one of the Ladrone or Marianne Islands. It is 50 miles in circumference, is very mountainous, and has a volcano in it; situated in long. 146. E. lat. 19. 4. N. AGRIGENTUM, in Ancient Geography, a city of Sicily, part of the site of which is now occupied by a town called Girgenti, from the old name. See Girgenti. According to ancient authors, Daedalus, the most famous mechanician of fabulous antiquity, fled to this spot for protection against Minos, and built many wonderful edifices for Cocalus, king of the island. Long after his flight, the people of Gela sent a colony hither 600 years before the birth of Christ, and, from the name of a neighbouring stream, called the new city Acragas, whence the Romans formed the word Agrigentum. These Greeks converted the ancient abode of the Siculi into a citadel to guard the magnificent city which they erected on the hillocks below. An advantageous situation, a free government with all its happy effects, and an active commercial spirit, exalted their commonwealth to a degree of riches and power unknown to the other Greek settlements, Syracuse alone excepted. But the prosperity of Agrigentum appears to have been but of short duration, and tyranny soon destroyed its liberties. Phalaris was the first who reduced it to slavery. His name is familiar to most readers on account of his cruelty, and the brazen bull in which he tortured his enemies. See Phalaris. Phalaris met with the common fate of tyrants, and after his death the Agrigentines enjoyed their liberty for 150 years ; at the expiration of which term Thero usurped the sovereign authority. The moderation, justice, and valour of this prince preserved him from opposition while living, and have rescued his memory from the obloquy of posterity. He joined his son-in-law Gelo, king of Syracuse, in a war against the Carthaginians; in the course of which victory attended all his steps, and Sicily saw herself for a time delivered from her African oppressors. Soon after his decease, his son Thrasydeus was deprived of the diadem, and Agrigentum restored to her old democratical government. Ducetius next disturbed the general tranquillity. He was a chief of the mountaineers, descendants of the Siculi; and was an overmatch for the Agrigentines while they were unsupported by alliances, but sunk under the weight of their union with the Syracusans. Some trifling altercations dissolved this union, and produced a war, in which the Agrigentines were worsted, and compelled to submit to humiliating terms of peace. Resentment led them to embrace Avith joy the proposals of the Athenians, then meditating an attack upon Syracuse. Their new friends soon made them feel that the sacrifice of liberty and fortune would be the price of their protection, and this consideration brought them speedily back to their old connections. But, as if it had been decreed that all friendship should be fatal to their repose, the recon-

A G R and force before it, until the machine arrives at the place l where it is intended to be deposited. Here, by liftino' UD the hinder part of the machine by means of its handles the contents are left on the ground, and the machine pro- 4 ceeds to a fresh hillock. Plate XL The names of the different figures, and ofp’ the divisions of fig. 5, being marked on the engraving itself, hoi no further explanation can be necessary. Plates XII. XIII. XIV. XV. XVI. XVII. are sufficiently explained in the chapter on Live Stock, from which the necessary references are made to these plates.

ciliation and its effects drew upon them the anger of the Carthaginians. By this enemy their armies were routed, their city taken, their race almost extirpated, and scarce a vestige of magnificence was left. Agrigentum lay 50 years buried under its own ruins, when Timoleon, after triumphing over the Carthaginians, and restoring liberty to Sicily, collected the descendants of the Agrigentines, and sent them to re-establish the dwellings of their forefathers. Their exertions were rewarded with astonishing success; for Agrigentum rose from its ashes with such a renewal of vigour, that in a very short time we find it engaged in the bold scheme of seizing a lucky moment, when Agathocles and Carthage had reduced Syracuse to the lowest ebb, and arrogating to itself supremacy over all the Sicilian republics. Xenodicus was appointed the leader of this arduous enterprise ; and had his latter operations been as fortunate as his first campaign, Agrigentum would have acquired such a preponderance of reputation and power, that the rival states would not have even dared to attack it. But a few brilliant exploits were succeeded by a severe overthrow; the Agrigentines lost courage, disagreed in council, and humbly sued for peace to Agathocles. This commonwealth afterwards took a strong part with Pyrrhus, and, when he left Sicily to the mercy of her enemies, threw herself into the arms of Carthage. During the first Punic war Agrigentum was the headquarters of the Carthaginians, and was besieged by the Roman consuls, who, after eight months’ blockade, took it by storm. It nevertheless changed masters several times during the contest between these rival states, and in every instance suffered most cruel outrages. After this period very little mention of it occurs in history, nor do we know the precise time of the destruction of the old city and the building of the new one. See Girgenti. The hospitality and parade for which the Agrigentines are celebrated in history were supported by an extensive commerce; by means of which, the commonwealth was able to resist many shocks of adversity, and always to rise again with fresh splendour. It was, however, crushed by the general fall of Grecian liberty; the feeble remnants of its population, which had survived so many calamities, were at length driven out of its walls by the Saracens, and obliged to lock themselves up for safety among the bleak and inaccessible rocks of the present city. The principal part of the ancient city lay in the vale; the present town, called Girgenti, occupies the mountain on which the citadel of Cocalus stood. The whole space comprehended within the walls of the ancient city abounds with traces of antiquity, foundations, brick arches, and little channels for the conveyance of water ; but in no part are any ruins that can be presumed to have belonged to places of public entertainment. This is the more extraordinary, as the Agrigentines were a sensual people, fond of shows and dramatic performances, and the Romans

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A G R 357 arid agreeable behaviour of Agrippa so far engaged this Agrippa. iia never dwelt in any place long without introducing their savage games. Theatres and amphitheatres seem better prince, that he kept him continually about him: Apia, calculated than most buildings to resist the outrages of Agrippa being one day overheard by Eutyches, a slave ^^time; and it is surprising that not even the vestiges of whom he had made free, to express his wishes for Tiberius’s death and the advancement of Caius, the slave betheir form should remain on the ground. AGRIONIA, in Grecian Antiquity, festivals annually trayed him to the emperor ; whereupon Agrippa was loaded celebrated by the Boeotians in honour of Bacchus. At with fetters, and committed to the custody of an officer. these festivals the women pretended to search after Bac- Tiberius soon after dying, and Caius Caligula succeeding dius as a fugitive, and, after some time, gave over their him, the new emperor heaped many favours and much inquiry, saying that he had fled to the Muses, and was wealth upon Agrippa, changed his iron fetters into a concealed among them. chain of gold, set a royal diadem upon his head, and AGRIOPHAGI, in Antiquity, a name given to those gave him the tetrarchy which Philip the son of Herod the who fed on wild beasts. The word is Greek, being com- Great had been possessed of, that is, Batanaea and Trapounded of ayyoi, wild, savage, and payw, I eat. The chonitis. To this he added that ofLysanias ; and Agripname is given, by ancient writers, to certain people, real pa returned very soon into Judea to take possession of his or fabulous, said to have fed altogether on lions or pan- new kingdom. thers. Pliny and Solinus speak of Agriophagi in EthiCaius being soon after killed, Agrippa, who was then at opia, and Ptolemy of others in India on this side the Rome, contributed much by his advice to maintain ClauGanges. dius in possession of the imperial dignity, to which he had AGRIPPA, Cornelius, born at Cologne in 1486, a been advanced by the army. But in this affair Agrippa man of considerable learning, and by common report a acted a part wherein he showed more cunning and address great magician; for the monks at that time suspected than sincerity and honesty; for while he made a show of every thing of heresy or sorcery which they did not un- being in the interest of the senate, he secretly advised derstand. He composed his treatise of the Excellence of Claudius to be resolute, and not to abandon his good forWomen to insinuate himself into the favour of Margaret tune. The emperor, as an acknowledgement for his kind of Austria, governess of the Low Countries. He accept- offices, gave him all Judea and the kingdom of Chalcis, ed of the charge of historiographer to the emperor, which which had been possessed by his brother Herod. Thus that princess gave him. The treatise of the Vanity of the Agrippa became of a sudden one of the greatest princes Sciences, which he published in 1530, enraged his enemies of the East, and was possessed of as much, if not more extremely; as did that of Occult Philosophy, which he territories than had been held by Herod the Great, his printed soon after at Antwerp. He was imprisoned in grandfather. He returned to Judea, and governed it to France for something he had written against Francis L’s the great satisfaction of the Jews. But the desire of mother; but was liberated, and went to Grenoble, where pleasing them, and a mistaken zeal for their religion, induhe died in 1534. ced him to commit an unjust action, the memory of which Agrippa, Herod, the son of Aristobulus and Mariam- is preserved in Scripture, Acts xii. 1, 2, Royal Botanical Garden at Kew, in 3 vols. 8vo, with 13 Aix, a river of France, in the department of the Lower Atensi(le. ^"plates; a work which had been the labour of many years. Loire, which joins the Ysable, and falls into the Loire The number of species contained in this work amounted AIX-LA-CHAPELLE (or in German Aachen)’ a to between five and six thousand, many of which had not circle in the government of Coblentz, in the Prussian probefore been described. ^ A new and curious article in it vince of the Lower Rhine. Its extent is 1452 square miles relates to the first introduction of particular exotics into and it comprehends 21 cities, 14 market towns, 781 villa•es, the English gardens. The system of arrangement adopted and 627 hamlets. The inhabitants amount to 310,620, of is the Linnsean, with improvements, which the advanced whom 299,800 adhere to the Catholic religion,? and the state of botanical science required. Mr Aiton, with can- remainder, except 1500 Jews, are Lutherans. dour and modesty, acknowledges the assistance he receivThe chief city, of the same name, is very ancient, and ed in this work from the two eminent Swedish natural- was formerly populous; but the present inhabitants amount ists, Dr Solander and Mr Jonas Dryander. Indeed, his only to 34,400 persons. It was the seat of the governcharacter was such as secured him the friendship and ment of Charlemagne, and continued to be the place for good offices of the most distinguished names in science of the coronation of the emperors of Germany till 1531. his time. He was for many years peculiarly honoured by It is finely situated in a most fertile soil, and the envithe notice of Sir Joseph Banks, the president of the Royal rons are pleasing; but the city itself bears all the marks Society. The Hortus Kewensis was received with avidity of decline. The chief objects of attention are the caby the botanic world, and a large impression was soon thedral, with its brazen gates brought back from Paris, disposed of. _ _ _ _ and a number of relics, which are highly venerated by Notwithstanding the singular activity and temperance Catholics; the town-house, built by Charlemagne, which of Mr Aiton, he fell into that incurable malady, a schir- is still in good preservation ; and the baths, whose curarous liver, of which he died in 1793, in his 62d year. His tive properties attract to them numerous visitors in the eldest son, devoted to the same pursuits, was, by the autumn of each year. Every seven years, from the 11th Kings own nomination, appointed to all his fathers em- to the 25th of July7', the holy relics are exhibited; and ployments. Mr Aiton’s private character was highly es- this has commonly drawn to the city more than 50,000 timable for mildness, benevolence, piety, and every domes- votaries. tic and social virtue. He was interred in the church-yard Of late years manufactories have been introduced, of Kew, amidst a most respectable concourse of friends. which afford employment to a great number of workmen. AIDS Locutius, the name of a deity to whom the The products are, linen and woollen goods, needles, pins, Romans erected an altan The words are Latin, and sig- leather, snuff, Prussian blue, brass, soap, thimbles, and mfy “ a speaking voice.” The following accident gave various small articles. occasion to the Romans erecting an altar to Aius LocuThis place is remarkable as the theatre of diplomatic tins. One M. Seditius, a plebeian, acquainted the tri- affairs, and for the treaties of 1668, 1748, and 1818. bunes that, in walking the streets by night, he had heard Long. 6. 3. E. Lat. 50. 15. N. a voice ovei the temple of Vesta, giving the Romans AIXETTE, a river in the department of Upper Vienne, notice that the Gauls were coming against them. The in France, which empties itself into the Vienne, intimation was, however, neglected; but after the truth AKENSIDE, Mark, a physician, who published in was confirmed by the event, Camillus acknowledged this Latin a Treatise upon the Dysentery, in 1764, and a voice to be a new deity, and erected an altar to it under few pieces in the first volume of the Medical Transact ic iiame of Aius Loaitius. . tions of the College of Physicians, printed in 1768; but 01 J r>JUTAGE a "y of the vessel ^ through which ) kind tube of fitted to the niouth theof water a fountain is to e played. Io the different form and structure of ajutages is owing the great variety of fountains. AIX, an ancient city of France, the chief place of the airondissement of the same name, in the department of ie 1 louths of the Rhone. It was, before the revolution, 1 ^ 1 r‘chly endowed ecclesiastical establishments, "nei have been secularized. It stands on a plain surrounded by hills, which produce abundance of most exce ent olives, which, with wine and fruits, form the most important branches of agricultural industry. There are manu actories of various rich silk goods, of some linen, i11 ^. ware. 1 he ancient springs, known to the Romans, ‘sused till again discovered in 1704, are slightly . riieir efficacy is not now highly valued. The 0n am unts to hrN , ? given . 21,960 This city is celea un'or having birth persons. to two famous naturalists,

farabetter known, and to distinguished chieflyNovember hereafter, as poet. He was born at be Newcastle-upon-Tyne, 9. 1721; and after being educated at the grammar-school in Newcastle, was sent to the universities of Edinburgh and Leyden, at which last he took his degree of doctor in physic. He was afterwards admitted by Mandamus to the same degree at Cambridge ; elected a fellow of the college of physicians, and one of the physicians at St Thomas’s Hospital; and, upon the establishment of the queen’s household, appointed one of the physicians to her Majesty, That Dr Akenside was able to acquire no other kind of celebrity than that of a scholar and a poet, is to be accounted for by the following particulars in his life and conduct, related by Sir John Hawkins. Mr Dyson and he were fellow-students, the one of law and the other of physic, at Leyden, where, being of congenial tempers, a friendship them that lasted through their lives.commenced They left between the university at the same time,

an Tfi8011 ^ *1 ournefort, and to the painter Vanloo. G arron ssement 864 S( uare ^j the same name comprehends ja l miles, or about 552,960 acres, and contains can ons, 59 communes, and 92,314 inhabitants. ^ n X’,.a.tovrn M the continental dominions of the king Chamb*er111^c10 ^!e.^ucky of Savoy, about 12 miles from a . ^’ ontaining 2038 inhabitants. ;s]e 3 ^,sma“ ‘riand on the coast of France, between the vol er°n Coorinent. It is 12 miles north-

and both settled at London. Mr Dyson took to the bar, and being possessed of a handsome fortune, supported his friend while he was endeavouring to make himself known as a physician ; but in a short time, having purchased of Mr Flardinge his place of clerk of the house of commons, he quitted Westminster-hall, and, for the purpose of introducing Akenside to acquaintance in an opulent neighbourhood near the town, bought a house at North-End, Hampstead, where they dwelt together during the summer

370 A K E Akenside. season, frequenting the long-room, and all clubs and assemblies of the inhabitants. At these meetings, which, as they were not select, must be supposed to have consisted of such persons as usually meet for the purpose of gossiping, men of wealth, but of ordinary endowments, and able to talk of little else than news and the occurrences of the day, Akenside was for displaying those talents which had acquired him the reputation he enjoyed in other companies; but here they were of little use to him; on the contrary, they tended to engage him in disputes that betrayed him into a contempt of those who differed in opinion from him. It was found out that he was a man of low birth, and a dependent on Mr Dyson; circumstances that furnished those whom he offended with a ground of reproach, which reduced him to the necessity of asserting in terms that he was a gentleman. Little could be done at Hampstead after matters had proceeded to this extremity. Mr Dyson parted with his villa at North-End, and settled his friend in a small house in Bloomsbury-square, assigning for his support such a part of his income as enabled him to keep a chariot. In this new situation Akenside used every endeavour to become popular, but defeated them all by the high opinion he everywhere manifested of himself, and the little condescension he showed to men of inferior endowments ; by his love of political controversy, his authoritative censure of the public councils, and his peculiar notions respecting government. In the winter evenings he frequented Tom’s coffee-house in Devereux-court, then the resort of some of the most eminent men for learning and ingenuity of the time, with some of whom he was involved in disputes and altercations, chiefly on subjects of literature and politics, which fixed on his character the stamp of haughtiness and self-conceit. Hence many, who admired him for his genius and parts, were shy of his acquaintance. , The value of that precept which exhorts us to live peaceably with all men, or, in other words, to avoid creating enemies, can only be estimated by the reflection on those many amiable qualities against which the neglect of it will preponderate. Akenside was a man of religion and strict virtue; a philosopher, a scholar, and a fine poet. His conversation was of the most delightful kind; learned, instructive, and, without any affectation of wit, cheerful and entertaining. Dr Akenside died of a putrid fever, June 23.1770; and is buried in the parish-church of St James’s, Westminster. His poems, published soon after his death in 4to and 8vo, consist of the Pleasures of Imagination, two books of Odes, a Hymn to the Naiads, and some Inscriptions. The Pleasures oflmagination, his capital work, was first published in 1744; and a very extraordinary production it was, from a man who had not reached his 23d year. He was afterwards sensible, however, that it wanted revision and correction ; and he went on revising and correcting it for several years; but finding this task to grow upon his hands, and despairing of ever executing it to his own satisfaction, he abandoned the purpose of correcting, and resolved to write the poem over anew upon a somewhat different and enlarged plan. He finished two books of his new poem, a few copies of which were printed for the use of the author and certain friends; of the first book in 1 /, of the second in 1765. He finished also a good part of a third book, and an introduction to a fourth; but his most munificent and excellent friend, conceiving all that is executed of the new work too inconsiderable to supply the place and supersede the republication of the original poem, and yet too valuable to be withheld from the public, has caused them both to be inserted in the collection of his poems.

A K I AKERMAN, a circle in the Russian province of Bess- l arabia, extending along the banks of the Black Sea, where rtnai the Dneish forms an estuary. It is nearly destitute of issai population, except the capital, of the same name, which ^ is built on a tongue of land projecting into the estuary. It is the ancient Roman colony of Alba Julia. It is surrounded with strong walls and ditches, contains a Greek and a beautiful Arminian church, several-mosques, and a synagogue for Jews. The population, of various nations, religions, and languages, amounts to about 15,000. It is a place, from its position, of considerable trade. It is in long. 30. 10. 15. E. and lat. 46. 11. 45. N. AKHMETSCHET, or Simferopol,one ofthe six circles into which the Russian government or province of Taurien is divided. It is the richest and most fruitful part ofthe peninsula, extending from long. 32. 31. to 33. 46. E. and from lat. 44. 30. to 45. 9. N. About two-thirds of the district is hilly, and gives rise to the rivers Katscha, Belbak, and Alma, as well as many smaller streams, by whose water fertility is dispersed in the valleys and plains. The circle is estimated to contain about 50,000 inhabitants. Akhmetschet, a city, the capital of the circle of the same name, in the province of Taurien. It is composed of two parts; the old town, a mere heap of Tartar booths ;and the new, built on a regular plan, since the extinction of the former government, with a few good public edifices. It contains three mosques, a Russian, Arminian, and Greek church, with 900 houses, and, according to Usewoloske, 20,000 inhabitants, of various nations and religions. A re giment of Russians is constantly in garrison in the city, which is only moderately fortified, It is in long. 34.1. and lat. 44. 59. N. AKHTIAR, or Sevastopol, a city in the Russian government of Taurien, in the circle Akhmetschet. It lies in a bay, the best harbour of the Taurida, where the Russians have formed an arsenal for the construction and equipment of a navy. The bay is sufficiently extensive to admit of a large fleet, and the depth of water is from 10 to 12 fathoms. There are neither shoals, rocks, nor sand-banks, and vessels are secure from all winds. The inhabitants, exclusive of the garrison, amount to 1500. It is considered rather an unhealthful situation, and the water is not good. It is in long. 33. 27. 40. E. and lat. 44. 41. 30. N. AKIBA, a famous rabbin, flourished a little after the destruction of Jerusalem by Titus. He kept the flocks of a rich citizen of Jerusalem till the 40th year of his age, and then devoted himself to study in the academies for twenty-four years; and was afterwards one of the greatest masters in Israel. According to the Jewush accounts, he had 24,000 scholars. He declared for the impostor Barcochebas, whom he owned for the Messiah; and not only anointed him king, but took upon himself the office of Ins master of the horse. The troops which the emperor Hadrian sent against the Jews, who under the conduct of this false Messiah had committed horrid massacres, exterminated this faction, ^ikiba was taken, and put to death with great cruelty. He lived 120 years, and was buried with his wife in a cave upon a mountain not far from Tiberias, an his 24,000 scholars were buried round about him upon the same mountain. It is imagined he invented a supposititious work under the name of the patriarch Abraham. AKISSAR, the ancient Thyatira, a city of Natolia, m Asia, situated in a plain 18 miles broad, which produces plenty of cotton and grain. The inhabitants, who are reckoned to be about 5000, are said to be all Mahometans. The houses are built of nothing but earth or turf dried m the sun, and are very low and ill contrived; but there are six or seven mosques, which are all of marble. There are remarkable inscriptions on marble in several parts of tie

ALA town, which are part of the ruins of the ancient Thyatira. A i] It is seated on the river Hermus, 50 miles from Pergamos. AlabiA Long. 28. 30. E. Lat. 38. 50. N. AKOND, an officer of justice in Persia, who takes cognizance of the causes of orphans and widows, of contracts, and other civil concerns. He is the head of the school of law, and gives lectures to all the subaltern officers. He has his deputies in all the courts of the kingdom, who, with the second sadra, make all contracts. AL, an Arabic particle prefixed to words, and signifying much the same with the English particle the. Thus they say, alkermes, alkoran, &c. i. e. the kermes, the koran, &c. Ax, or Ald, a Saxon term, frequently prefixed to the names of places, denoting their antiquity ; as, Aldborough, Aldgate, &c. ALA, a Latin term, properly signifying a wing; from a resemblance to which several other things are called by the same name. Thus, Ala is a term used by botanists for the hollow of a stalk, which either the leaf or the pedicle of the leaf makes with it; or it is that hollow turning, or sinus, placed between the stalk or branch of a plant and the leaf, whence a new offspring usually issues. Sometimes it is used for those parts of leaves otherwise called lobes or wings. ALiE, the plural number, is used to signify those petals or leaves of papilionaceous flowers placed between those others which are called the vexillum and carina, and which make the top and bottom of the flowers. Instances of flowers of this structure are seen in those of peas and beans, in which the top leaf or petal is the vexillum, the bottom the carina, and the side ones the alae. Ala; is also used for those extremely slender and membranaceous parts of some seeds which appear as wings placed on them. It likewise signifies those membranaceous expansions running along the stems of some plants, which are therefore called alated stalks. Ala, in Anatomy, a term applied to the lobes of the liver, the cartilages of the nostrils, &c. Ala, in the Roman Art of War, were the two wings or extreme parts of the army drawn up in order of battle. At A BA, one of the three smallest districts of Biscay, in Spain, but pretty fertile in rye, barley, and fruits. There are in it very good mines of iron, and it had formerly the title of a kingdom. ALABAMA, a state and constituent member of the North American republic. It is bounded by Florida and the Gdlf of Mexico on the south, the state of Mississippi on the west, Tennessee on the north, and Georgia on the east. Its length is 275 miles, breadth 185, and area 50,800 square miles. The country, to the extent of more than 100 miles from the coast, consists of uneven lands, of a poor sandy soil, bearing little except pines, but interspersed with marshes and alluvial tracts on the sides of the streams, which are extremely fertile. Higher up, the country becomes fertile and beautiful, and it bears that aspect as far as the mountains occupying the northern part of the state. These mountains are about 50 miles in breadth, mid are supposed to exceed 1500 feet in height, but have peaks rising much higher. They are covered with a stony son, but on their southern side are many rich and beautiu Va ileys, clothed with forests 'of oak, hickery, walnut, gum, and maple. Under the surface are mines of ironore. Ihe climate is very hot in the parts below the latitude of 32^, but comparatively temperate in the upper districts. At Fort Stodart, in latitude 31. the mean heat oy day was 84° or 86° in July, and from 43° to 79° in ebfuary. The principal river in the state is the Alabama, w uch is formed of two branches, the Tombeckbee, and 1 e ro P per Alabama. The former rises in the state of

A JL A 371 Mississippi, and after being joined by several streams, Alabarcha joins the Alabama at Fort Stodart. The Coosa and TalaII poosa rivers united, compose the proper Alabama, which, Alabaster, after being joined by the Tombeckbee, falls into the Gulf"^^^* of Mobile at the latitude of 30A. All these rivers are navigable to a great distance from the sea. Steam-boats ply on the Alabama as far up as Montgomery, which is nearly 400 miles by water from Mobile Bay, but only 150 by land. The great employment of the people is agriculture. The soil yields wheat, maize, rye, barley, oats, and rice, and sugar-canes; but the principal object of culture is cotton, of which the state exports large quantities. The imports in 1824 amounted to 91,000 dollars, and the exports to 460,000. The number of inhabitants in 1820 was 127,901, of whom 41,859 were slavesj and 571 free blacks. In January 1828 it was estimated at 254,000, including 93,000 slaves. This is exclusive of the Creek Indians, who were estimated at 20,000 in 1818. A great portion of the population consists of emigrants from Georgia. Cahawba, a small place, is the seat of government; but the only considerable town in the state is Mobile, which is situated on the west side of the bay of the same name, 30 miles from the Gulf of Mexico, and, in 1826, contained 5000 inhabitants. In 1816 some exiles from France received a grant of lands on the banks of the Tombeckbee, in this state, with the view of introducing the culture of the vine; but the project did not succeed, and the new settlement, named Demopolis, was abandoned in a few years. Alabama has very few made roads, and no canals, but by means of its numerous rivers it enjoys a great extent of inland navigation ; and Mobile, the great centre of its trade, now communicates by steam-boats with all the considerable places on the Tombeckbee and Alabama rivers, and by sea with New Orleans. Alabama was admitted to the rank of a state and member of the American union in 1819. Its government is vested in a house of representatives elected annually, a senate elected triennially and renewed by thirds, and a governor elected for two years. The right of suffrage belongs to every white citizen of full age. The judges in this state hold their offices during good behaviour. Owing to the thinness of the population, education is yet in a backward state; but as a fund for its promotion, 640 acres of land are set apart in each township. In 1827 the public revenue amounted to 67,000 dollars, and the expenditure to 82,000. The country is healthful, except in the neighbourhood of wet grounds; and, upon the whole, Alabama possesses advantages over some of the other southern states, and is one of the most prosperous and rapidly progressive in that part of the union. (p.) ALABARCHA, in Antiquity, a kind of magistrate among the Jews of Alexandria, whom the emperor allowed them to elect, for the superintendency of their policy, and to decide differences and disputes which arose among them. ALABASTER, William, an English divine, was born at Hadley, in the county of Suffolk. He was one of the doctors of Trinity College in Cambridge; and he attended the earl of Essex as his chaplain in the expedition to Cadiz in the reign of Queen Elizabeth. It is said that his first resolutions of changing his religion were occasioned by his seeing the pomp of the churches of the Roman communion, and the respect with which the priests seemed to be treated amongst them; and appearing thus to waver in his mind, he soon found persons who took advantage of this disposition of his, and of the complaints which he made of not being advanced according to his deserts in England, in such a manner, that he did not scruple to go over to the Popish religion, as soon as he found that there

372 ALA Alabaster was no ground to hope for greater encouragement in his jl own country. However that matter be, he joined himself Ihssara" t0 ^ie ^orn^1 communion; but was disappointed in his expectations. He was soon displeased at this; and he could not reconcile himself to the discipline of that church, which made no consideration of the degrees which he had taken before. It is probable, too, that he could not approve of the worship of creatures, which Protestants are used to look upon with horror. Upon this he returned to England in order to resume his former religion. Pie obtained a prebend in the cathedral of St Paul, and after that the rectory of Therfield in Hertfordshire. He was well skilled in the Hebrew tongue; but he gave a wrong turn to his genius by studying the Cabala, with which he was strangely infatuated. He gave a proof of this in a sermon which he preached upon taking his degree of doctor of divinity at Cambridge. He took for his text the beginning of the first book of Chronicles, “ Adam, Seth, Enos and having touched upon the literal sense, he turned immediately to the mystical, asserting, that Adam signified misfortune and misery, and so of the rest. His verses were greatly esteemed. He wrote a Latin tragedy, entitled Roxana, which, when it was acted in a college at Cambridge, was attended with a very remarkable accident. There was a lady who was so terrified at the last word of the tragedy, Sequar, Sequar, which was pronounced with a very shocking tone, that she lost her senses all her lifetime after. He died in the year 1640. His Apparatus in Revelationem Jesu Christi was printed at Antwerp in 1607. His Spiracuhtm Tubarum, seuFons SpirituaImm Expositionum ex cequivocis Pentaglotti significationibus, and his Ecce Sponsm venit, seu Tuba Pulchritudinis, hoc est, Demonstratio quod non sit illicituin nec impossibile computare durationem fnundi et tempus secundi adventus Christi, were printed at London. From these titles we may judge what were the taste and genius of the author. Alabaster, in Natural History, a mineral substance whose base is calcareous earth. It differs from marble in being combined, not with the carbonic, but with the sulphuric acid. Alabaster, m. Antiquity, a term used for a vase wherein odoriferous liquors were anciently put. The reason of the denomination is, that vessels for this purpose were frequently made of the alabaster stone, which Pliny and other ancients represent as peculiarly proper for this purpose. Several critics will have the box mentioned in the Gospels as made of alabaster to have been of glass; and though the texts say that the wnman broke it, yet the pieces seem miraculously to have been united, since we are told the entire box was purchased by the emperor Constantine, and preserved as a relic of great price. Others will have it that the name alabaster denotes the form rather than the matter of this box: in this view they define alabaster by a box without a handle, deriving the word from the privative a, and Xa/3?j, ansa, handle. Alabaster is also said to have been used for an ancient liquid measure, containing ten ounces of wine, or nine of oil. In this sense the alabaster was equal to half the sextary. ALABASTRUM Dendroide, a kind of laminated alabaster, beautifully variegated with the figures of shrubs, trees, &c. found in great abundance in the province of Hohenstein. ALADINISTS, a sect among the Mahometans, answering to freethinkers among us. ALADSCHAHISSAR, a Turkish pachalic (SandSehah), part of the ancient Bulgaria, a mountainous district, in which the river Moravia rises in two branches, and runs into the Danube. It extends from long. 21. 45.

ALA

to 22. 30. E. and from lat. 42.30. to 43.30. N. Thegreatroad }■ from Belgrade passes through the northern part of the pro' vince. It is productive of wine, feeds much cattle, and A1n?ai has some rivers near Camplina. The capital, of the same^ ^ name, sometimes called Kruschevarz, is the seat of a Greek bishop, and has a castle; once the residence of the predatory chief Von Serf, and conquered from him by the Sultan Murad the Second. It is near the east bank of the river Moravia. ALADULIA, a considerable province of Turkey in Asia, in that part called Natolia, between the mountains of Antitaurus, which separate it from Amasia on the north, and from Caramania on the west. It has the Mediterranean Sea on the south ; and the Euphrates or Frat on the east, which divides it from Diarbekir. It comprehends the Lesser Armenia of the ancients, and the east part of Cilicia. Formerly it had kings of its own; but the head of the last king was cut olf by Selim I. emperor of the Turks, who had conquered the country. It is now divided into two parts: the north, comprehended between Taurus, Antitaurus, and the Euphrates, is a beglerbeglic, which bears the name of Marash, the capital town; and the south, seated between Mount Taurus and the Mediterranean, is united to the beglerbeglic of Aleppo. The country is rough, rugged, and mountainous ; yet there are good pastures, and plenty of horses and camels. The people are hardy and thievish. The capital is Malatigah. ALAIN, Chartier, secretary to Charles VII. king of France, born in the year 1386. He was the author of several works in prose and verse; but his most famous performance was his Chronicle of King Charles VII. Bernard de Girard, in his preface to the History of France, styles him “ an excellent historian, who has given an account of all the affairs, particulars, ceremonies, speeches, answers, and circumstances, at which he was present himself, or had information of.” Giles Coroxet tells us that Margaret, daughter to the king of Scotland, and wife to the dauphin, passing once through a hall where Alain lay asleep, she stopped and kissed him before all the company who attended. Some of them telling her, that itwas strange she should kiss a man wrho had so few charms in his person, she replied, “ I did not kiss the man, but the mouth from whence proceed so many excellent sayings, so many wise discourses, and so many elegant expressions. Mr Fontenelle, among his Dialogues of the Dead, has one upon this incident, between the princess Margaret and Plato. Mr Pasquier compares Alain to Seneca, on account of the great number of beautiful sentences interspersed throughout his writings. ALAJOR, a Spanish town, in the island of Minorca, and the province of Majorca, the chief town of a district containing 3950 inhabitants. ALAIS, an arrondissement in the department of the Gard, in France, extending over 480 square miles, or 307,200 acres. It is divided into nine cantons, and ninety-nine communes, and contains 68,223 inhabitants. Alais, a city, and chief of the arrondissement of the same name. It is situated on the river Gardon, at the foot of the Cavennes. It contains 9380 inhabitants, who are employed in manufacturing ribbons, sewing-silk, silkhosiery, cotton-goods, glass, porcelain, and other articles. Long. 3. 29. 40. E. Lat. 44. 7. N. ALAMAGAN, one of the Ladrone or Marianne islands, in the Indian Ocean, is situated in long. 146. 4/. lat. 18. 5. N. It is of an irregular form, and about ~ miles in circumference. The land in some places of t as island is pretty high, so that it may be seen at the tance of 12 or 14 leagues. Near the north end or ie island there is a volcano, which emitted an immense bo )

ALA i th year of the 97th Olympiad. There is another Alcjeus mentioned in Plutarch, perhaps the same whom Porphyrius mentions as a composer of satirical iambics and epigrams, and who wrote a poem concerning the plagiarism of Euphorus the historian. He lived in the 145th Olympiad. We are told likewise of one Alcteus, a Messenian, who lived in the reign of Vespasian and Titus. We know not which of these it was who suffered for his lewdness a very singular kind of death, which gave occasion to the following epitaph: KKhuiov ratpos oirts, See. This is Alcaeus’s tomb, who died by a radish, The daughter of the earth, and punisher of adulterers. This punishment, inflicted on adulterers, was thrusting one of the largest radishes up the anus of the adulterer ; or, for want of radishes, they made use of a fish with a very large head, which Juvenal alludes to: Quosdam machos ct mugilis intrat. Sat. x. The mullet enters some behind. Hence we may understand the menace of Catullus: Ah ! turn te miserum, malique fati. Quern attractis pedibus, patente porta, Percurrent raphanique, mugilesque. Epig. xv. Ah! wretched thou, and born to luckless fate, Who art discover’d by the unshut gate ! If once, alas! the jealous husband come. The radish or the sea-fish is thy doom. ALCAICS, in Ancient Poetry, a denomination given to several kinds of verse, from Alcaeus, their inventor. The first kind consists of five feet, viz. a spondee or iambic, an iambic, a long syllable, a dactyle, another dactyle. Such is the following verse of Horace: Omnes | eo\dem | coghnur, | omnium Versa\tur ur\na ] serins, \ ocius, Sors exitura. The second kind consists of two dactyles and two trochees; as, Exili\uni imposi\tura | cymbee. Besides these two, which are called dactylic Alcaics, there is another, simply styled Alcaic, consisting of an 3c

A L C A L C 386 Knights of Alcantara, a military order of Spain, which Ale ara Alcaic epitrite, a choriambus, another choriambus, and a bactook its name from the above-mentioned city. They make II chins. The following is of this species : Alcantaraa very considerable figure in the history of the expeditions A1 sar. Cur timet Jla\vum Tiberim | tang ere, cur | olivum $ against the Moors. The knights of Alcantara make the''"'’ V Alcaic Ode, a kind of manly ode, composed of several same vows as those of Calatrava, and are only distinguished strophes, each consisting of four verses; the first two of from them by this, that the cross fleur de lis, which they which are always alcai'cs of the first kind ; the third verse bear over a large white cloak, is of a green colour. They is a dimeter hypercatalectic, or consisting of four feet possess 37 commanderies. By the terms of the surrender and a long syllable; and the fourth verse is an alca’ic of of Alcantara to this order, it was stipulated that there the second kind. The following strophe is of this species, should be a confraternity between the two orders, with which Horace calls minaces Alccei camence. the same practices and observances in both; and that the order of Alcantara should be subject to be visited by the Non possidentem multa •vocaveris grand master of Calatrava. But the former soon released Recte beatum; rcctius occupat themselves from this engagement, on pretence that their Nomen beati, qui deorum Muneribus sapienter uti, &C. grand master had not been called to the election of that ALCAID, Alcayde, or Alcalde, in the polity of the of Calatrava, as had been likewise stipulated in the artiMoors, Spaniards, and Portuguese, a magistrate or officer cles. After the expulsion of the Moors, and the taking of justice, answering nearly to the French provost and the of Granada, the sovereignty of the order of Alcantara and British justice of peace. The alcaid among the Moors is that of Calatrava was settled in the crown of Castile by vested with supreme jurisdiction, both in civil and criminal Ferdinand and Isabella. In 1540 the knights of Alcantara sued for leave to marry, which was granted them. cases. ALCARAZ, a small city of La Mancha, in Spain, deALCALA de Guadeira, a small town of Spain, in Andalusia, upon the river Guadeira. Here are abundance fended by a pretty strong castle, and remarkable for an of springs, from whence they convey water to Seville by ancient aqueduct. It stands near the river Guardamena, and the soil about it is very fruitful. They have a breed an aqueduct. Long. 6. 16. W. Lat. 37. 15. N. Alcala de Henares, a city of Spain, in the province of of little running horses, which are very fleet and strong. New Castile. It is celebrated for its university, which is It is 25 miles north of the confines of Andalusia, 108 considered the best ecclesiastical school in the kingdom. south of Cuenqa, and 138 south by east of Madrid. Long. It was founded by Cardinal Ximenes; and one of its first 2. 45. W. Lat. 38. 56. N. ALCASSAR do Sal, a town of Portugal, in Estremaand best productions has been the Complutensian edition of the Holy Scriptures, which was prepared here. The dura, which has a castle said to be impregnable. It is river Henares runs by the city, and gives its distinguish- indeed very strong, both by art and nature, being built on ing name. Here is also a military school for the artillery the top of a rock which is exceedingly steep on all sides. and engineer corps; 1600 houses, 4760 inhabitants. Its Here is a salt-work, which produces very white salt, from whence the town takes its name. The fields produce powder-mills produce 15 cwt. annually. Alcala-HcoI, a small city of Spain, in Andalusia, with large quantities of a sort of rushes, of which they make a fine abbey. It is built on the top of a high mountain, in mats, which are transported out of the kingdom. Long. a mountainous country, nine leagues from Jaen. It bears 9. 10. W. Lat. 38. 18. N. Alcassar, a city of Barbary, seated about two leagues the title of a city, and contains a rich abbey and a population of 8000 or 9000. Long. 4. 15. W. Lat. 37.18. N. from Larache, in Asga, a province of the kingdom of ALCALY, or Alcali, or Alkali. See Chemistry, Fez. It was of great note, and the seat of the governor Index. of this part of the kingdom. It was built by Jacob AlALC AMO, a city of Sicily, on the river Freddo or St manzor, king of Fez, about the year 1180, and designed Bartholomew, in the intendancy of Trapani. It is a par- for a magazine and place of rendezvous for the great preliamentary city, in a district of peculiar fertility, which parations he was making to enter Granada in Spain, and produces some of the best wines of the island. It contains to make good the footing which Joseph Almanzor had got a very strong castle, many churches and monasteries, and some time before. It is said his father first invaded Spain 13,000 inhabitants. Near to it are remains of the ancient with 300,000 men, most of whom he was obliged to bring Segesta, with its temple and theatre in good preservation; back to Africa to quell a rebellion that had broke out in and near the sea are some celebrated warm baths. Morocco. This done, he returned to Spain again with an ALC ANIZ, a Spanish town upon the Guadaloupe, in the army, as is said, of 200,000 horse and 300,000 foot. Ihe province of Arragon, with a college, three parish churches, city is now fallen greatly to decay, so that of fifteen six monasteries, one hospital, and 4200 inhabitants. The mosques there are only two that they make use of. Ihy surrounding country is wild, but rich in olives, mulberry reason, probably, is the bad situation of the town; for it trees, and alum. stands so low, that it is excessively hot in summer, an ALCANNA, or Alkanna, in Commerce, a powder almost overflowed with water in the winter. Ibis they prepared from the leaves of the Egyptian privet, in which affirm to be owing to the curse of one of their smnts. the people of Cairo drive a considerable trade. It is much Flere are a great number of storks, which live very familiar} used by the Turkish women, to give a golden colour to with the people, walking about the town, possessing t e their nails and hair. In dyeing, it gives a yellow colour tops of the houses and mosques without molestation; ()1 when steeped with common water, and a red one when they esteem them sacred birds, and account it sintu o infused in vinegar. There is also an oil extracted from disturb them. At present the bashaw of I etuan appoin s the berries of alcanna, which is sometimes used in medi- a governor to this town, which is the last of his dommwn . cine. towards Mequinez. Near this city there is a Ugh rK 8® ALCANTARA, a town of Spain, in the province of of mountains running towards Tetuan, whose inhabi an^ Estremadura, on the left bank of the Tagus, over which is were never brought entirely under subjection; a magnificent bridge. It is in long. 6.10. W. lat. 39. 44. N. ever it was attempted, they revenged themselves by > It has two parish churches, five monasteries, and 3000 festing the roads and robbing and destroying the trave o • inhabitants. When they were pursued, they retired into their wo )

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c e mountains, where none could safely follow them. Not far I from hence is the river Elmahassen, famous for the battle Jcher • fought between Don Sebastian, king of Portugal, and the ✓vVMoors, in which the Portuguese were defeated, and their king slain. Long. 12. 35. W. Lat. 35. 15. N. ALCAUDETE, a town of Andalusia, in Spain, in the province of Jaen, in a fertile territory, producing wine, oil, corn, and abundance of fruits. It has a castle, two parish churches, four monasteries, and 4000 inhabitants. ALCAVALA, in the Spanish Finances, was at first a tax of 10 per cent., afterwards of 14 per cent., and is at present of only 6 per cent., upon the sale of every sort of property, whether movable or immovable; and it is repeated every time the property is sold. The levying of this tax requires a multitude of revenue officers sufficient to guard the transportation of goods, not only from one province to another, but from one shop to another. It subjects not only the dealers in some sort of goods, but those in all sorts, every farmer, every manufacturer, every merchant and shopkeeper, to the continual visits and examination of the tax-gatherers. Through the greater part of a country in which a tax of this kind is established, nothing can be produced for distant sale. The produce of every part of the country must be proportioned to the consumption of the neighbourhood. It is to the Alcavala, accordingly, that Ustaritz imputes the ruin of the manufactures of Spain. He might have imputed to it likewise the declension of agriculture, it being imposed not only upon manufacturers, but upon the rude produce of the land. ALCAZAR de St Juan, a city on the border of a small lake, in the province of Toledo, in Castile. It contains 2200 inhabitants. It has a saltpetre refinery, and some gunpowder works. Alcazar Leguer, a town of Africa, in the kingdom of Fez, and in the province of Rabat. It was taken by Alphonso, king of Portugal, in 1468; but soon after that it was abandoned to the Moors. It is seated on the coast of the straits of Gibraltar. Long. 3. 50. W. Lat. 38. 0. N. ALCHEMY, that branch of chemistry which had for its principal objects the transmutation of metals into gold, the panacea or universal remedy, an alkahest or universal menstruum, an universal ferment, and many other things equally ridiculous. — Kircher, instructed in all the secrets of chemistry, has fully exposed the artifices and impostures of alchemists. An alchemist puts into a crucible the matter which is to be converted into gold: this he sets on the fire, blows it, ''tus it with rods, and, after divers operations, gold is ound at the bottom of the crucible, instead of the matter first put in. This there are a thousand ways of effecting, " ithout any transmutation. Sometimes it is done by dexterously dropping in a piece of gold concealed between t ic fingers; sometimes by casting in a little of the dust u gold or silver, disguised under the appearance of some e ixir, or other indifferent matter; sometimes a crucible usec w ^ hich has a double bottom, and gold put between Uj two; sometimes the rod used to stir the matter is 10 w, and filled with the dust of the metal desired; at °t ter times there is metal mixed with the charcoal, the as es , °/ j-he furnace, or the like. Mr Harris very protip'u former ^Ist'nto Sube 'shes defines arsalchemy sine arte,from cujuschemistry, principiumand est mentiri, we mm laborare, et finis mendicare ; and the Italians have

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n W °- tifidiare al alchemista povero o medico ama• n‘ , le ru^n which has attended this delusion has occae several states to make severe laws against pre-

a chem snp^8as t0professed i y-it; The formerly all and Romans the sacred canonsbanished likewise di-

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A L C 387 rected the thunder of their censure against them. Dio- Alciat clestan and Caesar directed all books which treated of 11 this subject to be burnt. Rymer furnishes us with a Alcmaer. licence^ for practising alchemy, with all kinds of metals and minerals, granted to one Richard Carter in 1476. (Rym. Feed. tom. xii.) Nevertheless we have had severe laws against alchemy, and multiplying of metals, as much so as against coining itself. ALCIAF, or Alciate, Andrew, a great lawyer, who flourished in the 10th century, was born at Milan. He mixed much of polite learning in the explication of the laws, and happily drove out the barbarity of language which till then had reigned in the lectures and writings of lawyers; for which Thuanus highly praises him. He published a great many law-books, and some notes upon Tacitus. His Emblems have been much admired, and translated into French, Italian, and Spanish; and several learned men have written commentaries on them. ALCIBIADES, an Athenian general. It was the fate of this great man to live at a time when his country was a scene of confusion. The Greeks, grown insolent from their conquests in Persia, turned their armies against each other, and bandied together under the conduct of the two most opulent states, Athens and Lacedemon. Alcibiades, in the midst of an expedition he had planned against the enemies of his country, was recalled home to answer some charge of a private nature; but fearing the violence of his enemy, instead of going to Athens, he offered his services at Sparta, where they were readily accepted. By his advice the Lacedemonians made a league with Persia, which gave a very favourable turn to their affairs. But his credit in the republic raising jealousies against him, he privately reconciled himself to his country, and took again the command of the Athenian army. Here victory, waiting as it were at his command, attended all his motions. The loss of seven battles obliged the Spartans to sue for peace. He enjoyed his triumphs, however, only a short time at Athens. One unsuccessful event made him again obnoxious to the malice of his citizens, and he found it expedient to retire from Athens. In his absence the Spartans again took the lead, and at the fatal battle of iEgos entirely subdued the Athenian power. Alcibiades, though an exile, endeavoured to restore the power of his country; of which the Spartans having intelligence, procured him to be assassinated. He was a man of admirable accomplishments, but indifferently principled; of great parts, and of an amazing versatility of genius. ALCINOUS, king of the Phseacians, in the island now called Corfu, was son of Nausithous, and grandson of Neptune and Periboea. It is by his gardens that this king has chiefly immortalized his memory. He received Ulysses with much civility, when a storm had cast him on his coast. The people here loved pleasure and good cheer, yet were skilful seamen; and Alcinous was a good prince. ALCIRA, a Spanish town upon an island in the river Xucar, in the province of Valencia. It is surrounded with walls, and has two parish churches, six monasteries, one hospital, four poor-houses, and 9000 inhabitants. ALCMAER, a city of the United Provinces, seated in North Holland, about four miles from the sea, 15 from Haerlem, and 18 from Amsterdam. The streets and houses are extremely neat and regular, and the public buildings very beautiful. It had formerly two parish churches, dedicated to St Matthew and St Lawrence. The latter had so high a tower, that it served for a seamark to the vessels that were in the open sea; but in 1464 it tumbled down, aud damaged the other church so much that they were both demolished in 1670, and one church was built in their stead, dedicated to the same

388 A L C Aleman saints. The Spaniards, under the command of Frederick I! of Toledo, son of the duke of Alva, came to besiege it, Alcock. afj;er they had taken Haerlem in 1573 ; but were forced to raise the siege after lying three months before it, as well on account of the infection of the air, as the stout resistance of the inhabitants and soldiers; even the women signalizing themselves bravely in its defence. It is recorded in the register of this city, that, in the year 1637, 120 tulips, with the offsets, sold for 90,000 florins. The town has a very great trade in butter and cheese. It was taken by the British in 1799, but soon abandoned. Long. 4. 26. E. Lat. 52. 28. N. ALCMAN, a lyric poet, who flourished in the 27th Olympiad, about 670 years before Christ. He was born at Sparta, and composed several poems, of which only some fragments are remaining, quoted by Athenaeus and some other ancient writers. He was very amorous, accounted the father of gallant poesy, and is said to have been the first that introduced the custom of singing lovesongs in company. He is reported to have been one of the greatest eaters of his age; upon which Mr Bayle remarks, that such a quality would have been extremely inconvenient, if poetry had been at that time upon such a footing as it has been often since, not able to procure the poet bread. He died of a strange disease, for he was eaten up with lice. ALCMANI AN, in ancient lyric poetry, a kind of verse, consisting of two dactyles and two trochees: as,— Virgini\bus pue\risque\canto. The word is formed from Aleman, the name of an ancient Greek poet in great esteem for his erotics or amorous compositions. ALCMENA, the daughter of Electryo, king of Mycenae, and wife of Amphitryon. Jupiter, putting on the shape of her husband while he was abroad in the wars, begot Hercules upon her: he made that night as long as three ordinary ones. ALCOBAZA, a town of Portugal, to the north of Lisbon, in the province of Estremadura, at the mouth of the two rivers Alcoa and Baza. It is celebrated for its monastery, one of the richest and most splendid establishments in the kingdom. It contains 295 houses and 1500 inhabitants. ALCOCK, John, doctor of laws, and bishop of Ely in the reign of King Henry VII., was born at Beverley in Yorkshire, and educated at Cambridge. He was first made dean of Westminster, and afterwards appointed master of the rolls. In 1471 he was consecrated bishop of Rochester: in 1476 he was translated to the see of Worcester; and in 1486 to that of Ely, in the room of Dr John Morton, preferred to the see of Canterbury. He was a prelate of great learning and piety, and so highly esteemed by King Henry, that he appointed him lordpresident of Wales, and afterwards lord-chancellor of England. Alcock founded a school at Kingston-uponHull, and built the spacious hall belonging to the episcopal palace at Ely. He was also the founder of Jesus College in Cambridge, for a master, six fellows, and as many scholars. This house was formerly a nunnery, dedicated to St Radigund; and, as Godwin tells us, the building being greatly decayed, and the revenues reduced almost to nothing, the nuns had all forsaken it, except two; whereupon Bishop Alcock procured a grant from the crown, and converted it into a college. But Camden and others tell us, that the nuns of that house were so notorious for their incontinence, that King Henry VII. and Pope Julius II. consented to its dissolution: Bale accordingly calls this nunnery spiritualium meretricum cceno-

A L C Mum, a community of spiritual harlots. Bishop Alcock a wrote several pieces, among which are the following:— atrt 1. Mons Perfectionis; 2. In Psalmos Pcenitentiales • - :raj, 3. Homilias Vulgares; 4. Meditationes Pise. He died 0c> tober 1. 1500, and was buried in the chapel he had built at Kingston-upon-Hull. ALCOENTRE, a town of Portugal, in the province of Estremadura. It is within the lines of Torres Vedras, and was occupied by the allied troops as cantonments during the important period when those lines were the barrier that secured the safety of the peninsula. ALCOHOL, or Alkool, in Chemistry, spirits of wine highly rectified. It is also used for any highly rectified spirit. Alcohol is also used for any fine impalpable powder. ALCOHOLIZATION, the process of rectifying any spirit. It is also used for pulverization. ALCOOMETER, or Alkoometer, a name given by Richter to the hydrometer with a graduated stalk. See Areometer. ALCOR, the name of a small star adjoining to the large bright one in the middle of the tail of Ursa major. The word is Arabic. It is a proverb among the Arabians, applied to one who pr*etends to see small things, but overlooks much greater: Thou canst see Alcor, and yet not see tliefull moon. ALCOR A, a town of Spain, in the province of Valencia. It is situated on a small river that runs into the Mijares, and is principally to be noted for its potteries, in which earthenware of various kinds and china are extensively manufactured. It contains 2400 inhabitants, and is situated in lat. 42. 2. N. ALCORAN, or Al-koran, the scripture or bible of the Mahometans. The word is compounded of the Arabic particle al, and coran or horan, derived from the verb caraa or haraa, to read. It therefore properly signifies the reading, or rather that which ought to be read. By this name the Mahometans denote not only the entire book or volume of the Koran, but also any particular chapter or section of it; just as the Jews call either the whole Scripture, or any part of it, by the name of Karah or Mikra, words of the same origin and import. Besides this peculiar name, the Koran is also honoured with several appellations common to other books of Scripture : as al Farkan, from the verb foraka, to divide or distinguish ; not, as the Mahometan doctors say, because those books are divided into chapters or sections, or distinguish between good and evil, but in the same notion that the Jews use the word Pereh or Pirka, from the same root, to denote a section or portion of Scripture. It is also called al Moshaf, the volume, and al Kitah, the book, by way of eminence, which answers to the Piblia of the Greeks; and al Dhikr, the admonition, which name is also given to the Pentateuch and Gospel. The Koran is divided into 114 larger portions of verj unequal length, which we call chapters, but the Arabians soicar, in the singular sura, a word rarely used on any other occasion, and properly signifying a row, order, or a regular series; as a course of bricks in a building, or a rank ox so diers in an army; and is the same in use and import wit i the Sura or Tora of the Jews, who also call the fifty-three sections of the Pentateuch Sedarim, a word of the same signification. _ .f These chapters are not distinguished in the manuscrip copies by their numerical order, but by particular tit es, which are taken sometimes from a particular matter trea ed of, or person mentioned therein; but usually from first word of note, exactly in the same manner as the e have named their Sedarim; though the word from w u

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389 i]COj.some chapters are denominated be vexy far distant, towards fess, has not been communicated to any mortal, their nro- Aicoran the middle, or perhaps the end of the chapter; which phet only excepted. Notwithstanding which sonie willCA^^ seems ridiculous. But the occasion of this appears to have take the liberty of guessing at their meaning by that species been, that the verse or passage wherein such word occurs of Cabala called by the Jews Notarikon, and suppose the was, in point of time, revealed and committed to writ- letters to stand for as many words, expressing the names ing before the other verses of the same chapter which pre- and attributes of God, his works, ordinances, and decrees • cede it in order; and the title being given to the chapter and therefore these mysterious letters, as well as the verses before it was completed, or the passages reduced to their themselves, seem in the Koran to be called signs. Others present order, the verse from whence such title was taken explain the intent of these letters from their nature or did not always happen to begin the chapter. Some chap- organ, or else from their value in numbers, according to ters have two or more titles, occasioned by the difference another species of the Jewish Cabala, called Gematria ; of the copies. _ the uncertainty of which conjectures sufficiently appears Some of the chapteis having been ie\ealedat iVXecca, and from their disagreement. Jhus, for example, five chapters, others at Medina, the noting of this difference makes a one of which is the second, begin with these letters, A. L. m! part of the title: but the reader will observe that several of which some imagine to stand for Allah latiff magid, God the chapters are said to have been revealed partly at Mecca is gracious and to he glorified ; or. Ana li minni, i. e. to me and partly at Medina; and as to others, it is yet a dispute and from me, viz. belongs all perfection, and proceeds all among the commentators to which of the two places they good; or else for Ana Allah alam, I am the most wise belong* _ _ God, taking the first letter to mark the beginning of the # Every chapter is subdivided into smaller portions, of first word, the second the middle of the second word, and very unequal length also, which we customarily call verses; the third the last of the third word; or for Allah, Gabriel, but the Arabic word is ayat, the same with the Hebrew Mohammed, the author, revealer, and preacher of the Koranototh, and signifies signs or wonders : such as are the se- Others say, that as the letter A belongs to the lower part crets of God, his attributes, works, judgments, and ordi- of the throat, the first of the organs of speech; L to the nances, delivered in those verses; many of which have palate, the middle organ; and M to the lips, which are their particular titles also, imposed in the same manner as the last organ ; so these letters signify that God is the those of the chapters. . #> beginning, middle, and end, or ought to be praised in the Besides these unequal divisions of chapter and verse, beginning, middle, and end, of all our words and actions: the Mahometans have also divided their Koran into six- or, as the total value of those three letters, in numbers, is teen equal portions, which they call Ahzab, in the singular seventy-one, they signify, that, in the space of so manv Hizh, each divided into four equal parts ; which is also an years, the religion preached in the Koran should be fully imitation of the Jews, who have an ancient division of established. The conjecture of a learned Christian is at their Mishna into sixty portions called Massictoth. But least as certain as any of the former, who supposes those the Koran is more usually divided into thirty sections letters were set there by the amanuensis, for Amar li Moonly, named Ajza, from the singular Joz, each of twice the hunted, i. e. at the command of Mohammed, as the five letters length of the former, and in like manner subdivided into prefixed to the nineteenth chapter seem to be there writfour parts, fhese divisions are for the use of the readers ten by a Jewish scribe, for Coh yaas, Thus he commanded. of the Koran in the royal temples, or in the adjoining The Koran is universally allowed to be written with the chapels, where the emperors and great men are interred, utmost elegance and purity of language, in the dialect of 1 here are thirty of these readers belonging to every chapel, the tribe of Koreish, the most noble and polite of all the and each reads his section every day; so that the whole Arabians, but with some mixture, though very rarely, of Koran is read over once a day. other dialects. It is confessedly the standard of the AraNextafter the title, at the head of every chapter, except bic tongue, and, as the more orthodox believe and are only the ninth, is prefixed the following solemn form, by taught by the book itself, inimitable by any human pen the Mahometans called the Sismalluh, In the name of (though some sectaries have been of another opinion), mi. most merciful God ; which form they constantly and therefore insisted on as a permanent miracle, greater place at the beginning of all their books and writings in than that of raising the dead, and alone sufficient to congeneral, as a peculiar mark or distinguishing characteristic vince the world of its divine original, of their religion, it being counted a sort of impiety to omit And to this miracle did Mahomet himself chiefly appeal it. 1 he Jews, for the same purpose, make use of the form, for the confirmation of his mission, publicly challenging ti the name of the Lord, or, In the name of the great God; the most eloquent men in Arabia, which was at that time a ]C ; ie ! *an eastern Christians that of In the name of the Fa- stocked with thousands whose sole study and ambition it d oj the Son, and of the Holy Ghost. But Maho- was to excel in elegance of style and composition, to proinet probably took this form, as he did many other things, duce even a single chapter that might be compared with it.1 iom the Persian Magi, who used to begin their books in To the pomp and harmony of expression some ascribe lose words, Benam Yezdan hakshaishgher dadar; that is, all the force and effect of the Alcoran, which they conn }ff name of the most merciful just God. sider as a sort of music, equally fitted with other species of there are twenty-nine chapters of the Koran which have that art to ravish and amaze. In this Mahomet succeeded ns peculiarity, that they begin with certain letters of the so well, and so strangely captivated the minds of his auji p labet, some with a single one, others with more. These dience, that several of his opponents thought it the effect i tiers the Mahometans believe to be the peculiar marks of of witchcraft and enchantment, as he himself complains, t ie Koran, and to conceal several profound mysteries, the Others have attributed the effect of the Alcoran to the ccitam understanding of which, the most intelligent con- frequent mention of rewards and punishments,—heaven is th *1t ie com .PosKi°n and arrangement of words, however, admit of infinite varieties, it can never be absolutely said that any one other ?°1 SS '^e‘ I11 fact, Hamzah Benahmed wrote a book against the Alcoran with at least equal elegance ; and Moselema ane ven tr„ ’dc „ surpassed it, and occasioned a defection of a &great 1part of the Mussulmans. [Juurn. de Scat. tom. xiii. p. 280. Sf«v. Nov. 1708, p. 404.)

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ALCORAN. 390 Alcoran, and hell occurring almost in every page. Some suppose him who turns thee out, give to him who takes from thee, A1 an. that the sensual pleasures of paradise, so frequently set be- pardon him who injures thee; for God will have you plants fore the imaginations of the readers of the Alcoran, were in your souls the roots of his chief perfections.” It is easy what chiefly bewitched them; though, with regard to to see that this commentary is copied from the gospel, these, there is a great dispute whether they are to be un- In reality,, the necessity of forgiving enemies, though frederstood literally or spiritually. Several have even alle- quently inculcated in the Alcoran, is of a later date among gorized the whole book. the Mahometans than among the Christians; among those The general design of the Koran was to unite the pro- latter, than among the heathens; and to be traced origifessors of the three different religions then followed in the nally among the Jews. (See Exodus xxiii. 4, 5.) But populous country of Arabia (who for the most part lived it matters not so much who had it first, as who observes promiscuously, and wandered without guides, the far it best. The caliph Hassan, son of Hali, being at table, greater number being idolaters, and the rest Jews and a slave unfortunately let fall a dish of meat reeking hot, Christians mostly of erroneous and heterodox belief) in the which scalded him severely. The slave fell on his knees, knowledge and worship of one God, under the sanction of rehearsing these words of the Alcoran, “ Paradise is for certain laws, and the outward signs of ceremonies partly those who restrain their anger.” “ I am not angry with of ancient and partly of novel institution, enforced by the thee,” answered the caliph. “ And for those who forgive consideration of rewards and punishments both temporal offences against them,” continues the slave. “ I forgive and eternal, and to bring them all to the obedience of thee thine,” replies the caliph. “ But, above all, for those Mahomet, as the prophet and ambassador of God, who, who return good for evil,” adds the slave. “ I set thee at after the repeated admonitions, promises, and threats of liberty, rejoined the caliph ; and I give thee ten dinars.” former ages, was at last to establish and propagate God’s There are also a great number of occasional passages in religion on earth, and to be acknowledged chief pontiff the Alcoran, relating only to particular emergencies. For, in spiritual matters, as well as supreme prince in temporal, in the piecemeal method of receiving his revelation, MahoThe great doctrine, then, of the Koran is the unity of met had this advantage, that whenever he happened to be God, to restore which point, Mahomet pretended, was the perplexed and gravelled with any thing, he had a certain chief end of his mission ; it being laid down by him as a fun- resource in some new morsel of revelation. It was anaddamental truth, that there never was, nor ever can be, more mirable contrivance of his to bring down the whole Althan one true orthodox religion. For, though the parti- coran at once only to the lowest heaven, not to earth; cular laws or ceremonies are only temporary, and subject since, had the whole been published at once, innumerable to alteration, according to the divine directions, yet the objections would have been made, which it would have substance of it being eternal truth, is not liable to change, been impossible for him to solve; but as he received it by but continues immutably the same. And he taught, that parcels, as God saw fit they should be published for the whenever this religion became neglected, or corrupted in conversion and instruction of the people, he had a sure essentials, God had the goodness to re-inform and re-ad- way to answer all emergencies, and to extricate himself monish mankind thereof, by several prophets, of whom with honour from any difficulty which might occur. Moses and Jesus were the most distinguished, till the apIt is the general and orthodox belief among the Mapearance of Mahomet, who is their seal, and no other to be hometans that the Koran is of divine original; nay, that it expected after him. The more effectually to engage people is eternal and uncreated, remaining, as some express it, to hearken to him, great part of the Koran is employed in the very essence of God; that the first transcript has in relating examples of dreadful punishments formerly in- been from everlasting by God’s throne, written on a table flicted by God on those who rejected and abused hismes- of vast bigness, called the preserved table, in which are sengers; several of which stories, or some circumstances also recorded the divine decrees past and future; that a of them, are taken from the Old and New Testaments, copy from this table, in one volume on paper, was by the but many more from the apocryphal books and traditions ministry of the angel Gabriel sent down to the lowest of the Jews and Christians of those ages, set up in the heaven, in the month of Ramadan, on the night oipower; Koran as truths in opposition to the Scriptures, which the from whence Gabriel revealed it to Mahomet by parcels, Jews and Christians are charged with having altered ; and some at Mecca, and some at Medina, at different times, indeed few or none of the relations or circumstances in during the space of 23 years, as the exigency of affairs retire Koran were invented by Mahomet, as is generally quired; giving him, however, the consolation to show him supposed, it being easy to trace the greater part of them the whole (which they tell us was bound in silk, and much higher*, as the rest might be, were more of those adorned with gold and precious stones of paradise) once books extant, and were it worth while to make the inquiry, a year ; but in the last year of his life he had the favour The rest of the Alcoran is taken up in prescribing to see it twice. They say, that few chapters were denecessary laws and directions, frequent admonitions to livered entire, the greater part being revealed piecemeal, moral and divine virtues, the worship and reverence of the and written down from time to time by the prophets Supreme Being, and resignation to his will. One of their amanuensis in such a part of such and such a chapter till most learned commentators distinguishes the contents of they were completed, according to the directions of the the Alcoran into allegorical and literal: under the former angel. The first parcel that was revealed is generally are comprehended all the obscure, parabolical, and enig- agreed to have been the first five verses of the 46th matical passages, with such as are repealed or abrogated ; chapter. under the latter, such as are clear and in full force. After the new-revealed passages had been from the The most excellent moral in the whole Alcoran, inter- prophet’s mouth taken down in writing by his scribe, they preters say, is that in the chapter Al Alraf, viz. “ Show were published to his followers, several of whom took mercy, do good to all, and dispute not with the ignorantcopies for their private use, but the far greater number or, as Mr Sale renders it, “ Use indulgence, command that got them by heart. The originals, when returned, were which is just, and withdraw far from the ignorant.” Ma- put promiscuously into a chest, observing no order of time; hornet, according to the authors of the Keschaf, having for which reason it is uncertain when many passages were begged of the angel Gabriel a more ample explication of revealed. this passage, received it in the following terms: “ Seek When Mahomet died, he left his revelations in the

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A L C 391 \lc; n. same disorder, and not digested into the method, such as rative terms than by any thing fixed and determinate. Alcoran is, in which we now find them. This was the work of | Eye hath not seen, nor ear heard, neither have entered II his successor Abu Beer, who, considering that a great into the heart of man, the things which God hath pre-V Alcoy. % number of passages were committed to the memory of pared for them that love him.’ (1 Cor. ii. 9.) What a re- ^ ^^ Mahomet’s followers, many of whom were slain in their verence and astonishment does this passage excite in wars, ordered the whole to be collected, not only from the every hearer of taste and piety ! What energy, and at the palm-leaves and skins on which they had been written, same time what simplicity, in the expression! How suand which were kept between two boards or covers, but blime, and at the same time how obscure, is the imagery! also from the mouths of such as had gotten them by heart. “ Different was the conduct of Mahomet in his descripAnd this transcript, when completed, he committed to the tions of heaven and of paradise. Unassisted by the necescustody of Hassa, the daughter of Omar, one of the pro- sary influence of virtuous intentions and divine inspiration, phet’s widows. he was neither desirous, nor indeed able, to exalt the minds From this relation it is generally imagined that Abu of men to sublime conceptions or to rational expectations. Becrwas really the compiler of the Koran, though, for aught By attempting to explain what is inconceivable, to describe that appears to the contrary, Mahomet left the chapters what is ineffable, and to materialize what in itself is spiritcomplete as we now have them, excepting such passages ual, he absurdly and impiously aimed to sensualize the as his successor might add or correct from those who had purity of the Divine essence. " Thus he fabricated a sysgotten them by heart; what Abu Beer did else being tem of incoherence, a religion of depravity, totally repugperhaps no more than to range the chapters in their pre- nant indeed to the nature of that Being who, as he pretendsent order, which he seems to have done without any re- ed, was its object; but therefore more likely to accord with gard to time, having generally placed the longest first. the appetites and conceptions of a corrupt and sensual age. However, in the 30th year of the Hegira, Othman being “ That we may not appear to exalt our Scriptures thus then caliph, and observing the great disagreement in the far above the Koran by an unreasonable preference, we copies of the Koran in the several provinces of the empire,— shall produce a part of the second chapter of the latter, those of Irak, for example, following the reading of Abu which is deservedly admired by the Mahometans, who Musa al Ashari, and the Syrians that of Macdad Ebn wear it engraved on their ornaments, and recite it in their Aswad,—he, by the advice of the companions, ordered a prayers. ‘ God ! there is no God but he ; the living, the great number of copies to be transcribed from that of Abu self-subsisting: neither slumber nor sleep seizeth on him: Beer, in Hassa’s care, under the inspection of Zeid Ebn to him belongeth whatsoever is in heaven and on earth. Thabet, Abdallah Ebn Zobair, Said Ebn al As, and Abd’al- Who is he that can intercede with him but through his rahman Ebn al Hareth the Makhzumite ; whom he direct- good pleasure ? He knoweth that which is past, and that ed, that wherever they disagreed about any word, they which is to come. His throne is extended over heaven should write it in the dialect of the Koreish, in which it and earth, and the preservation of both is to him no burden. was at first delivered. These copies, when made, were He is the high, the mighty.’” {Sales Kor. ii. p. 30.4to edit.) dispersed in the several provinces of the empire, and the Alcoran is also figuratively applied to certain other old ones burnt and suppressed. Though many things in books full of impieties and impostures. In this sense we Hassa’s copy were corrected by the above-mentioned re- meet with the Alcoran of the Cordeliers, which has made visers, yet some few various readings still occur. a great noise; wherein St Francis is extravagantly mag“ The most prominent feature of the Koran, that point nified, and put on a level with Jesus Christ. The Alcoran of excellence in which the partiality of its admirers has of the Cordeliers is properly an extract of a very scarce ever delighted to view it, is the sublime notion it general- book, entitled The Conformity of the Life of the seraphi* ly impresses of the nature and attributes of God." If its father St Francis with the Life of Christ, published in 1510, author had really derived these just conceptions from the 4to ; since at Bologna in folio. Erasmus Albertus, being inspiration of that Being whom they "attempt to describe, by the elector of Brandenburg appointed to visit a monasthey would not have been surrounded, as they now are tery of Franciscans, found this book; and being struck on every side, with error and absurdity. But it might with the extreme folly and absurdity of it, collected a easily be proved, that whatever it justly defines of the number of curiosities out of it, and published them under Uiyine attributes, was borrowed from our Holy Scripture ; the title of the Alcoran of the Franciscans, with a preface winch even from its first promulgation, but especially from by Martin Luther. the completion of the New Testament, has extended the ALCORANISTS, among Mahometans, those who adviews and enlightened the understandings of mankind; here strictly to the letter or text of the Alcoran, from an and thus furnished them with arms, which have too often, opinion of its ultimate sufficiency and perfection. The though ineffectually, been turned against itself by its un- Persians are generally Alcoranists, as admitting the Alcogenerous enemies. ran alone for their rule of faith. The. Turks, Tartars, Arabs, In this instance particularly, the copy is far below the &c. besides the Alcoran, admit a multitude of traditions. great original, both in the propriety of its images and the The Alcoranists, among Mahometans, amount to much orce of its descriptions. Our Holy Scriptures are the only the same with the Textuaries among the Jews. The compositions that can enable the dim sight of mortality to Alcoranists can find nothing excellent out of the Alcoran; penetrate into the invisible world, and to behold a glimpse are enemies of philosophers, metaphysicians, and scholas0 le hhvme perfections. Accordingly, when they would tic writers. With them the Alcoran is every thing. represent to us the happiness of heaven, they describe it, ALCOVE, in Architecture, a recess, or part of a chamber separated by an estrade or partition of columns, and !!general ! > ^,anand y thing minute and particular, but by something great,—something that, without descending o any determinate object, may at once by its beauty and other corresponding ornaments, in which is placed a bed state, and sometimes seats to entertain company. These I'nensity excite our wishes and elevate our affections. of alcoves are frequent in Spain, and the bed is raised two or iov0^1 mv Pr°phetical and evangelical writings the three ascents, with a rail at the foot. ALCOY, a Spanish city on the sea-coast, in the protion1 nttend us in a future state are often men1 ar< en vince of Valencia. It has one parish church, three monashv' n ^ t admiration, they are expressed rather y a usion than similitude, rather by indefinite and figu- teries, and 14,600 inhabitants. It has a manufactory for

A L C 392 Alcuinus. fine cloth, a soap-boiling house, and a very large manufactory for paper, which employs 48 mills. ALCUINUS, Flaccus, an ecclesiastic of the eighth century. He was born, it is supposed, in \ orkshire. He was educated, however, at York, under the direction of Archbishop Egbert, as we learn from his own letters, in which he frequently calls that great prelate his beloved master, and the clergy of York the companions of his youthful studies. As he survived Venerable Bede about 70 years, it is hardly possible that he could have received any part of his education under him, as some writers of literary histoiy have affirmed; and it is worthy of observation, that he never calls that great man his master, though he speaks of him with the highest veneration. It is not well known to what preferments he had attained in the church before he left England, though some say he was abbot of Canterbury. The occasion of his leaving his native country was his being sent on an embassy by Offa, king of Mercia, to the emperor Charlemagne, who contracted so great an esteem and friendship for him, that he earnestly solicited, and at length prevailed upon him, to settle in his court, and become his preceptor in the sciences. Alcuinus accordingly instructed that great prince in rhetoric, logic, mathematics, and divinity, which rendered him one of his greatest favourites. “ He was treated with so much kindness and familiarity,” says a contemporary writer, “ by the emperor, that the other courtiers called him, by way of eminence, the emperors delight!' Charlemagne employed his learned favourite to write several books against the heretical opinions of Felix, bishop of Urgel, in Catalonia, and to defend the orthodox faith against that heresiarch, in the council of Frankfort, a. d. 794; which he performed to the entire satisfaction of the emperor and council, and even to the conviction of Felix and his followers, who abandoned their errors. The emperor consulted chiefly with Alcuinus on all things relating to religion and learning, and by his advice did many great things for the advancement of both. An academy was established in the imperial palace, over which Alcuinus presided, and in which the princes and prime nobility were educated; and other academies were established in the chief towns of Italy and France, at his instigation, and under his inspection. “ France,” says one of our best writers of literary history, “ is indebted to Alcuinus for all the polite learning it boasted of in that and the following ages. The universities of Paris, Tours, Fulden, Soissons, and many others, owe to him their origin and increase, those of whom he was not the superior and founder being at least enlightened by his doctrine and example, and enriched by the benefits he procured for them from Charlemagne.” After Alcuinus had spent many years in the most intimate familiarity with the greatest prince of his age, he at length, with great difficulty, obtained leave to retire from court to his abbey of St Martin, at Tours. Here he kept up a constantcorrespondenceby letters with Charlemagne, from which it appears that both the emperor and his learned friend were animated with the most ardent love to learning and religion, and constantly employed in contriving and executing the noblest designs for their advancement. He composed many treatises on a great variety of subjects, in a style much superior in purity and elegance to that of the generality of writers in the age in which he flourished. Charlemagne often solicited him, with all the warmth of a most affectionate friend, to return to court, and favour him with his company and advice; but he still excused himself, and nothing could draw him from his retirement in his abbey of St Martin in Tours, where he died a. d. 804. His works were collected and published by Andrew du Chesne, in one volume folio,

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Paris, 1617. They consist of, 1. Tracts upon Scripture;AkJ urn 2. Tracts upon doctrine, discipline, and morality; 3. His- A1 1 torical treatises, letters, and poems.. Since that edition 4U there has been published an incredible number of tracts,^ poems, &c. ascribed to this author, most of which, in all probability, were not his. ALCYONIUM, an obsolete name of a submarine plant. It is also used for a kind of coral or astroites, frequently found fossil in England. ALcromuM Stagnum, in Ancient Geography, a lake in the territory of Corinth, whose depth was unfathomable, and in vain attempted to be discovered by Nero. Through this lake Bacchus is said to have descended to hell to bring back Semele. (Pausanias.) ALCYONIUS, Peter, a learned Italian, who flourished in the 16th century. He was well versed in the Greek and Latin tongues, and wrote some pieces of eloquence which met with great approbation. He was corrector of the press a considerable time for Aldus Manutius, and is entitled to a share in the praises given to the editions of that learned printer. He published a treatise concerning banishment, which contained so many fine passages intermixed with others quite the reverse, that it was thought he had tacked to something of his own, several fragments of a treatise of Cicero de Gloria; and that afterwards, in order to save himself from being detected in this theft, he burnt the manuscript of Cicero, the only one extant. Paulus Manutius, in his commentary upon these words of Cicero, Libram tihi celeriter mittam de gloria, “ I will speedily send you my treatise on Glory,” has? the following woc?c*orro + inrr to fine nAPair • ^“ T-Tu 1811, 464 ; and in 1821, 484. It is 208 miles from London. ALDEA del Rio, a town of Spain, on the Guadalquivir, in the province of Cordova, with 3000 inhabitants. ALDEBARAN, in Astronomy, a star of the first magnitude, called in English the bull's eye, as making the e}^ of the constellation Taurus. Its longitude is 6. 32. Gemini, and its latitude 5. 29. 40. south.

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A L D 393 of Scotland, who wrote many pieces, which he sent to Aldhelm v.iolm ALDERHOLM, an island of Sweden, formed by the II three arms of a river running through Gefle, a town of Aldhelm, “ entreating him to give them the last polish, ^Idhjjn. Nordland, in Sweden, 80 miles north from Stockholm. by rubbing off their Scotch rust.” He was the first English- Aldred. v v / ^ ^Here is a wharf, a repository for planks and deals, two man who wrote in the Latin language, both in prose and'^’~ ^ " packing-houses, a large custom-house for taking toll of the verse, and composed a book for the instruction of his countrymen in the prosody of that language. Besides ships, an arsenal for cannon, and a granary. ALDERMAN, in the British policy, a magistrate sub- this, he wrote several other treatises on various subjects, ordinate to the lord-mayor of a city or town corporate. some of which are lost, and others published by Martin The number of these magistrates is not limited, but is Delrio and Canisius. Venerable Bede, who flourished in more or less, according to the magnitude of the place. In the end of this and the beginning of the next century, London there are 26, each having one of the wards of the gives the following character of Aldhelm: “ He was a city committed to his care. This office is for life, so that man of universal erudition, having an elegant style, and when one of them dies or resigns, a wardmote is called, being wonderfully well acquainted with books, both on who return two persons, one of whom the lord-mayor and philosophical and religious subjects.” In fact, considering aldermen choose to supply the vacancy. All the aider- the cloud of ignorance by which he was surrounded, and men are justices of the peace, by a charter of 15 Geo. II. the great difficulty of acquiring knowledge without prpper The aldermen of London, &c. are exempted from serving instruction, Aldhelm was a very extraordinary man. From inferior offices; nor shall they be put upon assizes, or serve one of his letters to Hedda, bishop of Winchester, concerning the nature of his studies whilst at Canterbury, he apon juries, so long as they continue to be aldermen. Alderman, among our Saxon ancestors, was a degree pears to have been indefatigably determined to acquire every species of learning in his power. For a copy of this of nobility answering to earl or count at present. Alderman was also used in the time of King Edgar curious epistle, see Henry’s History, vol. ii. p. 320. King for a judge or justice. Thus we meet with the titles of Alfred the Great declared that Aldhelm was the best of aldermannus totius Anglice, aldermannus regis, comitatis, all the Saxon poets; and that a favourite song, which was civitatis, burgi, castelli, hundredi sive wapentac/iii, et no- universally sung in his time, near 200 years after its author’s vmdecinwrum. According to Spelman, the aldermannus death, was of his composition. When he was abbot of totim Anglice seems to have been the same officer who was Malmesbury, having a fine voice, and great skill in music afterwards styled capitalis justiciarius Anglice, or chief jus- as well as poetry, and observing the backwardness of his tice of England; the aldermannus regis seems to have barbarous countrymen to listen to grave instructions, he been an occasional magistrate, answering to our justice of composed a number of little poems, which he sung to them assize; and the aldermannus comitalus, a magistrate who after mass in the sweetest manner, by which they were held a middle rank between what was afterwards called the gradually instructed and civilized. After this excellent earl and the sheriff: he sat at the trial of causes with the person had governed the monastery of Malmesbury, of bishop; the latter proceeding according to ecclesiastical which he was the founder, about 30 years, he was made law, and the former declaring and expounding the com- bishop of Shireburn, where he died A. d. 709.—He wrote, mon law of the land. 1. De octo Vitiis principalibus. This treatise is extant in ALDERNEY, an island in the British channel, subject the Bibliotheca Patrum of Canisius. 2. iEnigmatum versus to the crown of Great Britain. It is about eight miles in mille. This, with several others of his poems, was publishcompass, and is separated from Cape la Hogue, in Nor- ed by Martin Delrio at Mentz, 1601, 8vo. 3. A book mandy, by a narrow strait, called the Race of Alderney, addressed to a certain king of Northumberland, named which is a very dangerous passage in stormy weather, when Alfrid, on various subjects. 4. De Vita Monachorum. 5. the two currents meet; otherwise it is safe, and has depth De Laude Sanctorum. 6. De Arithmetica. 7. De Astroloof water for the largest ships. Through this strait the gia. 8. A book against the mistake of the Britons conIrench fleet made their escape after their defeat at La cerning the celebration of Easter; printed by Sonius, 1576. Hogue in 1692. It is a healthful island, has but one 9. De Laude Virginitatis; manuscript, in Bennet College, church, is fruitful both in corn and pasture, and is remark- Cambridge; published among Bede’s Opuscula. Besides able for a fine breed of cows. The inhabitants live to- many sonnets, epistles, and homilies in the Saxon langether in a town of the same name. It has but one har- guage. bour, called Crabby, which is at a good distance from the ALDPORT, an ancient name for Manchester. town, and is only fit for small vessels. To the west lie ALDRED, abbot of Tavistock, was promoted to the the range of rocks called the Caskets, so dangerous to bishopric of Worcester in the year 1046. He was so mariners. Long. 2. 7. W. Lat. 49. 45. N. much in favour with King Edward the Confessor, and had ALDHELM, or Adelm, St, bishop of Shireburn in so much power over his mind, that he obliged him to be the time of the Saxon Heptarchy. He is said to have reconciled with the worst of his enemies, particularly with been the son of Kenred, brother to Ina, king of the West Sweyn, son of Earl Godwin, who had revolted against ^axons; but in the opinion of William of Malmesbury, his him, and came with an army to invade the kingdom. ather was no more than a distant relation to the king. Aldred also restored the union and friendship between Having received the first part of his education in the King Edward and Griffith, king of Wales. He took afterschool which one Maldulph, a learned Scot, had set up in wards a journey to Rome, and being returned into England, p e P*ace where Malmesbury now stands, he travelled into in the year 1054 he was sent ambassador to the emperor lance and Italy for his improvement. At his return Henry II. He staid a whole year in Germany, and was mine he studied some time under Adrian, abbot of St very honourably entertained by Herman, archbishop of Augustin s, in Canterbury, the most learned professor of Cologne, from whom he learned many things relating to e sciences who had ever been in England. In these ecclesiastical discipline, which on his return he establishi ^ren t seminaries he acquired a very uncommon stock ed in his own diocese. In the year 1058 he went to Jeon n°wledge, and became famous for his learning, not rusalem, which no archbishop or bishop of England had y in England, but in foreign countries; whence several ever done before him. Two years after, he returned to earned men sent him their writings for his perusal and England; and Kinsius, archbishop of York, dying the 22d rrection; particularly Prince Arcivil, a son of the king of December 1060, Aldred was elected in his stead on 3D

A L D 394 Aldred. Christmas-day following, and was permitted to retain the see of Worcester with the archbishopric of York, as some of his predecessors had done. Aldred went soon after to Rome, in order to receive the pall from the pope : he was attended by Toston, earl of Northumberland, Giso, bishop of Wells, and Walter, bishop of Hereford. The pope received Toston very honourably, and made him sit by him in the synod which he held against the simonists. He granted to Giso and Walter their request, because they were tolerably well learned, and not accused of simony. But Aldred being by his answers found ignorant, and guilty of simony, the pope deprived him very severely of all his honours and dignities, so that he was obliged to return without the pall. On the way home he and his three fellow-travellers were attacked by some robbers, who took from them all that they had, though they did not offer to kill them. This obliged them to return to Rome; ■and the pope, either out of compassion, or by the threat■enings of the earl of Northumberland, gave Aldred the pallium; but he was obliged to resign his bishopric of Worcester. However, as the archbishopric of York had been almost entirely ruined by the many invasions of foreigners, King Edward gave the new archbishop leave to keep 12 villages or manors which belonged to the bishopric of Worcester. Edward the Confessor dying jn 1066, Aldred crowned Harold, his successor. He also crowned William the Conqueror, after he had made him take the following oath, viz. that he would protect the holy churches of God and their leaders ; that he would establish and observe righteous laws ; that he would entirely prohibit and suppress all rapines and unjust judgments. He was so much in favour with the Conqueror, that this prince looked upon him as a father ; and though imperious in regard to every body else, he yet submitted to obey this archbishop. John Brompton gives us an instance of the king’s submission, which at the same time shows the prelate’s haughtiness. It happened one day as the archbishop was at York, that the deputy-governor or lord-lieutenant, going out of the city with a great number of people, met the archbishop’s servants, who came to town with several horses and carts loaded with provisions. The governor asked them to whom they belonged ; and they having answered they wrere Aldred’s servants, the governor ordered that all these provisions should be carried to the king’s storehouse. The archbishop sent immediately some of his clergy to the governor, commanding him to deliver the provisions, and to make satisfaction to St Peter, and to him the saint's vicar, for the injury he had done them ; adding, that if he refused to comply, the archbishop would make use of his apostolic authority against him (intimating thereby that he would excommunicate him). The governor, offended at this proud message, used the persons whom the archbishop had sent him very ill, and returned an answer as haughty as the message was. Aldred thereupon went to London to make his complaint to the king; but in this very complaint he acted with his wonted insolence; for meeting the king in the church of St Peter at Westminster, he spoke to him in these words: “ Hearken, O William: when thou wast but a foreigner, and God, to punish the sins of this nation, permitted thee to become master of it, after having shed a great deal of blood, I consecrated thee, and put the crown upon thy head with blessings; but now, because thou hast deserved it, I pronounce a curse over thee, instead of a blessing, since thou art become the persecutor of God’s church, and of his ministers, and hast broken the promises and the oaths which thou madest to me before St Peter’s altar.” The king, terrified at this discourse, fell upon his knees, and, humbly

A L D begged the prelate to tell him by what crime he had de- A served so severe a sentence. The noblemen who were present were enraged against the archbishop, and loudly cried out he deserved death, or at least banishment, for^ having offered such an injury to his sovereign; and they pressed him with threatenings to raise the king from the ground. But the prelate, unmoved at all this, answered calmly, “ Good men, let him lie there, for he is not at Aldred’s but at St Peter’s feet; he must feel St Peter’s power, since he dared to injure his vicegerent.” Having thus reproved the nobles by his episcopal authority, he vouchsafed to take the king by the hand, and to tell him the ground of his complaint. The king humbly excused himself, by saying he had been ignorant of the whole matter; and begged of the noblemen to entreat the prelate that he might take off the curse he had pronounced, and to change it into a blessing. Aldred was at last prevailed upon to favour the king thus far ; but not without the promise of several presents and favours, and only after the king had granted him to take such a revenge on the governor as he thought fit. Since that time (adds the historian) none of the noblemen ever dared to offer the least injury. It may be questioned which was more surprising here, whether the archbishop’s haughtiness, who dared to treat his sovereign after so unbecoming a manner, or the king’s stupidity, who suffered such insolence and audaciousness from a priest. The Danes having made an invasion in the north of England in the year 1068, under the conduct of Harold and Canute, the sons of King Sweyn, Aldred was so much afflicted at it, that he died of grief the 11th of September in that same year, having besought God that he might not see the desolation of his church and country. ALDRICH, Robert, bishop of Carlisle, was born at Burnham, in Buckinghamshire, about the year 1493, and educated at Eaton school, from whence, in 1507, he was elected scholar of King’s College, Cambridge, where he took his degree in arts, and was afterwards proctor of the university. In 1525 he was appointed master of Eaton school, then became fellow of that college, and finally provost. In 1529 he went to Oxford, where, being first incorporated bachelor of divinity, in the following year he proceeded doctor in that faculty. In 1531 he-was made archdeacon of Colchester, in 1534 canon of W indsor, and the same year registrary of the order of the Garter. He was consecrated bishop of Carlisle in the year 1537, and died at Horncastle in Lincolnshire in 1556. He wrote, 1. Epistola ad Gul. Hormanum, in Latin verse, printed in Herman’s Antibossicon, Lond. 1521, of which book Pitts erroneously makes Aldrich the author; 2. Epigrammata varia; 3. Latin verses, and another epistle to Horman, prefixed to the Vulgaria Puerorum of that author, Lond. 1519, 4to; 4. Answers to certain queries concerning the abuses of the mass, also about receiving the sacrament. Aldrich, Dr Henry, an eminent English divine and philosopher, born at London in 1647, was educated at Westminster school under the famous Dr Busby, and admitted of Christ-church College, Oxford. He had a great share in the controversy with the Papists in the reign of James II.; and Bishop Burnet ranks him among those who examined all the points of Popery with a solidity of judgment, clearness of argument, depth of learning, and vivacity of writing, far beyond any who had before that time written in our language. He rendered himself so conspicuous, that at the Revolution, when Massey the Popis dean of Christ-church fled, his deanery was conferred on him. In this station he behaved in an exemplary manner, and that fabric owes much of its beauty to his mge-

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A L D 395 Ak ch. nuity: it was Aldrich who designed the beautiful square Indeed he is always spoken of as having been a man of Aldrov ancalled Peckwater Quadrangle, w'hich is esteemed an ex- wit, and as one who' to his great talents and virtues dus cellent piece of architecture. In imitation of his prede- joined those amiable qualities which rendered him the II cessor Dr Fell, he published yearly a piece of some an- object of general affection, as well as of general esteem Aldstoncient Greek author, as a present to the students of his and respect. Having never been married, he appropriated ( Moor. house. He published a System of Logic, with some other his income to works of hospitality and beneficence, and pieces; and the revising of Clarendon’s History of the Re- encouraging learning to the utmost of his power, of which bellion was intrusted to him and Bishop Sprat. Besides he was a most magnificent patron, as well as one of the his preferments above mentioned, Dr Aldrich was also greatest men in England, if considered as a Christian or a rector of Wem, in Shropshire. He was chosen prolocutor gentleman. He had always the interest of his college at of the convocation in 1702. This worthy person died at heart, whereof he was an excellent governor. His moChrist-church on the 14th of December 1710. As to his desty and humility prevented him from prefixing his name character, he was a most universal scholar, and had a to the learned tracts which he published during his life. taste for all sorts of learning, especially architecture. Sir At his death he wished to be buried in the cathedral," John Hawkins has favoured the public with several parti- without any memorial; which his thrifty nephew complied culars relative to Dr Aldrich’s skill in music; and on ac- with, depositing him on the south side of Bishop Fell’s count of the Doctor’s eminence in this respect, Sir John grave, December 22, eight days after his decease, which ha$ given his life, with his head prefixed. His abilities happened in the 63d or 64th year of his age. as a musician rank him,- we are told, among the greatest ALDROVANDUS, Ulysses, professor of philosophy masters of the science. He composed many services for and physic at Bologna, the place of his nativity. He was the church, which are well known; as are also his anthems, a most curious inquirer into natural history, and travelled nearly to the number of 20. He adapted, with great skill into the most distant countries on purpose to inform himand judgment, English words to many of the notes of Pales- self of their natural productions. Minerals, metals, plants, trina, Carissimi, \ ictoria, and other Italian composers for and animals, were the objects of his curious researches; the church, some of which are frequently sung in our ca- but he applied himself chiefly to birds, and was at a great thedrals as anthems. By the happy talent which Dr expense to have figures of them drawn from the life. AuAldrich possessed, of naturalizing the compositions of the bert le Mire says, that he gave a certain painter, famous old Italian masters, and accommodating them to an Eng- in that art, a yearly salary of 200 crowns, for 30 years and lish ear, he increased the stores of our own church. upwards; and that he employed at his own expense LoThough the Doctor chiefly applied himself to the culti- renzo Bennini and Cornelius Swintus, as well as the favation of sacred music, yet being a man of humour, he mous engraver Christopher Coriolanus. These expenses could divert himself by producing pieces of a lighter ruined his fortune, and at length reduced him to the utkind. There are two catches of his, the one, Hark the most necessity; and it is said that he died blind in an bonny Christ-church Bells; the other, entitled A Smok- hospital at Bologna, at a great age, in 1605. Mr Bayle ing Catch, to be sung by four men smoking their pipes, observes, that antiquity does not furnish us with an inwhich is not more difficult to sing than diverting to hear. stance of a design so extensive and so laborious as that of His love of smoking was, it seems, so excessive, as to be Aldrovandus, with regard to natural history; that Pliny an entertaining topic of discourse in the university. Such has treated of more kinds of subjects, but only touches was Dr Aldrich’s regard for the advancement of music, lightly on them, saying but a little upon any thing, whereand the honour of its professors, that he had formed a as Aldrovandus has collected all he could meet with. design of writing a history of the science ; and the mate- His compilation, or that compiled upon his plan, consists nals from which he proposed to compile it are yet extant of 13 volumes in folio, several of which were printed after in the library of his own college. It appears from these his death. He himself published his Ornithology, or Hismaterials that he had marked down ev©ry thing which tory of Birds, in three folio volumes, in 1599; and his lie had met with concerning music and musicians, but seven books of Insects, which make another volume of the that he had brought no part of them into any kind of same size. The volume of Serpents, three of Quadrupeds, one of Fishes, that of exanguious Animals, the History of note as a with the Supplement to that of Animals, the ir^r AAnglicanm !drich’s wesome In the Musa find two elegantLatin copiespoet. of verses by Monsters, Treatise of Metals, and the Dendrology or History of him; one on the accession of King William III., and the Trees, were published at several times after the death of other on the death of the duke of Gloucester. Sir John Aldrovandus, by the care of different persons; and AlHawkins has preserved a humorous translation by him of drovandus is the sole author only of the first six volumes the well-known English ballad, of this work, the rest having been finished and compiled A soldier and a sailor, by others, upon the plan of Aldrovandus,—a most extenA tinker and a tailor, &c. sive plan, wherein he not only relates what he has read in 'The following epigram, entitled “ Causm Bibendi,” is naturalists, but remarks also what historians have written, likewise ascribed to Dr Aldrich legislators ordained, and poets feigned. Fie explains also Sx bene quid memini. Causae sunt quinque bibendi ; the different uses which may be made of the things he Hospitis Adventus, praesens Sitis, ntquefutura, treats of, in common life, in medicine, architecture, and Bonitas aut other arts; in short, he speaks of morality, proverbs, de• * ^ini has ’ thus quasKbet altera Causa. Ine epigram been translated:— vices, riddles, hieroglyphics, and many other things which H°n my theme I rightly think, relate to his subject. -there are five reasons why men drink; ALDSTON-MOOR, a market-town of the Ward of Lood wine, a friend, because I’m dry, Leath, in the county of Cumberland. It is on the banks Hr lest I should be by and by, of the Tyne, in a picturesque district, abounding in Or any other reason why. mines of lead, whose produce is shipped from Hexham. trans at on dpJtH ] ' is not equal to the original. It is evi-' It is 302 miles from London. The market is held on a he verses cited and rich ’!s*01V that of Drmind. Ald- Saturday. The population has been as follows : in 1801. o a veiy cheerful andreferred pleasantto,turn 3626; in 1811, 5079; and in 1821, 5699.

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ALE, a fermented liquor obtained from an infusion of ners, who are all chosen by the liverymen in common-hall Ale.! er malt, and differing from beer chiefly in having a less pro- on Midsummer-day. Ale-Silver, a tax paid annually to the lord-mayor of Ale portion of hops. This liquor, the natural substitute of majL wine in such countries as could not produce the grape, London by all who sell ale within the city. ALE A, in Roman Antiquity, denotes in general all man-^ J is said to have originally been made in Egypt, the first planted kingdom, on the dispersion from the East, that ner of games of chance, but, in a more restricted sense, was supposed unable to produce grapes. And, as the was used for a particular game played with dice and tables, Noachian colonies pierced further into the west, they not unlike our backgammon. ALEANDER, Jerome, cardinal and archbishop of found, or thought they found, the same defect, and supplied it in the same manner. Thus the natives of Spain, Brindisi, was born in 1480, and distinguished himself at the inhabitants of France, and the aborigines of Britain, the beginning of the Reformation by the opposition he all used an infusion of barley for their ordinary liquor; made to Luther ; for being sent into Germany as the pope’s and it was called by the various names of Calia and Ge- nuncio in 1519, he acted, as occasion served, in the charia in the first country, Cerevisia in the second, and Cur- racter of both ambassador and doctor, and declaimed mi in the last; all literally importing only the strong three hours together against Luther’s doctrine before the diet at Worms, but could not prevent that celebrated rewater. “ All the several nations,” says Pliny, “ who inhabit the former from being heard in that diet. He published sevewest of Europe, have a liquor with which they intoxicate ral works, and died at Rome in 1542. Aleander, Jerome, nephew of the former, a learned themselves, made of corn and water. The manner of making this liquor is sometimes different in Gaul, Spain, man of the seventeenth century, born in the principality and other countries, and is called by many various names ; of Friuli, of the same family with the preceding. When but its nature and properties are everywhere the same. he went to Rome, he was employed as secretary under The people of Spain, in particular, brew the liquor so well Cardinal Octavius Bandini, and discharged this office with that it will keep good a long time. So exquisite is the great honour for almost twenty years. He afterwards, cunning of mankind in gratifying their vicious appetites, by the persuasion of Urban VIII., who had a great esteem that they have thus invented a method to make water it- for him, became secretary to Cardinal Barberini, whom self intoxicate.” The method in which the ancient Bri- he accompanied to Rome when he went thither in the chatons and other Celtic nations made their ale is thus de- racter of legate a latere, and in whose service he died in scribed by Isidorus and Orosius : “ The grain is steeped 1631. He was one of the first members of the Academy in water and made to germinate, by which its spirits are of Humorists, wrote a learned treatise in Italian on the excited and set at liberty; it is then dried and grinded ; device of the society, and displayed his genius on many after which it is infused in a certain quantity of water; different subjects. Barberini gave him a magnificent fuwhich, being fermented, becomes a pleasant, warming, neral at the academy of Humorists; the academists carried strengthening, and intoxicating liquor.” This ale was most his corpse to the grave, and Caspar de Simeonibus, one commonly made of barley, but sometimes of wheat, oats, of the members, made his funeral oration. ALECTO, one of the Furies, daughter of Acheron and and millet. Anciently the Welsh and Scots had also two kinds of Night, or, as others would have it, of Pluto and Proserpine. ALECTORIA, a stone said to be formed in the gallale, called common ale and spiced ale ; and their value was thus ascertained by law: “ If a farmer hath no mead, he bladder of old cocks, to which the ancients ascribed many shall pay two casks of spiced ale, or four casks of common fabulous virtues. This is otherwise called Alectorius lapis, ale, for one cask of mead.” By this law, a cask of spiced sometimes Alectorolithos, in English the cock-stone. Ihe ale, nine palms in height and eighteen palms in diameter, more modern naturalists hold the alectorius lapis to be oriwas valued at a sum of money equal in efficacy to L.7. I Os. ginally swallowed down, not generated in, the stomach of our present money; and a cask of common ale of the and gizzards of cocks and capons. It is known that manv same dimensions at a sum equal to L.3. 15s. This is a of the fowl kind make a practice of swallowing pebbles, sufficient proof that even common ale at that period was wdiich are supposed to be of service in the business of trian article of luxury among the Welsh, which could only turation and digestion. ALECTOROMANTIA, in Antiquity, a species of dibe obtained by the great and opulent. Wine seems to have been quite unknown even to the kings of Wales at vination performed by means of a cock. This is otherwise that period, as it is not so much as once mentioned in their called Alectryomancy, of which there appear to havebeen laws; though Giraldus Cambrensis, who flourished about different species. But that most spoken of by authors was a century after the Conquest, acquaints us that there was in the following manner: a circle was described on the a vineyard in his time at Maenarper, near Pembroke, in ground, and divided into twenty-four equal portions;1 in each of these species was written one of the letters of South Wales. Ale wTas the favourite liquor of the Anglo-Saxons and alphabet, and on each of the letters was laid a grain oe Danes, as it had been of their ancestors the ancient Ger- wheat; after which, a cock being turned loose jn ^ mans. Before their conversion to Christianity, they believ- circle, particular notice was taken of the grains picked up ed that drinking large and frequent draughts of ale was by the cock, because, the letters under them, being loim one of the chief felicities which those heroes enjoyed who ed into a word, made the answer desired. It was t us, were admitted into the hall of Odin. See Brewing, and according to Zonaras, thatLibanius and Jamblicus sougi who should succeed the emperor Valens; and thes vcocj Licensing. r Medicated Ales, those wherein medicinal herbs havebeen eating the grains answering to the spaces ©EGA, ^ ^ ‘^ whose names began with those letters, as Theo o us,1 infused or added during the fermentation. Gill Ale is that in which the dried leaves of gill or Theodistes, Theodulus, &c. were put to death ; whic _ ground-ivy have been infused. It is esteemed abstersive not hinder, but promote Theodosius, to the successio_. and vulnerary, and consequently good in disorders of the But the story, however current, is but ill supporte e• has been called in question by some, and refuted by °^. ’ breast and obstructions of the viscera. Ale-Conner, an officer in London, who inspects the from the silence of Marcellinus, Socrates, and other is measures used in public houses. There are four ale-con- rians of that time.

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ALE 397 plain and uncouth manners the subject of good-natured D’Alemie ' ALEE, in the sea-language, a term only used when the wind, crossing or flanking the line of a ship’s course, pleasantiy and philosophical observation. His good nurse bert. D’im. presses upon the masts and sails so as to make her incline perceived his ardent activity, heard him mentioned asthe^-^^^^ b '' to one side, which is called the lee-side. Hence, when the writer of many books, but never took it into her head that ^ is moved over to this side, it is said to be alee, or he was a great man, and rather beheld him with a kind of hard-(dee. compassion. “ You will never,” said she to him one day, ALEGRETTE, a small town of Portugal, in Alentejo, he any thing hut a philosopher—and what is a philosopher ? on the confines of Port Alegre, on the river Caja, which —a fool, who toils and plagues himself during his life, that falls into the Guadiana a little below Badajos, near the people may talk of him when he is no more.” frontiers of Spanish Estremadura. It is a very pretty As M. d’Alembert’s fortune did not far exceed the detown, and finely situated ; seven miles south-east of Port mands of necessity, his friends advised him to think of a Alegre, and thirty north of Elvas. Long. 5. 20. W. Lat. profession that might enable him to augment it. He accordingly turned his views to the law, and took his degrees 39. 6. N. ALEUTS Campus, in Ancient Geography, a plain in in that line ; but soon abandoned this plan, and applied to Cilicia, on this side the river Pyramus, near the mountain the study of medicine. Geometry, however, was always Chimera, famous for Bellerophon’s wandering and perish- drawing him back to his former pursuits ; and after many ing there, after being thrown off Pegasus; which is the ineffectual efforts to resist its attractions, he renounced all reason of the appellation. views of a lucrative profession, and give himself over enALEMANIA, or Allemania, in Ancient Geography, tirely to mathematics and poverty. In the year 1741 he was admitted member of the Acaa name of Germany, but not known before the time of the Antonines, and then used only for a part. After the demy of Sciences; for which distinguished literary proMarcomanni and their allies had removed from the Rhine, motion, at such an early age, he had prepared the way by a rabble or collection of people from all parts of Gaul, as correcting the errors of a celebrated work,1 which was i The the term Alemanni denotes, prompted either by levity or deemed classical in France in the line of geometry. He lyseDemonpoverty, occupied the lands, called Decumates by Tacitus, afterwards set himself to examine, with deep attention and tde of because they held them on a tithe ; now supposed to be assiduity, what must be the motion of a body which passes Beniau. the duchy of Wirtemberg. Such appear to have been the from one fluid into another more dense, in a direction not small beginnings of Alemania, which was in after-times perpendicular to the surface separating the two fluids. greatly enlarged; but still it was considered as a distinct Every one knows the phenomenon which happens in this part; for Caracalla, who conquered the Alemanni, assum- case, and which amuses children under the denominaed the surname both of Alemannicus and Germanicus. tion of Ducks and Drakes ; but M. d’Alembert was the ALEMBDAR, an officer in the court of the Grand first who explained it in a satisfactory and philosophical Signior, who bears the green standard of Mahomet when manner. the sultan appears in public on any solemn occasion. Two years after his election to a place in the academy ALEMBERT, Jean le Rond d’, an eminent French he published his treatise on Dynamics. The new prinphilosopher, was born at Paris in 1717. He derived the ciple developed in this treatise consisted in establishing name of Jean le Rond from that of the church near which, equality, at each instant, between the changes that the after his birth, he was exposed as a foundling. His motion of a body has undergone, and the forces or powers father, informed of this circumstance, listened to the voice which have been employed to produce them; or, to exof nature and duty, took measures for the proper educa- press the thing otherwise, in separating into two parts the tion of his child, and for his future subsistence in a state of action of the moving powers, and considering the one as ease and independence. producing alone the motion of the body in the second inHe received his first education in the College of the stant, and the other as employed to destroy that which it Four Nations, among the Jansenists, where he gave early had in the first. marks of capacity and genius. In the first year of his So early as the year 1744, M. d’Alembert had applied philosophical studies he composed a Commentary on the this principle to the theory of the equilibrium, and the Epistle of St Paul to the Romans. The Jansenists con- motion of fluids; and all the problems before solved by sidered this production as an omen that portended to the geometricians became in some measure its corollaries. party of Port-Royal a restoration to some part of their The discovery of this new principle was followed by that ancient splendour, and hoped to find one day in M. d’Alem- of a new calculus, the first trials of which were published bert a second Pascal. To render this resemblance more in a Discourse on the General Theory of the Winds, to which complete, they engaged their rising pupil in the study of the prize-medal was adjudged by the academy of Berlin the mathematics; but they soon perceived that his grow- in the year 1746, and which was a new and brilliant addiing attachment to this science was likely to disappoint the tion to the fame of M. d’Alembert. hopes they had formed with respect to his future destinaHe availed himself of the favourable circumstance of the tion : they therefore endeavoured to divert him from this king of Prussia having just terminated a glorious campaign hne; but their endeavours were fruitless. by an honourable peace, and in allusion to this, dedicated On his leaving college, he found himself alone and un- his work to that prince in the three following Latin connected with the world; and sought an asylum in the verses:— house of his nurse. He comforted himself with the hope Hcec ego de ventis, dum ventorum ocyor alls that his fortune, though not ample, would better the conPalantes agit Austriacos Fredericus, et orM, dition and subsistence of that family, which was the only Jnsignis lauro, rarntim prcctendit vlivce. one that he could consider as his own. Here, therefore, Swifter than wind, while of the winds I write, ic took up his residence, resolving to apply himself entireThe foes of conquering Frederick speed their flight; y to the study of geometry; and here he lived, during the While laurel o’er the hero’s temple bends, space of forty years, with the greatest simplicity, discoverTo the tir’d world the olive branch he sends. ing the augmentation of his means only by increasing disThis flattering dedication procured the philosopher a plays of his beneficence, concealing his growing reputation polite letter from Frederick, and a place among his literary nnd celebrity from these honest people, and making their friends.

398 ALE D’Alem. In the year 1747 D’Alembert applied his new calculus bert. of Partial Differences to the problem of vibrating chords, the solution of which, as well as the theory of the oscillation of the air and the propagation of sound, had been given but incompletely by the geometricians who preceded him, and these were his masters or his rivals. In the year 1749 he furnished a method of applying his principles to the motion of any body of a given figure; and he solved the problem of the precession of the equinoxes, determined its quantity, and explained the phenomenon of the nutation of the terrestrial axis, discovered by Dr Bradley. In 1752 M. d’Alembert published a treatise on the Resistance of Fluids, to which he gave the modest title of an Essay, but which contains a multitude of original ideas and new observations. About the same time he published, in the Memoirs of the Academy of V>ev\m, Researches concerning the Integral Calculus, which is greatly indebted to him for the rapid progress it has made in the present century. While the studies of M. d’Alembert were confined to geometry, he was little known or celebrated in his native country. His connections were limited to a small society of select friends: he had never seen any man in high office except Messrs d’Argenson. Satisfied with an income which furnished him with the necessaries of life, he did not aspire after opulence or honours, nor had they been hitherto bestowed upon him, as it is easier to confer them on those who solicit them, than to look out for men who deserve them. His cheerful conversation, his smart and lively sallies, a happy knack at telling a story, a singular mixture of malice of speech with goodness of heart, and of delicacy of wit with simplicity of manners, rendered him a pleasing and interesting companion; and his company, consequently, was much sought after in the fashionable circles. His reputation at length made its way to the throne, and rendered him the object of royal attention and beneficence. He received also a pension from government, which he owed to the friendship of Count d’Argenson. The tranquillity of M. d’Alembert was abated when his fame grew more extensive, and when it was known beyond the circle of his friends, that a fine and enlightened taste for literature and philosophy accompanied his mathematical genius. Our author’s eulogist ascribes to envy, detraction, and to other motives equally ungenerous, all the disapprobation, opposition, and censure thatM. d’Alembert met with on account of the publication of the famous Encyclopedical Dictionary of Arts and Sciences, in conjunction with Diderot. None surely will refuse the welldeserved tribute of applause to the eminent displays of genius, judgment, and true literary taste, with which M. d’Alembert has enriched the great work now mentioned. Among others, the Preliminary Discourse which he has affixed to it, concerning the rise, progress, connections, and affinities of all the branches of human knowledge, is perhaps one of the first productions of which the philosophy of the present age can boast, and will be regarded as a striking specimen of just arrangement and sound criticism, and also as a model of accurate thinking and elegant wx-iting. Some time after this D’Alembert published his Philosophical, Historical, and Philological Miscellanies. These were followed by the Memoirs of Christina, Queen of Sweden, in which M. d’Alembert showed that he was acquainted with the natural rights of mankind, and was bold enough to assert them. His Essay on the LUercourse of Men of Letters with Persons high in Rank and Office wounded the former to the quick, as it exposed to the eyes of the public the ignominy of those servile chains

ALE which they feared to shake off or were proud to wear. A D’ \ lady of the court hearing one day the author accused of be having exaggerated the despotism of the great, and thev^s submission they require, answered slyly, If he had consulted me, I would have told him still more of the matter. M. d’Alembert gave very elegant specimens of his literary abilities in his translations of some select pieces of Tacitus. But these occupations did not divert him from his mathematical studies; for about the same time he enriched the Encyclopedic with a multitude of excellent articles in that line, and composed his Researches on several important points of the System of the World, in which he carried to a higher degree of perfection the solution of the problem of the perturbations of the planets, that had several years before been presented to the Academy. In 1759 he published his Elements of Philosophy; a work extolled as remarkable for its precision and perspicuity; in which, however, are some tenets, relative both to metaphysics and moral science, that are far from being admissible. The resentment that was kindled, and the disputes that followed it, by the article Geneva, inserted in the Encyclopedic, are well known. M. d’Alembert did not leave this field of controversy with flying colours. Voltaire was an auxiliary in the contest; but as, in point of candour and decency, he had no reputation to lose, and as he weakened the blow of his enemies by throwing both them and the spectators into fits of laughter, the issue of the war gave him little uneasiness. It fell more heavily on D’Alembert, and exposed him, even at home, to much contradiction and opposition. It was on this occasion that the late king of Prussia offered him an honourable asylum at his court, and the place of president of his academy; and was not offended at his refusal of these distinctions, but cultivated an intimate friendship with him during the rest of his life. He had refused, some time before this, a proposal made by the empi*ess of Russia to intrust him with the education of the grand duke ; a proposal accompanied with all the flattering offers that could tempt a man ambitious of titles or desirous of making an ample fortune; but the objects of his ambition were tranquillity and study. In the year 1765 he published his Dissertation on the Destruction of the Jesuits. This piece drew upon him a swarm of adversaries, who confirm the merit and credit of his work by their manner of attacking it. Besides the works already mentioned, he published nine volumes of memoirs and treatises under the title of Opuscules, in which he has solved a multitude of problems relative to astronomy, mathematics, and natural philosophy; of which our panegyrist gives a particular account, more especially of those whiclx exhibit new subjects, or new methods of investigation. He published also Elements of Music, and rendered at length the system of Rameau intelligible; but he did not think the mathematical theory of the sonorous body sufficient to account for the rules of that art. He was always fond of music; which, on the one hand, is connected with the most subtile and learned researches of rational mechanics ; while, on the other, its power over the senses and the soul exhibits to philosophers phenomena no less singular, and still more inexplicable. In the year 1772 he was chosen secretary to the French academy. He formed, soon after this preferment, the design of writing the lives of all the deceased academicians from 1700 to 1772; and in the space of three years he executed this design, by composing 70 eulogies. M. d’Alembert died on tlxe 29th of October 1783. There were many amiable lines of candour, modesty, dis*

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ALE 399 Aledc interestedness, and beneficence, in his moral character; Tagus. As this province presents a frontier to Snain it is which are described, With a diffusive detail, in his eloge, by most abundantly provided with fortified places which if in vi-Si Ale: jo. M. Condorcet, Hist, de VAcad. Royale des Sciences, 1783. a good state and well garrisoned, would become formidable ^ ^ ALEMBIC, a chemical vessel, usually made of glass or auxiliaries in either offensive or defensive warfare • but in copper, formerly used for distillation. The bottom part, the late invasion by the armies of France, they were found which contained the subject for distillation, is called, from to be of little practical benefit. This province is between its shape, the cucurbit; the upper part, which receives and 37. 20. and 39. 34. north latitude. condenses the steam, is called the head, the beak of which ALEPPO, or Halab, a town of Syria, the capital of a is fitted into the neck of a receiver. Retorts, and the pachalic, of which the limits are not exactly defined, is sicommon worm still, are now more generally employed. tuated in the vast plain which extends from the Orontes ALEMBROTH, in the writings of the alchemists, a to the Euphrates, and which towards the south terminates word used for a sort of fixed alkaline salt, which had the in the desert. It is built on eight hills or eminences, and is power of the famous alkahest, in dissolving bodies, open- intersected by the Kowick, which in winter swells into a ing the pores of most or all known substances, and thence, large stream, overflowing its bridges, and the neighbouring as well as by destroying sulphurs, promoting the separa- gardens which cover its banks. This river terminates 18 tion of metals from their ores. It is also used for a com- miles beyond Aleppo, in a morass which is haunted by pound of corrosive mercury and sal ammoniac. wild boars and pelicans. The city itself is above 3i miles ALENCON, an arrondissement in the department of in circumference, and is surrounded by an ancientWong the Orne, in the north-west of France, comprehending an stone-wall and ditch. Including the suburbs, the city is extent of 416 square miles, or 266,240 English acres. It about 7 or 8 miles in compass. The wall is’flanked by is divided into six cantons, in which are 72,418 inhabitants, frequent towers ; but the ditch is partly filled up with The capital bears the same name. It stands on the river rubbish or occupied by kitchen-gardens, and the city Sarthe, and contains 13,230 inhabitants, who are employed being commanded by the adjacent heights, is entirely inin manufactures of iron, glass, leather, and some other goods, defensible. The town has nine gates, all known by different It is in long. 0.10. E. lat. 48. 26. N. names. On one of the hills on which the city is built, ALENIO, Julius, a Jesuit, born at Brescia, in the re- and on its north-east corner, is a castle seated on a mount, public of Venice. He travelled into the eastern coun- This mount is of a conic form, which seems in a great tries, and arrived at Macao in 1610, where he taught measure to be raised with the earth thrown up out of a mathematics. From thence he went to the empire of deep broad ditch which surrounds it. The castle is entered China, where he continued to propagate the Christian re- from the south by a bridge of seven lofty narrow arches ligion for 36 years. He was the first who planted the thrown over the ditch, on which are two gates fortified faith in the province of Xansi, and he built several churches by turrets, and two more still higher on the hill. Aleppo in the province of Fokien. He died in August 1649, leav- is esteemed the fourth city of the Ottoman empire, ing behind him several works in the Chinese language. only exceeded by Constantinople, Cairo, and Damascus! ALENTEJO, one of the provinces into which the king- It appeared to Mr Buckingham, who visited it in 1816, dom of Portugal is divided, deriving its name from its situ- to be one of the best built of all the cities in the ation on the banks of the Tagus, in the Portuguese lan- East that he had seen. In the regularity of the streets, guage Tejo. On the north it is bounded by the Portu- the aspect of the houses, and also in cleanliness, it was guese Estremadura and Begra; on the east by Spanish decidedly superior to the generality of Turkish towns. Estremadura and Andalusia; on the south by Algarve; The houses are large and commodious, having terraces and on the west by the Atlantic Ocean, except in that on their tops, on which the inhabitants sleep in sumpart where the district of St Ubes, which is a port of mer, and generally sky-lights in form of a dome to let lortuguese Estremadura, interposes betwixt it and the the light into the rooms, which, from their loftiness, the sea. Its extent is 883 square leagues, and in 1798 the gilding on the window-shutters, cupboard doors, &c. have number of its inhabitants was 380,480. It is the largest at first entrance a very grand and agreeable effect. They province m the kingdom. Its surface is very unequal: are all so equal in height, that there are seldom any steps towards Spanish Estremadura the soil is moderately fruit- to ascend or descend in going from one house to another; ml, but towards Algarve the country is covered with ex- while several large vaulted streets increase the facility of ensive forests of oak, cork, holm, and other trees, espe- communication, by affording a passage to every part of the cia ly on the northern sides of the Sierras de Monchique city free from the embarrassment of the open streets. They and Uldeiraon. The climate is considered unhealthful, are carefully paved, have two commodious footpaths, six especially in the summer months, when the waters, which inches high on each side, and the middle of the street is are a iindant, become stagnant. The province produces laid with brick, the small end upwards, for the conveni* abundance of cattle; it yields more wheat than it con- ence of the horses. sumes, and in part supplies Lisbon with that necessary. The mosques in Aleppo are numerous, and seven or grows sufficient wine for its own consumption, but is eight of them are considered handsome, though none has ccient in oil, which is occasionally supplied from Spanish more than a single minaret or steeple. They are built s remadura and Andalusia. The natural boundary, on the of freestone, with a dome in the middle, which is covered Q,.e 0 bpain, is the river Guadiana ; but the territory of with lead. The members of the Greek, Arminian, Syrian, ivenza, extending over 110 square leagues, on the east- and Maronite communions have each a church ; and the side of that river, has, ever since the thirteenth cen- Europeans formerly had four small convents ; but in 1807 ur yj een a part of Portugal; and the possession of it has there was only one, containing nine Italian monks. Before wn and still is an object of greater jealousy to the two each of them is an area, with a fountain in the middle, ions, than its value to either will justify. The only designed for ablutions before prayers; and behind some of vers of this province which empty themselves into the the larger there are little gardens. There are about twenty 6 6 a us S Milfontes, the Odemira : the latter it fnearr VR .1 a k°va^ de and is navigable fiveenters leagues oni its mouth to the town of its own name. The other cams run, some to the Guadiana, and the others to the

large khans or caravansaries, consisting square, on all sides of which are rooms, built of on athecapacious groundfloor, usedoccasionallyforchambers,warehouses, orstables. Above stairs there is a colonnade or gallery on every side,

400 ALE Aleppo, in which are the doors of a number of small rooms, wherein the merchants, as well strangers as natives, transact most of their business. Numerous coffee-houses are seen in all parts, some large and handsome, with a fountain in the middle, and a gallery for musicians. They are greatly frequented, and by persons of the highest rank. The bazars or market-places are long, covered, narrow streets, on each side of which is a great number of small shops, just sufficient to hold the tradesman and his goods, the buyer being obliged to stand without. Each separate branch of business has a particular bazar, which is locked up, as well as the streets, an hour and a half after sunset. This city is in itself one of the most agreeable in Syria, and is a trading and bustling place; and, owing to the great resort of Europeans, is considered by Mr Buckingham to be more than 100 years in advance of the other parts of Syria. On whatever side it is approached, its numerous minarets and domes present an agreeable prospect to the eye, fatigued with the continued sameness of the brown and parched plains. In the centre is an artificial mountain surrounded by a dry ditch, on which is a ruinous fortress. From hence we have a fine prospect of the whole city. To the north we discover the snowy mountains of Bailan, and on the west those which separate the Orontes from the sea, while to the south and east the eye can see as far as the Euphrates. In the time of Omar this castle stopped the progress of the Arabs for several months, and was at last taken by treachery; but at present it would not be able to resist the feeblest assault. Its slight wall, low and without a buttress, is in ruins; its little old towers are in no better condition ; and it has not four cannons fit for service, not excepting a culverine nine feet long, taken from the Persians at the siege of Bassora. Three hundred and fifty janizaries, who should form the garrison, are busy in their shops. Within the walls of the castle is a well, which, by means of a subterraneous communication, derives its water from a spring a league and a quarter distant. In the environs of the city we find a number of large square stones, on the top of which is a turban of stone, which are so many tombs. Aleppo may be considered the emporium of Armenia and Diarbekir. Four caravans annually proceed through Natolia to Constantinople, and others arrive from Bagdad and Bassora with coffee from Mocha, and with muslins, shawls, and other goods from India. Caravans are sent also to Medina and Mecca, with which places a regular intercourse is maintained. The commerce with Europe is principally carried on from Scanderoon and Latakia, on the sea-coast. The chief commodities exported are, raw or spun cottons, clumsy linens fabricated in the villages, silk stuffs manufactured in the city, copper, bourres (coarse cloths) like those of Rouen, goats’ hair brought from Natolia, the gall-nuts of the Kourdistan, the merchandise of India, and pistachio-nuts of the growth of the neighbourhood. The articles supplied by Europe are cloths, Lyonese stuffs, and bonnets after the fashion of Tunis from France; merceries, indigo, tea, sugar, paper, soap, &c.; and a great quantity of coral ornaments. The coffee of America, though prohibited, is introduced, and serves to mix with that of Mocha. British, French, Dutch, and Italian houses are established at Aleppo, for the purposes of trade ; and most of the European states have consuls resident here. Aleppo is not exceeded in extent by any city in Turkey, except Constantinople and Cairo, and perhaps Smyrna. It is difficult to make any estimate of its population, but it is said to be increasing, and, according to the most authentic computation, does not probably contain less than 250,000 inhabitants. Of these, 30,000 are Christians, who enjoy the most perfect toleration, and are treated with more respect than in any town of the East.

ALE The air of Aleppo is dry and piercing, but at the A pa same time salubrious for all who are not troubled with'^r asthmatic complaints. The city, however, and the environs, are subject to a singular endemial disorder, which is called the ringworm or pimple of Aleppo: it is in fact a pimple which is at first inflammatory, and at length becomes an ulcer of the size of the nail. The usual duration of this ulcer is one year: it commonly fixes on the face, and leaves a scar, which disfigures almost all the inhabitants. No reason is assigned for this malady; but M. Volney suspects it proceeds from the quality of the water, as it is likewise frequent in the neighbouring villages, in some parts of Diarbekir, and even in certain districts near Damascus, where the soil and the water have the same appearances. But the plague is a more destructive malady, a visitation of which is anticipated by the inhabitants every ten years. Its ravages are most fatal, owing to the blind fatalism of the Turks, who cannot be persuaded to take any precautions against the progress of this dreadful disease. In the plague which immediately preceded the year 1797, about 60,000 inhabitants were swept off. Of the Christian inhabitants the greater number are Greeks, next to them the Armenians, then the Syrians, and lastly the Maronites; each of wdiom has a church in the city called Judida; in which quarter, and the parts adjacent, most of them reside. The common language is the vulgar Arabic, but the Turks of condition use the Turkish. Most of the Armenians can speak the Armenian, some few Syrians understand Syriac, and many of the Jews Hebrew ; but scarcely one of the Greeks understands a word of Greek. The people in general are of a middle stature, and tolerably well proportioned ; but they seem neither vigorous nor active. Both sexes are handsome when young ; but the women, as they come early to maturity, also fade very soon. The people of rank here are polite and affable, making allowances for that superiority which the Mahometan religion instructs its votaries to assume over all who hold a different faith. All the inhabitants of both sexes smoke tobacco to great excess; even the very servants have almost constantly a pipe in their mouth. Coaches or carriages are not used here ; therefore persons of quality ride on horseback in the city, with a number of servants walking before them, according to their rank. Ladies of the first distinction are even compelled to walk on foot in the city, or to any place at a moderate distance : in longer journeys they are carried by mules, in a kind of couch close covered up. There is a number of public baths in this city, which are used by people of all ranks, except those of the highest distinction, who commonly have baths and every other convenience in their own houses. The bath, being the only public rendezvous of the female sex, is a great scene of amusement as well as of display : the bathers continue for hours conversing together, in their best apparel and most splendid ornaments. The gaiety of the place is still further enlivened by refreshments and music. Aleppo is of great antiquity, and is supposed to occupy the site of the ancient Beroea. It was overwhelmed by the flood of Saracen invasion in 638, when it was taken from the emperor ^radius. In 1260 it was taken possession of and wasted by the Tartars, and in 1401 by Tamerlane, who defeatei the Syrians, when it was given up to pillage. The adjacent country is fertile, and yields grain of all sorts, wit which the city is plentifully supplied. All the fruits o Europe, as well as those of the East, are cultivated in gardens. The pistachio-nut is regularly cultivated. Aleppo is 70 miles east of Scanderoon, on the sea-coast, north-east of Damascus. Long. 37. 4. E. Lat. 36.12. Aleppo, The Pacholic of, one of the five govern-

ALE ALE 401 , ;s ments into which Syria is divided. It comprehends miles north of Norwich, and 121 north-east by north of Alessan the country extending from the Euphrates to the Medi- London. Long. 0. 30. E. Lat. 52. 53. N. ^ 7^ Ak mi. terranean, between two lines, one drawn from Scanderoon AXESSANDRIA, a city of Italy, in the Sardinian do^ to Beer, along the mountains ; the other from Beles to the minions, situated on the east bank of the Tanaro, capital Aleutian sea, by Mara and the bridge of Shoger. This space prin- of the province of the same name. It is the see of a. Islands. cipally consists of two plains, that of Antioch to the w^est, bishop, and, besides the cathedral, contains 12 churches and that of Aleppo to the east: the north and the sea- 2 collegiate churches, with 17 monasteries and nunneries! coast are occupied by considerably high mountains, known It has many fine public and private. buildings. It is to the ancients by the names of Amanus and of Rhosus. strongly fortified, and in the several successive hostilities In general, the soil of this government is fat and loamy. in Italy has been attacked and defended with great fury The lofty and vigorous plants which shoot up everywhere In the year 1816 it contained 30,312 inhabitants. Two after the winter rains, prove its fertility, but its actual great fairs are held here, when the city becomes a mart fruitfulness is but little. The greater part of the lands lies resorted to by merchants from all parts of Italy. It is in waste; scarcely can we trace any marks of cultivation in long. 8. 40. E. lat. 44. 57. N. die environs of the towns and villages. Its principal pro. Alessandria, a province of the duchy of Piedmont duce consists in wheat, barley, and cotton, which are found in the dominions of the king of Sardinia, bounded on the especially in the flat country. In the mountains they north by Casale, on the east by Mortara, Boghera, and rather choose to cultivate the vine, mulberry, olive, and lortona, on the south-east by Genoa, on the south-west fig trees. The sides of the hills towards the sea-coast are by Aqui, and on the west by Asti. The extent is 314 appropriated to tobacco, and the territory of Aleppo to square miles, or 200,960 acres. It comprehends two cipistachios. The pasturage is not to be reckoned, because ties,. 29 tovvns and villages, and 12 hamlets. The counthat is abandoned to the wandering hordes of the Turco- tr 18 a la y P in, with few elevations, and very fruitful; but mans and Curds. The condition of the people depends aufters from a deficiency of water, though the Po and the entirely on the character of the pacha, who, when he is a lanaro, with some other rivers, pass through it. The tyrant, oppresses and plunders them without any restraint. chief productions are wheat, maize, wine, and silk; but beFrom the mild administration of some of the late pachas, sides these, wood, madder, hemp, flax, and fruit, are raised the people appear to be prosperous and happy. Mr m abundance. The population is very dense, amountBuckingham mentions, that the pacha who ruled in Aleppo -g f° ^0?728 persons, mostly employed in agriculture, at the time he visited this city acknowledged the influence of public opinion, and generally consulted the happiness of W ALET, a t pf conducte d on the system of garden cultivation. a town of France, in the department of the his subjects in the measures which he pursued. Aude and district of Limoux, at the foot of the Pyrenees. „ AkESIj Alexander, a celebrated divine of the conis remarkable for its baths, and for the grains of gold fession of Augsburg, was born at Edinburgh the 23d of It Apnl 150(h He soon made considerable progress in and silvei found in the stream which runs from the Pyreschool divinity, and entered the lists very early against nean mountains, at the foot of which it stands. It is on the river Aude, 15 miles south of Carcassone, and Luther, this being then the great controversy in fashion, seated and the grand field wherein all authors, young and old, 37 north-west of Narbonne. Long. 2. 5. E. Lat. 42. 59. N. ALEUROMANCY, the same with what was otherwise used to display their abilities. Soon after, he had a share calledalphitomantia, and critliomuntici^ and means an ancient in the dispute which Patrick Hamilton maintained against kind of divination performed by means of meal or flour. me ecclesiastics, in favour of the new faith he had imALEUTIAN, Aleutic, or Aleutsky Islands, so bibed at Marburg. He endeavoured to bring him back to the Catholic religion; but this he could not effect, and called from the Russian word cs/ew#, signifying a bold rock, is the name given by the Russian discoverers to a chain of eren began himself to doubt about his own religion, being small islands situated in the Northern Pacific Ocean, and much affected by the discourse of this gentleman, and still extending in an easterly direction from the peninsula of more by the constancy he showed at the stake, where David neaton, archbishop of St Andrews, caused him to be burnt, Kamtschatka, in Asiatic Russia, to the promontory of Alaska, in North America. According to the practice of beginning thus to waver, he was himself persecuted with the most recent Russian geographers, we have compreso much violence, that he was obliged to retire into Germany, where he became at length a perfect convert to hended the whole of this archipelago under one general e 1 rotestant religion. The change of religion which name, although it has been sometimes divided into three appened m England after the marriage of Henry VIII. several groups; those nearest to the eastern coast of ath Anne Bullen, induced Ales to go to London in 1535. Kamtschatcha being properly called Aleutian, the central group the Andreanofskie or Andrenovian, and those nearest to the American promontory the Fox Islands. W r ph yesteeme d by Cranmer archbishop of Canteram TIlomas tlm • * Cromwell, who were at that The Russian geographers usually separate Behring’s and faV Ur favonrh he i °as obll SthedthetokinS- UP°n the of these Copper Island, which are at the western extremity of this TT 7 g return to Germany, where chain, from the other parts of it, included1 by them under f divinitvCtrp° ^andenburg appointed him professor of the general name of Aleutian Islands j but as there this ? Frai?kfort on the 0der in 1540. But leaving seems no good reason for this exception, it certainly wherp h6 UPSon.some ^gust, he returned to Leipsic, would be better to comprehend the whole under one geMarch KrT S10Sen Professor of divinity, and died in neral denomination. wrote a The first voyage of discovery in this remote and dan- Progress of the p • u commentary on St John, on gerous archipelago was projected by Peter the Great, discovery, ‘a? PQtr a at Tamoth y, on the Psalms, &c. r^HAM, smalI> neat town in Norfolk. It is 15 whose enterprising mind appears to have been strongly Behnng’s and Coppe!-.” (Gcoa 3d edit^vS i n fw the nearest Aleutian Isles of the Russians are those which we term U ed notfm( that mentioned. That name was first S ? ]. the term Aleutian has ever been applied to the two islands, th e ar1 Ilussian fst of Behring’s Island • and the ?sfands ™™ ^ !, . ^ discoverers to the small group of islands situated to the southern the tn0re easteriy andremote nart^nTt^^T*^ tbl8 F0UP wans, Mahommed-Ben-Musa, or Moses, called also Ma- of the last century, when it was discovered in the Maglia^uz^ana» who flourished about the middle of becchian library at Horence. le The extent of Leonardo’s knowledge was pretty much. century, in the reign of the Caliph Almamon.

ALGEBRA. 422 Algebra, the same as that of the preceding Arabian writers. He doctrines of each other, there is now not the least neces-1 A1 Could resolve equations of the first and second degree, and sity in the more elementary parts to call in the aid ofthe ^ ^ he was particularly skilful in the Diophantine analysis. He latter to the former. It was otherwise in former times. was well acquainted with geometry, and he employed its Lucas de Burgo found it to be convenient, after the exdoctrines in demonstrating his algebraic rules. Like the ample of Leonardo, to employ geometrical constructions Arabian writers, his reasoning was expressed in words at to prove the truth of his rules for resolving quadratic length ; a mode highly unfavourable to the progress of the equations, the nature of which he did not completely comart. The use of symbols, and the method of combining prehend ; and he was induced by the imperfect nature of them so as to convey to the mind at a single glance a his notation to express his rules in Latin verses, which long process of reasoning, was an invention considerably will not now be read with the satisfaction we receive from the perusal of the well-known poem, “ the Loves of the later than Leonardo’s time. Considerable attention was given to the cultivation of Triangles.” As it was in Italy that algebra became first known in algebra between the time of Leonardo and the invention of printing. It was publicly taught by professors. Trea- Europe, so it was there that it received its earliest imtises were composed on the subject; and two works of provements. The science had been nearly stationary from the oriental algebraists were translated from the Arabian the days of Leonardo to the time of Paciolus, a period of language into Italian. One was entitled the Rule of Al- three centuries; but the invention of printing soon excited gebra, and the other was the oldest of all the Arabian a spirit of improvement in all the mathematical sciences. Hitherto an imperfect theory of quadratic equations was treatises, that of Mahommed-Ben-Musa of Corasan. The earliest printed book on algebra was composed by all the extent to which it had been carried. At last this Lucas Paciolus, or Lucas de Burgo, a minorite friar. It boundary was passed, and about the year 1505 a particuwas first printed in 1494, and again in 1523. The title is lar case of equations of the third degree was resolved by Summa de Arithmetica, Geometria, Proportioni, et Propor- Scipio Ferreus, a professor of mathematics in Bononia. This was an important step, because it showed that the tionalita. This is a very complete treatise on arithmetic, alge- difficulty of resolving equations of the higher orders, at bra, and geometry, for the time in which it appeared. least in the case of the third degree, was not insurmountThe author followed close on the steps of Leonardo ; and, able, and a new field was opened for discovery. It was indeed, it is from this work that one of his lost treatises then the practice among the cultivators of algebra, when they advanced a step, to conceal it carefully from their has been restored. Lucas de Burgo’s work is interesting, inasmuch as it contemporaries, and to challenge them to resolve arithmeshows the state of algebra in Europe about the year tical questions, so framed as to require for their solution a 1500: probably the state of the science was nearly the knowledge of their own new-found rules. In this spirit same in Arabia and Africa, from which it had been re- did Ferreus make a secret of his discovery: he communicated it, however, to a favourite scholar, a Venetian ceived. The power of algebra as an instrument of research named Florido. About the year 1535 this person, having is in a very great degree derived from its notation, by taken up his residence at Venice, challenged Tartalea of which all the quantities under consideration are kept con- Brescia, a man of great ingenuity, to a trial of skill in the stantly in view; but in respect of convenience and bre- resolution of problems by algebra. Florido framed his vity of expression, the algebraic analysis in the days of questions so as to require for their solution a knowledge Lucas de Burgo was very imperfect: the only symbols of the rule which he had learned from his preceptor Feremployed were a few abbreviations of the words or names reus ; but Tartalea had, five years before this time, adwhich occurred in the processes of calculation, a kind of vanced farther than Ferreus, and was more than a match short-hand, which formed a very imperfect substitute for for Florido. He therefore accepted the challenge, and a that compactness of expression which has been attained by day was appointed when each was to propose to the other thirty questions. Before the time came, Tartalea had rethe modern notation. The application of algebra was also at this period very sumed the study of cubic equations, and had discovered limited; it was confined almost entirely to the resolution the solution of two cases in addition to two which he of certain questions of no great interest about numbers. knew before. Florido’s questions were such as could be No idea was then entertained of that extensive applica- resolved by the single rule of Ferreus; while, on the contrary, those of Tartalea could only be resolved by one or tion which it has received in modern times. The knowledge which the early algebraists had of their other of three rules, which he himself had found, but science was also circumscribed; it extended only to the which could not be resolved by the remaining rule, which resolution of equations of the first and second degree; was also that known to Florido. The issue of the contest and they divided the last into cases, each of which was is easily anticipated; Tartalea resolved all his adversarys resolved by its own particular rule. The important ana- questions in two hours, without receiving one answer lytical fact, that the resolution of all the cases of a pro- from him in return. blem may be comprehended in a single formula, which The celebrated Cardan was a contemporary of Tartalea. may be obtained from the solution of one of its cases, This remarkable person was a professor of mathematics at merely by a change of the signs, was not then known : in- Milan, and a physician. He had studied algebra with great deed it was long before this principle was fully compre- assiduity, and had nearly finished the printing of a book on hended. Dr Halley expresses surprise, that a formula in arithmetic, algebra, and geometry; but being desirous oi optics which he had found, should by a mere change of the enriching his work with the discoveries of Tartalea, which signs give the focus of both converging and diverging rays, at that period must have been the object of considerable whether reflected or refracted by convex or concave spe- attention among literary men in Italy, he endeavoured to cula or lenses ; and Molyneux speaks of the universality draw from him a disclosure of his rules. Tartalea resisted for a time Cardan’s entreaties. At last, overcome by his of Halley’s formula as something that resembled magic. The rules of algebra may be investigated by its own importunity, and his offer to swear on the holy Evangeprinciples, without any aid from geometry; and although lists, and by the honour of a gentleman, never to publish in some cases the two sciences may serve to illustrate the them, and on his promising on the faith of a Christian to

ALGEBRA. commit them to cypher, so that even after his death they Their writings appeared about the middle of the IGth would be unintelligible to any one, he ventured with much century, before they knew what had been done by the hesitation to reveal to him his practical rules, which, were Italians. Their improvements were chiefly in the notaexpressed by some very bad Italian verses, themselves in tion. otifelms, m particular, introduced for the first time no small degree enigmatical. He reserved, however, the the characters which indicate addition and subtraction demonstrations. Cardan was not long in discovering the and the symbol for the square root. ’ reason of the rules, and he even greatly improved them, so The fiist treatise on algebra in the English language as to make them in a manner his own. From the imper- was written by Robert Recorde, teacher of mathematics fect essays of Tartalea, he deduced an ingenious and sys- and practitioner in physic at Cambridge. At this period tematic method of resolving all cubic equations whatso- it was common for physicians to unite with the healing ever; but with a remarkable disregard for the principles art the studies of mathematics, astrology, alchemy, and of honour, and the oath he had taken, he published, in chemistry. This custom was derived from the Moors 1545, Tartalea’s discoveries, combined with his own, as a who were equally celebrated for their skill in medicine supplement to a treatise on arithmetic and algebra, which and calculation. In Spain, where algebra was early known, he had published six years before. This work is remark- the title of physician and algebraist were nearly synonyable for being the second printed book on algebra known mous. Accordingly, in the romance of Don Quixotte, when to have existed. the bachelor Samson Carasco was grievously wounded in In the following year Tartalea also published a work on his rencounter with the knight, an algebrista was called in algebra, which he dedicated to Henry VIII. king of Eng- to heal his bruises. land. Recorde published a treatise on arithmetic, which was It is to be regretted that in many instances the authors dedicated to Edward VI.; and another on algebra, with of important discoveries have been overlooked, while the this title, “ The Whetstone of Wit,” Ac. Here, for the honours due to them have been transferred to others first time, the modern sign for equality was introduced. having only secondary pretensions. The formula for the By such gradual steps did algebra advance in improveresolution of cubic equations are now called Cardan’s rules, ment from its first introduction by Leonardo, each sucnotwithstanding the prior claim of Tartalea. It must be ceeding writer making some change for the better; but confessed, however, that he evinced considerable selfish- with the exception of Tartalea, Cardan, and Ferrari, hardly ness in concealing his discovery; and although Cardan any one rose to the rank of an inventor. At length came cannot be absolved from the charge of bad faith, yet it Vieta, to whom this branch of mathematical learning, as must be recollected that by his improvements in what well as others, is highly indebted. His improvements Tartalea communicated to him, he made the discovery in in algebra were very considerable ; and some of his invensome measure his own; and he had moreover the high tions, although not then fully developed, have yet been merit of being the first to publish this important improve- the germs of later discoveries. He was the first that emment in algebra to the world. ployed general characters to represent known as well as The next step in the progress of algebra was the dis- unknown quantities. Simple as this step may appear, it covery of a method of resolving equations of the fourth has yet led to important consequences. He must also be order. An Italian algebraist had proposed a question regarded as the first that applied algebra to the improvewhich could not be resolved by the newly invented rules, ment of geometry. The older algebraists had indeed rebecause it produced a biquadratic equation. Some sup- solved geometrical problems, but each solution was partiposed that it could not be at all resolved; but Cardan was cular; whereas Vieta, by introducing general symbols, of a different opinion : he had a pupil named Lewis Fer- produced general formula?, which were applicable to all rari, a young man of great genius, and an ardent student problems of the same kind, without the trouble of going m the algebraic analysis: to him Cardan committed the over the same process of analysis for each. solution of this difficult question, and he was not disapThis happy application of algebra to geometry has propointed. Ferrari not only resolved the question, but he duced great improvements: it led Vieta to the doctrine also found a general method of resolving equations of the of angular sections, one of the most important of his disfourth degree, by making them depend on the solution of coveries, which is now expanded into the arithmetic or Equations of the third degree. calculus of sines. He also improved the theory of algeIbis was another great improvement; and although the braic equations, and he was the first that gave a general precise nature of an equation was not then fully under- method of resolving them by approximation. As he lived stood, nor was it indeed until half a century later, yet, in between the years 1540 and 1603, his writings belong ie general resolution of equations, a point of progress was to the latter period of the 16th century. He printed ion reached which the utmost efforts of modern analyses them at his own expense, and liberally bestowed them on have never been able to pass. men of science. There was another Italian mathematician of that period The Flemish mathematician Albert Girard was one of ^ 10 contributed somewhat to the improvement of algebra. the improvers of algebra. He extended the theory of •is was Bombelli. He published a valuable work on the equations farther than Vieta, but he did not suyect m 1572, in which he brought into one view what completelysomewhat unfold their composition ; he was the first that 'a( been done by his predecessors. He explained the showed the use of the negative sign in the resolution of U e 0 ^. ^e irreducible case of cubic equations, which had geometrical problems, and he also first spoke of imaginary ^ T perplexed Cardan, who could not resolve it by his quantities, a subject not yet completely cleared up; and Lc ' '.’ , showed that the rule would apply sometimes to he inferred by induction that every equation has precisely 1 xain es an arWff l^ ’ d that all equations of this case as many sorts as there are units in the number that ex1 T ® a rea l solution; and he made the important presses its degree. His algebra appeared in 1629. r ar , , that the algebraic problem to be resolved in this The next great improver of algebra was Thomas Harse coi responds to the ancient problem of the trisection ot riot, an Englishman. As an inventor he has been the an angle. boast of this country. The French mathematicians have Th ^ ere two accused the British of giving discoveries to him which wiffi pre ^ German mathematicians contemporary ardan and lartalea, viz. Stifelius and Scheubelius. were really due to Vieta. It is probable that some of

Al*ra.

A L G E bra. 424 Descartes’s geometry (or, as it might have been named, ai< Algebra. these may be justly claimed for both, because each may the application of algebra to geometry) appeared first inV^ have made the discovery for himself, without knowing what had been done by the other. Harriot’s principal 1637. This was six years after the publication of Hardiscovery, and indeed the most important ever made in riot’s discoveries, which was a posthumous work. Desalgebra, was, that every equation may be regarded as cartes availed himself of some of Harriot’s views, particuthe manner of generating an equation without acformed by the product of as many simple equations as larly knowledgement ; and on this account Dr Wallis, in his there are units in the number expressing its order. This has reflected with considerable severity on the important doctrine, now familiar to every student of alge- algebra, French algebraist. bra, was yet slowly developed: it was quite within the spirit has engendered a corresponding eagerness reach of Vieta, who unfolded it in part, but left its com- in This the French mathematicians to defend him. Montucla, plete discovery to Harriot. _ his history of the mathematics, has evinced a strong We have seen the very inartificial form in which alge- in prejudice in his favour; and, as usually happens, bra first appeared in Europe. The improvements of al- national in order to exalt him, he hardly does justice to Harriot, most 400 years had not given its notation that compactof his adversaries. ness and elegance of which it is susceptible. Harriot theInidol treating of the claims of algebra and geometry to made several changes in the notation, and added some be considered as kindred sciences, a question arises, why new signs: he thus gave to algebra greater symmetry o form. Indeed, as it came from his hands, it diffeied but was this relation not sooner perceived and appreciated? The sciences of geometry and algebra have each had a little from its state at the present time. Oughtreed, another early English algebraist, was a con- distinct origin. The former is the more ancient, and no for this reason, that its principles are less removed temporary with Harriot, but lived long after him. He wrote doubt the ordinary affairs of men. The subjects of geoa treatise on the subject, which was long taught in the from metry, extension, and figure are continually presented to universities. In tracing the history of algebra, we have seen, that in attention ; and the elements of the science are to a certhe form under which it was received from the Arabs, it tain extent employed in the most ordinary arts of life. was hardly distinguishable as a peculiar mode of leason- We cannot sufficiently admire the ingenuity with which ing, because of the want of a suitable notation ; and that, the natural geometry of the early times had been wrought poor in its resources, its applicability was limited to the up into a system more than two thousand years ago; but resolution of a small number of uninteresting numeral when we consider that its assistance was wanted in the questions. Wb have followed it through different stages partition of land, in the erection of houses and temples, of improvement, and we are now arrived at a period when and numberless other cases, we need not wonder at the it was to acquire additional power as an instrument of early progress of the science among such an ingenious analysis, and to admit of new and more extended applica- people as the ancient Greeks. Algebra, however, is a more refined speculation. Its tions. Vieta saw the great advantage that might be derived from the application of algebra to geometry. The first object was number; but the properties of number are essay he made in his theory of angular sections, and the more recondite than those of extension and figure. In geometry, the objects of our attention are the very rich mine of discovery thus opened, proved the importance of his labours. He did not fully explore it, but it has figures themselves; but in algebra, the subjects of our seldom happened that one man began and completed a reasonings are represented by symbols, which have no rediscovery. He had, however, an able and illustrious suc- semblance to the things they represent; hence it is not cessor in Descartes, who, employing in the study of alge- wonderful that algebra should have a later origin, and bra that high power of intellect with which he was en- that it should have been slower in its progress towards # dowed, not only improved it as an abstract science, but, perfection. Notwithstanding the different origin of geometry and more especially by its application to geometry, he laid the foundation of the great discoveries which have since so algebra, and their long-continued separate existence, like much engaged mathematicians, and made the last two some chemical substances of different natures, they have centuries ever memorable in the history of the progress a strong affinity; and, when united, their new properties are entirely different from those which belong to each of the human mind. Descartes’s grand improvement was the application of apart. By their union, a new science was created, and algebra to the doctrine of curve lines. As in geography new instruments of invention furnished, vastly more powerwe refer every place on the earth’s surface to the equator, ful than any possessed by the sciences apart. The new views which the labours of \ ieta, Harno, and to a determinate meridian, so he referred every point of a curve to some line given by position. For example, and Descartes opened in geometry and algebra were in a circle, every point in the circumference might be re- seized with avidity by the powerful minds of men eager ferred to the diameter. The perpendicular from any point in the pursuit of real knowledge. Accordingly, we nnd in the curve, and the distance of that perpendicular from in the seventeenth century a whole host of writers on the centre or from the extremity of a diameter, were lines algebra, or algebra combined with geometry. Our limits will not allow us to enter minutely into e which, although varying with every change of position in n the point from which the perpendicular was drawn, yet claims which each has on the gratitude of posterity. deed, in pure algebra the new inventions were not so conhad a determinate relation to each othqr, which was the same for all points in the curve, which depended on its spicuous as the discoveries made by its applications y nature, and which, therefore, served as a characteristic to geometry, and the new theories which were suggested their union. The refined speculations of Kepler c0”?er" distinguish it from all other curves. The relations of lines drawn in this way could be readily ing the solids formed by the revolutions of cum me expressed in algebraic symbols; and the combination of figures, the Geometry of Indivisibles by Cavalenus, these constituted what is called the equation of the curve. Arithmetic of Infinites of Wallis, and, above all, tne This might serve as its definition; and from the equa- thod of Fluxions of Newton, and the Differential ancu un , tion by the processes of algebra, all the properties of the tegral Calculus of Leibnitz, are fruits of the happy All these were agitated incessantly by their inventors curve could be investigated

ALGEBRA. 425 \ibra. contemporaries; such men as Barrow, James Gregory, under the designation of Vija, and making separate men- Algebra, ^/WWren, Cotes, Taylor, Halley, De Moivre, Maclaurin, tion of Luttaca, a problem subservient to the resolution of' Stirling, and others, in this country; and abroad by Ro indeterminate problems of the first degree. He is underberval, Fermat, Huygens, the two Bernoullis, Herman, stood by another of Bhascara’s commentators to be at the head of the older writers. They appear to have been Pascal, and many others. It is at this period, then, that our sketch of the history able to resolve quadratic equations, by the process of comof algebra, at least in Europe, must terminate, because of pleting the square; and hence Mr Colebrooke presumes the great number of writers who have in one way or other that the treatise of Arya-Bhatta then extant extended elucidated or improved different parts of the subject, either to quadratic equations in the determinate analysis, and to directly, or when treating of collateral theories. indeterminate equations of the first degree, if not to those We have been as copious as our limits would permit on of the second likewise, as most probably it did. the early history, because it presents the interesting specConsidering the proficiency of Arya-Bhatta in astronotacle of the progress of a science from an almost imper- mical science, and adverting to the fact of his having ceptible beginning, until it has attained a magnitude too written on algebra, and being placed at the head of algegreat to be fully grasped by the human mind. braists when the commentators of extant treatises have occasion to mention the early and original writers on this Of the Indian Algebra. branch of science, he may be regarded as the great imThe attention of the learned has, within the last thirty prover of the analytic art in India, and likely to have been years, been called to a branch of the history of algebra, in the person by whom it was carried to the pitch it was no small degree interesting; we mean the cultivation of the found to have attained among the Hindoos, and at which science to a considerable extent, and at a remote period, it was observed to be nearly stationary through the long in India. lapse of ages which have since passed; the later additions We are indebted, we believe, to Mr Reuben Burrow being few and unessential in the writings of Brahmegupta, for some of the earliest notices which reached Europe on of Bhascara, and of Jnyanaraja, though they lived at inthis very curious subject. His eagerness to illustrate the tervals of centuries from each other. history of the mathematical sciences led him to collect The exact period when Arya-Bhatta lived cannot be oriental manuscripts, some of which, in the Persian lan- determined with certainty; but Mr Colebrooke thinks it guage, with partial translations, were bequeathed to his probable that this earliest of known Hindoo algebraists friend Mr Dalby of the Royal Military College, who com- wrote as far back as the fifth century of the Christian municated them to such as took an interest in the subject, era, and perhaps earlier. He was therefore nearly as about the year 1800. ancient as the Grecian algebraist Diophantus, who is recIn the year 1813 Mr Edward Strachey published in this koned to have flourished in the time of the emperor country a translation from the Persian of the Bija Gan- Julian, or about a. d. 360. Supposing then the Hindoo nita (or Vija Ganita), a Hindoo treatise on algebra ; and in and Greek algebraists to be nearly of the same antiquity, 1816 Dr John Taylor published at Bombay a translation it must be conceded in favour of the former, that he was of Lilawati (or Lilavati), from the Sanscrit original. This farthest advanced in the science, since he knew how to last is a treatise on arithmetic and geometry, and both are resolve equations containing several unknown quantities: the production of an oriental algebraist, Bhascara Acharya. now it does not appear that Diophantus could do this. Lastly, in 1817 there came out a work entitled Algebra, He also had a general method for indeterminate equations, Arithmetic, and Mensuration, from the Sanscrit of Brahme- of at least the first degree, to a knowledge of which the gvpta and Bhascara, translated by Henry Thomas Cole- Grecian algebraist had certainly not attained. brooke, Esq. This contains four different treatises, origiIt appears from the Hindoo treatises on algebra, that nally written in Sanscrit verse, viz. the Vija Ganita and they understood well the arithmetic of surd roots; that Lilavati of Bhascara Acharya, and the Ganitad'haya and they were aware of the infinite quotient resulting from Cuttacad hyaya of Brahmegupta. The first two form the the division of finite quantity by cypher ; that they knew preliminary portion of Bhascara’s Course of Astronomy, the general resolution of equations of the second degree, entitled Sidd'hanta Siromani, and the last two are the and had touched on those of higher denomination, retwelfth and eighteenth chapters of a similar course of solving them in particular cases, and in those in which astronomy, entitled Brahma-sidd'hanta. the solution may be effected in the manner of quadratics; , time when Bhascara wrote is fixed with great pre- that they had found a general solution of indeterminate cision, by his own testimony and other circumstances, to equations of the first degree, and a method for deriving a a date that answers to about the year 1150 of the Chris- multitude of answers to problems of the second degree, tian era. The works of Brahmegupta are extremely rare, when one solution was obtained by trials: now this is as and the age in which he lived is less certain. Mr Davis, near an approach to a general solution of such problems an oriental scholar, who first gave the public a correct as was made until the time of Lagi'ange. The Hindoos had view of the astronomical computations of the Hindoos, is also attempted to solve indeterminate equations of higher ° opini°n that he lived in the 7th century; and Dr orders, but, as might be expected, with very little success. illiam Hunter, another diligent inquirer into Indian We have seen how long it was before algebra was apscience, assigns the year 628 of the Christian era as about plied to geometry in Europe: but the Hindoos not only time he flourished. From various arguments, Mr applied algebra both to astronomy and geometry, but o ebrooke concludes that the age of Brahmegupta was conversely applied geometry to the demonstration of alantecedent to the earliest dawn of the culture of the gebraic rules; and indeed they cultivated algebra much sciences among the Arabians, so that the Hindoos must more and with greater success than geometry, as appears 'ave possessed algebra before it was known to that nation. by the low state of their knowledge of the one, and the rahmegupta’s treatise is not, however, the earliest high pitch of their attainments in the other. " °r. hnown to have been written on this subject. Ganessa, Mr Colebrooke has instituted a comparison between the a istinguished astronomer and mathematician, and the Indian algebraist and Diophantus, and found reason to os eminent scholiast of Bhascara, quotes a passage from conclude, that in the whole science the latter is very far much older writer, Arya-Bhatta, specifying algebra behind the former. He says, the points in which the 3H

ALGEBRA. new methods have been invented, nor any new principle Alge introduced. The method of resolving indeterminate pro-^-A 'j blems, that constitute the highest merit of their analytical science, were known to Brahmegupta hardly less accurately than to Bhascara; and they appear to have been understood even by Arya-Bhatta, more ancient by several centuries than either. A long series of scholiasts display in their annotations great acuteness, intelligence, and judgment; but they never pass far beyond the line drawn by their predecessors, which probably seemed even to those learned and intelligent men as the barrier within which it was to be confined. In India, indeed, every thing seems equally insurmountable, and truth and error are equally assured of permanence in the stations they have once occupied. The politics, the laws, the religion, the science, and the manners, seem all nearly the same as at the remotest period to which history extends. Is it because the power which brought about a certain degree of civilisation, and advanced science to a certain height, has either ceased to act, or has met with such a resistance as it is barely able to overcome ? or is it because the discoveries which the Hindoos are in possession of are an inheritance from some more inventive and more ancient people, of whom no memorial remains but some of their attainments in science ? ” Writers on Algebra, with the years in which they wrote or flourished. Diophantus, ArithmeticorumLibri sex, flourished, A.c. 360 First edition of his writings, 1575; the best, 1670. Leonardo Bonacci (his works described in Cossali)...1202 Lucas Paciolus, or De Burgo, Summa de Arithmetica, 1470 Rudolph, Algebra 1522 Stifelius, Arithmetica Integra, &c 1544 Cardan, Ars Magna quam vulgo Cossam vocant 1545 Ferreus 1545 Ferrari, (first resolved biquadratic equations) 1545 Tartalea, Quesiti et Invention! diversi 1546 Scheubelius, Algebra Compendiosa 1551 Recorde, Whetstone of Wit * 1557 Peletarius, De Occulta parte Numerorum 1558 Buteo, De Logistica 1559 Ramus, Arithmetics Libri duo et totidem Algebrse..l560 Pedro Nugnez or Nonius, Libro de Algebra, &c 1567 Jossalin, De Occulta parte Mathematicorum 1576 Bombelli 1^ Clavius 1^® Bernard Solignac, Arith. Libri ii. et Algebrs totidem. 1580 Stevinus, Arithmetique, &c. aussi 1’Algebre 1585 Vieta, Opera Mathematica 1899 Folinus, Algebra, sive Liber de Rebus Occultis 1619 Van Ceulen l6^ Bachet, Diophantus cum Commentariis 16-1 Albert Girard, Invention Nouvelle en Algebre 1629 Ghetaldus, De Resolutione et Compositione Mathematica J63 Harriot, Artis Analytics Praxis Oughtreed, Clavis Mathematics 168 Herigonius, Cursus Mathematicus |6 Cavalerius, Geometria Indivisibilibus Continuorum...l6 Descartes, Geometria Commentators onBescartes.—Franciscus a SchootenA Florimond de Beaune, Erasmus Bertholinus, ( Joh. Hudde, F. Rabuel, James Bernoulli, John/ de Witt, &c. ' ^ Roberval, De Recognitione iEquationum, &c De Billy, Nova Geometris Clavis Algebra ....10

ebra. Hindoo algebra appears particularly distinguished from the Greek are, besides a better and more convenient algorithm, Is#, the management of equations of more than one unknown quantity; 2rf, the resolution of equations of a higher order, in which, if they achieved little, they had at least the merit of the attempt, and anticipated a modern discovery in the resolution of biquadratics; 3c?, general methods for the resolution of indeterminate problems of the first and second degrees, in which they went far indeed beyond Diophantus, and anticipated discoveries of modern algebraists; 4#A, the application of algebra to astronomical investigations and geometrical demonstration, in which also they hit upon some matters which have been re-invented in modern times. When we consider that algebra made little or no progress among the Arabians, a most ingenious people, and particularly devoted to the study of the sciences, and that centuries elapsed from its first introduction into Europe until it reached any considerable degree of perfection, we may reasonably conjecture, that it may have existed in one shape or other in India long before the time of AryaBhatta: indeed, from its close connection with their doctrines of astronomy, it may be supposed to have descended from a very remote period, along with that science. The late learned Professor Playfair took a great interest in this curious and interesting subject; and, adopting the opinion of Bailly, the eloquent author of the Astronomie Indienne, he with great ingenuity attempted to prove, in a Memoir on the Astronomy of the Brahmins, that the observations on which the Indian astronomy is founded were of great antiquity, indeed more than 3000 years before the Christian era. Again, in a later memoir, On the Trigonometry of the Brahmins, he endeavoured to establish, that the origin of the mathematical sciences in Hindostan must be referred to an equally remote period. The same judicious writer has further considered this most curious subject in a Review of Strachey’s Translation of Bija Gannita {Edinburgh Review, No. 42), and again, in a Review of Colebrooke’s work on the Indian algebra, to which we have so frequently adverted {Edinburgh Review, No. 57). This last article, published in 1817, may be supposed to contain the matured opinions of one of the most ardent, able, and we must say most candid, inquirers into the history of Hindoo mathematical science. There is here certainly an abatement of his first confidence in the opinions of Bailly on the Indian astronomy, and a corresponding caution in his own opinion as to the antiquity of the mathematical sciences. The very remote origin of the Indian astronomy had been strongly questioned by many in this country, and also on the Continent; particularly by Laplace, also by Delambre in his Histoire de l’Astronomie Ancienne, tome i. p. 400, &c., and again in Histoire de lAstronomie du Moyen Age, Biscours Preliminaire, p. 18, &c. where he speaks slightingly of their algebra; and in this country, Professor Leslie, in his vei'y learned work on The Philosophy of Arithmetic, p. 225 and 226, calls the Lilavati “ a very poor performance, containing merely a few scanty precepts couched in obscure memorial verses.” We shall conclude this slight sketch of the history of Indian algebra with the last recorded sentiments of Professor Playfair on the mathematical science of India. “ Among many subjects of wonder which the study of these ancient fragments cannot fail to suggest, it is not one of the least that algebra has existed in India, and has been cultivated for more than 1200 years, without any signal improvement, or the addition of any material discovery. The works of the ancient teachers of science have been commented on, elucidated, and explained with skill and learning; but no

ALGEBRA. 427 Renaldinus, Opus Algebraicum flourished a. c. 1644 In addition to the preceding list of writers, which contains Algebra. almost all of an early date, we shall add the following. ,^r ^Pascal, in his works........ 1654 Wallis, Arithmetica Infimtorum 1655 Arbogast, Calcul des Derivations. Algebra .* 1685 The Bernoullis, Begnalt, Bertrand, Bezout, Bossuet, Burja, Slusius, Mesolabum 1659 Brunacci, Babbage, Bridges, Bland, Budan, Bonny castle, Rhonius, Algebra (translated into English) 1659 Burdon, Barlow. Kinckhausen, used as a text-book by Sir I.Newton....1661 Cousin, Cauchy, Coignet, Carnot. Sir Isaac Newton, The Binomial Theorem 1666 Degraave, Dodson, Ditton. Frenicle, Various papers in Mem. of F. Academy... 1666 Frisius, Francceur, Frend. Pell, translated and improved Rhonius’ Algebra 1668 Gauss, Disquisitiones Arithmetics. James Gregory, Exercitationes Geometricae 1668 Hemischius, Hales, Hirsch, Hutton, Holdred. Mercator, Logarithmotechnia 1668 Kuhnius, Kramp, Kaestner. Brancker 1668 Laloubre, Lorgna, Le Blond, Lee, Lacroix, Ludlam, Barrow, in Lectiones Geometries 1669 Legendre, L’Huillier, Leroy. Kersey, Elements of Algebra 1673 Mescher, Malebranche, Manfredi, Maseres. Prescot, Nouveaux Elemens de Mathematiques 1675 Nicholson, Nieuwentiit Analysis Infinitorum. Leibnitz, in Leipsic Acts, &c 1677 Polled, Poignard (on Magic Squares), Playfair. Fermat, in Varia Opera Mathematica 1679 Rowning, Reimer. Bulliald, Opus Novum ad Arithmeticamlnfinitorum.1682 Suremain-Missery (on Impossible Quantities), Schonerus, Tschirnhausen, in the Leipsic Acts 1683 Salignut. Baker, Geometrical Key, &c 1684 Trail, Tedenat, Thacker. Dr Halley, in Phil. Trans 1687 and 1694 Vilent, Vandermonde. Rolle, Une Methode pour la Resolution des EquaWells, Wilson, Wood, Woodhouse, Warren. tions Indeterminees 1690 Raphson, Analysis iEquationum Universalis 1690 Writers on the History of Algebra. Deschales, Cursus seu Mundus Mathematicus 1690 Wallis in his Algebra ; Montucla in Histoire des MatheDe Lagny, various pieces on Equations 1692 ; Bossuet, Histoire des Mathematiques; Cossali, Alexander, Synopsis Algebraica 1693 matiques Origine, Trasporto in Italia, Primi Progressi in Essa Ward, Compendium of Algebra 1695 dell’ Algebra, 2 vols. printed in 1797; Hutton in his Young Mathematician’s Guide 1706 Dictionary, and more diffusely in his Tracts, vol. ii. De Moivre, various Memoirs in Phil. Trans 1697-1730 For the titles of works on Algebra, consult Murhard, Sault, New Treatise of Algebra 1698 Hibliotheca Mathematica ; and for memoirs on algebra, in Christopher, De Constructione JEquationum. Academical Collections, see Reuss, Repertorium CommenOzanam, Nouveaux Elemens d’Algebre 1702 tationum, tom. vii. Harris, Lexicon Technicum 1704 Guisnee, Application de 1’Algebre a la Geometrie. ...1705 NOTATION AND EXPLANATION OF THE SIGNS. Jones, Synopsis Palmariorum Matheseos 1706 Newton, Arithmetica Universalis 1707 1. In arithmetic there are ten characters, which being L’Hopital, Traite Analytique de Sections Coniques...l707 variously combined, according to certain rules, serve to Reyneau, Analyse Demontree 1708 denote all magnitudes whatever. But this method of exBrooke Taylor, Methodus Incrementorum 1715 pressing quantities, although of the greatest utility in Stirling, Linea Tertii Ordinis 1717 every branch of the mathematics (for we must always Methodus Differentialis 1730 have recourse to it in the different applications of that Nicole on Cubic Equations, in Mem. Acad, des science to practical purposes), is yet found to be inSciences 1717 adequate, taken by itself, to the more difficult cases of S’Gravesande, Algebra 1727 mathematical investigation ; and it is therefore necessary, Wolfius, Algebra : Cursus Mathematicus 1732 in many inquiries concerning the relations of magnitude, Kirby, Arithmetic and Algebra 1735 to have recourse to that more general mode of notation, James Gregory 1736 and more extensive system of operations, which constitute Simpson, Algebra and various works 1740, 1742 the science of algebra. Saunders on Algebra, 2 vols. 4to 1740 In algebra quantities of every kind may be denoted by La Caille, Algebra in Lecons de Mathematiques 1741 any characters whatever, but those commonly used are Be Gua on the Roots of Equations, in Mem. Acad. the letters of the alphabet; and as in every mathematical des Sciences. 1741 problem there are certain magnitudes given, in order to Clairaut, Elemens d’Algebre 1746 determine other magnitudes which are unknown, the first Maclaurin, Algebra 1747 letters of the alphabet a, b, c, &c. are used to denote Fontaine, L’Art de Resoudre les Equations 1747 known quantities, while those to be found are represented Donna Maria Gaetana Agnesi, Instituzioni Analitichi 1748 by v, x, y, &c. the last letters of the alphabet. Boscovich, in Elementa Universs Matheseos 1754 2. The sign -j- (plus) denotes that the quantity before Castillon, Arithmetica Universalis Newtoni cum Comwhich it is placed is to be added to some other quantity. mentario 1761 Thus, a-\-b denotes the sum of a and b ; 3-{-5 denotes the Emerson, Algebra, &c 1763 sum of 3 and 5, or 8. Eanden, Residual Analysis, &c 1764 The sign — (minus) signifies that the quantity before Lagrange, Trait6 de la Resolution des Equations which it is placed is to be subtracted. 1 hus, a — b denotes Numeriques 1767 the excess of a above 6 ; 6—2 is the excess of 6 above 2, Euler, Algebra 1770 or 4. Waring, Meditationes Algebraicae, &c 1770, 1776 3. Quantities which have the sign 4- prefixed to them Soladini, Compendio d’Analisi 1775 are called positive or affirmative; and such as have the laoli, Elementi d’Algebra. 1794 sign — are called negative.

428 Algebra.

ALGEBRA. When quantities are considered abstractedly, the terms tension of that science, ought not to be embarrassed bv Ai positive and negative can only mean that such quantities the demonstration of its elementary rules. ^ are to be added or subtracted; for as it is impossible to conceive a number less than 0, it follows, that a negative Sect. I.—Fundamental Operations. quantity by itself is unintelligible. But, in considering the affections of magnitude, it appears, that in many cases The primary operations in algebra are the same as in a certain opposition may exist in the nature of quantities. common arithmetic; namely, addition, subtraction, multiThus, a person’s property may be considered as a positive plication, and division; and from the various combinations quantity, and his debts as a negative quantity. Again, of these four, all the others are derived. any portion of a line drawn to the right hand may be conProblem I.—To Add Quantities. sidered as positive, while a portion of the same line, con10. In addition there may be three cases: the quantities tinued in the opposite direction, may be taken as negato be added may be like, and have like signs; or they may tive. When no sign is prefixed to a quantity, + is always be like, and have unlike signs; or, lastly, they may be ununderstood, or the quantity is to be considered as positive. like. Quantities which have the same sign, either -f- or —, which are like, and have like are said to have like signs. Thus, -J- a and + b have like Case 1. To add quantities signs. signs, but + a and — c have unlike signs. 4. A quantity which consists of one term, is said to be Rule. Add together the co-efficients of the quantities, prefix the common sign to the sum, and annex the letsimple ; but if it consist of several terms, connected by the ter or letters common to each term. signs -f- or —, it is then said to be compound. Thus, -f- a and — c are simple quantities ; and 6 -J- c, also a-{-b Examples. — d, are compound quantities. + 7a C— 2ax 5. To denote the product arising from the multiplica3a tion of quantities. If they be simple, they are either joined Add together -jAdd together -|- a together, as if intended to form a word, or else the quan12a* { + 2a tities are connected together, with the sign X interposed between every two of them. Thus, ab, or a y.b, denotes Sum, + 13a Sum, — 20a* the product of a and b; also abc, or ay. b Y,c, denotes the product of a, b, and c: the latter method is used when Case 2. To add quantities which are like, but have unlike the quantities to be multiplied are numbers. If some of signs. the quantities to be multiplied be compound, each of Rule. Add the positive co-efficients into one sum, and the them has a line drawn over it called a vinculum, and the negative ones into another; then subtract the least of sign x is interposed, as before. Thus, ayc-^-dy e—f dethese sums from the greatest, prefix the sign of the notes that a is to be considered as one quantity, the sum greatest to the remainder, and annex the common letof c and c? as a second, and the difference between e and ter or letters as before. / as a third; and that these three quantities are to be Examples. multiplied into one another. Instead of placing a line over such compound quantities as enter a product, it is 2ax -f 6a£>-(- 7 now common among mathematical writers to inclose each ax — 4o6 -[- 9 Add together of them between two parentheses, so that the last product 5 3ax Add together -f may be otherwise expressed thus, a(c-±-d)(c—■/); or thus, {= 9aa? ! + lab—13 « X 0 + O X (e—/)• 6. A number prefixed to a letter is called a numerical Sum of the pos. +1 lax Sum of the pos. -|-14a6-fl6 co-efficient, and denotes how often that quantity is to be Sum of the neg. — 4a*; Sum of the neg. — 4a6—-18 taken. Thus, 3a signifies that a is to be taken three times. When no number is prefixed, the co-efficient is Sum required, -f- lax Sum required, -j-10«6— 2 understood to be unity. aa-\-2ax— xx —4aai 7. The quotient arising from the division of one quantity —2aa-\-3ax— 4txx 4- aab by another is expressed by placing the dividend above a 6aa— 5ax -f- llxx ■\-3aab 12 line, and the divisor below it. Thus, — denotes the quoSum, baa 0 4- §xx Sum, 0 Case 3. To add unlike quantities. tient arising from the division of 12 by 3, or 4; - denotes Rule. Put down the quantities, one after another, in any the quotient arising from the division of b by a. This order, with their signs and co-efficients prefixed. expression of a quotient is also called a fraction. Examples. 8. The equality of two quantities is expressed by putting tbe sign = between them. Thus, a 4- bz=.c — d de2a ax-\-2ay notes that the sum of a and b is equal to the excess of 3b bb—3bz c above d. —4c 9. Simple quantities, or the terms of compound quantiSum, ax-\-2ay-\-bb—3bz ties, are said to be like, which consist of the same letter Sum, 2a 4- 3b—4c or letters. Thus, -\-ab and —bab are like quantities, but Pros. II.—To Subtract Quantities. 4-a6 and -\-abb are unlike. There are some other characters, which will be explained 11. General Rule. Change the signs of the quantities to when we have occasion to use them; and in what follows be subtracted, or suppose them changed, and then add we shall suppose that the operations of common arithmethem to the other quantities, agreeably to the rules of tic are sufficiently understood; for algebra, being an exaddition. < 1

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ALGEBRA. 429 Examples. taken as often as there are units m c_rf, and the sum will A]~bre. be the product required. Now, if a—4 be taken as often' ‘ From 5a—126 From 6x— % -f 3 as there are units in c, the result will evidently exceed the Subtract 2a— 56 Subtract 2a; + %—2 product required, and that by a quantity equal to a—b taken as often as there are units in d. But, from the naRemainder 4a;—17y+5 Remainder 3a— 76 ture of addition, a—6 taken as often as there are units in aa—ax—yy bxy—2-f- 8a;— y c, is ca—c6, and for the same reason, a—6 taken as often 66—by-\-zz Sxy—8— 8a;— as there are units in